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CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION   ON   THE   STUDY   OF   NATURAL   HISTORY.  ^'"^^ 

CHAP. 

I.— THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN , 

IL— THE  QUADRUMANA  (Four-handed),  INCLUDING  THE  APES,  GIBBONS,  MONKEYS,  &c 22 

III.— QUADRUMANA.— THE  GIBBONS  (Genus  Hylobates) 3^ 

IV.— QUADRUMANA.— THE  MONKEYS  (Sub-family  Cynomorpha,  OR  Dog-like)        38 

v.— QUADRUMANA— THE  AMERICAN  MONKEYS  (Group  PLATYRRHiNiE)        ^8 

VI.— QUADRUMANA.— MADAGASCAR  MONKEYS,  OR    LEMURS  (Group  or  Family,  LEMURiDiE  and  Lemuroida)  57 

VII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CHIROPTERA,  OR  BATS 67 

Vin.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  INSECTIVORA— THE  SHREWS,  MOLES,  &C 74 

IX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CARNIVORA— FLESH  EATERS 85 

X.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CARNIVORA— THE  FELID^;  INCLUDING  LIONS,  CATS,  &C 109 

XL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,      CARNIVORA— THE      HYENAS;      THE     VIVERRID^,     OR     CIVETS;     AND     THE 

MUSTELID^  OR  WEASELS ,27 

XII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,     CARNIVORA— URSID^,     OR     BEARS,     &C. ;     AND    THE      CERCOLEPTID^,     OR 

KINKAJOUS  14s 

XIIL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  PINNIPEDIA— SEALS,  &c 156 

XIV.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  RODENTIA— THE  GNAWERS  OR  RODENTS         i56 

XV.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  EDENTATA,  OR  BRUTA— TOOTHLESS  ANIMALS  201 

XVI.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  RUMINANTIA— OXEN,  &C 216 

XVII.— MAMMALIA— ORDER,  RUMINANTIA— FAMILY,  CERVID^  ;  INCLUDING  STAGS,  &C 2J5 

XVIII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  RUMINANTIA— FAMILY,  BOVIDiE  ;  INCLUDING  ANTELOPES,  CATTLE,  AND  SHEEP, 

ALL  HOLLOW-HORNED  ANIMALS  OR  CAVICORNIA         247 

XIX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  SOLIDUNGULA— THE  HORSE,  &C 290 

XX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  PACHYDERMAT A— ELEPHANTS,  &C 302 

XXL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CETACEA— WHALES,  &c.  ;  INCLUDING  SUB-ORDERS-I.,  CETE,  AND  II.,  SIRENIA  338 

XXIL— MAMMALIA.— SUB-CLASS,  APLACENTARIA— KANGAROOS,  &C 35' 


^05)08(i 


ii  CONTENTi>. 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XXIII.— AVES  OR  BIRDS 369 

XXIV.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  RAPTORES  .. 379 

XXV.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  PASSERES,  OR  INSESSORES— PERCHING  BIRDS 419 

XXVI.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— SUB-ORDER,  TENUIROSTRES,  OR  SLENDER-BILL  BIRDS 441 

XXVII.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— SUB-ORDER,  DENTIROSTRES,  OR  TOOTH-BILLED  BIRDS 454 

XXVIII.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  PASSERES,  OR  PERCHING  BIRDS;  SUB-ORDER,  DENTIROSTRES  ;  FAMILY 

SYLVIDiE  OR  SYLVIAD^,  OR  WARBLERS 472 

XXIX.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  PASSERES,  OR  INSESSORES  ;  SUB-ORDER,  CONIROSTRES        486 

XXX.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  SCANSORES,  OR  CLIMBING  BIRDS  ;  INCLUDING  CUCKOOS,  PARROTS,  &C.  513 

XXXI.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.-ORDER,  COLUMB^,  OR  DOVES 532 

XXXIL— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  RASORES,  OR  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS,  OR  FOWLS,  &c 541 

XXXIII.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  CURSORES,  OR  RUNNERS 559 

XXXIV.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  GRALLATO RES,  OR  WADING  BIRDS 564 

XXXV.— AVES  OR  BIRDS.— ORDER,  NATATORES,  OR  SWIMMING  BIRDS 588 

XXXVI.— REPTILIA,  OR  REPTILES  ;  INCLUDING  SERPENTS,  LIZARDS,  CROCODILES,  &c 621 

XXXVn.—BATRACHIA.— FROGS,  &c 666 

XXXVIIL— PISCES,  OR  FISHES        676 

XXXIX.— INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS.— THE  MOLLUSCS  ;  SOFT-BODIED  ANIMALS  ..         725 

XL.— MOLLUSCA  PROPER _ 11^ 

XLL— THE  ARTICULATA         767 

XLII.-THE    ARTIGULATA.-ARTHROPODA,    OR    TRUE    ARTICULATA;     INCLUDING    LOBSTERS,     CRABS, 

SPIDERS,  &c 774 

XLIII.— ARTICULATA.— THE  INSECTS  793 

XLIV.—RADIATA,  OR  RADIATED  ANIMALS      • 824 

XLV.— THE  PROTOZOA ^^^ 


THE 


STUDY   OF    NATURAL    HISTORY 


BY 


DR.    ANDREW    WILSON, 

F.R.S.,  Edin.  ;  F.R.P.S.E.,  Etc., 

Lecturer  on  Zoology  and  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Edinburgh  Medical  School,  &c. 


ROM  the   earliest   years  in   which  our  attention   is   directed   to   the  objects   which 

surround  us  in  nature,  we  are  in  the  habit  of  classifying  these  objects  into  three 

divisions  or  series.     The   child  is  accustomed  to  speak  of  the  Animal,    Vegetable,  and 

Mineral  Kingdoms  as  the  three  great  divisions  of  nature,  and  for  all  practical  purposes 

this  division  is  consistent  with  the  facts  of  nature  themselves.     But  a  further  distinction 

is  capable  of  being  drawn  between  natural  objects  when  their  characteristics  are  more 

carefully  noted  and  observed.     To   classify  them  into  Animals,  Plants,  and  Minerals 

is  a  procedure  which  takes  no  account  of  the  special  characters    of  any  one  of  the 

three  groups.     A  little  reflection  shows  us  that  two  of  these  groups  possess  life,  and 

are  thus  sharply  separated  from  the  other  and  remaining  division,  in  which  lifeless  objects  are  alone 

contained.     The  animals  and  plants  thus  together  form  the  life-possessing  or  Organic  Series ; 

whilst  minerals,  rocks,  stones,  and  all  objects  destitute  of  life,  form  the  Inorganic  Series,  or  non- 

ig  group. 

Proceeding  next  to  inquire  into  the  methods  we  possess  of  studying  these  objects,  we  enter 
upon  the  consideration  of  the  sciences  which  deal  with  the  world  and  its  belongings.  In  the 
early  days  of  knowledge,  when  the  sciences  were  but  in  their  infancy,  a  perfect  classification  of  the  branches 
of  inquiry  pursued  by  man  was  an  impossibility ;  and  as  the  study  of  nature  was  of  the  most  general  kind, 
one  common  study  of  "Natural  History."  may  be  regarded  as  having  represented  the  distinct  and  specialized 
branches  we  pursue  to-day.  When  learning  revived  in  comparatively  modern  times,  knowledge  may  be  said 
to  have  divided  itself  into  two  chief  branches,  one  of  which  concerned  itself  with  human  affairs,  with  the 
constitution  of  man's  life,  and  with  his  political  and  social  history;  whilst  the  other  dealt  with  the  universe 
around,  and  with  the  objects  which  meet  our  gaze  in  the  world  at  large.  Hobbes,  of  Malmesbury,  for 
instance,  in  his  "  Leviathan,"  very  clearly  enunciates  the  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  "  Natural 
History,"  which  he  asserts  to  be  "  the  history  of  such  facts  or  effects  of  nature  as  have  no  dependence  on  man's 
will;  such  as  are  the  histories  of  metals,  plants,  animals,  regions,  and  the  like;"  whilst  conversely  he  takes 
care  to  point  out  that  another  great  branch  of  inquiry  exists,  in  which  is  comprised,  under  the  name  of 
"Civil  History,"  "the  history  of  the  voluntary  actions  of  men  in  commonwealths." 

Such  was  the  division  of  human  knowledge  in  the  time  of  Hobbes.  But  the  growth  of  knowledge 
proceeded  apace,  after  the  era  of  the  philosopher  of  Malmesbury.  After  Newton's  day,  and  in  greater  part 
as  the  effect  of  his  influence  on  science,  knowledge  came  to  be  divided  into  "  Experimental  or  Mathematical 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


Sciences,"  or  those  which  could  be  pursued  by  active  imitation  of  the  conditions  of  nature — and  "  Observational 
Sciences,"  or  those  in  which  experiment  gave  place  to  simple  observation  of  the  facts  seen  in  nature.  To 
the  former  category.  Chemistry,  Astronomy,  and  Natural  Philosophy  were  assigned  ;  and  in  the  latter  division. 
Natural  History,  comprising  the  study  of  animals  (Zoology) ;  plants  (Botany) ;  and  the  earth  itself  (Geology 
or  Mineralogy),  found  a  place.  Thus  the  name  "  Natural  History  "  ultimately  came  to  mean  and  to  indicate 
those  sciences  which  dealt  with  animals,  plants,  and  minerals ;  and,  as  such,  the  limits  of  the  science  were 
of  the  widest  possible  kind  of  nature.  Buffon  and  Linnaeus  were  "naturalists"  in  this  wide  sense,  and 
these  writers  included  a  knowledge  of  every  department  of  nature  under  that  designation. 

But  science  did  not  cease  to  grow  and  expand  after  this  latter  classification  of  its  subjects  was  constructed. 
On  the  contrary,  research  in  the  department  of  "  Natural  History  "  began  to  be  prosecuted  with  increased  vigour. 
As  time  passed,  it  was  seen  that  the  limits  of  human  existence  were  too  short  to  admit  of  a  man's  attaining 
excellence  in  the  whole  range  of  "  Natural  History ; "  and  specialization  and  limitation  of  studies  became  the 
order  of  the  day.  A  division  accordingly  grew  into  repute  between  those  branches  of  Natural  History  which 
dealt  with  living  things,  and  those  which  inquired  into  the  history  of  the  tion-livi7tg  section  of  the  universe. 
The  study  of  animals  and  plants  thus  tended  to  separate  itself  from  the  study  of  rocks  and  stones,  and  a  new 
division  of  "  Natural  History "  science  was  again  imminent.  About  1801,  Lamarck,  the  celebrated  French 
zoologist,  coined  a  word,  Biologic,  derived  from  the  Greek,  bios,  life,  and  logos,  a  discourse.  Treviranus,  another 
famous  naturalist,  likewise  employed  this  name — rendered  Biology  in  English — and  under  this  term  both 
authorities  included  the  study  of  animals  and  plants  as  the  living  parts  of  nature.  Hence  "  Biology  "  came  to 
mean,  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  as  it  means  to-day,  the  "  Science  of  Living  Beings."  As  such  it  was, 
therefore,  sharply  enough  separated  from  the  neighbour-sciences,  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  and  other  branches, 
which  had  been  united  with  the  study  of  living  beings  under  the  common  name,  "  Natural  History."  This 
idea  grew  in  favour,  and  has  been  handed  down  to  the  present  era  of  scientific  thought,  so  that  "  Biology  "  is 
understood  to-day  to  be  the  science  dealing  with  the  living  things  which  inhabit  the  earth.  What,  it  may  now 
be  asked,  is  the  present  arrangement  of  the  "  Natural  Sciences,"  and  of  those  branches  of  inquiry  which  deal 
with  the  inorganic  or  lifeless  section  of  the  universe  ?  The  following  table  will  show  the  modern  arrangement 
of  these  sciences  : — 

NATURAL    HISTORY. 


INCLUDES  : — 

(0 

Biology 
dealing  with 

Animals  (ZOOLOGY)  ^      These  forming  the 
and                            \ 
Plants    (BOTANY)     J      ORGANIC  Series. 

(2) 

Chemistry 

(3) 

Geology 

These  dealing  chiefly  with 

(4) 

Mineralogy 

the 

(5) 

Natural  Philosophy 

Inorganic  Series. 

(6) 

Astronomy 

As  above  defined,  we  note  that  the  significance  of  the  old  term,  "  Natural  History,"  as  used  by  Hobbes, 
remains  unchanged.  It  means  with  us  to-day,  the  complete  and  entire  history  of  nature  around  us.  As 
such,  it  includes  the  consideration,  not  merely  of  living,  but  of  non-living  objects.  The  former  are  dealt 
with  by  Biology,  which  includes  the  companion  sciences  of  Botany  and  Zoology.  The  inorganic  objects 
are  dealt  with  by  such  sciences  as  Chemistry,  Astronomy,  Geology,  &c. ;  but  it  is  also  necessary  to  note 
that  these  sciences  are  likewise  related  more  or  less  intimately  to  living  beings  and  to  Biological  inquiries. 
There  is  a  chemistry  of  living  beings,  for  instance,  as  well  as  an  inorganic  chemistry;  and  Geology  deals 
with  the  life  of  the  past  in  the  form  of  fossils,  as  well  as  with  the  rocks  and  stones,  which  possess  no 
connection  with  life  or  living  objects.  The  line  of  separation,  albeit  that  it  is  distinct  enough,  is  not  an 
absolute  one ;  and,  indeed,  the  furthest  researches  of  science  tend  to  show  that  no  one  branch  of  inquiry 
remains  entirely  separate  and  distinct  from  its  neighbour-branches,  but  depends,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
for  its  own  progress,  upon  that  of  other  departments  of  human  knowledge. 

Having  thus  defined  the  special  position  which  "  Biolog)',"  as  the  science  of  living  beings,  occupies,  we 
may  now  proceed  to  investigate  the  manner  in  which  animals  and  plants  are  to  be  studied.  It  is  the  aim  of 
science  to  be  exact,  and  the  methods  of  scientific  inquiry — the  fashion  in  which  knowledge  is  acquired — must 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


be  themselves  essentially  of  exact  and  well  defined  kind.  In  scientific  inquiries,  therefore,  a  certain  routine 
must  be  observed.  Information  acquired  now  must  bear  a  definite  relation  to  that  obtained  in  the  past : 
just  as  the  knowledge  of  the  future  will  unquestionably  relate  itself  to  that  of  the  present,  to  form  a 
harmonious  and  connected  system  of  knowledge.  Definite  method  is,  therefore,  a  first  condition  for  success- 
ful investigation  into  the  truths  of  nature. 

Animals  and  plants  are  studied  according  to  a  method  or  plan  in  which  the  details  of  their  form,  struc- 
ture, mode  of  life,  habitation,  and  origin,  are  readily  ascertained  and  appreciated  by  the  biologist.  The 
history  of  any  animal  or  plant — low  or  high  in  the  scale  of  creation — is  practically  ascertained  by  asking- 
four  questions  concerning  it — queries,  these,  of  a  thoroughly  natural  kind.  Firstly,  we  ask  of  every  \\\-\n" 
being,  "What  is  it?  "  expecting  in  the  reply  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  its  structure  and  nature.  Secondly,  we 
inquire,  "  How  does  it  live  ?  "  with  the  view  of  discovering  its  manner  of  life  and  the  degree  of  perfection  in 
which  the  duties  of  life  are  performed.  Thirdly,  we  determine  to  know,  "  Where  is  it  found  ? "  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  in  what  quarters  of  the  world  it  exists,  from  what  regions  it  may  be  absent,  and  whether  or  not 
it  existed  in  that  part  of  our  earth  with  which  Geology  makes  us  acquainted.  Fourthly,  and  lastly,  we 
inquire,  "  How  has  it  assumed  its  present  place  in  nature  ?  "  and  if  this  question  be  answered,  we  shall  expect 
to  find,  in  the  reply,  information  concerning  the  causes  which  have  made  the  living  being  what  it  is,  which 
have  determined  its  place  in  the  scale  of  life,  and  which  have,  in  fact,  wrought  out  its  physical  destiny.  If 
these  four  questions  may  be  fully  answered  concerning  any  living  thing,  the  history  of  that  organism  may 
be  regarded  as  full  and  complete  in  every  particular.  As  science  now  exists,  every  fresh  addition  to  our 
knowledge  of  living  beings  may  be  regarded  as  tending  to  answer  one  of  these  queries  partly  or  wholly.  The 
gaps  in  our  knowledge  are  many  and  great  concerning  even  the  humblest  living  being ;  but  the  advances  of 
inquiry  are  proceeding  with  unfaltering  step,  and  day  by  day  the  histories  of  the  varied  living  forms  which  people 
our  globe  are  being  added  to  with  a  rapidity  that  gives  fair  promise  of  a  rich  scientific  harvest  in  the  near 
future  of  Biology. 

The  answer  to  the  first  question  asked  concerning  any  and  every  living  being — from  the  lowest 
animalcule  or  plant,  up  to,  and  including,  man  himself— is  supplied  by  that  branch  of  Biology  we  term 
Morphology,  or  the  Science  of  Structure.  The  following  table  will  show  the  various  branches  of  inquiry  throu"-h 
the  pursuit  of  which  our  knowledge  of  living  beings  is  gained. 


BIOLOGY   (OR  THE  SCIENCE  OF  LIVING  BEINGS) 


I.    Morphology, 
(Science  of  Structure) 
including 


INCLUDES  : — 


1.  Anatomy 

2.  Development 

3.  Taxonomy 


Which  answer  the 

question, 

"What  is  it?" 


II.    Physiology, 
(Science  of  Functions) 
including 


1.  Nutrition 

2.  Reproduction 

3.  Innervation 


Which  answer  the 

question, 
'  How  does  it  live  ? " 


HI.    Distribution, 
including 


1.  In  space  (Geographical  Distribution) 

2.  In  time  (Geological  Distribution) 


Which  answer  the  question 
"  Where  is  it  found  ? " 


IV.    .(Etiology, 
(Science  of  Causes) 


including 


Development  and  Descent : 
The  study  of  likenesses  : 
etc. 


Which  answer  the  question, 

"  How  has  it  assumed  its  present  place 

in  the  organic  series  ? " 


Under  the  head  of  Morphology,  we  expect  to  gain  an  accurate  idea  of  the  structure  of  the  animal  or 
plant.  Every  detail  concerning  its  composition  and  mechanism  is  acquired  under  this  head.  Suppose  a 
watchmaker  to  describe  to  us  the  mechanism  of  a  watch — to  show  us  the  arrangement  of  wheels,  springs, 
pivots,  and  other  gear — the  mechanic  in  such  a  case  would  be  describing  to  us  the  "  morphology  "  of  the  watch. 
But  morphology  is  seen  to  include  (as  set  forth  in  our  table)  at  least  three  well  marked  divisions.  Anatomy 
teaches  us  the  form  and  structure  of  the  fully-formed  being ;  makes  us  acquainted   with  the  position  and 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


relations  of  its  various  organs,  and  shows  us,  for  example,  where  heart  and  brain,  lungs  and  liver,  digestive 
and  other  organs  lie.  Then  Devclopjiient  takes  up  the  story,  and  initiates  us  into  the  processes  in  virtue  of 
which  the  animal  or  plant  grew,  and  was  fashioned  from  the  primitive  sybstance  of  the  germ  or  seed.  Just  as 
the  history  of  a  watch  might  be  held  to  include  the  details  of  its  manufacture,  so  the  study  of  an  animal  or 
plant  includes  a  knowledge  of  its  formation,  and  of  the  processes  whereby  it  assumed  its  adult  and  characteristic 
form.  In  such  a  study  some  of  the  most  important  knowledge  of  the  naturalist  is  obtained.  Studying  the 
development  of  the  animal  or  plant,  the  observer  sees  how,  from  the  apparently  simple  protoplasm  of  egg  or  seed, 
organ  after  organ  is  evolved  and  formed,  until  the  perfection  of  adult  life  is  obtained.  The  last  department 
of  morphology  is  Taxonomy  or  Classification.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  a  true  knowledge  of  what  things  are 
includes  a  knowledge  of  their  relations  one  with  another.  When  we  classify  any  series  of  objects — living  or 
non-living — we  place  together  those  that  are  really  like,  and  separate  those  that  are  unlike.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  upon  a  knowledge  of  morphology  and  development  (which  teach  us  what  animals  and  plants 
are)  our  ability  to  arrange  together  those  that  are  truly  alike  must  depend.  A  whale  and  a  fish  would  be — 
and  very  frequently  are,  in  popular  Natural  History,  classified  together — because  both  are  alike  in  form  and  • 
appearance,  and  because  both  swim  and  inhabit  the  water.  But  when  we  understand  the  structure  of  the 
fish,  as  revealed  by  morphology  and  development,  we  find  that  its  body  is  covered  with  scales,  that  its  blood  is 
cold,  that  its  heart  is  two-chambered,  that  it  breathes  by  gills,  and  that  its  young  are  hatched  from  eggs,  over 
which  the  parent-fish  usually  exercises  no  care.  When,  similarly,  we  understand  the  structure  of  the  whale, 
we  find  vast  differences  between  it  and  the  fish.  The  whale's  body-covering  consists  typically  of  hairs ;  its 
blood  is  warm  ;  its  heart  is  four-chambered ;  it  breathes  by  lungs,  like  ourselves,  and  has  to  ascend  periodically 
to  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  breathing  air  directly  from  the  atmosphere ;  and  its  young  are 
born  alive,  and  nourished  by  means  of  the  milk  of  the  parent.  The  fish  we  find,  in  short,  to  be  a  much  lower 
animal  than  the  whale ;  whilst  the  latter  we  discover  to  be  an  animal  belonging  to  the  same  class  as 
ourselves.  The  whale  is,  in  truth,  a  quadruped,  or  mammal,  fitted  for  an  aquatic  life ;  whilst  the  fish  is  the 
lowest  member  of  the  Vertebrate  group  (or  that  of  "backboned  "  animals)  to  which  man  himself  belongs. 
Thus  does  a  true  and  exact  classification  of  animals  or  plants  depend  upon  a  knowledge  of  what  animals  and 
plants  truly  are,  as  demonstrated  by  morphology,  or  the  Science  of  Structure. 

The  second  question — "How  does  it  live?"  is  answered  by  Physiology,  or  the  Science  of  Fjinctions.  As 
morphology  taught  us  the  mechanism  of  the  living  body,  so  physiology  teaches  us  concerning  the  manner  in 
which  that  mechanism  works.  When  we  speak  of  the  "  physiology  of  the  eye,"  or  of  the  "  heart,"  we  mean 
respectively  to  indicate  the  knowledge  which  shows  us  how  eye  and  heart  perform  their  respective  "  functions  " 
or  "  duties."  Every  living  being  may  be  said  to  perform  three  chief  functions — each  including  a  large  number 
of  subordinate  branches  of  inquiry.  The  life-history  of  any  animal  or  plant  may,  in  other  words,  be  summed 
up  in  three  terms — Nutrition,  Reproduction,  and  Relation,  or  Innervation.  The  first  duty  of  the  living  organism 
is  the  "  Nutrition  "  of  its  frame.  Under  this  head,  we  consider  the  questions  of  food,  digestion,  assimilation, 
the  blood  or  sap  (as  the  case  may  be),  circulation,  respiration,  excretion,  secretion,  &c.  Nutrition  comprehends 
every  function  which  contributes  to  the  support  and  maintenance  of  the  individjial  animal  or  plant. 
But  whilst  the  individual  is  thus  being  conserved,  the  interests  of  the  race  or  species  also  demand  attention. 
Death  is  continually  thinning  out  the  ranks  of  animal  and  plant  species  ;  hence  provision  must  be  made  for 
filling  up  the  gaps  which  such  loss  by  death  causes.  The  function  of  "  Reproduction  "  is  therefore  that  devoted 
to  this  latter  work.  Through  its  operation,  new  animals  and  plants  are  produced  to  take  the  places  of  lost 
members  of  the  race;  and  reproduction  clearly  preserves  the  "species,"  just  as  nutrition  conserved  the 
"  individual."  The  last  function  included  in  the  list  of  physiological  duties  performed  by  animals  and  plants 
is  named  Relation,  Irritability,  or  Innervation.  By  each  term  is  indicated  the  functions  which  the  7iervous 
system  (or  its  representative  in  lowest  animals  and  in  plants)  perform,  in  bringing  the  living  being  into 
"  relation  "  with  its  surroundings,  and  with  the  world  in  which  it  lives.  Every  living  being  possesses  and 
exhibits  some  such  relations.  The  animal  is  visibly  related  to  the  world  in  which  it  lives  and  moves,  and  from 
which  it  draws  its  sustenance  and  support.  No  less  clearly  related  to  its  surroundings  is  the  fixed  plant,  which 
derives  its  food  from  the  soil  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  which,  as  a  living  being,  must  possess  some  relations 
with  its  environments.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  stable  fact  in  physiology  that  no  living  being  is  destitute  of 
means  for  performing  the  function  of  relation.  The  higher  we  advance  in  the  animal  and  plant  series,  the 
more  perfect  does  the  performance  of  this  function  become.  But  the  differences  perceptible  between  the 
nervous  relations  of  one  animal  and  another  are  differences  of  degree  and  not  of  kind ;   and  it  may  be  said 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY.  5 


that  there  exists  an  unbroken  chain  of  physiological  relations  connecting  even  the  lowest  form  of  life  with  the 
highest  interests  of  man. 

From  the  study  of  morphology  and  physiology  wc  thus  gain  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  structure  and 
life  of  every  living  thing.  A  third  question  is  found,  however,  which  covers  ground  ignored  by  either 
structural  or  by  functional  considerations.  This  question — "  Where  is  it  found  ? " — is  answered  by  the  science 
of  Distribution.  Every  living  being  has  a  more  or  less  strictly  defined  place  and  position  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  Some  forms  are  well-nigh  world-wide  in  their  range;  others  are  restricted  (like  some  species  of 
humming-birds,  for  instance)  to,  it  may  be,  a  few  square  miles  of  that  surface,  and  are  never  met  with  outside 
these  narrow  bounds.  The  questions,  which,  therefore,  the  science  of  Distribution  sets  itself  to  answer  arc  of 
all-important  nature.  Why,  for  example,  it  may  be  asked,  are  humming-birds  confined  to  the  New  World  ? 
Why  are  antelopes  well-nigh  limited  to  Africa  ?  Why  are  deer,  which  otherwise  are  world-wide  in  range, 
absent  from  Africa?  Why  does  one  elephant  occur  in  India,  and  another  and  different  elephant  in  Africa? 
Why  are  New  World  monkeys  different  from  those  of  the  Old  World  ?  Why  are  kangaroos  only  found  in 
Australia,  and  opossums  in  America  alone  ?  These,  and  a  multitude  of  like  queries,  might  be  asked  with 
reference  to  the  habitations  of  animals,  and  to  such  questions  it  is  the  province  of  Distribution  to  afford 
a  reply.  Distribution,  has,  moreover,  two  chief  aspects  of  study.  Geographical  Distribiitio7i,  or  Distribution 
in  space,  deals  with  the  animal  and  plant-populations  of  the  world  as  they  exist  to-day.  Distribution  i7i  time, 
or  Geological  Distribution,  investigates  for  us,  on  the  other  hand,  the  distribution  of  life  in  that  past  of  the 
globe  to  which  Geology  directs  our  attention.  From  a  study  of  the  "  fossils,"  or  petrified  remains  of  animals 
and  plants,  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain,  fully  or  in  part,  their  past  history,  and  to  compare  that  history  with 
the  story  which  their  life  on  the  earth  to-day  presents.  Whilst  only  through  the  study  of  "  fossils  "  can  we 
gain  any  idea  of  the  existence  of  countless  animals  and  plants  which  lived  and  died  out  or  became  extinct 
ages  before  man  appeared. 

The  last  question  relating  to  the  history  of  the  living  being  is  that,  "  How  has  it  assumed  its  present  place 
in  Nature  ?  "     In  this  query  entire  knowledge  of  its  history  may  be  said  to  be  summed  up.    Every  detail  furnished 
by  Morphology,  Physiology,  and   Distribution  aids  in  answering  this  last  question,  which  only  within  recent 
years  has  been  put  forth  for  reply  by  the  scientific  world.     To  understand  how  the  living  worlds  came  to  be  what 
they  now  are,  is  a  process  of  thought  which  assumes  two  things.     We  firstly  presume  that  living  beings  have  had 
a  progressive  history — that  they  were  not  created  "  as  they  are."     And  we,  secondly,  take  for  granted,  that  some 
hiowledge  of  tlieir  past  history  is  traceable  in  their  present,  to  which  we  have  access.     The  science  of  y^tiology, 
or  that  dealing  with  the  "  causes  of  things,"  may  therefore  be  applied  to  Biology,  and,  it  is  almost  needless  to 
remark,  this  latter  department  of  Biological    Science  is  one  which  has  sprung  into  existence  through  the 
researches  and  suggestive  studies  of  Darwin  and  other  evolutionists.     Finding,  for  instance,  in  the  "  develop- 
ment "  of  animals  many  facts  absolutely  inexplicable  in  the  idea  that  living  beings  were  created  as  we  now 
find  them,  Evolution  asserts  that  there  is  evidence  of  ample  kind  to  prove  that  the  existing  forms  of  animals  and 
plants  have  been  developed  by  the  modification   and  alteration  of  pre-existing  forms.     The  causes  of  such 
modification  are,  it  is  true,  often  obscure,  and  frequently  unknown ;  but  the  imperfections  of  our  knowledge  do 
not  affect  the  probabilities  at  issue,  and  do  not  militate  against  the  great  principle  of  progressive  change  which 
Evolution  maintains  has  been  the  ordered  way  of  nature  at  large.     For  example,  what  explanation  can  be  given 
of  the  fact  that  man,  birds,  and  reptiles,  which  do  not  breathe  by  gills  at  any  period  of  life,  possess,  in  their 
embryonic  (or  early)  condition,  gill-clefts  similar  to  those  which  in  fishes  bear  the  gills  ?     The  idea  of  special 
creation  has  no  answer  to  give  save  that "  they  were  created  so."     Evolution  replies  with  a  rational  reason — that 
these  higher  animals   were  derived  from  lower  and  gill-breathing  forms,  and  that    they  still  retain  in  their 
development,  as  a  matter  of  inheritance,  the  evidence  of  their  ancestry.     Or  again,  why  should  the  early  stages 
in  the  development  of  such  classes  of  animals  resemble  those  in  the  development  of  neighbouring  classes,  save  on 
the  supposition  of  a  common  descent  ?     Why  should  whalebone  whales,  which  have  no  teeth  when  adult, 
possess,  before  birth,  teeth  which  never  cut  the  gum  ?     The  reply  is,  not  that  nature  pursues  a  meaningless  course, 
but  that  these  teeth  are  representatives — produced  by  the  operation  of  laws  of  heredity  and  descent — of  teeth 
once  well  developed  in  the  race  from  which  these  whales  have  sprung.     Why  has  a  horse,  which  walks  on  one 
finger  and  toe — the  third — rudiments  of  other  two  toes,  the  second  and  fourth,  in  the  shape  of  two  useless 
"  splint  bones  ?  "     The  answer  is,  because  horses  are  descended  from  three-toed  ancestors ;   progressive  change 
having  developed  the  third  toe  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.     In  proof  of  this,  we  can  point  to  the  scries  of  fossil 
horses  in  Yale  College  Museum,  U.S.,  these  fossil  and  e.xtinct  ancestors  of  the  horse  possessing  three,  four,  and 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


even  five  toes,  being  there  seen  in  perfect  array.  Why  should  animals  so  different  in  adult  life  as  a  shrimp,  a 
barnacle,  a  water  flea,  a  sacculina  (existing  as  a  mere  bag-like  appendage  on  crabs)  be  developed  from  a  similar 
embryonic  form  and  in  like  fashion  ?  Evolution  replies,  because  they  have  sprung  originally  from  one 
root-stock,  and  still  repeat  in  their  history  the  ancestral  features  of  long  ago.  Why  should  "  variation  "  in 
living  species  be  such  a  common  feature?  The  reply  of  the  biologist  is,  because  variation  is  merely  the 
beginning  of  the  process  of  change,  which,  with  increasing  tendency  to  depart  further  and  further  from  the 
specific  type,  gradually  evolves    new  species. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  contentions  of  Evolution  as  representing  the  newest  phase  of  modern  Biology.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  idea  of  Evolution,  as  the  law  of  life,  has  thoroughly  revolutionized 
modern  life-science.  It  has  supplied  us  with  explanations  of  points  and  features  before  assumed  to  be 
of  inexplicable  kind  ;  and  has  proved,  so  far  as  research  has  proceeded,  to  be  a  thoroughly  consistent 
view  of  the  living  universe  and  its  constitution.  The  data  upon  which  the  science  of  .Etiology  depends 
for  its  knowledge,  have  been  casually  mentioned  in  treating  of  the  examples  of  evolutionary  problems. 
Thus  "  rudimentary  organs,"  like  the  "  splint  bones  "  of  the  horse,  or  the  undeveloped  teeth  of  whales,  are 
clues  and  traces  to  the  nature  and  true  position  of  these  animals.  The  likeness  between  the  limbs  of 
quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  for  instance  (presenting  us  with  a  study  of  Homology),  illustrates 
again  the  sources  of  information  upon  which  the  biologist  depends  for  his  knowledge  of  an  animal's 
past.  And  above  all,  "development,"  and  the  story  it  tells  concerning  the  evolution  of  a  living  being,  is 
regarded  as  our  best  guide  to  the  history  of  an  animal  or  plant ;  so  that  we  are  not  surprised  to  find 
Mr.  Darwin  maintaining  that  the  development  of  an  animal  is  a  panoramic  or  moving  picture  of  its 
descent — of  those  stages  through  which  it  has  passed  and  come  to  assume  its  present  place  in  the  created 
scale. 

By  way  of  applying  the  foregoing  remarks  upon  the  method  in  which  we  study  living  beings,  we 
may  select  the  kangaroo  as  an  animal  which  presents  a  typical  example  of  Biological  investigation.  In  the 
endeavour  to  systematically  ascertain  the  kangaroo's  place  in  nature,  the  meaning  of  the  preceding  remarks 
upon  the  various  divisions  of  Biological  science  will  be  readily  apparent,. 

The  kangaroo  is  an  animal  familiar  enough  to  ordinary  readers,  and  which  has  attained  a  popularity 
in  Natural  History  from  its  somewhat  remarkable  appearance,  as  well  as  from  certain  peculiarities  con- 
nected with  its  habits  and  distribution.  Applying  to  Biology  for  a  succinct  description  of  the  kangaroo, 
the  naturalist  would  firstly  deal  with  its  Morphology,  or  "  structure ; "  investigating  under  this  head— its 
anatomy,  its  development,  and  its  classification  or  taxonomy.  We  would  learn  under  these  heads,  for 
instance,  the  structure  of  its  skeleton  and  the  disposition  of  its  viscera.  We  should  discover  the  presence 
of  two  peculiar  bones,  named  marsupial  bones,  rising  from  the  front  of  the  animal's  haunch-bones,  or  pelvis, 
and  which  are  used  for  the  support  of  a  "  pouch,"  in  which,  as  is  well  known,  the  mother  protects  her  young 
for  a  considerable  period  after  birth.  We  should  discover  that  the  brain  of  the  animal  is  of  lower  type 
than  that  of  ordinary  quadrupeds,  such  as  the  dog,  cat,  horse,  &c.  We  would  likewise  note,  amongst  other 
details,  the  elongated  foot  of  the  kangaroo,  and  the  curious  fact  that  it  possesses  but  four  toes,  of  which 
the  fourth  and  fifth  are  large  and  well  developed,  whilst  the  second  and  third  toes  are  small,  rudimentary 
and  enclosed  with  a  single  fold  of  skin  ;  the  first  or  great  toe  being  absent.  The  developmetit  of  the  kangaroo 
would  teach  us,  in  its  own  way,  that  the  body  of  the  animal  was  formed  on  the  type  of  that  of  all  other 
quadrupeds,  and  that  its  lower  place  in  the  quadruped-class  was  due  to  the  earlier  stage  at  which  develop- 
ment, so  to  speak,  terminates,  as  compared  with  that  which  is  attained  by  ordinary  quadrupeds.  The 
classification  of  the  kangaroo  would  present  us  with  few  difficulties,  if  our  examination  of  other  animals  had 
placed  us  in  possession  of  adequate  information  respecting  their  structure  in  turn.  Thus  we  should  find  that 
the  marsupial  bones  of  our  kangaroo  (and  its  pouch  also,  as  a  rule)  were  common  to  a  large  number  of  other 
animals,  such  as  Wombats,  "  Tasmanian  Devils,"  Bandicoots,  Phalangers,  Kangaroo-rats  (all  inhabiting  Australia 
and  adjacent  islands),  and  Opossums — inhabiting  America ;  and  we  should  be  therefore  justified  in  assuming 
from  this  fact  as  well  as  from  likeness  to  the  kangaroo  in  brain-structure,  and  in  other  peculiarities  of 
body,  that  these  varied  forms  were  near  kith  and  kin  of  that  animal.  Thus  a  knowledge  of  likeness  in 
structure  aids  us  in  forming  a  group  of  quadrupeds  (including  the  animals  just  mentioned,  and  the 
kangaroos  as  typical  members)  to  which  we  give  the  name  of  Marsupials,  or  "  pouched  "  mammals. 

The  Physiology  of  the  kangaroo  would  teach  us  its  life-history  and  habits.      We  should,  through  the 
study    of  nutrition,  discover  its  food,  and   those   processes   in  virtue  of  which  that  food  is  applied  to  the 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


uses  of  the  animal's  frame.  Its  reproduction  would  disclose  to  us  such  curious  features  as  that  involved 
in  the  facts  that  the  young  are  born  in  a  very  immature  state  (those  of  a  kangaroo  six  feet  high  when 
adult,  being  about  an  inch  long  at  birth) ;  that  the  young  arc  nourished  within  the  "  pouch "  by  the 
milk-secretion  of  the  mother ;  and  that  the  milk  is  forced  down  the  throat  of  the  young  by  the  action 
of  special  muscles  which  compress  the  milk-glands.  Lastly,  the  innervation  of  the  kangaroo  would  lead 
us  to  investigate  the  functions  of  its  brain  and  nerves,  and  to  compare  its  nerve-acts  and  intelligence  with 
those  of  other  animals;  and  with  the  investigation  of  this  latter  phase  of  existence  the  physiological 
examination  of  the  animal  would  be  concluded. 

The  distribution  of  the  kangaroo,  supplying  the  answer  to  the  question,  "  Where  is  it  found  ?  "  would 
present  many  points  of  extreme  interest.  We  should  discover  that  kangaroos  were  absolutely  confined  to 
Australia  and  adjacent  islands,  which  are  the  typical  home  of  the  whole  "  marsupial "  or  "  pouched  "  race 
of  quadrupeds.  No  kangaroo,  living  or  fossil,  has  been  met  with  out  of  the  Australian  region.  Hence  the 
question  occurs,  "Why  are  kangaroos,  and  marsupials  at  large,  only  found  in  that  part  or  region  of  the  world  ?" 
The  ability  to  answer  this  query  depends  upon  our  recognition  of  the  two  great  factors  which  have  been 
and  still  are  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  existing  order  of  the  living  world — namely,  geological 
change,  and  variation  in  species.  Geology  informs  us  that  at  a  far-back  period  in  the  history  of  our 
earth,  known  to  geologists  as  the  Trias,  marsupials  were  found  in  Europe  and  elsewhere ;  this  fact  being 
known  from  their  fossil  history.  These  were  the  first  quadrupeds  which  appeared  on  the  earth's  surface 
and  that  Australia  obtained  its  marsupial  population  in  the  Triassic  period  appears  a  stable  induction, 
Australia  being  then  joined  to  what  we  now  name  the  Asiatic  Continent.  In  the  Triassic  rocks  of  Europe, 
and  in  later  rocks  as  well,  we  may  note  that  the  remains  of  opossums  are  also  found — the  opossums,  however, 
although  "  marsupial "  quadrupeds,  being  unknown  in  Australia,  and  being  at  present  restricted  to  the  New 
World  in  their  range.  We  know  also  that  in  the  Oolitic  rocks  of  Europe,  or  those  succeeding  the  Trias, 
marsupial  remains  are  found.  This  latter  fact  (together  with  the  knowledge  that  in  Australia  there  are 
living  many  types  of  Oolitic  animals,  extinct  elsewhere)  leads  us  to  believe  that  Australia  became  separated 
from  the  Asiatic  mainland  at  the  close  of  the  Oolitic  period. 

Remembering  that  no  higher  quadrupeds  were  then  in  existence,  and  that  Australia  had  acquired  its 
marsupial  population,  what  was  the  effect  of  the  separation  of  Australia  from  the  mainland  ?  Simply  to 
prevent  any  addition  of  higher  quadrupeds  to  the  Australian  region — for  after  the  close  of  the  Oolitic  and 
Chalk  periods  the  higher  quadrupeds  were  evolved — and  to  consequently  restrict  the  quadruped  population 
of  Australia  to  its  marsupials.  These  latter,  varying  in  turn  amongst  themselves,  have,  in  turn,  produced  the 
diverse  fauna  which  meets  the  eye  of  the  naturalist  in  Australia  to-day — for  it  need  hardly  be  added  that 
all  quadrupeds  above  the  rank  of  the  marsupials  (such  as  our  ordinary  cows,  horses,  sheep,  &c.)  found  in 
Australia  to-day,  are  introductions  due  to  the  hand  of  man.  Thus  in  Australia  we  see  a  "  survival "  of  an 
animal-population  once  {i.e.,  in  Triassic  and  Oolitic  times)  of  world-wide  extent ;  the  survival  in  that  island- 
continent  being  due,  firstly,  to  geological  change  producing  isolation  of  the  marsupial  type ;  and  secondly, 
to  variation  in  the  original  marsupials  of  Australia  producing  the  existing  variety  of  these  animals  in 
that  land. 

In  America  we  find  the  opossums,  as  already  noted,  these  being  the  only  marsupials  existing  outside  the 
bounds  of  Australia.  Why  is  this  ?  To  answer  this  question  fully  we  have  simply  to  leave  Australia 
altogether  out  of  sight  in  the  matter,  inasmuch  as  Australia  never  included  opossums  in  its  fauna.  These 
animals  existed  in  Europe  until  the  Tertiary  epoch,  and  hence  we  must  believe  that  as  opossums  are  found  in 
a  fossil  state  in  America  in  much  more  recent  rocks  than  in  Europe,  they  must  have  migrated  to  America 
from  Europe  or  Northern  Asia  by  a  then  continuous  land-surface  in  the  Tertiary  period.  The  opossums,  like 
all  other  marsupials,  have  disappeared  from  the  Old  World,  because  the  higher  quadrupeds  have  exterminated 
them,  or  because  the  changing  physical  conditions  were  unsuited  to  their  development.  In  Australia  the 
marsupials,  and  in  America  the  opossums,  respectively  flourish  as  survivals  of  the  earliest  quadrupeds,  because 
the  conditions  of  life  suit  them,  and  because  they  continue  to  exist,  in  America,  in  face  of  the  "  struggle 
for  existence  "  there  taking  place,  and  in  Australia  because  of  the  immunity  they  have  enjoyed  from  the 
inroads  of  higher  forms. 

Lastly,  the  Etiology  of  the  kangaroo  deals  with  the  question,  "  How  came  it  to  assume  its  existing  place  in 
Nature  ? "  The  naturalist  would  answer  this  question  by  saying  that  the  conditions  under  which  marsupial 
life  has  been  preserved,  and  under  which  it  has  varied  in  the  past,  contains  the  reply.     Of  these  conditions  we 


THE  STUDY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


yet  know  but  little ;  but  all  the  facts  of  nature  point  to  modification  of,  and  to  descent  from  some  primitive 
marsupial  type,  as  those  processes  which  have  given  origin  to  our  kangaroos  and  their  allies.  Even  the  single 
fact  that  the  feet  of  marsupials  are  constructed  on  one  and  the  same  type  (already  described  in  the  case  of  the 
kangaroo),  and  exhibit  endless  modification  for  different  modes  of  life,  clearly  points  to  the  evolution  of  the 
kangaroo  from  some  pre-existent  type,  from  which  probably  the  other  marsupial  races  also  sprang.  Could 
we  glance  backwards  in  time  to  the  Triassic  and  Oolitic  periods,  trace  the  progress  of  events  in  the  world's  sur- 
face since  the  first  peopling  of  Australia  with  its  marsupials,  we  should  undoubtedly  discover  that  in  the  modifi- 
cation and  progress  of  these  primitive  species  lies  hidden  the  distinct  answer  to  the  question,  "  How  has  the 
kangaroo  assumed  its  existing  features  and  present  place  in  nature  ?  " 

Of  the  uses  and  advantages  of  Natural  History  study,  very  little  need  be  said  in  the  present  instance,  by 
way  of  conclusion  to  this  brief  study  of  the  methods  of  biological  research.     But  it  is  permissible  to  say  a 
few  words  concerning  the  utility  of  biological  study,  as  a  means  of  culture,  and  as  extending  our  concepts  and 
enlarging  our  ideas  of  the  universe  in  which  we  live.     If  it  be  admitted  that  a  knowledge  of  our  own  place  in 
nature,  and  of  man's  true  relations  to  lower  forms  of  life,  be  a  desirable  item  in  our  mental  belongings,  such 
knowledge  can  only  be  acquired  through  biological  study.     No  adequate  idea  of  the  general  constitution  of 
nature,  or  of  man's  relation  to,  and  place  in  that  constitution,  can  be  acquired  save  through  a  patient  investi- 
gation of  the  wide  range  of  Biology.     The  history  of  the  lowest  animal  or  plant  may  throw  a  side  light  on 
problems  of  weighty  kind  ;  and  in  its  lowest  as  well  as  higher  departments,  the  science  of  life  teems  with  truths  as 
important  to  the  proper  study  of  mankind  as  are  the  facts  of  political  history  or  of  human  morals.    Mr.  Spencer, 
in  his  "  Study  of  Sociology,"  has,  for  example,  well  shown  how  preparation  in  Biology  is  the  best  vantage- 
ground  for  the  study  of  man  in  his  social  relationships.     The  human  individual  is  regulated  by  broad  laws  of 
life  and  living  common  to  all  other  forms.     Hence,  as  society  is  made  up  of  individuals,  the  laws  of  society 
and  human  life  are,  in  reality,  the  extensions  of  biological  truths.     The  importance  of  Biology  as  fitting  us  for 
the  understanding  of  the  world  and  of  ourselves,  is,  however,  only  equalled  by  its  interest.     No  fairer  field  of 
study  can  appeal  to  our  gaze  than  the  living  worlds  that  surround  us.     Whether  it  be  an  Alpine  flora,  telling 
us  its  tale  of  glacier-lands  and  ice-fields  existing  when  the  earth  was  young,  or  a  tropic  vegetation,  of  surpassing 
loveliness  in  its  gorgeous  hues — whether  a  study  in  higher  forms  of  life  absorbs  our  attention,  or  our  investiga- 
tions lead  us  to  examine  the  animalcule,  or  to  know  the  pulsating  jelly-li'ke  bells  that,  tinted  with  azure,  grace 
the  summer  sea,  there  is  everywhere  to  be  found  in  living  nature,  beauty  and  loveliness,  and  a  fair  prospect. 
Hence  Natural  History,  whilst  it  instructs  us  in  the  life  of  the  universe,  does  so  through  the  charm  of  its  varied 
interests,  which,  in  their  fullness  and  variety  of  form,  colour,  and  design,  are  presented  to  our  notice  in 
literally  unending  succession.     No  higher  studies,  indeed,  can  well  be  conceived  than  those  of  the  biologist, 
who,  in  his  search  after  the  causes  of  living  phenomena,  views  with  wonder  the  forces  which,  in  one  phase 
of  their  action,  produce  the  "  figur'd  leaf,"  and,  in  another,  evolve  the  glory  and  majesty  of  a  world. 


THE 


('  1 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


OF    ANIMALS. 


^(^ 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN:   WITH  THE  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 

four,  and  the  Ape  tribe  none  ;  but  the  latter 
have  four  hands.  Hence  man  belongs  to  an 
order  called  Bhnana  (two-handed),  while 
the  Apes  form  an  order  called  Qtiadru- 
viana,  or  four-handed. 

Take  again  the  teeth.  Man  can  eat  any 
kind  of  food,  for  his  set  of  teeth  is  complete 
in  every  respect  —  canine,  incisors,  and 
molar;  but  in  the  Lion,  and  other  ani- 
mals that  feed  on  flesh,  the  canine  teeth 
are  the  most  prominent,  because  they  are 
required  to  tear  the  flesh  from  the  bones 
of  their  prey.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
animals  called  gnawers  [Rodc7itid),  the 
canine  teeth  are  wanting  in  both  jaws,  and 
the  incisors  (front  teeth)  are  reduced  to  two ; 
and  being  subject  to  continued  growth,  are 
occasionally  converted  into  tusks. 

It  will  thus  be  seen,  from  the  examples  of 
hand,  feet,  teeth,  skeleton,  &c.,  that  the 
variety  of  constitution  in  animal  life  is 
enormous.  But  we  have  entirely  left  out  the  consideration  of  birds, 
fishes,  and  numerous  other  forms  of  life.  Their  multiplicity  would 
seem  to  lead  to  endless  confusion.  But  e.xtcnsive  as  is  the  subject, 
its  details  can  easily  be  arranged  for  study. 

It  is  evident  that,  to  do  this  properly,  we  must  classify  our 
materials ;  that  is,  arrange  each  kind  of  animals  under  certain 
heads  or  particulars,  in  which  they  may  agree  among  themselves. 
The  following  five  Divisions  have  been  adopted  for  this  purpose  : — 
I.  The  Protozoa  (first-life)  includes  minute  creatures  constituted  of 
single  cells,  and  as  much  like  plants  as  animals.  II.  The  Radi.^TA 
(radiated  animals)  take  the  ne.xt  upward  step  in  life,  and  are  illustrated 
bytheStar-iish,  so  common  on  our  coasts.  III.  The  ArticuLATA  (so 
called  from  the  body  being  divided  into  separate  parts  or  segments, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Centipede,  all  insects,  &c.)  embraces  a  large 
variety  of  creatures.  The  next  higher  creatures  are  included  in,  TV., 
the  MOLLUSCA  (soft-bodied),  illustrated  by  the  Oyster,  Mussel,  &c. 
Lastly,  in  Division  V.,  we  arrive  at  the  highest  forms  of  life,  embrac- 
ing fishes,  birds,  the  lower  animals— but  crowned  by  Man  ;— all  being 
called  VertebRATA,  because  they  possess  a  bony,  or  equivalent 
kind  of  skeleton.  Because  the  animals  of  the  first  four  divisions 
possess  no  skeleton,  they  are  called  Invertebrata.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  we  have  arrived  at  classifications,  embracing,  in  one 
case,  all  animal  life,  but  resolvable  into  five  divisions,  each  present- 
ing numerous  differences  in  character. 

At  present  we  shall  restrict  our  remarks  only  to  the  Vertehratcd 
animals,  leaving  a  description  of  the  remaining  divisions  to  their 
proper  place  in  the  work.  For  convenience'  sake,  this  division  has 
been  reduced  to  five  classes  ;  namely— I.  The  Pisces,  or  fishes.  II. 
The  Batrachia,  or  Frogs,  &c.  III.  The  Reptilia,  or  reptiles, 
as  the  Serpents,  Lizards,  cVc.  IV.  The  AVES,  or  Birds.  V.  The 
Mammalia,  or  animals  that  suckle  their  young;  these  extcndmg 
from  the  Whale  to  the  human  mother. 

The  reader  will  be  perplexed  yet  from  noticing  the  variety  of 
creatures  included  in  these  classes.  We  are,  therefore,  compelled  to 
simplify  still  further,  by  dividing  these  classes  into  OrdI'  R.s  ;  and  for 
the  chief  Mammalia  twelve  are  used.  I.  embraces  the  Cetacea,  or 
Whale   tribe.     11.  The   P.\CHYDERM.\ta,  or  thick-skinned,  as  the 


'F  all    the   branches    of 
science,  none  equals  in 
interest  the   study   of 
Natural  History.     Its  ob- 
jects    surround   us ;    in- 
deed,   we    form   the    most 
important  part  of  them.    To  a 
portion  of    them    we    are  in- 
debted  for  sustenance.     Some  we  em- 
ploy to  labour  for  us  ;  and  others  minis- 
ter to  our  luxury,  comfort,  or  amusement. 
Taking   the  quadrupeds,   we   need   but 
refer  to  the  Horse,  and  other  domestic 
animals,     to     show     what     interesting 
a     full    knowledge    of     their    natural 
presents.      But    they    are    types    only 
of   a  very  large    circle,  distinguished   by  some 
peculiarity  either    of   form,  disposition,   use,  or 
other    quality  not  found     in    our   tamed    quad- 
rupeds.     The  forest    abounds,    in    this   and    in 
other     countries,     with    creatures      possessing 
habits,     &c.,     with   which    we      are     unfamiliar. 
In    fact,   air,  earth,  and  sea,    teem   with    objects 
that  make  the  study  of    the  science    as   fascinat- 
ing as  it  is  instructive,  and  thus  it  affords  an  un- 
limited field  for  the   intelligent  observer  of  nature. 
It  is   not  the   object  of  this  work  to  make  the 
reader    a  proficient  in  natural    history.      Its  purpose 
is  to  entice  to    the  study  rather  by  pleasing  descrip- 
tion   than  by   serious    teaching.       But,    at    the   same 
time,  it  is  proposed  to  use  so  much  science  as  to  give 
the  reader  the  "why  and  wherefore"   of  animal  life 
in  all  its  forms.     As  in  literature,   so  in   science,  we 
must  first  learn  our  alphabet. 

For  this  purpose,  the  natural  history  of  man  will 
be  first  considered  ;  not  only  because  human  nature 
stands  at  the  head  of  all  creatures,  but  because  our 
organs,  &c.,  present  the  highest  form  of  develop- 
ment, whether  in  regard  to  physical  structure  or  organic  characters. 
But  in  the  inferior  animals  these  differ  in  many  ways,  and  it  is  to 
these  differences  we  owe  the  formation  of  two  of  the  most  interesting 
branches  of  natural  history — namely.  Comparative  Anatomy  and 
Physiology. 

For  example,  wc  find  that  man  has  a  bony  skeleton,  muscles,  fat, 
lungs,  stomach,  teeth,  &c.  So  have  all  creatures  commonly  called 
animals.  But  all  these  differ  from  man  in  the  shape  of  the  skeleton, 
&c.     Thus  man  stands  upright  on  two  feet ;  while  quadrupeds  have 


Elephant,  &c.     III.  The  Solidungula  (hoofed),  as  the  Horse.     IV. 
The  Ruminantia,   or  cud-chewing  animals,  as  the  Ox.     V.  The 


Edentata  (without  teeth),as  the  Ant-eaters.  VI.  The  Rodentia,  or 
gnawers,  as  the  Hares.  VII.  The  Pennipedia  (fin-feeted),  as  the 
Seals.  VIII.  ThcCARNIvORA,  or  flesh-eaters,  as  the^Lion,<:v:c.  lA. 
The  Insectivora,  or  insect-eaters,  as  Moles.  X.  The  Chiro- 
PTERA,  or  hand-winged,  as  the  Bats.  XI.  Tl-.c  QUADRl'MANA  (four- 
handed),  as  the  Apes  ;  and,  last  and  highest,  of  which  man  is  the 
only  member— XII.  The  BiMANA,  or  two-handed.     _ 

The  reader  should  carefully  master  this  classification,  because  it  is 


VERTEBRAL   COLUMN  OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 


really  the  foundation  of  natural  history ;  and,  consequently,  the 
basis  of  this  work.  For  the  present  we  ^hall  take  no  notice  of  minor 
divisions  of  families,  genus,  species,  &:c.,  as  these  will  be  more 
conveniently  treated  hereafter,  but  at  once  proceed  to  examine  JMAN 
as  an  animal,  and  a  perfect  type  of  the  VERTEBRATA. 

In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  best  to  take  the  skeleton  of  man ;  that 
portion  which  extends  from  the  back  of  the  neck  to  the  foot,  leavmg 
the  skull  for  future  remarks.  In  Fig.  i  the  entire  skeleton  is  repre- 
sented ;  and  in  Fig.  2,  by  way  of  comparison,  that  of  the  Gorilla. 

The  vertebral  column  of  the  Mammalia  is  distinctly  divisible  into 
five  regions,  the  vertebra:  (or  joints  of  the  spine)  composing  which 


I. — The  Human  Skeleton. 


a. 

Frontal  Bone. 

i, 

Lumbar  VertebriE. 

s. 

Patella. 

K 

Parietal  Bone. 

/, 

Ilium. 

t. 

Tibia. 

<". 

Orbit. 

w. 

Ulna. 

Uj 

Fibula. 

d. 

Temporal  Bone. 

«, 

Radius. 

V, 

Tarsus. 

e. 

Lower  Jaw. 

0, 

Carpus. 

■w. 

Metatarsus. 

A 

Cei-vical  Vertebrae. 

A 

Metacarpus. 

X, 

Phalanges 

of 

K' 

Clavicle. 

<!' 

Phalans^es   of 

the 

the  Foot. 

h, 

Scapula. 

Hand. 

', 

Humerus. 

r. 

Femur. 

many  as  twenty.  The  ribs  are  movably  articulated  to  the  vertebrae  ; 
and,  at  the  opposite  extremity,  they  are  usually  connected  by  a  car- 
tilage with  the  sternum,  or  breast;  and  this  rarely  becomes  ossified, 
as  in  the  birds.  A  greater  or  less  number  of  the  hinder  ribs  are  not 
immediately  connected  with  the  sternum,  but  their  extremities  are 
attached  to  a  ligament  which  runs  from  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  sternum  to  the  last  rib.  These  are  ca.\\ed/a/se,  ox  floating  ribs. 
This  arrangement  gives  great  mobility  to  the  bony  case  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  ;  and  it  is  mainly  by  the  action  of  the  costal  muscles 
in  raising  and  depressing  the  ribs,  that  the  size  of  that  cavity  is 
altered  so  as  to  produce  the  alternate  inspiration  and  expiration  of 
air.  The  sternum  is  composed  of  several  bones  placed  one  behind 
the  other  in  the  centre  of  the  breast ;  these  are  distinct  in  many  of 
the  Mammalia,  but  in  others  they  are  formed  of  a  single  piece. 


are  distinguished  as  the  cervical,  dorsal,  hi>?ibar,  sacral,  and 
caudal  vertebrae. 

Of  these  five  regions,  the  only  one  in  which  the  number  of  vertebra; 
is  constant,  is  that  forming  the  neck ;  the  cervical  vertebras  are 
invariably  seven  in  number — in  the  long  slender  neck  of  the  Giraffe, 
as  in  the  short  thick  support  of  the  bulky  head  of  the  Elephant. 

The  dorsal  vertebrae  are  distinguished  from  the  cervical  by  the 
possession  of  spinous  processes  for  the  attachment  of  ligaments, 
which  are  of  very  large  size  in  the  species  with  long  necks  or  heavy 
heads ;  they  also  exhibit  surfaces  for  the  articulation  of  the  ribs. 
The  number  of  the  dorsal  vertebrse  and  ribs  is  very  variable  in 
animals,  some  species  having  only  eleven,  whilst  others  have  as 


Fig.  2. — Skeleton  of  the  Gorilla. 

The  lumbar  vertebra  differ  from  the  dorsal  in  their  much  greater 
strength,  and  in  the  absence  of  ribs,  which  are  here  replaced  oy 
very  long  transverse  processes.  They  are  also  variable  in  number. 
The  sacrum  is  usually  formed  of  three  or  four  vertebrse  ;  it  is  want- 
ing in  the  Cetacea.  This  is  followed  by  the  caudal  vertebras,  which 
vary  in  number  according  to  the  length  of  the  tail,  and  conse- 
quently to  a  greater  extent  than  those  of  any  other  region  of  the 
body.  The  number  of  vertebra  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  OS  coccygis — the  representative  of  the  tail  in  the  human  body — 
is  only  four  ;  whilst  some  of  the  long-tailed  Mammalia  have  upwards 
of  forty.  The  caudal  vertebrse  gradually  diminish  in  size  and  com- 
pleteness as  they  approach  the  end  of  the  tail,  where  they  usually 
consist  only  of  a  simple  cylindrical  body,  without  any  traces  of 
arches  or  processes. 

The  anterior  limb  is  attached  to  the  trunk  by  a  broad  shoulder- 
blade,  or  scapula,  which  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  ribs,  and  is 
usually  kept  in  its  position  by  a  clavicle,  that  springs  from  the 
anterior  extremity  of  the  sternum,  and  rests  with  its  upper  extremity 
against  a  process  of  the  free  end  of  the  scapula.  The  clavicle  is  want- 
ing in  many  Mammalia.  The  humerus  is  articulated  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  scapula  by  a  ball  and  socket  joint ;  and,  at  its  opposite  ex- 
tremity, bears  a  transverse  convex  articulating  surface  for  the  recep- 


ARMS,  LEGS,  AND  SKULL   OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 


tion  of  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  [radius  and  ulna),  with  which  it 
forms  a  sort  of  hinge-joint.  The  radius  and  ulna  are  distinct  and 
movable  in  man  and  some  other  animals,  and  separate  in  the  middle, 
and  anchylosed  at  the  extremities  in  others  ;  whilst,  in  the  hoofed 
animals  generally,  they  are  represented  by  a  single  cylindrical  bone. 
They  are  followed  by  a  variable  number  of  small  bones  (the  carpal 
bones),  forming  the  wrist-joint ;  and  these,  in  their  turn,  give  attach- 
ment to  the  jucfacarpa!  bones — the  five  parallel  bones  which  consti- 
tute the  palm  of  tlie  human  hand  ;  but  which,  in  the  other  members 
of  the  class,  are  gradually  reduced  until,  in  most  of  the  hoofed  quad- 
rupeds, they  arc  represented,  like  the  radius  and  ulna,  by  a  single 
cylindrical  bone.  These  are  followed  by  i\\e  phalanges,  or  bones  of 
the  fingers,  each  of  which  is  usually  composed  of  three  joints  ;  but 
the  number  of  fingers  varies  from  five  to  one. 

The  structure  of  the  posterior  extremities  is  perhaps  rather  more 
uniform  than  that  of  the  anterior  pair.  Their  supporting  arch  is  the 
pelvis  composed  of  three  bones  on  each  side — the  ilium,  the  ischium, 


Fig.  3.— Skeleton  of  the  Cobra  [Xj!Jd   tripidians). 

and  the  os  pubis.  The  ilia  are  firmly  attached  to  the  sacrum  ;  and 
the  space  between  them,  at  the  lower  or  anterior  part  of  the  pelvis, 
IS  occupied  by  the  two  ossa  pubis,  which  always  meet,  and  frequently 
unite  by  a  suture.  The  ischia  form  the  hinder  or  lower  part  of  each 
side  of  the  pelvis  ;  they  are  prominent  bones  upon  which  we  sit. 
IhQ  femur,  or  thigh-bone,  the  first  movable  bone  of  the  hind  limb 
IS  attached  to  the  pelvis  by  a  large  ball  and  socket  joint  ;  and  the 
ball  at  the  head  of  the  femur  is  always  set  at  a  greater  or  less  angle 
to  the  axis  of  the  bone.  This  is  especially  observable  in  the  human 
skeleton  (tig.  i)  The  tibia  and  fibula,  forming  the  shank,  are 
articulated  to  the  extremity  of  the  femur  by  a  joint  resembling  that 
at  the  elbow  in  the  fore  limb,  but  turned  in  the  contrary  direction  • 
and  m  front  of  the  joint  is  a  small  bone  called  \}a<t  patella,  or  knee- 
cap. Below  these  are  the  tarsal  bones,  corresponding  with  the 
carpals  m  the  anterior  extremity ;  and  these   are  followed  in  like 


manner  by  the  metatarsal  hones  and  phalanges.  The  tibia  and 
fibula,  and  the  metatarsal  bones,  exhibit  the  same  variety,  in  their 
number  and  arrangement,  as  the  radius  and  ulna,  and  tile  meta- 
carpal bones  in  the  fore  limb  ;  and  the  phalanges  in  both  pairs  of 
extremities  are  liable  to  the  same  modifications.  The  general 
structure  of  the  skeleton,  and  the  modifications  to  which  it  is  subject, 
will  be  readily  understood  by  a  comparison  of  the  cut  of  the  human 
skeleton  with  that  of  the  Gorilla.  The  chief  points  of  comparison 
between  these  skeletons  and  those  of  other  animals  will  be  sub- 
sequently pointed  out.  But,  meanwhile,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
all  the  deviations  of  form  or  construction  from  the  human  type,  are 
determined  by  the  habits  of  the  animal,  and  consequently  tliere'is  a 
direct  connection  between  the  muscular  development  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  skeleton.  For  example,  the  human  skeleton  is  so 
constructed  that  man  can  perform  operations  that  are  impossible  in 
animals  of  a  lower  class.  He  can  stand  upright  as  his  natural 
position,  while  even  in  the  Apes  that  is  all  but  impossible  as  a  habit, 
and  is  unnatural.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  make  Dogs  stand  up  to 
beg  ;  but  the  position  is  really  painful,  and  cannot  long  be  maintained. 
But  descending  still  lower,  say  to  the  Reptilia,  we  iind  the  skeleton 
eminently  adapted  to  the  habits  of  the  animal.  Take,  for  example 
the  peculiarities  of  the  Serpent.  In  part  it  crawls  on  the  ground,  but 
is  capable  of  climbing,  and  also  of  taking  a  variety  of  forms.  Hence 
its  skeleton  and  muscular  system  entirely  varies  from  all  four-footed 
animalSj  and  consists  of  an  immense  extension  of  the  vertebral 
column.  (See  Fig.  3.)  Between  the  two  skeletons — that  of  Man 
and  that  of  the  Serpent — there  are  constant  variations  in  the  skeleton 
form.  As  we  proceed,  various  skeletons  will  be  shown  that  will  still 
further  illustrate  what  has  been  stated. 

The  skull  of  man,  as  the  exterior  case  of  human  intelligence 
derived  from  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  presents  great  features 
of  interest.  Without  entering  into  any  discussion  of  the  value  of 
Phrenology  as  dealing  with  the  development  of  the  skull,  it  is  univer- 
sally admitted  that  the  head  of  man  is  indicative  of  his  intellectual 
character.  We  know  nothing  of  the  inside  of  that  head  (the  brain) 
during  life,  but  admit  great  force  in  the  external  manifestation  ;  and 
hence  the  term  "good"  and  "bad  head."  This  principle  is  still 
further  illustrated  when  we  compare  the  various  kinds  of  the  human 
skull  with  each  other,  as  the  European  with  the  savage,  and  the 

human  idiot  with  the  lower  ani- 

"      ~"  mals.      In   all    cases   where   a 

lower  class  of  intelligence  is  in- 
volved, it  will  be  found  that  the 
skull  recedes  gradually  from  an 
almost  vertical  line  in  front,  pro- 
gressively to  a  horizontal  one, 
and  consequently  the  appear- 
ance of  the  face  becomes  en- 
tirely changed. 

Take,  for  example,  a  striking 
instance  of  this  when  com- 
parison is  made  between  an 
intelligent  man  and  an  idiot. 
In  Fig.  4,  there  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  skull  of  a  man  of  the 
ordinary  type.  A  line  drawn 
from  the  chin-bone  to  the  fore- 
head would  almost  be  vertical 
in  the  case  of  the  normal  or 
healthy  skull,  as  shown  in 
.     ,.       ,„         ,       ,  .  ,     .  ^'ff-  4-     But  in  the  next  illus- 

tration (Fig.  5),  which  IS  that  of  a  human  idiot,  a  very  different 
result  IS  obtained.  The  forehead  recedes  at  a  large  angle  with  the 
vertical  line.     The  entire  conformation  of  the  skull  is  altered,  and 

within  certain  limits  the 
progress  of  the  idiotcy  be- 
comes more  manifest  if 
life  be  prolonged  suffici- 
ently to  allow  of  observa- 
tion. It  is  well  known,  in 
fact,  that  a  debasement  of 
the  skull  follows,  in  a  long 
life,  the  debasement  of 
the  moral  and  intellectual 
qualities  by  a  vicious  life. 
On  the  other  hand,  the 
form  of  the  skull,  and 
particularly  W^"  expres- 
sion of  the  face,  becomes 
ameliorated  in  persons 
whose  career  is  of  an  op- 
posite character. 

But  these  differences  of 
skull  formation — that  is,  of 
cranial  and  facial  develop- 
ment—become more  marked  when  we  extend  our  comparison  between 
varieties  of  man  and  the  lower  class  of  animals.     On  this  subject 


Fig.  4. — Human  Skull. 


Fig.  5.— Skull  of  Human  Idiot. 


SKULL  AND   TEETH  OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 


Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  in  no  class  of  vertebrate  animals  is 
the  progressive  superiority  of  the  cranium  over  the  face  marked  by- 
such  distinct  stages  as  in  the  Mammalia.  Various  methods  of  deter- 
mining these  proportions  have  been  proposed  ;  but  the  only  satis- 
factoty  one  is  by  comparing  vertical  sections  of  the  skull,  as  in 
the  series  figured  in  the  cuts  6 — ii. 

In  the  cold-blooded  ferocious  Crocodile  (Fig.  6),  the  cavity  for  the 
brain,  in  a  skull  three  feet  long,  will  scarcely  contain  a  man's  thumb. 
Almost  all  the  skull  is  made  up  of  the  instruments  for  gratifying  an 
insatiable  propensity  to  slay  and  devour ;  it  is  the  material  symbol 
of  the  lowest  animal  passion. 

In  the  bird  (Fig.  7),  the  brain-case  has  expanded  vertically  and 
laterally,  but  is  confined  to  the  back  part  of  the  skull.  In  the  small 
singing-birds,  with  shorter  beaks,  the  proportion  of  the  cranial  cavity 


ters,  is  enhanced  by  the  facility  with  which,  from  their  position,  they 
can  be  examined  in  living  or  recent  animals  ;  whilst  the  durability 
of  their  tissues  renders  them  not  less  available  to  the  palaeontologist 
in  the  determination  of  the  nature  and  affinities  of  extinct  species, 
of  whose  organisation  they  are  often  the  sole  remains  discoverable 
in  the  deposits  of  former  periods  of  the  earth's  history. 

The  teeth  are  of  three  kinds:  incisors,  or  cuiimg  teeth,  as  the 
fore-teeth  of  the  human  being;  canine,  as  our  "dog"  teeth,  used 
for  tearing  flesh  ;  and  the  molars,  or  double  teeth,  employed  for 
chewing  or  grinding  purposes.  All  these  are  present  in  man  ;  in 
the  lower  animals,  however,  some  are  absent,  increased,  or  modified, 
according  to  the  habits  peculiar  to  the  order.  Teeth  are  either  per- 
manent or  deciduous,  the  latter  being  such  as  are  shed  in  early  life, 
as  in  the  human  being  about  the  sixth  and  seventh  year.     The  fol- 


Fig.  7. — Albatross. 


Fig.  8.— Dog. 


Fig.  9. — Chimpanzee. 


Fig.  10. — Australian. 


Fig.  II. — European. 


becomes  much  greater.  In  the  Dog  (Fig.  8),  the  brain-case,  with 
more  capacity,  begins  to  advance  further  forward.  In  the  Chim- 
panzee (Fig.  9),  the  capacities  or  area  of  the  cranium  and  face  are 
about  equal.  In  man  the  cranial  area  vastly  surpasses  that  of  the 
face. 

A  difference  in  this  respect  is  noticeable  between  the  savage  (Fig. 
10)  and  civilised  (Fig.  11)  races  of  mankind  ;  but  it  is  immaterial  as 
compared  with  the  contrast  in  this  respect  presented  by  the  lowest 
form  of  the  human  head  (Fig.  10),  and  the  highest  of  the  brute 
species  (Fig.  9).  Such  as  it  is,  however,  the  more  contracted  cranium 
is  commonly  accompanied  by  more  produced  premaxillaries  and 
thicker  walls  of  the  cranial  cavity,  as  is  exemplified  in  the  Negro  or 
Papuan  skull. 

If  a  line  be  drawn  from  the  occipital  condyle  along  the  floor  of  the 
nostrils,  and  be  intersected  by  a  second  touching  the  most  prominent 
parts  of  the  forehead  and  upper  jaw,  the  intercepted  angle  gives,  in 
a  general  way,  the  proportions  of  the  cranial  cavity  and  the  grade  of 
intelligence  :  it  is  called  the  facial  angle.  In  the  Dog  this  angle  is 
20°  ;  in  the  great  Chimpanzee,  or  Gorilla,  it  is  40°,  but  the  prominent 
super-orbital  ridge  occasions  some  exaggeration  ;  in  the  Australian 
it  is  85°;  in  the  European  it  is  95°.  The  ancient  Greek  artists 
adopted,  in  their  beau  ideal  of  the  beautiful  and  intellectual,  an 
angle  of  100°.  1     r      •      1 

As  the  work  proceeds,  the  comparison  of  the  skull  of  animals, 
infer  se,  will  be  constantly  discussed  in  a  general  manner.  But  for 
our  purpose  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  minute  details  of  the 
various  skull-bones,  but  simply  to  note  such  portions  of  the  skeleton 
as  are  eminently  characteristic  ;  and  the  next  step,  therefore,  is  to 
deal  with  the  question  of  the  teeth,  for  reasons  already  given  at 
page  I,  ajite. 

in  reference  to  the  teeth,  Professor  Owen  remarks  that  they  pre- 
sent many  varieties  as  to  number,  size,  form,  structure,  position, 
and  mode  of  attachment,  but  are  principally  adapted  for  seizing, 
tearing,  dividing,  pounding,  or  grinding  the  food.  In  some  species 
they  are  modified  to  serve  as  "formidable  weapons  of  offence  and 
defence ;  in  others,  as  aids  in  locomotion,  means  of  anchorage, 
instruments  for  uprooting  or  cutting  down  trees,  or  for  transport  and 
•working  of  building  materials.  They  are  characteristic  of  age  and 
sex ;  and  in  man  they  have  secondary  relations  subservient  to  beauty 
and  to  speech.  1  ,    , ■ 

Teeth  are  always  intimately  related  to  the  food  and  habits  of  the 
animal,  and  are  therefore  highly  interesting  to  the  physiologist : 
they  form,  for  the  same  reason,  important  guides  to  the  naturalist  in 
the  classification  of  animals  ;  and  their  value,  as  zoological  charac- 


lowing  cut.  Fig.  12,  gives  an  illustration  of  the  human  teeth  and  jaw 
at  the  period  of  shedding  the  deciduous  teeth.  In  this,  the  letter  t 
indicates  the  incisors;  p,  the  premolars,  or  those  molar  teeth  placed 
in  the  front  of  the  jaw ;  ?n,  the  true  molar  or  grinding  teeth ;  and  the 
numbers  attached  indicate  the  relative  position  of  each  kind  of  teeth. 
The  letter  d  indicates  the  deciduous  teeth,  or  those  in  course  of 


Fig.  12. — Deciduous  and  Permanent  Teeth,  Human,  ^t.  6. 

being  shed,  and  the  gradual  growth  of  the  permanent  is  shown  as 
pushing  out  the  deciduous  beneath  them  ;  c  indicates  the  growth  of 
the  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw.  The  two  incisors  on 
each  side  {di)  are  followed  by  a  canine,  c,  and  this  by  three  molar 
teeth  like  those  of  a  grown-up  person.  The  last  of  the  three,  m,  is 
the  first  of  the  permanent  molars. 

A  careful  study  of  Fig.  12  will  show  how  dentition  progresses  in 
the  human  being.  But  the  position,  number,  &c.,  of  the  teeth  vary 
in  every  order  of  animals,  and  even  in  their  families,  species, 
&c.     It  is,  therefore,  desirable  that  some  means  should  be  adopted 


THE  LIMBS  OF  MAN  AND  THE  CAMEL  COMPARED. 


by  which  this  variation  can  be  quickly  stated  and  noticed.  For  this 
purpose  a  formula  has  been  invented,  by  which  the  number,  nature, 
and  position  of  the  teeth  in  all  animals  can  be  readily  shown.  Thus 
the  number,  &c.,  of  teeth,  as  in  the  case  of  man,  for  example,  and 
their  position,  are  indicated  as  follows  : — 

Upper  jaw    ...2—2  i  — i  2  —  2  3-3 

incisors ,  canine ,  premolars  ,  molars , 

Lower  jaw    ...2-2  i  — 1  2-2  2,-1 


makinjr,  in  all,  thirty-two  teeth, 
each  name  is  used  ;    thus  : — 


But,  more   briefly,  the   italic  of 


i-i 


1-2, 


To  save  space  in  the  description  of  the  tcetli  of  various  animals, 
this  formula  will  be  adopted  in  the  work.  Its  convenience  will  be 
evident  by  the  following-  cut.  Fig.  13,  which  is  introduced  for  another 
purpose,  namely,  that  of  showing,  by  way  of  comparison,  the  teeth 
of  one  of  the  lower  animals,  during  their  shedding,  with  those  of  the 
child,  illustrated  in  Fig.  12. 

Fig.  13,  part  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  young  hog,  illustrates  the 
phenomena  of  development  which  distinguishes  the  premolars  from 
the  molars.     The  first  premolar,  _^  i,  and  the  first  molar,  m  1,  are  in 


Fig.  13. — Deciduous  and  Permanent  Teeth  of  the  Hog. 

place  and  use,  together  with  the  three  deciduous  molars,  d2,  dj„ 
and  di,\  the  second  molar,  7n  2,  has  just  begun  to  cut  the  gum;  j>  2, 
/3,  and  ^4,  together  with  ^23,  are  more  or  less  incomplete,  and 
concealed  in  their  closed  alveoli. 

The  premolars  must  displace  deciduous  molars  in  order  to  rise 
into  place ;  the  molars  have  no  such  relations.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  last  deciduous  molar,  d i\,  has  the  same  relative  superiority 
of  size  to  c?3  and  dz,  which  m  t,  bears  to  ;«2  and  m  i  ;  and  the 
crowns  of  ^3  and  ^4  are  of  a  more  simple  form  than  those  of  the 
milk-teeth,  which  they  are  destined  to  succeed. 

The  germ  of  the  permanent  canine  has  not  yet  appeared  below 
the  deciduous  one,  c;  those  of  the  permanent  incisors,  z'l,  z2,  zj, 
are  seen  ready  to  push  out  the  deciduous  incisors,  di,  d2,  d  t,. 
When  the  whole  of  the  second  set  of  teeth  is  in  place,  its  nature  is 
indicated  by  the  formula  : — 


i-l 


I  T  ---J    m  3 3 


=  44: 


3-3'      i-i    "  4-4      i-i 

which  signifies  that  there  are,  on  each  side  of  both  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  three  incisors,  one  canine,  four  premolars,  and  three  molars  ; 
making,  in  all,  forty-four  teeth ;  each  distinguished  by  the  symbol 
marked  in  the  cut. 

So  far  as  the  skeleton  is  concerned  of  man,  as  typical  of  other  ani- 
mals, it  only  remains  to  notice  the  limbs — i.e.,  the  arms,  legs,  and 
their  appendages,  compared  with  those  of  the  Camel,  for  example,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  14. 

The  great  distinction  which  subsists  between  the  Bimana,  man, 
and  the  Qiiadruinana,  or  man-like  Ape  (also  called  Anthropoids), 
has  already  been  pointed  out.  It  need  scarcely  be  stated,  that  all 
the  operations  of  locomotion,  holding,  seizing,  &c.,  &c.,  depend  on 
the  conformation  of  the  limbs  ;  hence  the  variations  of  form,  &c., 
become  characteristic  in  the  animal.  The  prehensile  powers  of 
man  lay  in  the  hand ;  those  of  the  Ape  tribe  are  similarly  placed. 
But  in  the  majority  of  quadrupeds,  the  fore-feet,  if  furnished  with 
paws,  answer  this  purpose.  To  this,  however,  there  is  an  exception, 
as  in  the  Elephant,  whose  trunk  answers  for  prehensile  purposes. 

In  man  (see  Fig.  i,  p.  2,  aiite),  the  anterior  limb  (the  arm)  is 
attached  to  the  trunk  by  a  broad  shoulder-blade  or  scapula  {o.  Fig. 
14),  which  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  ribs,  and  is  usually  kept  in 
its  position  by  a  clavicle,  which  springs  from  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  sternum,  and  rests  with  its  upper  extremity  against  a  process  of 
the  free  end  of  the  scapula.  The  clavicle  is  wanting  in  many  Mam- 
malia. In  the  Ornithorhyiichus,  the  two  clavicles  are  united  to  a 
central  piece,  forming  a  single  T-shaped  bone,  which  reminds  one 
of  the  furcula  of  a  bird,  and  in  this  animal  also  the  coracoid  bone  is 
fully  developed,  and  assists  in  the  formation  of  the  scapular  arch, 
whilst  in  the  rest  of  the  class  it  is  reduced  to  a  very  small  size,  and 
amalgamated  with  the  scapula.     The  humerus  [h,  Fig.  14)  is  articu- 


lated to  the  lower  part  of  the  scapula  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  and 
at  its  opposite  extremity  bears  a  transverse  convex  articulating  sur- 
face for  the  reception  of  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  {radius  and  ulna, 
cu.  Fig.  14),  with  which  it  forms  a  sort  of  hingc-joint.  The  radius 
and  ulna  are  distinct  and  movable  in  man  and  some  other  animals, 
and  separate  in  the  middle  and  anchylosed  (made  solid)  at  the  ex- 
tremities in  others;  whilst,  in  the  hoofed  animals  generally,  they  arc 
represented  by  a  single  cylindrical  bone.  T'hey  are  followed  by  a 
variable  number  of  small  bones  (the  carpal  bones,  ca,  Fig.  14),  form- 
ing the  wrist  joint,  and  these  in  their  turn  give  attachment  to  the 
metacarpal  bones,  [inc,  Fig.  14),  the  five  par.allel  bones  which  con- 
stitute the  palm  of  the  human  hand,  but  which  in  the  other  members 
of  the  class  are  gradually  reduced  until,  in  most  of  the  hoofed  quad- 
rupeds, they  are  represented  like  the  radius  and  ulna,  by  a  single 
cylindrical  bone.  These  are  followed  by  the  phalanges  {ph.  Fig. 
14),  or  bones  of  the  fingers,  each  of  which  is  usually  composed  of 
three  joints,  but  the  number  of  fingers  varies  from  five  to  one. 

The  structure  of  the  posterior  extremities  (the  legs)  is  perhaps 
rather  more  uniform  than  that  of  the  anterior  pair.  Their  supporting 
arch  is  1\\& pelvis,  composed  of  three  bones  on  each  side — the  ilium, 
ischium,  and  the  as  pubis.  The  ilia  are  firmly  attached  to  the 
sacrum  ;  and  the  space  between  them,  at  the  lower  or  anterior  part 
of  the  pelvis,  is  occupied  by  the  two  ossa  pubis,  which  always  meet 
and  frequently  unite  by  a  suture.  The  ischia  form  the  hinder  or 
lower  part  of  each  side  of  the  pelvis  ;  they  are  the  prominent  bones 
upon  which  we  sit.  The  /e?nur  (/e.  Fig.  14),  or  thigh-bone,  the 
first  movable  bone  of  the  hind  limb,  is  attached  to  the  pelvis  by  a 
large  ball-and-socket  joint,  and  the  ball  at  the  head  of  the  femur  is 
always  set  at  a  greater  or  less  angle  to  the  axis  of  the  bone.  This 
is  especially  observable  in  the  human  skeleton.  The  tibia  {ti.  Fig. 
14)  a.nAfibula,  forming  the  shank,  are  articulated  to  the  extremity  of 
the  femur  by  a  joint  resembling  that  at  the  elbow  in  the  fore  limb, 
but  turned  in  the  contrary  direction  ;  and  in  front  of  the  joint  is  a 
small  bone  called  the  patella  {ro.  Fig.  14),  or  knee-cap.  Below 
these  are  the  tarsal  boties  {ta,  Fig.  14),  corresponding  with  the  car- 
pals  in  the  anterior  extremity,  and  these  are  followed  in  like  manner 
by  the  metatarsal  bones  imt.  Fig.  14)  a.T\(X phalanges.  The  tibia  and 
fibula,  and  the  metatarsal  Dones,  exhibit  the  same  variety  in  their 
number  and  arrangement  as  the  radius  and  ulna,  and  the  metacarpal 
bones  in  the  fore  limb  ;  and  the  phalanges  in  both  pairs  of  extremi- 
ties are  liable  to  the  same  modifications.  The  general  structure  of 
the  skeleton,  and  the  modifications  to  which  it  is  subject,  will  thus 
be  readily  understood  by  a  comparison  of  the  cut  of  the  human  skele- 
ton at  page  2,  ante,  where  the  whole  of  the  above  parts  of  the  limbs 
are  illustrated,  with  that  of  the  camel,  given  below. 


Fig.  14— Skeleton  and  Form  of  the  Camel. 

vc,  cervical  vertebrae ;  vd,  dorsal  vertebra: ;  vl,  lumbar  vertebras ;  vs,  sacral 
vertebra  ;  vq,  caudal  vertebrie ;  c,  ribs  ;  0,  scapula  ;  h,  humerus  ;  cu,  arm- 
bone  ;  ca,  carpus  ;  mc,  metacarpus  ;  //;,  phalanges ;  /c,  femur ;  ro,  patella ; 
/(',  tibia ;  ta,  tarsus ;  tnl,  metatarsus. 

THE  MUSCULAR  AND  NERVOUS  SYSTEMS. 

The  bony  structure  of  man  and  the  inferior  animals  having  been 
described,  it  remains  to  inquire  by  what  means  motion  is  given  to 
the  bones  in  the  operations  of  life.  Motion  in  the  animal  is  due  to 
its  volition  or  power  of  will,  acting  on  the  nervous  and  muscular 
textures,  animation  being  conveyed  from  the  living  principle  by 
means  of  the  nerves  to  the  muscle  or  fleshy  portion  of  the  animal,— 
as,  for  example,  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  legs. 

First,  the  Muscular  Texture  may  be  considered.  Two  kinds  of 
muscular  fibre  arc  known  in  the  animal  kingdom  ;  and  these,  in  the 


MUSCLES,  NERVES,  SKIN,  AND  HAIR  OF  ANIMALS. 


higher  animals,  are  well  distinguished  from  each  other.  One  of 
these  occurs  in  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  is  named,  from  con- 
spicuous cross  markings,  the  striped  muscular  fibre  ;  the  other, 
lound  in  the  alimcntar>-  canal,  the  womb,  and  the  bladder,  being 
destitute  of  such  cross  markings,  is  termed  the  unstriped.  In  the 
heart  and  the  gullet  both  kinds  are  met  with.  The  elementary 
striped  muscular  fibres  are 
arranged  in  sets  parallel  to 
each  other  (see  Fig.  15);  the 
unstriped  muscular  fibres,  on 
the  contrary,  cross  each  other 
at  various  angles,  and  inter- 
lace, being  arranged  like  mem- 
branous organs  enclosing  a 
cavity,  which,  by  their  con- 
striction, is  contracted. 

The  striped  fibres  are  usually  ^'S-  'S 
as  long,  or  nearly  as  long,  as 
the  muscle  in  which  they  exist. 
They  vary  in  diameter  from 
one-sixtieth  to  one-fifteen-hun- 
dredth of  an  inch  ;  they  are  of 
the  greatest  breadth  in  crus- 
taceous  animals,  fishes,  and  reptiles,  and  of  least  breadth  in  birds. 
Their  average  width  in  the  human  body  is  one-fourteen-hundredth 
of  an  inch.  They  are  not  cylindrical,  but  more  or  less  flattened. 
This  primitive  fibre  consists  of  a  great  number  of  primitive  particles, 
or  sarcous  elements,  enclosed  in  a  tubular  organ,  termed  sarco- 
lemma.  The  ordinary  diameter  of  the  unstriped  fibre  is  from  the  one- 
two-thousandth  to  one-three-thousandth  part  of  an  inch.  Now 
motion  is  produced  by  the  power  of  contractility  of  the  muscular  fibre, 
or  its  being  capable  of  being  shortened,  and  being  equally  capable 
of  resuming  its  former  state  suddenly.  The  stimulants  which  call 
the  contractility  of  the  fibre  into  action  may  be  mechanical,  as  by  a 
blow,  the  prick  of  a  pin,  &c.  ;  chemical,  as  by  an  acid,  say  on  the 
tongue;  electrical,  as  by  a  shock  from  a  voltaic  battery,  &c. ;  and 
last,  physical,  by  the  will  of  the  animal. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  illustrated  as  follows  : — AVhen  a  mus- 
cular fibre,  the  opposite  extremities  of  which  are  attached  to  adja- 
cent points  of  two  bgnes  (see  Fig.   16),   is  made  to  shorten  itself 


-Conlr.iction  of  Striped  Muscle. 
-Philos.  Trans.,  1840. 

Fragment  of  elementary  fibre  of  an  Eel 
partially  contracted  in  water — magni- 

.  fied  300  diameters,  a,  uncontracted 
part ;  b,  the  contracted  part. 


Fig.  16. — Bones  of  Arm,  holding  weight. 

forcibly  by  the  application  of  a  stimulus,  the  more  movable  point  is 
drawn  nearer  to  the  more  fixed  point ;  and  this  is  the  great  law  on 
which  locomotion  by  muscular  fibres  depends.  Thus  the  fore-arm  is 
bent  upon  the  arm  by  a  muscle,  b,  which  arises  from  the  top  of  the 
latter,  and  which  is  inserted  at  e,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  elbow- 
joint.  A  very  slight  contraction  will  raise  the  hand,  but  a  consider- 
able increase  of  power  is  required  to  overcome  a  resisting  force. 

From  the  head  to  the  foot,  animals  are  furnished  with  numerous 
muscles,  each  performing  their  separate  functions.  For  example, 
the  muscles  of  the  eye  move  the  eye,  the  eyelids,  <S:c.  ;  by  means  of 
the  muscles  the  different  expressions  of  the  human  face  are  pro- 
duced in  all  their  variety,  from  pleasure  to  pain,  kindness  to  hatred. 
The  motion  of  the  neck,  body,  arms,  legs,  fingers,  and  toes,  all 
depend  on  the  muscles  adapted  for  that  purpose,  and  attached  for 
support  to  the  skeleton.  Similarly,  the  heart,  stomach,  &c.,  depend 
on  their  muscles  for  the  exercise  of  their  individual  functions.  So 
long  as  any  of  these  muscles  remains  in  its  normal  or  healthy  con- 
dition, the  function  of  that  portion  of  the  body  progresses  in  healthy 
action.  But  if  the  muscle  be  affected,  so  as  to  lose  its  power,  then 
the  animal  immediately  suffers  ;  hence  the  cause  of  paralysis,  St. 
Vitus's  dance,  spasms,  and  other  diseases. 

The  muscular  flesh  constitutes  the  chief  portion  of  the  animal 
frame.  In  the  higher  animals,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  muscles  are 
attached  to  the  skeleton,  or  are  what  are  called  skeleton-muscles.  As 
already  stated,  the  muscles  form  the  flesh  of  the  animal,  and 
according  to  its  development,  some  portions  of  the  animal  greatly 
enlarge.  Instances  of  this  are  seen  in  the  arm  of  the  blacksmith, 
and  in  the  legs  of  the  lower  animals  noted  for  their  great  strength. 

It  is  to  the  Nervous  Texture  the  muscles  owe  bemg  set  into 
motion.  The  nerves  act  like  the  conducting  wires  of  a  voUaic  battery, 


transmitting  from  the  brain  the  power  that  sets  the  muscles  in 
action,  and  again  conveying  to  the  brain  the  intelligence  that  some 
portion  of  the  body  has  been  affected  externally,  as  in  tlie  case  of 
injury  to  a  limb.  By  the  nerves,  therefore,  a  constant  system  of  con- 
nection is  kept  up  between  mind  and  matter — the  intelligence  of  the 
brain  being  converted  into  motion,  or,  vice  vcrsd,  motion  acting  by 
the  nerves  on  the  intelligence  or  consciousness  of  the  animal.  To 
simplify  this,  we  may  compare  the  brain  to  a  central  telegraph  station, 
whence  wires  (nerves)  extend  in  every  direction,  conveying  to  or 
receiving  messages  from  it.  But  this  will  be  more  fully  entered  into 
when  the  brain  is  described. 

The  Nervous  Texture  exhibits  two  forms,  the  vesicular  and  the 
fibrous.  The  vesicular  nervous  matter  is  gray  or  cinder-like  in 
colour,  and  granular  in  texture  ;  it  contains  nucleated  nerve-vesicles 
or  cells.  The  fibrous  nervous  matter  is  white  and  tubular  ;  in  some 
parts,  however,  it  is  gray,  and  its  fibres  are  solid.  When  both  these 
kinds  of  nervous  matter  are  united  into  a  variable-shaped  body,  that 
body  is  termed  a  nervous  centre ;  and  the  threads  of  fibrous  matter 
which  pass  to  and  from  it,  are  termed  nerves.  The  office  of  the 
latter  is  called  "  internuncial ;"  that  is,  they  establish  a  communica- 
tion between  the  several  parts  of  the  body  and  the  nervous  centre, 
and  between  the  nervous  centre  and  the  several  parts  of  the  body,  as 
already  e.xplained. 

INTEGUMENTS  OF  THE  BODY. 

We  have  hitherto  considered  the  body  as  a  mere  combination  of 
mechanical  forms,  destitute  of  vitality,  motion,  &c.  Before  proceed- 
ing to  describe  the  various  internal  organs  and  their  functions,  as 
respiration,  digestion,  &c.,  a  few  words  must  be  said  in  reference  to 
the  skin,  hair,  blood,  &c. ,  of  the  Mammalia. 

The  skin  in  the  Mammalia,  as  in  the  other  vertebrate  animals, 
consists  of  a  cutis,  or  true  skin,  and  of  a  horny  cuticte,  or  epidermis. 
\  The  former  is  often  of  great  thickness,  but  the  cuticle  is  a  thin 
layer  composed  of  horny  cells,  which  are  continually  renewed  from 
the  materials  forming  the  subjacent  layer,  commonly  known  as  the 
7-cte  ?nucosum,  in  which  are  deposited  the  proper  colouring  matters 
of  the  skin,  as  in  the  case  of  negroes  especially.  In  some  parts  of 
the  body,  however,  especially  where  delicate  organs  are  to  be  pro- 
tected from  pressure,  the  cuticle  becomes  greatly  thickened ; 
instances  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  callosities  which  make  such  a 
disagreeable  figure  on  the  buttocks  of  many  Monke3's,  and  the  balls 
of  the  feet  of  many  quadrupeds.  In  many  cases,  also,  the  cuticle 
becomes  converted  into  distinct  scales,  as,  for  example,  on  the  tails 
of  Rats  and  Mice. 

The  ordinary  clothing  of  the  skin  consists  of  hairs,  which  are 
small  horny  cylinders,  produced  from  pulps  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
small  capsules  in  the  skin.  These  capsules  consist  of  small  indenta- 
tions of  the  cutis,  which  are  lined  with  cuticle,  and  the  pulps  are 
abundantly  supplied  with  vessels  which  bring  the  nourishment 
required  for  the  growth  of  the  hair.  The  interior  of  the  cylinder  is 
usually  occupied  by  a  coloured  oily  matter,  and  its  external  surface, 
although  frequently  smooth,  is  often  formed  apparently  of  distinct 
scales.  The  differences  of  thickness  and  texture  in  these  organs  is 
very  great,  so  much  so  that  different  names  are  given  to  the  leading 
varieties,  even  in  common  language — such  as  iL'Ool,  true  hairs,  and 
bristles.  What  is  called  fur,  consists  of  the  two  former  kinds  of 
hair — wool  and  true  hair — the  soft  woolly  hair  forming  a  warm  inner 
coat,  whilst  the  longer  true  hairs,  upon  which  the  beauty  of  the  fur 
depends,  serve  to  protect  the  inner  layer  from  the  weather.  The 
hair  in  some  animals  continues  constantly  growing,  but  in  others  it 
is  shed  from  time  to  time,  and  replaced  by  a  fresh  coat. 

Besides  the  ordinary  forms  of  hairs,  we  meet  with  many  dermal 
(skin)  appendages  in  the  Mammalia,  which,  although  apparently  very 
different,  are  really  of  the  same  nature.  Amongst  these  are  the 
quills  of  the  Porcupine,  and  the  prickles  of  the  Hedgehog,  which, 
notwithstanding  their  much  greater  thickness,  are  produced  in  the 
same  way  as  ordinary  hairs,  of  which,  in  fact,  they  appear  to  be  an 
agglomeration.  A  still  more  remarkable  form  is  seen  in  the  scales 
of  the  Manis,  which  are  found  to  be  composed  of  parallel  horny 
tubes  exactly  analogous  to  hairs.  Besides  these,  the  claws,  nails, 
and  hoofs  of  the  Mammalia,  the  horn  on  the  nose  of  the  Rhinoceros 
and  the  horns  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants  (such  as  the  Ox  and 
Sheep)  are  all  composed  of  a  substance,  the  structure  of  which  shows 
its  origin  to  be  analogous  to  that  of  hair. 

Besides  the  capsules  of  the  hairs,  the  skin  in  the  Mammalia  con- 
tains an  immense  number  of  minute  glandular  organs,  some  ot 
which  are  instrumental  in  producing  the  constant  evaporation  of 
moisture  from  the  skin,  which  we  call  j)erspiratio)i  ;  whilst  others, 
known  as  sebaceous  follicles,  secrete  a  fatty  matter,  which  lubricates 
the  skin,  and  keeps  it  soft  and  flexible.  Of  the  latter,  many  dis- 
charge themselves  by  ducts  into  the  capsules  at  the  base  of  the 
hairs,  the  surface  of  which  is  thus  slightly  greased.  Glands  of  a 
similar  nature,  but  larger  size,  inserted  in  the  skin  of  particular  parts 
of  many  animals,  produce  peculiar  secretions  of  an  odoriferous 
nature,  and  it  is  to  this  that  some  species  are  indebted  ior  the  dis- 
agreeable smell  which  they  emit  when  alarmed. 


THE  BL  O  OD—BL  O  OD-  CORP  USCLES—FA  T. 


Having-  thus  disposed  of  the  most  important  objects  relating  to 
the  meclianism  of  the  Mammalia,  the  vital  orj^^ans,  &c.,  require  con- 
sideration. 

BLOOD  AND  FAT. 

But  it  will  be  first  necessary  to  consider  the  Blood,  which  has 
justly  been  termed  the  "  life  "  of  man,  for  it  is  only  so  long  that  the 
blood  circulates  in  the  body  that  its  vitality  continues. 

The  microscope  has  aided  us  greatly  in  understanding  the  nature 
of  the  blood,  by  enabling  us  to  study  what  are  called  the  blood- 
globules.  The  blood  is  really  water  containing  a  portion  of  solid 
organic  matter :  in  human  blood  this  amounts  to  about  5  per 
cent.  The  heaviest  part  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  blood  consists  of 
what  are  called  "  red  corpuscles."  In  every  1,000  parts  of  blood  in 
the  human  body,  there  are — 

Female. 

791 

127 

70-5 

2-2 

7-4 

I'62 

The  red  corpuscles  (little  bodies  or  globules)  constitute  about  14 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  human  blood.  When  a  drop  of 
this  is  placed  under  the  microscope,  nothing  but  an  opaque,  dark-red 


Male. 

Water       

•••     779 

Red  particles 

...     141 

Albumen 

...      69-4 

Fibrine     

2-2 

Various  matters  and  free  salts 

68 

Fatty  matters 

1-6 

db 


•h 


Fig.  17. — Red  Corpuscles 
from  human  blood,  mag- 
nified 400  diameters. 

a,  viewed  on  the  surface  ;  e, 
in  profile  ;  d,  aggregation 
of  corpuscles  in  a  roll. 


Fig.  18. — Red  Corpuscles  of 
tlie  Ox,  magnified  400 
diameters. 

a,  in  their  natural  state ;  l>, 
altered  by  a  menstruum  of 
higher  density. 


(2) 


(D 


Fig.  ig. — Red  Corpuscles 
of  the  Pigeon,  magnified 
400  diameters. 

n,  unaltered,  with  two  or 
three  colourless  parti- 
cles ;  /',  treated  witli  ace- 
tic acid,  which  more 
clearly  develops  the  cell- 
wall  and  nucleus. 


mass  is  seen.  But  when  it  is  diluted  with  a  weak  solution  of  salt  or 
of  sugar,  each  corpuscle  is  seen  detached  from  the  rest.  The  fluid 
used  to  dilute  the  drop  of  blood  must  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of 
the  same  specific  gravity  as  the  serum  of 
the  blood ;  if  plain  water  be  employed,  the 
red  corpuscles  swell  and  burst.  Each  cor- 
puscle is  round  and  flat,  like  a  piece  of 
money ;  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  each 
corpuscle  has  the  form  of  a  double  concave 
lens,  the  margin  being  thick  and  rounded, 
and  the  centre  considerably  thinner :  their 
size  in  the  human  body  varies  from  the 
three-thousandth  to  the  four-thousandth 
part  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  mammals 
generally,  the  blood-corpuscles  are  similar 
in  figure  to  those  in  man  ;  but  there  is  a 
considerable  variety  of  size  in  different 
tribes  of  these  animals.  They  are  small 
in  ruminants ;  in  the  Napu  Musk-deer, 
being  no  more  than  the  twelve-thousandth 
part  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  the  Camel 
tribe,  instead  of  being  round,  they  are  oval,  as  they  are  in  birds, 
reptiles,  and  fishes.  In  reptiles  the  blood-corpuscles  attain  a 
large  size. 

In  the  Frog  (see  Fig.  22),  the  red  corpuscles  consist  of  a  delicate 
membrane  forming  a  cell,  within  which  is  a 
granular  nucleus.  The  nucleus  (central  point) 
is  globular,  and  much  smaller  than  the  cell ; 
and  the  space  between  the  inner  surface  of 
the  cell  and  the  outer  surface  of  the  nucleus 
is  filled  by  fluid,  holding  the  colouring  matter 
in  solution.  The  nucleus  cannot  be  detected 
in  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  human  body,  but 
analogy  suggests  that  its  structure  must  be  of 
the  same  general  character  as  in  the  animals, 
in  which  these  corpuscles  are  of  larger  size. 

A  question  has  arisen,  whether  what  have  been  termed  the  colour- 
less corpuscles  of  the  blood  be  a  distinct  set  of  bodies,  or  merely  the 
red  corpuscles  in  a  less  developed  state.  The  colourless  corpuscles 
are  spherical  bodies,  destitute  of  colour;  they  are  cells  composed  of 
a  very  delicate  membrane,  and  the  cells  are  nucleated.  The 
addition  of  weak  acetic  acid  renders  the  cell-membrane,  the  nucleus, 
and  the  nucleolus  more  distinct,  by  dissolving  some  granules  (little 
grains)  contained  within  the  cells.  The  colourless  corpuscles  slightly 


Fig.    so. —  Red    Cor- 
puscle in  Fishes. 

(7,  lamprey ;  /',  skate. 


exceed  the  size  of  the  red  corpuscles  in  mammals,  but  not  in  the 
other  vcrtcbrata.  They  are  thought  to  be  essentially  the  same  as 
the  nucleated  particles  found  in  lymph,  and  in  the  chyle.  They  are 
fewer  in  number  than  the  coloured  corpuscles,  being,  it  is  said,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  to  fifty.     In  inflammatory  states  of  the  blood 


Fig.  21. — Red  Corpuscles 
of  the  Crab. 

a,  three   granule  cells ;   ^, 
three  nucleated  cells. 


Fig.  22. — Blood-Corpuscles  of  the 
Frog,  magnified  400  diameters. 

a,  in  serum  fully  developed ;  i, 
treated  with  acetic  acid ;  c,  colour- 
less corpuscle. 


Fig. 


(O) 


23.  —  Phases    of   the    Human 
Blood-Corpuscles. 

a  and  i,  granule  cells  in  the  coarsely 
and  finely  granulated  slate  ;  c  and 
tf,  nucleated  cells ;  c,  without  colour, 
and  t/,  with  colour ;  e,  free  cellse- 
form  nucleus,  a  perfect  red  cor- 
puscle. 


they  become  more  abundant ;  and  after  g^reat  loss  of  blood,  the  pro- 
portion of  these  colourless  corpuscles  is  greatly  increased.  Without 
entering  upon  the  difiicult  question — what  is  the  relation  between 

these  colourless  corpuscles  and 
the  red  corpuscles  ? — it  will  be 
sufficient  to  say,  in  the  meantime, 
that  the  weight  of  authority  is  in 
favour  of  these  two  kinds  of  cor- 
puscles being  identical  in  species  ; 
that  is,  merely  different  stages  of 
one  organism. 

It  is  unnecessary  for  our  purpose 
to  enter  into  the  chemical  cha- 
racter of  the  blood  beyond  the 
analysis  that  has  been  just  given, 
except  by  stating  that  the  a/iu- 
7)1671  there  mentioned  is  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  an  unboiled 
fowl's  t%^.  The/ibrinc,  or  fibre,  is 
that  part  of  the  blood  which  gets  solid  or  coagulates  after  the  liquid 
has  been  drawn  from  an  animal.  It  forms  the  clot.  The  scrum  of 
the  blood,  which  is  the  albumen,  will,  if  it  be  heated  to  160°  Fah., 
coagulate  like  the  white  of  an  egg.  Hence  the  difference  in  appear- 
ance between  the  raw  and  cooked  flesh  of  an  animal. 

The  Fat  is  a  substance  pervading  most  of  the  body.  It  serves  the 
purpose  of  rounding  the  prominent  portions  of  the  body,  improving 
their  appearance,  or  producing  plumpness  ;  it  protects,  like  a  buffer, 
many  parts  of  the  muscular  surface  ;  and  has  other  objects  and  uses 
afterwards  to  be  alluded  to.  Fat  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
adipose  tissue.  The  tissue  is  the  thin 
membrane,  thrown  into  closed  vesicles,  or 
cells  ;  the  fat  is  what  these  vesicles,  or 
cells,  contain.  The  tissue,  or  membrane, 
is  about  the  one-twentieth-thousandth 
part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  is  quite 
transparent ;  it  is  of  the  simplest  struc- 
ture, and  incapable  of  further  mechanical 
analysis.  Each  vesicle  is  a  distinct  organ 
in  itself,  varying  from  one-three-hundredth 
to  one-eight-hundredth  part  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  (See  Fig.  24.)  The  fat  itself  is 
a  form  of  oil,  resolvable  into  stearine, 
oleine,  and  margarine.  Fat  is  extensively 
diffused  throughout  the  animal  kingdom. 
It  exists  not  only  in  perfect  insects,  but 
also  in  the  lar\'a;.  It  is  found  in  molluscs. 
In  all  the  tribes  of  vertebrated  animals  it  is  met  with.  In  many 
fishes  it  is  found  only  in  the  liver — as  the  Cod,  the  Whiting,  the 
Haddock,  and  the  Rays.  In  reptiles  it  exists  chiefly  in  the  abdo- 
men. In  the  Frog,  Toad,  &c.,  it  is  found  in  long  bands  on  each 
side  of  the  spine.  In  birds  it  exists  chiefly  between  the  peritoneum 
and  the  abdominal  muscles  :  also,  however,  in  the  bones  of  the  ex- 
tremities, particularly  of  the  swimming  tribes.  In  mammals  gene- 
rally it  abounds,  yet  with  some  exceptions  ;  for  example,  the  Hare, 
in  which  sometimes  hardly  a  particle  of  fat  is  discoverable. 

THE  VITAL  ORGANS  AND  FUNCTIONS. 

The  description  of  man,  and  of  him  as  a  type  of  the  Mammalia, 
we  have  hitherto  restricted  to  the  mere  mechanical  arrangements  of 
the  body.  It  will  now  be  necessary  to  show  how  these  act  in  pro- 
ducing and  maintaining  the  life  of  an  animal ;  or,  in  other  words,  to 


Fig.  24. — Fat  Vesicles. 


8 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD-THE  HEART  AND  LUNGS. 


inquire  into  tlie  nature  and  action  of  the  various  internal  organs  and 
their  functions. 

Generally,  the  functions  common  to  all  animals  maybe  stated  as — 
Tst.  The  circulation  of  the  blood;  2nd.  Respiration;  3rd.  Diges- 
tion and  Absorption  ;  4th.  Secretion  and  Excretion  ;  5th.  Repro- 
duction. But  beyond  these  are  other  functions  of  relation — namely, 
Locomotion,  Sensation,  Thought,  and  Voice. 

We  shall  consider  first  'C!\&  circulation  of  the  blood,  a.s  it  takes 
place  in  the  human  body,  because  its  principles  are  typical  of  the 
circulation  in  all  warm-blooded  animals.  The  anne-\ed  diagrams  of 
the  circulatory  apparatus  of  man,  after  Carpenter,  will  enable  us 
better  to  understand  subseauent  details. 


Fig.  25. — Lungs,  Heart,  ar.J  principal 
Vessels  in  Man. 


Fig.  26. — Idcnl  Section  of  the 
Heart. 


The  letters  in  this  cut  agree  with  those       «.  >'ght  auricle  ;  b,  right  ventricle ; 
used  for  description  in.  the  annexed  f,  left  ventricle  ;  </,  aorta;  <■,  vena 

one.  cava  ;  /,  carotid  arteries ;  ^,  jugu- 

lar veins  ;  h,  subclavian  artery  ; 
i,  subclavian  veins ;  I;  trachea ; 
/,  lungs ;  m,  left  auricle ;  «,  pul- 
monary veins  ;  0,  pulmonary  arte- 
ries ;  p,  superior  and  inferior  venjE 
cavK ;  q,  tricuspid  valve ;  r,  mi- 
tral valve  ;  s,  partition. 

The  heart,  situated  between  the  lungs,  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  is 
somewhat  conical.  (See  Fig.  25.)  The  lower  end  is  quite  unattached, 
and  points  towards  the  left ;  during  contraction  it  is  tilted  forwards, 
striking  the  chest  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs,  and  causing  the 
"  beat  of  the  heart ;"  while  the  great  vessels,  rising  from  the  upper 
and  large  extremity,  being  attached  to  neighbouring  parts,  seem  to 
suspend  the  organ,  and  to  allow  its  movements  freely  to  take  place. 
The  heart  in  man  is  a  hollow  muscle  (see  Fig.  26),  divided  into  four 
cavities,  two  on  either  side — the  upper  of  which  is  termed  the  auricle, 
the  lower  the  ventricle — the  walls  of  the  latter  having,  by  their  con- 
traction, to  propel  the  blood  through  a  system  of  vessels,  being 
thicker  than  those  of  the  auricles,  which  have  only  to  receive  the 
blood  from  the  veins,  and  transmit  it  to  the  ventricles.  The  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  then,  is  that  process  by  which  the  fluid,  setting  out 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  is  distributed  by  the  arteries  to 
every  part  of  the  body,  from  whence  it  passes  into  the  veins,  is 
received  from  them  into  the  vena  cava,  whence  it  returns  to  the 
heart,  enterirjg  the  right  auricle,  and  passing  into  the  ventricle  on 
the  same  side,  which  propels  it  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  to  be  dis- 
tributed through  the  lungs  for  purification.  Thence  it  passes,  by  the 
pulmonary  veins,  into  the  left  auricle,  which  transmits  it  again  to 
the  left  ventricle,  to  repeat  the  course  we  have  described. 

For  the  present  the  circulation  of  blood  in  fishes,  the  reptiles, 
insects,  &c.,  must  be  deferred  until  those  animals  be  described.  In 
the  first  two  great  divisions  of  vertebrate  animals,  mammals  and 
birds,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  with  a  few  unimportant  peculi- 
arities, is  performed  on  one  plan.  Of  this  plan,  the  most  character- 
istic feature  is,  that  the  particular  circulation  through  the  lungs 
stands  on  the  same  footing  as  the  general  circulation  over  the  rest 
of  the  body.  It  follows,  from  this  condition,  that  no  blood-corpuscle 
can  circulate  over  the  body  more  than  once  without  having  previously 
circulated  through  the  lungs.  The  circulation,  as  it  takes  place  in 
mammals  and  birds,  is  conveniently  methodised  under  the  two 
heads  of  the  circulation  of  the  dark-coloured  blood,  and  the  circula- 
tion of  the  red-coloured  blood.  The  dark-coloured  blood  is  properly 
described  as  appearing  first  in  the  venous  capillaries,  at  every 
vascular  point  throughout  the  body.  The  organs,  then,  or  cavities 
in  which  the  dark  blood  is  contained  and  moves.,  stated  in  their 
proper  order  of  succession,  are  the  venous  capillaries  over  the  body, 
ramifications  of  the  veins,  the  venous  trunks,  the  right  cavities  of 
the  heart — namely,  the  right  auricle  and  the  right  ventricle,  the 
pulmonary  artery — the  branches  of  that  vessel,  and  the  correspond- 
ing capillaries.    (See  Fig.  27.)    In  like  manner,  the  red-coloured 


Fig.  27. — Plan  of  Double  or  Warm- 
blooded Circulation — afler  Roget. 

A,  aorta ;  B,  system  of  arteries  ;  C, 
vena  cava ;  D,  right  auricle  ;  E, 
right  ventricle ;  F,  pulmonary 
artery ;  H,  lungs ;  I,  pulmonary 
veins ;  K,  left  auricle ;  L,  left 
ventricle. 


blood  is  properly  described  as  appearing  first  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
pulmonary  veins  ;  and  the  organs  or  cavities  in  which  the  red-coloured 
blood  is  contained  and  moves,  stated  in  their  proper  order,  are  the 
capillaries  of  the  pulmonary  veins,  the  ramifications  of  the  pulmonary 

veins,  the  trunks  of  the  pulmo- 
nary veins,  the  left  cavities  of  the 
heart— namely,  the  left  auricle 
and  the  left  ventricle — the  aorta, 
or  great  trunk  of  the  arterial  sys- 
tem, the  branches  of  the  aorta, 
and  the  arterial  capillaries.  These 
two  separate  systems  communi- 
cate, on  the  one  hand,  where  the 
capillaries  of  the  veins  of  the  body 
join  with  the  capillaries  of  the 
aortic  system  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  where  the  capillaries  of  the 
pulmonary  veins  join  with  the  ca- 
pillaries of  the  pulmonary  artery. 
The  right  and  left  sides  of  the 
heart,  though  in  juxta-position, 
are  wholly  distinct  organs,  and 
each  heart  is  placed  in  the  middle 
of  its  own  system  ;  the  right  being 
situated  in  the  middle,  between 
the  veins  of  the  body  and  the  pul- 
monary artery,  and  the  left  heart 
between  the  system  of  the  pulmo- 
nary veins  and  the  system  of  the 
aorta. 

The  forces  by  which  the  blood 
is  moved  in  the  circulation  are 
chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  mechani- 
cal— the  only  force  of  much  efficiency  being  the  contraction  of  the 
cavities  of  the  heart  by  a  muscular  effort,  as  the  blood  successively 
enters  each  ;  while  valves  are  so  placed  as  to  permit  its  movement 
onwards,  except  in  the  proper  direction  only. 

RespiratioJt. — The  act  of  breathing  in  animals  is  the  chief  external 
appearance  of  life,  simply  because  respiration  is  absolutely  essential 
to  vitality.  Stop  the  process,  and  the  whole  system  becomes 
paralysed  :  as  in  cases  of  drowning,  but  a  few  minutes  elapse  between 
this  stoppage  and  death,  as  regards  the  Mammalia.  But  in  the  case 
of  fishes,  a  residence  in  water  is  essential  to  life,  they  drawing  the 
air  from  the  liquid  by  means  of  gills,  while  we  draw  it  from  the 
atmosphere  that  surrounds  us  by  means  of  lungs. 

The  great  office  of  the  lungs  is  to  purify  the  blood  by  a  slow  burn- 
ing of  the  carbon  obtained  from  the  food.  In  fact,  the  lungs  of  the 
Mammalia  are  a  furnace,  in  which  combustion  goes  on  in  precisely 
the  same  manner  as  in  an  ordinary  fire-place,  the  carbon,  in  the  latter 
case,  being  got  from  the  coals.  And,  for  precisely  the  same  reason, 
the  lungs  afford  heat  to  the  body  when  they  burn  the  carbon  of  the 
food.  When  we  treat  on  Digestion  this  will  be  more  fully  explained. 
But,  for  the  present,  it  may  be  stated,  that  all  our  solid  food,  such 
as  bread,  meat,  &c.,  contains  carbon, 
with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  form 
of  charcoal,  coke,  &c.  The  carbon  in 
the  food,  after  being  changed  in  form, 
is  conveyed  by  vessels  to  the  lungs,  and 
then  coming  into  contact  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere,  becomes  converted 
into  carbonic  acid  gas — a  gas  seen  when 
a  bottle  of  soda  water  is  opened  as  rush- 
ing forth  in  bubbles.  This  gas  passes 
off  through  the  mouth  into  the  air,  just 
as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace  passes  away 
by  the  chimney.  There  exists  a  beauti- 
ful provision  in  nature  ;  for  while  this  gas 
is  a  deadly  poison  to  animals,  it  is  the 
food  of  plants,  which,  decomposing  it, 
absorb  the  carbon  and  set  free  the 
oxygen.  Thus,  what  the  animal  poisons, 
the  plant  purifies  ;  and.  in  a  certain  mea- 
sure, the  balance  of  the  healthy  con- 
dition of  the  atmosphere  is  maintained 
by  tlie  vitality  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. Nearly  three-fourths  of  a  tree,  in 
weight,  are  gathered  from  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  mechanism  of  respiration  m 
mammals  is  not  difficult  to  understand. 
(See  Fig.  28.)  The  lung  is  an  extensible 
elastic  air-bag,  enclosed  in  the  cavity  of 
the  chest.  In  that  cavity  the  lung  hangs 
nearly  free — that  is,  the  surface  of  the 
lung  is,  with  slight  exception,  simply  in  contact  with  the  inner 
wall  of  the  chest,  without  adhering  to  that  wall  The  lung  alone 
communicates  with  the  external  atmosphere,  there  being  no  pas- 


Fig.  28. — Air-tubes  and  Lung 
of  a  Man. 

b,  trachea  or  windpipe,  open- 
ing at  the  back  of  the  mouth 
by  the  larynx,  a;  c,  dis- 
sected air-passages  or  bron- 
chial tubes ;  d,  lung  in  its 
natural  state. 


THE  DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS  OF  ANIMALS. 


sage  by  which  air  can  penetrate  into  the  cavity  of  the  chest — 
that  is  to  say,  by  which  it  can  insinuate  itself  between  the  outer 
surface  of  the  luns^  or  air-bag,  and  the  inner  surface  of  the 
wall  of  the  chest.  The  walls  of  the  chest  close  in  above  around  the 
windpipe  {b,  Fig.  28),  which  is  of  narrow  diameter,  ascending  from 
the  lung  to  reach  the  mouth.  By  the  windpipe  the  air  freely 
enters  every  part  of  the  healthy  lung.  The  lung  (d),  or  bag  of 
air,  of  necessity  fills  the  actual  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  applies  its 
outer  surface  close  to  the  lining  membrane  of  the  cavity  ;  because, 
were  any  part  of  the  lung  to  collapse,  or  withdraw  itself  from  the 
wall,  a  vacuum  would  be  produced  ;  but  such  a  vacuum  is  impossible 
so  long  as  the  lung  is  everywhere  freely  extensible,  and  the  air  has 
free  access,  through  the  air-tubes  (c)  connected  with  the  windpipe, 
to  every  part  of  the  lung.  The  lung  itself  is  passive,  or  nearly 
passive,  in  respiration.  The  chest  is  capable  of  alternate  expansion 
and  contraction.  This  alternation  of  change  on  the  capacity  of  the 
chest  is  produced  by  muscular  contraction,  assisted  in  expiration  by 
the  elasticity  of  certain  parts.  The  expansion  of  the  chest  is  wholly 
a  muscular  act,  and  its  contraction,  when  moderate,  is  altogether 
dependent  on  the  physical  properties  of  its  walls.  When  the  chest 
expands,  the  lung  or  air-bag  closely  follows,  being  dilated  in  exact 
proportion  as  the  chest  expands.  When  the  chest  contracts  its 
cavity,  the  lung  or  air-bag  being  compressed,  still  exactly  fills  the 
chest,  while  the  superfluous  air  is  thrown  out.  When  the  chest 
expands  very  slowly,  the  air  may  enter  as  fast  as  the  lung  dilates, 
and  then  no  appreciable  rarefaction  can  take  place  on  the  air 
throughout  the  air-cells.  When  the  chest  expands  rapidly,  the  air 
cannot  enter  by  the  windpipe  fast  enough  to  keep  pace  with  the 
dilatation  of  the  lung.  But  this  difficulty  is  overcome  by  the  universal 
tendency  of  air  to  dilate  when  previous  pressure  is  diminished. 

The  respiration  of  birds  is  more  rapid  than  that  of  mammals, 
and,  consequently,  for  the  chemical  reasons  assigned,  in  respect  to 
the  combustion  of  food,  the  temperature  of  their  bodies  is  higher, 
being  over  100°  Fah.,  while  that  of  the  human  body  is  about  90°.  A 
peculiarity  in  the  respiration  of  birds  is,  that  the  inspired  air  pene- 
trates to  almost  every  region  of  the  body,  and  particularly  into  the 
abdominal  (belly)  cells,  which  freely  communicate  with  the  wind- 
pipe. The  whole  trunk,  in  fact,  is  one  great  respiring  cavity.  In 
reptiles  respiration  is  much  less  active  ;  consequently,  they  are  what 
is  termed  "cold-blooded."  As  already  stated,  fishes  breathe  by 
gills,  as  also  do  a  few  reptiles,  and  the  larger  portion  of  the  lower 
forms  of  animals,  such  as  the  Molluscs,  Lobsters,  and  other  Crus- 
tacea, &c. 

Digestion. — The  bodies  of  all  animals  require  a  constant  repair 
of  their  parts  by  taking  sustenance,  in  some  form  or  another,  ob- 
tained from  the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdoms,  or  from  both.  As 
already  stated  (see  page  i. 
ante),  the  dentition  of  man  is 
such  that  he  can  use  any  kind  of 
food.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
animals,  as  the  Carnivora,  live 
solely  on  flesh  ;  while  the  Rumi- 
nants and  many  others  are  ex- 
clusively vegetarians.  Each  has 
a  stomach  more  or  less  modified 
from  the  type  presented  by  man, 
in  whom,  of  course,  this  organ 
is  most  highly  elaborated. 

It  is  evident  that  the  process  of 
digestion  is  intimately  connected 
with  respiration  and  circulation  ; 
and  the  following  remarks  must 
be  read  in  connection  with  what 
has  already  been  stated  in  refer- 
ence to  those  functions.  The 
stomach,  in  fact,  is  the  blood- 
producer ;  the  lungs  are  the 
blood-purifiers  :  and  the  heart, 
veins,  and  arteries  are  the  blood- 
distributors  throughout  the 
body. 

The  stomach  in  man,  and  all 
the  Mammalia,  is  placed  beneath 
the  heart  and  lungs,  and  occupies 
a  prominent  position  in  front  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  skeleton 
(forming  the  belly),  being  sup- 
ported at  the  back  by  the  lower 
spine,  and  occupying  most  of  the 
space  between  the  false  ribs  and 
the  pelvis.  Freedom  of  action 
is  essential  to  it,  both  on  account 
of  its  distension  and  contraction 
through  food  or  hunger,  and  also 

on    account   of  its    peculiar  constitution   and   muscular 
ment. 

Fig.  29  affords  an  illustration  of  the  digestive 


Fig.  29.- 


Digestive  Apparatus  of  Man. 


a,  oesophagus ;  b,  pancreas ;  c,  sto- 
mach ;  d,  spleen  ;  e,  colon  ;  f,  small 
intestines  ;  g,  rectum  ;  h,  anus ;  :, 
appendix  of  ccecum  ;  k,  c?ccum  ;  /, 
large  intestines  ;  m,  gall-bladder  and 
ducts ;  K,  liver ;  0,  pylorus  and 
stomach. 


Fig.  30. — Cliyle  Vessels. 


arrange- 
organs  of  man. 


each   part  being   denoted  by   the   description    given   beneath   the 
cut. 

If  we  follow  the  food,  in   one  of  the  higher  animals,  from  the 
mouth  to  its  incorporation  with  the  previously  existing  tissues  of  the 

body,  the  waste  of  which  it  is  its 
oflBce  to  supply,  we  shall  discover 
what  arc  the  functions  of  mainte- 
nance, of  nutrition,  of  assimilation, 
and  the  functions  of  organic  life. 

The  food — let  it  be  a  piece  of 
meat  or  bread— is  reduced  to  a 
pulp  by  the  movements  of  the 
teeth,  and  the  admixture  of  the 
saliva,  secreted  by  the  salivary 
glands  ;  it  is  then  swallowed  by 
a  somewhat  complex  muscular 
action.  It  is  moved  about  in  the 
stomach,  c,  by  the  contraction  of 
its  muscular  fibres;  and,  being 
mixed  with  the  gastric  juice,  a 
peculiar  fluid  secreted  by  the  lin- 
ing membrane  of  the  stomach,  it 
passes  into  chyme  :  this  chyme  is 
then,  in  successive  portions,  trans- 
mitted, by  muscular  contmction, 
into  the  highest  part  of  the  intesti- 
nal tube,  termed  the  duodenum, 
a,  thoracic  duct  receiving  lacteal  which  is  a  kind  of  second  stomach, 
tubes  from  ^,  the  intestine ;  r,  aorta,     where    the    partially    assimilated 

food  is  first  mixed  with   the   bile 
(produced  from   the  liver,  71),  and  then  with  the  secretion  derived 
from   the   sweetbread,    or  pancreas,   b.      The   mass   is   now   ready 
to   afford  chyle,  the   immediate  nourishment  of  the  blood,  to   the 
absorbent  vessels,  termed  lacteals,  the  extremities  (the  lower  end  of 
a)  of  which  abut  on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  higher  parts  of  the 
intestinal  tube,  while   the  residue  is  sent  downwards   by  what  is 
termed  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  tube, 
for  evacuation.     The  chyle,  taken  up  on  a 
very  wonderful  plan  by  the  lacteal  tubes 
(see    Figs.   30   and    31),    is    transmitted 
through  the  singular  small  organs  termed 
the  mesenteric  glands,  whence,  after  im- 
portant changes,  it  is  again  collected  by 
what   are   named  the  efferent  lacteal   tubes ; 
these  by  degrees  unite  together  into  a  trunk, 
which    joins    the    lymphatic    vessels    coming 
from    the   pelvis   and   the  lower   parts   of  the 
body,  to  form  the  thoracic  duct,  a,  commencing 
in  the  abdomen,  dividing  opposite  the  middle 
of  the    dorsal    vertebrae    into   two   branches, 
which  soon  reunite,  passing  behind  the  arch 
of  the   aorta,   c,  and   subclavian   artery,   and 
making  its  turn  at  b,  where  it  receives  several 
lymphatic  trunks,  terminates  at  the  point  of 
junction  of  the  internal  jugular  and  subclavian 
veins  on  the  left  side  of  the   neck,   and  into 
which  it  pours  its  contents.    The  chyle,  being 
thus  mixed  with  the  venous  blood,  is  carried 
with  it  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart;  and,  by 
the  motion  of  the  heart,  is  thoroughly  mingled 
with  that  blood  ;    from  the    right  side  of  the 
heart,  the  blood,  reinforced  by  the  ch\'le,    is 
transmitted  to  the  lungs,  where,  by  exposure 
to  the  air,  the  venous  blood  is  converted  into 
arterial  ;   the  arterial  blood,  so  rendered  fit  for 
the  nutrition  of  the  body,  being  sent  forth  from 
tlie  left  side  of  the  heart,  is  conve)'ed  by  the 
aorta,    c,    the   great    arterial    trunk,    and   its 
branches,  to  the  capillary  blood-vessels,  which 
pervade   all   the  sensible   parts   of  the   body. 
From  these  capillary  blood-vessels,  the  several 
component  textures  of  the  living  frame  attract 
the  new  matter,  of  which  they  stand  in  need ; 
while   that   which  is   already  reduced   to   the 
state  of  debris,  re-enters  the  blood  of  the  ca- 
pillary system,  and  returns  with  the  blood,  now 
become  venous,  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 
The  blood,  having  become  impure  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  the  debris  of  the  tissues,  and  from 
other  causes,  is  purified  partly  by  the  lungs, 
by  which  a  superfluity  of  carbon  is  thrown  off, 
while,  by  the   slow   combustion  which   it   sustains,  animal   heat  is 
developed  ;   and  partly  by  the  kidney,  of  which  last  organ  the  par- 
ticular office  plainly   is  to  keep  the   blood   free   from    the   various 
chemical  products,  generated  during  the  successive  decompositions, 
which  the  texture  and  their  first  debris  undergo. 

It  will  be  evident,  from  the  foregoing  description,  that  the  ofQce  of 


Fig.  31. — The  Course 
and  Termination  of 
the  Thoracic  Duct. 

c,  the  aorta ;  d,  the 
superior  cava  ;  c,  the 
greater  vena  azygos, 
in  which,  in  some 
mammals,  the  duct 
terminates. 


10 


THE  SENSES  OF  ANIMALS— SIGHT. 


the  stomach  is  that  of  assimilating  or  convcrtinsr  the  food,  so  that 
from  the  crude  form  in  which  it  is  received  by  the  mouth,  it  may,  by 
a  series  of  successive  stages,  be  changed  into  chyle,  its  state  exist- 
ing previously  to  its  conversion  into  blood.  (See  anfc,  page  g.)  The 
time  occupied  in  the  digestion  of  food  varies  according  to  its  quan- 
tity, quality,  &c:'  As  regards  man,  from  three  to  four  hours  are 
required  to  effect  full  digestion  of  a  good  meal,  including  flesh, 
vegetables,  &c._  Among  the  Carnivora,  who  partake  of  an  enormous 
meal  "at  one  sitting,"  a  period  of  several  hours  elapses  before  the 
sense  of  hunger  returns,  the  interval  being  spent  in  sleep.  In  some 
animals,  the  inter\'al  between  feeding  and  successive  hunger  is  one  of 
days,  accompanied  usually  by  a  state  of  torpidity  in  the  animals,  as 
with  serpents. 

It  has  already  been  noticed  that  great  differences  exist  in  regard 
to  the  digestive  organs  in  animals  as  compared  with  man,  owing  to 
various  causes,  but  especially  for  adapting  them  to  the  digestion  of 
the  food  most  preferred  by  the  animal.  The  variety  is  too  great  to 
be  here  even  epitomised  ;  but  in  the  course  of  this  work  many  of  these 
peculiarities  will.be  pointed  out. 

The  Secretions  and  Excretions,  while  subjects  of  interest  to  the 
man  of  science,  the  anatomist,  and  physiologist,  need  only  be  treated 
here  to  elucidate  many  important  differences  ;  and  the  same  remarks 
apply  to  the  Repi-oductivc  organs.  Thus  the  whole  of  the  Mammalia 
are  divided  into  two  sub-classes.  Sub-class  I.  embraces  those 
animals  which  never  form  an  internal  connection  with  the  mother 
before  birth,  she  not  having  a  j>lacenta.  Hence  these  are  called 
Aplacentaria.  This  sub-class  contains  two  orders  (see  page  i), 
viz. — ist.  The  Monofrcmafa,  in  which  the  intestinal  canal,  the 
generative  and  urinary  organs  all  open  into  a  common  channel  or 
cloaca.  2nd.  The  Marsiipialia,  or  pouched  animals,  as  the  Kan- 
garoos, whose  general  structure  resembles  the  quadruped.  In  them 
the  urinary  and  generative  organs  have  a  common  orifice,  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  anal  opening,  and  the  females  have  a  pouch  external 
to  the  belly,  in  which  they  carry  their  young.  The  whole  of  the  re- 
maining orders  of  the  Mammalia,  as  mentioned  at  page  i,  belong  to 
the  Placenfaria,  the  mother  having  the  young  attached  to  the 
uterus  by  3. placenta  during  gestation,  and  that  from  a  period  of  a 
few  weeks  to  many  months,  as  in  the  case  of  the  human  female.  All 
unnecessary  reference  to  the  various  liquids,  &c.,  of  the  body,  their 
chemical  constitution,  and  a  variety  of  other  matters,  which,  although 
important    in    themselves,    could    not    be   of  «  6 

value  to  the  reader  of  this  work,  have  been, 
for  simplicity's  sake,  omitted.  .^iLm^/ 

THE  ORGANS  OF  INTELLIGENCE. 

In  the  preceding  sections,  the  purely  ani'ma/, 
or,  as  they  are  sometimes  termed,  the  vegetable 
organs  and  functions  have  been  treated. '  It 
remains  to  consider  what  are  called  the  "  func- 
tions of  relation  ;  "  that  is,  such  as  enable  us 
to  form  part  of  the  family  of  man  and  animals  : 
our  remarks  hitherto  having  been  solely  in  re- 
gard to  the  individual.  Under  the  present 
head,  the  brain,  the  organs  of  the  senses, 
voice,  &c.,  have  to  be  considered. 

The  Brain  first  requires  notice.  It  is  uni- 
versally admitted  that  it  is  the  seat  of  life  and 
intelligence  in  all  animals  ;  and  this  idea  is  at 
once  justified  by  the  fact,  that  if  the  brain  be 
injured,  the  entire  character  of  the  animal  is 
changed,  so  far  as  its  external  relations  are 
concerned ;  the  spine  and  the  whole  nervous 
systems  are  affected,  and  consequently  the 
muscular  and  bony  parts  show  an  abnormal 
state.  The  effects  of  apople.xy,  paralysis,  &c., 
are  illustrations  of  this  fact. 

The  size,  weight,  and  conformation  of  the 
brain,  in  relation  to  the  skull,  are  again  cha- 
racteristics of  the  intellectual  condition  of  the 
animal.  In  man,  all  these  conditions  attain 
to  the  highest  scale ;  and  the  brain  has  a 
great  preponderance  over  the  remainder  of 
the  nervous  system.  By  referring  to  page  4, 
ante  [V'lgs.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  and  11),  some  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  great  variation  which 
occurs  in  the  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  skull, 
from  man  downward,  especially  in  the  cere- 
brum or  true  brain,  which  is  universally  re- 
garded as  the  organ  of  the  mind.  In  man  this 
obtains  a  high  development,  as  is  ordinarily 
noticed  in  the  forehead  of  eminently  intellectual 
persons.  In  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life  the 
brain  is  small,  as  in  the  fishes.  In  many  cases 
its  bulk  is  made  up  principally  of  parts,  solely  used  for  exciting 
special  organs  of  sense,  as  the  eye  in  fishes,  and  the  car  in  many 
-animals. 


Fig.  32. — Ccrebro-spi- 
nal  Axis  of  Man. 

a,  cerebnim ;  b,  an- 
terior lobe  !  c,  mid- 
dle lobe ;  d,  posterior 
lobe;  c,  cerebellum  ; 
/',  medulla  oblon- 
gata ;ff,  spinal  cord. 


In  Fig.  32  is  a  representation  of  the  brain  and  spinal  axis  of  man, 
showing  the  connection  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system  with  the 
skeleton.  At  a  is  the  cerebrum,  which  is  situated  behind  the  fore- 
head, and  constitutes  the  true  brain.  It  v,ill  be  noticed  that  the 
brain  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
from  a  to  e,  the  cerehellum,  or  back  portion  of  the  head  ;  b,  c,  and  d 
are  lobes  or  masses,  which  exist  on  either  side  of  the  brain,  being  re- 
peated or  duplicate  ;  from  e  by/',  the  medulla  oblongata,  a  nervous 
branch  extends  to  the  extremity  of  the  spine,  forming  the  spinal 
cord,  which  is  the  organ  of  numerous  other  nervous  branches  di- 
verging right  and  left,  as  shown  in  the  engraving. 

The  convolutions  of  the  brain  are  illustrated  in  the  following  cut. 


F'g-  33-— The  Brain  of  Man. 

As  in  all  other  organs,  those  of  Sight  are  in  the  greatest  perfection 
in  man.  In  the  lower  animals  the  form  of  the  eye  is  modified  ac- 
cording to  their  circumstances,  as  in  the  case  of  nocturnal  animals, 
insects,  &c.  In  Fig.  34,  a  representation  of  the  exterior,  and  in 
Fig.  35,  a  section  of  the  interior,  of  the  human  eye  are  given. 
_  We  commence  with  that  part  which  forms  the  external  visual  por- 
tion of  the  eye,  termed  the  cornea.     This  is  a  transparent  horny  sub- 


Fig-  35- 


The  Eye  and  its  Stiiicture. 


a,  the  comea,  containing  the  aqueous  humour  ;  1^,  the  pupil ;  c,  the  ciystalline 
lens  ;  e  f,  the  iris  ;  g,  chamber  of  the  vitreous  humour  ;  //,  the  optic  nerve  ; 
i  i,  the  sclerotica  ;  k  k,  the  choroides  ;  /  /,  the  retina. 

stance,  and  encloses  what  is  called  the  aqueous  or  watery  humour. 
It  forms  the  first  lens  in  the  eye,  and  refracts  rays  of  light  incident 
on  its  surface.  Referring  to  Fig.  34,  it  will  be  found  as  marked  a 
therein.  On  the  other  side  of  the  cornea,  the  pupil  b  is  next  observed, 
which  is  an  aperture  through  which  light  passes  into  the  eye  from 
the  cornea.  A  most  admirable  contrivance  exists  in  front  of  the 
pupil — called  the  iris,  e/.  This  is  a  movable  diaphragm,  which  lets 
in  or  closes  out  light  from  the  eye  ;  and  which,  by  its  contraction  or 
expansion,  regulates  the  amount  of  incident  rays  in  their  passage  to 
the  retina.  The  student  may  easily  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  object 
of  the  iris,  by  observing  the  eye  of  the  domestic  cat  during  dusk  and 
in  full  sunshine.  When  but  a  dim  light  exists,  the  iris  will  be  ex- 
panded, and  the  pupil  will  appear  large.  In  full  daylight,  however, 
the  iris  is  contracted,  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  presents  only  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  narrow  slit — almost,  in  fact,  shutting  out  light  from  the 
inner  portion  of  the  eye. 

Beyond  the  pupil,  b,  is  the  crystalline  lens,  c,  which  lias  a  double 
convex  form.  This  lens  is  filled  with  a  fluid  of  mixed  chemical  cha- 
racter, and  of  higher  refractive  power  than  that  found  in  the  cornea. 
The  centre,  g,  of  the  eye  forms  a  cell  of  a  nearly  circular  form,  filled 
with  what  has  been  termed  the  vitreous  humour. 

At  the  back  of  the  eye,  facing  the  crystalline  lens,  is  the  retina,  so 
called  from  its  net-like  construction,  This  is  at  //  in  Fig.  35.  It  is 
on  this  membrane  that  the  images  of  objects,  whose  rays  pass 
through  a,  b,  c,  are  depicted.  It,  in  fact,  forms  a  kind  of  screen,  very 
similar  in  its  use  to  the  ordinary  screen  employed  in  the  exhibition  ot" 
dissolving  views,  (S:c. 


THE  SENSES  OF  ANIMALS— SIGHT  AND  HEARING. 


Surrounding,  and  next  to  the  retina,  is  the  choroid  membrane,  k  k, 
which  has  a  blaclc  colour,  whose  office  is  to  absorb  the  rays  of  h.^-ht 
after  they  have  passed  on  to  the  retina.  An  external  coat,  the 
sclerotica,  encloses  this,  and  will  be  observed  at  i  i.  This  extends 
to  the  cornea,  and  forms  what  is  called  the  "  white  of  the  eye." 

At  the  back  of  the  ball  of  the  eye,  is  a  projection  extending  from 
it.  This  is  called  the  optic  nerve,  h,  and,  by  its  action,  the  image 
painted  on  the  retina  becomes  perceived  by  the  mind.  In  fact,  it 
forms  the  connecting  link  between  mind  and  matter,  and  is  the 
channel  of  nervous  sensation  between  the  eye  and  the  brain. 

The  reader  will  thus  perceive  that  there  are  three  different  cells, 
each  filled  with  fluids.  'These  differ  in  their  refractive  power  ;  the 
index  of  that  of  the  cornea,  a,  being  1.337;  that  of  the  crystalline 
lens,  c,  1.384  ;  and  of  the  vitreous  or  centre  of  the  ball,  g,  1.339- 


Fig.  36. 

In  Fig.  36,  retaining  the  same  letters  as  those  we  employed  in 
describing  the  eye  in  Fig.  35,  we  observe  the  rays  of  an  object,  o,  pro- 
ceeding to  the  cornea,  a,  and  passing  to  the  crystalline  lens,  c.  Hero 
they  undergo  refraction,  just  as  they  would  if  passing  througli  a 
double  convex  lens  made  of  glass  ;  and  eventually  we  find  that  an 
image  is  painted  on  the  retina,  as  seen  at  /  /. 

It  will  loe  noticed  that  the  image  painted  on  the  retina  is  inverted, 
and  we  naturally  inquire  how  it  is  that  we  see  all  objects  in  an 
apparently  vertical  position  ?  The  answer  hitherto  given  to  this 
question  is  at  least  unsatisfactory.  It  is  generally  stated,  that  the 
distinctions  between  top  and  bottom,  and  such  expressions,  are 
merely  the  results  of  habitual  experience ;  or,  in  other  terms,  we 
express  ourselves  in  such  a  manner  as  accords  with  the  impression 
of  our  minds.  "  Seeing  properly,"  therefore,  becomes  a  mere 
question  of  education,  just  as  the  sense  of  touch,  &c.,  may  be 
similarly  explained.  This,  however,  is  a  subject  on  which  it  is  use- 
less to  spend  space  and  time  in  discussing,  and  any  attempt  at  ana- 
logical illustration  would  by  no  means  clear  away  the  difficulty  of  the 
question. 

One  of  the  most  astonishing  capabilities  of  the  eye,  is  its  power  of 
adapting  itself  to  view  objects  at  different  distances.  It  is  evident 
that  some  change  must  take  place  in  the  shape  of  the  lens  of  the  eye, 
when  rays  of  greatly  different  positions  as  to  distance  pass  through 
it.  The  mode  of  action  may  be  twofold.  The  crystalline  lens  may 
be  enabled  to  alter  its  shape,  and  therefore  its  convexity,  of  its  own 
accord,  or  the  entire  ball  of  the  eye  may  perform  the  same  operation 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  surrounding  it.  Each  view  has 
had  its  advocates  and  its  opponents.  It  has  been  properly  remarked, 
that  the  crystalline  lens  has  no  muscular  structure  sufficient  for  the 
purpose  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
surrounding  the  eyeball  would,  if  exerted  sufficiently,  tend  to  dis- 
organise the  whole  structure  of  the  organ.  This  subject  is  one  of 
great  difficulty,  and  not  to  be  easily  decided. 

The  eyes  of  insects  present  some  curious  characteristics,  as  illus- 
trated in   the   annexed  cut,  Fig.  37,     They  are  for  the  most  part 


Fig.  37. — Plead  and  Eyes  of  the  Eee. 

aa,  antenna; ;   A,    facets  enlarged  ;    B,  the  same,  with  hairs  growing 
between  them. 

extremely  large  ;  varying,  however,  between  one-sixth  and  one-fourth 
part  of  the  weight  of  the  whole  body.  Their  structure  is  eminently 
beautiful  ;  consisting,  as  they  do,  not  of  coats  and  humours,  but 
principally  of  a  series  of  pyramids  of  nervous  substance  connected 
together,  the  apices  being  on  the  bulbous  extremity  of  the  optic  nerve, 
and  the  bases,  invested  each  by  a  thick  transparent  membrane  of  an 
hexagonal  shape,  at  the  circumference  of  the  eye.  This  membrane, 
presenting  thus  numerous  facets,  which  look  in  every  direction,  is 
called  the  cornea,  and  seems  to  be  in  insects  the  only  instrument  of 


Fig.   3S. — Lateral  and  Full 
View  of  F.yeball  of  Owl. 

a,  ver}'  convex  cornea ;  b, 
sclerotic  coat,  surrounded, 
at  c,  by  bony  plates. 


refraction,  the  images  of  objects  being  most  probably  impressed,  by 
this  means,  directly  on  the  base  of  each  pyramid,  which  is  thus  a 
kind  of  distinct  eye.  They  have  no  lens  and  no  pupil,  or  rather  the 
whole  surface  of  the  cornea  is  one  large  pupil,  there  being  no  opaque 
coats  to  render  a  proper  pupil  necessary  ;  and  they  are  destitute  both 
of  eyelids  and  of  muscles  to  move  the  eye,  the  numerous  directions 
of  the  facets  of  the  cornea  rendering  the  latter  superfluous.  How 
strikingly  different  is  this  description  of  eye  which  characterises 
insects  which  fly,  and  require  therefore  an  ample  field  of  vision,  from 
the  simple  eye  found  in  tlie  grovelling  kinds,  which  either  do  not  see, 
strictly  speaking,  at  all,  or  certainly  only  quite  contiguous  objects  ! 
Further,  in  insects  which  fly  by  night,  like  the  Moth,  there  is,  in 
place  of  the  black  pigment  similar  to  that  which  is  found  in  the  Cuttle, 
a  substance  of  a  resplendent  green  or  silvery  colour,  serving  not  to 
absorb,  but  to  reflect  the  rays  of  light ;  and  thus  enabling  them  to 
see  by  much  more  obscure  light  than  would  otherwise  have  been 
necessary. 

The  eyes  of  birds  are  remarkable  principally,  like  the  compound 
eyes  of  insects,  for  their  great  size,  the  use  of  this  being  in  both  the 
same — that  of  enabling  them,  when  on  the  wing,  to  see  objects  at  a 
great  distance.  With  respect  to  the  cornea  and  lens,  they  are 
directly  opposed  to  those  of  fishes ;  since, 
while  the  cornea  is  comparatively  flat,  and 
the  lens  almost  globular  in  fishes — in  birds 
the  cornea  is  remarkably  prominent,  and 
the  lens  has  very  little  convexity.  The 
motions  of  the  iris  in  most  birds  are  ex- 
tremely rapid,  and  in  some  apparently 
voluntary.  The  pupil  is  in  some,  as  in  the 
Dove  and  the  Goose,  transversely  oval ; 
while  it  is  vertically  oval  in  others  :  gene- 
rally speaking,  indeed,  it  has  the  former 
shape  in  herbivorous  animals,  whether 
birds  or  quadrupeds,  and  the  latter  in 
carnivorous.  All  birds  have  proper  eyelids,  the  lower  of  which  alone 
is  movable ;  and  they  have,  in  addition,  another  membrane  called 
memb?-a}ui  nictitans,  which  is  merely  a  movable  fold  of  the  external 
membrane  of  the  eyeball :  it  is  not  quite  proper  to  birds — being  found 
also  in  some  fishes  and  reptiles — but  it  is  most  remarkable  in  them. 
With  very  few  exceptions — the  Owl  among  others — the  direction  of 
the  eyeballs  is,  in  birds,  outwards.  (See  Fig.  38.)  Such  birds  also, 
as  well  as  insects  and  fishes,  as  go  in  search  of  their  prey  by  night, 
like  the  Owl,  have  a  shining  substance  at  the  bottom  of  the  eyeball, 
for  the  purpose  already  alluded  to.  In  some  birds  with  piercing 
sight,  as  the  Falcon  and  Crane,  the  flattened  optic  nerve  has  one  of 
its  surfaces  folded  into  numerous  plaits,  bearing  the  same  relation  to 
the  other  as  the  leaves  bear  to  the  back  of  a  book  ;  and  the  extent  of 
surface  thus  gained  may  be  easily  imagined. 

The  sense  of  Heari7ig  is  an  eminent  characteristic  of  the  Mammalia. 
In  man,  the  external  part  of  the  ear  is  of  such  a  form  as  to  receive 
the  vibrations  of  the  air  as  they  proceed  from  any  sounding  body. 
From  the  outer  part  there  is  a  tortuous  passage,  by  which  the  sounds 
arrive  at  the  tympanum  or  drum.  This  is  a  thin  membrane  ;  and 
it  is  stretched  over  bones  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  of  the  parch- 
ment covering  of  the  musical  instrument  of  the  same  name.  The 
vibrations  which  have  arrived  thus  far,  set  the  drum  in  motion  :  and 
here  we  may  mention  a  peculiar  provision  that  is  made,  by  which  the 
intensity  of  sound  is  modified.  When  describing  the  eye,*  we  men- 
tioned that  the  iris  could  be  either  opened  or  closed,  so  as  to  admit 
or  restrain  the  rays  of  light,  and  prevent  injury  to  the  organ  of  sight. 
Now,  similarly,  the  drum  of  the  ear  may  either  be  tightened  or 
extended,  so  as  to  increase  or  diminish  the  force  of  communicated 
vibrations ;  and  by  this  beautiful  arrangement,  the  ear  itself  is 
preserved  from  the  injurious  effect  of  too  powerful  a  sound,  or  is 
enabled  to  catch  the  slightest  whisper.  From  the  drum  of  the  ear,  a 
channel,  called  the  Eustachian  tube,  passes  towards  the  mouth. 
This  tube  serves  as  an  exit,  by  means  of  the  air  it  contains,  for  the 
vibrations  which  have  been  communicated  by  the  drum.  It  is,  in 
fact,  analogous  in  its  office  to  the  holes  in  the  sounding-board  of  the 
piano,  the  harp,  violin,  &c. ;  and  deafness  always  ensues  when,  by 
any  means,  this  tube  is  closed,  which  occurs  from  cold,  the  deposi- 
tion of  wax,  &c. 

A  cavity,  called  the  vestibule  of  the  ear,  also  covered  with  a  mem- 
brane, is  provided  with  nerves  ;  and  these,  like  the  optic  nerve,t 
connect  the  external  vibrations  of  matter  with  the  sensorium  of  the 
brain  ;  and  thus  the  sense  of  hearing  is  produced.  The  entrance  of 
the  car  is  protected  from  the  intrusion  of  insects  and  foreign  matter 
by  means  of  hairs,  and  a  peculiar  wax-like  secretion.  This,  in  excess, 
often  becomes  hardened,  and  is  thus  the  cause  of  difficulty  of  hear- 
ing, which  some  persons  suffer  from.  It  is,  however,  readily  removed 
by  syringing  the  ear  with  warm  water.  The  following  cut  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  different  parts  of  the  human  ear. 

Amongst  the  Mammalia,  we  find  the  ear,  generally  speaking,  de- 
fended externally  by  a  large  flap,  which  ser\-es  to  protect  it  from 
being  injured  by  insects  or  the  twigs  of  trees,  as  the  animal  passes 


*  See  ante,  p.  10. 


t  See  anlc,  p.  10, 


THE  SENSES  OF  ANIMALS— HEARING— VOICE. 


through  a  thicket :  this  may  be  best  noticed  in  the  Elephant  and  the 
Dog.  All  animals  of  prey  are  possessed  of  great  powers  of  hearing, 
on  which  they  partly  depend  for  success  in  the  search  for  food.  Am- 
phibious animals  can  readily  adapt  their  organs  of  hearing  to  the 


Fig.  3g. — The  Human  Ear. 

a,  is  the  canal  by  which  sounds  reach  the  drum,  b  ;  c  is  the  Eustachian  tube  ; 
d  and  e  represent  the  connections  of  the  auditory  nerves  with  the  brain  ; 
f  and  g  are  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of  the  external  fleshy  part  of 
the  ear. 

medium  in  which  they  may  for  the  moment  dwell.  Without  such  a 
provision,  these  animals  would  sustain  much  inconvenience,  and 
suffer  extreme  pain,  when  beneath  the  surface  of  water.  This  is 
chiefly  owing  to  the  great  conducting  power  of  that  liquid,  by  which 
sounds  act  more  strongly  on  the  tympanum  than  when  conveyed  by 
air;  and  if  the  organ  were  not  protected  under  such  circumstances, 
its  sensitiveness  would  speedily  be  destroyed. 
_  In  birds  we  meet  with  constantly  a  short  canal,  leading  from  the 
side  of  the  head,  and  meeting  that  coming  from  the  pharynx,  in  the 
tympanum.  They  have  but  one  bone  in  this  cavity  ;  and  the  general 
structure  of  the  parts  of  their  labyrinth  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
higher  orders  of  reptiles.  Birds  in  generalVant  a  proper  pinna,  or 
ear-flap,  its  place  being  commonly  supplied  by  a  small  tuft  of 
feathers  :  the  Owl,  however,  has  something  very  similar  to  this  part 
as  found  in  mammiferous  animals.  The  following  figure  illustrates 
the  ears  of  some  birds.     As  we  descend  in  the  scale  of  nature,  we 


Fig.  40. — Ears  of  Birds. 

a.  Peregrine  Falcon  ;  h.  Day  Owl  ;  r,  Tawny  Owl ;  d.  Long-eared  Owl ; 
e.  Earn  Owl. 

find  that  these  organs  become  of  simpler  construction  ;  and,  passing 
by  fishes,  we  at  last  find  their  development  to  be  but  rudimentary  in 
the  tribe  of  insects. 

Voice  is  a  characteristic  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  Vertebrata, 
including  the  Mammalia,  birds,  &c.  ;  but  the  power  of  speech  is 
solely  possessed  by  man.  The  organs  concerned  in  voice  and  speech 
may  be  described  as  the  chest  and  lungs,  the  windpipe,  the  larynx, 
the  posterior  cavity  of  the  mouth,  the  nostrils,  which  communicate 
w-ith  that  posterior  cavity,  the  palate,  the  tongue,  the  teeth,  and  the 
lips.  The  sounds  which  constitute  voice,  belong  to  the  order  of 
musical  sounds,  independently  altogether  of  the  singing  voice.  All 
that  is  rightly  termed  voice,  takes  place  in  the  larynx,  which  is  pro- 
perly the  instrument  of  voice.  But  even  independently  of  the  modifi- 
cations by  which  voice  is  changed  into  articulate  speech,  the  voice  is 
variously  affected  by  the  other  parts  which  have  been  enumerated  : 
by  the  chest,  as  regulating  the  force  of  the  air  ;  by  the  windpipe,  as 
susceptible  of  several  degrees  of  length  and  tension;  by  the  posterior 


cavity  of  the  mouth,  as  offering  an  expanded  vault ;  by  the  nostril,  as 
affording  a  double  passage  of  exit  for  the  breath  ;  and  by  the  various 
conditions  of  the  tongue,  the  palate,  the  teeth,  the  lips,  according  to 
the  position  in  which  they  happen  to  be  at  the  moment. 

The  chest  and  lungs  together  constitute,  in  reference  to  the  voice, 
a  musical  bellows,  capable  of  supplying  air  with  more  or  less  force 
to  the  organs  of  voice.  The  peculiarity  of  these  bellows  is,  that  by 
them  the  air  must  be  renewed  at  short  intervals,  entering  from  with- 
out by  the  same  passage  by  which  it  is  expelled  when  the  voice  is 
exercised.  It  can,  however,  supply  air  without  interruption,  in  a 
continued  stream,  for  about  fifteen  seconds.  The  lung  (sec  Fig.  28, 
ante)  consists  of  two  laige  bags  of  air,  and  does  not  materially  differ 
from  the  wind-box  of  an  organ,  or  rather  from  the  bag  of  a  bagpipe. 
No  air  can  enter  the  lung,  or  escape  from  it,  except  through  the 
windpipe.  The  chest  is  capable  of  expansion  in  every  direction. 
Whenever  an  enlargement  commences,  the  air  begins  to  enter  from 
without.  By  this  process,  in  two  or  three  seconds,  many  cubic  inches 
of  air  can  be  drawn  into  the  lungs.  It  is  by  the  contrast  which  the 
muscles  of  the  lar}'nx  have  on  the  vibration  of  the  air,  thus  intro- 
duced, that  articulate  sounds  are  produced.  If  the  human  larynx  be 
dissected  out,  and  the  vocal  cords  be  stretched,  they  will  vibrate  like 
a  piece  of  artificial  tissue,  such  as  india-rubber  or  leather,  in  a  cur- 
rent of  air.  The  .(Eolian  harp  is  an  instance  in  which  musical  sounds 
are  produced  by  similar  vibrations,  due  to  a  current  of  air  passing 
over  the  strings  of  the  instrument.  The  production  of  the  most 
simple  tones  of  the  voice  requires  the  associated  action  of  a  most 
extensive  range  of  organs  ;  for  it  is  calculated  that,  in  its  ordinary 
modulation,  more  than  one  hundred  muscles  are  brought  into  action 
at  the  same  time. 

To  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  laws  of  acoustics,  and  the 
production  of  sound  by  means  of  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  as  in  wind 
instruments  (the  flute,  cornet,  &c.),  in  stringed  instruments  (such  as 
the  piano,  harp,  &c.),  or  tongued  instruments  (as  the  harmonium, 
concertina,  Ike),  the  following  illustration  may  be  useful  and  inter- 
esting, as  showing  whence  the  power  of  singing  is  derived  in  man 
and  birds. 

We  shall  confine  our  illustration  of  these  principles  to  the  eight 
notes  in  the  treble  clef  forming  an  octave — from  C  below  the  lines,  to 
C  on  the  third  space,  as  represented  below.  To  each  of  the  notes  we 
have  appended  their  names,  for  the  assistance  of  those  of  our  readers 
who  do  not  understand  music.  When,  however,  an  instrument, 
especially  a  pianoforte  or  harp,  can  be  had  access  to,  such  will  ma- 
terially aid  in  making  our  remarks  understood. 


^^ 


Fig.  41. 


English  names  ...  C        D 
Italian      do      ...  do       re 


F        G        A        B        C 

fa        sol       la        si        do 


Now,  the  sounds  of  each  of  these  letters,  in  Fig.  41,  are  produced 
by  a  definite  number  of  vibrations,  and  the  length  of  each  string. 
Thus,  that  affording  C  vibrates  240  times  per  second ;  whilst  the 
upper,  or  octave  C,  will  vibrate  480  times  per  second.  The  length  of 
the  string  producing  the  low  C,  may  be  45  inches  ;  whilst  that  pro- 
ducing the  upper  C,  will  be  but  22^  inches.  Each  of  the  other  notes 
will  proceed  from  an  intermediate  length  of  string  and  number  of 
vibrations.  The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  each  of  these — 
commencing  with  the  lower  C.  Some  consider  that  256  vibrations 
equal  C.  We  have  chosen  the  lower  number,  for  the  purpose  of 
avoiding  fractions ;  but  the  reader  can  easily  calculate  a  table  on 
that  standard,  by  using  the  table,  or  ratio,  which  follows  this. 

Name  of 
note. 

C  

D  

E  

F  

G  

A  

B  

C  

The  law  of  the  relation  existing  between  the  number  of  vibrations, 
the  length  of  the  cord,  and  the  nature  of  the  sounds  produced,  is  thus 
at  once  made  evident.  The  ratio  existing  between  each  of  these  is 
shown  in  the  following  table — commencing  with  low  C,  as  before,  it 
being  the  standard. 

Name  of  note 

Ratio  of  the  length  of  the  cord 
Ratio  of  vibrations 

From  which  we  perceive,  as  before  stated,  that  the  length  of  the 
cord  is  inversely  as  the  number  of  vibrations,  and  vice  veisa.     We 


Length  of  cord 

Number  of  vibra 

in  inches. 

tious  per  second 

-    45      

240 

•••    40     

270 

-  36    

300 

-     33f     

320 

-     30       

360 

-     27       

400 

••     24,      

450 

...       22,V        

4S0 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

I 

9" 

f 

4 

f 

f 

-S. 

1 .1 

i 

I 

8 

i 

J 

i 

% 

\^ 

2 

VOICE  OF  ANIMALS— THEIR  LOCOMOTION. 


'3 


have  already  obsen'ed  that  harmonies  are  afforded  when  certain 
sounds  are  produced  together.  This  occurs  when  C,  and  G  (below), 
which  are  five  notes  apart,  C,  and  E  (above),  which  are  three  notes 
apart,  and  C,  E,  and  G,  are  struck  together — forming,  as  they  do,  a 
chord  in  which  thirds  and  fifths  are  combined.  The  effects  of  such 
combinations  are  naturally  pleasing  to  the  ear :  but  this  is  not  a  pure 
matter  of  taste  only  ;  for  if  some  pieces  of  paper  are  allowed  to  fall 
on  strings  thus  vibrating,  they  will  arrange  themselves  in  such  posi- 
tions as  will  accord  with  those  of  the  length  of  the  octave,  the  third, 
and  fifth,  pointed  out  in  our  last  table. 

We  have  confined  these  remaks  to  stringed  instruments  only ;  but, 
as  already  stated,  they  are  equally  applicable  to  those  in  which  wind 
is  alone  employed.  Thus,  in  the  organ,  the  length  of  the  pipes  cor- 
responds to  the  length  of  the  string  in  the  pianoforte,  because  they 
enclose  a  similar  length  of  air  ;  and  it  is  the  vibration  of  this  which 
causes  the  sound  of  different  notes.  In  the  flute,  cornopean,  (tc, 
the  length  of  the  column  of  air  is  regulated  by  the  skill  of  the  per- 
former ;  hence  the  difiiculty  experienced  in  acquiring  the  art  of  blow- 
ing those  instruments  properly.  Many  instruments,  of  entirely  differ- 
ent kind  of  construction,  such  as  the  harmonium,  concertina,  the 
pan-pipes,  bells,  &c.,  all  owe  the  production  of  their  various  notes  to 
the  laws  we  have  here  explained.  Equally  so  do  the  powers  of  voice, 
whether  of  speech  or  singing  in  the  animal. 

The  notes  of  the  human  voice  are  capable  of  being  produced  in 
three  separate  kinds  of  sequences.  In  ordinary  speaking,  the 
successive  notes  have  nearly  all  the  same  pitch.  This  kind  of  suc- 
cession, then,  is  properly  termed  the  monotonous.  Some  deviation 
from  this  monotony  occasionally  arises,  as  when  certain  syllables 
receive  a  higher  intonation  for  the  sake  of  accent,  and  when,  in  read- 
ing or  reciting  poetry,  rhythm  is  added  to  the  accent.  In  these 
cases,  however,  the  deviation  from  monotony  of  pitch  is  too  slight  to 
require  a  separate  head.  In  the  expression  of  passion,  accompanied 
by  vehement  exercise  of  the  voice,  there  is  heard  a  sudden  transition 
from  high  to  low  notes,  or  the  reverse.  This,  then,  constitutes  the 
second  kind  of  sequence  in  the  notes  of  the  human  voice.  Musical 
notes  constitute  the  third  mode  of  sequence.  In  music,  the  sound 
has  the  requisite  number  of  vibrations  ;  and  as  the  sounds  succeed 
each  other,  they  exhibit  that  relative  proportion  in  the  number  of 
vibrations  which  jointly  characterise  the  notes  of  the  musical  scale. 
Of  the  adaptation  of  one  sound  to  succeed  another,  so  as  to  preserve 
the  musical  character  of  the  succession,  the  human  ear  is  the  only 
original  standard. 

The  voice  of  mammals,  inferior  to  man,  is  equally  subject  to  the 
laws  already  explained  ;  but  some  are  mute.  The  Cetacecs,  or  Whale 
tribe,  have  been  thus  described  ;  but  they  possess  a  single  "  lowing" 
note,  and  have  the  power  of  bellowing  ;  but,  with  certain  exceptions, 
the  larynx  is  well  developed.  The  Giraffe  is  described  as  mute,  the 
vocal  ligaments  being  absent.  The  Armadillo  is  another  of  the 
mute  Mammalia  ;   as  is  also  the  common  Porcupine  of  Europe. 

In  the  Ru))ih2aiitia  we  find  a  sonorous  voice,  exemplified  in  the 
Ox.  Its  larynx  is  well  developed  :  there  are  no  superior  vocal  liga- 
ments, but  the  inferior  vocal  ligaments  are  strong.  These,  in  the 
Sheep,  differ  from  those  in  the  Ox  only  in  size.  In  the  Camel  the 
larynx  is  well  developed,  and  the  superior  vocal  ligaments  are 
present,  and  the  inferior  are  strong.  In  the  Horse  and  the  Ass  the 
larynx  is  well  developed  ;  that  of  the  Mule  resembles  the  same  organ 
in  the  Ass  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Elephant,  Rhinoceros, 
&c.  In  the  order  of  the  Carnivora,  or  flesh-eating  animals,  are 
examples  of  a  very  powerful  voice.  The  Lion  and  Tiger  have  a  highly- 
developed  lar)'nx,  and  the  superior  vocal  ligaments  prominent ;  hence 
the  terrific  roar  of  the  Lion  ;  while  the  Tiger,  like  the  common  Cat, 
has  the  power  of  purring  and  mewing.  Among  the  Apes  and 
Monkeys,  the  essential  form  of  the  organs  of  voice  do  not  vary  much. 
In  the  Mycetes,  or  Howling  Apes  of  America,  the  voice-producing 
apparatus  is  the  greatest.  In  the  Chimpanzee  the  true  vocal  liga- 
ments are  prominent.  The  windpipe  has  sixteen  rings,  and  the 
voice  is  more  acute  than  that  of  women.  In  some  of  the  Ape  tribe, 
the  voice,  in  quality,  is  like  that  of  the  flute  :  hence  such  are  called 
Whistling  Apes  ;  and  from  the  peculiar  expression  of  this  whistle, 
which  is  a  plaintive  melody,  they  are  termed  "  Weeping  Apes." 

In  birds,  the  great  peculiarity  of  the  organs  of  voice  is  the  inferior 
larynx,  which  is  of  a  most  complex  structure,  not  only  in  such  sing- 
ing-birds as  the  Nightingale,  Blackbird,  &c.,  but  also  in  some  that 
possess  a  disagreeable  cry,  such  as  members  of  the  Crow  family. 
Thus,  not  only  is  a  complex  organ  necessary  for  the  musical  voice  of 
birds,  but  also  a  fine  general  organisation  and  a  singing  instinct. 
That  the  inferior  larynx  of  birds  is  the  true  organ  of  voioe,  has  been 
proved  by  many  experiments.  For  example,  anatomists  have  divided 
the  windpipe  in  singing-birds,  as  the  Blackbird,  about  the  middle 
of  its  length,  so  that  the  air  could  no  longer  pass  through  the 
superior  larynx,  and  yet  the  bird  would  continue  to  sing,  but  with 
feeble  notes.  Similar  experiments  have  been  made  on  ]\Iagpies  and 
Ducks.  After  such  an  experiment,  the  Magpie  is  found  to  cry  with 
as  great  an  intensity  of  tone,  and  with  the  same  acuteness  as  before 
the  operation. 

There  is,  unquestionably,  a  great  difference  in  the  mode  in  which 
voice  is  produced  in  different  birds.   It  seems  certain  that  the  simple 


organ  of  voice  in  the  Duck,  the  Gooso,  and  the  like,  is  a  reed  instru- 
ment. In  these,  the  vocal  cords  or  bands,  which  form  the  exterior 
margin  of  the  openmg  of  the  larynx,  can  be  seen  to  vibrate  strongly; 
whde  the  sound  produced  closely  resembles  that  arising  from  the 
vibration  of  membranes.  But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  the  piping 
and  whistling  sounds  of  birds  are  produced  in  the  same  manner-  and 
It  IS  not  impossible  that  these  may  be  effected  in  the  same  mode  as 
whistling  by  the  mouth  in  man. 

The  voice  of  birds,  as  of  other  animals,  is  in  a  minor  key.  The 
range  of  notes  is  commonly  within  an  octave,  though  some  birds  can 
greatly  exceed  it.  In  the  Parrot,  which  has  a  voice  of  great  power 
the  inferior  larynx  is  single.  The  two  membranes  of  the  lar\'n.x  leave 
a  narrow  chink  between  them,  through  which  the  air  is  forced  from 
the  lungs.  These  membranes,  vibrating  in  all  their  dimensions 
produce  that  harsh,  disagreeable  quality  of  sound,  peculiar  to  them' 
They  can  also  whistle,  during  which  the  glottis  is  probably  silent' 
and  the  column  of  air  vibrates  as  in  a  flute,  when  a  vibratory  move- 
ment is  communicated  by  the  air  traversing  the  clastic  walls  of  the 
tube.  Besides  the  power  of  speech  possessed  by  some  birds,  many 
can  imitate  almost  every  sound  they  hear;  the  Blackbird  has  been 
known  to  imitate  the  sound  of  the  Nightingale,  the  crowin"-  of  the 
common  Cock,  and  the  cackle  of  the  Hen.  "The  Jay  is  said  to  mock 
the  notes  of  the  Greenfinch  and  the  neighing  of  a  Horse  so  closely 
that  it  was  scarcely  believed  to  be  a  bird  by  those  who  heard  it.  It 
can  also  imitate  the  calling  of  fowls  to  their  food,  and  the  barking  of 
the  house  Dog. 

As  regards  the  voice  of  reptiles  and  amphibious  animals  generallv 
these  sounds  have  their  source  in  the  larynx.  In  the  truiTserpents 
there  are  no  vocal  cords.  In  the  Frogs,  the  vocal  sound  is  produced 
by  the  vibrations  of  reed-shaped  tongues,  which  act  like  a  tunin.'^-- 
fork.  Only  a  very  few  fishes  are  known  to  utter  sounds,  such  as  the 
trigia,  cot t us,  a.ni  pogonms. 

Most  insects  are  mute ;  some  produce  sounds  by  friction  ;  others  by 


Fig.  42. — Thoracic  Spiracle  of  Blue-bottle  Fly  {Musca  voinitona). 

the  passage  of  air  through  their  spiracles.  It  is  a  common  belief 
that  the  buzzing  of  insects  is  produced  by  the  oscillations  of  tlieir 
wings  during  flight.  This  idea  has  been  often  called  in  question. 
John  Hunter  found  that  insects  emitted  sounds  after  their  wings 
were  cut  off.  More  recently,  it  has  been  stated  that  the  sounds  pro- 
duced by  many  insects  are  the  effect  of  a  rapid  transmission  of  air 
through  the  thoracic  air-holes  as  they  dash  through  space.  Mr. 
Bishop  has  observed  a  peculiar  mechanism  for  this  purpose  in  the 


Fig.  43. — Thoracic  Spiracle  of  Humble  Dee  {'Dombiis  terrestiii). 

Blue-bottle  Fly  and  the  Humble  Bee.  Figures  42  and  43,  show  one 
of  the  large  thoracic  spiracles  in  each  of  these  insects — the  Musca 
vomitoria  and  the  Bombus  terrestris. 

Locomotion. — The  power  of  moving  from  place  to  place  was  long 
considered  as  strictly  a  point  of  division  between  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdom.  But  by  careful  observation  it  was  found  that 
this  really  was  not  an  exact  boundary.  Among  the  lowest  orders  of 
animal  existences,  as  in  some  zoophiles  and  mollusca,  we  find  those 
which  are  permanently  stationary,  and,  like  plants,  unable  to  leave 
the  substance  to  which  they  are  attached.  And  even  some  of  these 
that  do  move  about,  as  the  Sea-blubber,  the  Sea-pen,  and  many 
others,  do  so  passively ;  and,  like  the  Duckweed  and  Star-grass 
among  plants,  are  moved  in  water  chiefly  by  the  currents,  and  tides 
and  winds  ;  but  the  number  of  those  in  whom  locomotion  is  other- 


14 


LOCOMOTION  OF  ANIMALS. 


wise  than  active,  is  certainly  very  small.  Again,  during  one  period 
of  their  existence,  the  fixed  zoophiles  do  possess  a  power  of  locomo- 
tion. Thus  the  young  Sponge,  after  its  separation  from  the  parent 
stem,  for  several  days  swims  about  as  if  to  find  the  appropriate  spot 
to  which  it  may  attach  itself;  while  the  cilia,  or  arm-like  append- 
ages, to  the  action  of  which  its  locomotive  powers  are  due,  fade  and 
disappear,  as  if  no  longer  required,  after  the  animal  has  attached 
itself  to  the  rock.  Similar  properties  are  found  among  the  polypes 
lodged  in  the  madrepores  and  corals,  with  which  all  are  familiar.  In 
the  hydra,  a  species  of  polype  inhabiting  our  fresh  waters  (see  Fig. 
44),  we  find  an  early  example  of  locomotive  powers  curious  in  the 
extreme.     If  the  animal  be  introduced  into  a  glass,  it  may  be  seen, 


Fig.  44. — Locomotion  of  Hydra  viridis, 

as  in  the  figure,  when  standing  erect,  slowly  to  bend  its  body,  until 
its  mouth  touches  the  surface  of  the  vessel ;  its  foot  is  then  detached, 
and  brought  towards  the  head,  which  is  then  projected  forwards,  and 
the  process  repeated,  until  a  desirable  position  is  obtained. 

Among  the  MeduscB,  some  are  remarkable  for  their  organs  of 
locomotion,  being  furnished  with  an  apparatus  not  unlike  the  fins  of 
a  fish,  with  which  they  strike  the  water  vertically,  and  give  an 
ascending  impulse  to  their  bodies.  Among  the  molluscs,  the  motions 
of  the  Snail  are  familiar  to  every  one.  They  are  effected  by  what  is 
called  its  foot,  or  a  mass  of  muscular  fibre,  situated  on  the  strong 
membrane  which  contains  the  entrails,  and  also  attached  to  the 
shell.  It  glides  along  the  surface,  partly  by  forming  a  vacuum  by 
means  of  this  organ,  and  partly  by  a  viscid  mucilage  secreted  by  the 
part.  It  is  thus,  also,  that  some  bivalve  molluscs,  as  the  common 
Cockle,  Mussels,  Razor  Shell-fish,  and  others,  progress — the  animal 
protruding  its  foot  beyond  the  shell,  and  crawling  along  upon  it  ; 
and  it  is  furnished  also  with  the  same  kind  of  adhesive  mucilage,  for 
the  purpose  not  only  of  steadying  its  steps  during  motion,  but  also, 
as  drawn  out  into  threads  under  the  name  of  bysstis,  of  preventing 
it,  when  at  rest,  from  being  washed  away,  by  tides  and  currents, 
from  the  rocks  to  which  it  attaches  itself. 

Advancing  in  this  great  class,  we  find  some  animals,  as  the 
Cuttle,  moving  by  a  kind  of  arms  or  tentacula  attached  to  their  head, 
and  employed  as  oars,  or  as  feet,  when  moving  along  the  bottom  of 
the  sea.  On  account  of  the  singular  place  of  attachment  of  the  feet, 
the  animals  of  this,  the  highest  order  of  molluscs,  are  called  Cepha- 
lopods  (Gr.  kej)/ia/e,  head,  and  poi/s,  foot).  With  the  exception  of 
the  Pearly  Nautilus  [Nautilus pontpilius),  which  has  many  tentacu- 
lar organs  attached  to  the  head,  all  other  cephalopods  have  eight 
arms;  to  which,  in  some  kinds,  as,  f.^.,  the  calamary  and  sepia, 
two  long  and  slender  tentacula  are  added,  which  can  be  letracted 
into  sheaths.  Both  the  eight  ordinary  arms,  and  the  two  tentacles, 
are  provided  with  suckers,  by  which  the  animal  can  attach  itself  at 
pleasure.  The  Paper  Nautilus  {Argo7iaufa)  has  but  eight  feet,  and 
one  pair  of  these  expand  at  their  extremities  into  broad  and  thin 
membranes;  the  fabled  use  of  which  has  afforded  a  beautiful  subject 
for  poetic  imagery  in  all  ages ;  but 
similar   appendages  occur  in   Octopus    ^^^s^vX: 


violaceus,  and  in  Octopus  velifer,  in 
which  both  the  first  and  second  pairs 
of  feet  support  broad  and  thin  mem- 
branes at  their  extremities.  Now, 
neither  of  these  species  inhabits  a  shell 
in  which  the  expanded  membranes 
could  be  used  to  waft  the  animal  along 
the  surface  of  the  ocean,  as  has  been 
said  or  sung  of  the  Argonaut.  The 
Glaucus  (Fig.  45)  swims  rapidly  by 
means  of  its  oar-like  appendages. 

Passing  now  to  the  Annelida,  we  find 
the  Earthworm  progressing  by  means  of  sets,  or  bristles,  attached 
to  the  skin,  w-hich  the  animal  fixes  on  the  ground;  while,  by  the 
elongation  of  the  rings  which  encircle  the  body,  it  moves  onwards. 


Fig.  45.  —  Glaucus  Fosteri. 


Fig.  46. — The  Leech  {Hiriido  officinalis). 


FiS-  47- 

Suckers  of  Blue-bottle  Fly. 

,,        Great  Water  lleetle. 
,,       Yellow  Saw-Fly. 


Then  the  head  is  applied  and  fixed  to  the  ground,  and  the  body, 
by  the  contraction  of  its  rings,  drawn  towards  it.  In  the  Nereis 
we  find  numerous  tentacula  as  organs  of  locomotion,  by  which,  and 
by  undulating  inflections  of  the  body,  the  animal  swims  with  great 


rapidity  :  while  the  Leech,  independently  of  its  power  of  swimming 
by  ordinary  vermiform  motion,  is  furnished  with  an  apparatus  for 
suction  at  either  extremity  of  its  body.  By  fixing,  alternately,  one 
or  the  other,  and  drawing  its  body  towards  it,  the  animal  advances 
at  pleasure.  (See  Fig.  46.) 
The  motion  of  insects  is  generally  extremely  rapid.     An  ordinary 

Gnat,  for  example,  will  not  only  keep 
pace  with  a  man  walking  fast,  but 
even  fly  much  quicker.  The  reason 
of  this  is,  that  the  muscular  force  is 
in  enormous  excess  when  compared 
with  the  weight  of  the  insect.  Spi- 
ders, for  example,  dart  on  their  prey 
with  great  rapidity.  All  winged  in- 
sects have  six  legs  ;  and  many,  more- 
over, have,  either  in  the  course  of 
their  legs,  or  at  their  extremities, 
numerous  suckers,  by  which  they  form 
a  vacuum  every  time  their  legs  come 
in  contact  with  any  surface.  It  is  in 
this  w-ay  that  flies  craw'l  upon  a  per- 
pendicular surface,  or  on  a  smooth 
mirror,  or  walk  along  the  ceiling  of  a 
room.  The  structure  of  these  suckers 
is  very  beautiful,  and  is  best  seen  in 
the  common  Blue-bottle  Fly  {Musca 
voinitoria — see  Fig.  47),  the  great 
\\'ater  Beetle  (Ditisctts  J!iargi?!a- 
lis),  and  the  yellow  Saw-Fly  (Cimex 
luttaj.  But  the  most  remarkable 
organs  of  locomotion  in  insects  are 
their  wings. 

Fishes  effect  their  locomotion  by 
their  fins,  and  of  these  they  employ 
chiefly  the  pectoral  and  ventral  pairs,  which  are  strictly  analogous 
to  the  upper  and  lower  extremities  of  the  superior  tribes  of  animals. 
Some  fishes  effect  their  progression  by  the  motion,  not  of  the  fins, 
but  of  the  spine  ;  as  the  Lamprey,  which  has  neither  pectoral  nor 
ventral  fins,  and  which  seems  to  move  in  its  natural  element,  the 
(J  mud,  entirely  by  the  lateral  flexion  of  its 

_,-;-.  spine,  which  it  first  draws  into  an  S-like 

_,.-''  i  \  curve,  and  then  shoots  forward  the  an- 

i      \  terior  portion.     The   same   is  the  case 

also   with   the   Eel,   when   it  creeps  on 
land.     Others  again,  as  most  flat  fishes, 
which,  like  the  Lamprey,  have  neither 
pectoral  nor  ventral  fins,  use  their  tails 
principally  in  making  progress   in   the 
water.     This  operation  is  extremely  sim- 
ple.    Everj'body  knows  that  the  ordinary 
way  of  propelling  forwards  a  boat  is  by 
rowing  ;  that  is  to  say,  by  means  of  one 
or  more   pairs  of  oars  passed  over  its 
sides,   the    action   of  which   is   exactly 
similar  to   the  pectoral  fins   of  fishes. 
But  it  is  likewise  well  known  that  a  boat 
may  be,  with  equal  certainty,  urged  for- 
wards by  what  is  called  sculling ;  that 
is  to  say,  by  means  of  one  oar  passed 
over  its  stern,  and  continually  moved  in 
the  water  from  side  to  side.     Now,  it  is 
precisely  upon  this  latter  principle  that 
the  tail  of  fishes  moving   from  side  to 
side,  operates  in   propelling   them   for- 
ward.    It  is  evident  that  the  oar  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  tail  on  the  other,  in 
this    alternate    lateral   motion,   is   con- 
tinually displacing  a  quantity  of  water 
great  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the 
instrument    employed,    and    consequently  to   the    sweep   which   it 
makes   in    its  oscillation ;    and   it   is   by  the  resistance   which   the 
water  makes  to  this  displacement,   by  the  oar  or  tail,  in  coming 
from  its  extreme  sweep  to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  boat  or  fish, 
that  either  is  urged  onwards.     "  Let  us  suppose,"  says  Dr.  Roget, 
"that   the   tail   is  slightly  inclined  to  the  right,  as   shown  in   the 
preceding  figure.     If  in  this  situation  the  muscles  of  the  left  side, 
tending  to  bring  the  tail  in  a  right  line  with  the  body,  are  sud- 
denly thrown  into  action,   the  resistance  of  the  water,  by  reacting 
against  the  broad  surface  of  the  tail  in  the  direction  P  R  (see  Fig. 
48),  perpendicular  to  the  surface,  will  cause  the  muscular  action  to 
give  the  whole  body  an  impulse  in  that  direction,   and  the  centre  of 
gravity,  C,  will  move  onwards  in  the  direction  C  B,  parallel  to  P  R. 
This  impulse  is  not  destroyed  by  the  further  flexion  of  the  tail  towards 
the  left  side,  because  the  principal  force,  executed  by  the  muscles, 
has  already  been  expended  in  the  motion  from  R  to  M,  in  bringing 
it  to  a  straight  line  with  the  body ;  and  the  force  which  carries  it  on 
to  L  is  much  weaker,  and  therefore  occasions  a  more  feeble  reactioQ. 


M 


Fig.  48. — Motion  of  Fishes. 


LOCOMOTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 


JS 


When  the  tail  has  arrived  at  the  position  L,  indicated  by  the  dotted 
outline,  a  similar  action  of  the  muscles  on  the  right  side  will  create  a 
resistance,  and  an  impulse  in  the  direction  of  K  L,  and  a  motion  of 
the  whole  body  in  the  same  direction,  C  A.  These  impulses  being' 
repeated  in  quick  succession,  the  fish  moves  forward  in  the  diagonal, 
C  D,  intermediate  between  the  directions  of  the  two  forces,"  of  which 
it  is  the  resultant. 

In  reptiles,  taking  the  Serpents,  we  find  that  their  motion  is 
effected  by  means  of  their  spine.  At  page  3,  ante.  Fig.  3,  an  en- 
graving illustrating  the  skeleton  of  the  Cobra  has  been  given.  The 
ribs  in  these  animals  are  the  only  organs  of  progression.  It  is  one 
of  the  animals  that  do  not  employ  legs  for  motion  on  the  ground. 
Some  Lizards  can  move  up  perpendicular  surfaces  by  a  species  of 
suction  ;  the  soles  of  their  feet,  as  in  the  Gecko,  being  provided  with 
a  series  of  small  plates,  which,  being  drawn  up  at  pleasure,  produce 
the  vacuum  necessary  for  their  adhering  to  a  wall  or  other  surface. 
In  the  water,  most  reptiles  use  their  legs  as  fishes  do  their  fins. 

The  progression  of  birds,  when  on  land,  is  effected  by  either  walk- 
ing or  hopping  on  their  posterior  extremities  only,  birds  being  the 
only  proper  bipeds  among  the  lower  animals  ;  and  they  are  enabled 
to  keep  themselves  erect  without  effort,  since  their  centre  of  gravity 
corresponds  to  the  region  where  the  anterior  extremities  are  attached, 
owing,  in  most  birds,  to  the  legs  being  directed  forwards,  and  the 
toes  more  elongated  ;  but  in  some — as 
the  Penguin  and  the  Puffin — to  the  trunk 
of  the  body  being  placed  almost  verti- 
cally. (See  Fig.  49).  Birds  are  enabled 
to  float  in  the  water,  owing  to  their 
specific  gravity  being  in  general  less 
than  that  of  the  fluid  ;  and  hence  they 
displace  only  as  much  of  it  as  is  equal 
to  their  own  weight,  according  to  the 
well-known  hydrostatic  law.  They  move 
along  its  surface  by  the  action  of  webbed 
feet,  the  Swan  appearing  to  use  its  wings, 
in  addition,  almost  in  the  manner  of 
sails.  But  the  characteristic  organ  of 
locomotion  in  birds  is  their  wings,  cor- 
responding, in  their  more  essential  parts, 
as  well  with  the  pectoral  fins  of  fishes 
as  with  the  fore-legs  of  reptiles  and 
quadrupeds,  and  the  arms  of  man.  The 
motions  of  these  are  effected  by  a  mass  of  muscles,  weighing  more 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  muscular  system  of  the  animal,  and  arising 
from  a  breast-bone  of  a  larger  size  than  is  met  with  in  any  other  class 
of  animals  ;  the  immense  power  thus  acquired  being  no  more  than  is 
necessary  to  enable  them  at  once  to  support  themselves  in  the  air, 
and  to  move  through  it  with  astonishing  velocity.  The  former  they 
effect  by  continually  renewing  the  column  of  air  below  them — and 
which  must  be  displaced,  in  order  to  allow  of  their  falling  to  the 
ground — more  rapidly  than  this  displacement  can  take  place  ;  and 
the  latter,  by  using  their  wings  in  the  manner  of  oars,  while  the  tail, 
at  the  same  time,  ser\'es  them  as  a  rudder.  In  this  way  birds,  as  the 
Carrier  Pigeons,  are  known  to  have  travelled  at  the  rate  of  sixty,  or 
even  one  hundred,  miles  an  hour. 

Among  the  Mammalia,  locomotion  is  almost  invariably  made  by 
the  feet,  and  hands  in  the  case  of  the  Apes,  Monkeys,  &c.  A  re- 
markable exception,  however,  occurs  in  the  Whale,  an  analogous  tribe, 
by  which  motion  is  effected  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  fishes. 
But  the  Cetaceffi  have  no  air-bladder,  which  is  an  important  element 
of  motion  in  fishes.  The  tail  of  the  Whale,  &c.,  is  the  chief  organ  of 
locomotion.  It  is  a  most  powerful  instrument ;  and  in  whaling  dis- 
tricts it  is  a  common  occurrence  for  the  boats  to  be  broken  in  half 
by  a  single  blow  of  that  appendage.  The  downward  and  upward 
motion  of  the  tail  in  Cetaceous  animals,  gives  to  many  of  them,  as 


Fig.  49. — Penguin. 


Fig.  50. — Harpyia  Pallasii. 

they  sport  near  the  surface  of  the  w^ater,  the  appearance  of  a  revolv- 
ing wheel.  Hence,  perhaps,  the  suggestion  of  a  Sea-serpent,  a 
monster  yet  to  be  discovered.  The  motion  of  the  Whale  resembles 
that  of  the   screw-steamer,   while   that   of  the  fishes  more  nearly 


resembles  that  of   the  paddle-steamer,  the  fins  partly  acting  as 

paddles. 

Very  few  quadrupeds  are  capable  of  aerial  motion  :  exceptions, 
however,  arc  found,  in  the  case  of  the  Hat,  the  Flying  Squirrel,  and 
the  Flying  Femur.  Their  progression  is  effected,  not  like  the  flying 
fishes  and  birds,  simply  by  their  anterior  extremities,  nor  like  the 
Flying  Lizards,  by  their  ribs,  but  by  winglike  membranes  extended 
between  their  anterior  and  posterior  extremities,  the  motions  of  both 
of  which  are  requisite  to  call  them  into  action.  (See  Fig.  50). 
Quadrupeds  in  general  use  their  upper  limbs  only  in  conjunction 
with  their  lower  in  the  act  of  progression  ;  but  some  few,  as  Squirrels 
and  Apes,  use  them  also  as  we  do  our  arms,  the  arrangement  of 
their  skeleton  being  expressly  adapted  for  the  purpose.  In  standing, 
they  use  in  general  all  the  four  legs  ;  and  as  the  centre  of  gravity  is 
thus  preserved  without  effort,  they  easily  sleep  in  this  posture.  Some 
few,  however,  as  the  Kangaroo  and  Jerboa,  rest  on  their  hinder  legs 
alone,  the  centre  of  gravity  falling,  in  them,  almost  perpendicularly; 
but  such  also  use  their  strong  tails,  like  another  leg,  to  steady  them. 
In  climbing,  some,  like  the  Walrus  or  the  Lizard,  seem  to  attach 
themselves  to  any  surface  by  forming  a  vacuum  under  their  feet ;  but 
the  majority  use  their  claws  for  this  purpose.  In  the  case  of  the 
Kangaroo,  &c.,  motion  is  effected  by  a  series  of  leaps  that  the  ani- 
mal can  produce,  owing  to  the  great  development  of  the  muscles  of 
the  hind-legs.  Leaping  is  a  motion  also  practised  by  fishes,  insects, 
&c.,  as  may  be  observed,  in  regard  to  the  latter,  in  the  Flea,  which 
can  jump  through  a  space  equal  to  several  hundred  times  that  of  its 
own  length. 

DISTRIRUTION  OF  MAN  AND  THE  LOWER  ANUtALS. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  studies  that  is  connected  with  Natural 
History,  is  that  of  the  distribution  of  animals  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 
When  the  question  is  confined  to  man  alone,  the  science  of  FxHNO- 
LOGY  (nation-study),  is  that  mostly  dealt  with.  In  its  present  use 
the  term  is  of  extended  character,  for  this  science  not  only  deals  with 
the  different  nations  of  the  world,  but  also  with  the  varieties  of  the 
human  species.  We  do  not  purpose  entering  into  this  subject 
further  than  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  characteristics  of  human 
variety,  due  to  a  number  of  causes  ;  but  it  must  be  distinctly  under- 
stood that  we  deal  in  this  work  with  JIAN  as  arising  from  one  pair  of 
human  beings  ;  and  our  views,  therefore,  will  be  in  entire  opposition 
to  what  is  called  the  theory  of  "  Evolution."  To  be  plain,  we  mean 
that  man  is,  ^cr  se,  a  sole  member  of  the  Bimana,  and  that  he  has 
no  more  psychical  relation  to  the  Quadrinnana,  than  an  Ape  has  to 
a  Cod-fish.  It  will  be  desirable  that  we  should  first  take  a  general 
view  of  the  distribution  of  the  entire  animal  kingdom,  before' direct- 
ing special  attention  to  the  peculiarities  of  man  himself. 

Whatever  theories  may  be  adopted,  in  ethnology,  with  respect  to 
the  races  or  varieties  of  men  ;  in  zoology,  regarding  animals  ;  in 
botany,  as  to  plants,  &c.  ;  and  the  inferences  we  may  draw,  geolo- 
gically, from  specimens  of  extinct  species,  respecting  their  former 
regions  of  existence  ; — it  is  patent  to  the  most  cursory  observer,  that, 
with  the  exception  of  man,  all  classes  and  families  of  animals  and 
plants  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  considered  indigenous  to  certain 
climates.  The  varieties  of  species  are  certainly  very  numerous  ;  and 
normal  characteristics  are  often  modified  by  various  circumstances. 
Thus  the  breed  of  cattle  and  Horses,  the  quality  of  fruit,  (Src,  are 
respectively  the  subjects  of  change  when  those  are  removed  from  the 
country  in  which  they  exist  in  a  wild  or  uncultivated  state.  The  art 
of  training  both  plants  and  animals  to  undergo  and  bear  this  change, 
has,  of  late  years,  been  carefully  studied,  and  exceedingly  interesting 
results  have  accrued.  The  subject  is  one  of  great  importance  in 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  as  it  is  now  being  constantly  attempted 
to  introduce  animals,  &c.,  into  our  colonies,  not  only  to  improve  the 
existing  stock,  but  also  to  add  other  and  useful  forms  to  it.  The 
Alpaca,  Salmon,  poultry.  Pheasants,  &c.,  have  thus  been  transported 
to  our  Australian  settlements,  and  are  likely  to  be  extremely  produc- 
tive, and  of  great  service  ;  and  the  cinchona  plant  has  similarly  been 
carried  to  India,  and  has  already  afforded  a  most  abundant  supply  of 
quinine,  so  essential  in  cases  of  debility,  ague,  Otc,  in  tropical 
climates.  These  show  striking  instances  of  the  value  which  is 
attached  to  the  study  of  physical  geography  in  connection  with  that 
of  Natural  History. 

The  distribution  of  plants  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  not 
only  for  the  vegetable  food  of  man,  but  as  also  affecting  those 
animals  on  which  he  depends  for  sustenance,  carriage,  farm-labour, 
&c.  ;  and  hence  every  civilised  country  has  certain  features,  both 
physical  and  social,  which  more  or  less  distinguish  it  from  others. 
It  is  true  that  the  extensive  application  of  steam  in  railways,  vessels, 
machiner)',  &c.,  is  fast  obliterating  these  distinctive  characteristics 
in  many  places  ;  but  the  progress  of  such  improvements  is  slow, 
compared  with  the  extent  over  which  they  must  spread,  before  the 
revolution  they  have  to  effect  is  completed.  In  our  country  such 
progress  is  rapid,  as  also  in  many  others  in  Europe  and  North 
America ;  but  most  of  the  colonics  still  have  to  depend  on  brute 
force  for  the  saving  of  human  labour. 

We  have  already  pointed  out,  at  pages  i  and  4,  ante,  the  great 


i6 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 


points  of  distinction  that  exist  in  animals  in  relation  to  their  teeth, 
their  food,  and  their  habits.  In  the  particular  case  of  our  Sheep 
and  Horses  we  have  an  illustration  of  this.  These  animals  depend 
entirely  for  sustenance  on  the  grasses  or  inferior  cereals  ;  and  where 
such  can  be  obtained  of  good  quality,  and  in  sufficient  abundance, 
the  breed  of  each  is  not  only  supported  in  quantity,  but  the  quality 
is  simultaneously  improved.  In  England,  particular  attention  has 
been  paid  to  this  ;  and  the  breeds  have  been  so  improved,  that  the 
Horses,  cattle,  and  wool  of  this  country  equal  any  other,  and,  in 
many  cases,  exceed  in  quality  those  of  the  very  countries  from  which 
the  original  stock  was  first  imported.  This  has  arisen  chiefly  from 
our  climate  being  peculiarly  suitable  for  such  purposes,  aided  by 
judicious  training,  and  careful  attention  to  the  natural  history  of 
each  animal. 

We  next  turn  to  inquire  how  far  climate,  latitude  and  longitude, 
and  elevation,  and  other  circumstances  of  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
affect  the  distribution  of  the  lower  animals. 

Turning  to  Lapland,  and  the  extreme  north  of  Europe  generally, 
we  find  that  cattle  and  Horses  are  there  replaced  by  an  entirely 
different  animal,  the  Reindeer.  An  almost  total  absence  of  grass  is 
compensated  for  by  an  abundance  of  lichen,  which  is  the  favourite 
food  of  that  useful  creature  ;  and  thus  the  exigencies  of  the  climate 
are  completely  met  by  a  peculiar  adaptation  of  the  vegetable  to  the 
animal  kingdom,  brought  about  even  by  its  extreme  severity;  whilst 
the  human  being  has,  "in  one  animal,  a  source  of  food  and  clothing, 
and  a  beast  of  draught.  The  Camel  in  Africa  and  Arabia,  the 
Elephant  in  India,  the^Llama  in  Peru  and  Chili,  &c.,  are  instances  of 
a  similar  kind— all  tending  to  show  how  climatic  variety  is  com- 
pensated for,  in  a  manner  as  complete  as  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  require. 

The  subjects  of  food,  temperature,  and  clothing,  must  be  simul- 
taneously considered  in  connection  with  the  distribution  of  animals  ; 
for  these  three  points  are  those  on  which  their  existence  depends  ; 
the  skin  and  its  covering  (see  ante,  p.  6)  being  an  additional  and 
most  important  matter  in  the  economy  of  animal  life.  In  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  the  organs  of  respiration  and  digestion  are  of  so 
simple  a  character  as  to'  be  more  easily  adapted  to  varieties  of 
change,  and  the  food  is  usually  present.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
animal  has  nothing  but  its  instincts  to  guide  it  in  the  search  for  food  ; 
and  from  this  arise  all  the  circumstances  which  affect  its  longevity, 
productive  powers,  &c.  ;  the  accident  of  its  life  being  induced 
by  its  cravings  for  sustenance,  and,  in  fact,  struggles  for  existence. 

Commencing  with  one  of  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life,  as  the 
Moltusca,  we  find  them  pretty  equally  distributed  throughout  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  ;  but  always  in  respect  to  the  peculiarities  of 
each  climate  ;  for  certain  kinds  are  found  only  within  well-defined 
limits  of  latitude,  beyond  which  they  rarely  exist.  Amongst  the 
lowest  class  of  creatures,  the  coral  Polypi  are  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  certain  parts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  where,  for  ages  past, 
they  have  been  slowly  but  surely  rearing  islands,  now  rapidly 
becoming  the  centres  of  civilisation.  Amongst  Fish,  again,  we  find 
that  some  are  confined  to  certain  zones,  beyond  which  they  are 
rarely  seen  :  instances  of  this  are  found  in  the  Salmon  tribe,  which  is 
limited  to  the  cool,  temperate,  or  sub-arctic  zones.  But  many  of 
the  tribes,  apparently  indigenous  to  our  northern  seas  and  rivers, 
have  their  representatives  or  substitutes  in  those  of  low  latitudes,  the 
species  corresponding,  except  in  some  physiological  adaptation 
required  by  altered  circumstances  of  existence  ;  the  type  being 
retained,  whilst  the  exact  identity  is  somewhat  affected. 

Amongst  the  licpiilia,  as  the  Lizards,  or  Saurian  tribe,  the  Lori- 
cata,  &c. — of  which  our  common  Field  Lizard  is  typical,  and  the 
analogue  of  the  Crocodiles  and  Alligators  of  the  Nile,  India,  and 
America — the  development  proceeds  rapidly  as  to  size  and  strength, 
as  lower  latitudes  are  reached.  The  variety  of  these  classes  is  very 
extensive  about  the  equatorial  and  tropical  regions,  where  they 
abound  both  on  land  and  in  water.  Equally,  amongst  Birds,  also, 
the  same  climatic  law  is  influential  ;  the  Eagle  of  Scotland  and 
Norway  has  its  family  represented  in  the  Himalayas,  and  by  the 
Condor  in  the  Andes  ;  and  we  may  observe  the  same  fact  throughout 
the  whole  class.  In  some  islands,  however,  exceptions  exist,  as  in 
the  Apteryx  and  the  Dinornis  of  New  Zealand,  the  Emeu  of  Australia, 
the  Dodo  of  Madagascar,  &c.  ;  but  still,  comparative^  anatomists 
can  find  connecting  links  for  this  apparently  broken  chain. 

With  respect  to  Mammalia,  the  distinction  of  climate  is  very 
remarkable.  The  Qiiadrianana  (Monkeys,  &c.)  are  invariably 
inhabitants  of  tropical  countries ;  as  are  the  Carnivora  (the  Lion, 
Tiger,  &c.),  with  comparatively  few  exceptions.  The  Pachyderniata 
(Elephant,  Rhinoceros,  Hippopotamus,  &c.)  are  nearly  limited  to 
those  regions.  The  Rodeutia  (Beavers,  Rats,  Hares,  &c.)  are 
more  extensively  distributed,  for  their  food  is  more  generally 
diffused  in  its  grov/th.  A  similar  remark  applies  to  the 
Insectivora.  The  Edentata  are  almost  exclusively  confined  to 
tropical  countries,  especially  on  the  south  of  the  equator:  they 
include  the  Ant-eater,  Pangolin,  Sloth,  &c.  The  Ruminantia,  in 
which  our  domestic  animals  (of  which  we  have  already  spoken)  are 
comprised,  embrace  a  vast  variety,  as  the  Camel,  Llama,  Deer, 
Giraffe,  Goat,   Bison,  Buffalo,  &c.     Amongst  the  Horse  tribe,  or 


Solidungula,  we  may  notice  how  much  the  Ass  is  degenerated  in 
our  climate,  compared  with  his  appearance,  temper,  &c.,  in  regions 
more  southerly,  as  in  Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  &c. ,  where  he  appears 
to  great  advantage ;  and,  indeed,  there  some  species  are  of  great 
beauty,  and  even  swiftness,  as  is  seen  in  the  Djiggetai  of  Central 
Asia.  Possibly  the  Zebra  may  also  be  allied  to  it,  for  it  partakes  of 
many  of  its  characteristics.  The  Sirenia,  as  the  Manatees  and 
Dugongs,  resemble,  in  many  respects,  our  Cetacea  (Whales)  and 
PinJiipedia  (Seals) ;  whilst  the  Marsupialia  (Kangaroos)  are  allied 
to  the  Opossum  of  America. 

Taking  the  two  most  prolific  continents  of  animal  life,  some 
remarkable  facts  appear,  that  show  how  much  the  physical  character 
of  the  country  influences  the  species,  &c. ,  of  animals.  For  example, 
Africa  contains  over  300  species  of  animals,  of  which  242  are  peculiar 
to  that  continent.  Of  fifty-five  species  of  Quadrumana,  forty-eight 
are  peculiar;  of  the  Chiroptera  (Bats,  &c.),  there  are  thirty  species, 
of  which  twenty-six  are  peculiar  ;  of  the  Carnivora,  sixty-six  species, 
of  which  fifty-two  are  peculiar;  of  the  Rodentia  (Hares,  &c.),  forty- 
eight  species,  having  thirty  peculiar ;  of  the  Edentata,  three,  all 
peculiar  ;  of  the  Pachydermata  (Elephants,  &c.),  fifteen  species, 
twelve  peculiar ;  of  the  Ruminantia,  seventy-three  species,  sixty-three 
peculiar ;  and  of  ten  species  of  the  Cetacea  (Whales,  &c.),  eight 
are  peculiar  to  Africa.  In  Asia  there  are  no  less  than  180  species 
of  the  Ape  and  Monkey  tribe,  and  other  animals  are  characterised 
of  peculiar  species  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  found  in  Africa. 

We  have  specially  remarked  on  the  clothing  of  animals,  as  being 
peculiarly  related  to  the  climate  in  which  any  species  is  indigenous. 
Several  remarkable  instances  of  this  maybe  cited.  The  Arctic  Bear, 
Thalassarctos  maritimus  of  naturalists,  exclusively  a  native  of  the 
polar  regions,  is  clothed  with  a  profusion  of  hair,  the  texture  and 
colour  of  which  prevents  the  rapid  conduction  and  radiation  of  heat 
from  its  body.  Even  the  feet  are  covered  with  hair,  which  is 
supposed  to  give  it  a  firm  hold  when  walking  over  the  snow  and  ice. 
The  Arctic  Fo.x,  Vitlpes  lagopiis,  is  similarly  clothed  with  abundant 
fur ;  but  what  is  remarkable,  the  hair,  which  is  of  a  dark-brown 
colour  in  summer,  becomes  quite  white  in  winter,  increasing  rapidly 
in  length  and  thickness,  just  as  the  exigency  of  the  severe  climate 
necessitates  such  a  protection.  Some  species  of  the  Hare,  as  the 
Leptis  variabilis,  and  of  the  Weasels,  as  the  Ermine  {Mustela 
erminea),  which  are  confined  to  the  colder  climates,  have  the  colour 
of  the  fur  changed  similarly  as  winter  approaches :  this  may 
frequently  be  noticed  in  both  animals  in  the  northern  parts  of  our 
own  country.  Amongst  the  Dog  tribe,  or  Ca?zidce,  as  the  New- 
foundland and  St.  Bernard  breed,  we  find  a  similar  provision  against 
the  extreme  cold,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  clothing  of  the  Grey- 
hound, &c.,  which  are  indigenous  to  milder  climates.  Numerous 
instances  of  this  kind  might  be  adduced ;  but  the  above  will  be 
sufficient  to  show  how  much  the  natural  clothing,  &c.,  of  the 
animal  becomes  self-adaptable  to  climatic  extremes,  and  excessive 
ranges  in  the  temperature  of  the  seasons. 

With  respect  to  the  growth  of  food  specially  adapted  to  certain 
species  of  animals,  and  which  we  have  already  noticed  in  respect  to 
cattle,  Horses,  Sheep,  &c.,  we  may  add  a  few  more  instances  that 
are  well  worthy  of  notice,  as  indicative  of  the  climate  of  many 
regions.  The  Deer  tribe  are  very  fond  of  certain  kinds  of  lichens, 
and  both  the  plants  and  animals  begin  to  be  simultaneously  developed 
as  the  climate  becomes  suitable  for  each.  In  the  north  of  Scotland, 
for  example.  Wild  Deer  are  scattered  sparsely,  and  so  is  their 
lichen-food ;  but  as  we  proceed  further  north,  as  in  Lapland,  Ice- 
land, and  Greenland,  both  the  animal  and  vegetable — which  are, 
comparatively  speaking,  a  curiosity  in  our  country — become  essential 
to  the  existence  of  the  inhabitants  ;  the  lichen  islandicus,  or  Iceland 
moss,  for  example,  being  an  abundant  and  characteristic  production 
of  that  country. 

Taking  an  extreme  case  of  a  similar  nature,  let  us  transfer  our 
observations  to  a  climate  of  an  entirely  opposite  character — namely, 
that  of  the  parched  deserts  of  Northern  Africa  and  Arabia.  The 
herbage  produced  is  at  once  scanty  and  coarse,  and  utterly  unfit  to 
support  Horses  ;  but  the  Camel  feeds  well  on  it,  and  is  also  enabled, 
by  its  peculiar  constitution,  even  to  accumulate  a  kind  of  stock  of 
food,  in  the  shape  of  the  fat  which  forms  its  humps,  and  which  are 
gradually  assimilated  into  the  system  whenever  its  ordinary  food 
cannot  be  obtained.  Its  stomach  is  so  arranged  in  deep  cells,  as  to 
enable  it  to  retain  a  store  of  water  when  necessary,  the  cells  being 
expanded  or  contracted  by  the  voluntary  or  instinctive  action  of  the 
quadruped.  If  taken  far  northward,  it  is  removed  from  its  natural 
sphere,  and  will  die,  in  places  where  the  Horse  tribe  are  produced  in 
the  greatest  numbers,  and  in  the  best  condition  ;  yet  the  Llama, 
which  is  the  Camel  of  South  America,  is  impatient  of  heat,  and, 
being  a  native  of  the  Andes,  frequently  retreats,  in  warm  weather,  to 
the  snow-line — generally  living  in  flocks,  at  a  great  altitude  above 
the  sea-level.  In  Peru  and  Chili,  the  Llama  is  employed  as  a  beast 
of  draught ;  as  is  the  Camel  in  Arabia  and  Africa ;  and,  like  it, 
affords  food  and  clothing  to  the  natives  of  those  rocky  and  mountain- 
ous countries.  Singularly  enough,  it  varies  from  the  Camel  (whose 
feet  are  adapted  for  walking  on  sand)  in  having  completely  divided 
toes,  which  are  thus  so  suitable  for  climbing  the  rocks  ;  and  also  in 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 


17 


the  absence  of  humps,  which  its  more  abundant,  or  perhaps  exten- 
sively diffused,  food  renders  unnecessary.  Its  clothing  is  a  woolly 
hair,  remarkable  for  its  warmth,  and  it  effectually  protects  the  ani- 
mal from  the  sudden  changes  of  climate  that  occur  in  travelling  from 
the  plains  to  the  mountains,  so  universal  near  the  western  coasts  of 
South  America. 

From  what  has  been  already  stated,  it  will  be  evident  that  certain 
species  of  animals  are  only  found  in  definite  tracts  or  zones.  Such 
localities  have  been  termed  spccijic  centres ;  and  it  is  from  these 
that  animals  of  certain  species  have  been  spread,  accidentally  or 
otherivise,  in  countries  to  which  they  do  not  naturally  belong — m  a 
like  manner,  indeed,  to  the  transplantation  of  objects  of  vegetable 
growth  into  climates  similar  to  those  in  which  they  grow  naturally. 
In  judging  of  the  original  place  of  any  species,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  influences  besides  those  of  climate  are  constantly  active 
in  effecting  changes  ;  and  none,  perhaps,  more  so  than  the  progress 
of  civilisation.  Man  has  driven  before  him  many  animals  from  their 
ancient  haunts  ;  as,  in  our  own  country,  the  Wolf,  Bear,  Hyrena, 
Beaver,  &c.,  have  long  been  extinct.  In  geology,  we  are  often  able 
to  judge  of  the  climate  which  must  have  existed  ages  ago,  in  many 
places,  by  finding  fossils  of  certain  animals,  comparing  them  with 
existing  species,  and  inferring,  from  the  habits  of  such,  what  must 
have  been  those  of  their  ancient  families.  An  instance  of  this  kind 
is  presented  by  the  Fossil  Elk  of  Ireland,  which  has  undoubtedly 
existed  since  the  creation  of  man.  It  is,  therefore,  highly  essential 
that  the  exact  specific  centre  of  any  recent  and  existing  species 
should  be  carefully  ascertained,  as  otherwise,  in  the  comparison  of 
them  with  fossil  remains,  serious  errors  may  arise.  Occasionally  we 
meet  with  animals  whose  specific  centres  are  so  exactly  shown,  as  to 
leave  no  reasonable  doubt  of  their  being  confined  to  one  region.  Of 
this  kind  arc  the  Ornithorhyncidai  and  Echidnidcc,  natives  exclu- 
sively of  Australia  and  Tasmania.  These  two  families  resemble 
each  other  in  some  respects  :  the  Ornithorhynchus,  however,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  having  the  jaws  precisely  like  the  bill  of  the  duck,  with 
a  body  resembling  that  of  the  ordinary  quadruped  ;  many  of  the 
organs,  &c.,  presenting  analogies  to  that  of  the  birds.  In  the 
Echidna,  the  snout  is  produced  into  a  long  cylindrical  organ,  the 
body  being  thick  and  short,  and  covered  with  hairs.  These  two 
families  are  certainly  paradoxes  in  natural  history,  and  afford  re- 
markable instances  of  the  restriction  of  animals  within  certain  specific 
centres. 

Perhaps  we  may  be  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  these  singular 
creatures  (and  entertain  the  hope  of  many  more  in  the  Australian 
continent),  to  the  fact,  that  man  has,  as  yet,  done  little  there  in  "im- 
proving "  its  immense  extent  of  uncultivated,  and,  indeed,  unexplored 
territory.  Not  only  does  civilisation  wage  war  with  the  brute  crea- 
tion, but  even  our  own  species,  when  found  as  Aborigines  in  any 
country,  soon  undergo  a  similar  fate,  as  may  be  witnessed  in  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  American  continent,  but 
especially  in  that  called  the  United  States.  This  will  be  specially 
noticed  hereafter.  In  many  parts,  wholesale  extermination,  or  extra- 
dition, has  been  resorted  to,  especially  in  the  southern  districts  ;  and 
the  destruction  of  the  Aborigines  by  the  Spaniards,  in  other  parts  of 
the  continent,  is  too  fresh  in  the  minds  of  our  readers  to  require  re- 
cital here.  In  most  instances,  the  original  inhabitants,  where 
undisturbed  and  completely  acclimatised,  live  happily  and  healthily 
in  regions  which  are  almost  surely  the  grave  of  the  intruding  white 
man.  The  coasts  of  South  America,  Western  Africa,  &c.,  afford 
illustrations  of  this  fact,  and  astonishingly  declare,  even  in  the  case 
of  the  almost  ever-accommodating  constitution  of  our  species,  that 
we  are  subject  to  the  law  of  specific  centres,  the  removal  from  which 
may  be  productive  of  danger,  or  extinction  in  some  cases — only, 
imder  any  circumstances,  to  be  provided  against  by  an  intelligence 
of  which  the  lower  kinds  of  animals  are  entirely  destitute. 

But  although  quadrupeds  seem  unable  to  exist  in  other  than 
climates  similar  to  that  in  which  they  are  native,  except  under 
special  circumstances — as  when  under  the  care  of  man — and,  further, 
cannot  shift  from  place  to  place,  in  cases  of  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature, for  any  great  distance;  we  find  amongst  the  Birds  a 
powerful  instinct,  by  which  they  remove  themselves  from  one  country 
to  another  at  certain  seasons,  and  so  escape  the  inconveniences  or 
death  which  they  would  otherwise  have  to  suffer.  In  some  birds,  as 
the  Swallow,  this  migratory  instinct  is  most  strongly  manifested, 
even  so  far  as  to  cause  them  to  forget  their  progeny,  if  it  have  been 
hatched  late  in  the  summer  season,  and  but  just  previously  to  the 
usual  time  of  their  autumnal  flight  for  other  regions.  This  instinct 
is  not  confined  solely  to  one  order  of  birds,  nor  to  any  particular 
climate,  at  least  within  the  limits  of  the  temperate  and  Arctic  zones, 
but  is  almost  universal.  Amongst  the  Natatores,  some  of  the  Auks, 
which  are  Arctic  birds,  leave  their  native  regions,  and  visit  our 
coasts — going,  as  winter  advances,  even  so  far  south  as  Italy  and 
Sicily :  so  do  the  PuflBns,  Terns.  Teals,  Widgeons,  Pochards,  Wild 
Swans  and  Geese,  Flamingoes,  &c.  Of  the  Grallatores,  the 
Crakes,  Snipes,  Tatlers,  Spoonbills,  Storks,  Herons,  Cranes,  &c., 
similarly  migrate  ;  some  of  this  order  spending  the  winter  in  Africa 
and  South  Asia,  returning  to  the  far  north  to  breed  in  spring.  The 
Ctirsores,  Ostriches,   &c.,  possessing  wings  of  but  a  rudimentary 


nature,_  are,  like  the  quadrupeds,  confined  to  one  region  throughout 
their  lives;  and  their  physical  characters  accord  with  this  law  of 
their  existence.  Amongst  the  Rasorcs,  some  are  migratory,  as  the 
Quails,  ^c. ;  but,  generally  speaking,  they  remain  in  their  native 
country,  having  but  little  powers  of  flight.  It  is  from  this  order  that 
man  has  selected,  out  of  the  class  of  birds,  those  which  are  now 
domesticated ;  amongst  them  being  the  Fowl  tribe.  Pheasants, 
Partridges,  the  Peacock,  &c.  The  Columba:,  or  Doves,  in  this,  as 
in  most  respects,  resemble  the  Rasores :  some,  however,  as  the 
Turtle-dove,  Coltimba  turttir,  are  migratorj'.  In  this  order  is  in- 
cluded the  extinct  Dodo.  The  Scuiisn/cs,  comprising  the  Cuckoos, 
Woodpeckers,  Parrots,  and  Toucans,  have  at  least  the  first-named 
bird  migratory,  as  is  well  known  by  its  welcome  visit  to  this  country 
in  early  spring.  Amongst  the  Passeres — one  of  the  largest  orders  of 
birds,  including  our  chief  songsters — the  Nightingale  is  another  wel- 
come visitor  to  England,  extending  its  passage  to  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  Russia,  but  rarely  going  so  far  north  with  us  as  even  the  south 
of  Scotland  :  the  migration  of  the  Swallow  tribe  is  familiar  to  all. 
The  Raptorcs,  or  Birds  of  Prey,  comprising  the  Owls,  Eagles,  Fal- 
cons, &c.,  like  the  Cartiivora  amongst  the  Mammalia,  confine 
themselves  to  their  own  specific  centres,  having  a  ready  supply  of 
food  generally  at  their  command,  and  their  clothing  being  abundantly 
provided  in  the  thick  covering  of  feathers  which  protect  them  in  all 
seasons. 

So  far  we  have  noticed  the  distribution  of  animals  inferior  to  man. 
From  the  brief  summary  we  have  given,  it  will  appear  that  the  whole 
system  of  animated  nature  is  so  regulated  that  every  circumstance  is 
provided  for.  From  the  Quadrumana  to  the  lowest  protozoa,  all  the 
conditions  of  sustenance,  growth,  reproduction,  &c.,  are  singularly 
adapted  to  each  order,  genus,  and  species.  But  if  the  specific 
centres  of  the  individual  be  changed,  there  is  a  certain  elasticity  in 
the  laws  of  nature  by  which  the  conditions  of  such  specific  centres 
may  be  modified.  Hence  arises  our  power  of  acclimatising  animals 
in  similar  climates,  although  situated  thousands  of  miles  apart  : 
within  certain  limits,  in  fact,  we  are  able  to  transfer,  for  example, 
the  animals  of  our  climate  to  those  of  a  similar  character  (as  in 
Australia)  in  latitudes  south  of  the  equator.  If  we  can  provide 
similar  food,  it  does  not,  in  many  instances,  prevent  our  removing  ani- 
mals far  from  their  original  centre  ;  bearing  in  mind,  however,  the 
additional  conditions  of  temperature  and  climate  in  general. 

We  next  turn  to  the  distribution  of  our  own  species,  MAN :  and 
without  entering  deeply  into  Ethnology  (see  p.  15,  ante),  we  may 
draw  attention  to  several  matters  illustrating  the  most  interesting 
parts  of  that  science. 

A  little  reflection  reminds  us  that  our  world  is  peopled  with  a  vast 
variety  of  human  beings,  whose  differences  are  at  once  physical, 
mental,  and  moral.  These  three  qualities  of  our  race  almost  always 
vary  simultaneously ;  in  fact,  there  is  evidently  an  established  law 
which  governs  moral  and  mental  development,  in  connection  with 
that  of  the  body.  In  the  same  tribes  of  any  nation,  the  difference  of 
the  sexes  is  due,  not  so  much  to  an  original  mental  and  moral  cast, 
as  to  the  difference  of  physical  organisation.  It  hence  follows,  that 
whatever  influence  acts  on  the  body,  reacts  on  the  sentient  principle  ; 
and,  by  a  repetition  of  action,  a  permanent  habit  is  created,  which 
at  last  becomes  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  individual  of  the  tribe, 
and,  consequently,  of  that  -"ariety  of  the  human  species  to  which  it 
belongs.  With  the  broad  causes,  and  their  specific  effects,  we 
cannot  here  deal,  but  must  confine  ourselves  entirely  to  such  as  arise 
from  the  action  of  climate,  as  of  heat,  moisture,  &c.,  and  the 
ordinary  food  that  the  climate  in  which  the  individual  resides,  affords 
for  his  sustenance.  We  cannot  enter  into  the  philological  distinc- 
tion of  the  varieties  of  man  ;  that  is,  those  relating  to  speech  or 
language,  dialects,  &c.  For  a  description  of  these  we  must  refer 
the  reader  to  works  by  Latham,  Pritcliard,  and  others,  where  such 
matters  are  fully  discussed. 

Commencing  with  the  northern  regions,  we  find  the  Esquimaux 
and  Laplanders,  inhabitants  of  the  Arctic  zones,  generally  speaking, 
to  be  of  exceedingly  small  stature,  and  ordinarily  deficient  of  mental 
and  moral  culture.  They  mostly  lead  a  travelling  life,  obtaining 
their  food  by  the  chase  ;  some  of  it,  as  the  Seal,  &c.,  being  of  the 
coarsest  kind :  the  habitations,  with  the  Esquimaux,  are  generally 
snow-burrov/s.  For  a  lengthened  period  of  the  year  they  live  in 
darkness,  owing  to  the  long  night  which  the  absence  of  the  sun 
occasions  during  winter;  and  hence  their  climate  cuts  them  off  from 
most  associations  of  the  beautiful  in  nature,  which,  to  more  favoured 
people  in  the  south,  are  sources  of  education,  and  refinement  of  mind 
and  taste.  The  entire  duties  of  their  existence  seem,  in  fact,  to  be 
comprised  in  two  branches — one,  of  seeking  their  food ;  and  the 
other,  of  eating  it.  Frequently  owing  to  the  depth  of  snow,  supply 
fails  them,  and  thus  another  misfortune  is  added  to  the  peculiarities 
of  their  condition,  by  the  nature  of  the  climate  in  which  they  con- 
stantly live. 

To  those  dwelling  in  the  temperate  zones,  it  may  seem  impossible 
to  picture  a  more  forlorn  state  than  that  possessed  by  such  people. 
Yet  they  seem  to  find  an  existence  not  only  tolerable,  but  even  have 
enjoyments,  which  are  certainly  peculiar  to  themselves.  Habit  and 
nature  have  so  far  acclimatised  them,  that  they  rarely,  if  ever,  stray 


iS 


VARIETIES  OF  MAN. 


into  more  southerly  climes  ;  the  Reindeer,  Doffs,  Fish,  Seals,  &c., 
which  are,  like  them,  indigenous  to  the  country,  provide  them  in 
food,  with  clothing,  and  the  means  of  moving  from  place  to  place  ; 
and  the  oil  of  the  Whale,  with  such  drift-wood  as  is  cast  on  the 
shores  of  the  lakes  and  seas,  affords  fuel  and  artificial  light.  In 
fact,  they  are  as  much  adapted  to  what  we  may  call  the  ' '  specific 
centre  "  of  their  existence,  as  are  any  of  the  lower  forms  of  creation 
to  which  we  have  previously  devoted  our  inquiries.  In  person,  both 
Esquimaux  and  Laplander,  although  of  short  stature,  are  strong, 
active,  and  hardy :  they  are  dirty  in  their  habits,  addicted  to  the  use 
of  ardent  spirits  when  they  can  obtain  them,  and  the  Esquimaux  are 
e.xtravagantly  fond  of  oil  as  an  essential  article  of  food. 

The  latter  particulars  are,  however,  explicable  on  chemical  and 
physiologiv.al  principles.  The  intense  cold  of  the  climate  requires  a 
constant  supply  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  the  food,  which,  by  slow 
combustion,  during  the  process  of  respiration,  may  educe  animal 
heat.  That  the  craving  for  fatty  matter  is  not  confined  to  them, 
under  such  circumstances,  has  been  proved  by  the  experience  of  all 
Arctic  navigators  ;  and  we  were  informed,  as  an  instance  of  the 
kind,  by  an  eminent  commander  of  one  of  the  expeditions  in  those 
regions,  that  tallow  candles  were  often  eaten  by  our  own  seamen 
whilst  they  were  journeying  with  sledges  over  the  snow— so  powerful 
does  our  instinct  lead  us  to  its  gratification,  even  in  objects  which, 
under  other  circumstances,  would  be  turned  from  with  extreme 
disgust.  With  respect  to  the  use  of  ardent  spirits  in  cold  climates, 
we  may  notice  that,  in  Sweden,  eight  gallons  are  consumed  by  each 
individual,  on  an  average  for  the  whole  population,  annually  ;  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Great  Britain,  it  is  well  known  that  stimulants 
may  be  drunk  with  impunity  to  an  extent  which  would  be  exceed- 
ingly injurious,  if  not  fatal,  in  warmer  climates. 

Although  anticipating  subsequent  observations,  we  must  here 
contrast  the  necessities  of  the  inhabitants,  their  tastes,  and  the 
natural  productions  of  the  country,  with  those  of  regions  of  a  different 
climate,  for  the  purpose  of  impressing  on  the  minds  of  our  readers 
the  fact,  that  each  zone  is,  in  every  respect,  peculiarly  adapted  for 
the  wants  of  the  individuals  whose  "  specific  centre  "  of  existence  is 
found  within  it.  Turning,  for  this  purpose,  to  Spain,  Portugal, 
South-France,  Italy,  and  Greece,  we  notice  that  the  characteristic 
vegetable  productions  (the  only  sure  indications  of  climate)  are  just 
such  as  the  exigencies  of  those  climates  demand.  The  fruits,  «&c. — 
as  the  grape,  melon,  orange— the  salads,  leguminous  products,  &c., 
are  all  chiefly  composed  of  water,  which  has  an  exactly  opposite 
alimentary  effect  on  the  animal  system  to  that  of  the  carbonaceous 
food,  so  abundantly  provided  in  the  northern  regions.  In  the  former 
countries,  the  external  temperature  leaves  little  to  be  required  in  the 
way  of  heat-giving  food ;  whereas  in  the  Arctic  climes  such  is  abso- 
lutely essential.  Even  the  natural  starch-food  of  hot  countries  has 
but  little  heating  power,  as  is  seen  in  the  rice  of  Egypt,  India, 
America,  &c. 

The  remarks  which  we  have  made  respecting;  the  Esquimaux,  may 
be,  within  certain  limitations,  applied  to  all  tribes  living  northward 
of  the  parallel  of  68°  to  70°  north  latitude,  in  both  hemispheres. 
They  have,  so  far  as  is  yet  known,  no  analogues  in  the  southern  or 
Antarctic  circle,  as  the  inhabited  land  in  those  regions  does  not 
extend  northward  beyond  about  60°  S.  ;  or,  perhaps,  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  in  lat.  55°  S.,  is  the  extreme  inhabitable  limit. 

We  must  now  take  a  broad  zone — say  from  65°  to  40°  of  north 
latitude,  between  which  are  comprised  what  are  called  the  temperate 
regions.  With  but  comparatively  trifling  exceptions,  in  respect  to 
number,  the  whole  of  the  civilised  world  may  be  considered  to  be 
comprised  within  these  limits,  excluding,  of  course,  the  Chinese 
empire.  Nearly  the  whole  of  inhabited  Europe,  and  North  America, 
containing  together  about  350  millions  of  people,  is  embraced 
between  those  parallels ;  and  here  art,  science,  literature,  commerce, 
&c.,  have  their  origin  and  home.  Without  being  too  minute  in  our 
inquiries,  it  is  impossible  not  to  notice  the  peculiarities  impressed 
on  each  variety  of  the  human  species  living  within  these  limits,  by 
the  circumstances  of  climate,  which,  in  many  cases,  corresponds  in 
its  boundary  to  the  political  and  social  divisions.  Moisture  and 
dryness  as  distinctly  mark  their  traces,  both  physically  and  mentally, 
on  each  people,  as  they  do  on  the  productions  of  the  earth,  amongst 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  Contrast,  for  instance,  the  phlegmatic 
Dutchman  with  the  volatile  and  vivacious  Frenchman ;  or  the 
plodding  and  steady-going  Briton,  even  with  himself,  when  trans- 
planted into  the  drier  climate  of  the  Canadas  and  the  United  States. 
The  latter  country,  although  peopled  by  immigrants  from  every 
civilised  nation  in  Europe,  has,  during  the  last  seventy  years,  pro- 
duced a  variety  of  humanity,  as  distinctly  marked  in  physical, 
mental,  and  social  peculiarities,  and,  as  contrasted  with  the  original 
stock,  as  are  the  changes  which  have  ever  been  produced  by  the 
acclimatisation  of  any  plant.  Indeed,  it  will  come  within  the 
experience  of  any  thoughtful  person,  that  removal  from  a  moist  to  a 
dry  climate,  produces,  in  the  course  of  years,  a  great  effect  on  any 
individual,  which  is  typical  of  the  change  of  species-characteristics, 
to  which  we  have  just  called  attention.  Generally  speaking,  the 
perception  becomes  keener ;  the  interval  between  volition  and 
action  shorter ;  and  hence,  boldness  of  enterprise,  whether  political 


or  commercial,  arises  as  a  natural  result :  the  adage,  "  Caelum,  non 
animan  tniefa?if,"  &c.,  of  the  Latin  poet,  might  have  held  good 
when  only  the  narrowest  sea  had  to  be  crossed,  but  loses  its  force  in 
our  time,  when  oceans  are  less  thought  of  than  were  lakes  in  former 
days. 

The  Chinese  empire  presents  as  marked  a  peculiarity  in  human 
history,  as  the  paradoxical  Australian  animal  * — to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made — does  in  natural  history  ;  the  specific  centre, 
in  either  case,  being  as  decidedly  marked.  Secluded,  until  within 
recent  years,  almost  completely  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  a 
national  policy,  the  Chinese  have  preserved  for  ages  the  individual 
peculiarities  which  denote  their  physical,  mental,  and  moral  condi- 
tion. Their  language — oral  and  written — habits,  customs,  dress, 
religion,  &c.,  all  seem  siii-generis,  and  afford  a  most  interesting 
study  to  the  ethnologist.  The  greater  portion  of  their  country  is 
comprised  between  the  parallels  of  20°  and  40°  of  north  latitude,  and 
hence  they  are  nearer  the  equator  by  several  degrees  than  is  any 
portion  of  Europe.  But  the  climate  does  not  greatly  differ  from  that 
of  the  south  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal ;  and,  coincident  with  that 
fact,  we  notice  that,  in  many  respects,  the  productions  of  the  earth 
resemble  such  as  are  found  in  the  countries  just  named.  The 
Chinese  territories,  therefore,  although  situated,  geographically,  in 
the  subtropical  zone,  really  belong,  climatically,  to  that  of  the  warm 
and  cool-temperate  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  how  many  of  the  mental 
characteristics  and  acquirements  of  the  people  correspond  to  those 
possessed  by  nations  similarly  situated  in  Europe.  Their  ingenuity 
is  surprising ;  the  arts  and  sciences  have  made  great  progress  ;  and, 
in  many  respects,  they  excel  Europeans.  All  the  appliances  of  agri- 
culture and  commerce  are  of  a  very  advanced  character;  and  in 
works  both  of  utility  and  ornament,  they  are  frequently  copied  or 
imitated  by  western  rivals.  The  Japanese,  whom  we  include  with 
the  Chinese,  have  shown  astonishing  skill  in  imitating  articles  of 
European  manufacture  ;  and  some  optical  instruments,  as  telescopes, 
&c.,  which  they  have  produced,  have  astonished  us  by  their  excel- 
lency of  construction.  Although  but  a  few  years  have  elapsed  since 
a  steam-vessel  was  first  seen  by  them,  they  have  been  able  to  pro- 
duce engines,  boilers,  &c.,  so  complete,  as  to  run  vessels  of  their 
own  construction  on  their  waters.  They  contrast  wonderfully  with 
the  nomadic  tribes  in  Central  Asia,  who,  within  the  same  parallels  of 
latitude,  but  living  at  a  great  elevation,  and  in  a  severe  climate,  are 
still  in  a  semi-savage  state,  devoid  of  all  the  arts,  and  chiefly  exist 
to  gratify  the  instincts  of  animal  nature. 

Africa,  owing  to  the  intense  heat,  and  the  unhealthiness  of  its 
climate,  has  been,  with  but  trifling  exceptions,  little  explored. 
Around  its  coasts  various  settlements  have  been  established  by  many 
nations,  since  the  fall  of  the  Egyptian  and  Carthaginian  empires,  up 
to  the  present  day  ;  but  every  glimpse  into  its  interior  has  revealed 
human  nature  in  its  darkest  forms,  both  literally  and  metaphorically. 
The  Africans  of  the  interior  are  completely  isolated,  both  by  the 
climate  and  difficulties  of  access  ;  and  seem  to  be  split  up  into  so 
many  varieties,  that  scarcely  anything  but  the  physical  characteristic 
has  been  arrived  at,  respecting  them,  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 
The  negroes  are  distinguished  from  every  other  variety  of  the  human 
race  by  the  darkness  of  the  skin,  the  woolliness  or  cotton-like  cha- 
racter of  the  hair,  protruding  and  thick  lips,  and  a  yellow  sclerotica 
of  the  eye  (see  a7ite,  p.  10).  In  contrast  with  these  we  may  describe 
the  Nubians,  who,  although  dwelling  between  latitudes  13°  and  24° 
north,  are  yet  situated  in  a  climate  strikingly  different  from  that  of 
the  negro  and  Hottentot  country — that  of  the  Nubians  being  from 
3,000  to  4,000  feet  of  elevation  above  the  sea-level.  Of  the  inhabit- 
ants in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Tshad,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
they  are  perhaps  the  lowest  specimens  of  humanity,  and  the  most 
complete  savages,  in  every  respect,  that  the  world  can  afford. 

In  North  and  South  America,  situated  between  70°  of  north  and 
55°  of  south  latitude,  great  variety  subsists.  The  Esquimaux  we 
have  already  described ;  and,  between  their  country  and  Mexico, 
numerous  tribes  of  Indians  roam,  whieh  are  now  rapidly  becoming 
extinct.  In  Mexico,  between  15°  and  30°  of  north  latitude — yet, 
generally  speaking,  at  about  6,000  or  8,000  feet  of  elevation  above 
the  sea-level,  and,  therefore,  although  situated,  geographically,  in 
the  tropics,  climatically  nearly  in  the  temperate  zone — civilisation 
formerly  existed  to  an  astonishing  extent.  The  pyramids,  temples, 
grottoes,  aqueducts,  bridges,  and  other  ruins,  attest  the  skill  of  the 
former  inhabitants,  not  only  in  architecture,  but  also  in  sculpture, 
picture-writing,  &c.  Passing  to  the  Carib  islands,  we  meet  with  the 
analogues  of  the  African  ;  whilst  in  Patagonia,  between  39°  and  55° 
of  south  latitude,  we  notice  a  fine,  tall,  robust,  active,  and  warlike 
race,  terminating,  in  a  cool  climate,  the  last  vestige  of  humanity  to 
the  south  of  the  equator. 

It  is  impossible  for  us  to  enter  fully  into  the  description  or  illustra- 
tion of  the  various  groups  into  which  the  human  race  is  divided  by 
ethnologists.  We  shall,  therefore,  choose  the  following  as  a  type  of 
some  of  the  most  important  varieties,  for  the  description  of  which  we 
are  indebted  to  Dr.  Latham. 

In  the  arrangement  adopted  by  Dr.  Latham,  his  first  group  comes 

*  See  remarks  on  the  Omithorbyncbus,  &c.,  at  p.  17. 


VARIETIES   OF  MAN. 


»9 


under  the  Mongolian  variety,  and  is  spread  over  Ladakh,  Bultistan 
(or  Little  Tibet),  Tibet,  Nepal,  Sikkim,  Butan,  Northern  India, 
Arakhan,  the  Burmese  Empire,  Siam,  Cambojia,  Cochin-China, 
Tonkin,  China,  the  Andaman  Islands,  Nicobar,  Carnicobar,  Hainan, 
and  the  Mergiii  Archipelago.  The  divisions  of  the  group  are 
Tibetan  (or  Bhot),  Siamese  (or  Thay),  Burmese,  Peguan  (or  Mon), 
Cambojian,  Anamitic  (or  Cochin-Chinese),  Chinese — various  tribes 
imperfectly  distributed  and  described  as  Sub-Himalayans,  Nagas, 
and  Sifan — Mincopic  (or  Andaman  Islanders),  and  Nicobarians. 

The  Mongolian  is  characterised  by  a  short  head,  a  broad  skull, 
and  a  fiat  face.     (See  Fig   si-)     So  decided  are  these  features,  that 


Fig.  SI. — The  Mongolian. 

the  conformation  of  his  head  and  face  is  a  recognised  term  of 
ethnology.  Many  populations  have,  if  not  exactly  the  same,  at 
least  similar  characteristics  more  or  less  distinct  from  those  which 
mark  the  Mongolian. 

The  most  constant  characters  of  this  vast  and  important  group  lie 
in  the  structure  of  their  numerous  languages,  and  in  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  bony  parts  of  the  head  and  face.  In  complexion  there 
are  wide  differences.  The  colour,  however,  of  the  hair  is  uniformly 
dark.  Neither  is  there  any  broad  separation  between  the  taller  and 
the  shorter  tribes  in  respect  to  stature.  They  are  more  under-sized 
than  over-sized.  The  chief  physical  differences  lie  in  the  tints  of 
the  skin.  The  lightest-coloured  tribes  are  the  natives  of  Cochin- 
China  and  Tonkin,  who  speak  the  Anamitic  language,  and  who  are 
not  very  widely  separated  from  the  true  Chinese.  These  latter  are 
tawny,  or  parchment-coloured ;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  as  to  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  the  character  of  their  hue.  It  is  yellow — yellow  rather 
than  brown — or  black-yellow  rather  than  copper-coloured  ;  though 
this  tinge  is  by  no  means  unknown.  In  respect  to  the  Anamese,  it 
has  been  remarked  that  they  wear  more  clothing,  and  expose  the 
body  less  than  any  of  the  populations  around  them.  Yet  we  doubt 
whether  this  gives  us  the  true  reason  for  their  comparative  fairness. 
They  lie  between  a  mountain  range  and  the  sea  ;  occupants  of  a 
district  wherein  no  vast  rivers  form  alluvial  tracts,  and  where  the 
wooded  slope  of  the  mountain-side  replaces  the  swamps  of  Cam- 
bojia, Pegu,  and  the  other  countries  in  the  same  latitude.  Now, 
the  former  are  the  conditions  that  most  favour  lightness  of  com- 
plexion ;  just  as  the  latter  determine  a  tendency  to  the  colour  of  the 
Negro. 

The  second  group  are  the  Turanians,  who  extend  over  Mongolia, 
Mantshuria,  Siberia,  Independent  Tartary,  Turkistan,  Anatolia, 
Roumelia  (or  Turkey  in  Europe),  parts  of  Bokhara,  Persia,  Armenia, 
Syria,  the  Crimea ;  Lapland,  Finland,  Esthonia,  Livonia,  the 
Russian  government  of  Archangel,  Olonetz,  Novogorod,  St.  Peters- 
burg, Iver,  Yaroslav,  Vologda,  Permia,  Viatka,  Kazan,  Simbirsk, 
Saratov,  Astrakan,  Caucasus,  Nizhnii-Novogorod,  Penza,  Tambov, 
Hungary,  the  Kurile  Islands,  Japan,  and  Kamskatka. 

The  primary  divisions  of  these  are — ist,  the  Mongolian  stock  ; 
and,  the  Tungusian  stock ;  3rd,  the  Turk  stock  ;  4th,  the  Ugrian 
stock ;  5th,  the  Peninsular  stock.  These  five  divisions  constitute 
tlie  great  Turanian  class,  which  some  call  Scyfhiati.  The  pro- 
posed name  is  Persian.     Much  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans  called  all 


nations  except  themselves  barbarians,  the  ancient  Persian  de- 
signated, by  the  name  Turan,  all  those  parts  of  Central  and 
Northern  Asia  from  which  so  many  wild  and  formidable  enemies 
were  in  the  habit  of  descending  upon  the  south.  The  ancestors  of 
the  Turks,  Mongols,  and  Ugrians,  were  assuredly  among  them. 

The  third  group  is  that  of  the  Caucasian,  in  the  circumscribed 
signification  of  the  term.    (See  Fig.  52.)    The  physiognomy  of  this 


Fig.  52.— The  Caucasian, 

variety  is  European  rather  than  Mongolian  ;  whilst  its  language  is 
rather  Monosyllabic  than  European.  The  area  occupied  is  the 
mountainous  region  of  the  Caucasus  ;  and  its  divisions  are — ist,  the 
Circassians ;  2nd,  the  Mizhdzhedzhi  (Mizhejeji) ;  3rd,  the  Iron  ;  4th, 
the  Georgians;  5th,  the  Lesgians  ;  6th,  the  Armenians. 

In  physical  conformation  the  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus  strik- 
ingly resemble  those  of  Persia,  and  the  higher  castes  of  India.  It 
is,  also,  like  that  of  the  Southern  Europeans  rather  than  the  Northern, 
Central,  and  Eastern  Asiatics.  It  is,  in  short,  Caucasian,  in  the 
rude  and  loose  sense  of  the  word.  The  populations  of  Georgia  and 
Circassia  had  been  considered  as  models  of  female  beauty  and  manly 
strength,  although  both  may  have  been  exaggerated.  Those  who 
have  lived  among  the  Caucasians,  and  have  had  opportunities  of 
judging  of  them  as  a  whole,  are  not  so  favourable  in  their  estimation 
of  either  the  beauty  of  the  one  or  the  strength  of  the  other  sex. 
Pallas  (as  quoted  by  Pritchard,  in' his  "Natural  History  of  Man") 
writes,  that  the  men,  "  especially  amongst  the  higher  classes,  are 
mostly  of  a  tall  stature,  their  form  being  of  Herculean  structure. 
They  are  very  slender  about  the  loins,  have  small  feet,  and  uncom- 
mon strength  in  their  arms.  They  possess,  in  general,  a  truly 
Roman  and  martial  appearance.  The  women  are  wo^ uniformly  Cir- 
cassian beauties  ;  but  are,  for  the  most  part,  well-formed,  have  a 
white  skin,  dark-brown  hair,  and  regular  features."  He  adds,  "  I 
have  met  with  a  greater  number  of  beauties  among  them  than  in  any 
o\hQV  unbolts  hednviWon."  Klaproth  writes,  that  "they  have  long 
faces,  and  thin  straight  noses  ;  "  and  speaks  of  the  Abyssinians,  a 
tribe  of  the  Circassians,  as  being  "distinguished  by  narrow  faces; 
heads  compressed  at  the  sides  ;  by  the  shortness  of  the  lower  part  of 
their  faces  ;  by  prominent  noses,  and  dark-brown  hair." 

Little  is  known  of  the  Mizhdzhedzhi  other  than  that  their  dialects 
cut  them  off  from  those  around  them.  They  occupy  a  central  dis- 
trict equally  removed  from  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas,  at  the 
fountain-head  of  the  Caucasian  rivers.  The  Iron  are  also  central, 
occupying  the  water-shed  between  the  Terek  and  the  Kaban  in  the 
north,  and  the  Kur  in  the  south,  overlooking  the  wide  valleys  of 
Georgia,  as  well  as  coming  in  contact  with  the  mountain  defiles  of 
Tshetshentsh.  Their  creed  is  an  imperfect  Christianity  of  recent 
origin.  The  most  favoured  part  of  Georgia  is  the  valley  of  the  Kur  ; 
the  province  of  Kartulinia,  of  which  Tiflis  is  the  principal  city.  A 
large  portion  of  Georgia,  however,  consists  of  a  rugged  mountain- 
range,  occupied  by  the  Mingrelians,  the  Imeritians,  and  the  Swani. 
The  Georgians  are,  of  all  the  Caucasians,  the  most  advanced  in  civi- 
lisation, and  the  Mizhdzhedzhi  the  rudest  The  Lesgians  occupy 
the  most  eastern  parts  of  the  Caucasus,  extending  from  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  to  the  Tshetshentsh  and  Iron  frontiers.  Daghcstan  is 
their  country.  The  prophet-warrior,  Schamyl,  was  a  Lesgian.  The 
Armenians  lie  to  the  south  of  the  Caucasus,  rather  than  occupy  a 
portion  of  it,  and  were  the  first  of  the  group  to  make  use  of  an  alpha- 


20 


VARIETIES  OF  MAN. 


bet,  and  to  be  converted  to  Christianity.  This  was  efifected  by  their 
contiguity  to  Syria.  They  are  mostly  spread  over  the  world — in 
Turkey,  in  India,  and  in  Russia — as  bankers  and  merchants.  Geo- 
graphically, their  country  is  contiguous  to  Kurdistan,  or  the  country 
of  the  Kurds,  who,  however,  belong  to  the  Persian  stock. 

The  fourth  group  is  the  Persian,  which  is  Caucasian  rather  than 
Mongol.  It  occupies  Persia,  Kurdistan,  Afghanistan,  Beluchistan, 
parts  of  Bokhara,  the  Kohistan  of  Cabul,  and  Kafristan.  Its  divi- 
sions are  Persians,  Kurds,  Afghans,  Beluchi,  and  the  populations  of 
Kafristan,  Kohistan,  and  of  Cabul,  collectively  called  Paropamisans. 

The  greater  prominence  of  feature,  and  the  comparative  narrow- 
ness of  the  zygomatic  space,  which  contrasts  the  Caucasian  with  the 
Turanian  and  Monosyllabic  groups,  are  found  throughout  Persia. 
At  the  same  time,  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  darker,  but  not  so  dark  as 
to  create  difficulties.  Nearly  all  the  Caucasian  area  is  wood  and 
mountain  :  the  greater  part  of  the  Persian  a  table-land,  with  an  ex- 
treme temperature. 

Group  fifth  comprises  the  Indian  stock,  the  organisation  of  which 
is  referred  to  two  types.  In  one  the  skin  is  dark,  the  face  broad,  the 
features  coarse.  In  the  other,  the  features  are  regular,  the  head 
dolikhokephalic,  the  skin  brunette  rather  than  black.  These  popu- 
lations inhabit  India,  Ceylon,  the  Maldive  Islands,  parts  of  the  Mo- 
nosyllabic frontier,  and  the  mountains  of  the  southern  part  of  Belu- 
chistan ;  that  is,  the  country  of  the  Brahui. 

The  si.\th  is  named  the  Oceanic  group,  occupying  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca,  Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  chain  ending  in  Timor  and  Rotti ; 
Borneo  and  the  chain  leading  to  the  Philippines  ;  the  Philippines  ; 
the  Bashi  and  Babyani  Isles  ;  Formosa,  Celebes,  and  the  Moluccas; 
the  islands  between  Timor  and  New  Guinea ;  and  Madagascar. 
The  divisions  comprehended  in  it,  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pelew 
Islands  and  Lord  North's  Isle  ;  the  Caroline  and  Marianne  Islands  ; 
the  Navigators',  Society,  Friendly,  Marquesan,  and  Sandwich  Islands 
groups  ;  Easter  Island  and  New  Zealand ;  the  Fije  Islands  ;  New 
Guinea  and  the  islands  to  the  east  of  them,  called  the  Louisiade 
Archipelago,  Tanna,  New  Caledonia,  Tasmania,  and  Australia.  The 
colours  of  these  populations  vary  from  yellow  to  brown,  and  from 
brown  to  a  darker  hue,  approaching  black.  Those  parts  which  lie 
nearest  to  the  continent,  and  from  which  Oceanic  diffusion  first  took 
its  rise,  include,  along  with  the  Malaccan  peninsula,  the  islands  of 
the  Javanese,  Celebes,  Floris,  Banda,  Molucca,  and  Philippine 
Archipelagos — namely,  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  other  islands. 
It  commences  with  the  parts  about  Sumatra  and  the  Malaccan 
peninsula,  and  ends  with  the  Philippines.  In  the  sea-coast  towns, 
and  in  the  commercial  communities,  the  religion  is  Mahometan  ;  the 


F'g-  S3.— The  Malay. 

greater  portion  of  the  population  being  known  by  the  name  of  Malay. 
(See  Fig.  53.) 

The  seventh  group  are  the  Americans,  occupying  the  Aleutian 
Isles  and  North  and  South  America.  The  physiognomy  is  pro- 
nounced modified  Mongolian  ;  the  departure  from  the  type  being  the 
most  marked  on  the  water-system  of  the  Mississippi,  and  tlie  coast 
of  the  Atlantic. 


Dr.  Latham  is  of  opinion  that  the  originals  of  the  great  American 
group  came  from  North-eastern  Asia.  His  reasons  for  thus  making 
short  work  of  a  hitherto  long  question,  lie  in  the  recent  additions 
made  to  our  geographical  and  ethnological  knowledge  of  the  parts 
to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains — of  the  northern  parts  more 
especially  ;  of  Russian  America,  of  New  Caledonia,  and  of  Oregon. 
It  is  only  recently  that  our  knowledge  of  these  districts  has  been  con- 
siderably extended,  more  particularly  in  regard  to  their  ethnology. 
He  gives  other  reasons  for  establishing  the  original  connection  be- 
tween the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds  in  a  population  point  of  view; 
but  for  their  perusal,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  his  own  works. 

In  treating  of  the  larger  groups  of  America,  the  Esquimau.^  take 
precedence,  being  eminently  maritime  in  their  habits,  and  occupying 
islands  like  the  Aleutian  Archipelago  ;  peninsulas,  like  the  Aliaska, 
or  broken  lines  of  coast,  such  as  those  which  form  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  Sea.  Even  in  Russian  America,  Greenland,  and  Labrador, 
large  blocks  of  land  as  they  are,  it  is  not  only  along  the  coasts  that 
the  Esquimaux  are  located.  They  form  one  of  the  great  North 
American  populations,  that  extends  from  west  to  east  of  the  continent, 
from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  A  very  interesting  collection  of 
their  implements,  dresses,  ornaments,  &c.,  may  be  found  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  articles  have  been  collected  by  various  Arctic 
navigators  during  the  last  half  century. 

Another  population  is  the  Athabascan,  which  extends  to  the  great 
inlet  of  Hudson's  Bay.  At  Cook's  Inlet,  60°  north  latitude,  the 
Athabascan  appears  in  the  Pacific,  and  to  the  north  of  Port  Nelson, 
or  Hudson's  Bay,  in  the  Atlantic.  As  a  general  rule,  the  southern 
limit  of  the  Esquimaux  is  the  northern  limit  of  the  Athabascan  ;  the 
extension  being,  in  both  cases,  from  east  to  west  (or  vice  versa), 
being  horizontal.  The  Athabascans,  however,  extend  from  north  to 
south  as  well  as  from  east  to  west ;  and  what  is  more  remarkable, 
they  have  given  offsets.  Just  as  the  Magyars  of  Hungary  belong  to 
the  essentially  northern  stock  of  the  Ugrians,  from  which,  however, 
they  are  geographically  separated  by  a  wide  interspace ;  so  do  cer- 
tain tribes  of  Mexico  and  California — tribes  on  the  very  verge  of  the 
tropics — belong  to  those  very  Athabascans,  whose  true  area  is  the 
inland  parts  of  Russian  America,  the  northern  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie  river,  the  parts  about  the 
Great  Slave  Lake,  and  the  parts  about  Lake  Athabasca, — whence 
the  name.  Some  of  them  lie  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  An  illustra- 
tion of  an  American  Indian  is  given  in  the  following  cut  (Fig.  54). 


54. — An  American  Indian. 


The  general  distribution  of  the  Athabascans  is  more  important 
than  the  details.  The  chief  tribes,  however,  are— the  Chipewayans 
(or  Northern  Indians,  so  called) ;  the  Beaver  Indians ;  the  Daho- 
dinni ;  the  Strong-bows,  the  Hare-Indians ;  the  Dog-ribs ;  the 
Yellow-knives  ;  the  Takulli  (or  Carriers) ;  the  Tsikanni ;  the  Sussi ; 
the  Loncheux;  and  the  Kenay  of  Cook's  Inlet,  along  with  other 
minor  tribes.     To  these  we  must  add  the  outlying  sections  of  Oregon, 


VARIETIES  OF  MAN. 


31 


California,  and  Mexico.  In  Oregon  the  Athabascans  consist  of  throe 
small  tribes,  of  which  the  first  two — the  Kwaliokwa  and  the  Tlat- 
skana — lie  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river — one  north,  the  other 
south  of  it.  The  third  tribe  is  that  of  the  Urukna,  lying  on  the  river 
so  called.  This  is  in  43°  north  latitude  In  California,  the  Navatos 
and  Jecorillas  (wild  tribes  of  the  desert)  arc  shown,  by  tlieir  language, 
to  be  Athabascan  ;  as  are  some  other  smaller  Californian  tribes. 

In  Me.xico,  some  of  the  Apatches  are  Athabascan ;  so  far  south 
have  Athabascan  offsets  been  found.  The  extent  to  which  the  tribual 
organisation  prevails  may  be  seen  from  the  following  list  of  names  : — 
1st,  the  Tantin,  or  Talkotin ;  2nd,  the  Tsilkoti)!,  or  Cliiltokin ; 
3rd,  the  Naskotiii ;  4th,  the  l^hatlisthi  ;  5th,  the  Tsatsnotin  ;  6th, 
\\\Q  Niclaantin;  7th,  the  yVA// <?«////« ;  8th,  the  Nailiantin ;  gth, 
W\^  Nikoglia>2tin ;  10th,  the  Tii/ski'dn/in;  and,  nth,  the  habinc 
Indians.  These  are  the  j«i5-divisions  of  a  single  Athabascan  divi- 
sion—the Takulli,  of  New  Caledonia  The  following  cut  is  an 
illustration  of  a  Takulli  Chief. 


^^^c:. 


Fig.  55.— A  Takulli  Chief, 

The  great  Algonkin  class  extends  but  little  to  the  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  ;  so  that  its  east  and  west,  or  horizontal  direction, 
is  more  limited  than  that  of  the  Esquimaux.  It  is,  however,  the 
largest  of  all  the  North  American  groups.  It  subtends  both  the 
Athabascan  and  the  Esquimaux  areas  :  the  former  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  Hudson's  Bay  ;  the  latter  in  the  southern  and  central 
parts  of  Labrador.  Here  the  country  of  the  Skoffi  (or  Nascopi)  and 
Sheshatapush  reaches  60°  north  latitude.  On  the  south,  the  parts 
about  Cape  Fear,  and  in  South  Carolina  (34"  north  latitude),  are 
Algonkin,  the  occupancy  of  the  now  extinct  tribe  of  the  Pamtico. 
I  he  vast  area  of  the  Algonkins  surrounds  and  enclos  s  that  of  the 


Iroquois,  suggesting  the  idea  of  encroachment,  conquest,  and  dis- 
placement. If  the  Iroquois  family  cover  less  ground  than  the  Algon- 
kin, its  historical  prommcnce  is  equal,  or  even  greater.  The  famous 
confederacy  of  the  Five  Nations  was  Iroquois.  The  once  formidable 
Mohawks  were  Iroquois.  The  Sioux  hold  the  valley  of  the  Missouri, 
the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Red  River,  the  Arkansas  to 
the  south,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  Buffalo  countries. 

The  eighth  group  embraces  the  African  stock,  whose  organisation 
is  characterised  by  the  head  being  rarely  other  than  dolikhokephalic  ; 
the  hair  rarely  straight ;  always,  with  individuals  resident  on  their 
native  area,  black ;  skin  dark  ;  in  certain  localities  attaining  the 
tnaxtmum  amount  of  blackness.  In  such  cases  the  hair  is  crisp, 
and  the  lips  thick  ;  that  is,  the  physiognomy  is  that  of  the  Negro. 
The  area  occupied  by  this  group  is  Africa,  minus  the  island  of 
Madagascar  (wholly  or  in  part),  ^lus  Arabia  and  portions  of  Syria 
and  Persia. 

The  Aramaeans,  or  populations  speaking  languages  allied  to  the 
Arabic  and  the  Hebrew,  and  called  Semitic — the  Arabians,  the 
Syrians,  the  Jews,  and  the  Ethiopians  of  Abyssinia,  constitute  this 
class — a  class  pre-eminently  characterised  by  its  early  civilisation, 
and  its  monotheistic  forms  of  belief.  With  the  Jew  the  face  is 
massive.  With  the  Arab  of  Arabia,  in  his  most  (so-called) 
Caucasian  form,  the  face  is  oval:  forehead  vaulted;  nose  straight, 
or  aquiline ;  lips  thin  ;  even  when  thick,  not  projecting.  Hair 
wavy,  or  curled;  complexion,  various  shades  of  brown  ;  limbs  spare. 
With  the  Arab  of  Africa,  the  colour  is  sometimes  nearly  black ;  the 
frame  more  massive,  and  limbs  fleshy. 

The  Amazrig  group  contains  the  tiative  populations  of  the  Desert 
of  the  Sahara,  of  the  greater  part  of  the  country  to  the  north  thereof, 
and  of  the  Canary  Islands.  Hence  it  occurs  in  the  oasis  of  Siwah, 
near  the  Egyptian  frontier,  in  Fezzan,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Morocco. 
The  descent  of  the  Amazrig  is  from  the  ancient  Gertulians,  Numi- 
dians,  and  Mauritanians ;  their  chief  divisions — the  Ammonians 
(Siwah  being  the  ancient  Ammonium),  the  Kabails  of  the  range  of 
Mount  Atlas,  the  Tuariks  (of  the  Sahara),  and  the  Guanches.  This 
last  was  the  name  of  the  aborigines  of  the  Canary  Isles,  now  extinct. 
Their  tongues  are  often  called  Berber,  from  the  extent  to  which 
tliey  are  allied  to  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  They  have,  also,  been 
called  J?/ (^-Semitic. 

The  Nilotic  group  is  one,  amongst  others,  which  connects  the 
so-called  Semitic  and  the  «/3-Semitic  classes  with  the  true  African. 
The  Egyptians  form  a  separate  group,  as  also  do  the  Aramaeans. 

The  Kaffre  families,  like  the  Amazrigs,  extend  over  a  vast  space 
from  east  to  west ;  indeed,  all  across  Africa,  from  the  Cape  to  the 
Equator,  and  on  both  coasts  of  the  continent.  The  Hottentot  family 
occupies  a  large  and  undetermined  district  south  of  Benguela,  and, 
according  to  Dr.  Latham,  has  a  better  claim  to  be  considered  as 
forming  a  second  species  of  the  genus  Homo  (man)  than  any  other 
section  of  mankind. 

The  ninth  group  embraces  the  European,  with  a  Caucasian 
physiognomy,  occupying  Western,  Central,  and  Southern  Europe. 
Its  divisions  comprise — ist,  the  Basks;  2nd,  the  Skipitar;  3rd,  the 
Kelts,  or  Celts  ;  4th,  the  Greeks  and  Latins ;  5th,  the  Sarmatians  ; 
6th,  the  Germans. 

The  Basks,  or  Basques,  occupy  Biscay,  and  parts  of  Tuscany  and 
Navarre.  The  Skipitars  comprise  the  populations  of  Albani.  This  is 
their  native  name,  and  their  place  in  ethnological  science  has  also  yet 
to  be  satisfactorily  determined.  The  Kelts,  or  Celts,  speaking  the 
Gaelic,  occupy  a  portion  of  Ireland,  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and 
the  Isle  of  Man.  The  British  branch  occupy  Wales  and  Brittany. 
In  England,  the  blood  is,  more  or  less,  Keltic,  with  Anglo-Saxon 
modifications.  In  France,  it  is  Keltic  with  Roman.  The  language, 
in  the  former  case,  is  German — in  the  latter,  Latin — in  respect  toits 
affinities. 

The  populations  speaking  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  and 
the  languages  therefrom  derived,  are  the  ancient  Romans,  and  the 
other  populations  of  Central  Italy.  The  language  of  this  branch  was 
extended,  by  the  Romans,  over  Gaul,  the  Spanish  peninsula,  the 
Grisons,  and  the  Danubian  Principalities.  In  these  countries  the 
language  is  more  Roman  than  the  blood.  The  Hellenic  branch 
comprises  the  ancient  and  modern  Greeks  ;  both  with  a  large  amount 
of  mixed  blood.  The  Sarmatian  stock  falls  into  two  divisions  :  the 
Lithuanian  and  the  Slavonic  ;  the  former  occupying  Lithuania  and 
Courland,  with  parts  of  Livonia  and  East  Prussia ;  the  latter 
occupying  Russia,  Poland,  Gallicia,  part  of  Lusatia,  Bohemia,  Mo- 
ravia, part  of  Hungary,  Servia,  and  Illyria.  In  Poland  and  Bohemia 
the  stock  is,  probably,  the  purest.  In  Russia  there  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  Ugrian ;  in  Bulgaria,  Turkish ;  in  Germany,  German, 
intermixture. 

The  Germans  include  all  the  populations  whose  language  is 
related  to  the  German.  In  detail,  it  comprises  the  populations  of 
Germany,  Holland,  England  (and,  by  extension,  the  United  States, 
Canada,  'Australia,  &c.),  Denmark,  Nonvay,  Sweden,  the  Feroe 
Isles,  and  Iceland.  The  Dutch  province  of  Friesland  gives  us  the 
German  stock  in  the  greatest  purity — that  is,  freedom  from  foreign 
intermixture.  Eastward,  it  becomes,  more  or  less,  Slavonic  ;  west- 
ward, more  or  less  Keltic. 


83 


QUADRUMANOUS  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  QUADRUMANA  (FOUR-HANDED),  INCLUDING  THE  APES,  GIBBONS,  AND  MONKEYS. 


& 


fe>.  t;\ 


a 


at; 


m 


w. 


F?%? 


ff^i 


y 


N  die  preceding  chapter  atten- 
,  tion    has    been   drawn   to    the 
natural   history  of  man   him- 
Mirx^  self,  and  of  him  as  typical  of 

the  rest  of  the  Mammalia.  It  was 
,,^  pointed   out   that    Man    is   distin- 

^).-    guished,  as  regards  all  his  organs,  func- 
f)\     ('^    tions,  powers,  &c.,  but  especially  in  re- 
spect  to   his  intellectual   condition,  as 
the  head  of  all  living  creatures. 
|^^<^[^  As  most  resembling  man  in  structural  and 

"'       ~      other  conditions,  the   Quadrumana,  or   four- 
■"AMi^^fT)  "VJf         handed  animals,  follow  next  in  order  of  descrip- 
y^LM'        v"^     ^wn.     In  respect  to  the  skeleton  of  these,  Pro- 
^^^Sc-  -'-'       fessor  Owen  remarks  that  the  Sloth  is  an  e.xclu- 
\  sivcly  arboreal  animal ;  its  diet  is  foliage  ;  it  has 

,    ^    but  to  bring  its  mouth  to  the  leafy  food,  and  the  lips 
'"  and  tongue  serve  to  strip  it  from  the  branches.     The 

^l)  extremities  serve  mainly  to  climb  and  cling  to  branches, 
^  "  and  occasionally  to  hook  down  a  tempting  twig. 
I  There  is,  however,  another  much  more  extensive  and 
U  diversified  order  of  arboreal  mammals,  destined  to 
'  subsist  on  the  fruits  and  other  more  highly  developed 
products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  than  mere  leaves. 
In  the  Monkeys,  Baboons,  and  Apes,  the  extremities 
are  endowed  with  prehensile  faculties  of  a  more  perfect  and 
varied  character  than  are  the  Sloths  ;  and  this  additional 
power  is  gained  by  a  full  development  of  the  digits  in  normal 
number,  with  free  and  independent  movements,  which,  in 
one  of  them — the  first  or  innermost — are  such  as  that  it  can 
be  opposed  to  the  rest,  so  that  objects  of  various  size  can 
be  grasped.  This  modification  converts  a  foot  into  a  hand  ; 
and,  as  the  mammals  in  question  have  the  opposible 
"thumb"  on  both  fore  and  hind  limbs,  they  are  called 
"  Quadrumana,"  or  four-handed.  The  rest  of  the  limb  manifests 
a  corresponding  complexity  or  perfection  of  structure  ;  the  trunk 
is  adjusted  to  accord  with  the  actions  of  such  instruments,  and 
the  brain  is  developed  in  proportion  with  the  power  of  execut- 
ing so  great  a  variety  of  actions  and  movements  as  the  four- 
handed  structure  gives  capacity  for.  In  the  skull  of  the  Quadru- 
mana (see  ante,  p.  4,  Fig.  9)  are  seen  indications  of  a  concomitant 
perfection  of  the  outer  senses :  the  orbits  are  entire,  and  directed 
forwards,  with  their  outlets  almost  on  the  same  plane  ;  both  eyes 
can  thus  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  same  object.  The  rest  of 
the  face,  formed  by  the  jaws,  now  begins  to  bear  a  smaller  pro- 
portion to  the  progressively  expanding  cranium.  The  neck,  of 
moderate  length,  has  its  seven  vertebrae  well  developed,  with  the 
costal  processes  large  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  :  the  dorsal  vertebra:, 
twelve,  in  the  species  figured  of  the  Orang-Outan  (see  Fig.  56,  p.  23), 
show,  by  the  convergence  of  their  spines  towards  the  vertical  one  on 
the  ninth,  that  this  is  the  centre  of  movement  of  the  trunk.  The 
lumbar  vertebrae  are  four  in  number  :  in  the  inferior  Monkeys  they 
are  seven,  and  the  anterior  ones  are  firmly  interlocked  by  well- 
developed  anapophyses   and  metapophyses.     The   sacrum  is  still 


long  and  narrow.  The  tail,  in  some  of  the 
lower  Quadrumana,  is  of  great  length,  includ- 
ing 30  vertebra;  in  the  Red  Monkey  {(Jercopi- 
tliccus  ruber),  in  which  the  anterior  are  com- 
plicated by  having  ha;mal  arches.  Tlic  clavi- 
cles are  entire  in  all  Quadrumana.  The  hume- 
rus has  its  tuberosities  and  condyloid  crests 
well  developed.  The  radius  rotates  freely  on 
the  ulna.  The  wrist  has  nine  bones,  owing  to 
a  division  of  the  scaphoid,  besides  supple- 
mentary sesamoids  adding  to  the  force  of  some 
of  the  muscles  of  the  hand ;  the  thumb  is  pro- 
portionally shorter  in  the  fore  than  in  the  hind 
foot.  The  patella  is  ossified ;  and  in  most 
Baboons  and  Monkeys  there  is  a  fabella  behind 
each  condyle  of  the  femur.  The  fibula  is 
entire,  and  articulated  with  the  tibia  at  both 
ends.  The  tarsus  has  the  same  number  and 
relative  position  of  the  bones  as  in  man  ;  but 
the  heel-bone  is  shorter,  and  the  whole  foot 
rather  more  obliquely  articulated  upon  the  leg, 
the  power  of  grasping  being  more  cared  for 
than  that  of  supporting  the  body ;  the  inner- 
most toe  forms  a  large  and  powerful  opposible  thumb. 

There  is  a  well-marked  gradation  in  the  Quadrumanous  series, 
from  the  ordinary  quadrupedal  to  the  more  bipedal  type.  In  the 
Lemurs  and  South  American  Monkeys,  the  anterior  thumb  is  shorter 
and  much  less  opposible  than  the  hinder  one  ;  in  the  Spider-Monkeys 
it  is  wanting,  and  a  compensation  seems  to  be  given  by  the  remark- 
able prehensile  faculty  of  the  curved  and  callous  extremity  of  the 
long  tail.  This  member  in  the  African  and  Asiatic  Monkeys  is  not 
prehensile,  but  the  thumb  of  the  fore-hand  is  opposible.  In  the  True 
Apes  the  tail  is  wanting,  i.  e.,  it  is  reduced  to  the  rudiment  called 
"  OS  coccygis  ;  "  but  the  fore-arms  are  unusually  developed  in  certain 
species,  hence  called  "  Long-armed  Apes."  These  can  swing  them- 
selves rapidly  from  bough  to  bough,  traversing  wide  spaces  in  the 
aerial  leap.  The  Orang  (Fig.  56)  is  also  remarkable  for  the  dispro- 
portionate length  of  the  arms  ;  but  this  difference  from  man  becomes 
less  in  the  Chimpanzees.  The  large  species  called  Gorilla,  which  of 
all  brutes  makes  the  nearest  approach  to  man,  is  strictly  "  Quadru- 
manous ;  "  the  great  toe,  or  "  hallux,"  being  a  grasping  and  oppo- 
sible digit.  But  the  hiatus  that  divides  this  highest  of  the  Ape  tribe 
from  the  lowest  of  the  human  species,  is  more  strikingly  and 
decisively  manifested  in  the  skull  (see  ante,  p.  4,  Fig.  9).  The  com- 
mon teeth  in  the  male  Gorilla  are  developed,  as  in  the  male  Orang, 
to  proportions  emulating  the  tusks  of  the  Tiger ;  they  are,  however, 
weapons  of  combat  and  defence  in  these  great  Apes,  which  are 
mostly  frugivorous.  Nevertheless,  the  muscles  that  have  to  work 
jaws  so  armed,  require  modifications  of  the  cranium  akin  to  those 
that  characterise  the  Lion — viz.,  great  interparietal,  7,  and  occipital, 
3,  crista;  and  massive  zygomatic  arches.  The  spines  of  the  cervical 
vertebrte  are  greatly  elongated  in  relation  to  the  support  of  such  a 
skull,  the  facial  part  of  which  extends  so  far  in  advance  of  the  joint 
between  the  head  and  neck.  The  Chimpanzees,  moreover,  differ 
from  man  in  having  thirteen  pairs  of  thoracic  movable  ribs.  The 
long  and  flat  iliac  bones,  the  short  femora,  so  articulated  with 
the  leg-bones  as  to  retain  habitually  a  bent  position  of  the  knee, 
the  short  calcanea,  and  the  inward  inclination  of  the  sole  of  the  foot, 
all  indicate,  in'the  highest  as  in  the  lowest  Quadrumana,  an  inaptitude 
for  the  erect  position,  and  a  compensating  gain  of  climbing  power 
favourable  for  a  life  to  be  spent  in  trees. 

In  the  osteological  structure  of  man  (Fig.  57),  the  vertebrate 
archetype  is  furthest  departed  from  by  reason  of  the  extreme  modifi- 
cations required  to  adjust  it  to  the  peculiar  posture,  locomotion,  and 
endless  variety  of  actions  characteristic  of  the  human  race. 

As  there  is  nothing,  short  of  flight,  done  by  the  moving  powers  of 
other  animals  that  Serpents  cannot  do  by  the  vertebral  column  alone, 
so  there  is  no  analogous  action  or  mode  of  motion  that  man  cannot 
perform,  and  mostly  better,  by  his  wonderfully  developed  limbs.  The 
reports  of  the  achievements  of  our  athletes,  prize  wrestlers,  prize 
pedestrians,  funambulists,  and  the  records  of  the  Shark-pursuing  and 
Shark-slaying  amphibious  Polynesians,  of  the  equestrian  people  of 
the  Pampas,  of  the  Alpine  chasers  of  the  Chamois,  and  of  the  scan- 
sorial  bark-strippers  of  Aquitaine,  concur  in  testifying  to  the  in- 
tensity of  those  varied  powers,  when  educed  by  habit  and  by  skilled 
practice.  The  perfection  of  almost  all  modifications  of  active  and 
motive  structures,  seems  to  be  attained  in  the  human  frame,  but  it  is 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  QUADRUMANA—TIIE  GORILLA. 


aj 


a  perfection  due  to  especial  adaptation  of  the  vertebrate  type,  with  a 
proportional  departure  from  its  fundamental  pattern.  Let  us  see  how 
this  is  exemplified  in  the  skeleton  of  man  (Fig.  57),  viewing  it  from 
the  foundation  upwards. 

In  the  typical  mammahau  foot,  the  digits  decrease  from  the  middle 
to  the  two  extremes  of  the  series  of  five  toes  ;  and  in  the  modifications 
of  this  type  the  innermost  is  the  first  to  dis- 
appear. In  man  it  is  the  seat  of  excessive 
development,  and  receives  the  name  of 
"  hallux,"  or  "  great  toe  ;  "  it  retains,  how- 
ever, its  characteristic  inferior  number  of 
phalanges.  The  tendons  of  a  powerful 
muscle,  which  in  the  Orang  and  Chimpan- 
zee are  inserted  into  the  three  middle  toes, 
are  blended  in  man  into  one,  and  this  is 
inserted  into  the  hallux,   upon   which  the 


56. — Skeleton  of  the  Orang. 


Fig.  57. — Skeleton  of  Man. 


Note. — At  p.  2,  Fig.  i,  the  names  of  each  bone  in  the  human  skeleton 
are  given,  and  in  Fig.  2  a  skeleton  of  the  Gorilla  is  afforded,  which 
may  be  compared  with  the  above  cuts. 

force  of  the  muscle,  now  called  "fJcxor  longus  pollicis,"  is  exclu- 
sively concentrated. 

The  arrangement  of  other  muscles,  in  subordination  to  the  peculiar 
development  of  this  toe,  make  it  the  chief  fulcrum  when  the  weight 
of  the  body  is  raised  by  the  power  acting  upon  the  heel,  the  whole 
foot  of  man  exemplifying  the  lever  of  the  second  kind.  The  strength 
and  backward  production  of  the  heel-bone  relate  to  the  augmen- 
tation of  the  power.  The  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bones  are  coadjusted, 
so  as  to  form  arches  both  lengthwise  and  across,  and  receive  the 
superincumbent  weight  from  the  tibia  on  the  summit  of  a  bony  vault, 
which  has  the  advantage  of  a  certain  elasticity  combined  with 
adequate  strength.  In  proportion  to  the  trunk,  the  pelvic  limbs  are 
longer  than  in  any  otiier  animal  ;  they  even  exceed  those  of  the 
Kangaroo,  and  are  peculiar  for  the  superior  length  of  the  femur,  and 
for  the  capacity  of  this  bone  to  be  brought,  when  the  leg  is  extended, 
into  the  same  line  with  the  tibia  ;  the  fibula  is  a  distinct  bone.  The 
inner  condyle  of  the  femur  is  longer  than  the  outer  one,  so  that  the 
shaft  inclines  a  little  outwards  to  its  upper  end,  and  joins  a  neck 
longer  than  in  other  animals,  and  set  on  at  a  very  open  angle.  The 
weight  of  the  body,  received  by  the  round  heads  of  the  thigh  bones, 
is  thus  transferred  to  a  broader  base,  and  its  support  in  the  upright 
posture  is  facilitated.  At  page  2,  a7itc,  Figs,  i  and  2  are  represen- 
tations of  the  skeleton  of  man  and  the  Gorilla,  which  will  aid  the 
reader  in  understanding  the  comparative  anatomy  of  man  and  the 
Apes,  and  the  difference  between  their  osteology. 

In  the'previous  chapter  we  have  called  attention  to  many  points  of 
difference  that  essentially  distinguish  the  Apes  from  man.  In  the 
structure  of  the  brain  and  skull  (see  ante,  p.  4,  Fig.  9),  the  Quadru- 
mana  exhibit  a  gradual  approach  to  the  human  type,  especially  in 
the  young  animals.  In  the  following  cut  (Fig.  58),  is  the  representa- 
tion of  the  skull  of  a  male  Gorilla,  in  w-hich  the  recession  of  the  fore- 
head is  very  marked.    As  the  Quadruraana  increase  in  age,  the  jaws 


Fig.  58.— Skull  of  the  Gorilla. 


Fig.  59.— Teeth  of  the  Gorilla. 


gradually  lengthen,  until,  in  the  adult  Gorilla,  Orang,  and  Chim- 
panzee, they  form  a  prominent  muzzle,  almost  as  long  as  that  of  a 
dog. 

The  dentition  of  the  Quadrumana  is  especially  characterised  by 
the  canine  teeth  being  exceedingly  large  and  strong,  and  interlocking 
like  those  of  a  carnivorous  animal,  as  is  shown  at  a  a  in  Fig.  59, 
which  represents  the  teeth 
of  an  adult  Gorilla.  Thus 
it  becomes  necessary  that 
gaps  should  be  left  be- 
tween the  canines  and  the 
incisors,  or  false  molars, 
for  the  reception  of  the 
canines  of  the  opposite 
jaw,  while  in  man  the  teeth 
run  in  an  uninterrupted 
series  in  both  jaws.  The 
form  of  the  teeth,  how- 
ever, is  very  similar  to 
that  which  prevails  in  the 
human  subject,  the  molars 
being  broad  and  obtusely 
tubercular,  as,  indeed,  is 
generally  the  case  in  ani- 
mals that  feed  on  fruit  or 
a  mixed  diet.  The  orbits 
are  always  closed,  and  the 
eyes  of  moderate  or  large 
size.  The  ears  are  usually 
small,  but  vary  greatly  in 
form.  The  skin  is  covered 
with  hairs  on  all  parts, 
except  the  palms  of  the 
hands,  and  the  face  and 
buttocks  of  some  species. 
The  tail  is  sometimes 
rudimentary,  qr  wanting, 
but  usually  of  consider- 
able length,  and  its  ex- 
tremity is  often  capable  of  being  employed  as  a  prehensile  organ, 
which  is  of  great  ser\'ice  to  the  animal  in  its  residence  among 
trees.  The  nails  are  generally  flat,  like  those  of  man  ;  but  some 
species  are  furnished  with  curved  claws,  whilst  others  possess  such 
claws  on  some  fingers,  and  flat  nails  on  the  rest.  The  mamma;  are 
usually  two  in  number,  and  placed  on  the  breast. 

The  Quadrumana  vary  much  in  height,  some  of  the  Apes  equal- 
ling man,  while  others  are  not  larger  than  a  Squirrel.  They  are 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  tropical  regions.  In  Asia  there 
have  been  reckoned  180  species  of  the  Ape  and  Monkey  tribe  ;  and 
in  Africa  there  are  fifty-five  species,  of  which  forty-eight  are 
peculiar  so  far  as  that  continent  has  been  explored.  The  Gorilla, 
Chimpanzee,  Baboons,  and  Monkeys  abound  in  West  Africa.  The 
Baboons  inhabit  the  mountains  and  rocky  heights,  while  the 
Monkeys  chiefly  frequent  the  woods  and  forests. 

The  highest  group  of  the  Quadrumana  is  that  in  which  the  animals 
are  destitute  alike  of  tails  and  cheek-pouches ;  these  arc  the 
aiithromoriphous  A^es,  so  called  because  they  make  the  nearest 
approach  to  man.  Among  these  are  the  Gibbons  {Hylobates)  of  the 
East,  in  which  the  arms  are  so  long  as  to  reach  to  the  ground  when 
the  animal  stands  upright.  The  Orang-Outan  also  belongs  to  the 
man-like  Apes.  The  Chimpanzee /'7>-<?^/o(/y/cj«/^(?r^  belongs  to  the 
same  genus  as  the  Gorilla.  They  are  the  most  anthromorphous  of 
all  the  Apes,  and,  therefore,  with  them  we  shall  commence  the 
natural  history  of  the  Qitadriimana. 

These  animals  are  divided,  as  a  whole,  into  two  groups — viz.,  i. 
Those  inhabiting  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  as  Africa,  Arabia,  India, 
China,  &c.,  and  called  Cafarrhi/KS,  because  their  nostrils  converge 
at  the  lower  extremities,  and  are  only  separated  by  a  very  narrow 
cartilage  ;  and  2nd.  Those  inhabiting  the  Western  hemisphere,  as 
the  warmer  portions  of  Central  and  Southern  America,  and  called 
Plafyrrlii)i(S,  whose  nostrils  open  in  a  direction  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  which  are  separated  by  a  cartilage  as  wide  at  the  base  as 
at  the  upper  extremity. 

THE  GORILLA. 
{Troglodytes  Gorilla.) 

When,  in  1861,  M.  Du  Chaillu  published  his  "Explorations  and 
Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa,"  he  threw  an  apple  of  discord 
among  naturalists  that  has  excited  more  acrimonious  discussion  than 
perhaps  any  other  branch  of  science  has  been  subjected  to  since  the 
days  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz.  The  theory  of  "development"  has 
been  strengthened ;  and  many  eminent  men  in  this  and  other 
countries,  have  boldly  declared  that  Man  is,  after  all,  only  an  im- 
proved kind  of  Ape.  It  is  not  for  us  to  enter  into  a  discussion  which 
can  never  come  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion  :  we  shall,  therefore, 
simply  describe  the  Gorilla  in  its  habits,  &c.,  and  leave  our  readers 


H 


THE  GORILLA 


to  draw  their  o\\ti  conclusions  as  to  how  far  we  "Ape,"    or  are 
"Aped  "  by,  the  Monkey  tribe. 

Leaving  much  that  is  sensational  in  M.  Du  Chaillu's  account  of 
the  Gorilla,  the  following  extract  is  given,  in  which  he  describes  his 
own  views  of  the  habits,  &c.,  of  the  animal,  as  seen  in  its  native 
country  of  West  Africa.* 


Fig.  60.— A  Male  Gorilla. 

The  common  walk  of  the  Gorilla  is  not  on  his  hind  legs,  but  on 
all-fours.  In  this  posture,  the  arms  are  so  long,  that  the  head  and 
breast  are  raised  considerably ;  and,  as  it  runs,  the  hind  legs  are 
brought  far  beneath  the  body.  The  leg  and  arm,  on  the  same  side, 
move  together,  which  gives  the  beast  a  curious  waddle.  It  can  run 
at  great  speed.  The  young,  parties  of  which  I  have  often  pursued, 
never  took  to  trees,  but  ran  along  the  ground ;  and  at  a  distance, 
with  their  bodies  half  erect,  looked  not  unlike  negroes  making  off 
from  pursuit ;  the  hind  legs  moved  between  the  arms,  and  those  were 
somewhat  bowed  outwards.  I  have  never  found  the  female  to  attack  ; 
though  I  have  been  told,  by  the  negroes,  that  a  mother,  with  a  young 
one  in  charge,  will  sometimes  make  fight.  It  is  a  pretty  thing  to 
see  such  a  mother  with  the  baby  Gorilla  sporting  about  it.  •  *  * 
When  the  mother  runs  off  from  the  hunter,  the  young  one  grasps 
her  about  the  neck,  and  hangs  beneath  her  breasts,  v/ith  its  little 
legs  about  her  body.  (See  Fig.  63,  represcntingafemale  with  young). 
I  think  the  adult  Gorilla  utterly  untamable.  •  *  •  Several  young 
Gorillas  my  men  captured  alive,  and  they  remained  with  me,  for  short 
periods,  till  their  death.  In  no  case  could  any  treatment  of  mine, 
kind  or  harsh,  subdue  these  little  monsters  from  their  first  and  last- 
ing ferocity   and  malignity.  •  •  •  The  Gorilla  is  entirely  and  con- 

*  "Explorations  and   Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa;"  (S61  :    p.   332, 

(tSiJ, 


stantly  an  enemy  to  man— resenting  its  captivity,  young  as  my  spe- 
cimens were— refusing  all  food  except  the  berries  of  its  native 
woods,  and  attacking,  with  teeth  and  claws,  even  me,  who  was  in 
most  constant  attendance  upon  them. 

The  strength  of  the  Gorilla  is  evidently  enormous.     A  young  one, 
of  between  two  and  three  j'ears  of  age,  required  four  stout  men  to 

hold  it ;  and  even  then,  in  its 
struggles,  bit  one  severely.  That 
with  its  jaws  it  can  indent  a 
musket-barrel,  and  with  its  arms 
break  trees  from  four  to  six  inches 
in  diameter,  sufficiently  proves 
that  its  vast  bony  frame  has 
corresponding  muscle. 

The  Gorilla  has  no  cries  or 
utterances  that  I  have  heard,  ex- 
cept •  •  •  the  short,  sharp  bark, 
ind  the  roar  of  the  attacking 
male,  and  the  scream  of  the 
female  and  young  when  alarmed  ; 
except,  indeed,  a  low  kind  of 
buck,  with  which  the  watchful 
nother  seems  to  call  her  child  to 
her.  The  young  ones  have  a  cry 
when  in  distress  ;  but  their  voice 
is  harsh,  and  it  is  more  a  moan 
of  pain  than  a  child's  cry. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
Gorilla  walks  in  an  erect  posture 
with  grcaterease,  and  for  a  longer 
lime,  than  either  the  Chimpan- 
•ee  or  Nshiego  Mbouve.  When 
^tanding  up,  the  knees  are  bent 
.it  the  joints  outward,  and  his 
back  has  a  stoop  fojrward.  His 
track  when  running  on  all-fours 
is  peculiar.  The  hind  feet  leave 
no  traces  of  their  toes  on  the 
'ground.  Only  the  ball  of  the 
luot  and  thumb,  which  answers 
to  our  great  toe,  seem  to  touch. 
The  fingers  of  the  fore-hand 
are  only  lightly  marked  on  the 
.;round.     (See  Figs.  61  and  62.) 

In  height  Gorillas  vary  as  much 
as  men.  The  adult  male  in  my 
collection  ranges  from  five  feet 
two  inches  to  five  feet  eight ; 
and  the  parts  of  the  skeleton 
which  my  friend  Professor  Jeffries 
Wyman  has,  are  so  much  larger 
than  any  in  my  possession,  that 
I  am  warranted  in  concluding 
the  animal  to  which  it  belonged 
to  have  been  at  least  six  feet  two 
inches  in  height.  The  femjile  is 
much  smaller,  less  strong,  and  of 
lighter  frame.  One  adult  female 
in  my  collection  measured,  when 
shot,  four  feet  six  inches. 

The  colour  of  the  skin  iri  the 

Gorilla,  young  as  well  as  adult,  is 

intense  black.     The  colour  does 

not  appear,  however,  except  in  the  face,  on  the  breast,  and  in  the 

palms  of  the  hands.     The  hair  of  a  grown,  but  not  aged  specimen. 


Fig.  61.— Sole  of  the  Foot  of  the  Gorilla. 

is,  in  colour,  iron-grey.     (See  specimen  in  the  British  Museum. — 
1£d.)    The  individual  hairs  are  ringed  with  alternate  stripes  of  black 


^H| 


' ««,  in  its 
"Wjr.  Hat 
*fflfata 
''nits  ams 
•fcoinches 

^  nuie  has 
dt 

■'^■anljej. 
"•.iaipbart 
it! 


•taalamed; 
I  In  U  ol 
kttenichlgi 
alkt  child  to 
•otaaciy 
httetoice 
iweaaioai 
if  toy. 
hbt  that  the 
■  atctpostire 
■iixiloiger 
:  the  Chiopao' 
hni  When 
botaiehegt 
End,  aid  his 
p  fapvi  fiis 
•;  ■  al-krs 
MitetleaTe 
xlM  00  the 
k  ball  of  the 
ibiaisim 
,((■  to  touch, 
the  loR-bd 
Hhedmthe 
(ifaaidk] 
bsisfiswh 
UtBienny 
I  fm  En  feet 
iK  U  eight; 
ilikiiektoD 
Fniowjtiiits 
iBnchlaiget 

ggKS9)ll,tiiat 

111  mdib; 
idkbeloBgtd 
otoieetM 
t  ntlemleis 

g|0M,]ldoI 

Ijieidaienile 
^nd,fben 

[  ^  jbi  n  toe 
,«:  as  adult,  is 

l^tfiintlie 


L^^^ 


THE  GORILLA. 


*5 


and  grey,  which  produce  the  iron-grey  colour.  On  the  arms  the 
hair  is  darker,  and  also  much  longer,  being  sometimes  over  two 
inches  long.  It  grows  upwards  on  the  fore-arm,  and  downwards 
on  the  main  arm.     Aged  Gorillas     *     •     *     turn  grey  all  over. 

In  the  adult  male  the  chest  is  bare.      In  the  young  males    •    •    • 
it  is  thinly  covered  with  hair.     In  the  female,  the  mammas  have  but 


Fig.  62.— Back  of  the  Hand  of  the  Gorilla. 

a  slight  development,  and  the  breast  is  bare.  The  colour  of  the  hair 
in  the  female  is  black,  with  a  decided  tinge  of  red,  and  not  ringed  as 
in  the  male.  The  hair  on  the  arms  is  longer  than  that  on  the  body, 
and  is  of  a  like  colour.     The  reddish  crown  which  covers  the  scalp 


canmcs  of  the  male,  which  are  fully  exhibited  when,  in  his  rage  he 
draws  back  his  lips,  and  shows  the  red  colour  of  the  inside  of 'his 
mouth,  lend  additional  ferocity  to  his  aspect.  In  the  females  these 
canines  are  smaller.  The  almost  total  absence  of  neck,  which  gives 
the  head  the  appearance  of  being  set  into  the  shoulders,  is  due  to 
the  backward  position  of  the  occipital  condyles,  by  means  of  which 
the  skull  is  set  on  the  trunk.  The  brain-case  is  low  and  compressed, 
and  the  lofty  ridge  of  the  skull  causes  the  cranial  profile  to  describe 
an  almost  straight  line  from  the  occiput  to  the  supra-orbital  ridge. 
The  eyebrows  are  thin,  but  not  well  defined.  The  eyes  are  wide" 
apart ;  the  ears  are  smaller  than  those  of  man,  but  in  form  closely 
resemble  the  human  ear.  *  *  •  The  profile  of  the  trunk  shows  a 
slight  convexity.  The  chest  is  of  great  capacity.  •  •  •  Xhe 
abdomen  is  of  immense  size.  *  •  •  The  arms  have  prodigious 
muscular  development,  and  are  very  long,  extending  as  low  as  the 
knees.  The  fore-arm  is  nearly  of  uniform  size  from  the  wrist  to  the 
elbow.  The  great  length  of  the  arms,  and  the  shortness  of  the  legs, 
form  one  of  the  chief  deviations  from  man  The  arms  arc  not  sr. 
long  when  compared  with  the  trunk,  but  they  are  so  in  comparison 
with  the  legs.  These  are  short,  and  decrease  in  size  from  below 
the  knee  to  the  ankle,  having  no  calf.  The  superior  length  of  the 
arm  (humerus),  in  proportion  to  the  fore-arm,  brings  the  Gorilla,  in 
that  respect,  in  closer  anthropoid  ailinities  with  man  than  any  other 
of  the  Apes. 

The  hands  of  the  animal  (see  annexed  figure),  especially  in  the 
male,  are  of  immense  size,  strong,  short,  and  thick.  The  fingers  are 
short  and  of  great  size  ;  the  circumference  of  the  middle  finger  at 
the  first  joint  being,  in  some  Gorillas,  over  six  inches.     The  skin  on 


1' ig.  63. — A  Female  Ouulla,  ami  young  one. 


of  the  male  is  not  apparent  in  the  female  till  she  is  almost  grown  up. 
In  both  male  and  female  the  hair  is  found  worn  off  the  back  ;  but  this 
is  only  found  in  very  old  females. 

The  eyes  of  the  Gorilla  are  deeply  sunken,  the  immense  overhang- 
ing bony  frontal  ridge  giving  to  the  face  the  expression  of  a  constant 
savage  scowl.  The  mouth  is  wide,  and  the  lips  are  sharply  cut, 
exhibiting  no  red  or  thin  edges,  as  in  the  human  face.     The  huge 


the  back  of  the  fingers,  near  the  middle  phalanx,  is  callous 
(hard),  and  very  thick,  which  shows  that  the  most  usual  mode  of  pro- 
gression of  the  animal  is  on  all-fours,  and  resting  on  the  knuckles. 
The  thumb  is  shorter  than  in  man,  and  not  half  so  thick  as  the  fore- 
finger. The  hand  is  hairy  (as  shown  in  Fig.  62)  as  far  as  the 
division  of  the  fingers  ;  these,  as  in  man,  being  covered  with  short 
thick  hairs.     The  palm  of  the  hand  is  naked,  callous,  and  intensely 


26 


THE  GORILLA. 


black.  The  nails  are  black,  and  shaped  like  those  of  man,  but 
smaller  in  proportion,  and  projecting  very  slightly  beyond  the  end  of 
the  fingers.  They  arc  thick  and  strong,  and  always  seem  much 
worn.  The  hand  of  the  Gorilla  is  almost  as  wide  as  it  is  long ;  and 
in  this  it  approaches  nearer  to  man  than  any  other  of  the  Apes.  The 
foot  is  proportionally  wider  than  in  man.  The  sole  is  callous  and 
intensely  black.  The  toes  are  divided  into  three  groups.  Inside 
the  great  toe,  outside  the  little  toe,  and  the  three  others,  partly 
united  by  a  web.  The  two  joints  of  the  great  toe  measured,  in 
one  specimen,   si.x   and  a-half  inches  in  circumference.     The   foot 


Fig.  64.— Pongo,  brought  to  Europe  in  1S77. 

^of  the  Gorilla  is  longer  than  the  hand,  as  in  man  ;  while,  in  the  other 
Apes,  the  foot  is  somewhat  shorter  than  the  hand.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  big  toe,  the  others  present  a  great  likeness  to  those  of 
man,  being  free  only  above  the  second  phalanx;  they  are  slio-htlv 
covered  with  thin  hair.  ^      } 

The  views  that  Du  Chaillu  has  expressed  in  reference  to  the  Gorilla 
have  been  the  subject  of  much  animadversion.  Several  eminent 
naturalists  combated  his  statements  ;  and  it  was  not  until  very  re- 
cently that  an  opportunity  was  afforded,  in  Europe,  to  study  the 
habits  of  the  animal  as  it  appears  in  daily  life,  in  what  we  may 
call  a  civilised  condition. 

In  1877,  a  specimen  (illustrated  by  Fig.  64)  was  located  in  the 
Koyal  Aquarium,  Westminster,  London,  and  was  stated  to  be  the 
only  living  one,  with  the  exception  of  one  in  Wombwell's  Mcnao-erie 
many  years  ago,  that  has  been  seen  in  Europe.  It  was  brouo-ht 
from  Africa  by  Dr.  Frankenstein,  of  the  German  West  African 
Expedition,  and  for  the  previous  year  and  a-half  had  been  an 
object  of  great  interest  and  curiosity  in  the  Berlin  Aquarium.  It 
arrived  in  London  at  the  end  of  July.  This  Gorilla,  which  had  an 
air  ol  juvenile  antiquity  about  it,  was  three  and  a-half  years  old, 


three  feet  high,  had  grown  three  and  a-half  inches  during  1876,  and 
increased  iilb.  in  weight  in  the  same  period.  It  was  coal  black  • 
the  face  human  in  expression  ;  the  form  pudgy,  with  long  arms  and 
legs,  capable  of  rapidly  assisting  locomotion.  It  was  a  docile 
amusing,  and  performing  animal ;  turned  on  a  trapeze,  and  climbed 
a  rope,  and  was  largely  exercised  in  watching  the  gambols  of  a 
\?l^^^  Chimpanzee  (a  year  and  a-half  old),  and  the  ^German  dog 
i'iock.  •  The  gastronomic  capacities  of  the  Gorilla  were  most 
comprehensive.  Whereas  in  its  natural  state  it  would  live  on 
bananas,  pineapples,  and  birds'  eggs  (rifled   from   the   nest),   one 

of  its  first  meals  at  the  Aquarium 
was  rump-steak  and  potatoes — 
the  guest  dipping  the  food  in  the 
salt  to  obtain  the  requisite  zest. 
Wine  and  beer  were-  also  taken 
with  a  relish.  It  died  in  the  fol- 
lowing November,  at  Beriin. 

At  p.  29  will  be  found  an  illus- 
tration of  an  Enraged  Gorilla. 
M.  Du  Chaillu,  in  his  "  Explora- 
tions of  Equatorial  Africa  "  (1861, 
P-  349).  gives  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  animal  when 
excited  :  — 

"  The  Gorilla  is  not  gregarious. 
Of  adults,  I  found  almost  always 
one  male  with  one  female,  though 
sometimes  the  old  male  wanders 
companionless.      In  such  cases, 
as  with  the    '  rogue  '    Elephant, 
he   is    particularly    morose    and 
malignant,  and  dangerous  to  ap- 
proach.    Young  Gorillas  I  found 
sometimes  in  companies  of  five  ; 
sometimes  less,  but  never  more. 
They  are  difficult  to  approach,  as 
their  hearing  is  acute,  and  they 
lose  no  time  in  making  their  es- 
cape ;    while   the  nature    of    the 
ground   makes    it   hard   for    the 
hunter  to  follow  after.    The  adult 
animal  is  also  shy ;    and  I  have 
hunted  all  day,  at  times,  without 
coming  upon  my  quarry,   when  I 
felt  sure  that  they  were  carefully 
avoiding  me.      When,  however, 
at  last  fortune  favours  the  hunter, 
and  he  comes  accidentally  or  by 
good  management  upon  his  prey, 
he    need   not    fear    its    running 
away.     In  all  my  hunts  and  en- 
counters    with     this     animal,    I 
never  knew  a  grown  male  to  run 
away.     When  I  surprised  a  pair 
of  Gorillas,  the  male  was  gene- 
rally sitting  down  on  a  rock  or 
against    a   tree,   in   the   darkest 
corner  of  the  jungle,   where  the 
brightest  sun  left  its  traces  only 
in  a  dim   twilight.     The  female 
was  mostly  feeding  near  by  ;  and 
it  is  singular  that  she  almost  al- 
ways gave  the  alarm   by  running 
off  with  loud  and  sudden  shrieks. 
Then  the  male,  sitting  for  a  mo- 
ment with  a  savage  frown  on  his 
face,  slowly  rises  to  his  feet,  and 
looking  with  glowing  and    malign  eyes  at  the   intruders,   begins 
to   beat    his   breast,    and,  lifting    up   his   round   head,    utters   his 
frightful  roar.     This   begins    with    several    sharp   barks,   like    an 
enraged    or    mad  Dog,    whereupon    ensues    a    long,    deeply  gut- 
tural,    rolling    roar,    continued    for    over    a   minute,    and    which, 
doubled  and  multiplied  by  the  resounding  echoes  of  the  forest,  fills 
the  hunter's  ears  like  the  deep  rolling  thunder  of  an   approaching 
storm.     As  I  have  mentioned  before,  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  I 
have  heard  the  roar  at  a  distance  of  three  miles.     The  horror  of  the 
animal's  appearance  at  this  time  is  beyond  description.     At  such  a 
sight  I  could  forgive  my  brave  hunters  for  being  sometimes  overcome 
with  superstitious  fears,  and  ceased  to  wonder  at  the  strange,  weird 
'  Gorilla  stories  '  of  the  negroes." 

In  another  part  of  the  same  work,  M.  Du  Chaillu  gives  a  life-like 
picture  of  his  first  sight  of  a  Gorilla. 

"  Suddenly,  as  we  were  creeping  along,  in  a  silence  which  made  a 
heavy  breath  seem  loud  and  distinct,  the  woods  were  at  once  filled 
with  the  tremendous  barking  roar  of  the  Gorilla. 

"  Then  the  underbrush  swayed  rapidly  just  a-head,  and  presently 
stood  before  us  an  immense  male  Gorilla.     He  had  gone  througn 


THE   CHIMPANZEE. 


28 


THE  CHIMPANZEE— NSCHIEGO  MBOUVE—KOOLOKAMBA—SOKO. 


which  they  cover  with  leaves  ;  but  these  are  only  for  the  females  and 
young  to  lie  in  ;  the  males  always  lie  on  the  outside.  If  one  of  them 
is  shot,  the  rest  immediately  pursue  the  destroyer  of  their  friend,  and 
the  only  means  to  escape  their  vengeance  is  to  part  with  your  gun, 
which  they  directly  seize  upon  with  all  the  rage  imaginable,  tear  it 
to  pieces,  and  give  over  the  pursuit."  The  terrestrial  habits  of  the 
Chimpanzee  are  confirmed  by  other  observers. 

Lieutenant  Henry   K.  Sayers,   who    in    1839    brought    a    young 
Chimpanzee   to  England,   which  he   had   procured  in  the    BuUom 
country,    the    mother   having  been   shot,    states   that   "trees   are 
ascended  by  the  Chimpanzees  (as  he  is  led  to  conclude)  only   for 
food  and  observation."     From  the  natives  he  learned  that  "they  do 
not  reach  their  full  growth  till  between  nine  and  ten  years'  of  age, 
which,  if  true,  brings  them  extremely  near  the  human  species,  as 
the  boy  or  girl  of  West  Africa,  at  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  old,  is 
quite  as  much  a  man  or  woman  as  those  of  nineteen  or  twenty  in 
our  more  northern  clime.     Their  height,  when  full-grown,  is  said  to 
be  between  four  and  five  feet ;  indeed  I  was  credibly  informed  that  a 
male  Chimpanzee,  which  had  been  shot  in  the  neighbourhood  and 
brought  into  Free  Town,  measured  four  feet  five  inches  in  length, 
and  was  so  heavy  as  to  form   a  very  fair  load  for  two  men,   who 
carried  him  on  a  pole  between  them.     The  natives  say  that  in  their 
wild  state  their  strength  is  enormous,  and  that  they  have  seen  them 
snap  boughs  off  trees  with  the  greatest  apparent  ease,  which  the 
united  strength  of  two  men  could  scarcely  bend.     The  Chimpanzee 
is,  without  doubt,  to  be  found  in  all  the  countries  from  the  banks  of 
the  Gambia  in  the  north  to  the  kingdom  of  Congo  in  the  south,  as 
the    natives    of  all   the   intermediate   parts   seem   to   be   perfectly 
acquainted  with  them.     From  my  own  experience,  I  can  state  that 
the  low  shores  of  the  Bullom  country,  situated  on  the  northern  shores 
of  the  river  Sierra  Leone,   are  infested  by  them  in  numbers  quite 
equal  to  the  commonest  species  of  Monkey.     I  consider  these  ani- 
mals to  be  gregarious  ;    for  when  visiting  the  rice  farms  of  the  chief 
Dalla    Mohanimadoo,    on   the    Bullom    shore,    their   cries   plainly 
indicated  the  vicinity  of  a  troop,  as  the  noise  heard  could  not  have 
been  produced  by  less  than  eight  or  ten  of  them,     The  72atives  ■aX^.o 
affirmed  that  they  always  travel  in  strong  bodies,  armed  with  sticks, 
which  they  use  with  much  dexterity.     They  are  exceedingly  watch- 
ful, and  the  first  one  who  discovers  the  approach  of  a  strangerutters 
a  protracted  cry,   much  resembling  that  of  a  human  being  in  the 
greatest  distress.     The  first  time  I'heard  it  I  was  much   startled; 
the  animal  was  apparently  not  more  than  thirty  paces  distant  ;  but 
had  it  been  \>vAfive  I  could  not  have  seen  it  from  the  tangled  nature 
of  the  jungle,  and  I  certainly  conceived  that  such  sounds  could  only 
have  proceeded  from  a  human  being  who  hoped  to  gain  assistance  by 
his  cries  from  some  terrible  and  instant  death.     The  native  \vho  was 
with  me  laid  his  hand  upon  my  shoulder,  and  pointing  suspiciously 
to  the  bush,  said,  '  Massa,  Baboo  live  there,'  and  in  a  few  minutes  the 
wood  appeared  alive  with  them,  their  cries  resembling  the  barking 
of  dogs.     My  guide  informed  me  that  the  cry  first  heard  was  to 
inform  the  troop  of  my  approach,  and  that  they  would  all  immediately 
leave  the  trees,  or  any  e.^alted  situation  that  might  expose  them  to 
view,  and  seek  the  bush  ;  he  also  showed  evident  fear,  and  entreated 
me  not  to  proceed  any  farther  in  that  direction.     The  plantations  of 
bananas,  papaus,  and  plantains,  which  the  natives  usually  intermix 
with  their  rice,  constituting  the  favourite  food  of  the  Chimpanzees, 
accounts  for  their  being  so  frequent  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rice- 
fields.     The   difficulty   of  procuring   live    specimens   of  this  genus 
arises  principally,  I  should  say,  from  the  superstitions  of  the  natives 
concerning  them,  who  believe  they  possess  the  power  of  '  witching.'  " 
But  in  regard  to  all  the  man-like  Apes,   as  we  have  seen,   for 
example,  in  the  case  of  the  Gorilla,  little  is  known  of  their  native 
habits  when  they  have  attained  full  age.     As  a  rule,  it  is  believed 
they  become  very  savage,    and  hence  live  specimens  of  an  adult 
cannot  be  brought  to  Europe.     The  last  specimen  that  was  brought 
to   England  died  some  time  ago,  and  before  its  adult  propensities 
could  be  studied.     The  preceding  cut  (see  a7ite.  Fig.  65)  represents 
an  individual  which  formerly  was  in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zoological 
Society.     Its  figure  was  short   and  stout ;    chest  broad ;  shoulders 
square  ;    abdomen    protuberant ;    forehead     retreating  behind  the 
supra-orbital  ridge,  the  cranium  otherwise  well  developed  ;  nose  flat  ; 
nostrils  divided  by  a  very  thin  septum  ;  lips  extremely  mobile,  and 
traversed  by  vertical  wrinkles  ;  ears  large,  naked,  and  prominent  ; 
eyes  lively,   deep-set,  and  chestnut   coloured ;    neck   short ;    arms 
slender,  but  muscular,  and  reaching,  when  the  animal  stands  erect 
as  possible,  just  below  the  knee  :  all  the  four  hands  well  developed, 
with  opposable  thumbs  ;  the  nails  human-like  ;  the  hair  moderately 
coai^e  and  straight,  longest  and  fullest  on  the  head,  down  the  back, 
and  on  the  arms,  thin  on  the  chest  and  abdomen  ;  on  the  fore-arm  it 
is  reverted  to  the  elbow  ;  backs  of  hands  naked  to  the  wrist ;  muzzle 
sprinkled  with  short  white  hairs  ;  skin  of  the  face  dusky  black  ;  ears 
and  palms  tinged  with  a  purplish  hue  ;  hair  glossy  black :  total 
height,  two  feet.     The  lower  limbs  are  less  decidedly  organised  for 
arboreal  habits  than  in  the  Orang ;  but  their  tournure  is  obliquely 
inwards,  the  knees  being  bowed  out,  but  the  soles  of  the  feet  are 
capable  of  being  applied  fairly  to  the  ground.     It  runs  about  with  a 
hobbling  gait,  but  very  quickly,  generally  assisting  itself  by  resting 


the  knuckles  of  the  two  first  fingers  of  the  hand  on  the  ground,  to  do 
which  it  stoops  its  shoulders  for^vards  :  it  can,  however,  and  does 
walk  frequently  upright.  Its  pace  is  a  sort  of  waddle,  and  not  per- 
formed, as  in  man,  by  a  series  of  steps  in  which  the  ankle-joint  is 
brought  into  play  at  each  successive  step,  the  heel  being  elevated, 
and  the  body  resting  on  the  toes ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  foot  is  raised  at  once  and  set 
down  at  once,  in  a  thoroughly  plantigrade 
manner,  as  in  stamping,  which  indeed  is  an 
action  it  often  exhibits,  first  with  one  foot, 
then  with  the  other.  It  grasps  with  its 
feet,  which  are  broad  and  strong,  with 
astonishing  firmness,  and  has  been  seen, 
while  resting  on  a  perch,  to  throw  itself 
completely  backwards,  and,  without  using 
its  hands,  raise  itself  again  into  its  previous 
position — a  feat  requiring  both  great  power 
and  agility. 

The  general  bony  structure  of  the  an- 
thropoid Apes  has  already  been  explained, 
in  comparison  with  that  of  man,  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  (see  p.  2,  et  seq.)  The 
annexed  cut  (Fig.  66)  illustrates  the  skele- 
ton of  the  Chimpanzee,  and  Fig.  67  the 
skull.  We  have  already  drawn  attention 
to  the  peculiarities  of  the  skull  compared 
with  that  of  man,  &c.,  at  p.  4,  a7ite :  and 
in  the  following  description  of  the  Orang- 
Outan,  some  further  peculiarities  and  differ- 
ences vill  be  pointed  out,  which  nearly 
equally  serve  for  the  Chimpanzee. 

The  dentition  is  the  same  as  that  in  the 
human  species  (see  ante,  p.  5),  as  regards 
number ;  but  the  essential  difference  of 
this,  and  other  members  of  the  Ape  tribe, 
has  already  been  mentioned  at  p.  23,  a7itc. 

The  Nsciiiego  Mbouve  {T7-oglodytes  Cat- 
7-tis,  or  7>'o§-.  Tsctiiego)  ;  The  Koolo- 
IvAMiiA  {IVog:  Konto-Ka77iha,  or  7"/'og. 
Aub7-yi) ;    and  the  SoKO  [T/'og.  Soke). 

Fig.  6<3.— Skeleton  of  These  animals   all   belong  to   the   same 

Chimpanzee.  genus  as  the  Gorilla  and  the  Chimpanzee  ; 

and,  consequently,  to  the  man-like  or  an- 
thropoid Apes.  For  the  discovery  of  the  two  first-named  above,  we 
are  indebted  to  Du  Chaillu  during  his  travels  in  the  Gaboon  district  of 
Western  Africa.  He  describes  the  Nschiego  Mbouv6  as  of  a  height 
of  about  four  feet,  and  of  the  habit  of  constructing  nests — a  circum- 
stance which  led  to  his  discovery  of  one  of  the  species.  He  states 
it  to  be  smaller  than  either  the  Gorilla  or  Chimpanzee,  and  with  a 


Fig.  67. — Skull  of  Chimpanzee 

black  bald  head,  which  is  a  distinctive  character.  The  skin  is  black 
where  there  is  no  hair.  The  shoulders  and  back  have  black  hair, 
about  three  inches  long,  and  the  hair  on  the  legs  is  dirty  grey  mixed 
with  black.  The  arms  have  long  black  hair,  but  shorter  than  in  the 
Gorilla.  He  considered  the  Nschiego  as  not  so  powerful  as  that 
animal ;  its  chest  is  not  so  large,  but  the  arms  and  fingers  are  a  little 
longer,  as  are  also  the  toes.  The  nose  is  not  so  prominent,  but  the 
mouth  is  wider  and  the  ears  larger.  The  teeth  are  smaller,  but  of 
the  same  number,  thirty-two  (see  ante,  p.  23).  It  has  a  call 
resembling  the  sound  hew-hew-hew,  which  is  a  call  of  the  male  to 
his  mate.  The  nests  for  shelter  which  the  Nschiego  constructs  are 
formed  of  long  branches,  and  leaves  laid  over  one  another  carefully, 
so  as  to  render  the  roof  capable  of  sending  off  water.  These  nests 
Du  Chaillu  considers  are  made  for  protection  against  the  nightly 
rains. 

The  Koolo-Kamba  (so  called  from  its  cry,  "  Koola-Koolo  ")  has 
many  points  of  resemblance  with  the  Nschiego,  Gorilla,  and  Chim- 


THE  GORILLA. 


29 


Fig.  6S. — The  Enraged  Gorilla, 


30 


THE  SOKO—THE  ORANG-OUTAN. 


panzee — in  fact,  to  partake  of  some  of  each  of  their  characters,  and 
so  forming  a  link  between  them.  It  also  resembles  the  Baboon  by 
being  capable  of  going  on  all-fours.  In  some  respects  the  Koolo 
resembles  man  more  than  the  rest  of  the  Troglodytes.     The  foot  is 


Fig.  69.— Orang-Outan,  formerly  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society. 

of  great  help,  owing  to  its  peculiar  construction,  to  the  animal  in 
climbing,  and  resembles  a  small  hand.  The  arms  resemble  those  of 
the  Chimpanzee,  and  the  exterior  of  the  animal  much  resembles  that 
of  a  frog.  Briefly,  from  the  comparatively  meagre  description  of  the 
Koolo,  it  may  be  almost  considered  as  a  nondescript  animal,  and  in 
many  respects  sui generis. 

The  Soko  was  discovered  by  the  late  Dr.  Livingstone,  who  at  first 
considered  it  as  a  Gorilla.  One  of  its  characteristics  is  that  of  biting 
off  the  toes  and  fingers  of  its  captors,  if  it  have  the  chance.  It 
similarly  treats  a  Leopard,  biting  off  its  paws,  and  leaving  it  to  die 
through  loss  of  power  of  locomotion.  The  Sokos  build  an  inferior 
kind  of  nest,  and  seem  gregarious.  Their  food  consists  of  wild  fruit, 
especially  bananas.  It  is  a  stranger  to  the  coast-line  inhabited  by 
the  Gorilla  and  Chimpanzee. 

So  little  is  known  of  these  animals,  that  we  shail  content  ourselves 
with  the  preceding  brief  remarks,  more  especially  as  nearly  every 
account  that  has  been  given  of  new  species  of  the  African  Apes,  has 
not  only  been  tinged  with  romance,  but,  in  some  cases,  almost 
opposed  to  subsequent  acquired  experience.  Thus  the  young  Gorilla 
(illustrated  and  described  at  p.  26,  ante),  in  many  respects,  as  regards 
temper,  food,  habits,  &c.,  entirely  reversed  the  opinion  previously 
held  in  respect  to  its  kind. 

THE  ORANG-OUTAN. 

(Simia  satyrus.) 

When  this  animal  was  first  introduced  into  Europe,  and  especially 
into  England,  it  created  an  immense  sensation,  and  was  familiarly 


known,  even  among  children,  as  the  Wild  Man  of  the  Woods.  We 
well  remember  the  specimen  which  was,  many  years  ago,  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Zoological  Society,  in  the  warm  dress  which  he  wore,  and 
represented  by  the  annexed  cut,  which  we  reproduce  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  our  young  readers.  In  his  appear- 
ance, as  thus  seated  in  a  chair,  he  greatly 
resembled  an  invalided  old  gentleman, 
although  himself  of  comparatively  youth- 
ful age. 

So  different  are  the  characters,  depen- 
dent upon  age,  which  the  Orang-Outan 
assumes  at  different  periods  of  its  growth, 
and  so  much  in  many  respects  do  the  males 
differ  from  the  females,  that  no  little  con- 
fusion has  arisen  ;  and  the  young,  which  is 
the  Simia  satyrus  of  Linnasus,  has  been 
proved  to  be  identical  w'ith  the  Asiatic 
Pongo  {Pongo  being  a  term  that  has  been 
applied  to  all  anthropoid  Apes,  for  want 
of  a  better) ;  the  latter,  as  Cuvier  suspected, 
and  indeed  asserted,  and  as  Professor 
Owen  has  proved,  being  the  adult.  (See 
Tratis.  Zool.  Soc,  vol.  i.,  "Osteology  of 
Chimpanzee  and  Orang.") 

The  Orang  is  only  found  in  Borneo  and 
Sumatra.  It  would  appear  that  a  species, 
of  large  size,  distinct  from  the  great  Bor- 
nean  Orang,  exists  in  Sumatra.  Some 
naturalists,  it  is  true,  are  disposed  to  re- 
gard the  Bornean  and  Sumatran  large 
Orangs  as  identical ;  and  it  must  be  allowed 
that  some  difficulty  exists  which  remains 
to  be  cleared  up.  Professor  Owen  has 
pointed  out  certain  differences  in  the  con- 
tour of  the  respective  shells,  which  seem  to 
justify  those  who  contend  for  a  distinction 
of  species.  In  the  adult  male  Bornean  Orang 
(Fig.  71),  there  are  huge  callosities,  or  pro- 
tuberances of  callous  flesh  on  the  cheek- 
bones, giving  a  strange  aspect  to  the 
countenance,  and  which  are  presumed  to 
be  absent  in  the  Sumatran  Orang.  They 
are  certainly  not  depicted  in  Dr.  Abel's 
figure  of  the  head  of  the  adult  Sumatran 
Orang  (Fig.  70).  With  respect  to  difference 
of  colour,  little  stress  can  be  laid  upon  it : 
the  Sumatran  species  is  said  to  be  of  a 
much  lighter  colour  than  the  Bornean  ;  but 
all  the  Bornean  Orangs  we  have  examined 
(and  those  not  a  few),  have  been  of  a 
chestnut  colour,  or  bright  sandy  rufous 
passing  into  a  chestnut  on  the  back,  and 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  darker  than  the  Sumatran 
adult  female  formerly  in  the  collection  of 
the  Zoological  Society. 

The  Sumatran  animal  is  said  to  exceed 
the    Bornean    in    stature.       According    to 
Dr.  Abel,  the  male   Orang  killed  at  Ram- 
boon,  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Sumatra, 
exceeded  seven  feet  in  stature — a  singular  exaggeration,  as  is  now 
allowed.     In  the  span  of  the  arms  and  hands,  this  animal,  he  states, 

measured  8  feet  2  inches  ; 
and  in  the  length  of  the  feet, 
14  inches.  Now  in  the  speci- 
men of  a  Sumatran  female 
once  in  the  collection  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  which 
could  not  have  stood  higher 
than  3  feet  6  inches,  the 
span  of  the  arms  and  hands 
was  7  feet  2  inches,  and  the 
length  of  the  foot  io\ 
inches.  That  the  Suma- 
tran Orang  does  not  ex- 
ceed the  Bornean  may  there- 
fore be  safely  concluded. 
The  largest  Bornean  male 
Orang,  an  adult,  with  large 
facial  callosities,  which  we 
ever  examined,  measured  4 
feet  6  inches  from  head  to 
heel;  but  Temminck,  in  his 
monograph  of  the  genus, 
says,  "  Our  travellers  in- 
form us,  by  letters  from 
Bangarmasing,  in  the  island  of  Borneo,  that  they  have  recently 
procured  Orangs  of  5  feet  3  inches  in  height,  French  measure " 


Fig.  70. — Head  of  adult  Sumatran  Orang. 


THE  ORANG-OUTAN. 


(5  feet  9  inches  Eng-lish).  In  both  the  Borncan  and  Sumatran  speci- 
mens, the  ung-ueal,  or  nail-bearing-  phalanx  of  the  hind  thumb  is 
sometimes  absent,  sometimes  present,  in  both  sexes  ;  sometimes  it 
is  present  on  one  foot,  and  wanting  on  the  other.  The  annexed  cut 
(Fig-.  72)  represents  an  Orang  in  his  native  haunts. 


31 

It  is  true  that  the  protuberance  of  the  face  is  considerably  diminished 
and  the  facial  angle  thus  materially  enlarged  ;  but  to  make  up  for 
the  feebleness  of  the  upper  jaw,  consequent  upon  this  reduced  size  of 
the  bones  comprising  it,  additional  strength  is  needed  to  resist  the 
strong  pressure  of  the  enormous  temporal  muscles  (those  of  the 


Fig.  71.— Adult  Male  Bornean  Orang. 

In  reference  to  the  skeleton  of  the  Orang-Outan  (Siniia  safyrusj, 
Professor  Rymer  Jones  remarks,  that  taking  it  as  one  of  the  most 
perfect  examples  met  with  in  the  class  (of  anthropoid  Apes),  it  is  at 
once  evident  that  such  an  animal  's  by  no  means  adapted  to  walk 
in  an  erect  position,  although  well  fitted  to  maintain  a  semi-upright 
attitude,  such  as  is  best  calculated  for  climbing.     The  skull  (see  Fig. 


^'g-  73.— Skull  of  Orang-Outan. 

73),  whose  very  outline  indicates  brutal  ferocity,  is  armed  with  canine 
teeth,  scarcely  less  formidable  than  those  of  the  Tiger,  and  the  massive 
jaws  of  the  creature  are  moved  by  muscles  almost  equally  powerful. 


Fig.  72. — The  Orang  in  his  native  h.iunts. 

temples).  This  is  given  by  adding  strong  buttresses  to  the  outer 
angle  of  the  orbit  (the  seat  of  the  eye),  formed  bv  the  union  of  the 
frontal  and  the  jugal  (jaw)  bones  ;  and  thus  the  whole  outline  of  the 
face  becomes  more  humanised.  Another  advance  towards  the  con- 
dition of  the  human  skull  is  apparent  in  the  position  of  the  foramen 
magnum  (a  large  oval  opening  at  the  back  of  the  head),  and  of  the 
condyles  of  the  occipital  bone,  which  are  considerably  advanced  for- 
wards, beneath  the  base  of  the  cranium,  thus  allowing  the  head  to  be 
articulated  to  the  atlas,  at  a  very  considerable  angle,  with  a  line 
drawn  through  the  axis  of  the  spine  (see  Fig.  56,  p.  23,  ante) — a 
condition  favourable  to  the  erect  posture. 

The  thoi'ax  is  well  formed  and  capacious,  giving  great  freedom  of 
respiration  ;  but  the  spinal  column  is  short  and  clumsy ;  neither  docs 
it  present  those  graceful  sigmoid  curves  (those  like  the  Greek  letter 
S),  that  convert  the  human  spine  into  a  perfect  spring,  upon  the  top  of 
which  the  head  is  carried. 

Professor  Jones  further  remarks,  that  in  the  Orang,  the  arms  (Fig. 
74)  are  of  inordinate  length,  and  extremely  powerful ;  the  joints  per- 
fect, and  the  clavicle  w-ell  formed.  But  in  the  construction  of  the 
pelvic  extremities,  the  difference  between  this  and  the  human  skele- 
ton becomes  strikingly  apparent.  1\\.e.  pelvis  is  long,  and  the  ossa 
2'//// narrow;  the  thighs  and  legs  so  short,  that  when  the  creature 
stands  erect,  the  tips  of  the  fingers  almost  touch  the  ground.  Upon 
the  ground,  indeed,  the  living  animal  puts  the  spectator  in  mind  of 
a  human  being  crippled  at  the  lower  extremities  ;  but  in  its  native 
trees,  these  members,  like  those  of  the  Sloth  (see  Professor  Owen's 
remarks  at  page  22,  ante),  are  admirably  suited  to  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  Orang  is  ordained  to  live.  A  comparative  illustra- 
tion of  the  foot  of  man  and  that  of  the  Orang  is  given  in  a  following 
cut  (Fig.  75). 

In  all  respects,  the  organisation  of  the  Orang  (we  refer  to  both 
Bornean  and  Sumatran  animals)  fits  him  almost  exclusively  for 
arboreal  habits  :  on  the  ground  his  progression  is  more  awkward 
than  that  of  the  Chimpanzee  ;  for  the  abbreviation  of  the  posterior 
limbs,  their  inward  tournure,  their  pliancy,  owing  to  the  absence  of 


% 


32 


THE  ORANG-OUTAN. 


the  ligamenfidn  feres  of  tlie  hip-joint,  and  tlie  mode  of  treading,  not 
upon  the  sole,  but  the  outer  edge  of  the  foot,  tend  all  to  his  dis- 
advantage. Among  the  trees,  however,  the  case  is  reversed.  In 
the  mighty  forests  of  his  native  climates  he  is  free  and  unembarrassed, 
though  by  no  means  rapid  in  his  movements;  there  the  vast  reach 
of  his  sinewy  arms  enables  him  to  seize  branches  at  an  apparently 

hopeless  distance  ;  and  by  the 
powerful  grasp  of  his  hands  or 
feet  he  swings  himself  along. 
In  ascending  a  tall  tree,  the 
inward  tournure  of  the  legs 
and  ankle-joints,  and  the  free- 
dom of  the  hip-joint,  facilitate 
the  application  of  the  grasping 
foot,  as  is  well  depicted  in 
Fig.  76,  which  is  a  representa- 
tion of  a  female  Orang,  taken 
from  life.  The  length  and 
narrowness  of  the  hands  and 
feet  render  them  hook-like  in 
character  (see  Fig.  75) :  while 
the  short  thumbs,  set  as  far 
back  toward  the  wrist  as  possi- 
ble, act  as  a  fulcrum  against 
the  pressure  of  the  lingers 
while  grasping  the  branch  to 
which  the  animal  is  clinging. 

The  following  is  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  nearly  adult  male 
Orang  from  Borneo,  in  the 
Paris  Museum: — The  head 
is  large,  the  forehead  naked, 
retiring  and  flat ;  large  fleshy 
callosities,  in 
the  form  of 
somewhat  cre- 
scentic  ridges, 
occupy  the  ma- 
lar bones,  ex- 
tending from 
the  temples,  and 
giving  a  singu- 
lar and  even 
hideous  expres- 
sion to  the  phy- 
siognomy. The 
eyes  are  small 
and  set  closely 
together ;  the 
nose  is  de- 
pressed ;  the 
septum  of  the  nostrils  thin,  and  carried  out  to  blend 
with  the  skins  of  the  upper  lip ;  the  nostrils  are 
oblique  ;  the  lips  are  thick  and  fleshy,  and  the  upper 
one  is  furnished  with  scanty  moustaches;  the  chin  is 
furnished  with  a  long  and  peaked  beard.  The  hair  is 
very  long  and  thick  on  the  back,  shoulders,  arms,  and 
legs  ;  very  scanty  on  the  chest,  abdomen,  and  inside 
of  the  thighs  ;  the  hair  of  the  fore-arms  is  reverted  to 
the  elbows  ;  the  hair  of  the  head  is  directed  forwards 
from  a  common  centre  of  radiation  on  the  back  of 
the  neck,  or  rather  between  the  shoulders.  The 
contour  of  the  body  is  heavy,  thick,  and  ill-shapen  ; 
the  arms  with  the  hands  reach  to  the  heel ;  the 
thumbs  of  the  hind  feet  are  nailless  ;  the  general 
colour  is  deep  chestnut.  Total  height,  3  feet  8 
inches.  Breadth  of  face  across  the  callosities,  9 
inches. 

The  physiognomy  of  the  Orang  is  grave,  melan- 
choly, and  even  apathetic,  but  in  adults  not  un- 
accompanied by  an  expression  of  ferocity  ;  the  huge 
fleshy  callosities  on  the  sides  of  the  face  adding 
an  air  of  brutish  grossness.  The  head  leans  forward 
on  the  chest ;  the  neck  is  short ;  and  loose  folded 
skin  hangs  round  the  throat,  except  when  the 
lar}'ngal  sacs  are  inflated  ;  this  loose  skin  is  then 
swollen  out,  like  a  naked  shining  tumour,  extending 
up  along  the  sides  of  the  face  under  the  small 
angular  ears,  filling  up  the  interspace  between  the 
chin  and  chest,  and  encroaching  upon  the  latter; 
the  lips  are  wrinkled,  and  possess  extraordinary 
mobility ;  the  animal  can  protrude  them  in  the  form 
of  a  snout  or  proboscis,  contracting  the  mouth  to  a 
circular  orifice,  or,  on  the  contrary,  draw  them  back, 
and  turn  them  in  various  directions.  The  breadth  of 
the  chest  and  shoulders  conveys  an  idea  of  great  strength  ;  the  abdo- 
men is  protuberant ;  the  hair,  which  falls  o"^  the  back  and  shoulders  in 


long  masses,  forms  a  covering  to  the  animal  crouching  in  repose, 
necessary  as  a  protection  by  day  against  the  burning  rays  of  the 
sun,  by  night  against  the  heavy  dews,  and  during  the  rainy  seasons 
as  a  shelter  from  the  falling  showers.  The  palms  of  the  hands  have 
lines  and  papilla:,  as  on  those  of  the  human  subject.  All  the  naked 
parts  of  the  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  orbits  and  lips,  which  are  of 
a  sallow,  coppery  tint,  are  silvery-grey  or  plumbeous.  The  thickness 
of  the  incisor  teeth,  which  in  adults  are  worn  down  to  a  flattened 
surface,  as  are  also  the  molar  teeth,  shows  that  they  are  put  to 
rough  work;    and,  as  Professor  Owen  remarks,  it  is  probable  that 

their  common  use  is  to  tear  and 
scrape  away  the  tough,  fibrous, 
outer  covering  of  the  cocoa-nut, 
and  perhaps  to  gnaw  through  the 
denser  shell.  As  already  stated, 
the  dentition  of  the  Orang  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  human  being. 
Roth  the  Chimpanzee  and  the 
Orang,  however,  differ  from  the 
human  subject  in  the  order  of  the 
development  of  the  permanent 
teeth.  The  second  molar,  Mj, 
comes  into  place  before  either  of 
the  premolars  has  cut  the  gum, 
and  the  last  molar,  M3,  is  acquired 
before  the  canines.  We  have 
treated  the  question  of  deciduous  and  permanent  teeth  at  large  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  at  pp.  4  and  5,  both  as  regards  man  and  the  inferior 
animals.  The  huge  canines  are  doubtless  defensive  weapons,  which, 
in  connection  with  the  muscular  strength  of  these  animals,  enable 
them  to  offer  a  more  than  successful  resistance  against  the  Leopard, 
and  render  them  formidable  opponents  even  to  the  Tiger.  Of  the 
habits  of  the  Orang  in  a  state  of  nature  our  knowledge  is  limited. 


I^'S-  7S- — Foot  of  Man  and  of 
Orans-Outan. 


Fig.  74- — Skeleton  of  Orang-Oulan. 


Fig.  76. — Female  Orang-Outan  in  the  act  of  climbing. 

It  tenants  the  secluded  recesses  of  the  forest  in  the  hilly  and  central 
districts   of  Borneo   and  Sumatra;   living,  as  it  would  appear,   a 


THE  ORANG-OUTAN. 


Zl 


secluded  lite,  and  not  being,  like  the  Chimpanzee,  gregarious ;  nor 
does  it,  like  that  animal,  build  huts,  but,  in  accordance  with  its 
arboreal  predilections,  it  constructs  a  rude  seat  or  platform  of  inter- 
woven boughs  and  twigs  among  the  branches  of  the  tallest  trees,  on 
which  it  takes  up  its  abode.  Here  the  adult  male  will  sit,  as  is  said, 
for  hours  together  listless  and  apathetic.  His  movements  are  slow 
and  indolent :  when  attacked,  he  swings  himself  from  branch  to 
branch,  clearing  vast  intervals  with  ease,  but  not  with  the  rapidity 
which  has  been  imagined,  and  which  is  displayed  by  some  of  the 
Gibbons.  If  at  last  driven  to  extremity,  he  defends  himself  with 
determined  resolution,  and  his  prodigious  bodily  powers  and  prowess 
render  it  dangerous  to  venture  on  a  close  assault.  The  females  are 
devoted  to  their  young.  A  few  years  since,  Captain  Hall  repaired 
to  Sumatra  purposely  to  obtain  one  of  these  animals,  but  at  his  out- 
set he  experienced  a  serious  obstacle  in  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
guides  to  conduct  him  to  their  usual  haunts  :  this  proceeded  from 
the  fears  of  the  natives,  who  not  only  believe  that  the  Orangs  possess 
a  natural  dominion  over  the  great  forests,  but  that  they  are  animated 
by  the  souls  of  their  own  ancestors.  Succeeding  at  length  in  this 
preliminary  part  of  the  undertaking,  the  captain  soon  met  with  one 
of  the  objects  of  his  search,  a  female,  which  he  describes  as  having 
been  five  feet  in  height.  When  first  discovered  she  was  sitting  on  a 
branch  of  one  of  the  highest  trees,  with  a  young  one  in  her  arms. 
Upon  being  wounded  she  uttered  a  piercing  cry;  and  immediately 
lifting  up  her  little  one  as  high  as  her  long  arms  could  reach,  let  it 
go  among  the  topmost  branches.  While  the  party  approached  to 
fire  again  she  made  no  attempt  to  escape,  but  kept  a  steady  watch, 
glancing  her  eye  occasionally  towards  her  offspring,  and  at  last 
seemed  to  wave  her  hand,  to  hasten  its  departure,  which  it  safely 
effected. 

The  following  summary  is  the  result  of  repeated  observations  upon 
young  living  specimens  : — The  progression  of  the  Orang  on  the 
ground  is  slow  and  vacillating,  and  is  rather  dependent  on  the  arms 
(which  from  their  length  act  as  crutches,  supporting  the  body  between 
them),  than  upon  the  lower  limbs,  which  are  ill  calculated  for  such 
service.  When  left  entirely  to  itself  on  the  floor,  the  young  Orang, 
if  incited  to  walk,  supports  its  weight  on  its  arms,  applying  the  bent 
knuckles  to  the  ground,  which,  from  the  length  of  the  arms,  is  an 
easy  action.  The  lower  limbs  are  at  the  same  time  bowed  outward, 
and  the  outer  side  of  the  foot  is  placed  upon  the  floor.  In  this  atti- 
tude it  waddles  along,  the  arms  being  the  main  support  :  when 
indeed  it  wishes  to  hasten  its  progress,  it  fairly  swings  the  body  for- 
ward between  the  arms,  as  if  impatient  of  the  hobbling  gait  to  which 
the  structure  of  the  lower  limbs  restricts  it.  The  lower  limbs,  how- 
ever, are  not  incapable  of  supporting  the  body  alone,  and  it  can 
waddle  along  very  fairly,  especially  if  it  can  lay  hold  of  anything  by 
which  to  steady  itself  in  its  progress.  In  climbing  it  is  at  its  ease, 
and  confident,  but  deliberate.  It  will  suspend  itself  with  its  head 
downwards,  sometimes  by  the  hand  and  foot  of  the  same  side,  the 
disengaged  hand  being  stretched  to  seize  objects  within  its  reach  ; 
sometimes  by  the  hook-like  hands,  or  the  feet  alone,  varying  its 
grotesque  attitudes  in  the  most  singular  manner,  and  in  all  display- 
ing the  freedom  of  the  hip-joint.  Its  arboreal  progress  is  not  by 
bounding  like  a  Monkey,  but  by  swinging  from  branch  to  branch, 
grasping  them  by  its  hands  in  succession.  Habitually  dull  and 
inanimate,  it  has  still  its  times  of  sportiveness,  and  will  engage  in 
play  with  those  to  whom  it  has  attached  itself,  following  them  to 
court  their  notice,  or  pursuing  them  in  mimic  combat.  It  has  little 
curiosity,  and  is  fond  of  sitting  covered  up  by  blankets  or  other 
articles  of  defence  against  the  cold,  and  will  wrap  itself  up  with  con- 
siderable dexterity.  To  those  who  attend  it  it  becomes  very  affection- 
ate, and  readily  obeys  their  voice,  recognising  its  name,  and  the 
words  and  tones  of  command  Confinement  is  annoying  to  it  in 
the  extreme,  and  disappointment  irritating.  From  these  causes 
paroxysms  of  passion  are  often  exhibited,  in  which  it  will  dash  itself 
about  uttering  a  whining  cry,  and  manifesting  ever)'  token  of  anger. 
We  have  seen  a  young  Orang  make  the  most  strenuous  efforts  to 
escape  from  his  inclosure,  striving  to  force  the  door  or  the  frame- 
work ;  and  then,  screaming  with  disappointment,  swing  from  branch 
to  branch,  and  again  repeat  its  endeavours,  excited  to  the  extreme, 
and  all  because  its  keeper  had  left  it  for  a  short  time.  Nothing  but 
his  return  and  attentions  would  pacify  it. 

Dr.  Abel  states  that  his  young  Orang  displayed  great  alarm  at 


the  sight  of  some  live  Turtles,  and  also  of  a  Tortoise  ;  looking  at 

them  with  horror  from  a  distant  place,  to  which  he  had  retreated 
for  security,  and  projecting  his  long  lips  in  the  form  of  a  Hog's 
snout,  while  at  the  same  time  he  uttered  a  sound  between  the 
croaking  of  a  Frog  and  the  grunting  of  a  Pig.  The  young  Chimpan- 
zee which  lived,  in  the  year  1836,  in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zoologi- 
cal Society,  recoiled  with  horror  from  a  large  Snake  introduced  into 
the  room  by  way  of  experiment,  and  also  regarded  Tortoises  with 
aversion  ;  and  a  young  Orang  in  the  same  menagerie,  before  which 
a  Tortoise  was  placed,  stood  aghast,  in  an  attitude  of  amazement 
ludicrously  theatrical,  gazing  upon  the  crawling  animal  with  fixed 
attention  and  evident  abhorrence.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  seen 
a  young  Orang  play  with  a  full-grown  Cat,  drag  it  about,  put  the 
animal  on  its  own  head,  and  carry  it  from  branch  to  branch,  regard- 
less of  its  scratches  and  struggles  to  get  free.  Fred.  Cuvier  notices 
the  same  fact,  which  we  have  ourselves  verified.  The  young  Orang 
may  be  taught  to  use  a  spoon,  a  cup,  or  glass  with  tolerable  pro- 
priety, and  will  carefully  put  them  down  on  the  table,  or  hand  them 
to  some  person  accustomed  to  receive  them.  To  this  point  F. 
Cuvier  also  alludes,  as  well  as  to  the  care  it  takes  in  adjusting  its 
bed,  and  covering  itself  warmly  with  blankets  and  other  materials 
when  retiring  to  rest. 

The  young  Chimpanzee,  in  comparison  with  the  Orang,  is  far 
more  lively,  animated,  and  frolicksome  ;  and  displays  much  more 
curiosity,  being  alive  to  everything  which  takes  place  about  it,  and 
examining  every  object  within  its  reach  with  an  air  so  considerate 
as  to  create  a  smile  in  the  face  of  the  gravest  spectator.  In  alert- 
ness it  exceeds  the  Orang,  and  is  to  the  full  as  gentle  and  affection- 
ate, and  more  intelligent.  The  expression  of  intelligence  is  indeed 
well  denoted  by  the  vivacity  of  its  eyes,  which,  though  small  and 
deeply  set,  are  quick  and  piercing. 

The  following  remarks  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Dallas,  quoted  from  the 
"  Circle  of  the  Sciences,"  will  form  a  fitting  conclusion  to  the  pre- 
sent chapter. 

"  The  highest  order  of  the  i!/(2;«/«ff//«  includes  only  the  human 
species.  By  Linnxus  it  was  amalgamated  with  the  Monkeys  and 
Bats  in  his  order  P/-/>«a^i'j;  subsequent  writers  separated  it  under 
the  above  denomination  ;  and  some  even  refused  to  allow  the  human 
race  to  enter  the  zoological  series  at  all.  Some  modern  zoologists, 
however,  have  recurred  to  the  views  of  Linnasus  so  far  as  to  have 
revived  the  order  of  Primates  for  the  reception  of  Man  and  the 
Quadriimaiia,  holding  that  the  highest  of  the  latter  tread  so 
closely  upon  the  heels  of  humanity,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  draw  the 
line  between  them.  This  view  is  also  held  by  the  advocates  of  the 
theory  of  the  progressive  development  of  animals,  whose  object,  of 
course,  must  be  to  lessen  as  much  as  possible  the  distance  between 
the  most  anthropomorphous  Apes  and  the  human  race  ;  but  any  one 
who  will  compare  (a  Gorilla)  an  Orang,  or  Chimpanzee,  with  a  Man, 
will  at  once  see  that  the  differences  in  organisation  are  so  great, 
that  it  would  require  many  steps  of  progressive  development  to  pass 
from  the  one  to  the  other.  Independently  of  the  great  bulk  of  the 
brain,  and  the  consequently  increased  size  of  the  skull  in  the  human 
species,  the  bones  of  the  face  are  much  smaller  in  proportion,  and 
less  prominent ;  the  teeth  are  more  even,  and  form  a  continuous  row 
in  each  jaw.  The  arms  are  much  shorter  than  in  the  highest  Apes, 
and  the  thumb  is  much  longer  in  proportion  to  the  fingers,  and 
endowed  with  a  greater  degree  of  opposability  and  power  of  motion  ; 
and  the  hand  is  consequently  adapted  for  a  greater  variety  of  pur- 
poses. But  it  is  in  the  adaptation  of  the  hind-limbs  solely  to  the 
purposes  of  terrestrial  progression  that  we  find  the  greatest  difference 
between  Man  and  the  Apes.  In  the  latter  these  members  are  shorter 
than  the  arms,  and  always  furnished  with  an  opposable  thumb  ;  the 
animals  never  walk  upright  from  choice  ;  and  when  they  do  their 
gait  is  awkward  and  hobbling,  from  their  inability  to  apply  the  whole 
sole  of  the  foot  to  the  ground.  In  Man,  on  the  contrary,  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  posterior  members  is  carried  to  a  great  perfection, 
the  thigh  especially  being  longer  and  more  powerful  in  proportion 
than  in  any  other  animal ;  the  flat  sole  of  the  foot  affords  a  firm 
base,  and  the  anterior  members  are  thus  left  free  for  ihe  perform- 
ance of  those  multifarious  offices  to  which  Man  is  undoubtedly  in- 
debted for  the  whole  of  his  physical  superiority  over  all  other  created 
beings."  On  this  interestinir  subject  the  reader  will  find  additional 
remarks  in  the  following  chapters. 


34 


THE  GIBBONS. 


CHAPTER    HI. 


QUADRUMANA.-TPIE  GIBBONS  (GENUS  HYLOBATES). 


fe^^'^^^^^te*  =.-e?^£5*=-'-'iss^^^'W»«s-' 


YLOBATES  is  a  term  applied 
," '  to  a  genus  of  Apes,  tVie  last 

of  the  anthropoid  kind,  and  there- 
fore resembling,  in  many  respects, 
the  Troglodytes  and  Simia,  de- 
scribed in  the  previous  chapter. 
The  aa.me  Hylobafes  is  derived  from 
the  Greek,  signifying  "walkers  in 
the  woods."  The  Gibbons  are  also 
termed"Long-armedApes"  from  the 
length  of  their  anterior  extremities, 
by  the  conformation  of  which  they 
are  enabled  to  make  extraordinary 
feats  of  leaping,  swinging,  itc.  They 
are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Malay 
countries  of  Southern  Asia  and  the  ad- 
jacent islands,  Java,  Borneo,  &c.  The 
Gibbons  differ  from  the  thick-set  Orang  in 
the  slenderness  of  their  form  ;  the  chest 
IS  indeed  broad,  and  the  shoulders  muscu- 
lar, but  the  waist  and  hips  are  contracted ; 
there  are  small  ischiatic  tuberosities 
hidden  by  the  fur,  on  wliich  the  animals 
often  iLSt,  tlie  commencement,  so  to  speak,  of  a 
structural  peculiarity  carried  out  to  its  maxi- 
mum in  the  lower  groups.  The  hands  and  feet 
aie  admirably  formed  for  clinging  with  tenacity 
to  the  branches.  The  arms  are  of  excessive 
length,  reaching,  in  the  erect  attitude,  to  the 
ankle-joint;  the  hands  are  remarkably  long 
and  slender,  the  naked  palm  is  linear,  ex- 
panding at  the  base  of  the  fingers,  which  arc 
covered  down  the  backs  with  fur ;  the  thumb 
of  the  fore-hands,  though  very  short,  resembles 
and  direction,  and  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all 
it  seems  to  rise  from  the  wrist,  owing  to  the 
almost  complete  separation  of  the  metacarpal  bone  from  that  of  the 
first  finger  ;  and  the  ball  formed  by  its  adductor  muscles  is  trifling. 
The  feet  are  long  and  slender,  and  their  thumb  is  greatly  developed, 
so  as  to  form  an  antagonist  to  the  other  toes  conjointly.  In  some 
species  the  first  and  second  finger  of  the  foot  are  more  or  less  united 
together:  this  union  in  the  Siamang  is  carried  to  the  last  joint.  The 
lower  limbs  are  short,  and  bowed  in,  and  the  ankle-joint  has  that 
inward  tournure  so  advantageous  to  an  arboreal  animal  ;  but  the 
hip-joint  is  secured  by  the  l/gamenium  teres  In  one  species,  the 
Siamang,  there  is  a  large  laryngal  sacculus.  The  skull  is  well 
formed,  though  the  forehead  retreats.  The  rami  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  narrow.  The  incisor  teeth  are  moderate,  the  canines  slender ; 
the   molars   moderate,   with   the   crown  broad,  and   bluntly  tuber- 


the  fingers  in  form 
opposable  to  them  ; 


culate.    Dental  formula  (Fig.  77.) 


Incisors,  i ; 
4 


canines, 


softer  in  some  species  than  others :  on  the 
fore-arms  it  is  in  most  species  reverted  to 
the  elbows  ;  in  one  or  two  it  is  erect.  The 
prevailing  colours  of  these  animals  are  from 
black  to  brown,  brown-grey,  and  straw- 
yellow. 

The  Gibbons  sweep  from  branch  to  branch 
with  arrow-like  velocity:  their  mode  is  to 
suspend  themselves  by  their  long  arms, 
and  by  an  energetic  muscular  movement  to 
launch  themselves  onwards,  aiming  at  a 
distant  branch,  which  they  seize  with  ad- 
mirable precision.  Most  live  in  troops  or 
families ;  some  species  frequenting  the 
mountain-ranges  covered  by  forests  of  fig- 
trees,  others  keeping  to  the  forests  of  the 
plains. 

The  head  of  the  Gibbon  is  small  and  of 
an  oval  figure,  and  the  face  is  depressed  ; 
the  expression  of  the  countenance  being 
grave,  gentle,  and  rather  melancholy.  All 
utter  loud  cries,  whence,  in  imitation  of 
the  sound,  has  arisen  the  name  of  Wou- 
wou,  which  appears  to  be  common  to  two 
or  three  species.  Fred.  Cuvier  has  applied 
it  to  the  Agile  Gibbon ;  but  Camper  had  previously  appropriated 
it  to  the  Silvery  Gibbon,  said  by  Dr.  S.  Miillcr  to  be  called  Oa-oa 
by  the  natives  of  Java,  a  word  differing  little  in  the  sound  from 
wou-wou,  or  woo-woo.  None  of  the  Gibbons  attain  to  the  stature 
of  the  Orang,  about  three  feet  being  the  height  of  the  largest 
species   standing  erect,   an   attitude   which    they    arc    capable   of 


molars, 


■-5  =  32. 


The  Gibbons  are  clothed  with  deep  thick  fur, 


Fig.  77.— Teeth  of  Gibbon. 

assuming  on  the  ground  or  any  level  surface,  along  which  'Jicy 
waddle,  at  a  quick  pace,  in  the  manner  of  the  Chimpanzee,  using 
the  arms  as  balancers,  or  occasionally  touching  the  ground  with  the 
fingers. 

in  reference  to  the  locomotion  generally  of  the  Qtiadrumana, 
but  especially  of  the  Gibbons,  Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  the  main 
purport  of  the  modifications  of  the  motory  system  is  to  make  them 
climbers.  By  the  development  and  direction  of  the  hallux  (see  atite, 
foot  of  Gorilla,  p.  24,  Fig.  61),  the  hind-foot  is  converted  into  a  hand, 
with  unusual  power  of  prehension,  especially  in  the  Gorilla  :  the  joint 
of  the  hand  is  so  modified  as  to  give  it  a  free  motion  cxcentric  to  the 


THE  GIBBONS— THE  SIAMANG. 


3S 


nxis  of  the  leg,  whereby  its  outer  edge  is  applied  to  the  ground ;  the 
whole  limb  is  shortened,  disproportionately  so  in  the  best  climbers, 
as  the  Siaman.cr  (to  be  afterwards  described  in  this  chapter),  in 
which  also  the  hind-limb  may  be  unfettered  for  its  acts  of  manipula- 
tion by  the  absence  of  the  ligamciitiini  teres  of  the  hip-joint. 
The  length  of  the  iliac  bones  relates  to  elongation  of  the  muscles 
for  rotating  the  hind-limb  and  hand  more  quickly  and  through 
greater  spaces.  Corrclatively,  the  scapular  arch  approximates  to 
the  condition  of  the  pelvic  one  by  the  extension  of  complete  clavicles 
(o  the  manutrium,  and  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  received  into  a 
deeper  and  more  secure  socket  than  in  Bhnana.  This  is  well 
exemplified  in  the  Long-armed  Gibbons,  which  enjoy  that  peculiar 
mode  of  locomotion  termed  "  brachiation"  (arm-motion).  The  body 
is  set  into  pendulous  vibration  by  the  action  and  reaction  of  the 
muscles  of  one  arm  and  of  the  trunk,  the  force  finally  attained,  and 
the  swing  being  such  as  to  propel  the  animal  some  distance  through 
the  air;  a  bough  is  seized  by  the  opposite  out-stretched  arm,  and 
the  momentum  is  supplied  in  aid  of  a  repetition  of  the  action  to  gain 
a  longer  launch.  Professor  Owen  states  that  he  had  seen,  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  London,  an  aSrial  leap  of  upwards  of  fifteen  feet  so 
effected  by  the  long  arms  of  a  captive  Gibbon.  M.  Duvaucel,  observ- 
ing them  in  their  native  forests,  testifies  to  their  passing  through  a  dis- 
tance of  forty  feet  from  bough  to  bough.  Mr.  Martin,  when  curator  of 
the  Zoological  Society,  watching  the  same  female  {Hylobates  agilis, 
see  -post  hac,  p.  37)  which  had  been  the  subject  of  Professor  Owen's 
study  of  the  brachiating  mode  of  motion,  states  that  a  live  bird 
being  set  at  liberty  in  her  presence,  she  marked  its  flight,  made  a 
long  swing  to  a  distant  branch,  caught  the  bird  with  one  hand  in  her 
passage,  and  attained  the  branch  with  her  other  hand,  her  aim  at 
both  the  bird  and  the  branch  being  as  successful  as  if  one  object 
only  had  gained  her  attention. 

In  reference  to  the  Gibbon,  generally,  Mr.  Andrew  Murray  remarks 
that  they  seem  to  be  a  transition  of  form  between  the  Anthropoid 
and  the  other  Catarrhinse  (see  a7ite,  p.  23).  The  genus  is,  of  course, 
peculiar  to  the  East,  and  Mr.  Murray  would  restrict  their  species  to 
only  four. 

Thk  Siamang  {Hylobates  syndaciyhts). — The  Siamang  (Fig.  78) 
is  the  largest  of  the  Gibbons,  being  upwards  of  three  feet  in  height, 


Fig.  7S. — Siamang. 

and  at  the  same  time  robust  and  muscular.  The  fur  is  woolly  and 
black ;  the  first  and  second  fingers  of  the  feet  are  united  to  each 
other,  and  there  is  a  huge  laryngal  pouch  on  the  throat,  covered  with 
black  naked  skin,  which,  when  the  sac  is  distended  with  air,  is 
smooth  and  glossy.  The  use  of  this  apparatus  is  not  very  apparent ; 
most  probably  the  sac  has  some  influence  on  the  voice ;  for  Mr.  G. 
Bennett  ("  Wanderings,"  &c.)  observes,  that  when  the  Siamang  in 
his  possession  was  irritated  he  inflated  the  pouch,  uttering  a  hollow 
barking  noise,  the  lips  being  at  the  same  time  pursed  out,  and  the 
air  driven  into  the  sac,  while  the  lower  jaw  was  a  little  protruded. 
It  is  this  noise  which  M.  Duvaucel  describes,  as  we  suspect,  when 
he  states  that  the  Siamang  rouses  occasionally  from  its  lethargy  to 
utter  a  disagreeable  cry  approaching  in  sound  to  that  of  a  Turkey- 
cock,  and  which  he  takes  upon  himself  to  say  expresses  no  sentiment 
and  declares  no  wants.  Mr.  Bennett  noticed  that  the  sac  was  in- 
flated, not  only  during  anger,  but  also  when  the  animal  was  pleased. 
It  is  exclusively  in  Sumatra  that  the  Siamang  is  found  :  it  is  abun- 
dant in  the  forests,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bencoolen, 
which  resound  with  the  loud  and  discordant  cries  of  the  troops  shel- 
tered among  the  lofty  branches.  Duvaucel  says  that  this  species  is 
slow,  inanimate,  and  destitute  of  activity  among  the  trees  ;  and  on 
the  ground  it  is  so  overcome  by  fear  as  to  be  incapable  of  resistance ; 


that  in  captivity  it  exhibits  no  pleasing  traits,  being  at  once  stupid, 
sluggish,  and  awkward,  unsusceptible  either  of  feelings  of  grateful 
confidence  or  of  revenge,  and  regarding  nothing  with  interest.  On 
the  contrary.  Sir  T.  S.  Raffles,  who  kept  several  of  these  animals, 
describes  the  Siamang  as  bold  and  powerful,  but  easily  domesticated, 
gentle,  confident,  and  social,  and  unhappy  if  not  in  company  with 
those  to  whom  it  is  attached.  Nay,  M.  Duvaucel  contradicts  him- 
self: first  he  says  all  its  senses  are  dull  and  imperfect,  and  then 
gives  an  account  of  its  extreme  vigilance  and  acuteness  of  hearing, 
and  of  the  affection  of  the  mothers  for  their  young.  Jf  a  young  one 
be  wounded,  the  mother,  who  carries  it  or  follows  it  closely,  remains 
with  it,  utters  the  most  lamentable  cries,  and  rushes  upon  the  enemy 
witli  open  mouth  ;  but  being  unfitted  for  combat,  knows  neither  how 
to  deal  nor  shun  .a  blow.  "  It  is,"  he  adds,  "  a  curious  and  interest- 
ing spectacle,  which  a  little  precaution  has  sometimes  enabled  me  to 
witness,  to  see  the  females  carry  their  young  ones  to  the  water,  and 
there  v.'ash  their  faces,  in  spite  of  their  childish  outcries,  bestowing  a 
degree  of  time  and  care  on  their  cleanliness,  which,  in  many  cases, 
the  children  of  our  own  species  might  envy."  The  Malays  informed 
him  that  the  young  are  carried  respectively  by  those  of  tlieir  own 
sex  ;  and  also  that  the  Siamang  frequently  falls  a  prey  to  the  Tiger, 
under  the  influence  of  that  sort  of  fascination  which  intense  terror 
produces,  and  which  the  Snake  is  said  to  exercise  over  birds  and 
Squirrels. 

Mr.  G.  Bennett's  account  ("  Wanderings,"  (S:c.)  of  the  Siamang 
which  he  kept  for  some  time,  gives  us  a  very  favourable  impression  of 
its  disposition  and  intelligence.  The  adroitness  and  rapidity  of  its 
inovements,  the  variety  of  attitudes  into  which  it  threw  itself,  when 
climbing  about  the  rigging  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  was  brought 
from  Singapore,  and  the  vigour  and  prehensile  power  of  its  limbs, 
indicated  its  adaptation  to  the  branches  of  the  forest.  Its  disposi- 
tion was  gentle,  but  animated  and  lively,  and  it  delighted  in  playing 
frolics.  With  a  little  Papuan  child  on  board  this  Siamang  became 
very  intimate  ;  they  might  often  be  seen  sitting  near  the  capstan,  the 
animal  with  his  long  arm  round  her  neck  lovingly  eating  biscuit 
together.  In  his  gambols  with  the  child  he  would  roll  on  deck  with 
her,  as  if  in  mock  combat,  pushing  with  his  feet  (in  which  action  he 
possessed  great  muscular  power),  his  long  arms  entwined  round  her, 
and  pretending  to  bite.  With  the  Monkeys  on  board  he  also  seemed 
desirous  of  establishing  amicable  companionship,  evidently  wishing 
to  join  them  in  their  gambols ;  but  as  they  avoided  his  company, 
probably  from  fear,  he  revenged  their  unsociableness  by  teasing 
them,  and  pulling  their  tails  at  every  opportunity.  He  recognised 
his  name,  and  would  come  to  those  he  knew  when  called,  and  soon 
became  a  general  favourite,  for  his  liveliness  was  not  accompanied 
by  the  love  of  mischief.  Yet  his  temper  was  irritable,  and  on  being 
disappointed  or  confined,  he  would  throw  himself  into  fits  of  rage, 
screaming,  rolling  about,  and  dashing  everything  aside  within  his 
reach  :  he  would  then  rise,  walk  about  in  a  hurried  manner,  and 
repeat  the  scene  as  before.  W^ith  the  cessation  of  his  fit  of  anger 
he  did  not  abandon  his  purpose,  and  often  gained  his  point  by 
stratagem  when  he  found  that  violence  was  of  no  avail. 

When  vessels  were  passed  at  sea,  it  was  very  amusing  to  see  him 
take  his  position  on  the  peak  haulyards,  and  there  gaze  on  the 
departing  ship  till  she  was  out  of  sight.    After  this  he  would  descend, 


Fig.  79. — White-handed  Gibbon. 

and  resume  his  sports.  One  instance  of  his  intelligence  is  peculiarly 
interesting.  Among  various  articles  in  Mr.  Bennett's  cabin,  a  piece 
of  soap  greatly  attracted  his  attention,  and  for  the  removal  of  this 
soap  he'had  been  once  or  twice  scolded.     One  morning  Mr.  Bennett 


36 


THE  SILVERY  AND  AGILE  GIBBONS. 


was  writing,  the  Siamans:  being  present,  in  the  cabin  ;  when  casting 
his  eyes  towards  the  animal,  he  observed  him  taking  the  soap.  "  I 
watched  him,"  says  the  narrator,  "  without  his  perceiving  that  I  did 
so  ;  he  occasionally  cast  a  furtive  glance  towards  the  place  where  I 
sat.  I  pretended  to  write  ;  he,  seeing  me  busily  engaged,  took  up 
the  soap  and  moved  away  with  it  in  his  paw.  When  he  had  walked 
half  the  length  of  the  cabin,  I  spoke  quietly,  without  frightening 


Fig.  So. — silvery  Gibbon. 

him.  The  instant  he  found  I  saw  him,  he  walked  back  again,  and 
deposited  the  soap  nearly  in  the  same  place  whence  he  had  taken  it : 
thus  betraying,  both  by  his  first  and  last  actions,  a  consciousness  of 
having  done  wrong."  This  animal  died  when  nearing  our  shores, 
to  the  regret  of  all  the  crew. 


#^i:^^.i 


Fig.  8l. — Agile  Gibbon. 

White-handed  Gibbon  {Hylobates  lar). — To  this  species  we 
refer  both  the  Grand  Gibbon  and  the  Petit  Gibbon  of  Buffon.  It  is 
the  Simia  longimana  of  Erxlebenj  and  the  Sitnia  albimana  of  Vigors 


and  Horsfield,  the  Pithecus  lar  of  Geoffrey,  and  the  Pithccns  varie- 
gatiis  of  Geoffroy,  Kuhl,  and  Desmarest.  The  fur  is  soft  and 
woolly ;  the  colour  varies  from  dirty-brownish,  or  from  yellowish- 
white,  to  deep  umber  brown  or  blackish-brown,  the  crupper  being 
paler  ;  the  face  is  encircled  by  a  band  of  white  ;  the  hands  and  feet 
are  white ;  the  first  and  second  finger  arc  sometimes  united  at  the 
base. 

The  White-handed  Gibbon  (see  Fig.  79)  is  a  native  of  Malacca 
and  Siam  ;  but  of  its  peculiar  habits  nothing  is  ascertained.  It  is 
one  of  those  species  which  has  hitherto  been  in  a  state  of  confusion  ; 
but  from  which  opportunities  of  examining  numbers  of  specimens 
have  enabled  us,  as  we  trust,  to  disentangle  it.  The  collection  of 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London  usually  possesses  one  or  more  of 
this  species. 

Silvery  Gibbon,  or  Wou-wou  {Hyloiatcs  leiiciscus).—'X\\\?, 
Gibbon  is  a  native  of  Java,  where  it  was  met  with  by  M.  Muller,  who 
states  that  it  is  called  there  Oa-oa,  from  its  cry,  whence  also  the 
name  Wou-wou,  which  has  been  given  to  other  species.  The  fur  is 
fine,  long,  close,  and  woolly ;  the  general  colour  is  ashy-grey,  some- 
times slightly  tinged  with  brown,  and  paler  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
back  ;  the  sides  of  the  face  are  white  ;  the  soles  and  palms  are  black. 
According  to  Muller,  the  tint  of  grey  varies  in  intensity,  and  some- 
times has  a  brownish,  sometimes  a  yellowish  tone,  the  face  being 
encircled  with  white  or  light  grey.  In  aged  animals  the  chest 
becomes  of  a  blackish  colour. 

It  is  to  the  celebrated  anatomist  Camper  that  we  owe  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  Silvery  Gibbon,  or  Wou-wou,  as  a  distinct  species.  The 
specimen  which  he  dissected  was  brought  from  one  of  the  Moluccas  : 
in  these  islands  it  is  reported  to  frequent  the  dense  jungles  of  tall 
canes,  amongst  which  it  displays  astonishing  activity.  Two  or  three 
living  individuals  appear  at  different  times  to  have  existed  in  England. 
Of  these  one  belonged  to  Lord  Clive,  and  is  described  by  Pennant. 
It  was  good-tempered,  lively,  and  frolicsome.  Specimens  have  been 
kept  in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 
Agile  Gibbon,  also  known  under  the  native  titles  Ungka-puti 
and  Ungka-etam  (Hylobates  agilis,  F.  Cuv. ;  Hylobates  lar  ; 
H.  RafflcsiiJ. 

This  interesting  Gibbon,  of  which  a  front  view  is  given  in 
Fig.  81,  is  a  native  of  Sumatra,  and  owing  to  certain  variations 
in  colour,  to  which  it  is  subject,  has  been  formed  into  two 
distinct  species — an  error  now  corrected.  M.  Muller,  in  refer- 
ence to  this  Gibbon,  states  that  it  is  curious  to  observe  its 
numerous  variations.  "Two  individuals  are  never  precisely 
the  same ;  and  we  were  therefore  disposed  to  conclude,  during 
the  early  part  of  our  stay  in  Sumatra,  that  there  were  really 
different  species  of  what,  as  it  proved,  is  but  one  Hylobates : 
for  it  was  only  after  the  examination  of  individuals  of  different 
colours,  and  after  we  had  killed  many  of  both  sexes  and  various 
ages,  that  we  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Oengko-itam, 
or  Black  Oengko,  and  the  Gengko-poetih,  or  White  Gengko,  of 
the  Malayans,  were  the  same  species." 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  varies  from  black  to 
brownish-yellow  and  yellowish-white ;  a  white  or  pale  stripe 
traverses  the  brow ;  and  the  sides  of  the  face  and  throat  are 
often  grey  or  flaxen :  in  black  or  dark  individuals  the  lumbar 
region  and  crupper  are  usually  of  a  pale  rusty-brown  or  yellow- 
ish; the  pale  individuals  have  the  throat,  chest,  and  abdomen 
of  a  darker  brown.  The  pale-coloured  females  often  produce 
black  young,  and  the  black  as  often  young  of  a  pale  colour. 
(See  Fig.  82.)  We  have  seen  straw-white  young.  The  fur  is 
soft  and  woolly :  the  two  first  fingers  of  the  feet  are  united 
together  at  the  base. 

The  Agile  Gibbon  usually  lives  in  pairs,  and  is  timid  and 
gentle  :  its  activity  and  velocity  of  its  movements  are  wonder- 
ful ;  it  escapes  pursuit  almost  like  a  bird  on  the  wing.  On  the 
slightest  alarm  it  ascends  rapidly  to  the  top  of  a  tree  ;  it  there 
seizes  a  flexible  branch,  swings  itself  two  or  three  times  to  gain 
the  requisite  impetus,  and  then  launches  itself  forward,  re- 
peatedly clearing  without  effort  and  without  fatigue. 

Some  time  ago  a  female  of  this  species  was  exhibited  in 
London.  The  activity  of  this  animal  in  the  large  compart- 
ment in  which  it  exercised  itself,  and  the  velocity  and  precision 
with  which  it  launched  itself  from  branch  to  branch,  excited 
the  admiration  of  all  who  beheld  it.  Distances  of  twelve  and 
eighteen  feet  were  thus  cleared,  the  Gibbon  keeping  up  a 
succession  of  launches,  without  intermission  and  for  a  great 
length  of  time,  and  all  the  while  exhibiting  an  air  of  noHclui- 
lance,  as  if  the  feat  was  of  the  most  easy  performance.  In 
her  flight  (for  so  indeed  it  might  be  termed),  the  Gibbon  seemed 
but  to  touch  the  branches  with  her  hands  in  her  progress,  the 
impetus  being  acquired  during  that  momentary  hold ;  and  it 
could  not  be  doubted  that  if  the  animal  had  been  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  liberty  in  her  own  native  forest,  distances  far  exceedino- 
eighteen  feet  would  have  formed  no  interruption  to  her  progress. 
It  was  curious  to  witness  how  she  could  stop  in  her  most  rapidflio-ht 
when  the  momentum  was  at  the  highest,  and  it  might  naturally  have 
been  supposed  that  a  gradual  cessation  would  have  been  required. 


THE  AGILE  GIBBON— THE  IIOOLOOK  AND    YUEN. 


37 


Suddenly  as  thougfht,  however,  she  arrested  her  progress ;  the 
branch  aimed  at  being  seized  by  one  hand,  a  rapid  and  energetic 
movement  raised  the  body  up  ;  the  branch  was  then  grasped  by  the 
hind  hands,  and  there  she  sat,  quietly  gazing  at  the  astonished 
spectators  of  her  extraordinary  gymnastics.  With  the  same 
abruptness  did  she  throw  herself  into  action.     Admirable  was  the 


—  IV-male  Agile  Gibbon  and  Young. 


precision  with  which  she  calculated  her  distances  and  regulated  the 
impulse  necessary  to  clear  intervals  varying  from  four,  five,  or  six, 
to  eighteen  feet :  such  indeed  was  her  quicltness  of  eye,  that  when 
apples  or  other  fruits  were  thrown  at  her,  or  so  as  to  pass  near  her  in 
her  flight,  she  would  catch  them  without  apparent  effort,  and  at  the 
same  time  without  discontinuing  her  career. 

While  exerting  her  feats  of  agility,  the  Gibbon  ever  and  anon 
uttered  her  loud  call-notes,  consisting  of  the  syllables  oo-ah,  oo-ah, 
in  a  graduated  succession  of  half-tones,  ascending  in  the  scale  till  an 
exact  octave  was  attained,  when  a  rapid  series  of  descending  notes, 
producing  a  shake,  during  the  execution  of  which  the  lips  vibrated 
and  the  whole  frame  quivered,  concluded  the  strain.  The  quality  of 
these  notes  was  not  unmusical,  but  their  loudness  was  deafening  as 
heard  in  the  apartment,  and  when  uttered  by  these  animals  in  their 
native  forests,  must  resound  far  through  their  stilly  depths.  It  is 
principally  in  the  morning  that  the  Gibbon  exerts  the  whooping  cry, 
which  is  doubtless  its  call  to  its  mate  or  companions,  and  it  was  at 
that  time  that  we  heard  it.  It  should  be  observed  that  at  first  the 
syllables  were  slowly  and  distinctly  repeated,  and  on  the  same  note,  E. 
As  the  tones  rose  in  the  chromatic  scale,  the  time  quickened,  till, 
gaining  the  octave,  the  descent  by  half-tones  was  inexpressibly 
rapid :  this  ended,  two  barks  followed,  each  composed  of  the  high 
and  low  E,  sounded  nearly  together.  At  the  conclusion  the  animal 
was  always  violently  agitated,  as  if  wrought  up  to  a  high  pitch  of 
excitement,  and  shoolc  with  all  her  strength  the  branch  to  which  she 
was  clinging,  or  the  netting,  the  cords  of  which  she  grasped  with 
her  hands. 

The  following  notes  will  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  musical  call  of 
this  Gibbon  : — 


Altrgrctto. 


Aixi  tUrnndtt. 


:q=q: 


— I— 


T^T- 


:^- 


F — '^  — 1 — \ — H — H-»-J— J— ei  i-G— B-- 

U        U         L-        U        U        U        U 


l>      U       U        I. 


isdJSS^f^^^ 


u     u     u 


PreHiiStmo. 

,  (c  (c  (c   ((  ((  a    ((  ((  ((  (( 


E£B=-3E-:z^3:^-ESJFi 


a  a  a 


I  This  interesting  animal  was  timid  and  gentle  ;  she  greatly  pre- 
I  ferred  the  presence  of  females  to  that  of  men,  and  approached  them 
and  received  their  attentions  with  pleasure  :  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  ill-treatment  had  made  her  suspicious  of  the  sex  from  which  she 
had  experienced  injury.  She  was  intelligent  and  observant,  and  her 
quick  eyes  seemed  to  be  ever  on  the  watch,  scrutinising  every  person 
and  observing  all  that  passed  around  hcrj  The  muscular  pow-cr  of 
the  arms,  shoulders,  and  chest  was  very  great,  and  the  muscles  were 
finely  developed  ;  the  chest  was  broad,  and  the  shoulders  high  ;  the 
reacli  of  the  extended  arms  was  about  six  feet,  and  the  animal, 
when  erect,  stood  about  three  feet  from  the  heel  to  the  top  of  the 
head.  The  form  and  proportions  of  this  Gibbon  arc  adapted  for 
arboreal  progression,  consisting  of  flying  launches  from  branch  to 
branch. 

The  following  is  a  profile  view  of  a  male  Gibbon. 


Fig.  83. — Profile  of  Male  Agile  Gibbon. 

The  remaining  species  of  the  Hylobates,  or  True  Gibbons,  are 
the  HOOLOOK  {Hylobates  Hooiook),  and  the  Yuen  {Hylobates 
ptlealiis).  There  is  little  known  as  regards  their  habits,  &c.  ;  but 
specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  The  Hooiook  is  a 
native  of  Hindostan,  has  a  height  of  about  two  feet  and  a-half,  is  of  a 
black  colour,  and  possesses  the  usual  characteristics  of  the  Gibbons. 
The  Yuen,  a  native  of  an  island  near  Camboja,  derives  its  name 
from  its  love  of  climbing.  The  male  is  black  ;  but  there  seem  to  be 
varieties  as  regards  their  colour,  from  the  description  given  of  them 
by  Chinese  writers. 


A  careful  perusal  of  the  foregoing  description  of  the  characters  of 
the  Anthropoid  Apes,  will  place  the  reader  in  a  position  to  judge  ot 
the  salient  points  of  the  "  Evolution  or  Development"  theory,  now  so 
strongly  advocated  by  some  of  our  most  eminent  naturalists.  With 
them,  man  is  either  an  improved  Monkey  or  Ape,  or  the  Ape  is  a 
degenerate  man.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable,  that  the  uncivilised  in- 
habitants of  the  Monkey  regions,  both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  have  an 
idea  that  the  Ape  is  a  specimen  of  degenerated  humanity  ;  and  some 
curious  reasons  have  been  assigned.  In  one  case  the  natives  say  the 
Apes  were  formerly  men,  but  having  a  great  aversion  to  pay  taxes,  a 
former  race  ran  off  into  the  woods,  and  by  successive  degradations 
became  converted  into  Apes.  Both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  a  general 
idea  is  held,  on  the  part  of  the  "savages,"  that  the  Apes  and 
Monkeys  are  the  progeny  of  the  ancestors  of  the  living  race  of  men  ; 
and,  as  such,  these  animals  are  held  sacred,  and  on  no  account  are 
killed.  In  the  following  chapter  numerous  instances  of  this  kind 
will  be  related.     (See  p.  39.)  . 

With  us,  in  Europe,  the  theorists  take  the  opposite  view,  and 
regard  man  as  an  elevated  Ape.  But  without  entering  into  the 
details  of  the  theory,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  relation  of  the 
Apes,  Gibbons,  Monkeys,  and  Lemurs  to  the  Bats  (as  will  be  seen  in 
the  next  two  chapters),  is  one  of  vci'y  gradual  degradation,  flic 
successive  steps  are  slow ;  and,  in  fact,  the  likeness  between  each 
successive  class,  where  they  are  connected,  is  such,  that,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Flying  Lemur,  it  has  actually  been  classed  with  the  Bats. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  transition  from  the  highest  form  of  Ape  to 
the  lowest  form  of  man  (see  pp.  3  -^nd  ^-  ««^'')  '=  sudden,  viarked, 
and  decisive.  There  is  no  gradation  ;  and  the  Evolutionists  have  yet 
to  discover  species  between  Man-dom  and  Ape-dom  as  will  even  give 
a  colour  to  their  theory,  whether  in  regard  to  the  skeleton,  organs, 
functions,  &c.,  of  the  Bimana  and  Quadruntana,  as  contrasted  or 
Cpnnected  with  each  other. 


38 


THE  MONKEYS. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

QUADRUMANA  — THE  MONKEYS  (SUB-FAMILY,  CYNOMORPHA,  OR  DOG-LIKE). 


HE  two  previous  cliaptcrs  have  been  de- 
voted to  the  description  of  what  are  called 
Anthropoid,  Anth)-omorplious,   or  Man- 
like Apes,   including  the  genera  of  Tro- 
glodytes,   Simla,    and    Hylubatcs.      We 
next  turn  to  the  sub-family  of  Cynomor- 
pha,  or  Dog-shaped,  or  Dog-like  animals, 
which   embrace   those  usually   known   as 
MoNKEVS.    It  hence  appears,  that  so  far  as 
the  old  world  is  concerned — that  is,  Europe, 
Asia,   and  Africa — the   Catarrhi/ia}   (see 
ajite,  p.  2;^)  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-families, 
embracing  respectively  the  Man-like  and  Dog-like 
Qiiadrumana.     It  is  to  the  latter  that  we  have 
now  to  draw  attention. 

The  Cy7ioinorpha,  or  Monkeys,  are  so  called, 
because  in  many  respects  they  resemble  the  Dog 
in  appearance,  especially  when  they  go  on  "  all- 
fours."  In  intelligence,  however,  and,  if  we  may 
so  say  of  Monkeys,  in  their  mental  character,  they 
in  many  respects  exceed  the  Anthropoid.  While 
full  of  fun  they  have  the  power  of  affection,  by 
which  they  attach  themselves  to  persons  or  places. 
Man  can  easily  teach  them  a  variety  of  tricks  or 
"accomplishments,"  that  make  them  amusing 
companions.  They  are  divided  into  two  kinds — 
viz.,  those  that  have,  and  those  that  do  not  have  cheek-pouches.  In 
the  following  description  of  them,  they  will  be  divided  into  five 
genera;— viz.,  i.  Semnopltkccl,  or  Sacred  Apes;  2.  Colobus,  or 
Thumbless  Monkeys  ;  3.  Cercopltheci,Qi'Y3\\&A.  K-^Q.%;  ^.  Ulacacus, 
or  Macaques ;  and  lastly,  5.  the  Cynocephalus,  or  Baboons. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  has  existed  as  to  the  classification  of 
the  Monkeys  in  respect  to  their  species  and  varieties,  owing  to  the 
circumstance  of  age,  &c.,  changing  them  at  different  periods  of  life. 
The  species  again  are  very  numerous,  and  spread  over  a  wide  area, 
embracing  India  and  adjacent  islands,  and  most  parts  of  Africa. 
But  one  European  species  exists,  and  that  is  the  Alagof,  or  Bar- 
BARY  Ape.  Its  single  station  is  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  ;  there,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  abundant,  only  a  few  animals  being  now  there  in  a 
wild  state.  For  obvious  reasons  we  shall  have  to  restrict  our  descrip- 
tion of  the  five  genera  within  limits,  illustrating  the  most  important 
species  and  their  varieties.  We  shall  commence  with  the  Seiiiiio- 
^itheci,  or  Sacred  Monkeys. 


THE  MONKEYS,   OR  PRESBYTES— SACRED  MONKEYS. 
(Genus  Semnoplthecics.) 

The  genus  Semnopithecus  was  established  by  Fred.  Cuvier,  and 
anatomy  has  confirmed  the  propriety  of  this  genus,  originally  estab- 
lished upon  external  characters. 

The  Generic  Characters  are  as  follow : — muzzle  depressed  ;  head 
round ;  superciliary  ridge  prominent,  and  with  a  row  of  long  stiff 
hairs  projecting  forwards  and  upwards  ;  molars  crowned  with  obtuse 
tubercles,  the  last  molar  of  the  lower  jaw  with  a  fifth  tubercle  seated 
posteriorly;  cheek-pouches  wanting;  laryngal  sac  large;  ischiatic 
callosities  moderate  ;  body  slender,  limbs  long  and  thin  ;  the  thumb 
of  the  hand  small,  short,  almost  rudimentary ;  stomach  large  and 
liighly  sacculated  ;  intestines  long ;  tail  long  and  slender;  fur  soft, 
(lowing,  and  often  glossy. 

The  dental  formula  (Fig.  84)  is  as  follows  : — incisors,  -^;  canines, 

4 

'-Hi. ;  molars,  i^. 
i-i  5-5 


The  incisors  are   small ;    the   canines   large. 


broad,  and  compressed  ;  the  molars  are  bluntly  tuberculate  ;  and  as 
they  wear  down,  the  surface  shows  the  enamel  very  distinct  and 
deeply  indented.  We  have  already  noticed  the  dentition  of  the 
Qiiadrumana  at  p.  23,  ante.  The  skull  (Fig.  85)  may  be  charac- 
terised as  round,  the  orbits  large  and  squared,  with  an  abruptly 
prominent  superciliary  ridge,  and  with  boldly  projecting  margins ; 
the  inter-orbital  space  is  broad,  and  the  face  depressed ;  the  lower 
jaw,  however,  is  very  deep,  and  the  space  for  the  masseter  muscle 
considerable  ;  the  chin  recedes  obliquely.  The  hands  of  the  Semno- 
pitheci  are  remarkable  for  their  elongation  and  narrowness,  and  for 
the  almost  rudimentary  condition  of  the  thumb,  which  cannot  be 


brought  into  action  as  an  antagonist  to  the  fingers ;  the  feet  also  are 
narrow  and  elongated,  but  the  thumb  is  stout  and  well  developed. 

There  are  no  cheek-pouches,  as  in  the  ordinary  Monkeys,  but  a 
large  laryngal  sac  extends  over  the  whole  of  the  throat,  communi- 
cating with  the  larynx  (windpipe)  by  means  of  a  large  aperture. 
The  stomach  is  sacculated  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  the  sacculi 


Fig.  84.— Teeth  of  Monkey. 

being  in  all  probability  preparatory  receptacles  for  the  vegetable 
aliment,  which  undergoes  digestion  in  an  elongated  pyloric  portion. 
Cuvier  calls  the  Setnnoplthecl  Slow  Monkeys  ;  but  it  is  only  in  a 
certain  sense  that  they  merit  the  title.  The  length  and  slendemess 
of  the  limbs  and  body  detract,  if  not  from  their  agility,  at  least  in 
some  degree  from  the  abruptness  of  their  movements,  which  have  a 


Fig.  85.— Skull  and  Canine  Tooth  of  Monkey. 

more  sweeping  character  than  those  of  the  Cercoplthect.  Nevcrthe. 
less,  they  leap  and  bound  among  the  branches  of  their  native  forests 
with  great  ease,  and  to  vast  distances,  their  long  tail  acting  as  a 


THE  SACRED  AND  PROBOSCIS  MONKEYS. 


39 


director  or  balancer  in  their  motions.  Less  lively,  less  petulant,  and, 
perhaps,  less  inquisitive  than  tlio  Ccrcopithcci,  they  appear  at  times 
as  if  oppressed  with  melancholy,  and  in  captivity,  at  least,  sit  in 
listless  apathy.  While  young-  they  arc  very  gentle  ;  but  when  adult 
they  become  sullen,  morose,  and  vindictive  ;  and  their  long  canines 
render  them  truly  formidable.  In  their  native  regions  they  associate 
in  troops.  In  some  parts  of  India,  certain  species,  as  the  Eiitcllus, 
are  regarded  as  sacred,  and  tolerated  notwithstanding  their  depre- 
dations.    Many  species  attain  to  considerable  dimensions. 

The  Senuiopithcc!  zxii  all  natives  of  India  and  its  islands,  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula.  As  already  stated,  this  genus  is  held  sacred  in 
many  parts  of  India.  The  species  that  holds  the  most  prominent 
position  in  this  respect  is  the  Hoonuman. 

The  Entellus,  or  IIoonujian,  or  H.VNUsrAN  {Sctiniopithecus 
cntelliis). — This  Monkey  is  found  throughout  the  whole  southern 
part  of  India,  and  in  some  parts  in  great  abundance.  It  is  so  called 
after  a  certain  important  personage  of  the  same  name  in  Hindoo 
Mythology,  and  is  held  in  reverence  accordingly,  but  not  by  the 
people  of  Mahratta,  where  it  is  called  Makur.  It  occurs  in  large 
troops  in  the  woods  of  the  Western  Ghauts.  In  Lower  Bengal, 
where  it  makes  its  appearance  towards  the  latter  end  of  winter  (for  it 
would  seem  that  it  migrates  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  provinces, 
and  vice  versa  in  this  part  of  India),  the  pious  Brahmins  venerate  it, 
supply  it  with  food,  and  zealously  endeavour  to  prevent  its  molesta- 
tion by  Europeans.  According  to  Dr.  Fryar,  and  others,  these 
Monkeys,  in  Malabar,  towards  Ceylon,  and  at  the  straits  of  Balagat, 
are  deified.  At  Dhuboy  (see  Forbes's  "  Oriental  Memoirs  "),  they 
are,  if  not  worshipped,  protected,  from  motives  of  humanity  to  the 
brute  creation,  and  a  general  belief  in  metempsychosis.     According 


Enltllus,  or  Hoonuman. 


to  the  latter  author  there  are  as  many  Monkeys  as  human  inhabitants 
in  Dhuboy,  and  the  roofs  and  upper  parts  of  the  houses  seem  entirely 
appropriated  to  their  accommodation.  To  strangers  they  are  un- 
bearably annoying.     Fig.  86  represents  the  Hoonuman. 

In  Dhuboy,  if  a  man  wish  to  revenge  himself  on  his  neighbour  for 
any  insult  or  injury,  he  takes  the  opportunity,  just  before  the 
periodical  rains  (about  the  middle  of  June)  set  in,  and  when  the  tiles 
have  been  adjusted  to  meet  that  season,  of  repairing  to  his  neigh- 
bour's roof,  and  scattering  over  it  a  quantity  of  rice,  or  other  grain. 
This  is  soon  discovered  by  the  Monkeys,  who  not  only  devour  it,  but 
pull  up  all  the  tiles  in  search  of  what  has  fallen  through  the  crevices. 
At  this  critical  juncture  the  rain  commences  ;  no  one  can  be  found 
to  reset  the  tiles  ;  the  house  is  deluged,  the  furniture  ruined,  and  the 
depositaries  of  grain,  generally  formed  of  unbaked  earth,  soaked 
through  by  the  falling  torrent. 

The  celebrated  banian-tree,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nerbuddah,  is 
tenanted  by  hosts  of  Monkeys  and  myriads  of  Snakes,  The  antics 
and  gambols  of  the  former  are  very  amusing ;  if  they  ever  suffer 
from  the  Snakes,  they  repay  the  poor  reptiles  with  interest.  When 
they  see  one  asleep,  twined  round  a  branch,  they  seize  it  by  the 
neck,  and,  descending,  run  to  the  nearest  stone,  and  on  it  commence 
to  grmd  down  the  reptile's  head,  frequently  looking  at  it  and 
grmning  at  their  progress.  When  convinced  that  its  fangs  are 
destroyed,  they  toss  it,  writhing  with  pain,  to  their  young,  and  seem 
to  rejoice  in  its  destruction. 

t  ^"I'^'^ii?  ^"'^"'^  °^  ^^''-  f'"'tics,  on  a  shooting  excursion,  killed  a 
lemale  Monkey  under  tliis  tree,  and  carried  it  to  his  tent,  which  was 
soon  surrounded  by  forty  or  fifty  of  the  tribe,  who  made  a  great 
noise,  and  with  .ncnacing  gestures  advanced  towards  it.  On  pre- 
senting his  fowling-piece,  they  hesitated  and  appeared  irresolute, 
f  ;i,°"u'  "^  *'''°"^  '"^  ^^^  ^"'^  station  in  the  van  appeared  to  be 

at  the  head  of  the  troop,  stood  his  ground  chattering  and  menacin"- 
in  a  furious   manner,   nor  could  any  cilorts  less  cruel  than  fnin"- 


drive  him  off.  He  at  length  approached  the  tent  door,  and  by  every 
token  of  grief  and  supplication  seemed  to  beg  the  body  of  the 
deceased,  which  was  then  given  to  him  ;  with  every  token  of  sorrow 
he  took  it  up  in  his  arms,  embraced  it  with  conjugal  affection,  and 
carried  it  off  to  his  expecting  comrades.  The  artless  behaviour  of 
this  poor  animal  wrought  so  powerfully  on  the  sportsmen,  that  they 
resolved  never  to  level  a  gun  again  at  one  of  the  Monkey  race. 

The  Kahau,  or  Yv.ov.O'&ci-s'Mo'iiv.YM  {Scmnopithccus larvatus, 
or  Scmno.  Nasalis).—1\\\^  <;n'-ri,-s  is  the  Guciton  a  loiixuc  ficz  of 


Fig.  S7. — Adult  Kah.au. 

Buffon,  the  Nasalis  larva  fits  o{  Gso^iroy,  and  the  Nasa/is  rccurvus 
(young)  of  Vigors  and  Horsfield.  (See  Fig.  87.)  This  Monkey  is 
remarkable  for  the  uncouth  development  of  the  nose,  forming  a 
sort  of  proboscis  capable  of  dilatation,  with  the  nasal  apertures  under- 
neath the  bent-down  apex,  and  divided  from  each  other  by  a  thin 
cartilage  ;  along  the  upper  surface  of  this  singular  organ  runs  a 
longitudinal  depression,  indicating  the  division  between  the  two 
canals.     The  cars,  which  are  small,  and  the  face,  together  with  the 


Fig.  8S. — Face  of  Adult  Kahau.  F:g.  S9. — Face  of  young  Kr.li.iu. 


Fig.  90. — Nose  of  adult  Kahau, 
seen  from  beneath. 


Fig.  91. — Skull  of  Kahau. 


palms,  are  of  a  leaden  colour,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellow ;  the  neck 
is  short  ;  the  throat  swollen  from  the  enormous  lar}-ngal  sac.  On 
the  sides  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  the  hair  is  long,  compared  with 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  body.     The  top  of  the  head,  the  occiput,  and 


40 


BLACK-CRESTED  MONKEY,  BUDENG,  AND  DOUC. 


the  scapular  portion  of  the  back,  are  of  a  rich  chestnut-brown  ;  the 
sides  of  the  face  and  a  stripe  over  the  shoulders  are  yellow ;  the 
general  colour  of  the  body  is  fine  sandy-red.  The  crupper,  the  tail, 
the  fore-arms,  and  legs  are  cinereous  ;  the  under  parts  are  yellow  ; 
the  tail  is  somewhat  tufted  at  the  tip.  A  full  beard  in  the  male 
advances  forward,  and  curls  up  under  the  chin,  almost  to  the  long 
nose.  In  the  young,  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  a  distinct 
species,  the  nose  is  somewhat  recurved,  and  shorter  than  in  the 
adult.  That  this  distinction  is  not  specific,  as  we  formerly  believed, 
we  have  fully  satisfied  ourselves  by  the  examination  of  specimens  in 
Paris.  Figs.  88,  89,  and  90,  represent  the  face  of  the  adult  Kahau  ; 
that  of  the  young ;  and  the  nose  of  the  adult  as  seen  from  beneath. 
Fig.  91  is  the  skull  of  the  Kahau  ;  it  has  all  the  characters  of  a  true 
Scm  tiop  ithecus. 

The  male  Kahau  is  remarkable  for  size  and  strength,  and,  from  the 
magnitude  of  the  canines,  must  be  a  formidable  animal.  The  female, 
however,  is  considerably  smaller — a  circumstance  noticed  by  Wurmb, 
who  says  these  Monkeys  "  associate  in  large  troops  ;  their  cry,  which 
is  deep-toned,  resembles  the  word  kahau.  They  assemble  morning 
and  evening,  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  along  the  borders 
of  rivers,  and  are  to  be  seen  on  the  branches  of  lofty  trees,  where 
they  offer  an  agreeable  spectacle,  darting  with  great  rapidity  from 
one  tree  to  another  at  the  distance  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  1  have 
not  observed  that  they  hold  their  nose  while  leaping,  as  the  natives 
affirm,  but  I  have  seen  that  they  then  stretch  out  their  paws  in  a 
remarkable  manner.  They  are  of  different  sizes ;  some,  indeed, 
are  seen  which  are  not  above  a  foot  in  height,  but  which  yet  have 
young." 

The  Kahau,  as  far  as  is  known  with  certainty,  is  a  native  only  of 
Borneo :  perhaps  it  is  to  be  found  also  in  Sumatra.  M.  Geoffroy 
states  it  to  inhabit  the  Malay  Peninsula,  but  we  are  not  aware  that 
it  has  ever  been  seen  there.  The  adult  male  measures  2  feet  in 
the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  and  2  feet  4  inches  in  that  of  the 
tail.  It  has  never  been  brought  alive  to  Europe. 
The    Black-crested    Monkey  {Senuiopithccus  ?nelalophos ; 


Fig.  92. — Black- crested  Monkey. 

Cimcpaye,  or  Siinpai  of  F.  Cuvier,  not  Raffles). — This  slender  and 
beautiful  species  is  a  native  of  Sumatra  (Fig.  92).  The  head  is  small ; 
the  fur  is  long,  soft,  falling,  and  glossy  ;  the  top  of  the  head  is  orna- 
mented with  a  long  compressed  crest.  The  general  tint  is  a  fine 
bright  golden  rust  colour,  pure  and  rich  on  the  limbs,  but  slightly 
washed  with  a  dusky  tint  on  the  back  ;  the  abdomen  and  inside  of 
the  limbs  are  paler  than  the  other  parts.  The  crest  is  washed  with 
a  dusky  tinge,  passing  into  black  at  the  tip.  A  black  or  blackish 
line,  beginning  over  the  eyes,  passes  across  the  temples,  and  turning 
up  over  each  ear,  merges  into  the  colour  of  the  crest.  The  skin  of 
the  face  is  dusky-bluish  ;  the  palms,  soles,  and  nails  are  black. 
Length  of  head  and  body,  i  foot  8  inches  ;  of  tail,  2  feet  8  inches.  It 
is  said  to  be  extremely  active,  and  to  tenant  the  remote  parts  of  the 
forest ;  but  of  its  exclusive  habits  nothing  is  known. 

The  Budeng,  or  Negro  Monkey  {Semtzopithecus  maurus). — 
The  Budeng  is  a  native  of  Java  ;  the  general  colour  is  black  ;  the  fur 
is  long  and  silky ;  the  hairs,  diverging  from  the  crown  of  the  head, 
conceal  the  ears.  The  young,  after  birth,  are  of  a  pale  reddish- 
j-ellow ;  first  a  grey  discoloration  appears  on  the  hands ;  then  this 
begins  gradually  to  spread,  extending  to  the  shoulders  and  sides  ;  as 
it  spreads  it  becomes  darker,  and  at  last  passes  into  black  (Fig.  93). 
The  Budeng,  according  to  Dr.  Horsfield,  is  grave,  sullen,  and 
morose :  it  is  abundant  in  the  extensive  forests  of  Java,  where  it 
associates  in  large  troops,  often  of  more  than  fifty  individuals.  On 
the  approach  of  man  they  set  up  loud  screams,  and  so  violent  and 
incessant  are  their  motions,  that  decayed  branches  are  often  detached 
and  precipitated  on  the  spectators.  The  natives  chase  them  for  the 
sake  of  their  fur,  which  is  jet  black,  silky,  and  employed  in  riding 
equipages  and  military  decorations.     They  are  seldom  kept  alive, 


from  the  sullenness  of  their  temper,  which  renders  them  anything 
but  agreeable.  While  young  they  feed  on  the  tender  leaves  of  plants 
and  trees  ;  but  w^hen  adult,  on  wild  fruits  of  every  description. 


Fig.  93. — Budeng  and  Young. 

The  Douc,  or  Duk  {Scm7iopHheais  iiemaus,  F.  Cuv.)  Py- 
gathrix  iiemcsits,  Geoffr. ;  Lasiopyga  iiemaiis ;  Presbyfes  iiemcsus. 
— The  Douc,  a  genuine  example  of  the  genus  Sernnopitliecus,  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  beautiful,  of  all  the  Monkey 
race.     We  give  the  following  description  from  a  fine  adult  male  in 


Fig.  94. — Ccchin-Chjna  Monkey. 

the  Paris  Museum.  The  face  is  naked,  and  of  an  orange  colour, 
surrounded  by  full  long  whiskers  of  a  glossy  whiteness  ;  the  fur  of  the 
forehead  is  blackish,   passing  into  delicate  grizzled  grc) ,  which  is 


THE  GUEREZA   AND    WHITE-THIGIIED  COLO  BUS. 


41 


the  colour  of  the  whole  head,  the  back,  the  sides,  and  abdomen, 
each  hair  having- annulations  of  white  and  dusky  black  to  the  number 
of  eleven  or  twelve.  From  the  eyebrows  to  the  cars  extends  a  pencil 
of  chestnut  red  ;  the  throat  is  white  ;  a  band,  or  sorget,  of  chestnut 
red,  extends  across  the  top  of  the  chest  from  shoulder  to  shoulder, 
succeeded  by  a  band  of  black  spreading  over  the  top  of  each  shoulder. 
The  fore-arms,  the  tail,  and  a  square  patch  above  its  root  are  of  a 
snowy  white.  The  knees,  the  legs,  and  the  tarsal  portion  of  the  feet 
are  of  a  rich  chestnut ;  the  fingers,  the  toes,  and  the  tliighs  are 
black  ;  space  round  the  callosities,  white  ;  callosities  and  naked  skin 
of  the  palms,  yellow.  Fur,  full  and  soft.  Length  of  head  and  body 
to  root  of  tail,  2  feet  i  inch.     Native  country,  Cochin-China.     (See 

Fiff-  94) 

The  Douc  has  never  been  brought  alive  to  Europe,  and  of  its 
habits  and  manners  we  have  but  meagre  information.  Bezoar-stones 
are  said  to  be  frequently  found  in  its  stomach,  a  proof  that  it  is  sac- 
culated, as  in  the  other  Semnopitheci,  and  also  in  the  Colobi. 

It  has  been  stated  that  these  animals  live  in  troops,  more  or  less 
numerous,  in  the  vast  woods  which  cover  the  country  along  the  shore  ; 
and  their  manners  are  certainly  far  from  being  wild,  as  has  been 
supposed.  They  are,  indeed,  little  troubled  by  the  presence  of  man, 
and  often  come  near  to  the  habitations  of  the  Cochin-Chinese,  who 
appear  to  offer  them  but  little  molestation,  and  do  not  attempt  to 
draw  from  the  beautiful  fur  of  the  Doucs  all  the  advantages  which 
might  be  obtained  from  such  a  source. 

Though  Buffon,  on  the  authority  of  M.  de  Poivre,  gave  the  name 
of  Douc  to  this  species,  as  its  native  appellation,  nevertheless  it 
would  seem  that  such  is  not  the  term  by  which  it  is  known  in  Cochin- 
China.  M.  Rey,  the  captain  of  a  French  merchantman,  who  visited 
that  country  in  i8i9-'20,  informs  us  that  these  Monkeys  are  there 
called  Venam,  which,  he  says,  signifies  "  men  of  the  woods."  M. 
Rey  had  no  difEculty  in  killing  numbers  of  them  ;  but  it  was  not 
without  great  trouble  that  he  succeeded  in  capturing  living  indi- 
viduals. So  numerous  were  they,  that  on  one  occasion,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  hours,  a  hundred  were  slaughtered.  Desirous,  however,  of 
taking  some  alive,  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  them,  if  possible, 
to  France,  he  set  to  work  in  earnest.  In  the  attempt  many  were  shot 
dead,  and  others  wounded ;  and  as  they  fell,  the  survivors  collected 
round  the  dead  and  dying,  endeavouring  to  carry  them  off  into  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  forest.  Three  young  ones  were  ultimately  secured, 
which  held  so  fast  round  the  bodies  of  their  dams,  that  it  required  no 
small  effort  to  detach  them.  They  did  not  reach  France  alive.  M. 
Rey  remarks  that  this  species  of  Monkey  greatly  resembles  the 
Orang-Outan  in  stature  and  inoffensive  manners,  inhabiting  the 
mountains  and  tops  of  the  loftiest  trees,  and  living  on  fruit.  Its  fur 
he  describes  as  being  exceedingly  fine.  Some  of  the  males  measured, 
when  standing  upright,  about  4  feet  4  inches  in  height. 

There  are  some  other  species  of  the  Semnoj>itheci,  of  which,  how- 
ever, but  little  is  known,  and  of  which  the  limits  of  our  space  forbid 
description  and  illustration. 

The  Monkeys.— Genus  Colobus,  or  Colobos. 

The  Monkeys  of  this  genus  are  restricted  exclusively  to  Africa  :  in 
all  respects  they  resemble  the  Semiiopitheci ;  but  the  thumb,  which 
in  the  latter  is  small,  is  in  these  wanting  or  reduced  to  a  mere  nail- 
less  tubercle — hence  the  name  Colobus,  or  stunted,  from  the  Greek. 
What  the  Semiiopitheci  zxe.  in  India,  the  Colobi  3.Te.  in  Africa.  Till 
lately  only  two  species  were   known  ;    but  the  list  now  contains 


F''S'  95- — Guereza. 

several  accredited  species,  to  which  others  will  no  doubt  be  added 
as  we  extend  our  researches  in  Western  Africa,  along  the  borders  of 
the  Gambia,  and  the  island  of  Fernando  Po. 


The  Gukreza  (Colobus  Gucrcza ).—Ocncra.\  colour  black  ;  sides 
of  the  body  and  top  of  the  loins  ornamanted  with  long  pendent  white 
hairs,  forming  a  fringe-like  mantle  ;  face  encircled  by  white  ;  tail 
ending  in  a  white  tuft.  Native  country,  South  and  West  Abyssinia. 
(See  Fig.  95.) 

The  Guereza,  which  is  the  Abyssinian  name  of  this  species,  lives, 
according  to  Riippell,  in  small  families,  tenanting  the  lofty  trees  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  running  waters.  It  is  active  and  lively,  and  at 
the  same  time  gentle  and  inoffensive.  Its  food  consists  of  wild  fruits, 
grain,  and  insects.  It  is  only  found  in  the  provinces  of  Godjam, 
KuUa,  and  Damot — more  especially  in  the  latter,  where  it  is  hunted 
by  the  natives,  who  consider  it  a  mark  of  distinction  to  possess  a 
buckler  covered  with  its  skin,  the  part  used  being  that  covered  with  the 
long  flowing  white  hairs.     Ludolph  (in  the  "  Hist,  .^thiop.,"  lib.  i.) 


Fig.  96.— White-thighed  Colobus. 

has  made  express  allusion  to  this  animal,  but  he  figures  a  different 
species  under  its  name — a  circumstance  of  by  no  means  uncommon 
occurrence  in  classifying  Monkeys. 

The  White-thighed  Colobus  fColobus  leticoiMrus,  Ogilby). 
— This  beautiful  Monkey  is  a  native  of  the  banks  of  the  Gambia. 
The  fur  is  long,  fine,  silky,  and  shining ;  the  general  colour  is 
black  ;  a  white  frontal  band  spreads  from  the  forehead  over  the 
whiskers  on  the  sides  of  the  face,  and  passing  down  occupies  the 
throat,  so  that  the  face  is  surrounded  with  white,  which  is  narrowest 


Fij.  97. — FuU-maned  ColuLus. 

on  the  forehead.  The  hairs  covering  the  thighs  externally  are  white, 
more  or  less  mixed  with  black,  and  gradually  merging  into  the 
general  hue.     The  tail  is  long,  and  of  a  snowy  white.     (Fig.  97.) 

G 


42 


THE  GUENONS. 


The  White-tliighed  Colobus  has  never  been  observed  by  European 

travellers  in  its  native  forest ;  the  skins,  mostly  imperfect  and 
wanting  the  head,  are  brought  down  by  the  negroes  from  the  interior 
for  the  purposes  of  barter. 

The  Full-maned  Colobus  (Colobus  j)olycomos).  FuU- 
bottomed  Monkey,  Pennant :  Giicnon  d  Caiiiail,  Buffon. — The  full- 
maned  (Cloaked,  or  Many-haired)  Colobus  is  a  native  of  the 
forest  of  Sierra  Leone  :  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  "  the  king  of  the 
Monkeys,"  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  colours,  and  the  caniail, 
which  represents  a  sort  of  diadem.  (See  Fig.  97.)  Its  fur  is  in  high 
estimation,  and  applied  to  different  ornamental  purposes.  The 
head  and  upper  part  of  the  body  are  covered  with  long  hairs  falling 
over  the  head  and  shoulders,  forming  a  sort  of  mane-like  hood 
and  pelerine,  whence  the  name  given  to  it  by  Buffon.  Pennant's 
title  is  in  allusion  to  the  full-bottomed  periwig  worn  in  his  day. 
These  long  hairs  are  mingled  yellow  and  black  ;  the  face  is  brown  ; 
the  body  covered  with  short  jet-black  hair ;  the  tail  is  snowy  white, 
and  tufted. 

Tejiminck's  Colobus  {Colobus  Temminckii,  Kuhl,  "  Beitr.," 
1820).— The  top  of  the  head  is  black,  as  is  also  the  occiput,  which 
latter  is  slightly  sprinkled  with  rufous  ;  the  back  and  the  outside  of 
the  humerus  and  of  the  thighs  are  of  a  sooty  black,  with  a  tinge  of 


Fig.  9S. — Temrainck's  Colobus, 

slate-blue.  The  sides  of  the  face,  the  chest,  the  sides  of  the  humerus, 
and  the  whole  of  the  fore-arms  are  of  a  rufous  colour,  which  becomes 
deeper  and  brighter  on  the  hands ;  the  anterior  part  of  the  thighs, 
the  knees,  and  the  legs  are  also  rufous,  the  feet  being  of  a  deeper 
hue  ;  the  throat,  together  with  a  line  along  the  chest  and  abdomen, 
are  of  a  sandy-yellow  ;  the  middle  of  the  chest  and  of  the  abdomen 
is  abruptly  of  a  dirty  yellowish-white,  varying  to  white  ;  the  tail  at 
the  base  is  black,  with  rufous  hairs  intermixed  ;  it  then  assumes  a 
chestnut  red  or  rufous  colour,  becoming  again  darker  at  the  extre- 
mity ;  an  obscure  dusky  line  runs  along  the  whole  of  its  upper 
surface.  The  naked  skin  of  the  face  is  brown,  with  a  tinge  of  red 
purple ;  the  palms  and  soles  are  of  a  purplish  black.  It  was  on  a 
very  pale-coloured  and  aged  female  of  this  species  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  London  (26,  Cat.,  "  Mamm.,"  1838), 
brought  from  the  river  Gambia,  that  Mr.  Ogilby  founded  his  Colobus 
fuliginosus ,  afterwards  termed  by  him  C.  r'ufo-fiilighius. 

The  original  of  Kuhl's  description  was  formerly  in  Bullock's 
museum.  With  respect  to  the  native  country  of  this  species,  it  is 
now  ascertained  to  be  Gambia.  Length  of  head  and  body,  2  feet  2 
inches ;  of  tail,  2  feet  6  inches.  Nothing  relative  to  the  habits  and 
manners  of  this  species,  as  it  exists  in  its  native  forests,  has  been 
collected. 


The  Monkeys — Genus  Cercojiiihecus — or  Guenons. 

In  this  genus,  which  is  an  extensive  one,  and  includes  at  least 
twenty  species,  are  comprehended  the  ordinary  long-tailed  Monkeys, 
or  Guenons,  of  Africa.  The  muzzle  is  moderately  prominent ;  the 
facial  angle  45°  to  50°  (see  ante,  p.  4) ;  the  head  is  round  ;  the 
superciliary  ridge  moderate  ;  the  molar  teeth  are  crowned  with  acute 
tubercles  ;  the  last  molar  of  the  lower  jaw  with  only  four  tubercles  : 
there  are  ample  cheek-pouches ;  the  laryngal  sac  is  variable  ; 
ischiatic  callosities  moderate  ;  general  contour  light,  but  vigorous  ; 
limbs  muscular ;  stomach  simple  ;  tail  long ;  the  hairs  composing 
the  fur  annulated. 

The  Cercopitheci  are  all  restricted  to  the  African  continent ;  but 
one  species  only,  the  Vervet  {C.  pygerythrus,  or  C.  lalandii,  and 
one  species  of  Baboon,  the  Chacma),  inhabits  Africa  south  of  the 
Capricorn.     These  animals  are  arboreal  in  their  habits ;  they  tenant 


the  wild  forests  that  skirt  the  rivers,  and  associate  in  troops,  beingf 
gregarious  in  their  habits.  Their  actions  are  full  of  energy ;  their 
disposition  is  restless,  petulant,  and  inquisitive.  During  infancy 
they  are  gentle,  but  as  age  advances  they  become  irascible  and 
malicious.  Their  displeasure  is  expressed  by  grinning  and  chatter- 
ing ;  and  though  they  seldom  venture  to  make  a  decided  attack,  yet, 
collected  in  troops  in  their  native  woods,  they  endeavour  to  harass 
and  annoy  intruders  within  their  territorial  domains,  and  are  not 
to  be  repelled  without  difficulty.  Their  diet  is  almost  exclusively 
frugiverous ;  and  they  often  commit  great  havoc  in  the  fields  of 
grain  adjacent  to  the  wooded  districts ;  and  that,  not  only  by  what 
they  devour  on  the  spot,  but  also  by  what  they  carry  away  in  their 
cheek-pouches,  which  extend  below  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
which,  when  an  opportunity  occurs,  they  cram  with  food  to  be  eaten 
at  leisure.     In  these  Guenons  the  thumb  of  the  fore-hands  's  more 


Fig.  99. — Teeth  of  Guenons. 

developed  than  in  the  Semiiopitheci,  and  the  hands  themselves 
are  shorter,  and  have  better  pretensions  to  the  title  than  the  long 
slender  graspers   of  their  Asiatic   relatives.       The  dental  formula 

is  as  follows: — Incisors   A,   canines  i-^,  molars  5^l5  =  72.      Of 

4  i-i  S-S 

these  the  canines  (see  Fig.  99)  are  very  large,  compressed,  with  a 
sharp  cutting  edge  posteriorly. 

The  Mona  (Cercopithecus  Mona).  La  Mone  of  Buffon ;  the 
Varied  Ape  oiVst^xnaxit.  (See  Fig.  100.) — The  hairs  annulated  with 
grey,  yellow,  and  black,  or  with  red  and  black,  producing  the  various 
tints  of  the  fur.  Head  of  yellowish-olive  colour ;  a  black  frontal 
stripe  above  the  eyebrows  is  surmounted  by  another  of  a  whitish  tint, 
more  conspicuous  in  some  individuals  than  in  others  ;  back,  chestnut- 
brown  ;  haunches  and  limbs,  externally,  dusky  black  ;  tail  black,  with 
a  white  spot  on  each  side  of  its  origin  on  the  crupper ;  under  parts 
and  inside  of  limbs  white ;  whiskers  very  full,  of  a  yellowish  tint, 
slightly  washed  with  black  ;  skin  of  orbits  and  cheeks,  bluish-purple  ; 
lips  flesh-coloured;  ears  and  head  of  a  livid  flesh-colour;  length 
of  head  and  body,  i  foot  8J  inches  ;  tail,  i  foot  1 1  inches.  The  Mona 
is  a  native  of  Western  Africa  (Guinea),  but  of  its  manners  in  a  state 
of  nature  little  is  known.  It  bears  our  climate  better  than  most  of  its 
congeners  :  we  have  observed  many  adults  in  captivity,  and  always 
found  them  savage  and  irritable. 

The  term  Mone,  or  Mona,  is  of  Arabic  origin,  and  is  the  Moorish 


THE  DIANA  AND  GREEN  MONKEYS. 


43 


name  for  all  long-tailed  Monkeys  indiscriminately,  From  Northern 
Africa  the  term  passed  into  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Provence  ;  nor  has 
it  stopped  here  :  it  is  evidently  the  root  of  our  word  Monkey,  which 
has  exactly  the  same  meaning,  but  wliicli  has  been  supposed  to  be  a 
corruption  of  the  word  monikin,  or  inauakin.  To  say  no  more,  it 
seems  going  out  of  the  way  to  seek  in  our  own  language  for  the 


Fig.  loo. — Mona. 

name  of  a  foreign  animal,  with  which  our  Saxon  forefathers,  and 
indeed  ourselves,  till  at  a  comparatively  late  era, were  unacquainted, 
and  which,  when  imported,  was  so  with  the  name  also,  by  which  it 
was  known  to  the  people  from  whom  it  was  originally  obtained. 

The  Diana  Monkey  {Ccrcopithecus  Diana).  Le  Rohzvay  ott 
Palati)ie  of  Buffon  ;  the  Palatine  and  Spotted  Monkey  of  Pennant 
and  Shaw. — The  top  of  the  head,  the  back  of  the  neck,  the  shoulders, 
sides,  and  middle  of  the  body  are  of  a  deep  grizzled  ashy  grey ;  the 
hairs  being  annulated  with  white  and  black,  and  white  at  the  lips. 
This  grey  tint  darkens  into  black  on  the  hands  ;  the  tail  is  grey,  be- 
coming black  at  the  extremity  ;  a  crescent-shaped  line  of  long  white 
hairs  (surmounting  a  band  of  dusky  black),  and  resembling  Dian's 
silver  bow,  has  suggested  the  animal's  name.  The  sides  of  the  face 
are  covered  with  long,  bushy,  white  hairs,  which  merge  on  the  chin 
into  a  long,  thin,  flat,  and  pointed  beard.  The  front  of  the  neck  and 
the  anterior  part  of  the  humerus  are  white  ;  the  latter  with  an  abrupt 
line  of  dcmarkation.     (See  Fig.  loi.) 


Fig.  loi. — Diana  Monkeys. 

On  the  middle  of  the  back  commences  a  mark  of  deep  chestnut, 
which  gradually  widens  as  it  descends  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  forming 
an  elongated  triangle  with  the  base  on  the  crupper.  A  line  of  white, 
beginning  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  runs  obliquely  along  the  outer  side 
of  each  thigh  to  the  knee  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  and  the 
inner  side  of  the  thighs  are  abruptly  of  an  orange-yellow,  orange-red, 
or  bright  rust  colour.  The  face  is  long  and  triangular,  and,  together 
with  the  ears,  intensely  black.  Length  of  head  and  body  about 
2  feet;  of  tail,  about  2  feet  4  inches.  This  richly-coloured  Monkey  is 
a  native  of  Guinea,  Congo,  and  Fernando  Po.  It  is  very  rarely 
brought  alive  to  Europe  ;  nor  indeed  are  its  skins  common  in  collec- 
tions. We  have  observed  only  one  specimen  in  the  Paris  Museum, 
from  the  Gold  Coast.     Three  specimens  were  in  the  collection  of  the 


Zoological  Society,  London.  Of  these,  one  died  some  years  since  in 
the  menagerie  of  the  Society  :  the  other  two  were  brought  from  Fer- 
nando Po.  Of  the  habits  of  the  Diana  in  its  own  forests  we  know 
nothing.  While  young,  in  captivity  it  is  gentle,  active,  familiar,  and 
very  playful :  its  frontal  crest,  and  "beard  of  formal  cut,"  give  a 
singular  aspect  to  its  physiognomy.  The  latter  it  has  been  observed 
to  be  solicitous  in  keeping  neat  and  clean,  holding  it  back  when 
about  to  drink,  lest  it  should  dip  into  the  ffdid.  Considering  the 
range  of  country  through  which  this  species  is  spread,  the  scarcity 
of  this  Monkey  in  the  menageries  and  collections  of  Europe  is  rather 
surprising. 

The  Green  Monkey  {Cercopithecns  sabrntis,  or  Ccrco.  calli- 
frichtis).  The  St.  Jago  Monkey  of  Edwards;  Le  Callitriche  of 
Buffon  ;  Cere,  viridis  of  Hermann. — The  general  colour  of  the  upper 
parts  is  olive-green,  the  hairs  being  annulated  with  black  and  yellow  ; 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  limbs  a  greyish  tint  prevails  ;  the  hands  and 
feet  are  grey  ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  and  inside  of  the  limbs 
are  white,  with  a  faint  tinge  of  yellow.  The  hairs  on  the  side  of  the 
face  are  full  and  long,  and  directed  up  towards  the  ears,  spreading 


Fig.  102. — Green  Monkey. 

in  the  manner  of  a  frill;  their  colour,  with  that  of  the  hairs  of  the 
throat,  is  bright  but  delicate  yellow.  The  tail  is  olive-green  above, 
passing  into  yellow  at  the  tip ;  the  face,  ears,  and  palms  are  black. 
(See  Fig.  102.) 

The  Green  Monkey  is  a  native  of  Senegal  and  the  Cape  de  Verd 
Islands.  It  is  most  probable  that  this  is  the  species  to  which  Adan- 
son  refers,  under  the  name  of  Singe  verte,  as  being  abundant  in  the 
woods  of  Podor,  along  the  Niger;  and  of  which  he  killed  twenty- 
three  in  less  than  an  hour,  and  in  the  space  of  twenty  fathoms,  without 
one  of  them  having  uttered  a  single  cry,  although  they  collected 
several  times,  knitting  their  brows,  gnashing  their  teeth,  and  making 
demonstrations  of  an  intended  attack.  ("  Voy.  au  Senegal,"  by  M. 
Adanson,  1757.) 

In  captivity  the  Green  Monkey  is  alert,  active,  and  intelligent,  but 
spiteful  and  malicious.  F.  Cuvier,  however,  describes  an  adult  which 
was  good-tempered,  gentle,  and  familiar,  and  expressed  pleasure  on 
being  caressed :  such  exceptions  are  rare. 


Fig.  103. — The  Lesser  \Yliite-nosed  Monkey. 

The  Lesser  White-nosed  Monkey  {^Cercopithecus  petau- 
rista).  Blanc-ncz  of  AUamand ;  Ascagiie  of  F.  Cuvier  and 
Audebert. 


44 


THE  MANGABEY  AND  THE  MACAQUES. 


There  are  two  distinct  species  of  White-nosed  Monkey,  both 
natives  of  the  forests  of  Guinea  ;  of  these,  one  is  the  Hochcur  of 
Audebert,  the  Winking  Monkey  of  Pennant,  the  Cercopithcais 
nictitans  of  Geoffrey.  "The  general  colour  of  the  Hocheur  is  black, 
freckled  with  white ;  the  limbs  are  black ;  the  whiskers,  of  the 
general  colour,  are  ample  ;  the  chin  is  beardless ;  the  nose,  which 
is  broad  and  elevated,  is  white  from  between  the  eyes  to  the  nostrils 

The  Lesser  White-nosed  Monkey,  or  ^/a;/c-««(see  Fig.  103),  has 
only  the  lower  half  of  the  nose  white,  but  this  colour  extends  to  the 
adjacent  part  of  the  upper  lip  ;  the  face  is  covered  with  short  black 
hairs,  those  on  the  cheek-bone  having  a  fulvous  tinge  ;  the  whiskers 
and  beard  are  white,  as  also  the  throat,  chest,  and  abdomen.  A 
streak  of  black  hair  runs  from  the  face  below  the  ear,  and  loses  itself 
on  the  top  of  the  shoulder  ;  and  between  this  black  line  and  the  hairs 
of  the  head,  a  conspicuous  streak  of  white  runs  below  the  ears.  The 
general  colour  of  the  back  and  head  is  reddish  olive-brown  ;  the 
hairs  being  ranged  with  fulvous  and  black.  A  band  across  the 
forehead  above  the  eyes,  and  a  band  traversing  the  top  of  the  head 
from  ear  to  ear,  are  black  ;  a  grey  tint  prevails  on  the  limbs,  deepen- 
ing to  dusky  black  on  the  hands  and  feet.  Tail  dusky  grey  above, 
white  beneath.  Length  of  head  and  body,  about  i  foot  4  or  5 
inches  ;  of  the  tail,  i  foot  9  or  10  inches. 

This  species  is  common  in  Guinea,  and  is  frequently  brought  to 
Europe,  but  does  not  well  endure  our  uncongenial  climate.  It  is 
gentle,  graceful,  and  intelligent,  but  not  without  a  mi.xture  of  the 
caprice  and  petulance  of  its  race.  The  lightness  and  agility  of  its 
actions,  its  playfulness,  and  beauty,  certainly  render  it  very  attrac- 
tive ;  but  it  dislikes  to  be  taken  hold  of  or  interfered  with  :  so  that 
though  as  docile  as  most  Monkeys,  it  becomes  familiar  only  to  a 
certain  extent.  A  Bla7ic-nez  in  the  possession  of  AUarnand, 
though  usually  good-tempered  and  sportive,  became  angry  if  inter- 
rupted while  feeding,  and  also  when  mockery  was  made  of  it.  We 
have  observed  a  sensitiveness  to  ridicule  or  mockery  in  other  species, 
and  a  strong  desire  to  resent  the  insult,  which  is  evidently  felt. 

The  Mangabey,  or  Collared  White -eyelid  Monkey 
[/Sthiops  torquatus).  Cercoccbiis  ^thiops,  Geoff. ;  Cercopithectis 
^thiops,  Kuhl. — In  Martin's  "  Natural  History  of  Quadrupeds,"  a 
sub-genus  termed  .iEthiops  is  there  proposed  for  two,  if  not  three 


Fig.   104. — The  Collared  White-eyelid  Monkey. 

closely-allied  species  (the  White-eyelid  Monkeys),  which  differ  on 
tangible  grounds  from  th&Cercopztkeci — namely,  in  the  presence  of  a 
fifth  tubercle  on  the  lower  jaw  ;  the  magnitude  of  thg  upper  middle 
incisors ;  and  the  hairs  being  destitute  of  annulations.  For  these 
Monkeys,  with  other  Guenons  by  no  means  closely  allied  to  them, 
Geoffrey  proposed  his  genus  Cercocebus — a  genus,  the  indeterminate 
characters  of  which,  from  the  incongruity  of  the  species  thus  brought 
together,  was  perceived  by  Desmarest,  who,  unwilling  to  sink  it, 
endeavoured  to  reform  it  by  the  removal  of  some  species  and  the 
addition  of  others  :  so  that  the  genus  as  instituted  by  the  one  natu- 
ralist, and  that  remodelled  by  the  other,  were  two  different  assem- 
blages ;  and  the  characters  of  both  equally  vague  and  indefinite.  It 
therefore  seems  best  to  sink  the  genus  altogether,  and  place  the 
White-eyelid  Monkeys  in  a  separate  sub-genus,  to  which  the  title 
jEthiops  has  been  already  applied.     (See  Fig.  104.) 

The  Collared  ^Vhite-eyelid  Monkey  (the  Mangabey  a  Collier  of 
Buffon  and  F.  Cuvier),  like  the  Sooty  White-eyelid  Monkey,  is  a 
native  of  Western  Africa.  The  general  colour  is  fuliginous  or  sooty 
black,  passing  into  black  on  the  limbs  and  hands.  The  top  of  the 
head  is  chestnut-coloured  ;  the  whiskers,  throat,  and  collar  round  the 
neck  are  white.     The  upper  eyelids  are  conspicuously  dead-white. 

The  native  habits  of  this  Monkey  are  not  known  :  in  captivity  it  is 
gentle,  active,  and  familiar,  and  testifies,  by  a  sort  of  jabber  and  grin, 
its  recognition  of  those  for  whom  it  has  a  partiality.  We  have  ob- 
served many  individuals,  and  have  found  them  to  be  among  the  most 
diverting  of  their  race.     They  would  play  a  number  of  amusing 


tricks  in  order  to  attract  the  attention  of  bystanders,  and  gain  a 
share  of  the  nuts  and  biscuits  they  saw  dealt  out  to  their  companions  ; 
and  they  testified  their  gratitude  by  a  quick  vibratory  movement  of 
the  lips,  producing  a  jabbering  noise.  When  offended,  their  ill- 
temper  was  transient,  and  they  soon  became  reconciled  to  the  object 
of  their  anger.  In  their  gambols  with  other  Monkeys  they  were 
invariably  good-natured.  The  Mangabey  unites  the  Ccrcopithcci 
and  the  Macaci,  next  to  be  described. 


The  Monkeys— Genus  Macacus — or  Macaques. 

The  distinctions  between  the  genus  Macacus  and  Cercopifhccus, 
though  in  some  points  definite,  are  in  others  rather  variations  in 
degree  than  anything  positive.  In  the  Macaques,  or  Macaci,  the 
body  is  stouter,  the  head  larger  in  proportion,  the  limbs  more 
muscular,  and  the  tail  shorter  than  in  the  Guenons.  The  muzzle  is 
heavy  ;  the  forehead  is  flattened  behind  a  bold  superciliary  ridge  ; 
the  callosities  are  large,  and  mostly  surrounded  by  a  naked  space  of 
skin.  There  are  ample  cheek-pouches,  and  Cuvier  states  that  a 
laryngal  sac  is  always  present.  The  last  molar  of  the  lower  jaw  has 
a  fifth  tubercle,  and  the  molars  are  broad  (see  Fig.  105).     The  tail  is 


Fig.  105. — Teeth  of  Macicus. 

variable :  in  some  it  is  of  considerable  length,  and  in  these  the 
general  form  approaches  to  that  of  the  Guenons.  In  others  again 
it  is  short  and  slender  ;  and  in  others  it  is  reduced  to  a  mere  tubercle. 
The  ears  are  angular.  The  Macaques  are  all  natives  of  Asia.  Like 
the  Guenons,  which  they  seem  to  represent,  the  long-tailed  species 
tenant  the  forest  in  troops,  and  are  remarkable  for  activity  and  im- 
pudence. Emboldened  by  tolerance,  they  become  in  many  places 
very  audacious,  pillaging  the  garden  and  fields  of  grain,  and  their 
rapacity  is  seconded  by  address  and  cunning. 

The  Toque,  or  Radiated  Macaque  {Macacus  radiatus). — 
This  species  is  the  Bontiei  Chinois  of  Buffon ;  the  Simia  Sinica  of 
Gmelim  ;  tlie  Toque  of  F.  Cuvier. 

The  forehead  is  abruptly  depressed  behind  the  superciliary  ridge, 
which  is  very  bold  ;  the  skin  of  the  forehead  is  transversely  wrinkled, 
and  covered  with  short  hairs,  diverging  laterally  on  each  side  from 
the  middle  longitudinal  line.  These  hairs  are  continued  round  the 
temples,  following  the  projection  of  the  superciliary  ridge,  and  occu- 
pying the  space  before  the  ears.     A  circular  cap  of  rather  long  hair, 


THE  TOQUE,  SHUNDER,    WANDEROO,  AND  MAG02. 


45 


radiating  from  the  centre,  is  seated  flat  on  the  crown.  The  muzzle  is 
prominent,  and  the  physiognomy  malicious  ;  the  form  is  robust ;  the 
tail  generally  long.  The  general  colour  is  greenish  olive-grey,  the 
hairs  being  annulated  (or  ring-formed)  with  dusky-black  and  pale 
yellow  •  the  under  surface  is  ashy-white  ;  the  ears  are  large  and  flesh- 
coloured,  with  straggling  long  grey  hairs.  The  limbs  are  of  a  paler 
tint  than  the  back.  The  sides  of  the  face  and  throat  are  thinly  clad 
with  greyish  hairs ;  the  naked  skin  of  the  face  is  of  a  tanned  flesh- 
colour.  ^   ,     „ 

The  Toque  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  Macaques  in  our  mena- 


Fig.  io6. — Toque. 

g'eries,  and  appears  to  be  widely  disrtibuted  throughout  India.  It  is 
found  in  Malabar.  It  inhabits  the  Western  Ghauts,  where  it  is 
called  Waanur  by  the  Mahrattas  :  it  is  abundant  in  Madras,  and 
even  in  the  southern  regions  of  Nepal.  In  the  Mahratta  country, 
portions  of  the  mighty  forest  are,  as  Mr.  Elliot  states,  left  untouched 
by  the  axe  or  knife,  forming  an  impervious  shade  for  the  growth  of 
the  black  pepper,  cardamom,  and  maripalm  {Caryota  urens). 
These  parts,  called  kans,  are  the  favourite  resort  of  wild  animals  : 
here  the  Entellus  abounds,  and  its  loud  and  piercing  cries  may  be 
frequently  heard  sounding  through  the  dense  foliage  :  the  Radiated 
Macaque,  also,  which  is  common  over  the  whole  country,  may  be 
seen  in  troops,  tenanting  the  wildest  jungles.  It  is  not,  however, 
confined  to  these  woodland  recesses  :  it  lives,  as  if  at  home,  in  the 
most  popular  towns,  where  it  carries  off  fruit  and  grain  with  the 
greatest  coolness  and  address,  and  commits  incessant  petty  depreda- 
tions. The  e.xamplesof  this  species  which  we  have  seen  in  captivity, 
have  been  all  remarkable  for  intelligence  and  activity,  and  equally 
so  for  petulance  when  young,  and  irascibility — even  ferocity — 
when  adult.  We  have  seen  them  display  every  mark  of  rage 
against  persons  who  did  not  appear  to  give  any  definite  offence. 
Numbers  of  these  animals  are  kept  in  the  Hindoo  temples,  where 
they  are  exceedingly  jealous  of  intruders  of  any  other  species,  which 
they  drive  forth  from  their  asylum  with  the  utmost  hostility — a  circum- 
stance witnessed  by  M.  de  Maisonpre  in  the  enclosures  of  the  pago- 
das of  Cherinan. 
The  Bhunder,  Rhesus,  or  Patas  (Macacus Rhesus).    This  is 


Fig.  107. — Bhunder. 

the   Patas  a  queue  courte  of  Buffon  ;  the  Maiinon,  or  Rhesus,  of 
F.  Cuvier.     (See  Fig.  107.) 

The  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  olive-green,  with  a  wash  of  brown 
on  the  back ;  the  crupper  and  thighs,  externally,  orange-red ;  the  face 


orange-red.  The  tail  short.  The  skin  of  the  throat  and  abdomen 
is  loose,  and  usually  hangs  in  folds.  The  Bhunder  is  a  native  of 
India,  and  is  very  abundant  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  being 
greatly  reverenced  by  the  Hindoos.  It  swarms  not  only  in  the  woods, 
but  in  towns  and  villages,  tenanting  the  tops  of  the  houses.  It 
would  appear,  from  the  account  of  Mr.  Johnson,  in  his  "  Indian  Field 
Sports,"  that  in  some  places  ample  provision  is  made  for  the  support 
of  these  animals.  At  Bindrabun,  a  town  near  the  holy  city  of 
Muttra,  more  than  a  hundred  gardens  arc  cultivated,  and  all  kinds 
of  fruits  grown,  at  the  expense  of  pious  and  wcaltliy  natives,  for 
their  supply.  Not  content  with  remaining  outside  the  houses,  they 
boldly  invade  the  rooms,  and  steal  everything  that  tempts  them, 
such  as  bread,  sugar,  fruit,  &c.,  ransacking  every  place  in  their 
search.  To  injure  one  is  not  only  to  bring  down  the  vengeance  of 
the  whole  host,  but,  what  is  more,  of  the  besotted  natives,  as  was 
experienced  by  two  young  officers  who  imprudently  fired,  while  on  a 
sporting  excursion,  at  one  of  these  Monkeys.  They  were  mounted  on 
an  Elephant,  and  no  sooner  was  the  profane  assualt  committed,  than 
the  inhabitants  of  Bindrabun  rose  incensed  to  the  highest  degree  : 
they  pelted  the  gentlemen  and  the  Elephant  w-ith  bricks  and  stones, 
and  drove  them  into  the  river :  the  two  officers  and  the  driver  were 
drowned ;  but  the  Elephant  landed  about  six  miles  lower  down  the 
river,  and  was  saved.  In  the  district  of  Cooch  Bahar,  a  large  tract 
of  country  is  considered  by  the  natives  as  in  part  the  property  of 
these  Monkeys  ;  and  therefore,  when  they  cut  the  grain,  they  leave 
a  tenth  part  piled  in  heaps  for  these  creatures,  which  come  down 
from  the  hills  and  carry  off  their  allotted  tithes.  In  captivity,  the 
Rhesus,  or  Bhunder,  displays  cunning  and  sagacity  ;  but  is  at  the 
same  time  obstinate,  savage,  and  irascible. 

The  Wanderoo  ('Macacus  stlenusj.  Ouanderou  and  Lowando, 
Buffon  ;  Lion-tailed  Baboon,  Pennant  and  Shaw.     (See  Fig.  108.) 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  black ;  the  tail  is  of  moderate 


Fig.  loS. — Wanderoo. 

length,  and  tufted  at  the  tip  ;  the  face  is  encircled  by  a  mane  of  long 
hairs  of  a  whitish  or  light  ash  colour,  sometimes  pure  white  ;  the  face 
is  black  ;   the  callosities  flesh-coloured. 

This  large  and  powerful  Macaque  is  a  native  of  Malabar  and 
Ceylon.  Knox,  in  his  historical  relation  of  Ceylon,  evidently 
describes  this  animal.  They  are,  he  says,  "  as  large  as  our  Englisli 
Spaniel  Dogs,  of  a  darkish-grey  colour,  with  black  faces,  and  great 
white  beards  from  ear  to  ear,  which  make  them  show  just  like  old 
men.  They  do  but  little  mischief,  keeping  in  the  woods,  eating 
only  leaves  and  buds  of  trees  ;  but  when  they  are  caught  they  will 
eat  anything.     This  sort  they  call,  in  their  language,  Wanderows. 

In  captivity,  the  Wanderoo  is  surly  and  unsocial,  and  disposed  to 
tyrannise  over  the  other  inmates  of  its  compartment. 

The  Magot  (Macacus  i>iuusj.—T\\\?.  Monkey,  also  called  the 
Barbary  Ape,  is  the  only  species  of  Monkey  found  in  Europe,  and  is 
confined    to    the    Rock  of  Gibraltar.     It   is   nearly  allied   to   the 


46 


THE  BABOONS— THE  CHACMA  AND  MANDRILL. 


Baboons,  or  Cynocephali,  which  will  be  next  described.  The  Magot 
measures  from  two  to  two  and  a-half  feet  in  length,  and  has  decidedly 
the  appearance  of  a  Dog  ;  but  it  has  no  tail,  or  rather  only  one  of  an 
entirely  rudimentary  kind.  Naturalists  arc  sorely  puzzled  to  account 
for  the  presence  of  this  Monkey  in  Gibraltar ;  and  no  satisfactory 
reason  for  it  has  yet  been  given. 

The  Monkeys— Genus  CynoceJ>halus—'Q\'ROOT<is. 

In  the  massive  Baboons  composing  this  genus,  we  find  the  charac- 
ters of  the  Macaques  exaggerated,  so  to  speak,  to  their  ulitimatum, 
and  consequently  impressing  us  with  an  idea  of  degradation  in  the 
scale  ;  we  recognise  an  approach,  in  form  and  aspect,  to  the  Ca?-- 
nivora,  and,  on  reflection,  appreciate  the  distance  to  which  we  have 
receded  from  the  Chimpanzee  and  Gorilla. 

Of  large  stature  and  prodigious  force,  the  Baboons,  though  never 
voluntarily  assuming  an  erect  attitude,  are  to  a  great  degree 
terrestrial,  inhabiting  rocky  and  mountain  districts,  rather  than 
forests  and  woodlands.  The  head  is  heavy,  not  from  cranial 
development,  but  from  that  of  the  face,  which  is  prolonged  and 
thick,  resembling  that  of  a  Mastiff,  the  muzzle  being  truncated,  and 
the  nostrils  at  its  extremity.  The  bones  are  more  or  less  swollen, 
and  the  superciliary  ridge  beetles  over  the  scowling  eyes,  giving  an 
expression  of  brutal  and  revolting  ferocity. 

The  neck  and  shoulders  are  voluminous  ;  the  chest  is  deep,  and  the 
great  power  and  equal  proportions  of  the  limbs  are  favourable  for 
quadrupedal  movements.  They  climb  trees  with  facility,  but  prefer 
craggy  rocks  and  precipices,  among  which  they  dwell  in  security. 
In  temper  they  are  morose  and  daring,  and  their  physical  powers 
render  them  formidable.  It  is  only  during  youth  that  they  are 
tractable.  They  congregate  in  troops,  and  are  bold  and  skilful  in 
their  predatory  excursions. 

To  bulbous  roots,  berries,  and  grain,  the  Baboons  add  eggs. 
Scorpions,  and  insects,  as  their  diet :  nor  is  it  quite  clear  that  they 
are  not  carnivorous  as  well  as  herbivorous.  In  domestication  they 
relish  cooked  meat,  and  even  devour  raw  flesh  with  avidity.  They 
do  not  arrive  at  maturity  till  the  seventh  or  eighth  year  of  their  age. 
All  the  Baboons  are  African  :  one  indeed,  \h.e.  Hamadryas,  is  found 
in  the  mountain  districts  of  Arabia,  as  well  as  in  those  of  Abyssinia, 
and  was  well  known  to  the  Egyptians.  They  form  two  sections,  of 
which  the  members  of  one  have  tails  of  moderate  length,  and  those 
of  the  second,  tails  of  extreme  shortness.  Of  the  latter  are  the 
Mandrill  and  Drill,  which  are  also  marked  by  a  characteristic  modi- 
fication of  the  form  of  the  head.  Out  of  the  various  species,  the 
three  following  have  been  selected  for  description  and  illustration. 


the  depredations  it  commits  in  their  cultivated  enclosures.  In  its 
mountain  /astnesses  it  is  safe  from  pursuit,  and  troops  may  be 
frequently  seen  on  the  overhanging  rocks,  gazing  at  the  traveller  as 
he  traverses  the  mountains. 

An  old  male  Chacma  is  more  than  a  match  for  two  large  Dogs  ; 
and  the  boors  of  the  interior  will  rather  venture  their  Hounds  upon  a 
Lion  or  Panther  than  one  of  these  animals.  Yet  to  no  animal  do  the 
Dogs  show  a  more  inveterate  hostility.  Burchell  states,  that  on  one 
occasion,  a  small  company  of  them,  being  chased  by  his  Dogs, 
suddenly  turned  upon  their  canine  foes,  and  defended  themselves 
most  effectually.  They  killed  one  Dog  on  the  spot  by  biting  it 
through  the  great  blood-vessels  of  the  neck,  and  disabled  another 
by  laying  bare  its  ribs.  Even  the  Leopard,  Hyaena,  or  wild  Dog  is 
sometimes  mastered  by  a  troop  ;  though  the  former,  surprising  indi- 
viduals, destroys  numbers.  The  devotion  of  the  females  to  their 
young  is  very  great,  and  in  their  defence  they  are  ready  to  brave 
every  danger. 

The  food  of  the  Chacma  consists,  in  a  great  measure,  of  bulbous 


Fig.  109.— Chacma. 

The  Chacma,  or  Pig-tailed  Baboon  (Cynoce^hahis  for- 
carnisj.  The  Singe  Noir  of  Le  Vaillant ;  the  Choak-Ka7na  of 
Kolbe ;  Papio  Conzafus,  Geoffroy. — About  the  shoulders  and  neck 
the  hairs  are  long  and  mane-like  ;  the  general  colour  is  grizzled 
dusky  black,  with  a  tinge  of  olive-green  ;  the  face  is  black,  with  a 
hue  of  violet ;  the  upper  eyelids  are  white  ;  the  tail  descends  to  the 
hock-joint,  and  is  carried  arched  yet  drooping  down,  as  in  Figs.  109 
and  1 10.  The  male  attains  the  size  of  a  large  Mastiff,  and  is  very 
formidable.  Length  of  adult,  nearly  3  feet,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  measures  about  27  inches. 

The  term  Chacma  is  a  corruption  of  the  Hottentot  name  T'cha- 
camma  for  this  species,  which  inhabits  the  rocky  mountains  through- 
out the  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where,  in  the  remoter 
districts,  it  is  very  abundant,  and  well  known  to  the  farmers  from 


roots,  particularly  of  the  babiana  ;  and  it  is  customary  for  troops 
to  descend  from  the  precipices  into  the  secluded  valleys  of  rich 
alluvial  soil  where  these  plants  luxuriate.  \Vhen  suddenly  surprised, 
the  crj-  of  alarm  is  raised,  and  the  troop  ascend  the  rocky  cliffs, 
often  several  hundred  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  with  surprising 
agility,  the  young  clinging  to  their  mothers,  and  the  old  males 
bringing  up  the  rear.  Besides  bulbs  and  grain,  they  are  fond  of 
eggs,  and  greedily  devour  Scorpions,  which  they  seize,  nipping  oft" 
the  sting  with  so  rapid  an  action  as  to  prevent  the  hands  from 
being  wounded.  In  captivity,  while  young,  the  Chacma  is  good- 
tempered  and  frolicsome ;  but  as  age  advances  it  becomes  savage 
and  dangerous. 
The  Mandrill  (Cynocephalus  Mormon)     Le  Choras,  Buffon  ; 


Fig.  III. — Mandrill. 

Maniegar ,  Bradley  ;  Great  Babooyi,  Pennant ;  Variegated  Ba- 
boon.  Lev.  Mus.  ;  Ribbed-7iosed Baboon,  Pennant;  Simia  Mormon 
and  Maimon,  Linn.     (See  Fig.  in.) 

The  general  colour  of  the  adult  male  is  olive-brown,  passing  into 
whitish  in  the  under  parts  ;  a  golden-yellow  beard  hangs  from  the 
chin  ;  the  hair  of  the  forehead  and  temples  converges  to  a  peak  ; 
skin  round  the  callosities  red.     The  nostrils  have  abroad  rim  around 


THE  BABOONS— THE  DRILL. 


47 


them,  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  nearly 
hid  by  the  fur.  The  cheelc-bones  are  enormously  swollen,  rising 
like  two  ridges,  and  the  skin  is  obliquely  marked  with  deep  furrows ; 
a  streak  of  brilliant  vermilion,  commencing  on  the  beetling  super- 
ciliary ridge,  runs  down  the  nose,  and  is  diffused  over  the  muzzle. 
Ears,  palms,  and  soles  violet-black.  In  the  female  the  cheeks  are 
less  swollen,  and  the  scarlet  is  pale  or  wanting.  In  the  young  the 
cheeks  are  little  if  at  all  swollen,  the  furrows  barely  discernible,  and 
the  colour  black.  It  is  not  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  year,  when  the 
second  dentition  is  fully  complete,  that  the  characters  of  maturity 
are  assumed  ;  and  to  this  point  there  is  a  gradual  progress,  the 
bones  of  the  face  developing,  the  colour  of  the  skin  changing,  the 
muzzle  becoming  broader  and  thicker,  and  the  furrows  more 
marked. 

This  massive,  powerful,  and  ferocious  Baboon  is  of  huge  size,  and 
very  dangerous.  It  is  a  native  of  Guinea  and  other  parts  of  Western 
Africa,  where  it  is  greatly  dreaded  by  the  natives,  who  assert  that  it 
frequently  attempts  to  carry  off  women  into  the  deep  forests  where  it 
resides,  and  occasionally  succeeds.  However  this  may  be,  certain 
it  is,  that  in  captivity,  the  appearance  of  a  female  will  excite  in  the 
Mandrill  unequivocal  manifestations  of  brute  passion,  and  any 
attention  to  her  the  most  furious  jealousy. 

In  its  native  forests  the  Mandrill  associates  in  large  troops,  which 
are  more  than  a  match  for  the  fiercest  beasts  of  prey,  and  often 
make  incursions  into  villages 
and  cultivated  fields,  which  they 
plunder  with  impunity.  In  their 
movements  on  the  ground  they 
are  quadrupedal ;  but  their  ac- 
tivity is  very  great,  and  they 
leap  and  climb  with  the  utmost 
facility.  Their  voice  is  deep  and 
guttural,  consisting  of  hoarse, 
abrupt  tones,  indicative  of  fury 
or  malice.  That  the  species  is 
abundant  in  Western  Africa,  is 
proved  by  the  numbers  of  young 
individuals  brought  from  time 
to  time  to  Europe  ;  these,  how- 
ever, very  rarely  attain  to  ma- 
turity ;  the  period  of  dentition, 
which  is  accompanied  by  such 
marked  changes,  being  pecu- 
liarly critical  In  captivity  this 
Baboon  is  ferocious  and  male- 
volent ;  one  in  the  possession  of  _ 
Mr.  Wombwell  killed  a  Monkey, 

a  Beagle,  and  a  Java  Sparrow,  which  by  accident  came  within  his 
reach.  A  splendid  specimen  died,  some  years  ago,  in  Mr.  Cross's 
menagerie.  He  was  accustomed  to  smoke,  and  to  drink  porter, 
which  latter  he  quaffed  with  an  amusing  air  of  gravity,  holding  the 
mug  with  great  address  while  seated  in  his  arm-chair.     His  temper 


Fitr.   112. — Young  Mandrill. 


was  violent  in  the  extreme,  and  the  slightest  offence  roused  him 
to  fury:  his  appearance  was  then  terrible,  and  well  calculated  to 
alarm  the  boldest  ;  nor  could  any  man,  without  weapons,  have  had 
any  chance  in  a  contest.  The  annexed  cut  is  an  illustration  of  a 
young  Mandrill.     (See  Fig.  112.)  j 

The  Drill  (Cynocephalus  leuco^httsj. — Tlie  Drill  is  a  native 
of  Guinea.  The  head  is  large  ;  the  muzzle  thick,  with  elevated 
maxillary  protuberances,  which,  however,  are  not  furrowed.  The 
general  contour  is  robust.  The  tail  is  very  short,  and  carried  erect. 
The  general  colour  is  greenish-olive  above,  ashy-white  beneath  ;  the 
beard  is  short  and  orange-coloured  ;  the  face  and  ears  are  glossy 
black;  the  palms  copper-coloured.  The  female  is  smaller,  with  a 
shorter  muzzle  and  paler  tint  of  colouring.  The  young  males 
resemble  the  female  till  the  second  dentition  is  complete.  It  would 
appear  that  the  Wood  Baboon,  the  Cinereous  Baboon,  and  the 
Yellow  Baboon  of  Pennant,  are  the  young  of  the  Drill  at  different 
stages  of  growth. 

The  Drill  approaches  the  Mandrill  in  size  ;  and  though  gentle 
when  young,  becomes,  when  adult,  as  sullen  and  ferocious  as  that 
animal.  Adults  are,  however,  rare  in  menageries,  the  acquisition 
of  the  permanent  teeth  being  critical :  but  young  specim.ens  arc  far 
from  uncommon.  These  have  often  been  confounded  with  the 
young  of  the  Mandrill ;  indeed,  it  is  to  Frederick  Cuvier  that  we  owe 
the  recognition  of  the  Drill  as  a  distinct  species,  for  the  confused 
descriptions  of  Pennant  afford  us  nothing  tangible.  In  its  wild 
state  the  Drill  resembles  the  Mandrill  as  regards  habits  and 
manners  ;  and  travellers  seem  to  have  confounded  the  two  species 
together,  and  even  rai.ted  up  their  history  with  that  of  the  Chim- 
panzee. 


Among  the  zoological  novelties  exhibited  at  the  Alexandra 
Palace,  in  the  north  of  London,  in  the  autumn  of  1877,  were  an 
Abyssinian  family  of  Monkeys,  called  the  Gelada  Monkeys,  which 
were  imported  into  this  country  by  Messrs.  Hagenbeck  and  Rice,  of 
Hamburg.  They  were  confined  in  a  cage,  and  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. Dr.  Riippell,  the  German  traveller,  is  credited  with  having 
discovered  this  rare  species  of  Monkey  some  fifty  years  ago,  in  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia  ;  but  he  did  no  more  than  introduce  the  skin 
of  one  of  the  animals  into  England.  The  family  in  the  Alexandra 
Palace  was  seven  in  number,  and  had  some  peculiarities  of  form  and 
in  the  hair.  The  male  possessed  a  profusion  of  hair  over  the  shoulders, 
arranged  in  a  manner  resembling  a  cape  ;  and  this  protection  would 
seem  to  be  necessary  in  the  cold  mountainous  region  in  which  the 
animals  live.  A  distinctive  feature  in  the  animals  is  a  small  trian- 
gular space  in  the  chests  of  both  males  and  females.  This  space  is 
of  a  pink  colour  when  the  animal  is  in  repose  ;  but  under  irritation 
the  colour  becomes  red.  The  father  of  the  family  was  about  three 
feet  high,  and  the  youngest  did  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  small 
Kitten.     Specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  Gardens  in  Regent's  Park. 


48 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS. 


CHAPTER     V. 


QUADRUMANA.— THE   AMERICAN    MONKEYS  (GROUP   PLATYRRHIN^). 


« 


♦  ^:> 


^■w  it  ■■-■ 


N  the  last  three  chapters  we  have  dealt  with 
the    Monkeys  of   the   Old   World,  which 
are   grouped    under   the   title   of    Catar- 
rJtiiics,  for   reasons   already  explained  at 
p.  23,  a7ite.     It  now  remains  to  consider 
the  Monkeys  of  the  New  World  (America), 
which   are    grouped    under    the    title   of 
f.■^^  -■'^■-itAji    -      ----.^      Plafyrrhinie,  and  so  called  for  reasons 
tt®7r  - :  ■»  >;-  p'*--~\;^^      explained  at  the  page  above  alluded  to. 
-  '^  •*-■■   '  ^-"^      They  are  divided  into  two  great  families — 

namely,  the  Cebida  Monkeys,  and  HapalidcE,  or 
Marmozets  (Cebidaj.  The  American  Monkeys  differ 
from  the  Monkeys  of  the  Old  World  in  the  following 
particulars.  The  thumb  of  the  fore-hands  is  never 
opposable  to  the  fingers.  Callosities  are  always  want- 
ing. Cheek-pouches  always  wanting.  Nostrils  lateral, 
with  elevated  margins,  and  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  wide  septum.  Tail  often  prehensile,  never  wanting 
or  rudimentary. 

Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  regarding  dentition 
in  the  South  American  Quadrumana,  the  number  of 
teeth  is  increased  to  thirty-six,  by  an  addition  of  one 
tooth  to  the  molar  series  on  each  side  of  both  jaws.  It 
might  be  concluded,  a  priori,  that  as  three  is  the  typical 
number  of  true  molars  in  the  placental  Mammalia  with 
two  sets  of  teeth,  the  additional  tooth  in  the  Cebincs  would  be  a  pre- 
molar, and  form  one  step  to  the  resumption  of  the  normal  number 
(four)  of  that  kind  of  teeth.  The  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  this  infer- 
ence is  given  by  the  state  of  the  dentition  in  any  young  Spider 
Monkey  P^/t'/fj-^,  or  Capucin  Monkey  ^Ct'i^zcj^,  which  may  corres- 
pond with  that  of  the  human  child;  i.e.,  where  the  whole  of  the 
deciduous  dentition  is  retained,  together  with  the  first  true  molar  on 
each  side  of  both  jaws.  If  the  germs  of  the  other  teeth  of  the 
permanent  series  be  exposed  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  crown  of  the 
premolar  will  be  found  above  the  third  molar  in  place,  as  well  as 
above  the  second  and  first.  As  regards  number,  therefore,  the 
molar  series,  in  the  South  American  Monkeys  {Mycctes,  Aieies, 
Cebiis),  is  intermediate  between  that  of  the  genus  Mustela  and  of 
Felis  ;  the  little  premolar  in  iliistela  shows  plainly  enough  which 
of  the  four  is  wanting  to  complete  the  typical  number  in  the  South 
American  Monkey,  and  which  is  the  additional  premolar  distinguish- 
ing its  dental  formula  from  that  of  the  Old  World  Monkeys  and 
man. 

Zoologists  have  rightly  stated,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  the  little 
Marmozet  Monkeys  [Hajia/c,  Ouistiti),  HapalidcB,  "  have  only  the 
same  number  of  teeth  as  the  Monkeys  of  the  Old  World — viz.,  32, 


But  the  difference  is  much  greater  than 


4  i-i         5-5 

this  numerical  conformity  would  intimate.  In  a  young  JaccJuis 
■penicillatus,  I  find  that  there  are  three  deciduous  molars  displaced 
by  three  premolars,  as  in  the  other  South  American  Quadrumana, 
and  that  it  is  the  last  true  molar,  the  development  of  which  is 
suppressed,  not  the  premolar ;  and  thus  these  diminutive  Squirrel- 
like Monkeys  actually  differ  from  the  Old  World  forms  more  than 
the    CebidcB  do  ;    i.  e.,  they  differ  not   only  in  having  four  teeth 

(j5  2^77),   which  the  Monkeys  of  the  Old  World  do  not  possess,  but 

also  by  wanting  four  teeth  [m  3     _   ),   which    those    Monkeys,    as 

^vell  as  the  Cebidce,  actually  have.  It  is  thus  that  the  investigation 
of  the  exact  homologies  of  parts,  leads  to  a  recognition  of  the  true 
characters,  indicative  of  zoological  affinity."     (Owen.) 

The  Cebidce  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
New  World;  so  that,  although  the  species  are  numerous,  their 
extent  of  territory  is  far  more  limited  than  that  occupied  by  the  Old 
World  Monkeys.  Their  northward  range  is  bounded  (in  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  degree  of  latitude)  by  the  Caribbean  Sea  ;  for  they  occur 
neither  in  the  Caribbean  group  of  islands,  nor  in  Hayti,  Cuba,  or  the 
Bahamas.  Though  found  in  the  region  south  of  the  territory  of 
Panama,  they  do  not  advance  to  Yutacan  or  Mexico.  South  of  the 
line  their  range  extends  to  the  twenty-fourth  or  twenty-fifth  degree 
of  latitude,  including  Brazil,  Peru  (east  of  the  great  chain  of  the 
Andes),  and  Paraguay.  All  are  arboreal,  frequenting  the  dense 
forests,  which,  as  Humboldt  observes,  are  so  thick  and  uninterrupted 
on  the  plains  of  South  America  between  the  Orinoko  and  the  Amazon, 
that,  were  it  not  for  intervening  rivers,  the  Monkeys,  almost  the  only 


inhabitants  of  these  regions,  might  pass  along  the  tops  of  the  trees  for 
several  hundred  miles  together  without  touching  the  earth. 

In  South  America,  Monkeys  are  ordinarily  killed  as  game  by  the 
natives  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  ;  but  the  appearance  of  these 
animals  is  so  revolting  to  Europeans,  that  it  is  only  from  necessity, 
and  after  custom  has  familiarised  the  sight,  that  they  can  force 
themselves  to  partake  of  such  fare.  The  manner  in  which  these 
animals  are  roasted  also  contributes  to  render  their  appearance  dis- 
gusting. "  A  little  grating  or  lattice  of  very  hard  wood  is  formed, 
and  raised  a  foot  from  the  ground.  The  Alonkey  is  skinned  and 
bent  into  a  sitting  posture,  the  head  generally  resting  on  the  arms, 
which  are  meagre  and  long ;  but  sometimes  these  are  crossed  be- 
hind the  back.  When  it  is  tied  on  the  grating,  a  very  clear  fire  is 
kindled  below ;  the  Monkey,  enveloped  in  smoke  and  flame,  is 
broiled  and  blackened  at  the  same  time.  Roasted  Monkeys,  par- 
ticularly those  that  have  a  round  head,  display  a  hideous  resem- 
blance to  a  child ;  the  Europeans,  therefore,  who  are  obliged  to  feed 
on  them,  prefer  separating  tlie  head  and  hands,  and  serve  only  the 
rest  of  the  animal  at  their  table.  The  flesh  of  Monkeys  is  so  dry  and 
lean,  that  M.  Bonpland  preserved,  in  his  collection  at  Paris,  an  arm 
and  hand  which  had  been  broiled  over  the  fire  at  Esmeralda,  and  no 
smell  arose  from  them  after  a  number  of  years." 

American  Monkeys— Genus  AidesSvvD^'B.  Monkeys. 

This  gQnus,  which  includes  the  Spider  Monkeys,  is  characterised 
thus  : — Head  round ;  face  moderately  developed ;  limbs  long  and  slen- 
der. Tail  longer  than  the  body,  thick  at  the  base,  strongly  prehensile, 
and  naked  for  a  considerable  space  beneath  at  its  extremity.  Fore- 
hands either  destitute  of  an  externally  apparent  thumb,  or  with  the 
thumb  a  mere  tubercle.  Nostrils  separated  by  a  wide  septum,  and 
obliquely  oval.  Ears  moderate,  naked,  with  reflected  margins. 
Dentition  as  already  described.  Fur  long,  crisp,  or  rather  harsh, 
sometimes  silky  ;  prevailing  colour  black. 

In  the  slenderness  of  the  limbs,  and  in  the  staid,  quiet,  and  almost 
melancholy  expression  of  the  face,  the  Spider  Monkeys  remind  us  of 
the  Gibbons  ;  both  are  timid  and  gentle,  with  an  air  of  listlessness, 
lost  only  under  excitement. 

From  the  length  of  the  limbs,  and  the  remarkable  flexibility  of  the 
joints,  the  motions  of  the  Spider  Monkeys  on  all-fours  on  the  ground 
seem  to  be  crawling  and  indeterminate.  They  tread  on  the  inner  edge 
of  the  fore-paws,  and  to  a  great  degree  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  hind- 
paws,  and  endeavour  to  assist  themselves  by  attaching  the  tail  to  every 
object  as  they  proceed.  They  often,  however,  assume  the  erect  atti- 
tude, and  walk  thus  better  than  any  other  of  the  long-tailed  Monkeys. 
When  proceeding  in  this  manner  the  tail  is  raised  up  as  high  as  the 
shoulders,  and  then  bent  downwards  at  its  extremity,  evidently 
acting  as  a  balancer  while  the  animal  moves  steadily  along.     The 


^l     ir  Iff/  Sf     ,r  ,        <i 

Fi".  113. — Chameck. 

proper  place  of  these  T^Ionkeys  is  among  the  branches  of  the  forest ; 
There  their  movements  are  rapid,  easy,  and  unconstramed  ;  their 
progression  is  by  a  series  of  swinging  evolutions,  m  the  performance 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS— THE  CHAMECK,  MARIMONDA,  COAITA,  AND  MIRIKI. 


40 


of  which  the  Hmbs  and  tail  take  an  equal  share.  The  latter  organ, 
the  strcnn-th  and  prehensile  powers  of  which  are  very  great,  enables 
them  to  alisume  the  most  varied  attitudes.  In  ascendmg  or  descend- 
inn-  trees,  or  in  traversing  the  branches,  it  is  in  continual  requisition  ; 
they  coil'it  round  branch  after  branch  in  their  passage,  turning  it  in 
various  directions,  and  applying  it  with  wonderful  precision.  They 
often  suspend  themselves  exclusively  by  it,  and  swinging  until  a 
sufficient  impetus  is  gained,  launch  themselves  to  a  distant  branch, 
or  stretching  out  their  arms,  catch  it  as  they  vibrate  towards  it. 
The  advantages  of  this  additional  instrument  of  prehension  are  pal- 
pable ;  its  senses  of  touch  are  finger-like  ;  and  it  is  capable  of 
seizing  small  objects  with  great  address.  They  are  said  to  intro- 
duce the  extremity  of  the  tail  as  a  feeler  into  the  fissures  and  hollows 
of  trees,  for  the  purpose  of  hooking  out  eggs  or  other  substances. 

The  Chameck  {Afeles  subpenfadactylusy—lm  long,  flowing, 
glossy,  and  jet  black.  The  fore-hands  have  a  minute  naiUess 
tubercle  in  place  of  a  thumb.  The  face  and  ears  are  naked,  and  of 
a  red  flesh  colour,  with  a  tint  of  dusky  brown.  Length  of  head  and 
body  about  twenty  inches :  of  the  tail,  twenty-five  inches.  Native 
country,  Peru.     (See  Fig.  113.)  ,         , 

The  aURiMONDA  [Afeles  Belzebuth,  Desm.).— Fur  smooth  and 
glossy ;  general  colour  brownish  black,  deeper  on  the  hands  and 


Fig.  114. — Mavimonda. 

feet,  but  fading  on  the  loins  and  sides  of  the  haunches  to  a  glossy 
greyish-brown.  The  long  hairs  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  those  of  the 
throat,  under  parts  and  inside  of  the  limbs,  dirty  straw  colour  or 
yellowish-white.  A  space  along  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  at  its 
base,  rusty  yellow.  Skin  of  the  face  blackish-brown,  becoming  of  a 
tanned  flesh  colour  about  the  lips  and  nose  and  around  the  eyes. 
Native  country,  the  borders  of  the  Orinoko,  Cassiquiare,  Para,  &c. 
(See  Fig.  114.) 

The  Coaita  [Afeles  Panisais).  The  Quatto  of  Vosmaer. — 
General  colour  black,  the  fur  being  long,  coarse,  and  glossy  ;  more 
scanty  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body  than  on  the  upper.  Face  and 
ears  of  a  flesh  colour,  with  a  tanned  or  coppery  tinge.  Neither  in 
this  nor  the  Marimonda  is  there  any  thumb  on  the  fore-hands. 
Native  country,  Surinam  and  Guiana.      (See  Fig.  115.) 

In  their  general  habits  and  manners,  these  three  species  of  Spider 
Monkeys  agree  so  closely,  that  the  details  of  one  are  applicable  to 
the  rest.  In  captivity  the  Chameck  is  grave  and  gentle,  but  dis- 
plays extraordinary  agility  ;  its  intelligence  approaches  that  of  the 
Gibbons.  We  have  seen  individuals  repeatedly  walk  upright  with 
great  steadiness — cross  their  compartment  to  the  window,  and  there 
gaze  for  a  considerable  time  with  an  air  amusingly  like  that  of  a 
human  being,  as  if  contemplating  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  pro- 
gress of  vegetation,  or  the  actions  of  persons  passing  by.  At  the 
same  time  the  Chameck  (and  the  same  observation  applies  to  the 
other)  is  not  disposed  to  court  the  notice  of  the  spectators  around  it, 
or  invite  the  attention  of  strangers.  Towards  those  by  whom  it  is 
regularly  fed  it  displays  confidence  and  partiality.  In  its  gambols 
with  others  of  the  genus,  it  exhibits  great  address  in  avoiding  or  re- 
turning their  sportive  assaults,  and  executes  with  surpassing  ease 
the  most  fantastic  manoeuvres. 

The  Marimonda  is  termed  Aru  by  the  Indians  of  the  Rio  Guiania, 
and  is  a  favourite  article  of  food  with  the  natives  of  the  borders  of 
the  Cassiquiare,  the  higher  Orinoko,  and  other  rivers,  and  its  broiled 
limbs  are  commonly  to  be  seen  in  their  huts.  It  is  listless- and 
indolent  in  its  habits,  and  is  fond  of  basking  in  the  warm  rays  of  the 
sun.  Humboldt  states  that  he  has  frequently  seen  these  animals, 
when  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  throw  their  heads  back- 


wards, turn  their  eyes  upwards,  bend  their  arms  over  their  backs, 
and  remain  motionless  in  this  extraordinary  position  for  hours 
together.  They  traverse  the  branches  leisurely,  and  unite  in  com- 
panies, forming  the  most  grotesque  groups,  their  attitudes  announc- 
ing complete  sloth. 
In  captivity  the  Marimonda  is  gentle,  and  exhibits  nothing  of  the 


Fig.  115. — Coaita. 

petulance  of  the  Guenos  or  the  violence  of  the  Macaques.  Its 
anger,  when  excited,  is  very  transient,  and  announced  by  pursing  up 
the  lips  and  uttering  a  guttural  cry,  resembling  the  Ou-6.  Humboldt 
notices  the  facility  with  which  this  animal  can  introduce  its  tail  into 
the  narrowest  crevices,  select  any  object  it  pleases,  and  hook  it  out. 
The  Miriki  [Eriodes  fuberifer,  Isid.,  Geoff.).  Afeles  liypoxan- 
thiis,  Prince  de  Wied-Neuwied,  but  not  of  Desmarest. — The  Miriki 
and  one  or  two  more  species  have  been  recently  separated  from  the 


Fig.  116. — Miriki. 

genus  Afeles,  and  formed  into  a  distinct  group.  There  are  indeed 
several  differences  between  these  animals  and  the  ordinary  Spider 
Monkeys,  which,  if  taken  together,  justify  the  adoption  of  the  genus 
Eriodes  (Fig.  116).  The  nostrils  are  rounded,  the  interval  between 
them  is  narrow,  and  their  aspect  is  downwards,  not  lateral.  The 
molar  teeth,  instead  of  being  small,  are  large  and  quadrangular, 


50 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS— THE  HOWLERS. 


and  the  crown  of  the  first  two  molars  of  the  upper  jaw  is  boldly  and 
irregularly  tuberculate  :  the  incisors  arc  small.  'The  dentition,  in 
fact,  approaches  close  to  that  of  the  Howlers  {Mycetes) ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  remark  that,  in  F.  Cuvier's  work  on  the  teeth  of  quadru- 
peds, his  figure  of  the  teeth  of  the  Howling  Monkeys  is  in  reality 
copied,  as  M.  Isidore  asserts,  upon  his  own  knowledge,  from  the 
teeth  of  a  species  oi  En'odes.  (See  Fig.  117.)  Besides  these,  there 
are  other  characters  of  minor  importance. 

The  fur  of  the  Miriki  is  soft  and  woolly,  of  a  yellowish-grey,  the 


Fig.  117. — Teeth  of  Howling  Monkey. 

base  of  the  tail  and  the  circumjacent  hairs  being  tinged  with  rufous. 
The  fore-hands  are  furnished  with  a  minute  rudimentary  thumb,  in 
the  form  of  a  nailless  tubercle  ;  the  face  is  flesh-coloured,  sprinkled 
with  greyish  hairs.  Native  country,  Brazil.  The  Miriki,  in  its 
general  habits,  agrees  with  the  Spider  Monkeys.  It  lives  associated 
in  troops  in  the  vast  forests,  and  displays  great  agility.  Fruits  form 
its  principal  diet.  The  Prince  of  Wied-Neuwied  states  that  the 
Miriki  seldom  approaches  the  abodes  of  man,  keeping  to  the  depths 
of  the  woods  ;  Spix  also  states  that  it  lives  in  troops  which  make  the 
air  resound  with  their  loud  cries,  incessantly  uttered  during  the  day. 
At  the  sight  of  the  hunter  they  ascend  with  extraordinary  rapidity 
the  topmost  branches  of  the  trees,  and  passing  from  one  to  another, 
are  soon  lost  in  the  recesses  of  the  forest.  The  Brazilians  call  this 
Monkey  Miriki  and  Mouriki ;  the  Botacudas  term  it  Koupo. 

American  Monkeys— Genus  J/jrc/cy— Howlers. 

The  Howlers,  or  Howling  Monkeys,  as  the  animals  of  this  genus  are 
termed,  constitute  a  natural  and  well-marked  group,  distinguishable 
from  the  Spider  Monkeys  by  their  greater  robustness,  by  the  more 
proportionate  contour  of  the  limbs,  by  the  development  of  the  bone 
of  the  tongue  {os  hyoides),  which  is  greatly  enlarged  and  hollow,  by 
the  expansion  of  the  lower  jaw,  especially  at  its  angle,  the  promi- 
nence of  the  muzzle,  and  by  the  possession  of  a  thumb  (not  oppo- 
sable) on  the  fore-hands.  The  form  of  the  head  is  pyramidal ;  the 
fur  of  the  forehead  is  directed  upwards,  that  of  the  rest  of  the  head 
forwards;  on  the  external  surface  of  the  fore-arms  it  is  directed  from 
the  wrist  to  the  elbow ;  the  under  parts  of  the  body  are  almost 
naked ;  on  the  back  and  shoulders  the  fur  is  full,  long,  soft,  and 
glossy.  The  tail  is  strongly  prehensile,  and  naked  at  its  extremity 
beneath.  The  hollow  drum  formed  by  the  os  liyoidcs  communicates 
with  the  interior  of  the  cartilaginous  expansion  of  the  larynx  (Fig. 
118),  in  which  are  several  membranous  valvular  pouches.  This  ap- 
paratus gives  to  the  voice  extraordinary  volume  and  intonation.  The 
bowlings  uttered  by  the  troops  of  these  Monkeys  are  astounding, 
and  usually  heard  in  the  morning,  at  sunset,  and  during  the  dark- 
ness of  night.  Shrouded  amidst  the  gloomy  foliage  of  the  woods, 
they  raise  their  horrid  chorus,  "  making  night  hideous,"  and  start- 
ling the  traveller  who,  for  the  first  time,  hears  it.  It  is  not,  however, 
only  during  the  night  or  at  daybreak  and  evening  that  the  Howlers 
exert  their  voices  ;  they  are  affected  by  electric  changes  [in  the  con- 
dition of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  when,  during  the  day,  the  gloomy  sky 
foretels  the  approach  of  a  thunder-storm,  their  dissonant  yells  resound 
through  the  gloomy  woodlands.     The  range  of  the  Howlers  is  from 


Guiana  to  Paraguay.  According  to  Spix  and  Humboldt,  they 
subsist  principally  upon  fruits  and  leaves.  The  females  produce  one 
at  a  birth,  and  the  mother  carries  her  young  clinging  to  her  back 
until  old  enough  to  act  for  itself.  In  their  disposition  the  Howlers 
are  melancholy  and  morose  ;  their  move- 
ments are  tardy  and  inert ;  on  the  ground 
they  never  attempt  to  walk  on  the  liinder 
limbs  alone.  When  pursued  or  alarmed, 
they  retire  slowly  and  take  refuge  in  the 
highest  branches  of  the  trees,  to  which, 
if  shot  with  a  bullet  or  arrow,  they  often 
remain  suspended  by  the  tail  when  life  is 
extinct.  As  they  are  of  large  size,  and 
fatter  than  other  Monkeys,  they  are  in  great 
request  with  the  Indians  as  food  ;  but  are 
seldom  or  never  kept  in  confinement,  having 
nothing  pleasing  in  their  manners,  voice, 
or  appearance. 

The  Araguato,  or  Ursine  Howler 
[^Alycctes  2t?-su!i/s).  Araguato  de  Caracas 
of  Humboldt. — The  extent  of  the  face, 
destitute  of  hair,  is  more  circumscribed  than 
in  most  of  the  genus,  and  is  of  a  bluish- 
black  colour,  with  long,  scattered,  black 
bristles  on  the  lips  and  chin.  The  chest 
and  abdomen  are  well  clothed  with  hair. 
The  fur  is  long,  resembling  that  of  a  young 
Bear.  The  general  colour  is  golden  rufous, 
paler  round  the  sides  of  the  face,  but  deeper 
on  the  beard.  In  the  figure  of  this  species 
given  in  Humboldt's  work,  the  hair  of  the  head  is  represented  as 
all  directed  backwards  from  the  forehead  to  the  back  of  the  neck  ; 
we  hesitate  not  to  say,  by  a  mistake  of  the  artist.  Native  country, 
Brazil,  Venezuela,  &c.     (See  Fig.  119.) 

It  was  after  landing  at  Cumana,  in  the  province  of  New  Anda- 
lusia, that  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  first  met  the  Araguato,  while  on 
an  excursion  to  the  mountains  of  Cocollar  and  the  cavern  of  Gua- 
charo.     The  convent  of  Caripe  is  there  situated  in  a  valley,  the  plain 


Fig. 


llS. — Drum  of  Howl- 
ing Monkey. 


Fig.  119. — Araguato. 

of  which  is  elevated  more  than  400  toises  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean  ;  and  though  the  centigrade  thermometer  often  descends  dur- 
ing the  night  to  17  degrees,  the  surrounding  forests  abound  with 
Howlers,  whose  mournful  cries,  uttered  when  the  sky  is  overcast,  or 
threatens  rain  or  lightning,  are  heard  at  the  distance  of  half  a 
league.  The  Araguato  was  also  met  with  in  the  valleys  of  Aragua 
to  the  west  of  Caracas,  in  the  Llanos  of  the  Apure  and  of  the  Lower 
Orinoko,  and  in  the  Carib  missions  of  the  province  of  New  Barce- 
lona, where  stagnant  waters  were  overshadowed  by  the  Sagoutier  of 
America,  a  species  of  palm  with  scale-covered  fruit  and  flabelliform 
leaves,  among  which  it  dwells  in  troops.  South  of  |the  cataracts  of 
the  Orinoko  it  becomes  very  rare.  Of  all  the  gregarious  Monkeys, 
the  Araguato  was  observed  in  the  greatest  abundance  ;  on  the 
borders  of  the  Apure  Humboldt  often  counted  forty  in  one  tree  ;  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  countrj^,  he  afiirms  that  more  than  2,000  existed 
in  a  square  mile.  They  travel  in  the  forests  in  long  files,  consisting 
of  twenty  or  thirty  individuals  or  more,  and  proceed  with  deliberation. 
An  old  male  usually  leads  the  troop,  the  rest  follow  his  movements, 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS— THE  CAPUCINS. 


51 


and  when  he  swings  from  one  branch  to  another,  the  whole  file,  one 
by  one,  perform,  in  "  order  due,"  the  same  action  on  the  same  spot. 
In  other  species  also  this  habit  has  been  observed.  According 
to  Waterton,  the  Araguato  is  very- 
partial  to  the  seeds  of  the  vanilla,  a 
creeper  which  ascends  the  trees  to 
the  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet. 

American  Monkeys— Genus  Cehus 
—The  Sapajous,  or  Capucins. 

The  Sapajous,  as  the  animals  ot 
this  genus  are  termed,  are  prehen- 
sile-tailed, but  the  tail  is  everywhere 
clothed  with  fur,  so  that,  though 
capable  of  grasping,  and  naturally 
curled  round  at  its  extremity  when 
not  in  use,  as  in  the  Spider  Monkeys 
and  Howlers,  it  is  not,  as  in  these 
latter  animals,  an  organ  of  tact,  nor 
so  powerful  a  grasper. 

The  Monkeys  of  this  genus  are  all 
diurnal  in  their  habits,  and  for  the 
most  part  of  small  size.  The  French 
call  them  Sapajous,  Sajous,  Sais, 
and  Capucins  :  they  are  also  called 
AVeepers  {^Singes fleureitrs),  from  the 
plaintive  piping  noise  which  many  of 
them  utter.  Humboldt  states  that  the 
Creoles  of  South  America  call  them 
"Matchi,"  confounding  under  this 
denomination  very  distinct  species. 
In  temper  and  disposition  the  Cebi 
are  lively  and  docile  ;  they  show  great 
attachment  to  some  persons,  and  a 
capricious  aversion  to  others.  They 
are  intelligent,  mischievous,  and  in- 
quisitive. Their  activity  and  address 
are  surprising  ;  in  their  native  forests 
they  live  in  troops,  feeding  on  fruits, 
grain,  insects,  and  eggs.  So  amus- 
ing are  they  in  their  gambols,  that 
even  the  apathetic  natives  will  stop 
their  canoes  and  watch  their  frolic:; 
with  interest.  They  are,  from  their 
liveliness  and  docility,  great  favour- 
ites, and  often  kept  domesticated  ;  but 
their  amusing  habits  do  not  protect 
them  from  the  poisoned  arrows  of  the 
Indians. 

The  head  is  round,  the  muzzle 
short,  and  the  limbs  proportioned. 
The  dentition  as  usual :  the  incisors 
of   the   upper  jaw    are    larger    tlian 

those  of  the  lower ;  the  canines  are  often  strong  and  large ;  the 
molars  are  rather  small.  The  ears  are  rounded.  The  species  are 
very  numerous,  and  involved  in  much  confusion.  Fig.  120  represents 
one  of  the  Capucin  Monkeys. 

Horned  Sajou  {Ccbus  Faiuelhis,  Linn.).  Sajoit  cornu,  F. 
Cuvier  (not  of  Buffon.) — The  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  brown, 
deepening  to  an  almost  black  tint  on  the  top  of  the  head,  on  the 
middle  of  the  back,  and  on  the  legs,  hands,  feet,  and  tail.  A  ban- 
deau of  hair  rises  on  the  for  ehead,  the  extremities  of  which  are 
elevated  in  the  form  of  egrets,  or  pencil-like  tufts  :  these  tufts  are 
less  conspicuous  in  the  female.  The  sides  of  the  face  are  garnished 
with  white  hairs.  All  the  naked  parts,  and  the  skin  under  the  fur, 
are  violet-coloured.  Native  country,  Brazil  :  it  is  found  in  the 
provinces  of  Rio  Janeiro.  It  is  not  until  maturity  that  the  horns  or 
frontal  tufts  are  acquired.  In  captivity  the  Horned  Sajou  is  lively 
and  amusing,  active  and  good-tempered.     {See  Fig.  121.) 

The  Yellow-breasted  Sajou  {Cebus  zanihosfenws,  Prince 
Maxim.,  Kuhl,  Desmar.).  Sai  a  grosse  tete,  Cebus  Moiiachics,  F. 
Cuv.  ;  C.  Za7ithocephalus,  Spix. — This  is  one  of  the  species  which 
has  been  in  confusion,  but  from  which  we  trust  it  is  extricated.  The 
head  is  large,  the  forehead  broad  and  covered  with  very  short  hair  ; 
the  limbs  are  robust,  the  tail  thick  :  in  size  this  species  is  superior 
to  the  Homed  Sajou.  The  forehead  and  anterior  part  of  the  head, 
and  the  hairs  of  the  cheeks,  which  are  full  on  the  malar  bones,  are 
yellowish-white  ;  a  dusky  line,  commencing  before  the  ears,  encircles 
the  face ;  the  chest,  the  shoulders,  and  the  anterior  part  of  the 
humerus,  are  orange-yellow  ;  the  fore-arms,  the  legs,  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  back,  and  the  tail,  are  black  ;  the  sides  of  the  body 
and  the  haunches  are  reddish-brown  ;  the  abdomen,  rich  rufous 
chestnut.  The  depth  of  the  tints  varies  with  age  ;  the  fore-arms  and 
legs  are  often  freckled  with  rufous,  and  the  tail  grizzled  with  yellowish- 
white,  especially  at  its  base  and  underneath. 

This  species  inhabits  the  woods  of  Rio  Janeiro  and  St.  Paul.    We 


have  seen  a  fine  specimen  from  Bahia,  Brazil.  It  is  a  young  male 
which  F.  Cuvier  figures  as  the  Sai  a  grosse  tcte.  He  adds  also  the 
scientific  appellation  Motiachus,  which  having  been  already  given 


120. — Capucin  Monkey ;  genus  Cebus, 


Fig.  121. — Horned  Sajou. 


52 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS— THE  CACAJAO. 


to  a  very  distinct  Monlcey  [Cebiis  Motiachiis,  Fischer;  Pithecia 
Monachtts,  Geoffroy),  cannot  be  retained  vvitliout  confusion.  Ac- 
cording to  Spix,  the  Yellow-breasted  Sajou  associates  in  large  troops, 
■nhich  often  visit  the  fields  of  maize,  where  they  commit  great  deprc- 


Fig.  122. — Yellow-breasted  Sajou. 

dations.  In  captivity  it  is  gentle,  mild,  and  confiding;  and  though 
timid,  fond  of  being  noticed  by  those  to  whom  it  is  familiarised. 
(See  Fig.  122.) 

The  Brown  Sajou  fCcbus  Apella).  Sajou  bnm,  Buffon.— 
Head  round ;  colouring  variable  both  as  to  intensity  and  markings. 
(See  Fig.  123.)  The  following  details  are  taken  from  specimens  we 
have  rigorously  examined  : — Hair  of  the  temples  short,  scanty,  and 
directed  upwards.  On  the  top  of  the  head  the  hair  is  moderately 
long,  and  forms  a  cap,  with  an  anterior,  slightly  elevated,  marginal 
ridge  advancing  from  the  centre  of  the  forehead  along  the  sides  of 
the  head,  so  as  to  produce  a  somewhat  triangular  figure  ;  face 
covered  with  short  dusky  hair ;  that  about  the  lips  white  ;  ears  large 
and  nearly  naked.  From  the  black  cap  on  the  top  of  the  head  a 
blackish  line  extends  down  before  the  ears,  and  spreads  over  the 
beard-like  hairs  of  the  throat.  The  outer  surface  of  the  humerus  is 
greyish,   but  a  black  line  from  behind  the   ears  sweeps  over  the 


Fig.  123. — Brown  Sajou. 

shoulder,  and  runs  along  the  anterior  margin  of  the  humerus  to  the 
fore-arm,  which  is  black,  grizzled  with  brownish-grey.  The  general 
colour  is  brownish-black,  passing  into  black  on  the  middle  of  the 
dorsal  line,  on  the  haunches,  tail,  thighs,  and  legs :  the  fur  is 
glossy.  Another  specimen  has  the  sides  of  the  body  and  outside  of 
the  thighs  of  a  glossy  pale  chestnut-brown,  and  the  temples  yellowish- 
grey,  washed  in  the  middle  with  black.  The  Ccbiis  Apella  is  the 
Capucin  Monkey  of  Pennant  and  Shaw,  but  not  the  Simla  Capucina 
of  Linnffius,  which  is  the  Sai  of  Buffon,  the  Weeper  Monkey  of 
Pennant  and  Shaw. 

The  Brown  Sajou  is  a  native  of  Guiana,  and  is  plentifully  brought 
over  by  vessels  trading  to  the  coast,  so  that  it  is  common  in  our 
menageries.  Its  liveliness  and  activity  are  remarkable,  and  it  bears 
our  climate  well.     There  are  several  instances  of  its  having  pro- 


duced young  in  France,  and  each  time  a  single  offspring,  to  which 
both  parents  were  strongly  attached.  In  disposition  the  Brown 
Sajou  is  good-tempered,  but  capricious.  It  is  very  intelligent  and 
amusing.  A  male  which  was  living  a  few  years  since  in  the  gardens 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  would  employ  a  stone  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  nuts  too  hard  to  be  crushed  by  the  teeth  ;  or  if  no  stone 
were  at  hand,  he  would  strike  them  forcibly  against  any  hard  surface, 
so  as  to  split  the  shell :  we  have  seen  other  Sajous  do  the  same. 
This  species  is  continually  in  the  habit  of  making  grimaces  ;  it 
grins,  wrinkling  up  the  face  in  a  very  singular  manner;  its  ordinary 
cry  is  plaintive,  but  when  in  anger  the  voice  is  shrill  and  elevated. 
In  climbing,  the  tail  is  in  constant  requisition  as  a  grasper.  Though 
fruits  and  other  vegetable  productions  constitute  the  diet  of  this 
species  in  its  native  forests,  they  are  not  exclusively  so  ;  insects  are 
highly  relished  ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  eggs  and 
young  birds  are  also  acceptable.  A  linnet,  which  by  way  of  experi- 
ment was  introduced  into  a  cage  where  two  of  these  Monkeys  were 
confined,  was  instantly  caught  by  the  strongest  of  them,  and  killed 
and  eaten  with  scarcely  even  the  ceremony  of  stripping  off  the 
feathers. 

American    Monkeys— Genus  Pithecia— Zk-avs. 

The  Monkeys  of  this  genus  are  termed  Saki  by  the  French.  The 
tail  is  not  in  the  slightest  degree  prehensile :  it  is  shorter  than  the 
body,  and  generally  bushy.  The  head  is  round,  the  muzzle  moderately 
prominent.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  incisors  project  almost  as  in  the 
Lemur,  being  compressed,  narrowing  at  the  points,  and  are  closely 
compacted  together  ;  the  upper  incisors  are  nearly  vertical  and  square, 
differing  greatly  in  appearance  from  those  of  the  lower  jaw.  Canines 
large,  strong,  and  three-sided.     The  molars  bluntly  tuberculate. 

The  Sakis,  or  Fox-tailed  Monkeys,  live  either  in  pairs,  or  small 
troops  of  ten  or  twelve,  and  are  usually  seen  on  the  outskirts  of 
forests  bordering  rivers.  They  are  to  a  certain  degree  nocturnal  in 
their  habits  :  some  indeed  have  been  considered  decidedly  so  ;  but  it 
would  appear  that,  like  the  Howlers,  they  are  the  most  animated 
just  before  sunrise  and  after  sunset,  at  which  times  they  utter  their 
loud  cries  in  concert.  All  are  active  and  vigilant,  and  not  easy  to 
be  surprised  or  captured. 

The  Cacajao  [Plt/iccla  melanocephala'). — This  Monkey  is  also 
called  in  America  Caruiri.  The  body  is  rather  robust,  but  elongated ; 
the  head  is  ovate,  oblong,  and  depressed  on  the  crown  ;  the  ears 


Fig.  124. — Cacajao. 

have  a  backward  situation  ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  ends  abruptly. 
The  face  is  black,  as  are  also  the  ears  ;  the  head  is  covered  with 
full,  long,  black  hairs,  directed  from  the  occiput  forwards  to  the  fore- 
head, where  they  become  parted  in  the  centre.  The  hairs  of  the 
back  are  long,  and  of  a  brownish-yellow  :  this  colour  passes,  on  the 
thighs  and  tail,  into  a  brighter  or  ferruginous  tint.  The  fore-arms 
and  legs  are  black  or  blackish.  The  chin  is  beardless,  and  the  nose 
short,  broad,  and  flat.  Native  country,  the  borders  of  the  Cassi- 
quiare  and  Rio  Negro  ;  and  in  Brazil,  those  of  the  rivers  Solimoens 
and  19a.     (See  Fig.  124.) 

The  present  Saki  is  described  by  Humboldt,  and  is  doubtless 
identical  with  one  also  described  and  figured  by  Spix,  which  he 
terms  Ouakary,  and  which  he  found  in  the  forests  between  the  rivers 
Solimoens  and  I^a  (Brazil).  He  states  that  these  Monkeys  congre- 
gate in  troops,  frequenting  the  margins  of  large  streams  ;  and  that 
during  their  journeys  from  one  part  of  the  forest  to  another,  they  fill 
the  air  with  their  piercing  and  disagreeable  cries.  Humboldt  in- 
forms us  that  the  Cacajao,  or  Cacaho,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Mara- 
tivitan  Indians  of  the  Rio  Negro,  is  not  common  in  the  territories 
which  he  explored,  for  he  only  saw  one  individual,  which  he 
bought,  in  an  Indian   cabin   at  San   Francisco  Solano ;  and  from 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS—THE  COUXIO  AND   YARKE. 


53 


which,  after  death,  he  took  an  accurate  drawing-.  It  was  younsf ; 
but  he  was  assured  by  the  Indians  of  Esmeralda,  that  though 
it  attains  to  a  considerable  size,  its  tail  is  not  sensibly  ann-mentcd  in 
length.  According  to  the  information  obtained  by  Humboldt,  the 
Cacajao  inhabits  the  forests  which  border  the  Cassiquiare  and  Rio 
Negro,  associating  in  troops  :  when  kept  in  confinement  it  is  voracious 
and  listless,  but  gentle  and  timid,  even  shrinking  from  the  societj'  of 
other  small  Monkeys.  liaron  Humboldt's  specimen  trembled 
violently  at  the  sight  of  a  Crocodile  or  Serpent.  When  irritated  it 
opens  its  mouth  in  a  strange  manner,  and  its  countenance  becomes 
distorted  by  a  convulsive  sort  of  laugh. 

From  the  length  and  slenderness  of  its  fingers,  it  grasps  anything 
awkwardly ;  and  when  about  to  seize  an  object,  bends  its  back  and 
extends  its  two  arms,  at  the  same  time  assuming  a  singular  attitude. 
It  eats  all  sorts  of  fruits — the  most  acid  as  well  as  the  sweetest.  It 
is  termed  Caruiri  by  the  Cabres  of  the  mission  of  San  Fernando,  near 
the  junction  of  the  Orinoko,  the  Atabapo,  and  the  Guaviare  ;  Mono 
feo  (hideous  Monkey),  and  Chucuto,  or  Mono  rabon  (short-tailed 
Monkey),  by  the  Spanish  Missionaries  of  the  Cassiquiare. 

The  Couxio,  or  Jacketed  Monkey  {Pithecia  Sagiilata, 
Traill,  in  "  Mem.  Wern.  Soc.,"  ii.).  The  confusion  in  which  this 
species  has  been  involved  is  very  remarkable.     The  following  are 


Fig.  125. — Male  Couxio, 

its  synonyms  : — Cchiis  Sagulatiis,  Fisch.  ;  Ccbus  Satatias,  Hoff- 
mans ;  Fithccia  Sataiias,  Kuhl  and  Geoffr. ;  Shnia  Chiropotes, 
Humboldt ;  Pithecia  Chiropotes,  Geoffr.,  Kuhl,  Desra. ;  Brackyurus 
Jsraelita,  Spix.     (See  Figs.  125  and  126.) 

Head,  limbs,  and  tail  black  ;  the  general  tint  of  the  back  and 
top  of  the  shoulders  is  grizzled  rusty-brown  or  brownish-grey,  differ- 
ing in  depth  in  different  individuals.  The  hairs  of  the  body  are  pale 
at  the  roots,  sometimes  indeed  nearly  white.  The  under  parts  are 
scantily  clad.  The  hair  of  the  head  radiates  from  a  point  on  the 
occiput,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  forehead  forms  two  conspicuous 


Fig.  126. — Female  Couxio, 

elevated  tufts,  with  a  depression  between  them.  These  tufts  fold 
over  and  conceal  the  ears,  which  are  black  and  naked.  The  face  is 
black,  and  furnished  at  its  sides  with  full  bushy  whiskers,  which  meet 
under  the  chin,  forming  an  enormous  glossy-black  beard,  directed 
obliquely  forwards,  and  which  gives  a  peculiar  aspect  to  the  physi- 


ognomy. The  teeth  are  large— the  canines  formidable.  The  head 
IS  large  and  rounded,  and  the  nostrils  very  widely  separated  from 
each  other.  On  the  outer  side  of  the  fore-arms  the  hairs  are  reverted. 
Native  country,  Guiana  and  the  borders  of  Rio  Negro,  &c.  Of  the 
four  distinct  specific  appellations  (viz.,  Sa^ulafa,  Satauas,  Chiro- 
pnfcs,  and  Israi-ltfa),  wliich  we  regard  as  belonging  all  to  one 
animal,  that  oiSagulata  claims  the  preference,  being  the  name  under 
which  the  species  was  first  described  by  Traill.  Baron  Humboldt, 
who  erroneously  regards  the  Satanasof  Hoffmansogg  (which  he  calls 
Couxio  de  Grand  Para)  and  his  Chiropotes  (which  he  terms  Capucin 
de  rOrCnoque)  as  distinct,  thus  describes  the  latter  (a  description 
applicable  to  each  variety,  under  whatever  name  it  may  stand  in  the 
works  of  naturalists) :— The  Capucin  de  I'Orenoque  (Couxio, 
P.  Sagulata)  is  robust,  agile,  wild,  and  very  difficult  to  tame. 
\Vhen  irritated,  it  raises  itself  up,  grinds  its  teeth,  rubs  the  extre- 
mity of  its  beard,  and  leaps  around  the  object  of  its  revenge.  In 
these  accessions  of  fury,  Humboldt  says  that  he  has  seen  it  drive 
its  teeth  into  thick  boards  of  the  Ccdrcla  odorata.  It  drinks  but 
rarely,  and  takes  the  water  in  the  hollow  of  its  hand,  which  it  carries 
carefully  to  the  mouth,  so  as  to  avoid  wetting  its  beard.  If  aware 
that  it  is  observed,  it  does  not  perform  this  singular  action.  Sir  Rt. 
Ker  Porter  (see  "  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,"  London,  1834,  p.  41),  in  a 
description  of  the  P.  Sagulata,  distinctly  states  that  the  animal 
drinks  frequently,  bending  down  and  putting  its  mouth  to  the  water, 
apparently  heedless  of  wetting  its  beard,  and  indifferent  to  the 
observations  of  lookers-on.  He  never  saw  it  take  the  water  in  the 
hollow  of  the  hand,  as  described  by  Humboldt.  Yet  that  it  was 
observed  by  the  latter  we  cannot  doubt ;  in  our  menageries,  however, 
it  drinks  in  the  ordinary  way  of  other  Monkeys.  According  to 
Humboldt,  the  Capucin  de  I'Orenoque  does  not  associate  in  troops  ; 
a  male  and  female  in  company  wander  by  themselves  through  the 
forests,  where  their  cry  may  be  heard.  In  the  vast  wilds  of  the 
Upper  Orinoko,  south  and  east  of  the  cataracts,  this  Monkey  is  com- 
mon, and  the  Aturian  Indians,  as  well  as  those  of  Esmeralda,  cat 
many  of  these  animals  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  In  other  parts 
of  Guiana  it  secris  to  be  much  more  rare. 

The  individuals  which  we  have  seen  in  captivity  have  all  displayed 
a  morose  and  savage  temper :  on  the  slightest  provocation  they 
would  menace  the  offender  with  their  teeth,  wrinkling  up  the  skin  of 
their  face,  and  displaying  their  immense  canines,  their  eyes  at  the 
same  time  gleaming  with  fury.  Towards  other  Monkeys  they  were 
reserved,  and  disliked  to  be  intruded  upon. 

The  Yarke,  or  White-headed  Saki  {Pithecia  Icucocephala). 
The  male  and  female  of  this  species  differ  so  much  that  it  is  not 
surprising  that  they  should  have  been  described  as  distinct  species. 


Fig.  127. — Female  Yarke. 

The  synonyms  are  as  follows  : — Male — P.  lencoccphala,  Geoffr., 
Desm.  ;  Saki,  Buffon  ;  Yarque,  Buff.,  "  Supp.  ;"  Yarlii:,  F.  Cuv.  ; 
P.  ochrocephala,  Kuhl.  Female — P.  7-ufiventcr,  Geoffr.,  Desm., 
Kuhl,  &c. ;  P.  riifibarbafa,  Kuhl. ;  P.  capillaiuc7itosa,  Spix  ;  S.  Pi- 
thecia, Linn.  ;  Singe  de  iiuit.  Buff.  ;  Fox-tailed  Monkey,  Pennant. 

Male. — The  whole  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  head  covered  with 
short  close  hairs  of  a  white  or  rusty-white  tint,  varying  in  depth  ; 
occiput  jet-black,  whence  a  narrow  line  is  continued  over  the  head 
to  the  nose  ;  fur  of  the  body  and  tail  very  long,  rather  harsh,  and  of 
a  brown  colour,  more  or  less  inclined  to  black ;  under  part  of  chin 
and  throat  naked  and  of  an  orange  tint  ;  abdomen  also  nearly 
naked  ;  tail  busby  ;  on  the  shoulders  the  long  flowing  hair  has  a 
tendency  to  divide. 

Fctnale. — The  hairs  of  the  head,  excepting  on  the  interior  part  of 
the  forehead,  instead  of  being  short,  close,  and  stiff,  are  long,  like 
those  of  the  body,  and  radiate  forwards  and  laterally.  Between 
the  eyes  is  a  patch  of  short  pale  hairs.  The  fur  of  the  body  is  long, 
of  a  dark  or  blackish-brown  tint,  freckled  paler,  the  hairs  being 


s* 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS—THE  SAIMIRI  AND  DOUROUCOULI. 


annulated  once  or  twice  at  the  top  with  pale  rusty-brown.  In  the 
male  there  is  no  annulation  of  the  hairs.  The  scanty  hairs  of  under 
parts  are  pale  rusty-red.  The  long-  radiating-  hair  of  the  head  is  of 
the  same  colour  as  that  of  the  rest  in  the  upper  parts.  In  Fig.  127, 
■which  is  that  of  the  female,  it  is  represented  too  pale.  Till  recently, 
the  female  of  the  present  Saki  has  been  regarded  by  natiyalists  as  a 
distinct  species.  The  determination  of  its  identity  with  the  Yarke 
is  due  to  M.  Schomburgh,  whose  opportunities  of  observing  this 
Monkey  in  its  native  region  of  Guiana  have  been  very  abundant,  and 
-who,  a  few  years  since,  transmitted  specimens  of  both  sexes  to  the 
Zoological  Society,  London.  More  recently  he  brought  other 
specimens  to  England.  His  testimony  on  the  point  is  clear  and 
decisive. 

Buffon,  who  figures  a  young  male,  which  he  terms  Saki,  describes 
the  hair  of  the  head  as  radiating,  and  of  a  whitish  tint ;  whence  we 
may  suppose  that,  till  approaching  maturity,  the  males  resemble  the 
females  in  their  "  chevelure  mal  rangee,"  as  he  calls  it,  excepting 
as  regards  its  colour. 

The  Yarke  appears  to  live  in  small  troops,  which  tenant  the 
bushes  rather  than  the  trees  of  the  forest,  living,  according  to  M.  de 
la  Borde,  upon  the  fruit  of  the  guava,  and  also  upon  bees,  demolish- 
ing their  combs :  they  also  eat  all  kinds  of  grain.  The  female 
produces  only  a  single  offspring  at  a  birth,  -which  she  carries  on  her 
back. 

American  Monkeys— Genus  Cal/Mrfx—'BEA.vii'EVL 
Hair  or  Fur. 

In  the  genus  Callithrix  the  head  is  short  and  rounded  ;  muzzle 
short ;  ears  large  ;  general  form  slender  ;  tail  equalling  or  exceed- 
ing the  length  of  the  body  ;  not  prehensile  ;  nails,  excepting  on 
hind-thumbs,  long  and  narrow.  Fur  soft  and  delicate  ;  canines 
moderate  ;  lower  incisors  vertical  and  contiguous  to  the  canines. 
Ears  large,  and  more  or  less  triangular. 

The  animals  of  this  genus  are  light,  active,  and  graceful,  but  so 
extremely  delicate,  that  they  do  not  endure  removal  from  their  own 
country  -n-ithout  the  greatest  care.  These  little  Monkeys  are  termed 
Sagoins  by  the  French  :  in  their  native  regions  they  inhabit  the 
depths  of  the  forests,  and  are  diurnal  in  their  habits  ;  most  are 
gregarious  ;  fruits,  insects,  eggs,  and  birds  constitute  their  food, 
and  though  habitually  gentle  and  timid,  they  become  animated  even 
to  ferocity  at  the  sight  of  living  prey.  The  ordinary  voice  of  these 
Monkeys  is  a  short  reiterated  note,  which,  when  they  are  hurt  or 
alarmed,  is  changed  to  a  shrill  cry. 

The  Saimiri,  or  Squirrel  Monkey  {CaUifhrix  sciurciis, 
Dcsm.).  Titi  de  I'Orenoque,  Humboldt. — General  colour,  greyish- 
olive  ;  the  face  white, '  the  lips  and  chin  black  ;  the  limbs  tinged 


Fig.  12S. — Saimiri. 


-with  fine  rufous  or  gold  colour  ;  the  tail  black  at  its  tip  ;  ears  large 
and  white  ;  palms  flesh-coloured  ;  eyes  large  and  hazel,  with  a  pink 
circle  round  the  iris  ;  under  parts  of  body  greyish-white.  Length  of 
head  and  body.  \2\  inches;  of  tail,  17  inches.  Native  country, 
Brazil,  Cayenne,  Guiana. 

This  slender  and  elegant  little  Monkey  is  widely  spread  :  it  is  one 
of  the  earliest  of  the  American  species  with  which  naturalists  be- 
came acquainted  ;  and  is  most  probably  the  Sapajou  de  Cayenne  of 
Froger.  (See  "  Rclat.  du  Voy.  de  Gennes,"  1698.)  Its  intelligence, 
its  beauty,  and  sportiveness,  render  it  a  favourite  in  its  own  country, 
where  it  is  domesticated  in  preference  to  most  others  of  its  race.  It 
is  frequently  imported  into  Europe,  but  our  climate  is  very  uncon- 
genial. Though  the  tail  of  the  Saimiri  has  no  truly  prehensile 
power^  it  is  used  as  a  sort  of  boa,  for  protection  against  cold ;  and 


-when  numbers  cro-s\'d,  huddled  together,  as  they  are  often  seen  to  do 
in  the  wood,  they  bring  it  between  the  hind-legs,  and  twine  it  over 
the  shoulders  and  round  the  neck,  interlocking  their  arms  and  legs 
for  the  sake  of  warmth.  This  use  of  the  tail  we  have  observed  in 
specimens  in  captivity.  Highly  sensitive  and  susceptible,  the 
Saimiri  displays  its  feelings  by  the  expression  of  its  countenance  ; 
in  which  pleasure,  surprise,  and  fear,  as  they  are  experienced,  are 
strongly  depicted. 

Insects,  and  especially  Spiders,  are  eagerly  sought  for  and  de- 
voured by  this  Monkey  ;  and,  as  Humboldt  states,  it  gives  no  little 
trouble  to  entomological  travellers,  who  may  be  tempted  to  keep  it 
domesticated.  If  it  can  obtain  access  to  their  store-boxes,  it  will 
devour  every  specimen,  taking  each  from  the  pin  without  injury  to 
its  own  fingers. 

In  their  dense  and  humid  forests,  troops  of  these  Monkeys  may  be 
seen  traversing  the  branches  in  single  file,  the  females  carrying 
their  young  on  their  backs.  The  foremost  leads  and  regulates  the 
movements  of  the  rest,  and  as  he  leaps  from  branch  to  branch  with 
admirable  grace  and  precision,  all  follow  in  succession.  They 
ascend  the  "nebees,"  or  natural  ropes  of  creeping  plants  which 
intertwine  among  the  trees,  with  great  rapidity.  Towards  sunset 
they  ascend  to  the  very  tops  of  the  palm-trees,  and  there  sleep  in 
security.  Accustomed  to  dense  and  humid  forests,  under  a  sky  often 
covered  with  clouds,  the  Saimiri  endures  with  difficulty  the  dry  and 
burning  atmosphere  of  the  coasts  of  Guiana,  or  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricts ;  and  it  becomes  melancholy  and  dejected  in  proportion  as  it 
quits  the  region  of  the  forests  and  enters  the  Llanos.  In  captivity 
in  our  climate,  though  depressed  by  its  influence,  the  Saimiri  is  very 
engaging.  It  has  a  habit  of  gazing  intently  on  the  faces  of  those 
who  notice  it — a  peculiarity  alluded  to  by  Humboldt,  who  says  that 
it  will  attentively  watch  the  motion  of  a  person's  lips  in  speaking, 
and  that  if  it  can  climb  on  his  shoulder,  it  -nill  touch  his  teeth  or 
tongue  with  its  fingers.  The  usual  voice  of  this  species  is  a  low  and 
quickly-repeated  whistle ;  but  when  hurt,  or  incommoded  by  wet, 
rain,  or  other  cause  of  annoyance,  it  utters  a  plaintive  cry. 

American  Monkeys— Genus  Nocfliora,  or  Nycfijiithecus. 

Thecharacteristics  of  this  genus  are — the  head  large;  muzzle  short; 
eyes  large  and  nocturnal  ;  nostrils  separated  by  a  moderate  septum. 
Ears  moderate,  w4th  an  acute  folded  apex,  the  free  portion  being 
circumscribed.  Nails  long,  narrow,  and  channelled  ;  fingers  of 
fore-hands  (Fig.  130)  not  extensible  to  the  full.  Tail  long,  non- 
prehensile.  Humboldt  proposed  the  term  Aofus  for  this  genus, 
which,  by  right  of  priority,  should  be  retained  ;  it  is  rejected,  how- 
ever, because  its  meaning  (earless)  involves  an  error. 

This  genus  has  been  regarded  by  many  naturalists  as  a  transition 
from  between  the  American  Monkeys  and  the  Lemurs.  It  is  true 
that,  as  far  as  general  aspect  and  nocturnal  habits  are  concerned, 
the  resemblance  between  the  Douroucouli  and  Lemurs  is  apparent ; 
still,  however,  the  relationship  (setting  aside  that  common  to  all 
Quadrutnana)  is  one  of  analogy,  not  affinity ;  for  the  Douroucouli, 


Fig.  129. — Douroucouli. 

in  its  dentition,  is  more  remote  from  the  Lemurs  than  is  the  genus 
Pithecia ;  and  in  this  point  it  agrees  with  Callithrix. 
The  Douroucouli  [Nocthora  trwirgata,  F.  Cuv.).    Pithecia 


AMERICAN  MOXKEYS—THE  MARMOZETS. 


'&*> 


Fie.  iiO. — Profile  and  Feet  of  Douroucouli. 


vtiriquouina,  Geoffr. ;  Callitlirix  iiifiilatiis,  Lichtenst.  ;  Nyc- 
tipithccus  feliiitis,  and  voci/creus,  Spix.— Head  round  ;  muzzle 
sliort  ;  eyes  larg-e,  with  circular  pupils.  General  colour,  greyish- 
brown  above,  pale  rufous  below  ;  a  whitish  triangalar  mark  over  each 
eye, .bounded  by  an  inter\-ening  mark  of  black  ascending  from  the 
root  of  the  nose,  and  another  running  from  the  angle  of  the  mouth, 
passing  the  outer  angle  of 
the  eye.  (See  Figs.  129  and 
130.)  Tail  black  at  the  apex. 
General  form,  slender;  palms 
flesh-coloured  ;  face  dusky  ; 
nails  black.  Length  of  head 
and  body,  thirteen  inches  ;  of 
the  tail,  eighteen  inches. 
Native  country,  Guiana,  Bra- 
zil. 

According  to  Humboldt, 
the  Douroucouli  inhabits  the 
dense  forests  of  the  Cassi- 
quiare  and  Esmeralda,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Duida,  and  the 
environs  of  the  cataracts  of 
Majeures,  between  the  2nd 
and  5th  degrees  of  N.  lat., 
300  leagues  from  the  coast  of 
French  Guiana.  According 
to  Spix,  it  is  found  near  Para, 
and  in  the  forests  of  Taba- 
tinga,  on  the  confines  of 
Brazil  and  Peru. 

The  Douroucouli  is  noctur- 
nal in  its  habits,  and  sleeps 
during  the  day.  It  is  greatly 
incommoded  by  light,  and 
seeks  the  holes  of  trees,  or 
similar  places,  for  conceal- 
ment. When  roused  it  is  dtiU  and  oppressed,  and  can  scarcely 
open  its  large  white  eyelids.  Its  attitude  during  repose  is  crouching. 
On  the  approach  of  dusk,  all  the  lethargy  of  the  Douroucouli  leaves 
it,  and  it  becomes  restless  and  impetuous,  and  roams  about  in  quest 
of  insects  and  small  birds.  In  addition  to  these,  various  fruits, 
seeds,  and  vegetables  constitute  its  food  ;  but  the  quantity  of  solid 
aliment  it  consumes  is  comparatively  little  :  it  drinks  even  less,  and 
but  seldom.  It  glides,  Cat-like,  through  apertures  so  narrow  as  to 
appear  incapable  of  admitting  it,  and  its  actions  resemble  those  of 
vivirine  animals.  Its  beautiful  glossy  fur  is  in  great  request ;  the 
natives  make  tobacco-pouches  and  other  articles  of  it,  which  they 
sell.  A  male  and  female  are  often  taken  together  in  the  same  hole 
asleep  ;  for  the  Douroucouli  lives  not  in  troops,  but  in  pairs,  and  is 
strictly  monogamous.  The  nocturnal  cry  of  this  animal  is  ex- 
tremely loud  and  sonorous,  and  resembles  that  of  the  Jaguar : 
besides  this,  it  utters  a  mewing  noise  like  that  of  a  Cat,  and  also  a 
deep,  harsh,  guttural  note,  represented  by  the  syllables  qiier,  quer. 
When  irritated,  its  throat  becomes  distended ;  and  in  the  posture 
then  assumed,  and  in  the  puffed  state  of  the  fur,  it  resembles  a  Cat 
attacked  by  a  Dog. 

In  1833,  a  young  male  lived  for  a  short  time  in  the  menagerie  of  the 
Zool.  Soc,  London.  Its  aspect  and  movements  were  very  Lemurine  ; 
its  large  eyes,  which  it  opened  when  the  dusk  of  evening  came  on, 
were  brilliant,  and  gave  an  animated  expression  to  its  countenance 
not  exhibited  during  the  day,  when  it  rested  crouching  on  its  perch, 
lethargic  and  motionless.  It  lived  chiefly  upon  bread  sopped  in 
milk,  refusing  meat,  either  dressed  or  raw. 

American  Monkeys— .az^^/zif^s—MARMOZETs. 

This  is  the  second  of  the  great  divisions  or  families  into  which 
the  American  Monkeys  are  divided,  already  referred  to  in  our  intro- 
ductory remarks  on  the  Monkeys  of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  (See 
aute,  p.  48.)  They  are  ranged  under  the  genus  Hapale.  Specimens 
of  the  Marmozets,  Tamarin,  &c.,  may  be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park,  London ;  and  several  stuffed 
specimens  are  contained  in  the  British  Museum. 

Genus  Hapalc,  Illiger  {Jacchus  and  Midas,  Geoff. ;  Saguinus,  in 
part,  of  Lacepede). — The  Marmozets,  or  Ouistitis,  as  the  Monkeys  of 
this  genus  are  termed,  are  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
American  groups  by  some  peculiarities  m  their  dentition. 


Dental    formula  : — incisors,  4  ; 

4 


true  molars,  ? — ^=32. 
2 — 2 


canines, i;  false  molars,  ^ ■'; 


(Fig.  131.)  Of  the  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw, 

the  two  middle  are  the  largest ;  those  of  the  lower  jaw  equal  the 
lower  canines  in  length  ;  the  tubercles  of  the  molars  are  acute.  The 
muzzle  is  short ;  the  nose  is  salient,  with  nostrils  widely  separate  ; 
the  limbs  are  short ;  the  fingers  slender,  and  all,  excepting  the  hind- 
thumbs,  which  are  remarkably  short,  are  furnished  with  sharp,  long. 


compressed,  hooked  claws,  like  those  of  a  Squirrel.  The  fur  is  full  and 
soft ;  the  tail  longer  than  the  head  and  body,  and  generally  bushy. 
General  contour,  stature,  and  actions.  Squirrel-like.  The  Marmozets, 
or  Ouistitis  (so  called  from  their  sharp  whistling  crj-),  are  diurnal  in 
their  habits  ;  they  arc  irritable  in  tlieir  temper,  but  timid,  and  by  no 
means  remarkable  for  intelligence.  The  most  prominent  feature  in 
their  disposition  seems  to  be  extreme  caution,  an  instinctive  quality 
necessary  to  their  preservation  ;  for  though  nimble  and  quick,  they 
are  subject  to  the  assaults  of  the  smaller  beasts  of  prey,  and  of 
Hawks  and  Snakes.  Still  they  are  not  cowardly,  and  will  defend 
themselves  with  great  spirit  against  the  attacks  of  an  enemy  far 
stronger  than  themselves.     Linnffius,  in  his  account  of  the  Common 


Fig.  131. — Teeth  of  Marmozet. 

Marmozet,  states  that  it  displays  great  hatred  towards  Cats,  and 
attacks  them  with  ferocity — an  observation  founded  most  probably  on 
a  single  example  which  came  under  his  immediate  notice. 

None  of  the  American  Monkeys  are  more  sensitive  of  cold  than 
the  Marmozets,  and  nature  has  well  provided  for  their  comfort ;  not 
only  is  the  fur  deep,  soft,  and  warm,  but  the  long,  full  tail  is  twisted, 
as  in  the  Saimiri,  round  the  body,  which,  during  their  noctural 
repose  in  some  hollow  tree,  is  gathered  up  into  as  small  a  space  as 
possible  ;  and  in  this  crouching  attitude  they  resemble  a  ball  of  fur 
with  a  little  face  projecting  from  it. 

These  animals  are  easily  rendered  tame,  and  their  elegant  figure — 
their  soft  silky  fur  coloured  with  blending  tints — their  nimbleness  and 
diminutive  size,  have  contributed  to  render  them  favourites  in  their 
native  climate  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  From  obser- 
vations made  upon  the  INIarmozets  in  captivity,  it  appears  that  they  arc 
more  prolific  than  other  Monkej's,  producing  two  or  even  three  young 
ones  at  a  birth.  In  their  native  regions^viz.,  the  deep  forests  of  Para, 
Guiana,  and  Brazil — they  associate  in  small  families,  and  feed  upon 
various  fruits  and  insects,  devouring  the  latter  with  great  eagerness. 

The  Common  Wx'va.lozKY:  (Hapale  Jacchus j.  Ouistiti,  Buffon  ; 
Sanglin,  Edwards ;  Jacchus  vulgaris,  Geoffr.  ;  Sintia  Jacchus, 
Linn. — Fur  long  and  soft,  variegated  black,  white,  and  rusty-yellow, 
the  black  and  white  forming  alternate  undulations.  Ears  surrounded 
by  a  large  plume  of  erect  hairs,  white,  sometimes  tipped  with  dusky 
black,  and  sometimes  perhaps  largely  washed  with  black,  if  not 
quite  black.  Head  and  throat  dusky  black  :  a  white  frontal  mark 
above  the  root  of  the  nose.  Tail  annulated,  dusky  black  and  white. 
Native  country,  Brazil,  Guiana.     (See  Figs.  132  and  133.) 

Little  has  been  recorded  respecting  the  natural  habits  of  this 
beautiful  animal,  beyond  the  facts  of  it  congregating  in  small  fami- 
lies, of  being  active  and  shy,  and  of  its  subsisting  upon  insects  and 
eggs,  together  with  fmits,  such  as  bananas  and  mangoes,  of  which 
it  is  very  fond.  It  is  frequently  brought  to  Europe,  and  has  not  only 
lived  several  years,  but  produced  young  in  the  menageries  of  France 
and  England.  Distrustful,  especially  towards  those  whom  it  is  not 
accustomed  to  see,  it  retires  from  observation,  and  ou  being  touched 


S6 


AMERICAN  MONKEYS— THE  MARMOZETS. 


utters  its  peculiar  whistling  cry,  or  becomes  angiy  and  resists  the 
unwelcome  attempt  to  court  its  confidence.  When  undisturbed  it 
displays  much  liveliness,  and  exerts  its  activity,  leaping  from  perch 
to  perch  with  Squirrel-like  address,  and  in  all  its  actions  justifying 
the  expression  of  "nimble  Marmozct,"  used  by  Shakspeare. 

Extremely  sensitive  to  cold,  no  little  of  the  Marmozet  s  time  is 


Fig.  132. — Marmozet. 

passed  in  protecting  itself  against  the  changes  of  temperature  to 
which  our  atmosphere  is  subject.  All  the  wool,  cotton,  or  other  soft 
materials  with  which  it  is  furnished,  it  will  carry  to  some  convenient 
corner  of  its  cage,  or  to  an  inner  dormitory,  and  there  completely 
bury  itself  in  the  downy  mass,  from  which  it  will  peep  out  on  a 
person's  approach,  but  from  which,  unless  induced  by  the  offer  of 
tempting  food,  it  can  seldom  be  induced  to  emerge  altogether.  When 
two  or  three  are  confined  in  the  same  cage,  they  huddle  themselves 
together,  and  lie  nestled  in  their  bed. 

The  Marmozet  eats  bread,  fruits,  and  finely-minced  meat :  it  feeds 


Fig-  '33' — Group  of  Marmozets. 

in  a  crouchino-  attitude,  and  usually  holds  everything  between  its  two 
fore-paws,  the  long  hooked  nails  assisting  it.  Edwards,  in  his 
"  Gleanings  "  speaking  of  one  of  these  animals  which  came  under 
his  own  observation,  informs  us  that  it  fed  upon  various  articles  of 


diet,  as  biscuits,  fruits,  pulse,  insects,  and  Snails ;  and  that,  being 
one  day  at  liberty,  it  darted  upon  a  small  gold-fish  which  was  in  a 
bowl,  killed  it,  and  greedily  devoured  it.  After  this  occurrence, 
some  small  Eels  were  offered  to  it,  which  at  first  frightened  it  by 
twisting  round  its  neck  ;  but  it  soon  overcame  and  eat  tlicm. 

In  the  first  number  of  the  "Magazine  of  Natural  History,"  an 
interesting  account  is  given  by  Mr.  Neill,  of  the  manners  of  one  of 
these  Monkeys,  which  he  purchased  at  Bahia,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  St.  Salvador,  Brazil.  At  first,  as  he  states,  it  displayed 
great  wildness  and  even  fierceness,  screeching  most  vehemently 
when  any  one  offered  to  approach  it ;  and  it  was  a  long  time  before 
it  was  so  reconciled  even  to  those  who  fed  it,  as  to  allow  the  slightest 
liberty  in  the  way  of  touching  or  patting  its  body  ;  it  was  impossible 
to  do  this  by  surprise,  or  by  the  most  stealtliy  and  cautious  approach, 
as  the  creature  was  not  still  for  a  moment,  but  was  continually  turn- 
ing its  head  from  side  to  side,  eyeing  every  person  with  the  most 
suspicious  and  angry  look  ;  and  its  sense  of  hearing  was  so  exceed- 
ingly acute,  that  the  slightest  noise,  or  even  a  whisper,  was  sure  to 
arouse  it.  Its  diet  consisted  of  fruits,  such  as  bananas,  mangoes, 
and  Indian  corn  ;  but  when,  during  the  voyage,  these  failed,  it  eagerly 
fell  upon  the  Cockroaches,  of  which  it  effectually  cleared  the  vessel. 
It  would  frequently  eat  a  score  of  the  larger  kind,  which  are  two 
inches  and  a-half  long,  and  a  great  number  of  the  smaller  ones, 
three  or  four  times  in  the  course  of  the  day.  It  was  quite  amusing 
to  see  the  Marmozet  at  its  meal.  When  it  got  hold  of  one  of  the 
large  Cockroaches,  it  held  the  insect  in  its  fore-paws,  and  then  in- 
variably nipped  the  head  off  first ;  it  then  pulled  out  the  viscera  and 
cast  them  aside,  and  devoured  the  rest  of  the  body,  rejecting  the  dry 
elytra  (wing-cases)  and  wings,  and  also  the  legs  of  the  insect,  which 
are  covered  with  short,  stiff  bristles.  The  small  Cockroaches  it  ate 
without  such  fastidious  nicety.  In  addition  to  these  insects,  milk, 
sugar,  raisins,  and  crumbs  of  bread  were  given  to  it.  From  London 
it  was  conveyed  to  Edinburgh.  There,  contrary  to  the  statement  of 
Linnffius,  who  says  that  it  is  an  enemy  to  Cats,  it  made  acquaintance 
with  one,  with  which  it  fed  and  slept,  and  lived  on  the  best  terms 
imaginable.  Though  it  became  gradually  tamer,  it  never  lost  its 
original  wildness  and  distrust. 

The  first  account  of  the  Marmozet  having  bred  in  Europe  is  given 
by  Edwards  ("  Gleanings  "),  who  received  it  from  a  lady  living  at 
Lisbon  ;  a  pair  of  these  animals,  during  her  residence  there,  having 
produced  young.     They  were  at  first  ugly,  and  almost  destitute  of 

fur,  and  clung  to  the  breasts 
of  the  mother ;  but  as  they 
grew  larger,  they  mounted  her 
shoulders  and  back :  when 
tired  with  carrying  them,  she 
would  detach  them  from  her 
by  rubbing  them  against  a  wall, 
or  anything  in  her  way :  the 
male  would  then  take  charge 
of  them  till  she  was  inclined 
to  resume  her  duties. 

In  the  year  1819,  three  young 
ones,  a  male  and  two  females, 
were  produced  in  the  me- 
nagerie of  Paris.  Their  colour 
was  of  a  uniform  deep  grey  ; 
the  tail  was  almost  destitute  of 
hair  ;  and  they  were  born  with 
their  eyes  open.  M.  F.  Cuvier, 
in  describing  their  domestic 
economy,  confirms  the  account 
given  by  Edwards ;  but  con- 
finement, in  this  instance,  so 
far  destroyed  the  admirable 
instinct,  common  even  to  the 
most  savage  animals,  that  one 
of  the  little  ones  was  killed  by 
its  mother  before  it  had  an 
opportunity  of  asserting  the 
strongest  claim  to  her  affec- 
tion ;  and  the  other  two,  which 
she  eagerly  cherished  the  mo- 
ment they  commenced  deriving 
theirnutriment  from  the  natural 
fountain  of  life,  were  deserted 
by  both  parents  when  the  sup- 
ply from  that  source,  probably 
from  improper  nourishment, 
^  prematurely    ceased.      During 

the  short  time  they  existed,  the 
task  of  nursing  them  almost 
wholly  devolved  upon  the  male 
parent  which,  at  first,  most  assiduously  cherished  them,  placing 
them  when  they  claimed  his  protection,  either  under  him  or  upon 
his  back,  and  thus  carrying  them  about.  The  female  avoided,  as 
much  as  possible,  the  troublesome    charge,  receiving  them  unwil- 


MADAGASCAR  MONKEYS— THE  LEMURS. 


57 


linfjly  from  her  partner;  and  the  moment  she  had  suppUed  them 
with  nourishment,  again  forcing  them  upon  his  attention,  at  the 
same  time  uttering  a  peculiar  cry,  as  if  asking  him  to  ease  her  of 
a  burthen  with  which  she  was  intolerably  fatigued.  In  1832,  a  pair 
bred  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  at  the  Regent's  Park, 
London,  and  produced  twins,  which,  however,  died;  as  generally 
happens  to  Monkeys  bred  in  England. 

The  Marikina,  or  Silky  Tamarin  {Hapale  rosalia).  Midas 
rosa/ia,  Geoffr.— The  Marikina  is  one  of  the  species  of  the  present 
group,  which  M.  Geoffrey  has  separated,  upon  not  very  tangible 
grounds,  into  a  genus  termed  Midas.  Fur  long,  silky,  and  of  a 
glossy  golden  yellow ;  hairs  of  the  head  long  and  falling,  parted 


rig.  134. — Marikina. 

down  the  middle  of  the  crown  by  a  line  of  short  rust-brown  hairs  ; 
ears  concealed  by  the  long  hair  of  the  head  ;  tail  almost  tufted  at  the 
ape.x.  (See  Fig.  134.)  This  species  is  subject  to  considerable  varia- 
tion in  the  richness  of  its  colouring  :  we  have  seen  specimens  of  a 


straw-yellow,  with  a  silvery  lustre.     Its  native  countries  arc  Guiana 
and  Brazil. 

Two  or  three  opportunities  have  been  afforded  us  of  observing  this 
beautiful  species  in  captivity.  Judging  from  these  individuals,  this 
animal  is  more  confiding  and  less  irritable  than  the  Common  Mar- 
mozet,  which,  however,  it  resembles  in  its  actions.  When  alarmed 
or  angry,  it  utters  a  shrill  cry,  and  slightly  raises  the  long  hairs 
around  the  sides  of  its  face,  displaying  its  teeth,  as  if  threatening  to 
bite.  Contrary  to  Buffon's  opinion,  who  considers  it  to  be  more 
hardy  than  most  of  its  congeners,  it  appears  to  be  fully  as  susceptible 
of  the  changes  of  our  climate,  and  indeed  dies  immediately  if  ex- 
posed to  damp  or  wet. 

In  this  opinion  Fred.  Cuvier  fully  coincides.  These  animals,  he 
observes,  are  natives  of  Brazil,  and  from  the  delicacy  of  their  con- 
stitution they  cannot  be  kept  alive  in  France  without  the  greatest 
care  to  preserve  them  from  the  influence  of  atmospheric  changes,  and 
especially  from  the  cold  and  humidity  of  the  winter  season  :  under 
the  depressing  effects  of  wet  and  chilly  weather,  they  lose  all  their 
sprightliness,  droop,  and  die.  Speaking  of  the  individual  figured  in 
his  splendid  work,  and  which  was  brought,  in  1818,  from  Brazil  to 
Paris,  where  it  lived  for  a  short  time  in  the  menagerie  of  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  he  states  that  it  was  very  active  and  lively,  and,  like  a 
bird,  preferred  the  topmost  perches  of  the  cage.  On  the  least  alarm 
it  always  concealed  itself  ;  and  though  it  appeared  gratiiicd  with  the 
notice  and  caresses  of  those  whom  it  knew,  and  came  to  them  when 
called,  it  never  returned  any  expressions  or  signs  of  attachment  as 
other  Monkeys  do  when  noticed  by  persons  to  whom  they  are  at- 
tached. It  disliked  strangers,  and  retired  from  them,  regarding  them 
with  looks  of  defiance,  and  menacing  with  its  feeble  teeth.  Fear  or 
anger  it  expressed  by  a  short,  sharp,  whistling  cry  ;  but  sometimes, 
as  if  from  ennui,  it  raised  its  voice  into  a  louder  or  more  prolonged 
note.  In  these  details,  the  individuals  described  by  Fred.  Cuvier  re- 
sembled the  specimens  which  have  lived  in  the  vivarium  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society,  London.  The  interest  which  attached  to  them 
resulted  only  from  the  lustre  of  their  silky  fur,  and  from  the  elegance 
of  their  actions,  for  it  was  evident  that  their  intelligence  was  very 
circumscribed.  That  prying  curiosity,  always  amusing,  sometimes 
troublesome,  which  Monkeys  in  general  exhibit,  appeared  to  form  no 
part  of  their  character ;  and  the  confidence  they  manifested  towards 
those  accustomed  to  feed  them,  was  unmixed  with  tokens  of  attach- 
ment or  gratitude.  Still,  it  is  diflficult  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the 
character  of  animals  from  individuals  in  confinement ;  and  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  in  its  native  forests,  of  which  it  is  one  of  the  orna- 
ments, the  Marikina,  like  the  Squirrel  of  our  woods,  displays  habits  and 
manners  calculated  to  excite  the  interest  of  the  observer.  Of  these, 
however,  nothing  is  definitely  known.  According  to  Prince  Maxi- 
milian, the  Marikina  is  more  rarely  found  in  Brazil  than  in  Guiana. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


QUADRUMANA.— MADAGASCAR  MONKEYS,   OR  LEMURS. 
(Group  or  Family,  Lemurid.e  and  Lemuroida.j 


EMURS,  family  Lenuiridcs,  and  genus 
Lemur,  with  the  Lemuroida,  form  a  third 
and  last  group  of  the  Quadrzi>?ta>m. 
They  differ  from  the  Monkeys  of  both 
worlds  in  dental  characters,  but  in  quadru- 
manous  structure  they  approach  those  of 
the  old,  having  opposable  thumbs  on  the 
fore-hands  as  well  as  on  the  hinder  pair. 

-  ^s^T^-jt,  N,   The    contour    of     their    body   is    very 

|'^~'^^/::^5\^V  peculiar :  the  general  form  is  slender 
and  elongated  ;  the  head  is  pointed  and 
somewhat  Fox-like  ;  the  nostrils  have  a  sinuous  open- 
ing, terminating  a  sharp,  naked,  somewhat  prominent 
muzzle ;  the  eyes  are  large,  and  of  a  nocturnal  cha- 
racter ;  the  limbs  are  long,  especially  the  hinder  pair, 
which  in  some  species  greatly  exceed  the  anterior ; 
the  fore-hands  have  a  true  thumb,  but  in  some  species 
the  index-finger  is  abbreviated  ;  the  thumb  of  the 
hinder  hands  is  large  and  greatly  expanded  at  the 
tip  ;  the  index-finger  of  those  hinder  pair  (and  in  the 
Tarsier,  the  next  also)  is  armed  with  a  long,  subulate, 
slightly  curved  claw  ;  the  other  nails  are  flat ;  the  fur 
is  full  and  woolly ;  the  tail  varies,  it  is  never  prehen- 
sile, and  is  sometimes  wanting  :  habits  pre-eminently 
arboreal.     If  we  compare   the   skull  of  the  Monkey 


(Fig.  13  s)  with  that  of  the  ordinary  Lemurs  (Fig.  136),  we  shall  observe 
many  distinctions.  The  volume  of  the  Lemur's  skull,  taken  in 
relationship  to  that  of  the  face,  is  greatly  diminished  ;  no  trace  of  a 

forehead  remains,  but  the 
frontal  bone  falls  so  com- 
pletely back  behind  the  de- 
veloped and  projecting  facial 
portion  or  muzzle,  as  to  pre- 
sent an  almost  level  surface 
along  the  nasal  bones  to  the 
top  of  the  head.  The  occi- 
pital condyles  have  the  same 
posterior  situation  as  in  the 
Dog,  so  that  the  head  is 
suspended  from,  rather  than 
even  partially  balanced  on, 
the  vertebral  column.  The 
orbits  are  not  completely 
walled  within,  but  open  into 
the  temporal  foss;c,  and 
have  an  obliquely  lateral 
aspect ;  the  nasal  bones  run 
the  whole  length  to  the  tip  of  the  snout,  or  nearly  so  ;  the  lower 
jaw  is  long  and  narrow,  and  consists  of  two  rami,  perfectly  separate 
at  the  chin.     Here,  indeed,  we  first  meet  with  the  symphysis  of  the 


Fig.  135.— Skull  of  the  Monkey. 


58 


AfADAGASCAR  MONKEYS— THE  LEMURS. 


lower  jaw  unobliterated,  even  in  the  most  advanced  period  of  life. 
In  man  and  the  Monkeys  this  suture  is  not  apparent,  even  in  the 
youngest  subjects ;  but  in  the  lower  Mammalia,  excepting  in  the 
Pachydermaia,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  always  present. 


136. — Skull  of  Lemur. 


The  teeth  are  as  follows  : — Four  small  incisors  above  in  pairs, 
with  an  intermediate  space  between  them  for  the  reception  of  the 
points  of  the  lower  incisors  and  lower  canine  teeth.  The  lower 
incisors  (in  the  true  Lemurs)  are  four  in  number,  but  they  are  accom- 
panied by  the  lower  canines,  which,  except  that  they  are  stronger 
and  larger,  resemble  the  incisors  in  form  and  direction.  They  are 
long,  pointed,  compressed,  in  close  contact  with  each  other,  and 
direct  obliquely  forwards.  The  canines  of  the  upper  jaw  are  com- 
pressed, pointed,  and  sharp  on  their  posterior  edge.  The  molars 
are  crowned  with  sharp  angular  tubercles. 

Dental  formula  of  the  genus  Zez^z^r  (Figs.  136,  137): — Incisors,  -  ; 

i-i  6-6  ^ 

canines,  y^  ;  molars,  g^Tg"     The  first  false  molar  below  is  stout, 

and  resembles  a  canine,  whence  has  arisen  the  idea  that  it  is  so 
really,  and  that  the  lower  incisors  were  6  instead  of  4. 


rig-  137.— Teeth  of  the  Lemur. 

Professor    Owen    remarks,  that    most  of  the  Lemurina  have 

t  fr^'   "^^^>   together  with  remarkable  modifications  of  their 

incisive  and  canine  teeth,  of  which  an  extreme  example  is  shown  in 
the  pectinated  tooth  of  the  Galeo;pithecus.  The  inferior  incisors 
slope  forw^ards  in  all,  and  the  canines  also,  which  are  contiguous  to 
them,  and  very  similar  in  shape. 

Genus  Zi?«2«;-.— Head  long,  muzzle  pointed,  eyes  moderate  and 
oblique ;  ears  short  and  hairy  ;  tail  long  and  bushy ;  mammffi  two, 


pectoral.  Most  are  natives  of  Madagascar :  arboreal,  nocturnal. 
Their  movements  are  light,  sweeping,  elegant,  and  precise.  Their 
usual  voice  is  a  low  inward  grunt,  but  they  often  break  forth  into  an 
abrupt  hoarse  roar,  producing  a  startling  effect.  The  term  Lemur 
(from  the  Latin  Leinurcs,  Ghosts)  was  first  adopted  by  Linnseus  in 
allusion  to  the  nocturnal  habits  and  stilly  sweeping  movements  of 
these  singular  animals. 

The  following  remarks,  extracted  from  the  "  Circle  of  the 
Sciences,"  in  the  section  of  Zoology,  contributed  to  that  work  by 
Mr.  W.  S.  Dallas,  F.L. S.,  Sic,  are  of  considerable  interest  and 
value,  as  showing  the  connection  of  the  Lemurs  with  the  Chiro^tera 
and  I?isecirjora,  which  we  shall  deal  with  in  the  next  chapters.  Mr. 
Dallas  also  gives  his  own  views  as  to  the  classification  of  the 
Lemurs,  which  differ  somewhat  from  that  we  have  adopted,  but  in 
no  material  degree.  In  fact,  so  many  opinions  have  been  held  in 
regard  to  the  classification  of  each  family  of  the  Quadrumana, 
that  the  most  proficient  naturalist  has  to  "feel  his  way"  to  the 
truth. 

Mr.  Dallas  remarks,  in  regard  to  the  GaIeo;pithectd(r,  or  Flying 
Lemurs,  that  they  evidently  connect  the  Qicadru}nana  with  the 
Chirojitera  (Bats,  &c.,  which  will  become  the  subject  of  description 
in  our  next  chapter),  and  which  have  indeed  been  placed  in  the 
latter  order  by  many  zoologists.  They  certainly  differ  in  many  im- 
portant particulars  from  the  Quadnimatia,  more  especially  in  the 
total  want  of  opposable  thumbs  on  all  the  feet,  which  are  composed 
of  five  fingers,  arranged  in  a  single  line,  and  united  together  by  a 
small  membrane.  These  fingers  are,  however,  adapted  for 
climbing,  and  are  not,  as  in  the  Bats,  prolonged  to  furnish  support 
to  broad  membranous  wings,  although  the  animals  are  furnished 
with  a  very  broad  fold  of  skin,  which  extends  from  the  sides  of  the 
neck  to  the  wrists,  from  these  to  the  base  of  the  feet,  and  is  even 
continued  between  the  hind-legs  so  as  to  involve  the  tail,  in  the 
same  way  as  in  many  of  the  true  Chiroptera.  It  is  evident  that  this 
membrane,  which  is  entirely  clothed  with  hair,  is  to  be  regarded  like 
the  similar  provision  of  the  Flying  Squirrels  and  Phalangers,  merely 
as  a  sort  of  parachute,  by  means  of  which  its  possessor  is  enabled  to 
perform  leaps  of  amazing  extent,  although  it  must  be  confessed  that, 
in  its  general  arrangement,  leaving  the  structure  of  the  hands  out  of 
the  question,  it  presents  a  wonderful  similarity  to  the  wing  of  a  Bat. 
In  other  respects,  the  Galeoj>ithecidcB  exhibit,  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  characters  intermediate  between  those  of  the  Lemurs  and 
the  true  Chiroptera.  The  form  of  the  head  is  the  same  as  in  the 
former  group  ;  but  the  orbits  are  incomplete,  as  in  the  Bats.  The 
dentition  resembles  that  of  the  Lemurs,  but  presents  some  curious 
characters.  The  incisors  are  four  in  the  upper,  and  six  in  the  lower 
jaw  ;  the  former  are  placed  quite  at  the  sides  of  the  jaw,  so  as  to 
leave  a  wide  vacant  space  in  front  ;  and  the  second,  or  hindermost 
incisor,  is  inserted  by  two  roots,  which  give  it  the  appearance  of  a 
false  molar  ;  and  that  is  also  the  case  with  the  following  tooth, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  canine.  The 
lower  incisors  project  in  front  of  the  jaw,  and  the  four  intermediate 
exhibit  a  singular  structure,  being  very  broad,  flat,  and  deeply 
notched  or  cleft  into  teeth  something  like  those  of  a  comb.  The 
GaleopitliecidiB  differ  from  the  other 
Qjcadrmnana  in  the  possession  of  two 
pairs  of  pectoral  mammae. 

These  singular  animals  are  all  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Indian  islands,  where  they 
live  in  the  forests,  and  pass  the  days  sus- 
pended by  their  hind-legs,  like  the  true 
Bats,  from  the  branches  of  trees.  The 
night  is  their  period  of  activity,  and  they 
then  climb  about  the  trees  with  great 
ease,  and  glide  from  one  to  another  by 
the  aid  of  their  broad  lateral  membranes. 
In  this  way  it  is  said  they  will  pass  over  a 
space  of  more  than  a  hundred  yards. 
They  appear  to  feed  upon  almost  any- 
thing, but  principally  fruits,  insects,  small 
birds,  and  their  eggs. 

The  best  known  species  {Galeopithe- 
cits  "joUta7is,  Fig.  138)  is  found  in  Java, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  It  measures  about 
twenty  inches  in  length.  (It  will  be  fur- 
ther described  in  this  chapter.) 
Another  section  of  this  order  also  includes  one  family — that  of  the 
Chiromyda — which,  as  far  as  we  at  present  know,  has  only  a  single 
representative,  the  C/iiro/nys  Madagascariensis,  or  Aye- Aye,  which 
presents  characters  of  as  problematical  a  nature  as  those  of  the 
preceding  family.  The  Chiromys,  in  fact,  appears  to  form  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  Quadnanana  and  the  Rodents  ;  and  it  has 
been  placed  by  different  zoologists  in  both  these  orders.  (A  full 
description  of  this  animal  will  be  found  at  a  future  page,  with  an 
illustration.) 

In  its  form,  this  remarkable  animal  presents  a  close  resemblance 
to  a  Squirrel ;  and,  when  first  discovered,  it  was  supposed  to  be  a 
species  of  the  old  genus  Sciurus,     Its  dentition  also  is  almost  iden- 


Fig.  138.— Flying  Lemur 
(Galcopitliecus  volitans). 


MADAGASCAR  MONKEYS— THE  LEMURS. 


59 


tical  with  that  of  a  Rodent  animal,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  powerful 
incisor  teeth  in  each  jaw,  separated  from  the  molars  by  a  wide 
empty  space  ;  the  canines  are  entirely  deficient.  The  skull,  how- 
ever, is  distinguishable  from  that  of  a  Rodent  from  its  having  the 
orbits  encircled  by  a  complete  bony  ring.  The  structure  of  the  feet 
is  also  different ;  the  anterior  members  have  five  very  long,  slender 
fingers,  armed  with  claws  :  and  the  thumb,  although  not  exactly  in 
the  same  line  with  the  other  fingers,  is  scarcely  opposable  ;  but  the 
posterior  members  arc  furnished  with  complete  hands,  of  which  the 
thumb  has  a  flat  nail,  and  the  first  finger  a  subulate  claw,  like  that 
of  the  true  Lemurs.  The  body  of  this  animal  is  clothed  with  longish, 
smooth  hairs,  with  an  under-coat  of  a  woolly  nature.  The  tail  is 
long  and  bushy,  and  the  ears  large  and  naked.  The  mamma;  are 
situated  on  the  groin. 

In  a  third  group,  which  includes  two  families,  and  to  which  the 
name  oi Prosimicc  has  been  given,  we  find  the  thumbs  of  the  hind- 
feet  always  opposable,  and  the  first  finger  furnished  with  a  claw, 
even  when  the  others  bear  nails.  The  teeth  are  of  three  kinds,  and 
never  show  any  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Rodenfia  ;  the  nose  is 
usually  slender  and  pointed,  and  the  tail  long  and  bushy.  These 
animals  appear  to  lead  from  the  typical  Qiiadrumana  to  the  Insec- 
tivora. 

We  have  selected  the  following  members  of  the  Lcmuridcc, 
Lemitrince,  or  Lcmnroida  for  illustration,  commencing  with — 

The  Ruffled  Lemur  {Lonur  Macaco).  Le  Vari,  Buffon. — This 
is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  genus,  exceeding  a 
Cat  in  size.  Its  fur  is  of  admirable  texture,  being  full,  fine,  and 
silky;  the  tail  is  long  and  bush}'.  The  general  ground  is  pure  white, 
on  which  large  black  patches  are  tastefully  arranged  ;  the  tail  is 
black  ;  a  full  ruff  of  longer  hairs  than  those  of  the  body  surrounds 
the  face — whence  its  English  appellation.     (See  Fig.  139.) 

Of  the  native  habits  of  this  and  the  other  Lemurs  in  the  deep 
forests  of  Madagascar,  little  is  known  :  they  avoid  the  presence 
of  man  ;  and  though  harmless, 
will  defend  themselves  with 
great  resolution,  inflicting  severe 
wounds  with  their  sharp  ca- 
nines. They  associate  together 
in  troops,  and  after  sunset  their 
hoarse  loud  roar  may  be  heard 
in  dissonant  chorus,  resounding 
among  the  recesses  of  the  wood- 
land wilderness.  The  roar  of 
the  Ruffed  Lemur  is  peculiarly 
deep  and  sonorous.  During  the 
day  the  Lemurs  sleep  in  their  re- 
treats. Fruits,  insects,  reptiles, 
small  birds,  and  eggs  constitute 
their  food. 

When  taken  young,  these  ani- 
mals soon  become  familiar,  and 
are  fond  of  being  noticed  and 
caressed,  exhibiting  considerable 
attachment  to  those  who  attend 
them  ;  but  they  will  bite  severely 
persons  who  have  irritated  them. 

In  captivity,  with  due  care, 
they  bear  our  climate  well,  though 
they  are  impatient  of  cold,  as 
might  be  inferred  from  their  soft 
thick  fur.  They  are  fond  of  sit- 
ting perched  on  the  fender  before 
a  fire  ;  and  in  this  situation  they 
will  spread  their  hands,  half 
close  their  eyes,  and  testify  un- 
equivocal satisfaction.  During 
the  day  they  sleep  in  a  ball-like 
figure  on  their  perch  ;  and  if  t\j;o 
be  in  a  cage  together,  they  sit 
close  to  one  another  with  their 
tails  wrapped,  boa-like,  round 
each  other's  body,  so  as  to  make 
one  round  ball,  from  which,  on 
being  disturbed,  two  heads  sud- 
denly make  their  appearance. 
Though     less     intelligent    than 

Monkeys  in  general,  they  are  more  gentle  and  confiding:  they 
will  put  their  heads  to  the  bars  of"  their  cage,  to  have  them 
scratched  and  rubbed,  and  by  their  actions  invite  notice.  They 
have  little  of  the  prying,  mischievous,  petulant  disposition  of 
Monkeys,  so  that  with  due  precaution  they  may  be  trusted  in  a  room 
at  liberty.  When  presented  with  food,  they  usually  take  it  in  their 
hands  ;  but  we  have  seen  them  feed  upon  soft  bread  without  holding 
it.  They  lap  fluid  like  a  Dog.  They  bound  and  leap  with  the  most 
astonishing  agility,  gracefulness,  and  address  ;  and  when  in  motion 
the  tail  is  elevated  in  a  sigmoid  (like  the  capital  letter  S  in  the 
Greek  language)  form,  and  not   trailed  after  them.     Strong  light 


greatly  incommodes  them  ;  their  ej'cs  gleam  at  night ;  and  the  pupil 
is  transverse,  dilating  with  the  advance  of  evening  dimness. 

The  White-fronted  Lemur  {Lemur,  or  Prosimia  albifrons). 
—Fur  ruddy  or  bronzed-grey  above :  male  with  the  forehead  and 


Fig.  140. — White-fronted  Lemur. 

sides  of  the  face  white ;  female  with  the  same  part  of  a  deep  grey. 
The  female  and  the  Lemur  A!ijua7iensis  (Maki  d'Angouan)  are 
distinct,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Lesson.     (See  Fig.  140.) 
The  White-fronted  Lemur  is  gentle,  affectionate,  and  lively :  it 


Fig-  139.— Ruffed  Lemur. 

leaps  with  great  agility,  and  after  a  spring  of  many  yards,  pitches  so 
lightly  on  fts  fingers  as  hardly  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  ear.  Its 
nfanners  are  the  same  as  those  of  its  race  in  general.  ,,  ,     . 

The  Flocky  or  Woolly  Lemur  {Indrts  laniger).  Maki  a 
Bourre  of  Sonnerat ;  Lemur  lanigcr,  Lichanotus  la>2iger, 
Indris  /a«7>(:;-.— This  speices,  which  was  first  described  and 
figured  by  Sonnerat,  as  the  Maki  A  Bourre,  has  been,  wc  know  not 
why  regarded  as  a  species  of  Indris  (Z?<r//a«y//^J,  Illiger),and  placed 
in  that  genus.  Cuvier  doubted  its  alliance  to  that  group;  and  for 
ourselves  we  hesitate  not  in  referring  it  to  the  genus  C///;;o^a/<?«J, 
Geoffr.,  founded  for  the  reception  of  certain  Lemurs  described  and 


6o 


MADAGASCAR  MONKEYS— THE  LEMURS. 


figured   by    Commorson,    but    till    lately    unknown    to    European 
naturalists.     (Fig.  141.) 

The  Flocky  Lemur  is  about  a  foot  in  the  length  of  the  head  and 
body,  the  tail  being  nine  inches  long.  The  colour  is  pale  ferruginous 
above,  white  beneath  ;  the  fur  is  e.xtremely  soft  and  curled,  deepest 
about  the  loins.     Face  black ;  eyes  large  and  greenish-grey.     The 


Fig.  141. — Flocky  Lemur. 

fingers  of  both  fore  and  hind  hands  are  furnished  with  long  pointed 
claws,  the  thumbs  only  having  flat  nails. 

In  the  museum  at  Paris  we  e.xamined  a  species  of  CJiirogaleus 
closely  allied  to  (perhaps  identical  with)  the  Flocky  Lemur  :  it  was 
labelled  Chi)-ogaleus  Milii.  Head  broad  and  flat ;  ears  moderate 
and  hairy.  Fur  soft,  full,  curly,  and  glossy,  of  a  fine  fawn-brown, 
paler  between  the  eyes,  which  are  large,  and  surrounded  by  a  brown 
disk.  The  hairs  are  all  lead-coloured  at  the  base  :  chin,  throat, 
under  surface,  and  inside  of  limbs  white.  Tail  fawn-brown.  Teeth 
as  in  the  genus  Lemur.  Nails  minute,  flat,  but  sharp-pointed  ; 
those  of  the  thumbs  as  usual.  Length  of  head  and  body  about 
fourteen  inches  ;  of  the  tail,  twelve  inches.  Of  two  specimens,  one 
was  presented  to  the  museum  by  M.  Goudot ;  the  other,  alive,  by 
M.  le  Baron  Milius.     Native  country,  Madagascar. 

The  Short-tailed  Indris  (^Lichanofus  brevicaudatus,  or 
L'Indri,  Sonnerat  ?  Lndris  brevicatidatus,  Geoffr. — The  genus 
Licha?!otus  (or  Indris)  differs,  in  some  details  of  dentition,  from  the 
genus  Le}7iur,  to  which  in  most  points  it  is  closely  allied.     The 


Fig.  142. — Short-tailed  Indris. 

following  description  of  the  Indris  was  taken  from  a  fine  specimen  in 
the  Paris  Museum.  The  anterior  part  of  the  face  nearly  naked  ;  the 
forehead,  temples,  throat,  and  chest  white ;  the  ears,  the  occiput, 
shoulders,  arms,  and  hands  black.  The  lower  part  of  the  back 
brown,  which  colour  divides  on  the  haunch  into  two  lines,  which  rnn 
down  the  buttocks  and  spread  on  the  thighs,  leaving  the  crupper, 
tail,  and  posterior  part  of  the  thighs  white ;  the  root  of  the  tail  is 
tinged  with  yellow.  Anterior  part  of  thighs  and  feet  deepening  into 
black  ;  heels  white,  with  an  anklet  of  greyish-white  ;  breast  brown. 
Flanks  and  lower  part  of  belly  white ;  and  also  the  inside  of  the  arms. 


Fur  beautifully  soft  and  woolly.  Thumbs  very  large  and  powerful;  fore- 
toe  small  and  united  to  the  next,  almost  to  the  last  joint :  it  is  armed 
with  a  long  sharp  nail.  The  nails  of  the  thumbs  and  fingers,  and 
also  of  the  toes,  the  first  excepted,  are  small,  flat,  sub-keeled,  and 
pointed.  Length  from  muzzle  to  root  of  tail,  two  feet ;  of  the  tail, 
three  inches;  of  the  hind-feet,  seven  inches  and  a-half.  This  animal 
is  represented  in  Fig.  142. 

The  Indris  is  a  native  of  Madagascar,  where  it  is  said  to  be 
frequently  trained  by  the  natives  for  the  chase.  Its  voice  resembles 
the  wailing  cry  of  a  child.  The  word  Indris  is  said  to  signify,  in  the 
Madagascar  language,  a  "  man  of  the  woods." 

The  Diadem  Lemur,  or  Indris  {Propiikecus,  or  Indris  Dia- 
defna,  Benn.). — Mr.  Bennett  proposed  the  genus  Propithecus  for 
this  Lemur,  which  is  a  native  of  Madagascar,  and  which  appears  to 


Fig.  143. — Diadem  Lemur. 

us,  notwithstanding  the  length  of  the  tail,  to  belong  in  reality  to  the 
genus  Lichanotus.     It  is,  in  fact,  a  long-tailed  Indris.     (Fig.  143.) 

Description  : — Face  nearly  naked,  with  short  blackish  hairs  about 
the  lips,  and  equally  short  yellowish-white  hairs  in  front  of  the  eyes. 
Above  the  eyes,  the  long,  silky,  waved,  and  thickly-set  hairs  which 
cover  the  body  commence  by  a  band  of  yellowish-white  crossing  the 
front,  and  passing  beneath  the  ears  to  the  throat.  This  is  succeeded 
by  black,  extending  over  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck,  but  becom- 
ing freely  intermingled  with  white  on  the  shoulders  and  sides,  the 
white  gradually  increasing  backwards,  so  as  to  render  the  loins  only 
slightly  grizzled  with  black.  At  the  root  of  the  tail  fulvous,  that 
colour  gradually  disappearing  until  the  extreme  half  of  the  tail  is 
white  with  a  tinge  of  yellow.  Outer  side  of  the  anterior  limbs,  at 
the  upper  part,  of  the  slaty-grey  of  the  sides,  below  which  it  is  pale 
fulvous,  ffands  black,  except  tufts  of  long  fulvous  hair  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  thumb  and  fingers,  extending  beyond  and  covering 
the  nails.  Outer  sides  of  the  hinder  limbs,  after  receiving  a  tinge  of 
fulvous  from  the  colour  surrounding  the  root  of  the  tail,  of  a  paler 
fulvous  than  the  anterior  limbs  :  this  becomes  much  deeper  on  the 
hands,  which  are  fulvous,  except  on  the  fingers,  where  there  is  a  very 
considerable  intermixture  of  black,  the  terminal  tufts,  equally  long 
with  those  of  the  anterior  hands,  being,  as  in  them,  fulvous.  The 
under  surface  white  throughout,  except  the  hinder  part  of  the  throat, 
where  it  is  of  the  same  colour  with  the  sides  of  the  body.  Hairs 
generally  long,  silky,  waved,  erect,  and  glossy ;  shorter  and  more 
dense  on  the  crupper,  where  they  offer  a  sort  of  woolly  resistance. 
General  character  of  those  on  the  tail,  that  of  the  body-hair,  but 
shorter. 

Thumb  of  anterior  hands  slender,  placed  far  back,  and  extremely 
free  ;  thumb  of  hinder  hands  very  strong.  Length  of  body  and  head, 
measured  in  a  straight  line,  i  foot  9  inches  ;  of  the  tail,  i  foot  5  inches. 
Anterior  limbs,  exclusive  of  hands,  7J  inches  in  length  from  the 
body;  posterior  limbs,  15J  inches.  Muzzle  shorter  than  in  the 
Lemurs  generally  ;  the  distance  from  the  anterior  angle  of  the  orbit 
to  the  tip  of  the  nose  (i  J  inch)  being  equal  to  that  between  the  eyes. 
Ears  rounded,  concealed  in  the  fur:  length,  1  inch;  breadth,  \\ 
inch.  In  a  young  specimen  that  was  at  Paris,  the  yellow  tint  on  the 
limbs  was  very  bright  and  golden. 

Associated  with  the  Madagascar  Monkeys,  are  the  Asiatic 
Lemuroids,  which  will  be  next  described. 


ASTATIC  LEMUROIDS-TUE  LORIS. 


ix 


The  Asiatic  LEMUROms-Genus  S/e>io^s,  Loris,  or  Nycikchus. 

This  ?enus  properly  belongs  to  the  Lemuroids.  or  Lemur-like 
l\Ionkeys  The  dentition  is  the  san^e  as  m  the  Lemur,  but  the 
tubercles  on  the  crowns  of  the  molars  are  more  acute  The  animals 
of  this  4oup  are  termed  Loris,  or  Slow  Lemurs.  They  are  charac- 
°er  sed  by  the  head  beins?  round,  the  muzzle  short  and  acutely 
pointed;  the  eyes  large,  full,  bright,  and  approximating  to  each 
o°her;  the  ears  short,  round,  open,  and  almost  buned  m  the  fur  ;  the 
tai  completely  rudimentary,  and  the  limbs  slender.  Two  species 
are  known,  both  natives  of  India  and  its  islands,  especially  Ceylon, 

Tava,  Sumatra,  &c.  ,   ,.       ,       ,  a 

^  These  animals  have  been  long  celebrated  for  the  slowness  and 
caution  of  their  movements,  to  which  may  be  added  a  remarkable 
tenacity  of  grasp,  in  conjunction  with  the  power  in  the  limbs  ot 
exerting  a  long  continuance  of  muscular  contraction.  In  the  arteries 
both  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities  there  is  a  peculiarity 
first  detected  by  Sir  A.  Carlisle,  and  met  with  in  the  limbs  of  the  Sloth 
and  a  few  other  instances.  No  sooner  has  the  mam  artery,  a  single 
tube  reached  the  commencement  of  the  limbs,  but  it  assumes  another 
character :  instead  of  continuing  its  course  as  a  simple  tube,  g'vmg 
off  branches  as  it  proceeds  (the  usual  mode),  it  becomes  suddenly 
subdivided  into  a  congeries  of  small  tubes  intertwined  together,  and 
communicating  with  each  other  freely,  thus  forming  an  elongated 
plexus,  which  may  act  as  a  sort  of  reservoir,  and  carry  onwards  a 
large  volume  of  blood.  The  relation  of  this  plexus  to  the  bulk  of  the 
limb  it  supplies  with  blood  is  greater,  in  point  of  volume,  than  that  ol 
the  simple  artery  in  ordinary  animals.  ,,    ,.    ,       ,      ,.        ,    v 

The  Slow-paced  Loris  [Stenope,  or  Nycticebus  tardigradus). 
—Fur  soft,  and  full ;  colour  brownish-grey,  a  deep  chestnut  stripe 
passing  down  the  middle  of  the  back ;   this  stripe,  continued  on  to 


Fig.  144. — Slow-paced  Loris. 

the  head,  gives  off  a  branch  which  encloses  each  ear,  and  another 
which  encircles  each  eye,  and  extends  to  the  angles  of  the  mouth  ; 
figure  short,  hind-limbs  longer  than  the  fore-limbs.  Eyes,  large, 
nocturnal,  with  transverse  pupils  ;  muzzle  short  and  pointed.  Length, 
twelve  or  thirteen  inches.     (See  Fig.  144.) 

The  Slender  Loris  (Loris,  or  Stenops  gracilis). — IMuzzle  pro- 
duced, slender,  acute;  figure  slight;  limbs  very  long,  thin,  and  meagre. 
General  colour  rufous-grey  ;  the  under  parts  whitish  ;  space  round 
the  eyes  dusky  ;  fur  soft ;  a  whitish  or  white  frontal  spot  points  to  the 
interval  between  the  eyes.     Length  of  head  and  body,  nine  inches. 

These  two  singular  animals  are  eminently  nocturnal  and  arboreal : 
they  sleep  during  the  day  on  their  perch,  in  a  crouching  attitude, 
■with  the  body  drawn  together,  and  the  head  doubled  down  upon  the 
chest.  At  night  they  prowl  among  the  forest  boughs  in  search  of 
food  ;  their  large  glaring  eyes  now  glow  with  peculiar  lustre  ;  not  an 
insect,  not  a  bird  escapes  their  scrutiny  :  they  mark  their  victim  ; 
stilly,  and  imperceptibly  as  the  minute-finger  traverses  the  dial-plate, 
do  they  advance  upon  their  prey ;  and  not  less  surely  does  the 
minute-finger  attain  a  given  mark  than  they  their  prey  :  when  it  is 
once  within  range  of  their  grasp,  they  seize  it  by  a  rapid  instantane- 
ous action.  Besides  birds,  insects,  and  eggs,  fruits  also  form  part 
of  their  diet. 

Of  all  the  LemuridcB  which  we  have  seen  alive,  none  appear  to  be 
so  susceptible  of  cold,  or  so  incommoded  by  daylight,  nor  are  any  so 
apparently  dull  and  inanimate  from  morning  till  evening.  They 
appear  as  if  in  a  state  of  continual  torpor  ;  yet  if  exposed  to  the  in- 
fluence of  warmth,  they  will  rouse  up,  not  only  on  the  approach  of 
twilight,  but  even  during  the  hours  of  day,  if  shielded  from  the  glare 
of  the  sun.     When  fairly  awake,  and  comfortably  warm,  they  delight 


to  clean  and  lick  their  full  soft  fur,  and  will  allow  themselves  to  be 
caressed  by  those  accustomed  to  feed  them. 

Mr.  Baird,  in  an  interesting  paper  in  the  "  Magazine  of  Nat. 
Hist."  vol.  i.,  1829,  remarks,  that  all  the  known  Mammalia  close  their 
eyelids  in  a  direction  upwards  and  downwards  ;  and,  in  general,  the 
upper  eyelid  is  the  one  possessing  the  greatest  degree  of  motion. 
He  found,  however,  that  in  his  Slow-paced  Lemur  the  eyelids  were 
brought  together  in  a  diagonal  direction,  or  outwards  and  inwards. 


Fig.  145. — Slender  Loris. 

which  gave  the  animal,  at  the  moment  of  shutting  its  eyes,  a  most 
peculiar  look.  It  was  the  under  or  outer  eyelid  that  had  the  greatest 
degree  of  motion,  the  upper  or  inner  one  being  almost  fixed ;  and  he 
concludes  that  the  orbicularis  ociili  must  be  very  powerful.  After 
the  death  of  the  animal,  and  when  Mr.  Baird  had  left  this  country 
on  a  second  voyage  to  India,  the  eye  was  dissected  by  Dr.  Knox, 
who  found  that  the  movement  of  the  eyelids  aBove  described  did  not 
depend  on  any  peculiar  structure,  but  merely  on  the  greater  degree 
of  strength  of  the  orbicularis  muscle. 

Mr.  Baird  also  observed  another  peculiarity  in  the  species.  "  Be- 
neath the  tongue  proper,"  says  he,  "  if  I  may  so  call  it,  which  is 
somewhat  like  that  of  the  Cat,  though  not  rough,  is  another  tongue, 
white-coloured,  narrow,  and  very  sharp-pointed,  which  he  projects 
along  with  the  other  one  when  he  eats  or  drinks,  though  he  has  the 
power  of  retaining  it  within  his  mouth  at  pleasure."  Mr.  Baird, 
however,  had  not  been  able  to  see  any  particular  purpose  to  which 
he  applied  it ;  but  he  saw  him  use  this  double  tongue  when  eating 
flies,  of  which  he  was  exceedingly  fond,  snapping  them  up  most 
eagerly  when  presented  to  him,  and  catching  them  himself  when 
they  were  reposing  in  the  evening  upon  the  walls  of  the  room. 

Pennant,  Vosmaer,  Sir  W.  Jones,  Mr.  Baird,  M.  d'Obsonville, 
and  others  have  published  detailed  observations  made  upon  Loris  in 
captivity,  and  their  accounts  coincide  with  the  facts  which  have 
come  under  our  own  notice. 

Vosmaiir's  specimen  (5.  tardigradus)  ate  fruits,  such  as  pears 
and  cherries,  with  relish  ;  and  also  dry  bread  and  biscuit ;  but  if 
dipped  in  water,  would  touch  neither.  When  offered  water,  it  smelt 
it,  but  drank  not.  Eggs  were  favourite  diet.  "  II  aimait  a  la  fureur 
les  ceufs,"  are  the  'words  of  Vosmaer,  who,  concluding  from  its 
appetite  for  eggs  that  it  would  eat  birds,  gave  it  a  live  Sparrow, 
which  it  instantly  killed  with  a  bite,  and  ate  the  whole  very  greedily. 
He  gave  it  a  live  Cockchafer,  to  try  whether  it  would  eat  insects  :  it 
took  the  offering  in  its  paw,  and  devoured  it  completely.  VosmaCr 
afterwards  gave  it  a  Chaffinch  (pin(;on)  which  it  ate  with  much 
relish,  and  afterwards  slept  for  the  remainder  of  the  day.  He  often 
saw  it  still  awake  at  two  hours  past  midnight ;  but  from  half-past  six 
in  the  morning  its  sleep  was  so  sound,  that  its  cage  might  be  cleaned 
without  disturbance  to  its  repose.  If  forcibly  awakened  during  the 
day  in  order  to  teaze  it,  it  was  vexed,  and  bit  the  stick  ;  but  with  a 
very  slow  motion,  repeating  the  cry,  Ai,  ai,  ai,  drawing  out  the  ai 
each  time  in  a  plaintive,  languid,  and  trembling  note,  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  reported  of  the  American  Sloths.  When  it  was  thus 
harassed  for  a  long  time,  and  thoroughly  roused,  it  crawled  two  or 
three  times  round  its  cage,  and  then  slept  again.  Mr.  Baird  imornis 
us  that  he  obtained  his  specimen  at  Pulo-Penang  (Prince  of  Wales 
Island) ;  and  at  the  time  he  wrote,  it  had  been  nearly  ten  months  in 
his  possession.  Its  food  consisted  of  fruit  and  small  animals,  such 
as  birds  and  mice.  The  plantain  was  the  fruit  of  which  it  was  tond, 
and  was  the  only  food  Mr.  Baird  saw  it  eat  when  he  first  got  it  into 
his  possession.  The  necks  of  fresh-killed  fowls  formed  the  major 
part  of  its  sustenance  during  the  voyage.  It  was  particularly  fond 
of  small  birds  :  these,  when  put  into  the  cage,  it  killed  speedily,  and 


63 


ASIATIC  AND  AFRICAN  LEMUROIDS. 


stripping  off  the  feathers,  soon  devoured  them,  eating  the  bones  as 
well  as  the  flesh.  Veal  was  preferred  to  all  other  butcher's  meat, 
and  it  was  fond  of  eggs  :  meat  boiled,  or  otherwise  cooked,  it  would 
not  touch.  Sugar  appeared  to  be  grateful  to  its  palate,  and  it  ate 
gum-arabic.  The  juice  of  oranges  was  also  greatly  relished  ;  and, 
unlike  Vosmaer's  specimen,  it  readily  fed  upon  bread  sopped  in 
water  and  sprinkled  with  sugar;  and  lapped  water  eagerly  like 
a  Cat. 

The  Asiatic  Lemuroids— Genus  TarjzwJ— Taesiers. 

The  Tarsiers,  of  which  few  species  are  known,  are  distinguished  by 
the  rounded  figure  of  the  head,  and  the  extreme  shortness  of  the 
muzzle  ;  by  the  enormous  size  of  the  eyes ;  and  the  extraordinary 
length  and  slenderness  of  the  hinder  limbs,  of  which  the  tarsus  is 
thrice  as  long  as  the  metatarsus.  The  fingers,  both  of  the  anterior 
and  posterior  limbs,  are  elongated  and  slender  ;  the  hind-thumb  is 
well  developed,  with  a  small  triangular  nail,  and  the  first  and  second 
fingers  are  furnished  with  small,  pointed,  narrow  claws.  The  ears 
are  large,  naked,  and  capable  of  being  folded.  Tail  long,  covered 
with  short  hair.  The  first  description  of  the  Tarsier  {T.  spectrutn) 
is  due  to  Daubenton,  who  gave  it  this  title,  in  allusion  to  the  length 


Fig.  146. — Teeth  of  Tarsiers. 

of  the  tarsi.  Gmelin,  misled  by  its  apparently  anomalous  structure, 
placed  it  in  his  genus  Didelphis  (the  receptacle  alike  of  Opossums 
and  Kangaroos),  under  the  name  of  D.  macroiarsus.  Pennant, 
misled  by  the  tarsi,  termed  it  the  Woolly  Gerboa.  M.  F.  Cuvier  con- 
siders its  dentition  fo  approximate  to  that  of  some  of  the  Bats. 

Dental  formula  (Fig.  146) : — Incisors,  1 ;    canines,    i^  ;    molars, 

2  I  —  I 

6-6  ^  i8 

6-6        i6' 

In  their  habits  the  Tarsiers  are  arboreal  and  decidedly  nocturnal, 
preying  on  birds,  eggs,  insects,  &c.  :  one  species  is  a  native  of  the 
Moluccas,  the  other  of  the  island  of  Banca. 

Mr.  Dallas  (already  quoted  at  p.  58,  ante)  makes  the  following 
remarks  on  the  comparison  that  subsists  between  the  Loris  and 
Tarsiers  : — The  TarsidcB  consist  of  insectivorous  animals,  charac- 
terised by  the  acute  tubercles  of  their  molars.  The  incisors  are  very 
variable  in  number  ;  the  canines  are  large  ;  the  nose  is  more  or  less 
pointed  ;  the  eyes  are  usually  very  large,  and  directed  forwards  ;  and 
the  ears  arc  large  and  membranous.  The  tail  is  long,  sometimes 
bushy,  and  occasionally  furnished  with  a  tuft  of  longer  hair  towards 
the  tip.  The  tarsus  in  these  animals  is  usually  of  considerable 
length  :  this  is  especially  the  case  in  the  typical  genus  Tarshcs, 
in  which  the  toes  of  the  hind-feet  vary  most  curiously  in  their 
development.  Both  the  fore  and  hind  feet  are  furnished  with 
opposable  thumbs.  In  the  genus  Otolicnus,  the  ears  are  exceedingly 
large,  like  those  of  the  Bats,  and  can  be  folded  down  in  the  same 
way.  These  are  all  nocturnal  animals,  of  small  size,  natives  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  Africa,  and  soiae  of  the  Indian  islands,  where  they 


live  in  the  forests,  and  climb  about  the  trees  at  night  in  search  of 
insects. 

A  second  family,  very  closely  allied  to  that  of  the  preceding,  is 
that  of  the  Nycticeoida;,  or  Loris,  which,  in  fact,  differ  from  the 
Tarsida:  principally  in  the  small  size  of  the  ears,  and  the  complete 
deficiency  of  the  tail.  They  are  also  remarkable  for  the  large  size 
of  the  eyes,  which  are  placed  close  together  on  the  front  of  the  head. 
There  are  only  two  known  species  of  this  family,  natives  of  India 
and  the  Indian  islands ;  they  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  very 
slow  in  their  movements — whence  the  name  of  Slow  Lemurs  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  them  ;  their  food  is  said  to  consist  of  small  birds 
and  insects,  which  they  are  able  to  capture  at  night,  notwithstand- 
ing the  extreme  slowness  of  their  movements. 

The  Banca  Tarsier  {Tarshis  Bancanus,  Horsf.). — This  species 
was  obtained  by  Dr.  Horsfield  in  Banca,  near  Jeboos,  one  of  the 
mining  districts,  where  it  inhabits  the  extensive  forests.  The  fur  is 
deep,  soft,  thick,  and  woolly,  enveloping  the  head,  body,  limbs,  and 


Fig.  147. — Banca  Tarsier. 

root  of  tail,  where  it  terminates  abruptly.  The  general  colour  is 
brown  inclining  to  grey,  especially  on  the  inside  of  the  limbs  and  the 
under  parts  ;  a  rufous  wash  appears  on  the  head  and  outer  surface 
of  the  limbs.  The  tail,  which  equals  the  head  and  body  in  length, 
is  nearly  naked,  except  at  its  base  :  towards  the  extremity  it  is 
covered  with  a  soft  down,  which  forms,  near  the  tip,  a  very  obscure 
tuft.  The  backs  of  the  hands  are  covered  with  a  very  soft  down  : 
the  palms  are  naked,  and  provided  with  several  prominent  cushions, 
calculated  to  assist  in  climbing  and  perching  with  safety  on  the 
branches.     (See  Fig.  147.) 

African  Lemuroida— Genus  Galago—lnY.  Galagos. 

The  Moholi  (Galago  Moholi). — We  select,  as  an  example  of 
the  genus  Galago  {Otolicmis,  111.),  the  Moholi  of  Southern  Africa. 
The  Galagos,  though  they  approach  the  Lemurs  in  the  dental 
characters,  differ  from  those  animals  in  many  well-marked  and 
important  points.  (See  Fig.  148.)  The  ears  are  large,  membranous, 
naked,  and,  as  in  the  long-eared  Bats,  capable  of  being  folded  down 
over  the  external  orifice.  The  posterior  limbs  are  greatly  developed, 
and  especially  at  the  tarsal  portion.  The  eyes  are  large  and  full ; 
the  head  is  round  ;  the  muzzle  pointed ;  the  tail  long  ;  the  fingers, 
both  of  the  fore  and  hind  hands,  long  and  slender,  with  the  usual 
sharp  claw  on  the  first  finger  of  the  hinder  pair.  The  fur  is  full, 
soft,  and  woolly.  The  skull  (Figs.  149  and  150)  is  more  globular,  and 
with  larger  orbits  than  we  find  in  the  Lemurs  :  it  is  more  elevated 
above,  and  broader. 

The  Galagos  are  nocturnal  animals  :  during  the  day  they  sleep  on 
the  branches,  their  ears  being  folded  down  ;  on  the  approach  of 
night  they  are  all  animation,  and,  with  ears  expanded  and  glistening 
eyes,  they  begin  their  prowl  for  food.  They  watch  the  insects  flitting 
among  the  leaves  :  they  listen  to  the  buzzing  of  their  wings  amidst 
the  foliage,  and  dart  upon  the  incautious  fluttererwith  great  activity. 
In  addition  to  insects,  they  feed  on  fruits  and  gum  ;  and  one  species 
is  abundant  in  certain  gunitforcsts  m  the  great  desert  of  Sahara. 


MADAGASCAR  LEMURS— THE  A  YE- A  YE. 


The  Moholi  was  found,  by  Dr.  Smith,  close  to  the  Limpopo  river, 
in  about  25°  S.  lat.  He  observed  these  animals  spring-ing-  from 
branch  to  branch,  and  from  tree  to  tree,  T\ith  extraordinary  facility. 
In  their  manner  they  considerably  resembled  the  Monkeys,  par- 
ticularly in  grimaces  aud  gesticulations.  According  to  the  natives, 
the  species  is  entirely  nocturnal,  and  rarely  to  be  seen  during  the 


63 


Genus  Chiromys,  or  Cheiromys—TwE.  Aye-Aye. 

The  genus  Chiromys  was  established  by  Cuvier  for  the  reception 
of  that  cxtraordmary  animal  the  Aye-Aye,  respecting  the  affinities  of 
which  so  many  conllicting  opinions  have  iDcen  advanced. 


rig.  148. — Moholi. 

day,  which  the  animal  spends  in  the  nest.  This  it  forms  in  the 
forks  of  branches  or  in  cavities  of  decayed  trees  ;  and  in  these  nests, 
constructed  of  soft  grass,  the  females  bring  forth  and  rear  their 
young  (generally  two  at  a  birth).  Dr.  Smith  states  that  the  food  of 
the  Moholi  consists  principally  of  pulpy  fruits,  though  there  is  reason 
to  believe  it  also  consumes  insects,  as  remains  of  the  latter  were  dis- 
covered in  the  stomachs  of  several  individuals  which  he  examined. 
Dr.  Smith,  for  the  reasons  stated  in  his  work,  considers  this  anima) 


Fig.  149.— Skull  of  Moholi. 

different  from  Galago  Senegalensis.  He  gives  an  elaborate  anato- 
mical description,  and  good  figures,  of  the  more  important  and 
interesting  parts  of  this  animal. 

The  general  colour  is  grey,  with  wavy  or  bnndled  markings  of  a 
darker  tint,  and  the  limbs  are  washed  with  yellow;  unde"r-parts 
white;  tail  red-brown;  ears  flesh-coloured.  Length  from  nose  to 
tip  of  tail,  si.xteen  inches. 

The  preceding  are  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  Lerauroids  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  resembling  the  Madagascar  Lemurs. 


Fig.  150. — B.ise  of  Skull  of  Moholi  and  Lower  Jaw,  natural  size. 

The  Aye-Aye  {Chironzys  Madagascarintsis)  is  a  native  of 
Madagascar,  where  it  appears  to  be  extremely  rare,  and  chiefly,  if 
not  exclusively,  restricted  to  the  western  part  :  most  probably  it 
tenants  remote  solitudes  seldom  visited  by  the  natives,  and  never  by 
Europeans.  It  was  discovered  by  Sonncrat,  and  described  by  him 
in  his  "  Voyage  aux  Indes  "  (Paris  1781). 

Sonnerat  regarded  the  Aye-Aye  (so  called,  like  one  of  the  Sloths 
from   its    cry)    as  allied   to   the   Lemurs,   the  Monkeys,   and    the 
Squirrels ;  and  subsequent  writers  have  taken  opposite  views,  ac- 
cording as  they  have  been  biassed  by  one  part  of  its  organisation 
or  another,  or  according  to  their  ideas  of  the  respective  value  of 
characters,  deduced  from  one  set  of  organs  or  another.     Pennant 
Gmelin,   Cuvier,    Fleming,    and     Swainson,   place    it    among    the 
Rodents;  Linnaeus  and  Schreber  regard  it  as  a  Lemur.     (See  Fig- 
152-) 

M_.  de  Blainville,  in  his  pamphlet  "  Sur  quelques  Anomalies  de 
systeme  Dentair,"  &c  ,  observes,  that  notwithstanding  the  Rodent- 
like character  of  its  organisation,  its  manners  and  habits  prove  it  to 
be  a  true  Lemur,  having  absolutely  no  relationship  with  the  Rodents, 
no  aflSnity  to  them,  in  spite  of  all  that  many  naturalists  have*" 
imagined  ;  and,  after  a  careful  examination  of  the  specimen  and 
skull,  we  coincide  in  this  opinion. 

The  teeth  consist  only  of  incisors  and  molars  (see  skull.  Fig.  i";i): 
the  incisors  are  two  in  each  jaw,  strong  and  powerful :  those' below 
are  compressed  laterally,  but  are  deep  from  back  to  front ;    their 
roots  are  carried  backwards  each  in  an  alveolus,  or  socket,  e'xtend- 
ing  almost  the  whole  length  of  the  ramus  of  the  jaw ;  they  are 
acutely  pointed,  their  apex  resembling  a  ploughshare.     These  teeth 
strongly  remind  one  of  the  huge  curved  canines  in  the  lower  jaw  of 
the  Hippopotamus.     The  upper  incisors  are  not  so  obliquely  pointed, 
and  are  also  smaller  than  the  lower.     Between  the  incisors  and  the 
molars  an  unoccupied  space  intervenes.     The  molars  are  four  on 
each  side  above,  three  below,  small,  and  of  simple  structure.     The 
head  is  moderate  and  rounded,  and  the  muzzle  is  rather  short  and 
pointed.     The  eyes  are  very  large  and  nocturnal.     The  osseous  ring 
of  the  orbits  is  complete  (Fig.  151).    The  ears  are  large  ;  andobscure 
furrows  on  their  internal  aspect,  seem  to  denote  that,  as  in  many 
Bats,  they  are  capable  of  being  folded  down  :  they  are,  in  fact,  Bat- 
like, black,  naked,  and  smooth. 

The  fore-paws  have  each  five  fingers  ;  that  whicTi  represents  the 
thumb  is  short,  and  arises  beyond  the  base  of  the  rest ;  these  are 
long  and  slender:  the  middle  finger  is  very  thin,  but  it  is  exceeded 
in  length  by  the  third  or  ring  finger ;  the  thumb  is  not  opposable, 
and,  like  the  other  fingers,  is  furnished  with  a  strong,  sharp,  hooked 


64 


THE  AYE-AYE— THE  FLYING  LEMURS. 


claw.  The  arms  are  short  in  proportion  to  the  posterior  limbs  ;  the 
latter  being  long,  and  terminating  in  prehensile  feet.  The  thumb  is 
well  developed  and  protected  by  a  flat  nail :  the  toes  are  of  mode- 
rate length  and  shortness ;  but  the  first  is  the  shortest,  and,  as  in  the 


Fig.  151.— Skull  of  Aye- Aye. 

Lemurs,  is  armed  with  a  straight  pointed  claw;  the  rest  have 
large  hooked  claws.  The  tail  is  long  and  bushy,  with  coarse  black 
or  brownish-black  hairs :  the  general  colour  is  ferruginous-brown, 
passing  into  grey  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  throat,  and  belly  ; 


Fig.  152. — Aye-Aye. 

the  feet  are  nearly  black.  Beneath  the  brown  outer-coat  there  is,  on 
the  back  and  limbs,  a  fine  thick  under-coat  of  soft  yellow  wool,  which 
appears  more  or  less  through  the  outer.     In  the  female  the  teats  are 


two,  and  ventral.  Length  of  head  and  body,  i  foot  6  inches ;  the 
tail  being  nearly  the  same. 

According  to  Sonnerat,  who  kept  two  of  these  animals,  a  male 
and  female,  in  captivity,  it  would  appear  that  the  habits  of  the  Aye- 
Aye  are  nocturnal.  By  day  they  see  with  difiicultv,  and  the  eyes, 
which  are  of  an  ochre  colour,  resemble  those  of  an  Owl.  Timid  and 
inoffensive,  they  pass  the  day  in  sleep,  and  when  roused  up  their 
motions  are  slow,  like  those  of  the  Loris  :  they  have  also  the  same 
fondness  for  warmth  ;  their  thick  fur,  indeed,  sufliciently  proves  their 
impatience  of  cold.  During  the  day  the  Aye-Aye  conceals  itself  in 
its  secluded  retreat — some  hole  or  excavation — whence  it  issues  forth 
on  the  approach  of  darkness  in  quest  of  food  ;  its  diet  consists  of 
buds  and  fruits,  together  with  insects  and  their  larva;  ;  for  the  latter 
it  searches  the  crevices  and  bark  of  trees,  drawing  them  forth  by 
means  of  its  long  finger,  and  so  conveying  them  to  its  mouth.  Son- 
nerat kept  his  specimens  alive  for  two  months,  feeding  them  upon 
boiled  rice,  in  taking  up  which  they  used  their  long  slender  fingers, 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Chinese  do  their  chop-sticks.  Son- 
nerat remarks  that,  during  the  whole  of  the  time  these  animals 
lived,  he  never  observed  them  set  up  their  long  bushy  tail,  like  a 
Squirrel,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  was  always  kept  trailing  at 
length. 

Considering  the  length  of  time  that  has  intervened  since  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Aye-Aye  by  Sonnerat,  and  visited  as  the  island  of  Ma- 
dagascar has  been  by  Europeans,  it  is  somewhat  strange  that  no 
additional  specimens,  beyond  the  one  that  Sonnerat  deposited  in  the 
museum  at  Paris,  have  been  obtained,  until  about  twelve  years  ago, 
when  Mr.  Mellish,  while  visiting  Madagascar,  procured  a  living 
specimen,  which  he  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 
But  it  only  survived  its  arrival  in  England  for  a  few  months.  The 
animal  is  now  among  the  stuffed  specimens  in  the  Society's  museum. 


Genus  Ga!eoJ>iihecus—Tn^  COLUGOS, 
OR  Flying  Lemurs. 

This  genus  contains  those  strange  animals 
the  Colugos,  called  Flying  Lemurs,  Flying 
Cats,  Flying  Foxes,  &c.,  by  voyagers.  The 
first  notice  of  the  Colugo  is  by  Bontius,  who 
terms  it  "  Vespertilio  admirabilis."  It  was 
afterwards  figured  by  Seba,  under  the  name 
of  Felt's  volatis  Ternaiatius  :  Linnaeus  subse- 
quently placed  it  among  the  Lemurs,  under 
the  title  of  Lemur  volans.  Cuvier  places  it  at 
the  end  of  the  Bats.  The  query  then  at  once 
arises — to  what  group  is  the  Colugo  to  be  re- 
ferred ?  M.  Geoffroy,  who  denies  its  relation- 
ship to  the  Bats,  observes  that  it  is  still  less  a 
Lemur,  and  that  its  head  is  altogether  that  of 
a  true  "  Carnassier."  Notwithstanding  this 
authority,  in  our  views  its  afiinities,  inter- 
mediate as  they  may  be  between  the  Lemurs 
and  other  groups,  place  it  within  the  pale  of 
the  Lemurine  family. 

The  Colugo  is  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a 
Cat,  furnished  with  an  extensive  parachute 
consisting  of  a  lateral  membrane,  not  only 
between  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs,  but 
also  between  the  posterior  limbs,  so  as  to  in- 
clude the  tail,  which  is  of  considerable  length  : 
the  fingers  of  the  fore-paws  are  also  included 
in  this  extensive  membranous  expansion.  The 
whole  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  and 
lateral  membranes  is  covered  with  woolly  fur, 
but  the  under  surface  is  nearly  naked.  The 
parachute  is  capable  of  being  folded  up  ;  but 
when  on  the  stretch  for  action  it  forms  a 
wide  expanse,  not,  indeed,  endowing  its  pos- 
sessor with  true  powers  of  flight,  but  en- 
abling it  to  take  long  sweeping  leaps  from 
tree  to  tree  with  the  utmost  facility,  in  a 
manner  similar  to  other  Monkeys,  as  the 
Gibbons,  &c.  (See  Fig.  153;  and  Fig.  138, 
at  page  58,  ante.') 

The  general  aspect  of  the  head  is   Lemu- 
rine :  the  muzzle  is  produced  ;  the  nostrils  are 
lateral,  naked,  and  sinuous ;  the  eyes  mode- 
rate ;  the  ears  short  and  pointed.    The  anterior 
limbs  are  long  :  the  hands  are  divided  into  five 
fingers  ;    the  first,  or  thumb,   separated  from 
the  rest,  though  not  antagonising  with  them, 
is  short ;  the  remaining  four  are  nearly  equal ; 
all  are  armed,   not  with  flat  nails,   but   with 
large,  deep,  hooked,  sharp-edged,  and  retractile  claws.     The  hinder 
limbs    slightly  exceed  the  fore-limbs  in  length,  and  the  feet  are 
similar  in  character  to  the  fore-hands. 


THE  FLYING  LEMURS. 


6S 


Cuvier  gives   the   dental   formula   as    follows  : — Incisors, 
o— o  6—6 

canines,       „  ;    molars, 


Fred 

4  _     _  _     - 

^;  canines, ^3^  ;  molars,  ^^—^  =  34.  (See  Fig.  154.)  Mr.  Water- 
house,  whose  excellent  paper  on  the  skull  of  the  Colugo  is  in  the 
"Zoological  Transactions,"  vol.  ii.,  gives  the  dentition  thus  : — 

Incisors,  5JIr  ;    canines,    ^^— ;    false  molars,  ?^^  ;   true  molars, 
4  I- I  2-2 

1-A  = 
4-4 

The  upper  incisors  are  placed  laterally  in  pairs,  with  a  wide  inter- 
val between  each  pair,  occupying  the  anterior  part  of  the  jaw :  the 


34- 


length,  and  its  skull  was  2  inches  iij  linos  in  length.  The  anterior 
mcisor  of  the  upper  jaw  is  broad,  and  divided  by  two  notches  into 
three  distinct  lobes ;  the  ne.\t  incisor  on  each  side  has  its  anterior 
and  posterior  margins  notched  ;  and  the  first  molar  (or  the  tooth 
which  occupies  the  situation  of  the  canine)  has  its  posterior  edge 


F'g-  IS3-— Colugo. 

first  IS  small,  compressed  and  jagged,  or  pectinated  ;  the  second  is 
similar,  but  somewhat  larger.  The  two  false  molars  above  rise  up 
with  sharp  points  ;  the  molars  are  crowned  with  acute  insectivorous 
tubercles.  The  lower  incisors  are  deeply  and  finely  pectinate. 
(Figs.  156,  158,  Nos.  4  and  5.)    The  canines  are  serrated. 


Fig.  154.— Teeth  of  Colugo. 

Some  naturalists  have  considered  the  species  of  Colugo  to  be 
three  ;  while  Fischer  and  others  recognise  only  one,  varying  in 
colour  according  to  age  or  sex.  It  has,  however,  been  demonstrated 
by  Mr.  Waterhouse,  from  a  rigorous  investigation  of  a  series  of 
skulls,  that  there  are  tw'o  distinct  species  ;  and  at  one  of  the  scien- 
tific tpeetings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  he  pointed  out 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  with  illustrations. 

The  first  and  larger  species  measured  about  two  feet  m  total 


Fig.  155. — Skull  of  Galcopithecus  Tcmmincldi. 

distinctly  notched.  This  tooth  is  separated  by  a  narrow  space, 
anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  from  the  second  incisor  in  front  and  the 
second  molar  behind  ;  the  temporal  ridges  converge  towards  the 
occiput,  near  which,  however,  he  observed,  they  are  separated 
usually  by  a  space  of  about  four  lines.    This  is  probably  the  Galco- 


Fig.  156.— Lower  Jaw  and  Teeth  of  GaUopitlucus  Tmmiiukii, 
^ithecus  volans  of  authors  ;  but  the  identity  cannot  be  said  to  be 

The  second   species,  G.  Philippinensis,  was   described  by  Mr. 
Waterhouse  as  being  usually  about  twenty  inches  m  length,  and  it3 


66 


THE  FLYING  LEMURS— QUADRUMANOUS  FOSSILS. 


skull  as  measuring  two  inches  seven  lines  in  length.  He  observed, 
that  this  species  may  be  distinguished  from  G.  Temminckiihy  the 
proportionately  larger  ears,  and  the  greater  length  of  the  hands. 
The  skull,  too,  he  described  as  narrower  in  proportion  to  its  length, 
the  muzzle  as  broader  and  more  obtuse,  and  the  orbit  as  smaller. 
The  temporal  ridges,  he  remarked,  generally  meet  near  the  occiput, 
or  are  separated  by  a  very  narrow  space.  The  anterior  incisor  of 
the  upper  jaw  is  narrow,  and  has  but  one  notch  ;  the  next  incisor  on 
each  side  is  considerably  larger,  longer,  and  stronger  than  in  G. 
Tcnuninc!;!!,  and  differs,  moreover,  in  having  its  edges  even  :  the 
same  remark  applies  to  the  first  false  molar.  In  this  species  the 
incisors  and  molars  form  a  continuous  series,  each  tooth  being  in 
contact  with  that  which  precedes  and  that  which  is  behind  it.  But 
Mr.  Waterhouse  concluded  by  observing,  that  the  most  important 
difference,  perhaps,  which  exists  between  the  two  species  in  question, 


Fig.  157. — Skull  of  Cahopithccus  Philippinensh. 

consists  in  the  much  larger  size  of  the  molar  teeth  in  the  smaller 
skull,  the  five  posterior  molars  occupying  a  space  of  ten  lines  in 
length,  whereas  in  G.  Tennniiickii,  a  much  larger  animal,  the  same 
teeth  only  occupy  nine  lines.  Several  minor  points  of  distinction 
existed  besides  tliose  here  mentioned. 


Fig.  15S. — Lower  Jaw  and  Teeth  of  Galcopithcctis  Philippinmsis. 

If  the  reader  will  examine  Figs.  155,  156,  157,  15?,  he  will  be 
enabled  to  compare  the  form  of  the  skull,  and  the  variations  in  the 
characters  of  the  teeth  presented  by  these  two  species  respectively. 


Fig.  155  represents  the  skull  of  the  Galeopithecus  Tcmminckii ;  a, 
as  seen  from  above  ;  b,  as  seen  from  below.  Fig.  156  represents  the 
lower  jaw  and  teeth  of  the  same  species  {G.  Tcmminckii)  :  i,  the 
under  side  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  2,  side  view  of  the  same  ;  3,  the  three 
foremost  teeth  on  cither  side  of  the  upper  jaw;  4,  5,  outer  and  inner 
incisors  of  the  lower  jaw.  Fig.  157  rapresents  the  skull  of  G.  Pliilip- 
^ii!e7isis :  a,  the  upper  side  ;  h,  the  under  side.  Fig.  158  represents 
the  lower  jaw  and  teeth  of  the  same  species  ((?.  Philippinensis): 
I,  under  side  of  the  lower  jaw;  2,  side  view  of  the  same;  3,  the 
three  foremost  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  ;  4,  5,  outer  and  inner  incisors 
of  the  lower  jaw.  If  these  skulls  and  teeth  be  compared,  so  many 
and  important  distinctions  will  be  perceived,  that  all  doubt  as  to  the 
correctness  of  the  views  entertained  by  Mr.  Waterhouse  will  be 
dissipated. 

These  strange  and  perplexing  animals  are  natives  of  the  Moluccas, 
Philippines,  and  various  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  In  their 
habits  they  are  arboreal  and  nocturnal,  and  feed,  as  it  is  supposed, 
upon  fruits,  insects,  eggs,  and  birds.  During  the  day  they  remain 
in  the  depths  of  the  forests,  suspended  like  a  Bat  from  the  branches, 
with  the  head  downwards,  and  clinging  by  the  hinder  claws,  im- 
mersed in  tranquil  sleep.  At  night  they  rouse  up,  are  active  in  tra- 
versing the  trees  in  every  direction,  and  sweeping  from  one  to  another 
with  great  address,  in  search  of  food.  Though  of  a  disagreeable 
odour,  their  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  natives.  The  females  are  said  to 
produce  two  young  at  birth,  which  adhere  to  the  teats  of  their 
parent.  Camelli,  in  a  MS.  on  the  subject  in  the  British  Museum, 
asserts  the  female  to  have  a  double  abdominal  pouch,  in  which  the 
young  are  carried ;   but  in  this  statement  he  is  certainly  erroneous. 

Fossils  of  the  Quadrumana. 

It  is  only  very  recently  that  the  fossil  relics  of  quadrumanous 
animals  have  been  discovered ;  previously  to  this  discovery,  the 
Qiiadriiinana  were  regarded  as  having  no  fossil  prototypes.  In  1836, 
M.  Lartet  announced  his  discovery  of  the  fossil  bones  of  a  large 
Monkey,  consisting  of  a  lower  jaw  with  its  dentition  complete,  a 
molar  tooth  with  four  tubercles,  a  bone  of  one  of  the  fingers,  a 
portion  of  the  thigh  bone,  together  with  the  bones  of  the  instep,  &c. 
They  were  found  at  Sanson,  two  leagues  south  of  Auch  (in  the 
department  of  Gers),  in  a  tertiary  formation  extending  from  the  south 
of  Auch  to  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  apparently  the  result  of  a 
long  succession  of  water  alluvia.  From  the  characters  of  the  denti- 
tion, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  animal  belonged  to  one  of  the 
Old  World  sections  of  the  SimicB — namely,  the  Gibbons  {Hylobaies) ; 
if  indeed  it  be  not  the  representative  of  a  genus  no  longer  extant. 
M.  Lartet  has  named  this  iossW  species  Piihecus  a?2iiquits.  With 
these  relics  occurred  those  also  of  the  Mastodon,  Rhinoceros,  Dino- 
therium,  Pateotherium,  &c.  Within  the  last  few  years,  the  fossil 
relics  of  three  species  of  Ape  or  Monkey  have  been  discovered  in  the 
Sewalik  hills,  a  portion  of  sub-Himalayan  range,  imbedded  in  a 
tertiary  stratum.  Two  of  these  species  are  due  to  the  researches  of 
Captains  Falconer  and  Cautley,  and  one  to  the  labours  of  Lieu- 
tenants Baker  and  Duvaud.  Of  these  fossil  Simiada,  one,  as  the 
fragments  indicate,  exceeded  in  size  any  living  species  of  the  present 
day :  the  second  was  also  a  large  animal,  superior  to  the  Entellus 
Monkey  in  size  ;  the  third  appears  to  have  been  about  equal  to  the 
Entellus,  and  was  probably  an  Orang. 

In  the  basin  of  the  Rio  des  Velhas,  in  South  America,  Dr.  Lund, 
a  Swedish  naturalist,  has  discovered  the  fossil  remains  of  extinct 
Qiiadruma7ia  ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  they  belong  to  a 
form  closely  related  to  that  of  the  existing  American  Monkeys,  termed 
Sapajous  (see  a?ite,  p.  51) :  but  the  animals  must  have  far  exceeded 
any  living  species.  The  larger,  indeed,  must  have  been  upwards  of 
four  feet  in  height.  Dr.  Lund  terms  it  ProfopitJieais  Brasilieiisis  : 
the  other,  and  smaller,  he  terms  Callithrix  ^primaviis.  We  have, 
then,  evidences  of  the  existence  of  Quadrumana  at  a  remote  epoch, 
in  continental  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  ;  but  what  is  more  un- 
expected, we  have  proof  that,  at  some  era,  ihe^  existed  in  our  island 
(if  then  an  island),  when,  as  we  may  imagine,  its  surface  was  very 
different  from  what  it  now  appears. 

The  first  example,  a  portion  of  the  lower  jaw,  containing  the  last 
molar  teeth,  was  found,  with  the  teeth  of  Sharks  (in  1837),  '"  ^  deep 
layer  of  whitish  sand,  beneath  a  stratum  of  blue  clay  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Deben,  at  Kingston,  near  Woodbridge,  in  Suffolk.  This 
bed  of  clay  is  in  many  places  overlaid  by  crag,  and  may  probably  be 
assigned  to  the  age  of  the  London  clay.  In  the  stratum  of  sand,  the 
fossil  teeth  and  portions  of  the  lower  jaw  of  an  Opossum  were  also 
discovered.  (See  "Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,"  1839,  pp.  448,  450.)  The 
extinct  Monkey,  as  proved  by  the  characters  of  the  molar  tooth,  be- 
longed to  the  genus  Macacns  {see  ante,  ^.  44),  or  at  least  to  a  genus 
very  closely  related  to  it.  The  tooth,  it  may  be  observed,  is  some- 
what narrower  than  in  any  recent  species  of  Ilacacus ;  but  the  pos- 
terior fifth  tubercle  presents,  as  in  most  of  that  group,  two  cusps, 
instead  of  being  simple,  as  in  the  genus  Semno^ithecus.  (See 
ante,  p.  38.) 

In  the  "  Annals  of  Natural  History,"  Nov.,  1839,  Professor  Owen 
describes  a  second  tooth  found  in  the  same  locality,  which  he  identi- 


THE  CHIROPTERA,   OR  BATS. 


67 


fies  as  the  second  molar  of  a  Macaque  ;  and  from  being  well  worn,  it 
is  evident  that  the  individual  to  which  it  belonged  was  aged  at  the 
time  of  its  death.  It  differs  from  the  corresponding  tooth  of  a  recent 
Macaque,  in  having  a  slight  ridge  along  the  base  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  crown  ;  and  the  same  character  occurs  also  in  the  molar 
previously  alluded  to,  and  which  was  rigorously  examined  by  the 
same  philosophic  anatomist.  M.  d'Orbigny's  remark  respecting  the 
beds  above  the  chalk  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Meudon,  seems  appli- 
cable in  the  present  case,  viz.— "That  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
plastic  clay,  new  features  are  discovered  to  obtain,  demonstrating,  in 
an  especial  manner,  that  various  genera  of  mammals  were  living  at 
the  epoch  when  that  layer  was  formed." 
That  the  Siinioi  should  have  existed  in  our  latitudes  at  the  time  of 


the  deposition  of  the  London  clay  is  not  surprising,  when  wc  con- 
sider the  tropical  character  of  the  fossil  fruits  so  abundant  in  that 
deposit :  we  say  London  clay  (as  the  geologists  designate  it),  because 
the  blue  stratum,  beneath  which  the  fossil  teeth  were  found,  belongs 
undoubtedly  to  that  formation.  Mr.  Wood,  in  reference  to  one  of 
these  relics,  obsen^es,  "As  this  fossil  certainly  belongs  to  some 
quadrumanous  animal,  there  is  no  formation  to  which  it  could  be  so 
appropriately  assigned  as  that  of  the  London  clay ;  the  tropical 
character  of  the  Fauna  as  well  as  the  Flora  of  that  period  being  such 
as  to  justify  an  assumption  of  a  warmer  climate  quite  suitable  to  the 
existence  of  our  Macacus."  Besides  the  teeth  of  animals  of  the 
Monkey  tribe,  a  fragment  of  the  jaw  of  an  Opossum,  in  which  one  of 
the  false  molars  is  retained,  has  been  discovered  in  the  same  deposit. 


CHAPTEK    VII. 

MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CHIROPTERA,  OR  CHEIROPTERA— BATS. 


A>;*s 


^. 


IV/ 


jS3 


,  '  Ji  ^!/^ 


'^^ 


ENOTED  by  one  peculiarity,  the 
Bats  form  a  distinct  order  of  the 
Mammalia  ;  that  is,  from  their  power 
of  flying  in  the  air.  In  the  last  chap- 
ter we  have  drawn  attention  to  the  Flying 
Lemur,  and  have  pointed  out  its  relation  to 

the    Chiro;ptera,    or    hand-viinged    animals. 

\Ve  thus  notice  a  gradual  transition  from  the 
Quadrmiiajia — which  are  entirely,  as  a  habit, 
terrestrial  animals — to  the  Bats,  which  are  chiefly 
aerial  in  their  habits,  the  Lemurs  forming  a  con- 
necting link. 

In  dealing  with  this  order  we  shall  first  quote 
the  remarks  of  Mr.  W.  S.  Dallas,  as  given  in 
the  "  Circle  of  the  Sciences."  The  order  in- 
cludes those  species  of  the  Mammalia  in  which 
the  general  characters  of  the  groups  are  most 
singularly  modified,  so  as  to  adapt  them  for  the 
exercise  of  the  power  of  flight,  of  which  they 
alone,  of  all  the  Mammalia,  are  possessed. 
In  three  other  groups  of  this  class,  we  meet  with 
animals  to  which  the  appellation  of  flying  has 
been  given  ;  but  these  only  possess  the  power  of 
gliding  through  the  air  by  the  agency  of  an  ex- 
panded skin  which  serves  to  buoy  them  ;  their 
aerial  motion,  consequently,  differs  only  in  ex- 
tent from  the  spring  of  an  ordinary  mammal. 
In  the  Chiroptera,  on  the  contrary,  the  anterior 
members  are  as  completely  organised  for  true 
flight  as  are  those  of  a  bird. 

This  will  be  evident  from  an  examination  of 
the  following  cut,  in  which  the  special  organisa- 
tion of  the  Bat,  in  regard  to  flying,  is  illustrated. 

It  will  be  instructive  to  the  student  of  Natural 
History,  to  compare  the  different  portions  of  this 
skeleton  with  that  of  the  human  species,  given  at 
page  2,  Fig.  i  ;  that  of  the  Camel,  at  page  5, 
Fig.  14 ;  and  that  of  a  species  of  Bat,  described 
and  illustrated  by  Fig.  50,  at  page  15,  ante,  where 


the  various  powers  of  locomotion  of  Mammalia 
are  entered  into  generally. 

The  Bats  are  really  flying  Insectivora  :  in  the 
air  they  pass  the  active  portion  of  their  exist- 
ence, and  revel  in  the  exercise  of  their  faculties. 
Their  organs  of  flight,  however,  consist  not,  as 
in  the  bird,  of  stiff  feathers  disposed  in  order 
and  based  upon  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  but 
of  a  large  thin  membrane  stretched  over  and 
between  the  limbs,  to  which  the  bones  act  as 
stretchers,  like  the  strips  of  whalebone  in  an 
umbrella,  the  tail  in  many  species  assisting  also, 
as  illustrated  by  Fig.  159,  below.  Of  this  mem- 
brane the  bones  of  the  arms  and  hands  are  the 
principal  supporters  and  levers  of  motion — we 
say  hands,  because,  though  not  graspers,  such 
must  the  anatomist  consider  them.  All  these 
bones,  those  of  the  carpus  excepted,  are  slender 
and  remarkably  elongated  ;  and  here  we  refer  to 
the  skeleton  of  the  Bat  (Fig.  160).  The  hume- 
rus, f,  is  long  and  slender,  but  much  more  so 
is  the  radius,  g,  the  only  complete  bone  of  the  fore-arm,  the 
ulna,  h,  being  reduced  to  a  mere  rudiment.  The  carpus,  i,  con- 
sists of  six  bones  in  two  rows,  the  first  row  having  two,  the  second 
row  four  bones,  on  which  are  based  the  metacarpal  bones  of  the 
thumb,  /',  and  of  the  fingers,  /.  These  bones  of  the  fingers  are 
very  slender   and    of  extraordinary  length,   diverging    from   each 


Fig.  159. — Skeleton  of  a  Bat, 

cl,  ckivicle  ;  7i,  humenis  ;  en,  ulna ;  r,  radius  ;  ca,  carpus ;  /;',  thumb  ; 
mc,  metacarpus  ;  ///,  phalanges  ;   0,  scapula ;  /,  femur ;  //,  tibi.i. 

other  as  they  proceed.  They  are,  however,  movable  upon  the  meta- 
carpus, and  are  not  only  capable  of  closing  together,  but  of  bcmg 
folded  down  in  contact  with  the  fore-arm.  The  phalanges,  or  true 
finger-bones,  m,  carry  on  the  elongation  of  th.s  framework  and 
taper  to  a  point,  like  the  extremity  of  an  anghng-rod  unfurnished 
with  nails  or  claws.  These  fingers  are  essential,  not  0"'y  ^°r JfJ^H 
out  the  wing  to  a  due  distance,  but  for  keeping  its  margins  stretched 
out,  and  fo?  folding  it  down  when  requisite.  In  some  genera  the 
first  finger  consists  but  of  one  very  fine  bone  ;_  the  second  hnger  con- 
sists of  three  :  occasionally  the  first  finger  is  tipped  with  a  very 


68 


THE  SKELETON  OF  THE  BATS. 


small  hook-like  nail.  The  thumb,  /•,  is  free,  and  usually  short,  con- 
sisting of  a  metacarpal  and  two  digital  bones,  the  last  of  which  is 
armed  with  a  strong  hooked  claw.  Such  then  is  the  hand  of  the 
Bat,  essentially  an  apparatus  for  flight.  Thus  designed  and  con- 
structed, rotation  of  the  fore-arm  would  not  only  be  an  unnecessary, 
but  indeed  an  inconsistent    endowment ;    its  motion,  therefore,  is 


Fig.  l6o. — Skeleton  of  Bat, 

simply  hinge-like,  while  that  of  the  shoulder  is,  to  a  great  extent, 

rotatory.  ,  ,       •  ^.i. 

It  will  easily  be  conceived  that  a  membrane  so  extensive  as  the 
wing  of  the  Bat,  will  require,  for  its  effective  movements,  an  extraor- 
dinary development  of  the  muscles  which  govern  it.  That  part  of 
the  skeleton,  therefore,  on  which  these  muscles  are  fixed  is  accord- 
ingly modified  (see  Fig.  i6o)  ;  the  clavicles,  d,  and  scapula;,  e,  are  of 
great  magnitude  and  strength  ;  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  though 
narrow,  has  a  keel-like  elevation  along  its  anterior  surface,  analo- 
gous to  what  is  seen  in  birds,  while  its  upper  end  is  developed  into  a 
manubrium,  a,  for  the  support  of  the  large  clavicles,  which  are  thus 
thrown  far  laterally,  the  pectoral  muscles  being  at  the  same  time 
exceedingly  voluminous  ;  indeed  the  whole  of  the  osseous  and  mus- 
cular structure  of  the  Bat  is  concentrated  upon  its  organs  of  flight. 
The  hinder  limbs  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  organs  of  locomotion  ; 
they  principally  serve,  in  conjunction  with  the  tail  where  present,  to 
keep  the  membrane  duly  expanded— they  are  therefore  comparatively 
feeble  :  the  toes  are  five  in  number,  and  armed  with  sharp  hooked 
claws,  by  which  the  animal  suspends  itself  while  at  rest  in  its  re- 
treat. When  with  folded  wings 
the  Bat  attempts  to  proceed 
along  a  level  surface,  its  move- 
ments, though  tolerably  quick, 
are  awkward  and  shuffling  ;  and 
it  uses  the  claw  of  its  thumb 
as  a  hook  for  catching  hold  of 
any  irregularities  in  order  to  drag 
itself  along  :  hence,  on  a  smooth 
polished  surface  it  is  greatly 
embarrassed  ;  but  in  the  hollows 
of  trees,  in  the  crevices  of  ma- 
sonry, and  in  rough  chinks  or 
fissures,  it  can  climb  and  crawl 
about  with  considerable  facility, 
as  also  about  the  wire-work  of 
a  cage,  as  we  have  often  wit- 
nessed. The  ground,  however, 
is  not  the  destined  province  of 
the  Bat— the  air  is  its  home  ;  it 
is  here  that  these  singular  crea- 
tures are  all  alertness,  pursuing 
their  insect  prey,  and  uttering 
their  short  sharp  cry  as  they 
wheel  in  circling  flights,  or  per- 
form their  abrupt  and  zigzag 
evolutions.  r    .     t) 

Professor  Owen,  in  remarking  on  the  skeleton  of  the  Bats,  con- 
siders that  the  form  of  limb  presented  by  the  arm  and  hand, 
offers  the  most  striking  contrast  to  the   burrowing   trowel  of  the 


Fig.  1 6 1.— Skeleton  of  the  Bat— 
( Vespertilio  miirinus). 


Mole.  Viewed  in  the  living  animal,  it  is  a  thin,  widely-expanded 
sheet  of  membrane,  sustained  like  an  umbrella  by  slender  rays,  and 
flapped  by  means  of  these  up  and  down  in  the  air,  and  with  such 
force  and  rapidity,  as,  combined  with  its  extensive  surface,  to  react 
upon  the  rare  element  more  powerfully  than  gravitation  can  attract 
the  weight  to  which  the  fore-limbs  are  attached  ;  consequently  the 
body  is  raised  aloft,  and  borne  swiftly  through  the  air. 
The  mammal  now  rivals  the  bird  in  its  faculty  of  pro- 
gressive motion  ;  it  flies,  and  the  instruments  of  its 
atrial  course  are  called  "wings."  The  whole  frame 
of  the  Bat  is  in  harmony  with  this  faculty,  but  the 
Mammalian  type  of  skeleton  is  in  nowise  departed 
from. 

The  vertebral  formula  of  the  common  Bat  ( Vesper- 
tilio imirimis.  Fig.  i6i),  is — 7  cer\'ical,  12  dorsal,  7 
lumbar,  3  sacral,  and  8  caudal  vertebrje.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  skeleton  are — the  gradual  dimi- 
nution of  size  of  the  spinal  column  from  the  cervical  to 
the  sacral  regions  ;  the  absence  of  neural  spines  in  the 
vertebra;  beyond  the  dentata  ;  a  keeled  sternum  ;  long 
and  strong,  bent  clavicles,  58;  broad  scapula;,  51; 
elongated  humeri,  53;  more  elongated  and  slender 
radius,  55  ;  and  still  longer  and  more  slender  meta- 
carpals and  phalanges  of  the  four  fing-ers,  ii.  Hi,  iv,  v, 
W'hich  are  without  claws,  the  thumb,  i,  being  short, 
and  provided  with  a  claw  :  the  pelvis,  62,  is  small, 
slender,  and  open  at  the  pubis,  63  ;  the  fibula,  67,  is 
rudimental,  like  the  ulna,  54,  in  the  fore-arm.  The 
common  Bat  has  a  long  and  slender  stiliform  append- 
age to  the  heel,  68,  which  helps  to  sustain  the  caudo- 
femoral  membrane.  The  hind  digits  are  five  in  number, 
short,  subequal,  each  provided  with  a  claw;  they  are 
the  instruments  by  which  the  Bat  suspends  itself,  head 
downwards,  during  its  daily  summer  sleep,  and  con- 
tinued winter  torpor. 

The  skull  in  these  animals  is  usually  short,  the  jaws 
being  but  moderately  produced ;  the  dentition  varies 
in  the  different  families,  according  to  the  food  on  which 
the  creatures  subsist.  (See  Fig.  162.)  The  sternum  is  furnished 
with  a  more  or  less  distinct  crest,  serving,  like  the  same  part  in 
birds,  for  the  attachment  of  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  wings. 
The  tail  is  very  variable  in  its  development,  and  is  frequently  in- 
cluded in  a  portion  of  the  membrane  (called  the  iiiterfemoral 
membrane),  which  extends  from  one    hind-leg   to   the   other,   and 


Fig.  162. — Head  and  Skull  of  Common  Bat. 

that  evidently  performs  an  important  part  in  steering  the  animals 
in  their  at^rial  course.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  soft  down,  but 
the  membrane  of  the  wings  only  exhibits  a  few  scattered  hairs. 
The  mammae  are  placed  on  the  breast ;  and  the  young,  when  suck- 
ing, are  carried  about  by  the  mother,  clinging  to  that  part  of  her 
body  :  from  the  position  of  the  teats,  the  Bats  were  included  by 
Linnffius  with  the  Monkeys,  and  the  human  species  in  his  first  order, 
the  Primates. 

In  the  Bat,  the  senses  of  smell  and  hearing,  as  might  be  con- 
cluded from  the  development  and  complication  of  their  respective 
organs,  are  wonderfully  acute.  In  several  extensive  genera,  with  a 
view  to  the  refinement  of  these  senses,  w'e  see  the  nose  furnished 


Fig.  163. — Trifoliatecl  Megaderma. 

with  a  membranous  foliation  or  leaf  of  most  delicate  structure,  and 
often  complex  in  its  arrangement ;  while  the  external  membranous 
ears  are  large,  expanded,  and  often  united  together,  having  folds  or 


THE  CHIROPTERA,    OR  BATS. 


69 


an  inner  reduplication,  and  capable  of  being  folded  down.  (See 
Fig.  i-jo,  \.\\e  head,  oi  Ifcgcidcrma  fft/oiiiim.)  In  short,  both  the 
osteological  characters  of  the  skull,  and  the  development  of  the  ex- 
ternal appendages,  traversed  by  multitudes  of  nerves,  announce  the 
acuteness  both  of  smell  and  hearing.  But  these  creatures  have 
another  sense,  that  of  feeling,  so  exquisitely  refined  as  to  require 
especial  notice'.  The  wings  of  these  creatures  consist,  as  we  have 
stated,  of  a  delicate  and  nearly  naked  membrane  of  great  ampli- 
tude ;  and  these,  as  well  as  the  membranous  tissues  of  the  ears  and 
nose,  are  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves,  and  have  their  sensibility 
so  high,  as  to  afford  something  like  a  new  sense  which  stands  in 
the  stead  of  sight.  The  modified  impressions  which  the  air  in 
quiescence  or  in  motion,  however  slight,  communicates — the  tremu- 
lous jar  of  the  faintest  current — its  temperature  ;  the  indescribable 
condition  of  such  strata  as  are  in  contact  with  different  bodies,  are 
all  apparently  appreciated  by  the  Bat.  If  its  eyes  bo  covered  up — 
nay,  if  it  be  even  cruelly  deprived  of  sight — it  will  pursue  its  course 
about  a  room  with  a  thousand  obstacles  in  its  way,  avoiding  them 
all ;  neither  dashing  against  the  walls  nor  flying  foul  of  the  smallest 
thing,  but  threading  its  course  with  the  utmost  precision  and  quick- 
ness, and  passing  adroitly  through  apertures,  or  the  interspaces  of 
threads  placed  purposely  across  the  apartment.  This  endowment, 
which  almost  exceeds  belief,  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated  by 
the  experiments  of  Spallanzani  and  others  ;  it  is  the  sense  of  touch 
refined  to  an  inconceivable  degree  of  perfection,  rendering  the  Bat 
aerial  in  feeling  as  in  habits. 

Bats  are  all  crepuscular  or  nocturnal ;  during  the  day  they  sleep 
in  their  recesses,  hanging  head  downwards,  suspended  by  the  hind- 
feet.  Numbers  often  congregate  together  on  one  common  dormi- 
tory ;  and  in  Java  and  other  adjacent  islands,  one  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary sights  is  that  of  a  tree  literally  loaded  with  a  crowd  of 
huge  Roussettes,  or  Flying  Foxes  {Pteropus),  all  clustered  together 
in  pendant  rows  along  the  branches.  In  our  latitudes  the  Bats  all 
hibernate,  hanging  in  the  same  manner  as  during  their  ordinary 
sleep  ;  but  whether  this  law  of  hibernation  prevails  among  those 
species  which  are  natives  of  the  hotter  regions  does  not  appear  to  be 
satisfactorily  determined ;  probably  it  does,  for  the  Tenrec  (an 
animal  allied  to  our  Hedgehog)  hibernates  in  Madagascar,  its  native 
country. 

The  Bats  are  extremely  numerous,  and  are  distributed  over  every 
portion  of  the  globe,  excepting  in  the  coldest  latitudes  ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, in  the  warmer  regions  that  they  are  the  most  abundant,  and 
attain  to  the  largest  dimensions. 

We  have  said  that  the  Bats  are  insectivorous  ;  some,  however,  are 
bloodsuckers  ;  and  some,  as  the  Roussettes  (Pteropus),  eat  fruit, 
plundering  the  gardens  of  their  choicest  productions.  It  would 
seem  that  some  of  the  Brazilian  Bats  also  are  frugivorous,  devour- 
ing the  fruit  of  the  fig-tree,  and  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  pre- 
vent the  mischief,  as  they  will  creep,  like  Mice,  under  the  netting 
spread  to  protect  the  trees. 

In  regard  to  classification,  the  Bats  are  divided  by  Mr.  Gray  into 
five  great  sections  or  tribes,  as  follows,  under  two  primary  heads  : — 

I.  Istiophori,  or  Leaf-nosed  Bats. — Nostrils  placed  in  a  bald 
space,  often  elevated  behind  into  a  leaf;  teeth  acutely  tubercular  ; 
index-finger  not  clawed. 

Tribe  I.  Phyllostomina. — Nose-disc  expanded  into  a  leaf  behind, 
simple,  and  pierced  with  the  nostrils  in  front. 

Tribe  2.  Rhinolophina. — Nose-disc  expanded  into  a  leaf  behind, 
and  with  a  pit  or  process  between  the  nostrils  in  front. 

II.  Anistiophori. — Simple-nosed  Bats.  Nostrils  without  a  nasal 
leaf. 

Tribe  3.  Vespertilionina. — Grinders  acutely  tubercular  ;  wings 
broad  and  large ;  tail  elongated  and  inclosed  in  the  large  conical 
interfemoral  membrane ;  upper  incisor  teeth  near  the  canines,  with  a 
central  space. 

Each  nostril  placed  m  front  of  a  groove,  with  a  spiral,  convolute, 
outer  margin  lobed  anteriorly. 

Tribe  4.  Noctilionina. — Grinders  acutely  tubercular ;  wings  long 
and  narrow  ;  body  thin  ;  tail  thick,  short,  the  tip  appearing  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  large  interfemoral  membrane. 

Tribe  5.  Pteropina. — Grinders  bluntly  tubercular;  nose  simple; 
nostrils  slightly  produced  ;  end  of  index-finger  clawed ;  head 
conical ;  ears  simple ;  wings  long ;  lower  joint  of  thumb  long, 
united  to  the  wing  by  a  membrane  ;  interfemoral  membrane  short ; 
tail  none,  or  short.  Fruit-eating  Bats  of  Indian  Islands  and  Poly- 
nesia. 

Mr.  W.  S.  Dallas  remarks,  that  the  Chiroptera  may  be  divided 
into  four  families,  of  which  the  first  two  include  the  pre-eminently 
insectivorous  species.  The  first  of  these  is  that  of  the  Vespertilio- 
nidce,  or  true  Bats,  in  which  the  teeth  resemble  those  of  the  true 
Insectivorous  Mammalia,  but  vary  greatly  in  number.  The  incisors 
are  two  or  four  in  the  upper,  and  two,  four,  or  six  in  the  lower  jaw  ; 
and  the  molars  either  four  or  five  in  the  upper,  and  five  or  six  in  the 
lower  jaw.  The  canines  are  rarely  of  large  size;  the  anterior  or 
false  molars  are  compressed  and  cutting,  and  the  true  molars  are 
furnished  with  sharp  tubercular  crowns,  adapted,  like  those  of  the 
Insectivora,  for  crushing  the  hard  skins  of  Beetles  and  other  insects. 


All  the  fingers  are  quite  destitute  of  nails  or  claws,  and  the  middle 
finger  has  only  three  joints;  the  tail  is  usually  well  developed,  and 
fixed  in  the  interfemoral  membrane,  but  is  sometimes  free  {Tapho- 
zoi/s) ;  it  is  also  occasionally  longer  or  shorter  than  the  membrane, 
but  generally  reaches  its  posterior  margin.  The  ears  vary  greatly 
in  size,  being  sometimes  shorter  than  the  head,  .and  sometimes  very 
long,  and  furnished  with  an  inner  fold :  but  the  nose  is  always  desti- 
tute of  leaf-like  appendages. 

The  second  family  is  that  of  the  Rhi/idophidcs,  or  Horse-shoe 
Bats,  which  resemble  the  true  Bats  in  their  general  structure  and 
habits,  but  differ  from  them  remarkably  in  the  possession  of  compli- 
cated, leaf-like,  membranous  appendages  on  the  nose,  which  give 
them  a  very  singular  and  often  forbidding  appearance.  They  re- 
semble the  common  Bats  in  their  general  habits,  but  appear  to  be 
even  more  nocturnal ;  and  their  places  of  sojourn  during  the  day  are 
usually  the  darkest  caverns  that  they  can  find. 

In  the  third  family,  that  of  the  Phyllostomtda:,  or  Vampyres 
(described  below),  the  canines  are  long  and  sharp  ;  and  in  the  genus 
Desinodits,  which  possesses  only  two  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
these  are  also  of  great  size  and  very  acute,  forming  a  pair  of  formid- 
able lancets.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  habits  of  the  species  of  this 
genus  ;  but  from  the  structure  of  their  teeth  they  would  seem  to  be 
well  adapted  for  the  same  diet  as  the  true  Vampyres. 

The  fourth  family  of  the  order,  and  the  one  which  evidently  ap- 
proaches most  closely  to  the  Quadnimaita,  is  that  of  the  Pteropida;, 
or  Roussettes — sometimes  called  Fox  Bats,  in  allusion  to  the  Dog- 
like form  of  the  head,  of  which  the  jaws  are  more  prolonged  than  in 
the  other  Bats.  In  these  Bats  the  incisors  are  of  small  size,  and 
four  in  each  jaw  ;  but  they  sometimes  fall  out  as  the  animals  increase 
in  age  ;  the  canines  are  also  small,  and  the  molars  have  blunt 
tubercular  crowns,  indicating  a  fruit  diet ;  but  the  tubercles  are  often 
worn  away,  and  the  teeth  then  exhibit  a  flat  surface.  The  ears  are 
always  of  moderate  size  ;  the  eyes  are  larger  than  in  the  other  Bats ; 
and  the  nose  is  always  destitute  of  membranous  appendages.     The 

tail  is  short,  and  the  interfemo- 
ral membrane  very  small,  or 
entirely  deficient.  The  first 
finger  is  short,  and  furnished 
with  a  distinct  nail  or  claw. 

The  limited  space  at  our  dis- 
posal will  not  allow  us  to 
enter  into  the  discussion  of  the 
opinions  expressed  in  regard 
to  the  classification  of  Bats ; 
still  less  can  we  describe  arid 
illustrate  the  numerous  species 
and  their  varieties.  The  follow- 
ing have  been  selected  as  a 
general  illustration  of  the  most 
important  features  of  the  Chir- 
optera of  this  and  other  coun- 
tries. 


Fig.  164. — Head  of  the  Vampyre  Bat 
(Phyllostoma  spectrum). 


Vampyre  Bats— Genus  P?iyl- 

lostoma. 


In  the  P/tyilosiomidts,  or 
Vampyres,  the  canine  teeth  are 
of  large  size,  and  the  middle  finger  consists  of  four  joints,  includ- 
ing the  metacarpus.  Like  the  Rhinolophidcc,  which  they  replace  in 
America,  they  are  furnished  with  a  membranous  nasal  appendage, 


Fig.  165. — Crenulated  Javelin  Bat. 

and  the  ears  are  usually  ample,  and  furnished  with  a  distinct  mem- 
branous auricle.  In  almost  all  the  species  of  this  family  there  are 
four  incisor  teeth  in  both  jaws.    (See  the  above  remarks.) 


70 


THE   VAMPYRE  BATS. 


The  Phyllostoinidce  are  peculiar  to  the  tropical  portions  of 
America,  where  they  are  met  with  very  abundantly.  1  hey  are 
crenerally  of  a  larger  size  tlian  the  animals  of  the  other  families, 
the  Vampyre  (Phyllostoma  spectrum.  Fig.  167)  being  sometimes 
nearly  two  feet  and  a-half  in  extent  of  wing,  and  their  propensities 
exhibit  a  corresponding  degree  of  ferocity.  ,,       v 

The  Crenulated  Javelin  Bat    (^Phyllostoma  crentilatum), 


Fig.  166. — Greater  Javelin  Bat. 

and  the  Greater  Javelin  Bat  {PhyUosfoma ^erspia'llaficm).— 
These  two,  illustrated  by  Figs.  165  and  166,  are  found  in  South 
America.     They  are,  however,  little  known. 

The  Vampyre  Bat  {Phyllostoma  spectrum),  whose  head  has 
been  illustrated  in  Fig.  164,  is  a  native  of  South  America.  Piso 
thus  describes  its  habits  :— These  Bats  "  seek  out  every  kind  of 
animal  and  suck  their  blood  ;  but  in  Maranham  there  is  a  certain 
kind  which  approaches  by  night  the  naked  feet  of  men,  and  wounds 
them  for  the  sake  of  sucking  human  blood.  The  bite  is  so  slight  and 
subtle,  that  the  wounded  do  not  feel  it  before  the  bed,  covered  with 
blood,'  gives  token  of  the  wound.  So  great  a  quantity  of  blood  flows 
from  the  envenomed  bite,  that  it  can  only  be  stopped  with  difliculty, 
and  the  peril  is  imminent  unless  a  cure  by  the  prescribed  remedies  be 
effected.  The  inhabitants  first  wash  these  wounds  with  sea-water, 
and  afterwards  apply  hot  ashes,  or  even  cautery,  if  the  blood  be  not 
stopped."  Captain  Stedman,  who  states  that  he  was  bitten,  thus 
describes  the  operation  :— "  Knowing,  by  instinct,  that  the  person 
they  intend  to  attack  is  in  a  sound  slumber,  they  generally  alight 


Fig.  167. — Vampyre  Bat. 

near  the  feet,  where,  while  the  creature  continues  fanning  with  its 
enormous  wings,  which  keeps  one  cool,  he  bites  a  bit  out  of  the  tip 
of  the  great  toe,  so  very  small,  indeed,  that  the  head  of  a  pin  could 
scarcely  be  received  into  the  wound,  which  is  consequently  not 
painful ;  yet  through  this  orifiee  he  continues  to  suck  the  blood  until 
he  is  obliged  to  disgorge.  He  then  begins  again,  and  thus  continues 
sucking  and  disgorging  till  he  is  scarce  able  to  fly ;  and  the  sufferer 
has  often  been  known  to  sleep  from  time  into  eternity.     Cattle  they 


Fig.  1 68. — Skeleton  of  Vampyre, 

generally  bite  in  the  ear,  but  always  in  places  where  the  blood  flows 
spontaneously.  Having  applied  tobacco-ashes  as  the  best  remedy, 
and  washed  the  gore  from  myself  and  my  hammock,  I  observed 
several  small  heaps  of  congealed  blood  round  the  place  where  I  had 


Fig.  169. 


lain  upon  the  ground ;  on  examining  which,  the  surgeon  judged  I 
had  lost  at  least  twelve  or  fourteen  ounces  during  the  night." 

Fig.  167  represents  the  general  appearance  of  the  Bat.  Its  skeleton 
is  shown  in  Fig.  168,  and  its  canine  and  incisor  teeth  in  Fig.  169. 

From  various  accounts,  themselves  a  little  over-coloured,  have 
arisen  extravagant  representations  and  false  statements,  to  which 
too  much  credit  has  been  given :  blood-sucking  pro- 
pensities, moreover,  have  been  attributed  to  the  Bats  of 
Java  and  other  countries,  without  any  authority  ;  and  the 
tongue,  instead  of  the  sharp  lancet-like  teeth,  has  been 
regarded  as  the  instrument  by  which  the  puncture  is  made. 
D'Azara,  speaking  of  the  blood-sucking  Bats  of  South 
America  {and  he  is  a  faithful  describer);'  observes  that 
"  the  species  w-ith  a  leaf  upon  the  nose  differ  from  the 
other  Bats  (of  Paraguay)  in  being  able  to  run,  when  on  the 
ground,  nearly  as  fast  as  a  Rat,  and  in  their  fondness  for 
sucking  the  blood  of  animals.  Sometimes  they  will  bite 
the  wattles  and  crests  of  fowls  while  asleep,  and  suck  their 
blood.  The  fowls  generally  die  of  this,  as  gangrene  is 
engendered  in  the  wounds.  They  bite  also  Horses,  Mules,  Asses,  and 
homed  cattle  ;  usually  on  the  shoulders,  buttocks,  or  neck,  as  they 
are  better  enabled  to  arrive  at  those  parts,  from  the  facilities  afforded 
them  by  the  mane  and  tail.  Nor  is  man  himself  secure  from  their 
attacks :  on  this  point  I  am  able  to  give  a  very  faithful  testimony, 
since  I  have  had  the  ends  of  my  toes  bitten  by  them,  four  times, 
while  I  was  sleeping  in  the  cottages  in  the  open  country.  The 
wounds  which  they  inflicted,  without  my  feeling  them  at  the  time,  were 
circular,  or  rather  elliptical ;  their  diameter  was  trifling,  and  their 
depth  so  superficial  as  scarcely  to  penetrate  the  cutis."  The  blood 
drawn  "  is  merely  from  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  skin,  and  is  ex- 
tracted thence,  beyond  doubt,  by  the  action  of  sucking  or  licking." 
Nobody  "  fears  these  animals  or  gives  himself  any  trouble  about 
them." 

To  the  same  effect  is  Mr.  Swain's  testimony.  "  They  are  con- 
stantly in  the  habit  of  attacking  animals  during  the  night,  and 
sucking  their  blood.  Our  own  Horses  and  Mules,  on  many  occasions, 
after  having  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  day's  journey,  and  being  turned 
out  to  graze,  would  be  brought  in  by  the  guides  in  the  morning  with 
their  shoulders  and  haunches  covered  with  blood  ;  neither  is  it  an 
uncommon  thing  for  these  real  Vampyres  to  enter  the  habitations  of 
the  natives,  and  fasten  on  the  legs  of  some  incautious  sleeper  who 
has  not  snugly  secured  his  feet  beneath  the  coverlid.  Stories,  in- 
deed, are  told  of  these  incautious  sufferers  having  bled  so  profusely 
as  to  have  died  ;  but  we  never  could  ascertain  the  fact,  nor  did  we 
ever  suffer  from  the  visits  of  these  midnight  phlebotomists." 

Mr.  Darwin  was  fortunate  enough  to  capture  a  blood-sucking  Bat 
{Des?nodus  D'  Orbigiiyi,  Waterhouse)  in  the  act.  "  The  Vampyre 
Bat,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  in  that  part  of  his  highly  interesting  book 
which  relates  his  adventures  when  travelling  on  horseback  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rio  Janeiro,  "  is  often  the  cause  of  much  trouble 
by  biting  the  Horses  on  their  withers.  The  injury  is  generally  not  so 
much  owing  to  the  loss  of  blood  as  to  the  inflammation  which  the 
pressure  of  the  saddle  afterwards  produces.  The  whole  circum- 
stance has  lately  been  doubted  in  England  :  I  was,  therefore,  fortu- 
nate in  being  present  when  one  was  actually  caught  on  a  Horse's 
back.  We  were  bivouacking  late  one  evening  near  Coquimbo,  in 
Chile,  when  my  servant,  noticing  that  one  of  the  Horses  was  very 
restive,  went  to  see  what  was  the  matter,  and  fancying  he  could  dis- 
tinguish something,  suddenly  put  his  hand  on  the  beast's  withers, 

and  secured  the  Vampyre.  In 
the  morning  the  spot  where  the 
bite  had  been  inflicted  was 
easily  distinguished,  from  being 
slightly  swollen  and  bloody. 
The  third  day  afterwards  we 
rode  the  Horse  without  any  ill 
effects." 

"  It  is  interesting,"  says 
Mr.  Waterhouse,  "to  find  that 
the  structure  of  the  animal  is 
in  perfect  accordance  with  the 
habits  above  detailed  by  Mr. 
Darwin.  Among  other  points, 
the  total  absence  of  true  molars, 
and  the  consequent  want  of  the 
power  of  masticating  food,  is 
the  most  remarkable  :  on  the 
other  hand,  we  find  the  canines 
and  incisors  perfectly  fitted  for 
inflicting  a  wound  such  as  de- 
scribed, while  the  small  size 
of  the  interfemoral  membrane 
(giving  freedom  to  the  motioni 
of  the  legs),  together  with  the 
unusually  large  size  of  the  thumb  and  claw,  would  enable  the  Bat,  as 
I  should  imagine,  to  fix  itself  with  great  security  on  the  body  of 
the  Horse." 


Fig.  170. — Head  oX  Megadcrma  from. 


THE  HORSE-SHOE  AND  TRUE  BATS. 


7« 


In  the  Megaderms  (genus  Mcgadcrma)  the  ears  are  very  large  ; 
the  nose-leaf  is  simple  and  erect ;  "there  is  no  tail ;  and  the  incisor  teeth 
are  wanting.  The  Trifoliated  Megaderma  (Mcgadcrma  trifoliumj 
has  already  been  illustrated  at  page  68,  ante,  Fig.  163.  In  that  cut, 
b  represents  the  skull  of  the  ilega- 
dcr/na/rons,  a  native  of  \\'estern 
Africa :  also  represented  in  the 
preceding  cut. 

Horse-shoe  Bats— Genus 
Rhinolophus. 

The  genus  Rliiiwlophus  in- 
cludes the  Horse-shoe  Bats. 
The  lesser  Horse-shoe  Bat  is  one  of 
the  smallest  British  species  of  the 
order.  In  our  British  species  the 
ears  are  of  moderate  size  ;  but  in 
many  of  the  exotic  Horse-shoe  Bats,  these  organs  are  developed 
to  an  extraordinary  extent,  and  furnished,  as  in  the  common  Long- 
eared  Bat  (see  Fig.  171),  with  very  large  membranous  auricles. 

The  Splendid  B.ov.S'E-sb.O'e.Bkt  {RhmoloJ>/ius  7iobilis,oi  Hi^' 


Fig.  171. — The  Long-enreil  D.\t 
(Phcolus  aiiyitiis). 


Fig.  172. — Splendid  Horse-shoe  Bat. 


Three-toothed  Horse-shoe  Bat. 


fosidcros  vobilis,  &c.)  is  a  native  of  Java,  called  Kebblek  by  the 
Javanese.  (See  Fig.  172.)  The  nasal  apparatus  consists  of  a  broad 
membrane  stretching  transversely  across  the  nose  in  form  of  a  shelf; 
the  sides  are  bounded  by  several  parallel  folds,  and  inferiorly  it  con- 
stitutes a  semicircular  envelope,  which  has  a  short,  obtusely  rounded 


point  in  the  middle.  Colour  above,  pure  brown  ;  beneath,  bro\sTi, 
variegated  with  grey.  Fur  remarkably  long  and  silky,  and  supplied 
with  a  most  delicate  down  at  the  base,  so  as  to  be  throughout  very 
soft  to  the  touch.  Body  four  inches  in  length.  Expansion  nineteen 
inches  and  a-half. 

The  Three-toothed  Horse-shoe  B.\t  fRhinolophus  tridem, 
Geoff.);  Hipposidcros  tnderis,  Gray.— This  is  a  small  species 
(illustrated  in  Fig.  173),  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  tombs  of 
E.£:>'pt.  where  the  objects  of  ancient  idolatry  are,  indeed,  given 
"to  the  Bats,"  which  find,  in  the  recesses  and  chambers  of  temples 
and  pyramids,  a  congenial  retreat. 

True  Bats— Genus  Vesperiilio. 

We  next  turn  to  the  VespertilioJiida,  or  True  Bats,  already  noticed 
in  our  introductory  remarks.  The  animals  of  this  family  feed  entirely 
on  insects,  which  they  capture  on  the  wing  ;  and  during  the  dusk  of 
the  evening  in  summer,  they  may  be  constantly  seen  flying  about  in 
pursuit  of  their  prey.  Although  of  small  size,  they  are  exceedingly 
voracious,  and  must  destroy  immense  numbers  of  insects.  They  are 
found  abundantly  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
species  are  described  as  natives  of  Britain  ;  but,  of  these,  the  great 
majority  are  very  rare  or  local.  The  two  commonest  species  are  the 
V\^\i\.reA(t{Vcspertiliopip!strenus):i.'aiL  the  Long-eared  Bat  {Pie- 
cotus  auritus :  see  Fig.  171,  ante;  also  subjoined  cut).  The  former 
is  our  common  Bat,  which  is  known  in  some  parts  of  the  country  as 
the  Flittermouse,  in  allusion  to  its  Mouse-like  body,  and  its  power  of 
flight.  It  is  commonly  found  about  houses,  and  usually  reposes  in 
the  crevices  of  old  walls,  and  similar  situations.  It  is  a  small  species, 
and  its  food  consists  principally  of  Gnats  and  other  little  insects  of 
the  same  description,  in  pursuit  of  which  it  flies  pretty  rapidly.  The 
Pipistrelle  is  also  partial  to  meat,  and  is  known  frequently  to  make 
its  way  into  pantries,  where  it  has  been  surprised  clinging  to  a  joint 
of  meat,  in  the  act  of  making  a  hearty  meal.  Its  period  of  torpidity 
appears  to  be  shorter  than  that  of  any  of  our  other  species  of  this 
family  :  and  even  during  the  winter  it  may  occasionally  be  seen,  on 
fine  days,  in  pursuit  of  its  favourite  prey. 

In  the  following  cut  three  British  Bats  are  represented :  a  is  the 
common  Bat  f  Vesper tilio  pipistrellus) ;  b  the  Great  Bat  {Vesper- 
tilio  nocfu/a) ;  and  c  the  Long-eared  Bat  [Plecoius  auritus).  The 
largest  of  the  British  species,  the  Noctula,  b,  measures  nearly  three 
inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  and  as  much  as  fifteen  inches 
in  expanse  of  wing.  In  their  habits  the  e.xotic  species  closely 
resemble  those  of  Britain,  and  few  greatly  exceed  our  species  in 
size. 

Geoffroy's  Nycteris  (Nycferis  GeofroyiJ.—We  have  already 
alluded,  in  our  introductory  remarks,  to  the  sensibility  with  which 
the  integuments  of  the  Bats  are  endowed ;  this,  however,  is  not  the 
only  peculiarity  to  be  noticed,  for  in  the  genus  Nycteris  there  exists 
a  power  of  inflation  to  such  a  degree,  that  when  the  faculty  is 
exerted,  the  animal  looks,  according  to  GeoftVoy,  like  a  little  balloon 
fitted  with  wmgs,  a  head,  and  feet.  The  subcutaneous  tissue  is  the 
part  inflated ;  and  as  the  skin  adheres  to 
the  body  at  particular  points  only,  the 
connection  being  by  means  of  loose 
cellular  membrane,  spaces  are  left  which 
can  be  filled  with  air  at  the  will  of  the 
-    .  Nycteris,   through    the    cheek-pouches, 

which  are  perforated  at  the  bottom  so 
as  to  communicate  with  those  spaces. 
When  the  Nycteris  wishes  to  inflate  its 
skin,  it  draws  in  its  breath,  closes  its 
nostrils,  and  transmits  the  air  through 
the  perforations  of  the  check-pouches, 
to  the  subcutaneous  spaces,  and  the  air 
is  prevented  from  returning  by  tlie  action 
of  a  sphincter,  which  closes  those  open- 
ings, and  by  valves  of  considerable  size 
on  the  neck  and  back. 

The  characters  of  this  genus  may 
le  thus  summed  up: — a  deep  furrow 
lown  the  forehead;  nostrils  covered  by 
a  cartilaginous  movable  lid  ;  inter- 
femoral  membrane  very  large,  compre- 
hending the  tail,  which  terminates  in  a 

little  bifid  cartilage :   incisors,  ^  ;    mo- 

6 


lars, 


ears  large,  united  at  their 


Fig.  174.— British  Bats. 


4—4. 

5—5" 

base.     Geoffroy's  Nycteris  is  a  native  of 
the   Thebaid  and  Senegal.      (See   Fig. 

I75-) 

The  RlAfRiTius  Taphozous  {Ta- 
^/lOMus  Ji/auritianus). — In  the  genus 
Taphozous  there  are  no  incisor  teeth 
on  the  upper  jaw.    Several  species  are 


THE  FRUIT-EATING  BATS. 


known  ;  the  one  of  which  we  represent  the  head  is  a  native  of  the 
Mauritius.     (Fig-.  i;6.) 

The  Leporine  Noctilio    {Nodilio  k^on'iius). —  Ccinmea  very 
strong;  muzzle  short  and  swollen,  and  divided  and  studded  with 


Skull  and  Teeth. 


Fig.  I7i.— Geoiiioy's  Nycteris. 


Fig.  176. — Mauritius  Taphozous. 

fleshy  tubercles  or  warts  ;  nose  simple,  and  losing  «tself  in  the  lips  ; 
ears  small  and  lateral ;  interfemoral  membrane  very  much  developed , 

tail  enveloped  at  its  base.       Dental  formula  :-Incisors,  ^  ;    ca- 
nines, i^  ;  molars,  ^-^  =  28. 

Fig.  177'gives:  fl,profileofhead;  5,  profile  of  skull ;  c,  front  view 
of  muzzle ;  d,  front  view  of  teeth. 


Fig.  177. — Leporine  Noctilio. 

The  NodiHo  le^orinus  is  of  the  size  of  a  Rat.  Fur  of  a  uniform 
reddish-vellow.  This  is  the  Vespertilio  leporhuis  of  Gmelm  ;  J\oc- 
tilio  unicolor  of  Geoffroy.     Localities-Brazil,  Peru,  and  Paraguay. 

The  Dusky  Molossus  {Molossiis  obsczertis).  —  a.sa.a  short, 
muzzle  swollen  ;  ears  large;  earlet  external ;  interfemoral  membrane 
strai^'ht,  with  a  square  termination  ;  tail  long,  enveloped  at  its 
baser  and  most  frequently  free  at  its  extremity.  Dental  formula  :— 
Incisors,  i-  ;  canines,  izJ.  ;  molars,  |^5  =  28.  The  geographi- 
cal  distribution  of  this  form  is  wide  :  Africa  Asia,  and  South  America 


^ 


Pig.  178.— Head,  Skull,  and  Front  Teeth  of  Dusky  Molossus. 

possess  it ;  but  the  species,  which  are  numerous,  occur  principally  in 
the  two  last-mentioned  localities.  Fig.  178  represents  the  head, 
skull,  and  front  teeth  of  this  animal. 


The  Molossus  ohscurus  {Molossus  fuman'us  of  Spix ;  Dysopes 
obscurus  of  Temminck)  is  of  the  size  of  the  Barbastelle  of  Europe. 
Fur  composed  of  hair  of  two  colours,  blackish-brown  above,  and  ash- 
brown  below.  Whiskers  at  the  border  of  the  lips.  Length  about 
three  inches  three  lines.  Expansion  nine  inches.  Localities,  Brazil 
and  Guiana. 

The  Fruit-eating  Bats— Genus  Pkropus. 

The  Pteropida;,  which  have  already  been  in  part  described  at  p.  69, 
aute,  are  entirely   confined  to    the  warmer    par's   of   the  Eastern 

Hemisphere.  They  are  most 
abundant  in  the  islands  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
whence  the  greater  part  of 
the  species  are  derived  ;  but 
they  occur  also  on  the  main- 
land of  Asia,  in  the  tropi- 
cal islands  of  the  Pacific,  in 
Africa,  and  even  in  Aus- 
tralia. They  are  the  largest 
of  the  Bats ;  the  Kalong 
of  Java  {Pteropiis  edulis. 
Fig.  181)  measuring  no  less 
than  five  feet  in  extent  of 
wing,  and  nearly  two  in 
length.  They  are  frugivor- 
ous  in  their  habits,  and  thus 
do  great  damage  in  gardens 
and  plantations  ;  but  in  con- 
finement they  have  been 
known  to  eat  the  flesh  of  birds,  so  that  it  is  possible  they  may 
vary  their  diet  in  a  similar  manner  in  a  state  of  nature.  They  have 
a  disagreeable  odour,  described  by  some  obser\-ers  as  musky ;  by 
others  as  "  mildewy."  Their  flesh  is,  however,  eaten  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  places  where  they  occur  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
Bat  which  figures  amongst  the  articles  of  food  forbidden  to  the  Jews, 
may  have  belonged  to  this  group,  as  at  least  one  species  [Eleuthe- 
7-ura  Egyptiacd)  is  found  abundantly  in  Egypt  and  the  neighbouring 
countries,  and  is  even  represented  with  some  considerable  exactitude 
upon  some  of  the  Egyptian  monuments.  Like  the  other  Bats,  they 
are  nocturnal  animals,  and  pass  the  day  suspended  by  the  hind-feet 
from  the  branches  of  trees  ;  but  some  species  are  known  also  to  fly 
at  noonday. 
The  Amboyna  Pteropus  {Pteropus  Dussumieri.) — The  Rous- 


Fig.  179. — Head  of  the  Kalong  Bat 
(Pleropis  edulis). 


Fig.  180. — Amboyna  Pteropus. 

settes,  Temate  Bats  or  Flying  Foxes,  as  the  Pteropi  are  termed,  are, 
most  of  them,  of  large  size,  with  Fox-like  heads  and  a  vast  spread  of 

5—5  4—4 
wing;  the  molars  are  f^ZJ.  °^  6^'  ^""^  bluntly  tubercular;  the 
tongue  is  short ;  interfemoral  membrane  very  little  developed.  _  Fig. 
180  represents  the  Amboyna  Pteropus.  The  present  species  is 
a  native  of  India  and  Amboyna.  Its  habits  closely  resemble 
that  of  the  Kalong,  next  described. 

The  Kalong  {Pteropus  Java7iicus,  or  Edtdis  :  see  Figs.  181  and 
182.) — This  species,  which  measures  five  feet  in  the  spread  of  the 
wings,  is  a  native  of  Java.  Upper  part  of  the  neck  smoky-red  ;  rest 
of  the  fur  dull  black.  In  the  lower  parts  of  Java  it  is  very  common,  and 
lives  in  troops,  which  do  not  appear  to  visit  the  more  elevated  districts. 
Numerous  individuals,  says  Dr.  Horsfield,  select  a  large  tree  for 
their  resort,  and,  suspending  themselves  by  the  claws  of  their  hind- 
limbs  to  the  naked  branches,  often  in  companies  of  several  hun- 
dreds, afford  to  a  stranger  a  very  singular  spectacle.    A  species  of 


THE  FRUIT-EATING  BATS. 


n 


Ficus,  resembling-  the  Ficus  religiosa  of  India,  which  is  often  found 
near  the  villaafes  of  the  natives,  aflfords  them  a  very  favourite  retreat, 
and  the  extended  branches  of  one  of  these  are  sometimes  covered 
with  them.  They  pass  the  greater  portion  of  the  day  in  sleep, 
hanging  motionless  :  ranged  in  succession  with  the  head  down- 
wards, the  membrane  contracted  about  the  body  and  often  in  close 


Kalong. 


contact,  they  have  little  resemblance  to  living  beings  ;  and  by  a 
person  not  accustomed  to  their  economy,  are  readily  mistaken  for  a 
part  of  the  tree,  or  for  a  fruit  of  uncommon  size  suspended  from  its 
branches.  In  general  these  societies  preserve  a  perfect  silence 
during  the  day  ;  but  if  they  are  disturbed,  or  if  a  contention  arises 
among  them,  they  emit  sharp  piercing  shrieks,  and  their  awkward 
attempts  to  extricate  themselves  when  oppressed  by  the  light  of  the 
sun  exhibit  a  ludicrous  spectacle.  In  consequence  of  the  sharpness 
of  their  claws,  their  attachment  is  so  strong  that  they  cannot  readily 


structed  of  split  bamboo.  Without  this  precaution,  little  valuable 
fruit  would  escape  the  ravages  of  the  Kalong.  There  arc  few 
situations  in  the  lower  parts  of  Java  in  which  this  night-wanderer  is 
not  constantly  observed :  as  soon  as  the  light  of  the  sun  has  retired, 
one  animal  is  seen  to  follow  the  other  at  a  small  but  irregular 
distance,  and  this  succession  continues  uninterrupted  till  darkness 
obstructs  the  view.  The  flight  of  the  Kalong  is  slow  and  steady, 
pursued  in  a  straight  line,  and  capable  of  long  continuance.  The 
chase  of  the  Kalong  forms  occasionally  an  amusement  of  the 
colonists  and  inhabitants  during  the  moonlight  nights,  which  in  the 
latitude   of  Java  are   uncommonly  serene.     He  is  watched  in  his 

descent  to  the  fruit-trees,  and  a  dis- 
charge of  small  shot  readily  brings 
him  to  the  ground.  By  this  means 
are  frequently  obtained  four  or  five 
individuals  in  an  hour. 

Pallas's  Morx-ccA  Bat   {Har- 

^yia  Pallasii). — The  genus    Har- 

pyia  of  Illiger  (not  of  Cuvier)  differs 

in  having  the  wings   arising   from 

the  centre   of  the   back ;    the   lips 

thick,   and    the    head   broad    and 

short ;  index-finger  clawed.     (See  Fig.  183.)     '£\\e  Ilar^yia  Paliasii 

{Cephaloies  Pallasii,  Geoffroy)   is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas.      It 

measures  two  feet  in  the  expansion  of  the  wings.     The  dental  for- 

4-4 


Fiq;.  iS^.— Pallas's  Molucca  Bat. 


mula  is  thus : 


-Incisors,  — ;  canines,  


182. — Kalong  in  Flight. 


leave  their  hold  without  the  assistance  of  the  expanded  membrane  : 
and  if  suddenly  killed  in  the  natural  attitude  during  the  day,  they 
continue  suspended  after  death.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
oblige  them  to  take  wing  by  alarming  them,  if  it  be  desired  to 
obtam  them  during  the  day.  Soon  after  sunset  they  gradually  quit 
their  hold,  and  pursue  their  nocturnal  flight  in  quest  of  food.  They 
direct  their  course,  by  an  unerring  instinct,  to  the  forests,  villages, 
and  plantations,  occasioning  incalculable  mischief,  attacking  and 
devouring  indiscriminately  every  kind  of  fruit,  from  the  abundant 
and  useful  cocoa-nut  which  surrounds  the  dwelling  of  the  meanest 
peasantry,  to  the  rare  and  most  delicate  productions  which  are  cul- 
tivated with  care  by  princes  and  chiefs  of  distinction.  By  the  latter, 
as  well  as  by  the  European  colonists,  various  methods  are  employed 
to  protect  the  orchards  and  gardens.  Delicate  fruits,  such  as 
mangoes,  jambus,  lansas,  &c. ,  as  they  approach  to  maturity,  are 
ingeniously  secured  by  means  of  a  loose  net  or  basket,  skilfully  con- 


molars, 
I-  I  5-5 

Another  illustration  of  this 
Bat  will  be  found  at  p.  15, 
a?ite.  Fig.  50. 

In  the  collection  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  Regent's 
Park,  London,  is  a  specimen 
of  the  Indian  Fruit  Bat  [Ptc- 
ropus  medius),  and  one  of  the 
Collared  Fruit  Bat  (Cyiw)iyc- 
ieris  collaris.)  The  Fruit  Bats, 
or  "  Flying  Foxes  "  as  they  are 
often  called,  constitute  a  well- 
marked  section  of  the  Bats  be- 
longing to  the  warmer  parts  of 
theOldWorid.  They  are  frugiv- 
orous,  and  are  accused  of  doing 
great  damage  in  gardens  and 
plantations,  which  they  visit  at 
night  in  immense  flocks,  in  order 
to  regale  themselves  on  the  ripe 
fruits.  The  pair  of  the  Collared 
Fruit-Bats  have  bred  more  than 
once  in  the  Gardens.  The  young 
Bat  is  carried  suspended  head 
downwards,  in  a  curious  way  on 
its  mother's  breast.  This  is  the 
first  instance  of  an  animal  of 
this  group  having  produced 
young  in  captivity. 

In   regard    to   the    fossil  re- 
mains of  Bats,  Mr.   Morris  in 
his  "  Catalogue  of  British  Fos- 
sils "  names  two  species,  viz., 
the   Vespertilio  noctula  which 
was  found  in  a  cave  of  the  Men- 
dip  Hills,  and  another  species  found  in  the  Lower ^ocene,  at  Kyson, 
SutTolk.     Another   is  the    Vespertilio  parisiensis  of  the  Tertiary 
(Eocene)  period. 

In  the  British  Museum  there  are  numerous  specimens  of  the  Bat- 
Tribe  among  which  the  following  may  be  named  :^Lyre-nosed  Broad 
winged  Bat  {Mcgadernia  lyra),  Java  ;  Cordate  Bat  {Megadcrrna 
sj>asma),  Singapore  ;  African  Leaf  'BdX {Laz'iado frotis),  W.  Africa; 
the  Scotophilus  ■murimiis,  Europe  ;  Captain  Grey's  Bat  {Scoto- 
fhilus  grcifn).  Port  Essington  ;  Large  Eared  Bat  {Myniis  muri- 
miis), St.  Gothard ;  Vespertilio  cliinensis,  China  ;  Vespertilio 
siibulatiis ,  Canada  ;  Large-Eared  Thick-lipped  Bat  [Molossus pero- 
tis),  Brazils  and  Bolivia  ;  Egyptian  Rhinopome  {P/ii/iopoma  micro- 
■phylla),  Egj'pt ;  Javelin  Phyllostome  {Phyllostoma  hastatuni). 
Brazils ;  Daubenton's  Bat  ( Vespertilio  duiibentoiiii),  Sweden  ; 
Hairy-armed  Bat  (Scotophilus  leisleri),  England ;  Masked  Horse- 
shoe Bat  {Hipposidcros  larvatus),  Java,  &c.,  Szc. 


74 


INSECTIVORA,   OR  MOLES,   SHREWS,  AND  HEDGEHOGS. 


CHAPTER    Viri. 


MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  INSECTIVORA— THE  SHREWS,  MOLES,  Etc. 


S  a  connecting  link  between  the  preceding 
and  foUowing'orders,  the  INSECTIVORA,  or 
Insect-eating  Mammalia,  may  next  be 
conveniently  described. 

In  regard  to  their  general  character, 
Mr.  Dallas  remarks,  that  while  they  are 
nearly  allied  with  the  Cartiivora,  or  flesh- 
eating  animals,  they  arc  readily  distin- 
,  guished  from  them  by  the  structure  of  the 
ii>fr  teeth.  These  rarely  exhibit  that  distinct 
division  into  three  sets  which  prevails  in 
the  Carnivora  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  deter- 
mine exactly  what  name  should  be  given  to  the  par- 
ticular teeth.  There  are  usually  eight  single-rooted 
teeth  in  the  front  of  each  jaw,  of  which  the  hindmost 
on  each  side  must  be  regarded  as  the  canine,  although 
it  is  often  smaller  than  the  others,  especially  the  two 
middle  ones.  Behind  this  comes  a  tooth  with  two 
roots,  which  is  frequently  more  or  less  compressed,  and 
presents  a  certain  amount  of  resemblance  to  the  larger 
pre-molars  of  the  Carm'vora  ;  and  this  is  followed,  on 
each  side,  by  two  large  broad  molars,  the  crown  of  each 
of  which  usually  forms  four  sharp  points,  with  deep 
hollows  between  them,  so  that  the  points  of  the  teeth  in  one  jaw  inter- 
lock with  those  of  the  other.  These  large  molars  are  often  succeeded, 
quite  at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  by  a  smaller  tooth  of  the  same  kind, 
which,  however,  only  presents  two  points.  By  this  structure  of  the 
molars,  these  animals  are  enabled  readily  to  crush  the  hard  skins  of 
the  insects  that  constitute  their  principal  food.  The  following  cut 
represents  the  dentition  of  a  species  of  Shrew  taken  in  the  Mauritius, 
and  magnified  six  times. 


'k? 


Fig.  184.— Teeth  of  Shrew. 

The  skull  in  the  Insech'vora  is  slighter  and  more  elongated  than 
in  the  Carnivora  ;  the  bones  of  the  face  and  jaws  being  usually  pro- 
duced so  as  to  form  a  muzzle  of  greater  or  less  length  ;  the  jaws  are 
generally  inferior  in  strength  to  those  of  the  Carnivorous  Mammals. 
The  form  of  the  body,  its  clothing,  and  the  development  of  the  tail, 
vary  as  much  as  in  the  preceding  order ;  but  the  legs  are  always 
short,  so  that  the  belly  of  the  animal  is  but  little  raised  above  the 
gt-ound  ;  the  feet  are  plantigrade,  and  usually  furnished  with  five 
toes,  of  which  the  innermost  is  never  opposable.  (See  Fig.  185  ) 
The  animals  usually  run  upon  the  ground,  sometimes  dig  beneath 


Fig.  185.— Feet  of  Shrews. 


its  surface,  and  also  ascend  trees.  An  important  distinction  between 
them  and  the  Carnivora,  is  furnished  by  their  possession  of  complete 
clavicles,  which  are  always  wanting  or  rudimentary  in  the  latter.  The 
mamma;  are  generally  numerous,  and  always  situated  on  the  belly. 
(See  further  remarks  on  these  peculiarities,  by  Prof.  Owen,  at  a  sub- 
sequent page,  under  the  head  of  Car?iivora.) 

iThe  following  cut  represents  the  under  surface  of  the  hinder  feet  of — 

a,  the  Common  Shrew;  i,theWater 
Shrew ;  and  c,  the  Oared  Shrew. 

In  the  development  of  the  brain 
and  the  organs  of  the  senses, 
Mr.  Dallas  remarks,  that  they 
closely  resemble  the  Rode?itia, 
or  gnawing  animals ;  and  this 
similarity  is  also  frequently  re- 
cognisable in  their  external  form  ; 
so  close  is  it,  in  fact,  that  many 
members  of  the  present  order  . 
are  popularly  confounded  with  the 
Rodeniia ;  and  the  same  mistake  has  often  been  made  by  the  older 
naturalists.  In  the  same  way  the  Iiisectivora  exhibit  a  close  re- 
semblance to  many  of  the  Marsupials  (Kangaroos,  &c.) ;  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  their  relationship  to  the  Cliiroptera  and  Carnivora 
cannot  be  doubted.  Their  food  consists,  not  only  of  insects  and  their 
larvae,  as  might  be  supposed  from  the  name  given  to  the  order,  but 
also  of  worms  and  mollusca  ;  and  some  of  the  larger  species  even 
devour  the  smaller  vertebrate  animals.  They  are  generally  slow  in 
their  movements,  and  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  many  of  them 
pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpidity. 

The  animals  composing  this  order  may  be  divided  into  two  families. 
The  first  of  these  is  that  of  the  Talpidcs,  or  Moles,  in  which  the 
whole  structure  evidently  points  to  the  strictly  subterranean  habits  of 
the  animals.  The  body  in  the  Moles  is  short  and  thick,  and  sup- 
ported upon  short  and  strong  legs  ;  the  head  is  produced  into  a  long 
muzzle  ;  the  eyes  are  either  so  small  as  to  be  detected  with  difficulty, 
or  completely  concealed  beneath  the  skin  ;  and  the  external  ears  are 
entirely  deficient.  The  internal  ear  is  very  perfect,  and  the  olfactory 
organs  are  highly  developed ;  so  that  those  senses  which  must  be 
most  valuable  to  animals  confined  to  a  subterranean  existence,  are 
possessed  by  the  Moles  in  the  greatest  perfection  ;  whilst  the  sense 
of  sight,  which  is  comparatively  useless  to  a  creature  that  passes  the 
greater  part  of  its  time  in  utter  darkness,  is  almost  entirely  sup- 
pressed.    The  tail  is  usually  short,  or  quite  rudimentary. 

For  the  excavation  of  the  galleries  which  these  animals  make  in 
pursuit  of  insects  and  wurms,  and  in  which  they  almost  constantly 
reside,  their  anterior  limbs,  although  short,  are  exceedingly  powerful, 

and  so  arranged  as  to 
form  most  efficient  in- 
struments for  digging. 
Thus,  in  the  common 
Mole  {Ta!j>a  Eiiropaa, 
Fig.  186),  the  only  Bri- 
tish species  of  the  family, 
the  bones  of  the  arm  arc 
very  short  and  strong, 
and  the  limb  is  termi- 
nated by  a  broad,  flat, 
shovel-like  hand,  armed 
with  long  and  strong 
claws,  furnished  with  a  curved  prolongation  of  one  of  the  carpal 
bones  (called  \\\^  falciform  bone),  which  gives  additional  strength 
to  the  hand,  and  is  so  placed  that  its  palm  is  naturally  turned 
directly  backwards.  By  the  agency  of  these  digging  hands,  the 
Mole  burrows  with  great  rapidity ;  and  the  galleries  which  it  forms 
are  of  a  very  complicated  nature.  In  the  genus  Chrysocldoris,  of 
which  several  species  inhabit  South  Africa,  the  anterior  feet  have 
only  three  toes,  and  so  differs  from  the  type  ;  but,  in  the  majority,  the 
structure  is  much  the  same  as^  in  our  common  Mole. 

This  will  be  fully  described  at  a  following  page,  as  it  may  serve  as 
a  general  illustration  of  the  family,  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and 
is  well  known  for  its  curious  cylindrical  form,  and  the  blacknc'ss  of 
Its  velvet-like  coat.  Its  eyelids  are  open,  and  it  has  been  proved  by 
experiment  to  have  the  power  of  sight,  although  it  is  a  popular 
belief  that  the  Mole  is  quite  blind  ;  this,  indeed,  is  the  case  with 
another  species,  inhabiting  the  south  of  Europe  {T.  c<^ca),  which  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Mole  referred  to  by  those  ancient  naturalists  from 


Fig.  186.— The  Mole  {Taipa  Enropxa). 


THE  COMMON  SHREW. 


75 


whose  statements  the  charge  of  bHndness  has  been  apphed  to  our 
species. 

Of  the  exotic  species,  those  of  the  genus  Chrysochloris,  already 
referred  to  on  account  of  the  structure  of  their  anterior  limbs,  are 
further  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  metallic  lustre  of  their  coats, 
whii  h  has  given  rise  to  the  name  of  Golden  Mole  (C  ai/rca),  applied 
to  the  best  known  species.  Tlie  Sca/oJ>s  aquatiais,  a  native  of 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  is  commonly  known  as  the  Shrew- 
Mole,  from  the  resemblance  of  its  dentition  to  that  of  the  Shrews, 
which  form  the  types  of  the  following  family.  In  the  genus  Coiidy- 
lura,  the  species  of  which  are  also  inhabitants  of  North  America, 
the  nose  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  small  movable  cartilaginous 
filaments,  which  radiate  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  star,  and  are 
doubtless  employed  as  organs  of  touch.  In  their  general  habits,  all 
these  animals  resemble  our  common  Mole. 

In  the  family  of  the  Sorkida;,  or  Shrews,  which  includes  the 
greater  part  of  the  order,  the  feet  are  all  formed  for  progression  ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  anterior  members  are  never  converted  into  organs 
appropriated  for  digging.  The  eyes  are  always  perfect,  and  readily 
distinguishable  ;  and  the  external  ears,  though  small,  are  always 
present.  In  other  respects,  the  different  animals  composing  this 
group  exhibit  a  remarkable  variety  of  character  ;  the  dentition  pre- 
sents considerable  differences  even  in  so  closely  allied  species  ;  the 
length  of  the  legs  and  tail,  and  the  clothing  of  the  body,  are  also 
very  variable.  They  all,  however,  agree  in  living  either  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  or  upon  trees,  and  never  in  a  complicated  system 
of  burrows,  such  as  that  of  the  Moles  ;  their  jaws  are  always  more 
or  less  elongated,  and  the  nose  is  usually  prolonged  into  a  movable 
snout.  The  Soricidcc  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  they  are 
of  small  size,  and  their  nourishment  consists  principally  of  insects, 
although  some  species  also  feed  on  vegetable  matters. 

In  the  typical  Shrews,  forming  the  genus  Sorcx  and  its  allies,  the 
form  of  the  body  presents  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Mice  or 
Rats,  whence  the  name  of  Shrew-Mice  is  frequently  applied  to  our 
English  species.  Their  legs  are  nearly  of  equal  length,  and  termi- 
nate in  five  toes,  which  are  armed  with  small  claws,  and  usually 
free,  though  not  unfrequently  united  by  a  swimming  membrane. 
The  nose  is  more  or  less  produced,  and  the  tail  is  elongated,  usually 
tapering,  covered  with  scales,  like  that  of  the  Mice,  and  with  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  bristles.  The  skin  is  clothed  with  a  short 
fur.  Some  of  these  are  amongst  the  most  diminutive  of  the  Alam- 
malia,  and  the  largest  of  them  are  about  the  size  of  a  Rat.  They 
are  generally  furnished  with  peculiar  glands,  secreting  a  fluid  of  a 
disagreeable  odour,  which  prevents  Cats  and  Dogs  from  eating 
them  ;  although  they  will  not  unfrequently  kill  them — probably  mis- 
taking them  for  Mice.  They  live  for  the  most  part  upon  insects, 
worms,  and  small  Mollusca  ;  but  the  larger  species  also  prey  upon 
the  smaller  Vericbrafa.  > 

Our  British  species  all  belong  to  the  typical  genus  Sorex.  This 
genus  may  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  a  sub-family  to  which  the 
name  of  Soricincs  may  be  given.  Species  of  this  group  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  but  principally  in  Europe  and 
Africa.  Amongst  these  we  shall  only  notice  the  Desmans  {My gale), 
sometimes  called  Musk  Rats,  of  which  two  species  are  found  in 
Europe — one  in  the  Pyrenees  (J/.  Pyreiiaicd),  and  the  other  in 
Russia  (J/,  moscliafa).  These  animals  are  the  largest  in  the  group  ; 
they  are  remarkable  for  having  the  nose  produced  into  a  short  pro- 
boscis, and  their  feet  palmated  and  naked,  or  scaly.  They  always 
inhabit  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  in  which  they  swim  with  great 
facility,  and  feed  not  only  on  insects  and  Mollusca,  but  also  on 
small  iish  and  Frogs.  They  are  also  remarkable  for  the  strong  odour 
of  musk  which  they  exhale. 

The  MacroscclidincB  are  small  animals,  nearly  allied  to  the  true 
Shrews,  but  differing  from  them  by  having  the  hind-legs  much  elon- 
gated, so  that  they  are  enabled  to  spring  in  the  same  way  as  the 
Jerboas  amongst  the  Rodcntia.  Their  noses  are  long,  and  often 
produced  into  a  trunk  ;  their  eyes  and  ears  are  larger  than  in  the 
true  Shrews  ;  and  their  tails  are  long,  and  usually  covered  with  hair. 
These  small  animals  are  peculiar  to  Africa,  and  are  most  numerous 
in  its  southern  parts.  One  species,  however,  is  found  in  Algeria, 
where  it  is  known  to  the  French  colonists  as  the  Rat  a  trumpe 
{Macroscelidcs  Rozcti).  They  live  principally  in  dry  rocky  places, 
and  feed  on  insects  and  other  small  animals  ;  although  it  appears 
that  some  of  them  also  eat  vegetable  substances. 

In  the  Eriiiaceiiia;,  or  Fledgehogs,  which  are  the  largest  members 
of  the  family,  the  body  is  short,  thick,  and  stout ;  the  nose  is  less 
pointed  than  in  the  other  groups  ;  the  tail  is  short  or  entirely  want- 
ing, and  the  upper  surface  is  more  or  less  covered  with  short  spines, 
which,  when  the  animals  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  as  they 
always  do  when  alarmed,  present  an  almost  insuperable  obstacle  to 
any  predaceous  animal  that  may  wish  to  make  a  meal  of  the  Hedge- 
hog's body.  They  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, where  they  are  principally  found  in  the  warmer  regions  ;  and 
are  omnivorous  and  nocturnal  animals.  They  sleep  during  the  day 
in  holes  under  the  roots  of  trees  or  stones,  and  in  similar  situations, 
coming  forth  at  night  in  search  of  insects,  fruits,  and  roots.  Those 
which  inhabit  cold  climates  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpidity. 


Our  only  British  species  is  the  common  Hedgehog  {Erinacetts 
Europaus),  an  animal  which  will  be  fully  described  hereafter. 

Several  other  species  inhabiting  Asia  and  Africa  belong  to  tliis 
group,  which  also  includes  the  Tanrecs  {Ce?i/ctcs)  of  the  island  of 
Madagascar,  in  which  the  tail  is  entirely  wanting,  and  the  spines, 
which  are  far  weaker  than  in  our  common  Hedgehog,  are  mixed  with 
silky  hairs. 

The  Tiipaincc,  or  Banxrings,  are  organised  for  an  arboreal  exist- 
ence ;  they  resemble  tlie  Squirrels  in  their  movements,  and  also 
present  a  certain  similarity  to  the  Lemurs.  Their  legs  are  of  nearly 
equal  length,  but  longer  than  in  the  majority  of  the  other  Soricidre, 
so  that  the  body  is  always  raised  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  ; 
their  skulls  present  a  striking  peculiarity,  their  orbits  being  com- 
pletely encircled  by  a  bony  ring  ;  whilst  in  the  other  members  of  the 
order,  these  cavities  open  into  the  temporal  fossffi  ;  even  the  zygo- 
matic arch  is  incomplete  in  many  cases.  The  Banxrings  are  rather 
elegant  little  animals,  furnished  with  long  tails,  which  are  generally 
well  covered  with  hair ;  but  in  the  Ptiloccrciis  Lowii,  a  native  of 
Sumatra,  the  tail  is  naked  and  scaly,  except  towards  the  extremity, 
where  it  bears  two  series  of  longish  hairs,  arranged  something  like 
the  barbs  of  a  feather.  Most  of  the  species  of  this  group  are  found 
in  the  larger  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  (Java,  Sumatra,  and 
Borneo) ;  but  one  or  two  species  have  been  brought  from  Pegu  and 
India.  They  live  in  the  woods,  where  they  climb  the  trees  with 
great  agility,  and  feed  upon  insects  and  fruits.  In  eating  they  hold 
the  food  between  their  fore-paws,  in  the  manner  of  a  Squirrel ;  and, 
unlike  the  majority  of  the  animals  of  this  order,  their  period  of 
activity  is  the  day. 

Having  thus  drawn  attention  to  the  most  important  families  and 
genus  of  the  Insectivora,  the  following  have  been  selected  as  cha- 
racteristic illustrations  of  the  order,  specimens  of  all  of  which  may 
be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Common  Shrew  (Sorex  aranetis.) — This  animal  is  of  a 
reddish  Mouse-colour,  paler  beneath  ;  the  tail  is  quadrangular  in 
adults,  rather  shorter  than   the  body,   and  not  ciliated  beneath. 


Fig.  1S7. — Common  Shrew. 

Length  of  head  and  body,  two  inches  seven  lines;  of  the  tail,  one 
inch  ten  lines.  It  is  common  in  our  island,  frequenting  tufted  banks, 
hedge-rows,  thickets,  gardens,  farm-yards,  &c.,  and  feeding  on 
worms  and  insects.  Caterpillars,  &c.,  after  which  it  grubs  with  its 
long  pointed  snout  among  the  close  herbage,  or  under  the  soft  loose 
soil.  It  is  very  impatient  of  hunger,  and  extremely  pugnacious,  two 
seldom  meeting  without  engaging  in  combat ;  and  if  two  be  confined 
together  in  a  box,  the  weaker  falls  a  prey  to  the  stronger,  and  is  soon 
partially  devoured.  Many  are  killed  and  eaten  by  the  Mole,  and  in 
August  numbers  are  often  found  dead  in  the  lanes  and  pathways 
across  the  fields  ;  but  to  what  cause  their  destruction  is  owing,  at  the 
season  in  question,  is  not  very  apparent.  As  was  the  case  with  the 
Hedgehog  and  some  other  animals,  superstition  and  ignorance  have 
attributed  the  most  baneful  properties  to  the  Shrew  ;  it  was  supposed 
by  our  ancestors  to  paralyse  the  limbs  of  cattle  by  merely  creeping 
over  them,  afflicting  them  vi'ith  excruciating  torments,  and  to  poison 
them  by  its  bite.  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  Agricola  also  attribute  poi- 
sonous effects  to  the  bite  of  the  Shrew,  which,  as  they  assert,  pro- 
duces tumours  and  ulcerations.  Agricola  states  that  the  Latins 
called  the  animal  AIiis  ara7ictis,  from  its  injecting  venom  into  the 
wound  it  makes,  as  does  the  Spider  (yl/'fZ.'/ra) ;  and  he  notices  the 
characters  of  the  teeth,  and  quadrifid  figure  of  the  wound  they  inflict ; 
adding  that  in  warm  regions  the  wound  is  generally  pestiferous,  but 
not  in  cold  climates  :  his  remedial  prescription  is  to  place  the  body 
of  the  Shrew  cut  asunder  on  the  injured  part.  Among  our  ancestors 
the  remedies  were  to  make  the  person  or  animal  pass  through  the 
arch  of  a  bramble  rooted  at  both  ends,  or  to  apply  to  the  limbs  of 
suffering  cattle  the  twigs  or  leaves  of  a  Shrew-ash  ;  that  is,  an  ash 
into  the  trunk  of  which  a  deep  hole  had  been  bored,  and  a  poor  de- 
voted Shrew  plugged  in  alive. 

The  voice  of  the  Shrew  is  a  shrill,  feeble,  chirring  cry,  which  may 
be  often  heard  when  the  animal  is  unseen  :  we  have  known  persons 


76 


THE  SHREWS  AND  THE  DESMAN. 


whose  ears  were  unable  to  catch  it,  however  attentively  they  have 
listened,  though  of  other  tones  they  were  perfectly  susceptible.  The 
Shrew  makes  long-  superficial  burrows  in  banks  and  among  the  roots 
of  trees  and  brushwood  ;  the  female  makes  a  nest  in  her  retreat  of 
soft  herbage,  with  an  aperture  at  the  sides ;  she  breeds  in  the  spring, 
producing  from  five  to  seven  young. 

In  the  following  cut  are  represented  three  British  Shrews  :  a,  the 
Oared  Shrew  {Sorex  remifer,  Geoff. ;  Sorex  aliatiis,  Sowerby) ; 
b,  the  Water-Shrew  {Sorex fodiens,  Gmelin,  not  of  Duvernoynor 


The  Desman  {Mygale  moschata).  Biesamratze  of  the  Germans; 
Wychozol  of  the  Russians.  (See  Fig.  189.) — The  genus  Mygalc, 
Guv.   {Myogalla,  Fischer;  Castor  vioschatus,  Linn.),  presents  us 

with  the  following  dental  characters  : — Incisors,  ^ .    canines, 


o — 0 


^\aV.4^\  ^_^ 


Fig.  188.— British  Shrews. 

of  modern  continental  authors ;  Sorex  bicolor,  Shaw) ;  and  c,  the 
Common  Shrew,  which  we  have  already  illustrated  by  Fig.  187. 

The  Water-Shrew  is  nearly  black  above,  white  beneath,  the  colours 
being  abruptly  separated ;  the  sides  of  the  feet  and  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  tail  are  ciliated  or  fringed  with  long,  stiff,  white  hairs. 
Length  of  head  and  body,  three  inches  and  three  lines ;  of  the  tail, 
two  inches  one  line. 

This  elegant  little  animal  is  aquatic  in  its  habits,  frequenting 
clear  fresh-water  ditches  and  brooks,  in  the  banks  of  which  it  makes 
extensive  burrows  ;  it  swims  and  dives  with  great  address,  the  sides 
being  spread  out,  the  belly  flattened,  and  the  tail  extended  as  a 
rudder.  When  diving,  the  black  velvety  coat  of  the  animal  appears 
as  if  beautifully  silvered,  from  the  innumerable  bubbles  of  air  that 
cover  it.  These  are  pressed  out  of  the  fur,  which  repels  the  water, 
the  animal  being  quite  dry  when  it  emerges.  It  has  the  power  of 
completely  closing  the  orifices  of  the  ears,  so  as  to  exclude  the  water 
while  beneath  the  surface.  The  food  of  the  Water-Shrew  consists  of 
insects,  the  larv£e  of  E^phemera,  and  perhaps  the  ova  of  fishes ;  in 
quest  of  these  it  swims  and  dives  or  grubs  in  the  mud  with  its  snout. 
These  little  Water-Shrews  form  colonies  in  certain  spots,  making 
runs  or  tracks  along  the  banks  leading  from  their  subterranean 
dwellings  to  the  water ;  when  two  meet  in  these,  or  while  swimming 
about,  they  utter  their  shrill,  feeble,  querulous  cry,  perhaps  a  token 
of  recognition.  The  Water-Shrew,  though  only  recognised  as  a 
native  of  our  island  within  the  last  few  years,  is  not  uncommon  in 
most  of  our  counties,  and  has  been  captured  in  Scotland  and 
Devonshire. 

The  Oared  Shrew  is  closely  allied  to  the  Water-Shrew,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  the  same  aquatic  habits.  The  tail  is  quadrangular, 
and  compressed  towards  the  apex,  and  is  ciliated  on  the  under  sur- 
face ;  the  feet  are  strongly  ciliated  ;  the  body  is  black  above,  greyish- 
black  below  ;  the  throat  is  of  a  yellowish  colour.  It  is  of  about  the 
size  of  the  former.  Fig.  185,  a7ite,  in  our  introductory  remarks  at 
p.  74,  ante,  represents  the  under  surface  of  the  hinder  feet  of — a, 
the  Common  Shrew ;  b,  the  Water-Shrew ;  c,  the  Oared  Shrew. 


molars,   ^^ — !^ ;  of  the  molars,  the  first  seven  on  each  side  above, 
1-1 

and  the  first  four  below,  are  false ;  between  the  two  large  incisors 

below,  are  two  minute  teeth,  and  the 
two  upper  incisors  are  flattened  and 
triangular.  (See  Fig.  190  for  the  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw.)  In  these  animals 
the  snout  is  elongated  into  a  flexible 
proboscis  furrowed  down  the  middle, 
which  they  are  incessantly  turning 
about ;  the  tail  is  long,  thick,  scaly, 
and  compressed  at  the  sides ;  the 
eyes  are  very  small ;  external  ears 
wanting  :  the  fur  is  full,  deep,  soft, 
and  glossy,  like  that  of  the  beaver; 
the  feet  are  broad  and  completely 
webbed  ;  toes  five  in  number.  Two 
species  are  known,  both  aquatic  in 
their  habits :  the  one  is  the  Desman 
or  Musk-Rat  of  Russia ;  the  other, 
a  smaller  species,  is  found  in  the 
Pyrenees. 

The  Desman  measures  upwards  of 
ten  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head 
and  body,  that  of  the  tail  being  seven 
(from  specimen  in  Paris  Museum). 
This  beaver-like  aquatic  Shrew  is 
abundant  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of 
Southern  Russia,  feeding  on  worms, 
aquatic  insects,  fish,  and  especially 
Leeches,  which  it  searches  for  in  the 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  with 
its  long  flexible  snout.  Its  burrow  is 
deeply  hollowed  out  in  steep  over- 
hanging banks,  the  entrance  being 
below  the  level  of  the  water,  whence 
it  rises  gradually,  so  as  never  to  be 
filled  during  the  highest  floods.  The 
Desman  seldom  comes  on  shore 
voluntarily,  but  is  often  captured  in 
the  nets  of  the  fishermen  ;  and  it  is 
frequently  seen  swimming  about  or 
diving  in  pursuit  of  prey.  It  exhales 
a  strong  musky  odour,  the  secretion 
of  small  glandular  follicles  at  the 
root  of  the  tail  ;  and  this  flavour  of 

musk  it  communicates  to  Pikes  and  other  fishes  which  prey  upon 

it,  rendering  their  flesh  disgusting. 


Fig.  189. — Desman. 


Fig.  igo. — Teeth  of  Desman. 


THE  CAPE  ELEPHANT-SHREIV  AND  THE  SOLENODON. 


11 


The  Cape  Elephant-Shrew  {Macroscelides  typicus). — Allied 
to  the  Shrews  are  some  little  animals  peculiar  to  Africa,  constituting- 
the  g-enus  ilacroscelidcs  of  Dr.  A.  Smith.  They  are  called  Ele- 
phant-Mice or  Elephant-Shrews,  from  the  proboscis-like  form  of  the 


Fig.  191. — Cape  Elephant- Shrew. 

snout ;  but  the  scientific  name  bears  reference  to  the  Jerboa-like 
elongation  of  the  hinder  limbs.     (See  Fig.  191.)     The  dentition  is  as 

follows  : — Incisors,     ~~  ;  false  molars  (called  canines  by  Dr.  Smith), 
2-3 

~ — -  ;  molars,    P~^ 

4-4  5-5 

croscelides :  a,  upper  surface  of  the  skull,  natural  size ;  d,  profile  ; 

c,  lower  jaw;   d,  under  surface  of  the  skull,  twice  the  natural   size  ; 

c,  the  lower  jaw,  twice  the  natural  size.     The  nostrils  are  at  the  ape.x 

of  the  proboscis  ;  the  eyes  are  moderate  ;  the  ears  large  and  rounded  ; 

the  tail  rather  long,  and  like  that  of  a  Mouse.     Feet  five-toed.     The 


Fig.   192  shows  the  skull  and  teeth  of  A/a- 


Fig.  192.— Skull  and  Teeth  of  Cape  Elephant-Shrew. 

Cape  Elephant-Shrew  {Macroscelides  typicus)  is  the  Sorex  aranciis 
maxinuis  of  Petever.  The  fur  is  soft  and  long  ;  the  general  colour 
is  reddish-brown,  clouded  on  the  back  with  a  darker  tint,  and  under 
surface  white  :  the  ears  nearly  naked  ;  whiskers  long :  length  of  head 
and  body,  three  inches  and  three-quarters ;  of  tail,  three  inches  and 
a  quarter. 

This  curious  animal  inhabits  open  plains,  and  lives  in  burrows 
under  ground,  the  passage  to  which  runs  for  some  distance  almost 
perpendicularly  downwards.  During  the  day  it  seeks  its  food,  and 
may  be  seen  basking  in  the  heat  of  the  sun,  sitting  erect  on  its 
hinder  legs  in  the  full  glare  of  the  rays.     When  disturbed,  it  flies 


immediately  to  its  subterranean  retreat,  and  with  such  velocity,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  make  out  its  form  or  general  appearance  as  it 
skims  along.     It  feeds  upon  insects.     Several  ijpccies  are  known, 
peculiar  to  South  Africa  ;  and  one  is  a  native  of  Algiers. 
The  Solenodon  (.SV«wa'o«/ara^c?.^•«.f).— The  genus  Solenodon 


Fig.  193. — Solenodon. 

of  Brandt  ("M6m.  de  I'Acad.  Imperiale  des  Sciences  de  St.  Petcrs- 
bourg,"  tome  ii.,  livr.  3eme,  1833)  contains,  as  far  as  yet  known, 
only  one  species,  an  animal  peculiar  to  Hayti,  where  it  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Agouta.     (See  Fig.  193.)     Allied  in  many  respects 


^^^f^ 


Fig.  194. — Skull  and  Teeth  of  Solenodon. 


78 


THE  SHREW-MOLE  AND  THE  COMMON  MOLE. 


to  the  genera  Sorex  and  JMygale :  in  the  character  of  the  ears,  the 
fur,  and  the  tail,  it  resembles  the  Opossums  {Didclpliis).  Its  denti- 
tion approximates  the  most  nearly  to  that  of  Mygale.  In  size  the 
Solenodon  exceeds  a  Rat;  its  snout  is  lengthened  into  a  slender 
naked  proboscis,  at  the  tip  of  which  are  the  nostrils  with  a  furrow 
between  them  ;  the  ears  are  moderate  and  rounded  ;  the  fur  is  coarse 
and  long,  and  of  a  yellowish-red  ;  from  the  lips  and  checks  proceed 
slender  whiskers  of  great  length  ;  the  limbs  are  stout  ;  the  toes,  five 
on  each  foot,  armed  with  large  hooked  claws  ;  the  tail  is  long.  Rat- 
like, and  scaly,  being  destitute  of  hairs.     Dentition  as  follows  : — 


Incisors,  -  ;  false  molars, ;  true  molars,  ? — : 

6  o     '6-6  '8-! 


The  two  middle 


incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  are  remarkable  for  their  size  and  the 
distance  between  them  and  the  succeeding  incisors ;  they  are  com- 
pressed, pointed,  and  perpendicular.  The  zygomatic  arch  is  incom- 
plete, as  in  the  Shrews  {Sorex),  the  Tanrecs  {Ceiitc/cs),  the  Echi)iops, 
&c.  Fig.  194  represents  the  skull  and  dentition  of  the  Solenodon  : 
a,  skull  of  Solenodon  (profile)  ;  b,  seen  from  above  ;  c,  seen  from 
below ;  d,  mandible  or  lower  jaw ;  e,  anterior  part  of  the  inter- 
maxillary bone,  with  the  two 
anterior  incisor  teeth ;  f, 
anterior  surface  of  an  an- 
terior upper  incisor  tooth ; 
g,  anterior  parts  of  the  man- 
dible, with  the  four  anterior 
incisor  teeth  ;  h,  the  crown 
of  a  second  or  middle  in- 
cisor tooth  of  the  mandible, 
seen  on  its  internal  surface, 
and  exhibiting  its  triangu- 
lar canal.  The  foregoing 
figures  are  nearly  of  the 
natural  size,  z',  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw  seen  laterally;  i,  i,  nat.  size;  2,  2,  magnified.  (Brandt.) 
Fig.  195,  a,  the  fore-foot  of  Solenodon,  upper  surface;  b,  hind-foot, 
upper  surface. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  Solenodon  little  is  known  :  its  strong  claws 
and  pointed  snout,  the  base  of  which  is  supported  by  a  stylet  of  bone, 
denote  it  to  be  a  burrowing  animal.  An  imperfect  skin,  in  the 
museum  of  the  Zoological  Society,  was  sent  by  Mr.  Hearne  from 
Hayti,  who  thus  writes  respecting  it  : — "  The  only  quadruped,  I 
believe,  found  on  the  island  on  the  landing  of  Columbus  was  the 
Agouta,  a  little  larger  than,  and  somewhat  resembling  a  Rat,  with 
an  equally  long  tail  and  a  longer  snout,  whose  food  is  chiefly  grain, 
although  the  animal  is  carnivorous  also  :  its  hair  is  red.  I  had  one 
alive,  intended  for  the  Society,  but  it  received  a  wound  from  a  Cat, 
of  which  it  died." 

The  Shrew-Mole  {Scalops  canadensis);  Sorex aquaticus,  Linn. ; 
Scalops  aquaticus,Y\i,Q\iex.  (See  Fig.  196.)  The  animals  of  this  genus 


Fig.  195. — Feet  of  Solenodon. 


Fig.  196. — Shrew-Mole. 

are  peculiar  to  North  America.  •  Their  form  is  Mole-like  ;  the  eyes  are 
minute  in  the  extreme,  and  scarcely  to  be  discovered  ;  there  are  no  ex- 
ternal ears :  the  fur  is  velvety ;  the  fore-paws,  like  those  of  the  Mole,  are 

adapted  for  burrowing ;  the  tail  is  short :  the  teeth  are — incisors,  -  > 


molars. 


-,  or,  according  to  F.  Cuvier,  z^ 


(See  Fig.    197.) 


10-10  "  9 

The  snout  is  long,  tapering,  flexible,  and  with  a  terminal  disc. 

The  Canada  Shrew-Mole  measures  about  seven  inches  and  a-half 
long,  exclusive  of  a  tail,  which  is  one  inch  and  a-half.  The  general 
colour  is  brownish-black.  It  inhabits  the  banks  of  the  Columbia 
and  the  adjoining  coasts  of  the  Pacific. 

According  to  Dr.  Richardson,  the  Shrew-Mole  resembles  the  com- 
mon European  Mole  as  much  in  habit  as  in  form,  forming  galleries, 
throwing  up  mounds,  and  feeding  on  worms  and  grubs.  Dr.  Godman 
states  that  these  animals  are  most  active  in  the  morning,  at  mid-day, 
and  in  the  evening,  coming  daily  to  the  surface,  when  in  their 
natural  state,  at  noon,  at  which  time  they  may  be  taken  by  driving 


a  spade  beneath  them  and  throwing  them  on  the  ground  ;  but  they 
are  not  easily  taken  at  any  other  part  of  the  day.  They  burrow  in  a 
variety  of  soils,  but  in  wet  seasons  retire  to  the  high  grounds.  An 
individual  kept  in  confinement  by  Mr.  T.  Peale,  fed  largely  on  fresh 
meat,  cooked  or  raw  ;  drank  freely,  Was  lively  and  playful,  and  would 
follow  the  hand  of  its  feeder  by  scent ;  it  would  then  burrow  for  a 


Fig.  197.— Teeth  of  Shrew-Mole. 

short  distance  in  loose  earth,  and  after  driving  a  circle,  return  for 
more  food.  It  employed  its  flexible  snout  in  a  singular  manner 
whilst  it  was  eating,  doubling  it  down,  like  a  proboscis,  upon  its 
food,  so  as  to  direct  and  force  it  into  the  mouth.  An  allied 
species  [Scalops  Tovmsendii)  is  a  native  of  California,  and  another 
{Scalops  Pentisylvaiiiciis,  Harlan)  is  found  in  Pennsylvania. 

In  our  introductory  remarks  at  p.  74,  ante,  we  have  given  a 
general  description  of  the  Talpidce,  or  Mole  family.  The  common 
Mole,  and  others  of  the  species,  Talpa,  &c.,  we  shall  now  more 
fully  remark  on  and  illustrate. 

The  Common  Mole  {Talpa  ^//ro/iz?;?).— Mouldwarp  and 
Mouldiwarp ;  Want  in  Dorsetshire  and  Devonshire;  Wand,  Old 
Danish ;    Vond,    Norwegian  ;    Maulwerf,    German ;    Mol,    Dutch ; 


Fig.  19S.— Mole. 

Muldvarp,  modern  Danish  ;  Mulvard  and  Surk,  Swedish  ;  La  Taupe, 
French;  Talpa,  Latin  and  modern  Italian;  Topo,  Spanish;  Tou- 
peiro,  Portuguese  ;  Gwadd  and  Twrch  daear,  ancient  British.  (See 
Fig.  198,  and  Fig.  186,  p.  74,  ante.) 

We  need  not  say  that   the  Mole  is   a  miner,  living  an   almost 
exclusively  subterranean  life,  ever  pursuing  ita  picy  through  the  soil. 


THE  COMMON  MOLE 


79 


and  working  out  long  galleries  in  tlie  chase.  In  accordance  with  its 
destined  habits  is  the  whole  of  its  structural  development.  The  body 
is  cylindrical  and  compact  ;  the  snout  prolonsjcd  and  pointed  ;  the 
limbs  very  short ;  the  anterior  pair  present  a  thick,  contracted  arm, 
terminating  in  broad  solid  paws,  with  five  fingers  scarcely  divided, 
and  armed  with  strong  flat  nails.  The  tournure  of  thesp  scrapers 
(for  such  they  are)  gives  them  an  obliquely  outward  position,  and 
facilitates  their  use  as  scooping  instruments,  by  which  the  soil  is  not 
only  dug  up,  but  thrown  backwards  at  each  stroke,  and  that  with 
great  energy.  The  hinder  limbs  are  small,  and  the  feet  feeble  in 
comparison  with  the  anterior  scrapers  ;  while  the  body  tapers  to  them 
from  the  chest  and  shoulders,  so  the  hinder  quarters  offer  no  impedi- 
ment to  the  animal's  progress  through  its  narrow  galleries.  The  fur, 
moreover,  is  such  as  best  befits  a  subterranean  dweller — it  is 
extremely  close,  fine,  short,  and  smooth,  and  resembles  the  nap  of 
black  velvet.  There  is  no  external  conch  to  the  organs  of  hearing, 
the  sense  of  which  is  acute  in  the  extreme  ;  a  simple  auditory  opening, 
capable  of  being  closed  or  dilated  at  pleasure,  leads  to  the  internal 
apparatus,  which  is  effectually  defended  from  the  intrusion  of 
particles  of  earth  or  sand.  At  a  cursory  glance  the  Mole  appears  to 
be  destitute  of  eyes  ;  they  are,  however,  not  wanting,  though  very 
small,  and  buried  in  the  fur.  (See  introductory  remarks  at  p.  74, 
anteS  A  limited  power  of  vision  is  sufficient  for  this  dweller  in  the 
dark  ;  the  Mole,  however,  can  see  better  than  might  be  imagined. 
By  a  peculiar  muscular  contrivance  it  is  capable  of  bringing  forward, 
or  of  drawing  in,  the  eye;  and  this,  when  withdrawn,  is  enveloped 
in  and  defended  by  the  close  fur ;  so  that,  as  is  the  case  with  the  ear, 
no  particles  of  earth  can  injure  it.  We  have  said  that  the  sense  of 
hearing  is  exquisite  ;  and  to  it  the  Mole  trusts  for  warning  on  the 
approach  of  danger  ;  but  the  sense  of  smell  is  equally  delicate  ;  and 
by  this  it  is  guided  in  its  search  for  food.  It  bores  its  long  sharp 
nose  in  the  earth  as  it  traverses  its  galleries,  and  immediately  detects 
worms  and  the  larva;  of  insects,  which  constitute  its  chief  food.  Nor 
is  the  feeling  of  this  part  at  a  low  ratio ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  very 


tapers  to  the  hind-quarters,  which  are  supported  by  limbs  as  slender 
as  they  are  short. 

The  neck-bones,  nevertheless,  are  not  wanting ;  they  even  exist  in 
the  same. number  as  in  the  Giraffe;  the  vertebral  formula  of  the 


Fig.  199. — Slveleton  of  Mole. 

acute  and  susceptible,  and  aids  the  sense  of  smell  in  the  procuring  of 
food.  The  pointed  snout  is,  indeed,  a  finger-like  organ  of  prehen- 
sion, as  well  as  a  boring  instrument.  The  general  skin  of  the  body 
is  strong  and  tough,  and  not  easily  torn  or  lacerated. 

The  osseous  and  muscular  development  of  the  Mole  exhibits  a 
perfect  correspondence  with  its  external  characters  and  the  perfec- 
tion of  its  senses.  The  great  develop- 
ment of  the  skeleton  (Fig.  igg)  is 
anteriorly — namely,  in  the  bones  of  the 
shoulders,  arms,  and  chest.  The  skull 
(Fig.  200)  is  depressed  above,  elon- 
gated, and  pointed ;  and  the  snout, 
continued  beyond  the  maxillary  and 
nasal  bones,  is  supported  by  a  little 
additional  bone,  produced  by  the  ossifi- 
cation of  the  cartilage.  Its  boring 
faculties  are  rendered  still  more  effec- 
tive by  the  ossified  condition  of  the 
ligament  of  the  neck,  which  passes 
from  the  back  of  the  skull,  down  the 
cervical  vertebra;,  and  which  in  other 
animals  is  elastic.  The  teeth  are  small, 
exhibiting  a  decidedly  insectivorous  character,  the  molars  being 
crowned  with  sharp-pointed  tubercles  or  eminences.  (See  Fig. 
201.) 

Professor  Owen  remarks  that  the  Mole  is  hardly  less  fitted  for  the 
actions  of  an  ordinary  land-quadruped  than  the  Sloth  ;  but  the  one 
is  as  admirably  constructed  for  subterraneous  as  the  other  for  arboreal 
life.  The  fore-limbs  are  as  remarkably  short,  broad,  and  massive  in 
the  Mole,  as  they  are  long  and  slender  in  the  Sloth  ;  yet  the  same 
osseous  elements,  similarly  disposed,  occur  in  the  skeleton  of  each. 
The  head  of  the  Mole  is  long  and  cone-shaped  ;  its  broad  base  joins 
on  the  trunk  without  any  outward  appearance  of  a  neck.  The  fore- 
part of  the  trunk,  to  which  the  principal  muscular  masses  working 
the  fore-hmbs  are  attached,  is  the  thickest,  and  thence  the  body 


Fig.  200.— Skull  of  Mole. 


Fig.  201. — Teeth  of  Mole. 

Mole  being — 7  cervical,  13  dorsal,  6  lumbar,  5  sacral,  and  10  caudal. 
The  spine  of  the  second  vertebra  or  dentata  is  large,  and  extended 
back  over  the  third  vertebra  :  the  neural  arches  of  this  and  the 
succeeding  neck-vertebrffi  form  thin  simple  arches  without  spines  : 

the  entire  vertebra  have  been  de- 
scribed as  mere  rings  of  bone ; 
but  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  cervicals 
are  produced  forwards  and  back- 
wards, and  overlap  each  other : 
in  the  seventh  vertebra  those  pro- 
cesses are  reduced  to  tubercular 
diapophyses  which  are  not  perfo- 
rated :  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae 
are  depressed  and  quadrate.  The 
part  answering  to  the  nuchal  liga- 
ment in  the  Giraffe,  is  bony  in  the 
Mole. 

The  first  sternal  bono,  or  manu- 
brium, is  of  unusual  length,  being 
much  produced  forwards,  and  its 
under  surface    downwards  in  the 
shape  of  a  deep  keel  for  extending  the  origin  of  the  pectoral  muscles. 
Seven  pairs  of  ribs  directly  join  the  sternum,  which  consists  of  four 
bones,  in  addition  to  the   manubrium  and  an  ossified  ensiform  ap- 
pendage.    The  neural  spines,  which  are  almost  obsolete  in  the  first 
eight  dorsals,  rapidly  gain  length  in  the  rest,  and  are  antroverted  in 
the  last  two  dorsal  vertebra;.     The  diapophyses,  being  developed  in 
the  posterior  dorsals,  determine  the  nature  of  the  longer  homologous 
processes  in  the  lumbar  vertebrae. 

The  lumbar  spines  are  low,  but  of  considerable  antero-posterior 
extent  :  the  diapophyses  are  bent  forward  in  the  last  four  vertebra  ; 
a  small,  detached,  wedge-shaped  hypapoph3J6is  is  fixed  into  the 
lower  interspace  of  the  bodies  of  the  lumbar  vertebra. 

The  scapula  is  very  long  and  narrow,  but  thick,  and  almost  three- 
sided  :  the  common  rib-shaped  is  resumed  in  this  cranial  pleura- 
pophysis,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Bird  and  Tortoise.  The  clavicle, 
on  the  other  hand,  instead  of  the  usual  long  and  slender  figure,  pre- 
sents the  form  of  a  cube,  being  very  short  and  broad,  articulated 
firmly  to  the  anterioriy  projecting  breast-bone,  and  more  loosely  with 
the  acromion  and  head  of  the  humerus. 

This  bone  would  be  classified  amongst  the  "flat"  bones.  It_  is 
almost  as  broad  as  it  is  long,  especially  at  its  proximal  end,  which 
presents  two  articular  surfaces — one  for  the  scapula,  the  other  for 
the  clavicle  :  the  expanse  of  the  bone  beyond  these  surfaces  relates 
to  the  formation  of  an  adequate  extent  of  attachment  for  the  deltoid, 
pectoral,  and  other  great  burrowing  mnscles.  All  the  other  bones 
of  the  fore-limb  are  as  extremely  modified  for  fossorial  actions.  The 
olecranon  expands  transversely  at  its  extremity,  and  the  back  part 
of  the  ulna  is  produced  into  a  strong  ridge  of  bone. 

The  shaft  of  the  radius  is  divided  by  a  wide  interosseous  space 
from  the  ulna,  and  the  head  of  the  radius  is  produced  into  a  hook- 
shaped  process  like  a  second  "  olecranon."  The  carpal  scries  con- 
sists of  five  bones  in  each  row— the  scaphoid  bcmg  divided  in  the 
first,  and  a  sesamoid  being  added  to  the  second  row ;  moreover, 
there  is  a  large  supplementary  sickle-shaped  bone,  extending  from 
the  radius  to  the  metacarpal  of  the  pollex,  giving  increased  breadth 


8o 


THE  COMMON  MOLE. 


and  a  convex  margin  to  the  radial  side  of  the  very  powerful  hand, 
and  chiefly  completing  its  adaptation  to  the  act  of  rapidly  displacing 
the  soil.  The  phalanges  of  the  fingers  are  short  and  very  strong : 
the  last  are  bifid  at  their  ends,  for  a  firm  attachment  of  the  strong 
claws.  Little  more  of  the  hand  than  these  claws,  and  the  digging 
or  scraping  edge,  projects  beyond  the  sheath  of  skin  enveloping  the 
other  joints,  and  connecting  the  hand  with  the  trunk. 

The  common  position  of  the  arm-bone  is,  with  its  distal  end,  most 
raised.  The  fore-arm,  with  the  elbow  raised,  is  in  the  state  between 
pronation  and  supination,  the  radial  side  of  the  hand  being  down- 
wards, and  the  palm  directed  outwards.  The  whole  limb,  in  its 
position  and  structure,  is  unequalled  in  the  vertebrate  series  as  a 
fossorial  instrument,  and  only  paralleled  by  the  corresponding  limb 
in  the  Mole-Cricket  {Gryllofalj)d)  amongst  the  insect  tribes. 

No  impediment  is  offered  by  the  hinder  parts  of  the  body  or  limbs 
when  the  thickest  part  of  the  animated  wedge  has  worked  its  way 
through  the  soil.  The  pelvis  is  remarkably  narrow.  The  ossa  in- 
nominatahave  coalesced  with  the  sacrum,  but  not  with  each  other, 
the  pubic  arch  remaining  open.  The  bodies  of  the  sacral  vertebrae 
are  blended  together,  and  are  carinate  below ;  their  neural  spines 
have  coalesced  to  form  a  high  ridge.  The  acetabula  point  almost 
directly  outwards.  The  head  of  the  femur  has  no  pit  for  a  round 
ligament.  A  fabella  is  preser\'ed  behind  the  outer  condyle.  A 
hamular  process  is  sent  off  from  the  head  of  the  tibia  and  fibula  ;  the 
lower  moieties  of  the  shafts  of  these  bones  are  blended  together. 
The  toes  are  five  in  number  on  the  hind-feet  as  in  the  fore,  but  are 
much  more  feebly  developed.  They  serve  to  throw  back  the  loose 
earth  detached  by  the  spade-shaped  hands. 

The  reader  should  compare  this  description  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
Mole  with  those  of  Man,  Fig.  i,  p.  2,  and  of  the  Camel,  Fig.  14, 
p.  5,  a7ite,  where  the  names  of  each  corresponding  bone  are  given, 
so  as  to  become  acquainted  with  some  of  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
comparative  anatomy  of  the  Matiunaiia. 

It  would  appear  that  the  subterranean  labours  of  the  Mole  are 
e.xerted  in  the  accomplishment  of  very  different  objects.  Each  Mole 
may  be  said  to  have  its  own  district  or  manor,  its  hunting-ground, 
and  its  lodges  ;  and  this  ground  is  traversed  by  high-road  tunnels, 
through  which  it  travels  from  one  part  to  another,  all  branching  off 
from  a  central  fortress — its  ordinary  residence,  which  is,  however, 
not  only  distinct,  but  often  remote  from  the  chamber  in  which  the 
nest  is  made  and  the  young  reared.  We  will  begin  by  describing 
the  fortress  or  ordinary  domicile  (Fig.  202). — This  fortress  is  con- 


Fig.  202. — Habitation  and  Hunting-ground  of  the  Mole. 

structed  under  a  hillock  of  considerable  size  (not  one  of  those  ordi- 
narily thrown  up  every  night,  indicating  its  hunting  excursions),  and 
raised  in  some  secure  place,  where  a  high  bank,  the  roots  of  a  tree, 
or  the  base  of  a  wall,  afford  protection.  The  earth  forming  this 
mound  is  well  compacted  together,  and  made  solid  by  the  labours  of 
the  architect ;  and  within  this  firm-set  mound  is  a  complex  arrange- 
ment of  galleries  and  passages  ot  communication.  First,  a  circular 
gallery  occupies  the  upper  portion  of  the  mound,  and  this  communi- 
cates by  means  of  five  descending  passages  with  another  gallery  at 
the  base  of  the  mound,  enclosing  a  larger  area.  These  passages 
are  nearly  at  equal  distances.  Within  the  area  of  this  lower  gallery 
is  a  chamber,  not  immediately  communicating  with  it,  but  with  the 
upper  gallery,  by  three  abruptly  descending  tunnels.  This  chamber 
is  the  dormitory  of  the  Mole.  From  the  basal  gallery  opens  a  high- 
road tunnel,  which  is  carried  out  in  a  direct  line  to  the  extent  of  the 
manor  over  which  the  individual  presides,  and  from  the  bottom  of 
the  central  chamber  a  passage  descends,  and  then  sweeping  upwards 
joins  this  main  road  at  a  little  distance  from  the  hillock  ;  so  that  the 
Mole  can  enter  the  high-road  either  from  its  dormitory  or  from  the 
basal  gallery.  Besides  the  high-road,  eight  or  nine  other  tunnels 
are  carried  out  from  the  basal  gallery ;  they  are  of  greater  or  less 


extent,  and  wind  round  more  or  less  irregularly,  opening  into  the 
high-road  at  various  distances  from  the  hillock :  these  irregular 
tunnels  the  Mole  is  continually  extending  in  quest  of  prey  ;  throwing 
up  the  soil  above  the  turf,  through  holes  which  it  makes  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  which  form  the  ordinary  Mole-hills  which  we  often  see 
crowded  thickly  together.  The  high  or  main  road  exceeds  in 
diameter  the  body  of  the  Mole,  and  is  solid  and  well-trodden,  with 
smooth  sides  ;  its  depth  varies  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
instinct  directing  the  little  excavator  in  his  work.  Ordinarily  it  is 
five  or  six  inches  below  the  surface,  but  when  carried  under  a  stream- 
let or  pathway  it  is  often  a  foot  and  a-half  beneath.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  Mole  will  drive  two  or  more  additional  high-roads 
in  order  to  the  extension  of  its  operations  ;  and  one  high-road  occa- 
sionally serves  several  Moles,  which,  however,  never  trespass  on 
each  other's  preserves.  They  often  meet  in  these  roads,  which  will 
not  admit  of  two  passing  at  the  same  time  ;  one  therefore  must 
retreat ;  but  when  two  males  thus  come  into  collision  they  frequently 
attack  each  other,  the  weaker  falling  a  victim  in  the  combat.  The 
alleys  opening  from  the  sides  of  the  high-road  are  generally  inclined 
downwards  with  a  gradual  slope,  and  then  at  the  termination  of 
these  the  Mole  excavates  branch  alleys,  upheaving  Mole-hills  as  it 
works  onwards  in  pursuit  of  prey.  This,  however,  is  not  invariably 
the  case,  but  rather  where  prey  is  abundant  in  rich  soils  :  where  the 
soil  is  barren,  the  Mole  is  constantly  driving  fresh  alleys ;  these  in 
winter  are  carried  deep  down  to  where  the  worms  have  pierced  their 
way,  beyond  the  line  to  which  the  frost  penetrates  ;  for,  be  it  ob- 
served, the  Mole  does  not  hibernate,  but  is  as  active  during  winter 
as  in  spring  or  summer,  though  the  results  of  his  operations  are  less 
manifest.  In  soft  rich  soils,  where  the  worms  are  among  the  roots 
of  the  turf,  the  Mole,  as  may  be  often  noticed,  drives  very  superficial 
runs  in  pursuit  of  them  ;  these  runs  are  to  be  seen  where  a  thin  layer 
of  richly  manured  soil  overlays  a  stratum  of  gravel :  in  fact,  the 
depth  of  these  alleys  is  always  determined  by  the  quality  of  the  soil 
and  the  consequent  situation  of  the  worms.  With  respect  to  the 
nest  of  the  female,  it  is  generally  constructed  at  a  distance  from  the 
fortress,  where,  at  some  convenient  part,  three  or  four  passages 
intersect  each  other  :  the  point  of  convergence  is  enlarged  and 
rendered  commodious,  and  fitted  to  receive  a  bed  made  of  dry 
herbage,  fibrous  roots,  &c.  The  chamber  is  generally  beneath  a 
large  hillock,  but  not  always  ;  and  the  surrounding  soil  is  usually 
such  as  to  afford  abundant  food  to  the  female  with  little  trouble  on 
her  part.  The  Mole  breeds  in  the  spring,  mostly  in  April,  and 
brings  forth  four  or  five  young  at  a  birth.  These  are  supposed  to 
remain  under  the  mother's  care  till  about  half-grown,  when  they 
commence  an  independent  existence. 

Such  is  the  constitution  of  the  Mole  that  a  short  fast  proves  fatal. 
It  would  appear  that  all  its  animal  appetites  are  in  excess  ;  its 
hunger  is  voracity  amounting  to  rage,  under  the  influence  of  which 
it  fastens  on  its  prey  with  intense  eagerness.  Earthworms  are  its 
favourite  food,  and  these  it  skins  Vi'ith  great  address,  squeezing  out 
the  earthy  contents  of  the  body  before  swallowing  it.  It  is  not, 
however,  exclusively  upon  earthworms  and  the  larv£e  of  insects  that 
the  Mole  feeds  ;  during  the  months  of  June  and  July  it  is  in  the 
habit  of  leaving  its  runs  under  the  turf,  and  of  wandering  during  the 
night  (and  occasionally  even  during  the  day)  on  the  surface  in  quest 
of  prey,  such  as  Birds,  Mice,  Frogs,  Lizards,  Snails,  &c.  ;  but  it 
refuses  to  touch  the  Toad,  in  consequence  no  doubt  of  the  acrid 
exudation  from  that  reptile's  skin.  During  these  nocturnal  excur- 
sions it  often  falls  a  prey  to  the  Owl ;  and  we  have  seen  it  in  the  day- 
time caught  and  killed  by  Dogs. 

The  voracity  of  the  Mole,  and  its  perpetually  recurring  repasts 
upon  animal  food,  render  water  not  only  a  welcome  refreshment,  but 
necessary  to  its  existence.  A  run,  sometimes  used  by  many  indi- 
viduals, always  leads  to  a  ditch,  stream,  or  pond,  if  such  be  within  a 
moderate  distance.  If  these  natural  supplies  be  not  at  hand,  the 
Mole  sinks  little  wells,  in  the  shape  of  perpendicular  shafts,  which 
become  filled  with  the  rain,  and  retain  the  water ;  and  they  have 
sometimes  been  found  brimful.  Scarcity  of  water,  or  a  drought,  as 
well  as  a  scarcity  of  worms,  often  obliges  the  Mole  to  shift  its 
quarters,  and  locate  upon  other  grounds.  In  its  migration  it  will 
cross  brooks  or  rivers,  swimming  admirably  ;  and  when  spring  or 
autumn  floods  inundate  the  fields,  it  easily  saves  itself  by  these 
means.  It  is,  moreover,  affirmed  that  in  this  peril  the  male  and 
female  brave  the  waters  together,  and  expose  themselves  to  the 
utmost  danger  in  order  to  save  their  young,  in  which  office  of 
parental  devotion  they  mutually  assist  and  protect  each  other. 

The  disposition  of  this  animal  is  fierce  and  combative.  If  several 
Moles  be  kept  in  a  box  of  earth,  and  not  supplied  with  an  abundance 
of  food,  they  attack  each  other,  and  the  w'eaker  falls  a  prey  to  the 
stronger ;  when  the  Mole  seizes,  it  holds  like  a  Bull-dog,  with  a 
tenacious  gripe,  and  is  not  easily  disengaged.  ,  M.  Geoffrey  St. 
Hilaire  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  Mole  approaches  and 
seizes  a  bird  :  it  exerts  several  stratagems  to  get  within  reach  of  its 
victim,  employing  the  utmost  address  and  caution  ;  but  when  this  is 
accomplished,  it  suddenly  changes  its  plan,  and  makes  an  instan- 
taneous and  impetuous  attack ;  fastens  on  the  hapless  bird,  tears 
open  the  abdomen,  thrusts  its  snout  among  the  viscera,  and  revels  in 


THE  CHRYSOCHLORE  AND  THE  STAR-NOSED  MOLE. 


8i 


its  sanguinary  repast.  After  satiating  its  ravenous  appetite,  it  sinks 
into  a  profound  repose  :  in  the  winter  it  slumbers  in  its  fortress ;  but 
in  the  summer,  beneath  some  ordinary  Mole-hill  in  one  of  its  alleys. 
This  sleep  endures  for  about  four  hours,  or  perhaps  longer,  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  when  it  awakes  with  a  renovated  appetite.  Its 
busiest  time  is  in  the  evening,  during  the  night,  and  early  in  the 


The  following  cut  represents  Moles  in  their  native  haunts,  and  on 
a  burrow,  with  hillock.     (See  Fig.  203.) 

The  Cape  Chrysochlore  {Chrysochloris  G7/c;mj).— The 
Mole  IS  represented  m  Africa  by  the  Chrysochlore,  but  the  fore-paws 
are  only  armed  with  three  nails,  of  which  the  outermost  is  long, 
thick   arched,  and  pointed ;  there  is  no  tail.     This  singular  animal 

is  loss  than  a  Mole,  and  appears  to 
be  entirely  destitute  of  eyes.  Its 
velvclty  fur  has  a  metallic  lustre, 
changing  from  dark-green  to  bronze 
or  copper  in  different  lights.  This 
species  is  a  native  of  Southern  Africa, 
where  it  lives  like  the  Mole  in  burrows, 
and  feeds  on  worms  and  insects.  It 
is  the  Taupe  doree  of  the  French. 

The  subjoined  cuts  represent  the 
back  and  belly  of  the  Chrysochlore. 
(See  Figs.  204  and  205.)  There  arc 
several  other  varieties. 

The  Thick-tailed  Condylure, 
OR  Star-nosed  Mole  {Condylar a 
7nacroura).  —  The  Condylures,  or 
Star-nosed  Moles,  are  confined  to 
North  America  ;  they  closely  resem- 
ble the  common  Mole  in  their  feet, 
general  aspect,  and  habits,  but  the 
tail  is  longer,  and  the  disc  at  the 
end  of  the  snout  is  encircled  by  little 
movable  cartilaginous  processes  like 
the  rays  of  a  star.  The  eyes  are 
extremely  minute  ;  external  ears  are 
wanting ;  fur  deep,   thick,  and  fine. 

The  teeth   consist    of — incisors,  i  ; 


canines,  - 


(See 


203. 


-British  Moles  in  their  native  haunts. 


morning.  It  might  be  supposed,  from  the  figure  of  the  Mole,  that 
its  motions  were  very  slow  and  deliberate  ;  it  trips  along,  however, 
at  a  fair  pace,  and  traverses  its  underground  runs  and  galleries  with 
great  rapidity. 

The  Mole  does  not  exist  in  the  extreme  north  of  Scotland,  in 
Zetland,  or  the  Orkney  Islands,  nor  has  it  been  seen  in  any  part  of 
Ireland.  Varieties  of  this  animal  often  occur:  we  have  examined 
specimens  of  a  Mouse-colour,  of  a  white,  cream-white,  and  pale 
yellowish  orange. 


J.^. 


Fig.  204. — Cape  Chrysochlore. 


Fig.  205. — Cipe  Chrysochlore, 


;    molars, . 

i-i  7-7 

Fig.  206,  teeth  of  C.  cristata.') 

We  have  no  minute  details  respect- 
ing the  manners  and  instincts  of  the 
Chrysochlores,  of  which  three  species 
are  distinguished  :  they  are  burrowing  animals,  feeding  upon  worms 
and  the  larvje  of  insects,  &c.  The  thick-tailed  Condylure  was  dis- 
covered by  Mr.  David  Douglas  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  river. 
The  colour  of  the  fur  above  is  deep  lustrous  brown,  paler  on  the 


Fig.  206. — Teeth  of  Star-nosed  Mole. 


Fig.  207. — Star-noseJ  Mole. 

under  parts.  The  tail  is  contracted  at  its  root,  whence  it  gradually 
enlarges,  and  then  tapers  to  a  fine  point.  Length  of  head  and  body, 
four  inches  and  a-half ;  of  the  tail,  two  inches  and  a-half.  (See  Fig.  207.) 

Insectivora— Genus  Erinaceus — Hedgehogs. 

The  only  British  species  of  this  genus  is  the  COMMON  HEDGEHOG 
(Erittaccus  Euro/xvus).      Riccio   of    the    Italians ;    Erizo    of   the 

M 


82 


THE  HEDGEHOG. 


Spanish;  Ourizo  of  the  Portuguese;  Herisson  of  the  French  ;  Igel 
of  the  Germans  ;  Eegelvarken  of  the  Dutch  ;  Pin-suin  of  theDanes  ; 
Draenog  and  Dracn  y  coed  of  the  ancient  British  ;  Urchin,  Pro- 
vincial English  ;  'Ex'i'oe  (spiny  animal)  of  the  Greeks. — A  group 
of  these  animals  is  represented  in  Fig.  208  It  is  superfluous  to 
enter  into  an  elaborate  description  of  this  spine-covered  animal ;  all 
are  well  acquainted  with  its  external  characters,  and  all  know  that  it 
has  the  power  of  rolling  itself  up  into  a  ball,  presenting  an  array  of 


Fig.  20S. — Hedgehogs. 

serried  spines  formidable  to  its  antagonist.  A  peculiar  muscular 
expansion  beneath  the  skin  enables  the  Hedgehog  thus  completely 
to  enshroud  itself  in  its  panoply,  as  in  a  hood,  the  margin  of  which 
is  closed  by  means  of  a  circular  muscle,  the  head  and  limbs  being 
retracted  within.  While  the  animal  is  thus  enveloped  in  its  armed 
skin,  the  spines  are  stiffly  set  by  the  action  of  the  muscular  ex- 
pansion, and  radiate  from  the  ball ;  and  such  is  the  strength  and 
elasticity  of  this  covering,  that  a  Hedgehog  may  roll  down  a  steep 
place  or  precipitous  bank  without  the  slightest  injury.  Mr.  Bell 
assures  us  that  he  has  repeatedly  seen  a  domesticated  Hedgehog  in 
his  possession  run  towards  the  precipitous  wall  of  an  area,  and,  with- 
out hesitation  or  a  moment's  pause  for  preparation,  throw  itself  off, 
contracting,  at  the  same  instant,  into  a  ball,  in  which  condition  it 
reached  the  ground  from  a  height  of  twelve  or  fourteen  feet ;  when, 
after  a  few  moments,  it  would  unfold  itself  and  run  off  unhurt.  The 
Hedgehog  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits  :  it  frequents  woods,  copses,  old 
gardens,  orchards,  and  thick  hedgerows,  where  it  remains  rolled 
up  in  its  retreat  during  the  day,  coming  forth  on  the  approach  of 
twilight,  and  continuing  on  the  alert  till  morning.  Its  motions  are 
quick  and  irregular,  and  its  pace  a  sort  of  heavy  paddling,  the  body 
being  close  to  the  ground,  and  the  feet  plantigrade.  Its  food  con- 
sists of  insects,  Slugs,  Frogs,  Toads,  Mice,  and  even  Snakes ;  to  which 
it  adds  eggs,  young  nestlings,  and  various  kinds  of  vegetables,  as 
the  roots  of  grass  and  plantain,  and  ripe  orchard-fruits  which  fall 
from  the  trees.  White  notices  the  manner  in  which  it  bores  with  its 
snout,  to  get  at  the  root  of  the  plantain,  which  it  eats,  leaving  the 
tuft  of  leaves  untouched.  In  the  first  volume  of  the  "Zoological 
Journal"  is  the  narrative,  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Broderip,  of  an  ex- 
periment made  by  Professor  Buckland,  relative  to  the  destruction 
of  Snakes  by  the  Hedgehog,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  the 
cunning  quadruped  makes  a  sudden  attack  on  the  reptile,  and  giving 
it  a  hard  bite,  instantly  rolls  itself  up  for  safety,  then  cautiously  un- 
folds, and  inflicts  another  wound,  repeating  its  attacks  till  the  Snake 
is  "  scotched,"  its  back-bone  being  broken  in  several  places  ;  it  next 
passes  the  body  of  the  Snake  gradually  through  its  jaws,  cracking 
the  bones  at  short  intervals  ;  which  done,  it  proceeds  to  eat  its  victim 
as  one  would  eat  a  radish,  beginning  with  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and 
slowly  proceeding  upwards.  We  have  frequently  seen  Hedgehogs 
eat  Frogs,  rapidly  crunching  their  bones  with  an  audible  noise.  The 
Hedgehog  may  be  easily  domesticated,  and  becomes  familiar,  feed- 
ing on  soaked  bread,  vegetables,  and  meat ;  it  is  useful  in  kitchens. 


which  it  effectually  clears  of  Crickets,  Cockroaches,  Beetles,  &c. ;  and 
as  it  keeps  quiet  in  its  nest  or  retreat  all  day,  produces  itself  no  incon- 
venience. Superstitious  ignorance,  as  in  the  case  of  the  poor  little 
Shrew,  has  led  to  the  cruel  persecution  of  the  Hedgehog,  because, 
forsooth,  it  was  (and  in  some  places  still  is)  believed  to  drain  dry  the 
udders  of  the  Cows  during  the  night,  to  the  surprise  of  the  milkmaid 
and  the  indignation  of  the  farmer.  To  the  Slow-worm  and  the  Fem- 
Owl  {Ca^ritnulgits)  the  same  mischievous  habits  have  been  at- 
tributed, the  physical  impossibility  of 
their  committmg  such  a  theft  being 
overlooked  or  not  appreciated.  With 
respect  to  the  Hedgehog,  this  accusa- 
tion, as  Mr.  Bell  observes,  is  about  as 
well  founded  as  that  by  Pliny,  and  ex- 
aggerated by  Sperling,  who  asserts  that 
it  ascends  trees,  knocks  off  the  apples 
and  pears  (.ffilian  says  figs),  and  throw- 
ing itself  down  upon  them  so  that  they 
may  stick  to  its  spines,  trots  oS  with 
the  prize. 

The  Hedgehog  hibernates,  passing 
the  winter  in  a  state  of  complete  tor- 
pidity. It  makes  its  retreat  in  banks 
under  the  hollow  roots  of  trees,  in  holes 
or  other  sheltered  and  convenient  places, 
constructing  a  sort  of  nest  or  bed  of 
grasses,  dried  leaves,  and  moss ;  with 
these  it  covers  itself  deeply  and  closely, 
and  when  discovered  hibernating,  re- 
sembles a  ball  or  roundish  mass  of  herb- 
age, which  it  seems  to  have  attached  to 
its  spines  by  repeatedly  rolling  itself 
round  amidst  the  heap  it  had  stored  up. 
The  female  breeds  early  in  the  sum- 
mer, forming  an  artful  nest,  roofed  so 
as  to  throw  oft"  the  rain ;  within,  it  is 
well  lined  with  leaves  and  moss.  The 
young,  from  two  to  four  in  number,  are 
blind  at  their  birth,  about  two  inches 
long,  perfectly  white,  and  naked,  though 
the  rudiments  of  the  prickles  are  per- 
ceptible. These  soon  develop  them- 
selves, and  harden  even  before  the  eyes 
are  opened ;  but  it  is  not  till  a  later  period 
that  the  young  are  able  to  draw  down 
the  skin  over  the  muzzle,  and  fold  them- 
selves Into  a  complete  ball.  The  mother  is  devoted  to  her  offspring, 
and  unremitting  in  her  duties.  Formerly  the  flesh  of  the  Hedgehog 
was  eaten  in  our  island,  and  is  so  still  on  some  parts  of  the  continent. 
An  intimate  friend  of  the  writer  had  one 
dressed  and  served  up  for  dinner,  and 
assured  us  that  it  was  excellent ;  we  must, 
however,  remember  the  old  adage,  "  De 
gustibus,"  &c.  :  few,  we  think,  would 
willingly  partake  of  such  "small  deer." 
The  Romans  made  use  of  the  spiny  skin 
of  the  Hedgehog  in  hackling  hemp  for  the 
weaving  of  cloth. 
The  Hedgehog  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe ;  its  length,  when 
full  grown,  is  about  g-J-  inches.     Fig.  209  represents  the  skull.      The 

dentition  is  as  follows  : — Incisors,   -    the  two  middle  the  longest ; 

6 

false  molars,  ^^  ;  molars  with  acute  tubercles,  3^3  .  small  tuber- 

i-i  3-3 

culous  molars,  — ~— 


INSECTIVORA— Genus  Cenieies—Tn^  Tenrecs. 

Closely  allied  to  the  genus  Erinacetis  is  the  genus  Cenfefes,  111. 
[Centenes,  Desm.  ;  Setiger,  Geoff.),  which  comprehends  certain 
Hedgehog-like  animals,  confined,  as  far  as  we  know,  to  the  Mauri- 
tius and  Madagascar.  They  are  covered  with  spines,  but  these 
spines  are  feebler  than  those  of  the  Hedgehog  ;  nor  do  the  animals 
enjoy  so  completely  the  power  of  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball. 

6        4 
6       4 

molars,  "d^l^.    (See  Fig.  210).    The  muzzle  is  long 
I— I  6-6 

and  pointed ;  the  tail  wanting.  These  animals  hibernate  during 
the  dry  season,  when  their  natural  food,  insects  and  worms,  fail,  and 
revive  on  the  return  of  the  rainy  season.  In  their  habits  they  are 
nocturnal. 

The  Tenrec,  or  Tanrec  {Ccntetcs  ecaudafiis,  Cuv.  ;  Erina- 
ceus  ecaudatus,  Linn.:  see  Fig.  211).      This  species  exceeds  our 


Fig.  209.— Skull  of 
Hedgehog. 


They  differ,  moreover,  in  their  dentition,  the  incisors  being  . 
canines, -'"  ^  ■    — '--"      ~ 


THE  TENRECS—THE  BULAU,   OR  TIKUS. 


83 


Hed"-eho<'  in  size,  and  is  covered  above  with  long  flexible  spines, 
except  on°the  top  of  the  head  ;  the  under  parts  are  clad  with  yellowish 
bristly  hairs,  a  few  black  being-  intermixed. 

The  Tenrec  is  a  native  of  Madagascar,  but  has  been  naturalised 
in  the  Mauritius.  Of  its  habits  we  have  but  imperfect  details.  On 
June  14th,  1831,  a  letter  respecting  these  animals,  addressed  to  the 


Fig.  210. — Teeth  of  Tenrec. 

Zoological  Society,  and  dated  Port  Louis,  December  15th,  1830, 
was  read  at  the  scientific  meeting.  It  referred  to  previous  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Society's  valuable  correspondent 
to  transport  from  the  Mauritius  to  England  living  Gouramies  and 
Tenrecs,  and  promised  a  repetition  of  the  experiment.  Mr.  Telfair 
states  that  they  live  on  boiled  rice,  but  will  probably  not  exist  long 
upon  that  alone,  as  their  natural  food  is  chiefly  composed  of  worms, 
insects.  Lizards,  and  the  eggs  of  Snails.  In  the  Mauritius  they  sleep 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  winter,  from  April  to  November,  and 
are  only  to  be  found  when  summer  heat  is  felt,  which  being  generally 
ushered  in  by  an  electric  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  negroes  {with 


Fig.  211. — Tenrec. 

whom  they  are  a  favourite  food)  say  they  are  awakened  by  the  peals 
of  thunder  which  precede  the  summer  storms  or  "  pluies  d'orage." 
Even  in  summer  they  are  not  often  seen  beyond  the  holes  in  which 
they  burrow,  except  at  night.  Their  favourite  haunts  are  among  the 
old  roots  of  clumps  of  bamboos.  They  have  a  very  overpowering 
smell  of  musk  at  all  times,  which  is  increased  to  an  extraordinary 
degree  when  they  are  disturbed  or  frightened  ;  yet  their  flesh  is 
considered  so  savoury  by  the  negroes,  that  they  are  unwilling  to  sell 
those  which  they  catch,  and  would  not  exchange  it  for  any  other 


food,  except  perhaps  for  the  "  Outrite,"  which  is  the  Catfish  hung 
up  in  the  sun  until  it  acquires  a  most  fetid  smell,  tainting  the  atmo- 
sphere to  a  great  distance ;  in  this  state  it  is  a  chief  ingredient  in 
their  favourite  ragout. 

The  Striped  Tenrec  {Centctes  scinispinosus). — This  species  is 
of  small  size  :  the  head  is  very  conical ;  the  muzzle  elongated  and 


Fig.  212. — Striped  Tenrec. 

pointed  ;  the  body  is  clothed  with  a  mixture  of  spines  and  bristles, 
and   is  banded   longitudinally  yellow  and  black.     Native  country, 
Madagascar.     (See  Fig.  212.) 
The  Spiny  Tenrec,  or  Tendrac  {Centetes  s^inosus);  Ericulus 

7iigrescens  ?  of  Isidore  Geoffroy. — Incisors,   ^  :    molars,  '-^-. 

4  .        1-1 

The  Tendrac  of  Buffoon  is  more  like  a  Hedgehog  in  appearance 
than  are  the  two  previous  species.  It  is  covered  above  with  close, 
short,  stiff  spines,  and  with  bristle-like  hairs  on  the  under  parts. 
The  spines  are  of  a  deep  mahogany  colour,  whitish  at  the  root  and 
point.  Under  parts  yellowish-white.  Native  country,  Madagascar, 
where  it  is  said  to  make  a  burrow  in  the  neighbourhood  of  fresh  or 


Fig.  213. — Spiny  Tenrec. 

salt  water  ;  its  habits  resemble  those  of  the  rest  of  its  race,  and  it  is 
acceptable  to  the  negroes  as  food.  (See  Fig.  213.)  An  animal 
allied  to  the  Tendrac,  and  called  Sokinar  by  the  natives,  is  found  in 
Madagascar. 

The  Gymnure  {Gymm/ra  Rafflesii).  The  Bulau  or  Tikus.  Of 
the  genus  Gynmura  (Horsfield  and  Vigors.) — It  is  a  native  of 
Sumatra,  and  its  introduction  to  science  is  due  to  the  late  Sir  T. 
Stamford  Raffles,  who  first  described  it  under  the  title  of  Viverra 
Gymnura.     Cuvier  observes  that  it  appears  t5  approach  Cladobates 


Fig.  214. — Gymnure. 

{Tupaia)  in  its  teeth,  and  the  Shrews  in  its  muzzle  and  scaly  tail. 
The  toes  are  five  in  number  on  each  foot ;  the  eyes  are  small ;  the 
whiskers  long  ;  the  fur  consists  of  a  short,  dense,  woolly  under-coat, 
and  long,  coarse,  thinly-set  hairs.     The  body,  legs,  first  half  of  the 


84 


THE  BANXRING. 


tail,  and  a  stripe  above  the  eyes  are  black  ;  the  head,  neck,  and  end 
of  the  tail  are  white  ;   the  muzzle  is  elonjrated.     The  dentition  as 


follows  : — Incisors,    - ;  canines,  ;    molars, 


6-6 


It  exhales  a 


I  —  I 
6  i-i '  ' 6-6 

strong  musky  smell.     Specimens  are  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Zoological  Society  and  the  British  Museum.     (See  Fig.  214.) 


insectivora- 
The    Banxring, 


-Genus  Tuj>aia — The  Banxring. 


OR  Bangsring  {Tiipaia  yavajiica). — The 
genus  Tupaia,  RafHes  {Cladobafes,  F.  Cuvier ;  Sorexglis,  Diard ; 
Glisjiorex,    Desmarest ;    Hyogale,    Temminck),    contains    several 


Fig.  215. — Banxring. 

species,  mostly  natives  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  where  they  inhabit  the 
forests.  (See  Fig.  215.)  In  their  dentition  there  is  some  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the  Hedgehog.     The  formula  stands  as  follows  : — 

Incisors,  - ;  canines, 
6 


Fig.  216  represents  the 


molars,  3 — ~. 
i-i  6-6 

teeth  :  a,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  ;  b,  those  of  the  lower.  The  head  is 
oblong  and  depressed  ;  the  snout  long  and  attenuated  ;  the  nostrils 
lateral ;  the  eyes  very  large 


Fig.  216. — Teeth  of  Banxring. 


and  rather  prominent ;  the 
body  long,  slender,  and 
covered  with  close  fur  and 
soft  hairs ;  the  tail  is  longer 
than  the  body,  and  com- 
pressed ;  the  feet  planti- 
grade and  pentadactyle  ; 
the  toes  compressed  and 
furnished  with  hooked 
claws  ;  the  thumb  is  dis- 
tinct, and  movable  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  the 
others.  Fig.  217  repre- 
sents the  head  of  the 
Tupaia  Tana  of  Sumatra : 
a,  in  profile  ;  and  b,  as 
seen  from  above.  Fig.  218  represents  the  head  of  the  Banxring 
(Tupaia  Javanica)  :  and  Fig  219;  a,  the  fore-foot;  b,  the  hind- 
foot  ;  in  both  the  thumb  is  seen  distinct,  especially  in  the  hind-foot. 
The  Tupaias,  instead  of  being  strictly  terrestrial,  lead,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  life  of  Squirrels,  having  all  their  sprightliness  and 
activity,  and  much  ot  the  general  appearance  of  those  animals. 
They  are,  in  fact,  semi-arboreal  Insectivora  ;  and  were  it  not  for  their 
long  head  and  pointed  snout,  could  scarcely  be  distinguished,  at  a 
distance,  from  some  of  the  Sciuri,  or  Squirrels.  Their  fine  soft  fur 
is  of  a  dark  red  ;  and  on  the  tail,  the  hair,  which  is  long  and  bushy,  is 
distichous,  or  arranged  laterally,  especially  if  viewed  on  the  under 
surface.  Sir  T.  Stamford  RafHes  states  that  they  are  decidedly 
diurnal,  their  large  bright  eyes  being  suited  to  daylight,  and  that 
they  live  principally  on  fruits,  and  especially  that  of  the  Kayogadis. 
The  Banxring  or  Bangsring  of  Java  is  lively  and  active.  Dr.  Hors- 
field,  who  met  with  it  during  his  researches  in  Java,  states  that  in 
traversing  the  province  of  Blambangan,  in  1806,  he  discovered  it  in 
the  extensive  forests  which  almost  entirely  cover  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  island  ;  and  he  thinks  that  its  range,  though  it  may 
not  be  confined  exclusively  to  that  province,  is  extremely  limited. 
From  the  scanty  information  afforded  by  the  natives,  it  would  seem 
that  the  Banxring  lives  on  trees,  and  "feeds  on  fruits  and  nuts  ;  " 
but  Dr.  Horsfield  obsen'ed  that  this  account  must  be  received  with 
due  limitation,  and  he  refers  to  the  system  of  dentition  as  indicating 


that  the  Banxring  is  more  adapted  to  animal  than  vegetable  food. 
Length,  from  extremity  of  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  six  inches  five 
lines  ;  of  tail,  six  inches  five  lines. 

The  fur  of  the   Banxring  is  close,  silky,  and  delicate,  witli  a  few 
longer,  more  rigid,  and  darker-coloured  hairs  dispersed  throughout 


Fig.  217. — Head  of  Tupaia  Tana. 

it.  The  upper  parts  are  brown,  slightly  diversified  with  grey  of 
different  shades  ;  the  lower  parts  dirty  white,  with  a  slight  tint  of 
greyish  :  the  tail  agrees  with  the  upper  parts  ;  and  the  scapular  line, 
which  is  nearly  an  inch  long,  agrees  with  the  neck. 

The  Ferruginous  Tupaia  is  a  a  native  of  Sumatra,  and  does  not 


Fig.  218. — Head  of  Banxring. 

appear  to  differ  essentially  in  its  habits  from  the  Java  species.  Sir 
Stamford  RafBes  states  that  a  tame  Tupaia  ferriiginea  was  suffered 
to  go  about  at  perfect  liberty,  ranged  in  freedom  over  the  whole 
house,  and  never  failed  to  present  himself  on  the  breakfast  and 
dinner  table,  where  he  partook  of  fruit  and  milk.     Dr.   Horsfield 

also  quotes  an  extract  from  the 
"  Proceedings  of  the  Asiatic 
Society,"  where  it  is  stated  that 
a  living  Tupaia  fcrruginea 
was  brought  to  Bengal  by  a 
medical  gentleman  ;  it  ran  about 
the  house  tame,  but  would  not 
allow  itself  to  be  caught  for  close 
inspection.  Though  at  liberty 
to  run  out  of  doors  whenever  it 
liked,  it  showed  no  disposition 
to  leave  its  quarters,  and  evinced 
some  attachment  to  the  family  ; 
for  whenever  strangers  entered 
the  house  it  showed  disquietude 
and  made  a  chattering  noise.  It 
gave  no  trouble  in  feeding,  for 
it  was  always  on  the  search  after 
insects,  and  its  favourite  food 
Grasshoppers,  and  Cockroaches. 
Specimens  of  the  Tupaias,  of  various  species,  are  preserved  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Zoological  Society,  and  in  the  British  Museum. 


Fig.  219. — Feet  of  Banxring. 
seemed  to  be   Flies,    Crickets, 


THE  CARNIVORA,   OR  FLESH-EATING  MAMMALIA. 


85 


CHAPTER     IX. 

MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CARNIVORA— FLESH-EATERS. 
Dogs,  Lions,  Tigers,  Hv^nas,  Etc. 


J^X\ 


m 


^t 


!r>Cv 


jV 


V 


fe^:^ 


ERIOUS  difBculty  frequently  arises  in 
the  attempt  to  exactly  classify  animals, 
and  place  them  in  their  relative  posi- 
tion. In  perusing  the  previous  chapters, 
the  reader  must  have  noticed  that  each 
order  almost  insensibly  becomes  connected  with 
another,  either  of  superior  or  inferior  character. 
In  the  Qitadriimatia,  for  example,  we  have  a 
gradual  progression  downwards,  from  the  Man- 
like to  the  Dog-like  and  Bird-like,  extending  from 
the  Gorilla  down  to  the  Flying  Lemur.  This 
again  resembles  the  Bats  :  and  thus,  throughout 
the  science  of  Natural  History,  the  utmost  care  has 
to  be  taken  to  define  the  characters  of  an  animal  so 
that  it  may  be  properly  associated  with  its  fellows. 
The  order  Carnivora,  which  is  the  subject  of  this 
'  and  following  chapters,  amply  illustrates  the  difficulty 
above  referred  to.  Strictly,  the  term  means  Flesh- 
eating  animals ;  but  under  this  designation  we  might 
include  nearly  all  the  Qitadruniaiia  and  other  animals 
described  in  the  preceding  chapters.  The  young  Gorilla, 
for  example,  described  at  p.  26,  ante,  enjoyed  a  steak 
and  potatoes  on  his  arrival  at  the  Aquarium  in  West- 
minster, in  1877.  Yet  the  other  and  more  leading  cha- 
racteristics of  that  animal  remove  him  to  a  much  higher 
class.  He  belongs  to  the  Fuur-hatidcd  animals  ;  while 
the  Carnivora  proper  are  Four-footed,  or  Quadrupeds. 
To  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  difficulties  here  alluded 
to,  we  shall  throw  the  responsibility  of  defining  the  Carnivora  on  two 
of  our  most  eminent  modern  British  naturalists — Professor  Owen  and 
Mr.  W.  S.  Dallas.  In  reference  to  the  skeleton  of  the  Carnivora, 
Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  the  Lion  may  be  regarded  as  the  type 
of  a  quadruped.  The  well-adjusted  proportions  of  the  head,  the 
trunk,  the  fore-limbs,  and  tail,  concur  with  their  structure  to  form  an 
animal  swift  in  course,  agile  in  leaps  and  bounds,  terrible  iri  the 
overpowering  force  of  the  blows  infiicted  by  the  fore-limbs.  The 
strong,  sharp,  much  curved,  retractile  talons  terminating  the  broad 
powerful  feet,  enable  the  Carnivore  to  seize  the  prey  it  has  overtaken, 
and  to  rend  the  body  it  has  struck  down.  The  jaws  have  a  pro- 
portional strength,  and  are  armed  with  fangs  fitted  to  pierce,  lace- 
rate, and  kill. 

The  carnivorous  character  of  the  skull,  as  exemplified  by  the 
sagittal  and  occipital  crests,  by  the  strength  and  expanse  of  the 
zygomatic  arches,  by  the  breadth,  depth,  and  shortness  of  the  jaws, 
by  the  height  of  the  coronoid  processes,  and  by  the  depth  and  extent 
of  the  fossa;  of  the  lower  jaw  for  the  attachment  of  the  biting  muscles, 
reaches  its  maximum  in  the  Lion.  The  triangular  occipital  region 
is  remarkable  for  the  depth  and  boldness  of  the  sculpturing'  of  its 
outer  surface,  indicative  of  the  powerful  muscles  working  the  whole 
skull  upon  the  neck  and  trunk.     The  conjoined  paroccipitals  and 


mastoids  form  a  broad  and  thick  capsular 
support  for  the  back  part  of  the  acoustic 
bulla.  The  pterj'goid  processes  are  imper- 
forate. A  well-marked  groove  extends  on 
each  side  of  the  bony  palate  from  the  pos- 
terior to  the  anterior  palatine  foramma. 
The  premaxillaries  are  comparatively  short, 
and  one-half  of  the  lateral  border  of  the 
nasals  directly  articulates  with  the  max- 
illaries.  The  antorbital  foramina  are  largely 
indicative  of  the  size  of  the  sensitive 
nerve  supplying  the  well-developed  whiskers. 
Within  the  cranium  we  find  that  ossification 
has  extended  into  the  membrane  dividing 
the  cerebrum  from  the  cerebellum.  This 
bony  tentorium  extends  above  the  petrosal 
to  the  ridge  overhanging  the  Gasserian 
fossa ;  the  petrosal  is  short,  its  apex  is 
neither  notched  nor  perforated ;  the  cere- 
bellar pit  is  very  shallow.  The  sella  turcica 
is  deep,  and  well  defined  by  both  the  an- 
terior and  posterior  clinoids.  The  rhinence- 
phalic  fossa  is  relatively  larger  in  the  Lion 
than  in  most  Carnivora,  and  is  defined  by 
a  well-marked  angle  of  the  inner  table  of  the  skull  from  the  pros- 
encephalic  compartment.  The  olfactory  chamber  extends  back- 
wards both  above  and  below  the  rhinencephalic  fossa ;  the  upper 
part  of  the  chamber  is  divided  into  two  sinuses  on  each  side. 
The  superior  turbinals  extend  into  the  anterior  sinus,  and  below  into 
the  presphenoidal  sinus.  All  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  are  remark- 
able for  their  whiteness  and  compact  structure. 

The  vertebral   formula  of  the  Lion  (Fig.   220)  is— 7  cervical,  13 
dorsal,  7  lumbar,  3  sacral,  and  23  caudal.    The  last  cervical  vertebra 


Fig.  220.— Skeleton  of  the  Lion  {Fclis  !eo). 

has  the  transverse  processes  imperforate,  being  formed  only  by 
diapophyses.  The  eleventh  dorsal  is  that  toward  which  the  spines 
of  the  other  trunk-vertebra;  converge,  and  indicates  the  centre  of 
motion  of  the  trunk  in  this  bounding  quadruped.  Eight  pairs  ot 
ribs  directly  join  the  sternum,  which  consists  of  eight  bones.  the 
clavicles  are  reduced  to  clavicular  bones,  58,  suspended  in  the  flesh 
The  supraspinal  fossa  of  the  scapula  is  less  deep  than  the  infraspinal 
one,  and  its  border  is  almost  uniformly  convex ;  the  acromion  is 
bifid,  the  recurved  point  being  little  larger  than  the  extremity  or 
anterior  point.  The  humerus,  53-  is  perforated  above  the  inner  con- 
dyle, but  not  between  the  condyles.  The  radius,  55,  and  "'na,  54, 
are  so  articulated  as  to  permit  a  free  rotation  of  the  fore-paw  1  lie 
scaphoid  and  lunar  bones  are  connate.  Besides  these,  the  bones  of 
the  carpus  are  the  cuneiforme  ;  the  pisiforme ;  the  trapezium,  wh.ch 
gives  an  articulation  to  the  ulna  side  of  the  base  of  the  short  meta- 
carpus  of  the  pollex  ;  the  trapezoides  ;  the  magnum,  which  s  he 
least  of  the  carpal  bones;  the  unciforme,  which  supports,  as  usual, 
he  metacarpaU  of  the  fourth  and  tifth  digits;  and  the  pistforme. 


86 


THE  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  CARNIVORA. 


which  projects  far  backwards,  like  a  small  calcaneum  :  there  is  also 
a  supplementary  ossicle  wedged  in  the  interspace  between  the  pro- 
minent end  of  the  carpal  of  the  pollex.  The  pollex  is  retained 
on  the  fore-foot,  and,  like  the  other  toes,  is  terminated  by  a  large, 
compressed,  retractile,  ungual  phalanx,  forming  a  deep  sheath, 
for  the  firm  attachment  of  the  large  curved  and  sharp-pointed 
claws. 

The  pelvis,  62,  63,  64,  the  femur,  65,  the  tibia,  66,  and  fibula,^67, 
offer  no  remarkable  modifications  of  structure  ;  the  patella,  66',  is 
well  ossified,  and  there  is  a  fabella,  67',  behind  each  condyle  of  the 
femur.  The  tarsal  bones  are  the  astragalus ;  the  scaphoides ;  the 
calcaneum  ;  the  cuboides,  which,  like  the  unciforme  in  the  carpus, 
supports  the  two  outer  digits  ;  the  cuneiforme  externum,  which,  like 
the  magnum,  supports  the  middle  digit  ;  the  cuneiforme  medium, 
which  like  the  trapezoides,  supports  the  second  digit;  and  the 
cuneiforme  internum,  which  supports  the  rudiment  of  the  metatarsal 
of  the  first  or  innermost  digit. 

The  last  or  ungual  phalanx,  in  both  fore  and  hind  feet,  has  a  bony 
sheath  at  its  base  for  the  firmer  implantation  of  the  claw  ;  and  its 
joint  is  at  the  back  part  of  the  proximal  end  of  the  phalanx,  whereby 
it  can  be  drawn  upwards  upon  the  second  phalanx,  when  the  claw 
becomes  concealed  in  the  fold  of  integument  forming  the  interspace 
of  the  digits. 

This  state  of  retraction  is  constantly  maintained,  except  when 
overcome  by  an  extending  force,  by  means  of  elastic  ligaments.  The 
principal  one  arises  from  the  outer  side  and  distal  e.xtremity  of  the 
second  phalanx,  and  is  inserted  into  the  superior  angle  of  the  last 
phalanx ;  a  second  arises  from  the  outer  side  and  proximal  end  of 
the  second  phalanx,  and  passes  obliquely  to  be  inserted  at  the  inner 
side  of  the  base  of  the  last  phalanx.  A  third,  which  arises  from  the 
inner  side  and  proximal  e.xtremity  of  the  second  phalanx,  is  inserted 
at  the  same  point  as  the  preceding.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  pro- 
fundus perforans  is  the  antagonist  of  the  elastic  ligaments.  By  the 
action  of  that  muscle,  the  last  phalanx  is  drawn  forwards  and  down- 
wards, and  the  claw  exposed.  In  order  to  produce  the  full  effect  of 
drawing  out  the  claw,  a  corresponding  action  of  the  extensor  rnuscle 
is  necessary,  to  support  and  fix  the  second  phalanx  ;  by  its  ultimate 
insertion  in  the  terminal  phalanx,  it  serves  also  to  restrain  and 
regulate  the  actions  of  the  flexor  muscle.  As  the  phalanges  of  the 
hind-foot  are  retracted  in  a  different  direction  to  those  of  the  fore- 
foot, i.  e.,  directly  upon,  and  not  by  the  side  of  the  second  phalanx, 
the  elastic  ligaments  are  differently  disposed,  but  perform  the  same 
main  office. 

It  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  allude  to  the  final  intention  of  these 
beautiful  structures,  which  are,  with  some  slight  modifications,  com- 
mon to  the  genus  Felis.  The  claws  being  thus  retracted  within 
folds  of  the  integument,  are  preserved  constantly  sharp,  and  ready 
for  their  destined  functions,  not  being  blunted  and  worn  away  in  the 
ordinary  progressive  motions  of  the  animal ;  while  at  the  same  time, 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  being  padded,  such  soft  parts  only  are  brought 
in  contact  with  the  ground  as  conduce  to  the  noiseless  tread  of  the 
stealthy  feline  tribe.  This  highly-developed  unguiculate  structure 
with  the  dental  system  and  concomitant  modifications  of  the  skull, 
completes  the  predatory  character  of  the  typical  Carnivora. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  the  preceding  remarks  of  Prof.  Owen,  that  a  great 
distinction  subsists  between  the  Carnivora  and  other  animals, 
especially  as  shown  in  the  last  paragraph.  It  will  be  instructive  for 
the  student  to  compare  the  form  of  skeleton  of  the  Lion,  given  on  the 
previous  page,  with  those  of  Man  and  the  Gorilla,  given  at  p.  2,  and 
of  the  Camel  at  p.  5,  each  of  these  illustrations  being  typical  of  the 
families  or  orders  of  these  animals.  It  will  be  noticed  that  special 
adaptation  to  the  circumstances  of  their  existence  is  evidenced  ;  and 
that  on  this  fact  their  exact  classification  in  the  scale  of  existence 
depends.  Mr.  W.  S.  Dallas  makes  the  following  remarks  on  the 
Car?iivora. 

In  the  Pi?!?!?'J)cdia  (Seals,  &c.)  we  have  examples  of  animals 
adapted  for  a  predaceous  existence  exclusively  to  the  water.  Those 
constituting  the  Carnivora  are  almost  exclusively  terrestrial  or 
arboreal  in  their  habits ;  and  although  some,  such  as  the  Otters, 
prey  upon  fishes,  their  feet  are  still  adapted  for  walking,  and  they 
are  not  reduced  to  the  same  ungainly  mode  of  progression  as  the 
Seals.     The  Carnivora,  therefore,  are  true  Quadrupeds. 

The  teeth  of  the  Carnivora  are  somewhat^ariable  in  form  ;  but 
generally,  as  in  the  Pitinipedia,  the  molars  show,  by  their  com- 
pressed form,  and  sharp  cutting  edges,  that  they  are  intended  for 
the  division  of  flesh.  All  three  kinds  of  teeth  are  always  present. 
The  incisors  are  small,  six  in  number,  and  placed  in  a  transverse  row 
across  the  front  of  the  mouth  ;  the  canines  are  always  of  a  large  size, 
conical,  curved,  and  acute,  especially  in  the  most  decidedly  carni- 
vorous species,  where  they  are  so  long  that  there  is  usually  a  gap 
between  the  incisors  and  canines  in  the  upper  jaw,  for  the  reception 
of  the  lower  canine.  Behind  the  canines  each  jaw  bears  several  false 
molars,  the  foremost  of  which  are  usually  conical,  and  inserted 
by  a  simple  root.  The  hinder  ones  gradually  approach  the  form  of 
the  true  molar,  which  is  more  or  less  compressed,  sharp,  and  notched 
at  the  edge  ;  this  is  commonly  known  as  the  flesh-tooth.  Behind  it 
there  are  often  one  or  two  small  tubercular  molars.     In  the  Cats  and 


the  most  bloodthirsty  species  in  general,  the  false  molars  are  com- 
pressed and  sharp,  and  the  total  number  of  molars  is  often  reduced 
to  three,  which  are  all  inserted  by  two  or  more  roots,  much  com- 
pressed, and  furnished  with  very  sharp  jagged  edges,  fitting  against 
one  another  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors,  an  arrangement 
admirably  adapted  for  cutting  through  the  juicy  fibres  of  the  flesh  of 
their  victims.  In  proportion  as  the  animals  are  intended  for  a 
mixed  diet,  the  molar  teeth  become  broader,  and  more  tuber- 
culate  in  their  appearance  ;  this  may  be  seen  even  in  the  common 
Dog.  To  give  effect  to  these  sharp  cutting-teeth,  the  lower  jaw  in 
the  typical  Carnivora  is  articulated  to  the  skull  by  a  regular  hinge- 
joint,  and  the  transverse  position  of  the  condyle  is  distinctly  percep- 
tible even  in  the  less  rapacious  species,  although,  to  a  certain  extent, 
modified.  The  ascending  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  gives 
attachment  to  the  muscles  by  which  the  jaws  are  closed,  is  always 
very  large,  especially  in  the  typical  species. 

The  skull  and  face  are  short  and  compact ;  the  former  is  usually 
marked  with  very  strong  ridges,  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of 
the  lower  jaw,  and  the  zygomatic  arches  are  very  wide,  to  allow  of 
their  passage.  The  orbits  are  incomplete.  The  brain  and  organs 
of  sense  are  always  well  developed  :  the  nose  especially,  in  many 
species,  exhibits  a  greater  degree  of  perfection  than  in  any  other 
animal.  The  eyes  are  usually  large  and  full,  and  the  pupils  possess 
a  great  power  of  contraction  and  dilatation  to  adapt  the  creatures 
for  their  general  nocturnal  mode  of  existence.  Nearly  all  the 
species  possess  a  distinct  external  ear.  The  mouth  is  surrounded 
with  soft  lips,  from  which  long  whiskers  project  on  each  side  :  these 
are  supplied  with  nerves,  and  evidently  constitute  delicate  tactile 
organs.  The  tongue  is  always  long,  thin,  and  free,  and  the  animals 
drink  by  the  well-known  process  of  lapping.  The  mammas,  which 
are  always  placed  on  the  belly,  are  usually  numerous,  and  many 
of  the  animals  are  very  prolific.  The  young  are  always  born 
blind. 

The  form  of  the  body,  the  development  of  the  tail,  the  length  of 
the  legs,  and  the  structure  of  the  feet,  vary  greatly  in  the  different 
families  of  this  order.  The  toes  are  distinctly  divided,  and  armed 
with  claws ;  they  are  usually  five  in  number  on  the  anterior,  and 
four  on  the  posterior  feet,  and  none  of  them  are  ever  opposable. 
The  principal  peculiarities  in  the  construction  of  the  feet  have 
reference  to  the  mode  in  which  they  are  applied  to  the  ground ;  and 
as  this  is  in  direct  connection  with  the  habits  of  the  animals,  and 
always  corresponds  with  other  important  characters,  the  differences 
observed  in  the  structure  of  the  extremities  are  of  great  value  in  the 
discrimination  of  the  families,  and  have  even  been  employed  in  the 
primary  division  of  the  order  into  groups.  The  most  predaceous 
species  are  possessed  of  extraordinary  activity  ;  their  bodies  are 
light  and  muscular;  their  legs  are  long,  and  their  short  toes  alone 
are  applied  to  the  ground ;  they  walk,  as  we  should  say,  on 
tip-toe,  and  they  are  accordingly  called  Digitigrada.  Those 
species  which  are  intended  for  a  more  or  less  vegetable  diet,  are 
heavier,  and  endowed  with  inferior  agility ;  their  toes  are  longer, 
and  they  apply  the  whole  foot,  including  the  metatarsus  and  tarsus, 
to  the  ground  in  walking ;  such  are  denominated  Platitigrada. 
These  two  groups,  however,  shade  off  almost  insensibly  into  one 
another ;  and  some  naturalists  have  proposed  the  formation  of  an 
intermediate  group,  containing  those  Cartiivora  in  which  a  portion 
of  the  sole  is  applied  to  the  ground,  under  the  name  of  Semi-planti- 
grada. 

The  distribution  of  the  Carnivora  throughout  the  world  has  been 
already  dealt  with  at  page  15,  et  seq.  So  far  as  we  at  present  know, 
Asia  has  60  genera  of  the  order,  out  of  288  Mammalia.  In  Africa, 
out  of  300  known  Mainmalia,  there  are  66  genera  of  Carnivora,  of 
which  52  are  peculiar  to  that  country.  In  Australia  there  are  but 
10  or  12  genera,  consisting  of  the  Wild  Dog,  &c.  In  North  America, 
the  Bears,  Wolves,  Dogs,  Foxes,  (Src,  are  characteristic  ;  and  in 
Central  America  the  Jaguar  and  Puma  are  met  with. 

The  Carnivora  consist  of  several  families.  The  first  of  the  above- 
named  groups,  the  Digitigrada,  includes  the  most  typical  members 
of  the  order.  The  first  family  is  that  of  the  Canida,  or  Dogs,  in 
which  the  head  is  more  or  less  conical,  and  pointed  in  front,  from 
the  jaws  being  somewhat  produced ;  and  the  legs  are  of  equal 
length — the  anterior  furnished  with  five,  and  the  posterior  with  four 
toes,  all  armed  with  non-retractile  claws.  The  dentition  is  compli- 
cated. There  are  three  false  molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper,  and 
four  in  the  lower  jaw ;  these  gradually  increase  in  size  posteriorly, 
and  approach  the  true  molar  in  form.  The  latter  is  very  large,  com- 
pressed, and  cutting,  and  is  followed,  in  both  jaws,  by  two  small 

6-6 


tubercular  teeth ;  the  total  number  of  molars  is  thus, 


7-7 


The 


tongue  is  soft,  and  destitute  of  horny  spines.     Of  this  family,  our 
domestic  Dog  {Canis  familiaris)  is  an  excellent  example. 

The  second  family  is  that  of  the  Fclidcs,  or  Cats,  the  most  typical 
forms  of  the  order,  in  which  the  predaceous  disposition,  and  the 
means  of  gratifying  it,  are  developed  in  the  highest  degree.  In 
these  animals  the  head  is  short,  and  almost  rounded  in  its  form  ;  for 
although  the  zygomatic  arches  and  ridges  are  greatly  developed, 


CHARACTERS  OF  THE  CARNIVORA. 


87 


the  muscles  for  moving-  the  jaws  are  so  exceedingly  large,  as  to  fill 
up  all  the  cavities,   and  produce  a  smooth,  plump  surface.     The 

I-  I 


I- 


iaws  are  short,  and  the  dentition  is — Incisors,  - .    canines, 
J  ;  g  1 

pre-molars,    i^.  molars,  ^~^.      The  canines   are  long,   sharp, 
2— 2 '  I— I 

compressed,  and  cutting  ;  the  prc-molars  are  furnished  with  two 
roots,  compressed,  pointed,  and  serrated  ;  the  flesh-teeth,  or  true 
molars,  are  very  large,  sharp-edged,  and  terminated  by  two  or  three 
points  ;  and  behind  the  flesh-tooth,  in  the  upper  jaw,  there  is  a  small 
tubercular  tooth,  which  is  wanting  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  addition  to 
this  formidable  apparatus  of  cutting-teeth,  the  tongue  in  these 
animals  is  covered  with  small  recurved  prickles,  wilh  which  the 
Cats  are  enabled  to  lick  the  last  particles  of  flesh  from  the  bones  of 
their  prey. 

In  the  form  of  their  bodies,  the  Cats  are  all  light,  and  excessively 
muscular,  so  that  their  activity  is  most  astonishing.  Their  legs  are 
usually  of  moderate  length,  but  exceedingly  powerful ;  and  the  toes 
are  armed  with  long,  curved,  and  acute  claws,  which  are  preserved 
from  being  blunted  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  phalanges. 
For  this  purpose,  the  last  or  claw-joint  of  each  toe  is  drawn  back,  by 
ligaments  attached  to  the  penultimate  joint,  until  it  assumes  a  per- 
pendicular position,  when  the  claw  which  it  supports  is  complelely 
retracted  within  a  sort  of  sheath,  and  is  entirely  concealed  by  the 
fur.  This  is  effected  by  the  elasticity  of  the  ligaments,  and  without 
any  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  animal.  But  when  a  Cat  is  about  to 
strike  its  prey,  the  claw-joint  is  pulled  down  by  the  flexor  muscles, 
and  the  formidable  talons  are  then  protruded,  ready  to  be  buried  in 
the  flesh  of  the  victim.  The  lower  surface  of  the  foot  is  furnished 
with  thick  ball-like  pads  of  the  epidermis,  upon  which  the  animal 
walks,  and  these  are  the  cause  of  the  peculiarly  noiseless  tread  which 
is  characteristic  of  all  the  members  of  this  family.  They  always  take 
their  prey  by  springing  suddenly  upon  it  from  some  concealed 
station  ;  and  if  they  miss  their  aim  in  the  first  attack,  rarely  follow 
it  up.  They  are  all,  accordingly,  cowardly,  sneaking  animals,  and 
never  willingly  face  their  enemy  unless  brought  to  bay  or  wounded, 
trusting  always  to  their  power  of  surprising  their  victims  by  the  aid 
of  their  stealthy  and  noiseless  movements.  They  are  nocturnal  and 
solitary  in  their  habits,  or,  at  most,  live  in  families  ;  and  are  dis- 
tributed in  all  parts  of  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  Australia,  but 
principally  in  the  warmer  regions,  where  alone  the  larger  species  are 
met  with. 

Unquestionably  the  most  celebrated  species  of  this  family  is  the 
Lion,  which  has,  in  all  ages,  been  regarded  as  the  personification  of 
courage  and  magnanimity.  For  his  reputation  he  has,  however, 
been  mainly  indebted,  like  many  other  impostors,  to  his  noble 
appearance,  which  is  greatly  owing  to  his  possession  of  a  large  mane 
of  long  hairs.  In  his  habits  he  is  as  genuine  a  Cat  as  the  Tiger, 
with  whose  bloodthirsty  and  cruel  disposition  the  supposed  good 
qualities  of  the  Lion  have  been  so  frequently  contrasted.  Zoologists 
have  described  several  species  of  Lions,  forming  the  genus  Leo  :  they 
are  distinguished  from  the  other  Cats  by  their  tufted  tails,  and  by 
the  uniform  colour  of  their  skin.  The  best  known  species  is  the 
African  Lion  {Leo  Africatius),  which  enjoys  a  wide  distribution, 
extending  all  over  the  continent  of  Africa,  and  into  the  southern 
parts  of  Asia.  It  is  a  magnificent  species,  generally  furnished  with 
a  long  flowing  mane  in  the  male  ;  the  other  supposed  species  differ 
principally  in  the  development  of  this  appendage  ;  and  in  one,  the 
Maneless  Indian  Lion  (Z.  Goojraffefisis),  the  mane  is  quite  absent. 
It  must  be  confessed,  that  the  specific  distinctness  of  these  different 
forms  of  Lions  is  very  doubtful.  The  Lion  lives  principally  in  dry 
desert  tracts  of  country  covered  with  brushwood,  amongst  which  he 
lies  during  the  day,  and  prowls  about  at  night  in  pursuit  of  the  large 
herbivorous  animals,  generally  watching  for  them  at  the  places  where 
they  come  to  drink.  In  stormy  nights,  the  South  African  Lion  is  said 
to  be  particularly  active,  as  the  panic  produced  amongst  his  victims 
by  the  strife  of  the  elements,  renders  less  caution  necessary  in 
approaching  them. 

In  the  typical  genus  Felts,  the  tail  is  elongated,  but  destitute  of  a 
tuft,  and  the  skin  is  almost  always  marked  with  stripes  or  spots. 
These  animals  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  forests,  where  many  of 
them  climb  trees,  not  only  in  pursuit  of  birds  and  other  arboreal 
creatures,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  springing  down  from  the 
branches  upon  animals  that  may  pass  beneath  them.  The  finest 
species  of  this  group  is  the  Tiger  {Feh's  ti'gris),  which  equals  the 
Lion  in  size,  but  exceeds  him  in  activity.  His  appearance,  from  the 
absence  of  the  mane,  is  not  so  noble  as  that  of  the  Lion ;  but  the 
bright  tawny  colour  of  his  skin,  with  its  clear  stripes  of  black,  render 
him  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  quadrupeds.  The  skins  are  highly 
prized  for  making  rugs,  &c. 

Next  in  order  are  the  HycBnida,  or  Hyaenas,  which  form  a  remark- 
able group,  peculiar  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the  Old  World,  and 
evidently  unite  the  two  preceding  families  with  the  following  one. 
In  the  general  form  of  the  body  they  are  somewhat  like  the  Dogs  ; 
whilst,  in  their  dentition,  they  rather  approach  the  Cats ;  and  they 
resemble  the  Vivern'dce  in  the  possession  of  a  pouch  under  the  anus. 


The  teeth  are  : — Incisors, 


canmes, 


i — i ;    pre-molars,    -3—2 
i-i  3-3 


molars,  ;  the  hindermost  molar  in  the  upper  jaw  being  tuber- 
cular, like  that  of  the  Cats.  The  hind-legs  are  much  bent,  so  that 
the  hind-quarters  of  the  Hyaenas  are  always  lower  than  the  shoulders  ; 
the  feet  are  all  furnished  with  four  toes,  armed  with  strong  claws, 
w^hich,  like  those  of  the  Dogs,  are  not  retractile.  The  tongue,  as  in 
the  Cats,  is  roughened  with  prickles. 

With  the  Hyaenas  we  quit  the  series  of  true  Di'gitigrade  Car- 
7i!Vora.  In  the  two  next  families  the  animals  apply  a  portion  of  the 
sole  to  the  ground,  but  the  heel  is  always  raised ;  these  form  the  sec- 
tion of  the  Semi-;plantigrada.  The  first  family  of  this  group  is  that 
of  the  Viverrida;,  or  Civets,  which  are  evidently  very  nearly  allied  to 

the  Hyaenas.    The  teeth  in  this  family  are  : — Incisors,  -r  ;  canines, 

5 

^~' .  pre-molars,  2ll3  ;  molars,  ^— •'.  The  canines  are  large  and 
I-I'   ^  4-4  2-2 

sharp  ;  the  false  molars  conical  and  pointed ;  the  flesh-tooth  is  large 

and  sharp,  and  furnished  with  an  inner  process  ;  and  behind  it  are 

two  tubercular  molars  in  the  upper,  and  one  in  the  lower  jaw.     The 

tongue,  as  in  the  two  preceding  families,  is  prickly.     The  body  is 

elongated,  and  supported  upon  short  legs,  which  have  either  four  or 

five  toes  on  all  the  feet,  furnished  with  semi-retractile  claws  ;  the 

muzzle  is  produced  and  sharp  ;  the  tail  very  long  and  tapering  ;  the 

hair  coarse ;    and   in   the    neighbourhood   of   the   anus   there   is   a 

glandular  pouch,  which  secretes  a  strongly  odorous  matter.     This 

substance,  well  known  as  civet,  was  formerly  in  great  repute  both  as 

a  medicine  and  as  a  perfume,  as  indeed  it  still  is  in  many  of  the 

countries  inhabited  by  these  animals  ;   and  even  here  we  find  the 

Civet  Cat,  as  it  is  called,  still  holding  its  traditional  post  as  the  sign 

of  perfumers'  shops. 

With  the  exception  of  one  species,  the  Bassaris  astiifa,  a  native 
of  Mexico,  the  Civets  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  the 
pupil  contracts  into  a  linear  form  when  exposed  to  the  light.  In 
their  disposition  they  are  generally  savage  and  bloodthirsty,  and 
they  make  great  havoc  amongst  the  smaller  animals,  particularly 
birds,  of  which,  and  of  their  eggs,  they  are  remarkably  fond. 

The  Mustelida,  or  Weasels,  forming  the  next  family,  approach 
the  Cats  in  the  bloodthirstiness  of  their  dispositions,  although  their 
size  confines  their  devastations  to  the  smaller  animals.  Their 
bodies  are  of  a  more  elongated  form,  and  supported  upon  shorter 
legs  than  those  of  the  Viverrida;  and  from  these  circumstances 
their  movements  have  usually  a  peculiar  gliding  character,  which 
renders  the  appellation  of  Fer/«//or;«w— sometimes  applied  to  them 
—peculiarly  appropriate. 

In  the  short,  somewhat  rounded  head,  and  in  the  form  of  the  molar 
teeth,  they  resemble  the  Cats  ;  but  in  the  number  and  arrangement 
of  the  teeth  they  do  not  coincide  with  the  Felidce.     The  teeth  are 

—incisors,  - ;  canines,  ^—-^,  slender  and  cur\'ed ;  pre-molars,  - — - 
'6  i-i  i~i 

or  ^~^  •  molars,  i^,  of  which  the  flesh-tooth  is  broad  and  sharp, 

3-3  2-2 

and  the  hinder  one  tubercular.  The  feet  are  all  furnished  with  five 
toes,  armed  with  sharp  claws.  Their  hair  is  exceedingly  soft  and 
beautiful ;  and  the  skins  of  several  species  are  amongst  the  most 
highly-prized  furs.  They  are  endowed  with  great  agility,  and 
readily  capture  small  quadrupeds  and  birds  :  in  pursuit  of  the  latter 
many  of  the  species  climb  trees,  creeping  about  upon  the  branches 
with  the  greatest  ease.  They  are  celebrated  for  their  love  of  blood, 
and  are  generally  charged  with  destroying  great  numbers  of  animals 
for  the  sake  of  drinking  this  fluid  :  it  is  certain  that  they  often  kill, 
indiscriminately,  all  the  animals  they  come  near;  but  it  appears 
that  the  brain  is  the  part  to  which  they  first  direct  their  attention. 
They  usually  seize  their  victims  by  the  back  of  the  head,  and  the 
canine  teeth  not  unfrequently  penetrate  directly  into  the  brain. 
They  often  commit  sad  ravages  in  poultrj'-yards  and  hen-roosts,  to 
which  they  readily  obtain  access,  as  the  slender  form  of  their  bodies 
enables  them  to  push  through  almost  any  crevice. 

The  Plantigrade  section  of  the  Car/iivora,  in  which  the  whole 
sole  of  the  foot  is  applied  to  the  ground  in  walking,  contains  three 
families— the  Badgers  {Melida),  which,  although  plantigrade,  are 
evidently  nearly  allied  to  the  Weasels ;  the  Bears  {Ursidcz) :  and  the 
Kinkajous  [Cercoleptidcs). 

The  animals  forming  the  family  of  the  Melidcp,  or  Badgers,  have 
been  placed  by  some  zoologists  amongst  the  Weasels ;  by  others 
with  the  Bears,  and  also  partly  in  each  family  ;  so  that  their  inter- 
mediate position  is  tolerably  evident.  In  their  dentition  they  closely 
resemble  the  animals  of  the  preceding  family,  the  pre-molars  being 
compressed  and  cutting ;  but  the  true  molar,  or  flesh-tooth,  is 
usually  furnished  with  a  large  blunt  tubercle  on  the  inside.  Behma 
this  there  is  a  tubercular  molar  in  each  jaw.     The  pre-molars  vary  in 


number  as  follows : — - 


or 


3-3 


3-3        3-3 


3_r_3 
4-4 


The  body  is  more  or 


88 


THE  CANIDuS,    OR  DOG  FAMILY. 


less  elongated,  and  supported  upon  short  legs  :  the  toes  are  five  on 
each  foot. 

The  family  of  the  UrsidcB,  or  Bears,  differs  from  all  the  preceding 
famiHes  in  the  nature  of  the  molar  teeth,  which,  although  com- 
pressed in  form,  are  furnished  with  tubercular  crowns,  indicating 
that  the  animals  are  adapted,  at  all  events,  for  a  partially  vegetable 
diet.  The  number  of  teeth  of  this  description  is  usually  two  or 
three  on  each  side  in  each  jaw  ;  the  total  number  of  molars  and  pre- 
molars is  either  five  or  si.x  ;  but  some  of  the  latter  frequently  fall  out 
with  age.  The  Bears  are  generally  large,  heavy  animals,  and 
strictly  plantigrade  in  their  walk,  which  is  awkward  and  shuffling  in 
its  nature  ;  the  anterior  limbs  are,  however,  possessed  of  great 
mobility,  and  even  the  most  bulky  of  these  animals  manifest  great 
dexterity  in  climbing.  Their  feet  are  armed  with  long  curved  claws, 
with  which  they  dig  in  search  of  roots  and  other  articles  of  food. 
Their  bodies  are  usually  covered  with  long  shaggy  hair,  and  the  tail 
in  the  typical  Bears  is  remarkably  short ;  whilst  in  some  of  the  other 
anirrials  referred  to  in  this  family  it  is  of  considerable  length.  The 
ears  are  small,  and  the  nose  is  more  or  less  produced  and  movable — 
in  some  species  forming  a  sort  of  proboscis. 

The  last  family  of  the  Carnivorous  Mammalia  is  that  of  the  Cerco- 
leptida,  or  Kinkajous,  a  group  of  small  animals  inhabiting  the 
tropical  parts  of  America,  which  exhibit  some  resemblance  to  the 
Bears  in  their  dentition,  but  differ  from  them  in  their  general 
characters.  Their  canine  teeth  are  short  and  blunt ;  behind  these 
are  two  small  pointed  pre-molars,  which  are  followed  by  three 
tuberculated  molars.  The  feet  are  as  truly  plantigrade  as  in  the 
preceding  family  ;  but  the  toes,  which  are  always  five  in  number,  are 
more  distinctly  separated,  and  capable  of  a  greater  amount  of 
independent  motion.  They  are  small,  short-legged  animals, 
covered  with  a  woolly  fur,  and  furnished  with  a  very  long  prehensile 
tail. 

In  their  form  and  general  habits,  the  Kinkajous  present  no  small 
resemblance  to  the  Lemurs  ;  and,  like  them,  they  are  of  a  gentle 
and  playful  disposition  in  captivity.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  and  appear  to  be  almost  omnivorous,  feeding  indifferently 
upon  small  birds  and  Mammalia,  bird's  eggs,  insects,  and  fruits,  in 
pursuit  of  which  they  climb  trees  with  great  activity.  Like  the 
Squirrels  they  use  the  fore-paw  in  place  of  hands,  to  convey  their 
nourishment  to  their  mouths.  They  are  said  to  be  exceedingly  fond 
of  honey,  and  to  plunder  the  nests  of  the  wild  Bees  with  great 
boldness.  The  Ceixoleptes  caudivolvuliis  is  the  best  known 
species  ;  it  is  often  tamed  as  a  pet,  and  is  commonly  seen  in  our 
menageries. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  glance  of  the  order  Carntvora,  and 
its  principal  families,  we  shall  describe  each  of  the  latter  in  detail, 
as  regards  genus,  species,  &c.,  in  the  order  adopted  in  the  fore- 
going introductory  remarks. 


Carnivora— Family  Cantdcs—'DoGs.  Sec. 

Of  all  the  lower  animals  the  Dog  has  been  the  greatest  favourite 
of  mankind ;  in  fact,  he  may  be  called  the  quadruped  friend  of  the 
human  race.  In  the  extreme  north  he  is  a  necessity  for  the  Esqui- 
maux. In  our  own  and  European  countries  generally,  he  is  equally 
a  necessity,  but  to  a  much  more  varied  extent.  In  intelligence, 
obedience,  and,  if  we  may  so  say,  moral  qualities,  he  exceeds  all 
other  animals.  It  has  been  remarked  that  the  domestication  of  the 
Dog  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest  triumph  of  which  man  can  boast 
over  the  brute  creation  :  in  all  his  faculties,  both  of  body  and  mind, 
he  has  become  more  completely  subservient  to  his  master  than  any 
other  animal  ;  and  without  his  assistance,  it  seems  pretty  certain 
that  the  dominion  of  man  over  many  of  the  common  domestic 
animals  would  never  have  been  so  complete  as  it  now  is.  All  the 
strength,  courage,  and  intelligence  which  the  Dog  possesses  are 
willingly  put  forth  in  the  service  of  his  master.  To  use  the  words  of 
Professor  Bell — "  It  is  in  the  Dog  alone  that  we  find  those  qualities 
which  fit  him  for  that  more  intimate  association  with  his  conqueror, 
by  which  he  becomes  his  friend  and  companion,  whilst  still  his 
faithful,  and  humble,  and  laborious  servant.  It  is  impossible  to 
reflect,  without  the  most  kind  and  grateful  emotions,  on  the  un- 
wearied perseverance,  the  unflinching  courage,  the  unchanging 
faithfulness,  the  affectionate  and  discriminating  attachment  which 
characterises  his  relation  to  mankind." 

The  Can/diz,  or  Dog  family,  includes  the  Dog,  the  Wolf,  the 
Jackal,  the  Fox,  and  the  Lycaon  ;  in  other  words,  all  those  animals 
which  Linna:us  assigns  to  his  genus  Cam's,  and  which,  though 
agreeing  in  dentition,  and  in  the  digitigrade  structure  of  the  feet, 
may  nevertheless  with  propriety  be  divided  into  subgeneric  groups. 
In  all,  the  muzzle  is  elongated ;  the  bony  palate  terminates  in  a  line 
with  the  hinder  margin  of  the  posterior  molars,  in  this  respect 
differing  from  that  of  other  Car/u'vora  ;  and  there  are  two  true 
molars  on  each  side  both  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw.  The  genus 
Megalotis,  in  the  form  of  the  lower  jaw,  in  the  dentition,  and  in 
the  prolongation  of  _the  bony  palate,  offers  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule. 


Dental    formula  : — Incisors,  -  : 
'   6' 


canmcs. 


I  — I , 

I 

I  —1 


molars — false, 


^— ^,  camassieres,  ^^ — ',  true,  ? — ?  =  42.      The  true  molars  below 
4—4  1—1  2—2 

are  small,  the  last  being  even  minute,  as  is  the  first  false  molar,  and 
often  dropping  out  early.   Fig.  221  illustrates  the  dentition  of  the  Dog. 


Fig,  221. — Teeth  of  Dog, 

Fore-feet  with  five  toes  ;  hind-feet  with  four  toes,  and  sometimes  a 
fifth  on  the  tarsus ;  claws  not  retractile. 

In  regard  to  the  skeleton,  dentition,  &c.,  of  the  Carnivora, 
remarks  have  been  made  at  page  85,  ante.  In  regard  to  the  Dog 
specially,  we  shall  here  draw  attention  more  minutely  to  those 
matters,  so  as  to  present  most  varieties  of  size,  form,  and  disposi- 


Fig.  223. — Mastiff. 


THE  CANID^,    OR  DOG  FAMILY. 


89 


tion,  from  the  high-bred  Greyhound  or  gigantic  Mastiff,  to  the  puny 
cur  or  ill-formed  mongrel. 

Turning  first  to  the  skulls,  we  may  observe  that  Figs.  222  and  223 
represent  the  skull  of  the  Mastiff  (Doguc  de  forte  race)  in  two  views  ; 
and,  it  may  be  added,  that  though  the  head  is  larger,  by  a  third  or 
more,  than  those  of  the  Shepherd's  Dog  and  Spaniel,  the  cranial 


Fig.  224. 


Fig.  225. — Spaniel. 

capacity  is  by  no  means  so  great.  Figs.  224  and  225  show  the 
skull  of  the  Spaniel  (Barbet)  in  two  views  ;  Figs.  226  and  227,  the 
skull  of  the  Danish  Dog  (Matin)  in  two  views ;  Fig.  228,  the  skull 
of  the  half  wild  Australian  Dingo,  may  be  contrasted  with  Fig.  229, 
the  skull  of  the  intelligent  Shepherd's  Dog. 

It  is  with  a  feeling  of  something  like  hesitation  that  we  enter 
upon  the  history  of  the  Dog,  respecting  whose  origin  few  naturalists 
have  an  opinion  in  common,  and  which  has  given  rise  to  many  con- 
jectures. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  Pallas  that  the  Dog  is  a  factitious  animal ; 


F,-.  226. 


Fig.  227.— Matin,  a  Danish  Dog. 

that  is,  not  descended  from  any  single  original  wild  stock,  but  from 
a  mixture  of  nearly  allied  primitive  species,  whose  hybrid  offsprings 
have  possessed  prolific  powers  ;  and  he  observes  that  those  domes- 
ticated animals  which  either  do  not  intermix  with  other  species,  or 
which  produce  with  others  an  unprolific  progeny,  are  very'  little 
changed,  however  completely  and  anciently  they  have  been  under 


the  dominion  of  man.  When,  indeed,  we  look  at  the  great  differ- 
ences in  instincts,  form,  and  size  which  the  domestic  Dog  exhibits, 
we  find  it  difficult  to  believe,  interbreed  as  they  may  together,  that 
all  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  one  common  origin.  Yet  is  this 
opinion  the  most  generally  entertained.  Mr.  Boll  even  goes  a  step 
farther,  and  refers  the  domestic  Dog  to  the  Wolf  as  its  prima;val 
parent ;  some,  indeed,  have  referred  it  to  the  Jackal. 

"  In  order,"  says  Mr.  Bell,  "  to  come  to  any  rational  conclusion  on 
this  head,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ascertain  to  what  tj'pe  the  animal 
approaches  most  nearly,  after  having  for  many  successive  genera- 
tions existed  in  a  wild  state,  removed  from  the  influence  of  domes- 
tication and  of  association  with  mankind.     Now  we  find  that  there 


Fig.  228. — Dingo,  or  Australian  Dog. 

are  several  different  instances  of  Dogs  in  such  a  state  of  wildness 
as  to  have  lost  that  common  character  of  domestication,  variety  of 
colour  and  marking.  Of  these,  two  very  remarkable  ones  are  the 
Dhale  of  India  and  the  Dingo  of  Australia.  There  is,  besides,  a 
half-reclaimed  race  amongst  the  Indians  of  North  America,  and 
another  also  partially  tamed  in  South  America,  which  deserve 
attention ;  and  it  is  found  that  these  races  in  different  degrees,  and 
in  a  greater  degree  as  they  are  more  wild,  exhibit  the  lank  and 
gaunt  form,  the  lengthened  limbs,  the  long  and  slender  muzzle,  and 
the  great  comparative  strength  which  characterise  the  Wolf ;  and 
that  the  tail  of  the  Australian  Dog,  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  remote  from  a  state  of  domestication,  assumes  the  slightly 


Fig.  229. — Shepherd's  Dog. 

bushy  form  of  that  animal.  We  have  here,  then,  a  considerable 
approximation  to  a  well-known  animal  of  the  same  genus,  which, 
though  doubtless  descended  from  domesticated  ancestors,  have 
gradually  assumed  the  wild  condition  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  special 
remark,  that  the  anatomy  of  the  Wolf,  and  its  osteology  in  particular, 
does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  Dogs  m  general,  more  than  the 
different  kinds  of  Dogs  do  from  each  othei;.  The  cranium  is  abso- 
lutely similar,  and  so  are  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  other  essential  parts  ; 
and  to  strengthen  still  further  the  probability  of  their  identity,  the 
Dog  and  Wolf  will  readily  breed  together,  and  their  progeny  is 
fertile.  The  obliquity  of  the  position  of  the  eyes  of  the  Wolf  is  one 
of  the  characters  in  which  it  differs  from  the  Dogs  ;  and  although  it 
is  very  desirable  not  to  rest  too  much  upon  the  effects  of  habit  on 
structure,  it  is  not  perhaps  straining  the  point  to  attribute  the  for- 
ward direction  of  the  eyes  in  the  Dogs  to  the  constant  habit,  for 
many  successive  generations,  of  looking  towards  their  master  and 
obeying  his  voice."  Mr.  Bell  adds,  as  another  corroborative  cir- 
cumstance, the  fact  that  the  period  of  gestation  in  the  Dog  and  the 
Wolf  is  the  same — sixty-three  days  ;  while  in  the  Jackal  it  is  fifty-nine 
days. 

To  illustrate  the  view  thus  expressed  by  Mr.  Bell,  the  following 
cut  is  introduced,  showing  the  head  of  a  hybrid  between  the  Dog 
and  the  Wolf.      (See  next  page.) 

The  opinion  of  so  eminent  and  judicious  a  naturalist  is  certainly 
entitled  to  great  weight ;  but  while  we  admit  that  Mr.  Bell  has  made 
a  strong  case,  we  cannot  but  observe  that  several  points  are  defective. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  assumed  that  all  wild  Dogs  are  the  descend- 
ants of  a  domestic  race  ;  but  though  respecting  some  few  this  may 
be  true,  yet  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  assertion  applies  to  all ; 
we  may  instance  the  Biiansu,  or  wild  Dog  of  Nepal,  described  by  Mr. 


90 


WILD  DOGS. 


Hodgson  under  the  title  of  Cam's  ^riinccvus.  This  animal,  which 
he  believes  to  be  the  origin  of  the  domestic  Dog,  and  not  its  descend- 
ant, ranges  from  the  Sutlege  to  the  Burhampootra,  and  seems  to 
extend,  with  some  immaterial  differences,  into  the  Vindyia,  the 
Ghauts,  the  Nilgiris,  the  Casiah  Hills,  and  the  chain  passing 
brokenly  from  Mirzapore  through  South  Bahar  and  Orissa  to  the 
Coromandel  Coast.  "  Of  this  race,  although  so  wild  as  rarely  to  be 
seen,  Mr.  Hodgson  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  many  individuals. 
He  is  consequently  enabled  to  describe  not  only  the  form  and 
colours,  but  the  manners  also,  which  he  does  in  great  detail.  Some 
of  those  he  obtained  produced  young  in  captivity,  having  been  preg- 
nant when  taken.  The  Biiansii,  he  observes,  preys  by  night  as  well 
as  by  day,  and  hunts  in  packs  of  from  six  to  ten  individuals,  main- 


Fig.  230.— Hybrid,  between  Dog  and  Wolf. 

taining  the  chase  rather  by  its  powers  of  smell  than  by  the  eye,  and 
generally  overcoming  its  quarry  by  force  and  perseverance.  In 
hunting  it  barks  like  a  Hound,  but  its  bark  is  peculiar,  and  equally 
unlike  that  of  the  cultivated  breeds  of  Dogs  and  the  strains  of  the 
Jackal  and  the  Fox.  Adults  in  captivity  made  no  approach  towards 
domestication  ;  but  a  young  one  which  Mr.  Hodgson  obtained  when 
it  was  not  more  than  a  month  old,  became  sensible  to  caresses,  dis- 
tinguished the  Dogs  of  its  own  kennel  from  others,  as  well  as  its 
keepers  from  strangers  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  its  conduct  manifested  to 
the  full  as  much  intelligence  as  any  of  his  sporting  Dogs  of  the  same 
age."     ("Zool.  Proceeds.,"  1833,  p.  in.) 

_  In  the  same  number  of  the  "Proceeds."  is  the  notice  of  a  commu- 
nication from  W.  A.  Wooler,  Esq.,  giving  an  account  of  a  Wild  Dog 
from  the  Mahablishwar  Hills,  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  and 


called  there  Dhale.  The  habits  of  this  Dog  in  a  state  of  nature 
accord  with  those  of  the  Buansu  of  Nepal,  and  with  which  animal  it 
is  most  probably  identical. 

Colonel  Sykes  proves,  we  think,  that  the  Wild  Dog  of  the  Dukhun, 
called  by  the  Mahrattas  Kolsun,  is  the  same  as  the  Buansu  of  Nepal, 
the  skulls  and  external  characters  precisely. agreeing.  ("  Zool.  Pro- 
ceeds.," 1833,  p.  I33-) 

Colonel  Sykes  observes,  that  this  Dog  differs  from  any  wild 
species  hitherto  described.  Its  head  is  compressed  and  elongated  ; 
its  nose  not  very  sharp  ;  the  eyes  are  oblique,  the  pupils  round,  the 
irides  light  brown.  The  expression  of  the  countenance  is  that  of  a 
coarse,  ill-natured  Persian  Greyhound,  without  any  resemblance  to 
the  Jackal,  the  Fox,  or  the  Wolf;    and  in  consequence,  essentially 

distinct  from  the  Cants 
Quao,  or  Sumafrensis,  of 
General  Hardwicke.  The 
ears  are  long,  erect,  and 
somewhat  rounded  at  the 
top ;  the  limbs  are  remark- 
ably large  and  strong  in 
relation  to  the  bulk  of  the 
animal,  which  is  intermedi- 
ate in  size  between  the  Wolf 
and  Jackal ;  it  hunts  in 
packs  ;  and  in  the  stomach 
of  one  killed  was  found  a 
portion  of  the  Nylghau 
Antelope.  ("Zool.  Pro- 
ceeds.," 1831,  p.  100.) 

Here  then  we  have  a 
genuine  Wild  Dog,  called, 
in  the  different  mountain 
districts  it  inhabits,  Buansu, 
Dhale,  and  Kolsun,  of  a 
sandy-red  or  rufous  colour, 
and  destitute  of  the  last 
small  molar  of  the  lower 
jaw.  Colonel  Baber,  in  a 
note  subjoined  to  Colonel 
Sykes's  description  in  the 
"  Trans.  Asiat.  Soc,"  states 
that  it  was  often  seen  by 
him  on  the  western  coast, 
and  in  the  Balaghat  district, 
where  it  is  numerous.  "As 
often,"  he  adds,  "as  I  have 
met  with  them,  they  have 
invariably  been  in  packs  of 
from  thirty  to  perhaps  sixty. 
They  must  be  very  formid- 
able, as  all  animals  are  very 
much  afraid  of  them.  Fre- 
quently remains  of  Hogs 
and  Deer  have  been  brought 
to  me,  which  had  been  taken 
overnight  by  these  Wild 
Dogs.  The  natives  assert 
that  they  kill  Tigers  and 
Chetahs ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  of  the  fact.  It  is 
quite  correct  that  they  are 
found  in  the  Nilgiris, 
though  only  in  the  western 
parts.  I  myself  was  fol- 
lowed, while  travelling 
between  the  Paitera  river 
and  Naddibatt,  a  distance 
of  eight  or  nine  miles,  by  a 
pack  of  them  ;  and  had  I 
not  repeatedly  fired  off  my 
pistols,  they  would  certainly 
have  carried  away  three  or 
four  Terriers  and  Spanish 
Dogs  that  were  following  me  at  the  time.  Two  or  three  times 
I  succeeded  in  getting  young  ones,  but  I  did  not  keep  them  longer 
than  three  or  four  weeks,  they  were  so  very  wild  as  well  as  shy.  It 
was  only  at  night  that  they  would  eat,  and  then  most  voraciously." 

With  respect  to  the  Catiis  Quao  of  General  Hardwicke,  it  is  a  red 
Wolfish-looking  Dog  in  the  Ramghur  Hills  ;  the  Ca?iis  Sumatrensis 
is  a  Wild  Dog  of  the  same  general  characters  found  in  Sumatra,  but 
with  ears  less  acutely  pointed. 

From  every  account  of  Wild  Dogs,  it  would  appear  that  their 
colour  is  always  sandy-yellow  or  red,  a  colour  occasionally  seen  in 
animals  of  the  domestic  breeds.  We  do  not,  however,  while  we 
contend  that  these  Wild  Dogs  are  genuine,  pretend  to  assert  that 
any  of  them  are  the  originals  of  any  one  of  our  domestic  breeds  ;  all 
we  wish  is  to  prove  that  there  are  genuine  Wild  Dogs,  which  fact 


■-»  tf*.  ■  '  <?■•?■-■  .tl 


BULL-DOG,   AND    MASTIFF. 


|r 


92 


AUSTRALIAN,  AFRICAN,  AND  ESQUIMAUX  DOGS. 


more  diminutive  and  lighter  scale,  and  with  a  longer  muzzle  in  pro- 
portion ;  its  general  colour  was  reddish.  It  neither  barked  nor 
wagged  its  tail,  at  least  when  first  obtained ;  but  if  we  mistake  not, 
it  subsequently  learned  the  latter,  if  not  both,  of  these  canine  accom- 
plishments. 

Among  the  wild  races  of  Dogs,  or  rather  of  Dogs  become  wild,  to 
which  Buffon  alludes,  are  those  of  South  America  and  the  West 
Indian  Islands,  confessedly  sprung  from  a  European  stock  abandoned 
by  the  early  settlers  in  the  vast  pfains,  and  which  have  given  origin 


Fig.  232. — Australian  Dog,  or  Dingo. 

to  an  unreclaimed  race.  Azara  states  that  these  Dogs  are  called 
Yagoua  (a  name  given  also  to  the  Jaguar)  in  Paraguay,  where  they 
are  very  common,  inhabiting  caves.  They  formerly  abounded  in 
Hayti,  Cuba,  and  all  the  Caribbean  islands,  but  are  now  extirpated 
thence.  Mr.  Darwin  alludes  to  Wild  Dogs  in  Banda  Oriental  as  at- 
tacking Sheep.  According  to  Oexmelin  these  Dogs  resemble  the 
Greyhound;  but  others  more  accurately  describe  them  as  having 
the  head  flat  and  elongated,  the  muzzle  sharp,  the  body  slender,  the 
general  aspect  wild  and  savage.  They  are  strong  and  active,  and 
hunt  their  prey  in  packs. 

It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  Europeans  on  their  arrival 
found  native  Dogs  both  in  the  Caribbean  Islands  and  in  Peru. 
"Those  belonging  to  the  savages  of  the  Antilles,"  says  Buffon, 
"  had  the  head  and  ears  very  long,  and  resembled  a  Fox  in  appear- 
ance." (See  "  Hist.  Gen.  des  Antilles,"  par  le  P.  du  Tertre,  Paris, 
1667.)  He  also  adds  that  the  Indians  of  Peru  had  a  large  and  a 
smaller  kind  of  Dog,  which  they  name  Alco,  and  that  those  of  the 
Isthmus  were  ugly,  with  rough  long  hair  and  erect  ears. 

With  respect  to  the  Alco  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  we  know  nothing 
more  about  it  than  what  Dampier  and  Fernandez  mention.  The 
latter  describes  two  breeds— viz.,  the  Fat  Alco,  or  Michuacaneus, 
called  by  the.  natives  Ytzcuinte  Porzotli,  and  the  Broad-footed  Alco, 
or  Techichi.  Both  were  small,  some  of  the  latter  race  not  much 
exceeding  a  Guinea-pig  in  size.  The  head  was  small,  the  back 
arched,  the  body  thick,  the  ears  pendulous,  and  the  tail  short.  An 
individual,  probably  of  this  race,  was  brought  to  this  country  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Mexico,  by  Mr.  Bullock  ;  it  was  white,  varie- 
gated with  black  and  reddish-yellow.  This  specimen  was  procured 
in  the  mountains  of  Durango,  where  it  bore  the  name  of  Acolotte. 
It  died  in  a  few  days,  and  its  stuffed  skin  formed  part  of  the  collec- 
tion exhibited  in  Piccadilly,  being  placed  under  a  glass  with  a  huge 


Fig.  233. — African  Blood-hounds. 

Bull- Frog,  which  equalled  it  in  size.  Dogs  resembling  the  Alco  were 
seen  as  early  as  1492,  in  several  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  by 
Columbus,  and  were  also  found  in  Martinique  and  Guadaloupc,  in 


little  Turkish  or  Barbary  Dogs  without  hair ;   adding  that  they  were 
eaten  by  the  inhabitants.     All  trace  of  them  is  now  lost. 

The  probability  is  that  these  Alco  Dogs  were  not  indigenes  of  the 
soil  either  in  the  islands  or  on  the  continent  of  Peru,  but  were 
brought  by  some  of  the  tribes  by  whom  South  America  was  popu- 
lated.     The  breed  might  have  been  introduced   by  that   strange 


Fig.  234.— African  Hound. 

people  (of  Malay  descent  ?)  who  founded  the  Peruvian  and  Mexican 
empires.     In  the  South  Sea  Islands,  Dogs  of  a  similar  race  exist, 
which  are  fed  on  vegetable  food,  and  eaten,  as  were  the  Alco  Dogs 
in  South  America. 
Wild  Dogs  exist  in  Congo,  Guinea,  and  other  parts  of  Africa, 


Fig.  235. — Esquimaux  Dog. 

hunting  in  packs,  and  dwelling  in  caves  and  burrows.      Clapperton 
met  with  them  in  the  country  be\ond  Timbuctoo.     In  the  island  of 
Teneriffe,  a  large  Wolfish  breed  of  Dogs  is  domesticated  and  valued 
for  the  chase. 
Fig.  233  presents  the  portraits  of  a  leash  of  fine  Hounds  from 


Fig.  236. — Dog  of  Mackenzie  River. 

Africa,  by  Major  Denhara,  who  had  employed  them  in  hunting  the 
Gazelle,  in  the  chase  of  which  their  exquisite  scent  and  extraordi- 
nary speed  were  displayed  to  great  advantage  :  they  would  frequently 


1635,  by  French  navigators,  who  describe  them  as  resembling  the  |   quit  the  line  of  scent  for  the  purpose  of  taking  a  direct,  instead  of  a 


THE  ESQUIMAUX  DOG. 


03 


circuitous  course  (sportsmen  call  this  cutting-  off  a  double),  and  re- 
cover the  scent  again  with  wonderful  facility.  These  beautiful 
Hounds  were  consigned  to  the  Tower  menagerie,  where,  shut  up  in 
a  close  den,  they  evidently  felt  miserable.  Instead  of  exerting  their 
energies  in  pursuit  of  the  Antelope  on  the  plains  of  Africa,  here  they 
were  prisoners,  with  no  means  of  escape,  and  with  no  room  or  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of  their  powers  and  instincts.  These  Hounds, 
however,  were  not  of  the  wild  breed ;  in  symmetry  and  action  they 
were  perfect  models,  and  in  temper  were  gentle,  excepting  that  con- 
finement rendered  the  female  irritable.  Other  representations  of  the 
African  Hound  are  given  in  Fig.  234,  and  also  in  Fig.  231, y,  p.  91, 
ante. 

To  the  group  of  Dogs  which,  in  their  aspect  and  physiognomy, 
retain  a  marked  air  of  wildness,  as  indicated  by  the  sharpness  of  the 
muzzle,  the  erect  or  semi-erect  position  of  the  ears,  and  the  oblique 
direction  of  the  eye,  giving  an  air  of 
cunning  and  distrust  to  the  counte- 
nance, is  to  be  referred  the  Esquimaux 
Dog,  Fig.  231,  a  (see  p.  91,  ante), 
and  Fig.  235.  In  general  aspect,  the 
Esquimaux  t)og{Ca}ns/amil!ar!S,\a.T. 
borealis)  so  closely  resembles  the  Wolf 
of  its  native  regions,  that  when  seen  at 
a  little  distance,  it  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them  ;  so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  Sir  Edward  Parry's  party, 
during  their  second  voyage,  forbore  to 
fire  upon  a  pack  of  thirteen  Wolves, 
which  had  closely  followed  some  Esqui- 
maux, lest  they  should  commit  an  irre- 
parable injury  upon  these  poor  people 
by  destroying  their  faithfi-'  and  power- 
ful allies. 

Those  visiting  the  museum  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  and  looking  at  a 
fine  specimen  of  the  Esquimaux  Dog, 
which  is  placed  near  a  Grey  Wolf  from 
the  high  northern  parts  of  America, 
might  suppose,  unless  informed  to  the 
contrary,  that  the  two  animals  were  of 
the  same  species.  In  both  the  fur  is 
deep  and  thick,  both  have  the  same 
erect  ears,  the  same  breadth  of  skull 
between  them,  and  the  same  or  nearly 
the  same  sharpness  of  muzzle.  In 
addition  we  may  state  that,  in  its  native 
wilds  at  least,  the  voice  of  the  Dog  is 
not  a  bark,  but  along  melancholy  howl. 

In  the  Dog,  however,  the  tail  is  more 
bushy  than  in  the  Wolf,  and  is  carried 
in  a  graceful  curve  over  the  back,  while 
in  the  Wolf  it  hangs  down  between 
the  legs.  It  is  further  to  be  remarked 
that  the  antipathy  of  the  Esquimaux 
Dog  to  the  Wolf  is  inveterate  ;  these 
animals  not  only  regard  the  Wolf  as 
an  enemy,  but  fear  it ;  and  though  they 
attack  the  Bear  with  undaunted  energy, 
they  never,  unless  impelled  by  neces- 
sity, venture  to  assault  the  Wolf. 
Often,  indeed,  they  fall  a  sacrifice  to 
this  beast  of  prey,  and  are  carried  off 
even  in  sight  of  their  owners. 

To  the  Esquimaux  their  Dogs  are  of 
the  greatest  importance  ;  to  these  faith- 
ful slaves  they  look  for  assistance  in 
the  chase  of  the  Seal,  the  Bear,  and  the 
Reindeer ;  for  carrying  burdens,  and 
for  drawing  them  on  sledges  over  the 
trackless  snows  of  their  dreary  plains. 
In  summer,  a  single  Dog  carries  a 
weight  of  thirty  pounds  in  attending 
his  master  in  the  pursuit  of  game  ;  and 
in  winter,  sis  or  seven  Dogs,  yoked  to 

a  heavy  sledge,  with  five  or  six  persons,  or  a  load  of  eight  or  ten 
hundredweight,  will  perform  a  journey  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  a 
day.  On  good  roads  they  will  travel  this  distance  at  the  rate  of 
eight  miles  an  hour  for  several  hours  together ;  but  on  untrodden 
snow,  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  would  be" a  fair  day's  journey.  The 
same  number  of  Dogs  well  fed,  with  a  weight  of  only  five  or  six 
hundred  pounds,  that  of  the  sledge  included,  are  almost  unmanage- 
able, and  on  a  smooth  road  will  go  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour. 
While  thus  travelling,  should  they  scent  a  Reindeer  even  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  distant,  they  gallop  off  furiously  in  the  direction  of  the 
scent,  and  soon  bring  the  game  within  the  reach  of  the  arrow  of 
the  hunter.  So  acute,  indeed,  is  their  sense  of  smell,  that  they  will 
discover  a  Seal-hole  by  it  entirely,  at  a  very  great  distance. 


The  average  height  of  the  Esquimaux  Dog  is  i  foot  10  inches ; 
generally  the  colour  is  white  with  something  of  a  yellow  tinge,  but 
some  are  brindled,  some  black  and  white,  and  some  black. 

If  the  Esquimaux  Dog  resembles  the  Grey  Wolf  of  North  America 
equally  does  the  Hare  Indian's  or  Mackenzie  River  Dog  resemble 
the  Fox.  This  Dog  {Cam's  familiaris,  var.  lagapus)  is  character- 
ised by  a  narrow,  elongated,  and  pointed  muzzle,  by  erect  sharp 
cars,  and  by  a  bushy  tail,  not  carried  erect,  but  only  slightly  curved 
upwards,  and  by  the  general  slenderness  of  the  form.  (Fig.  236.) 
The  hair  is  fine  and  silky,  thickening  in  winter,  when  it  becomes 
white,  or  nearly  so  ;  but  in  summer  it  is  marked  by  patches  of 
greyish-black  or  slate-grey,  intermingled  with  shades  of  brown.  So 
nearly  does  this  Dog  resemble  the  Arctic  Fox  of  the  regions  where 
it  is  found  (namely,  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  River  and  of  the 
Great  Bear  Lake,  traversed  by  the  Arctic  circle),  that  they  have  been 


Fig.  237.— Dogs. 

a,  the  Water  Spaniel ;  h,  the  Fox-hound  ;  c,  the  Pointer  ;  n',  the  Lurcher  ;  e,  the  Newfoundland  Dog  ; 
f,  the  Shepherd's  Dog;  g,  the  English  Hound  j  h,  the  Blood-hound. 

considered  merely  as  varieties  of  each  other,  one  being  of  the  wild, 
the  other  of  the  domesticated  race.  The  Hare  Indian's  Dog  is 
never  known  to  bark  in  its  native  country ;  and  the  beautiful  pair 
brought  to  England  by  Sir  John  Franklin  and  Dr.  Richardson,  never 
acquired  this  canine  language ;  but  one  born  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  (the  pair  in  quest'ion  having  been  presented  to  the  Society) 
readily  learned  it,  and  made  his  voice  sound  as  loudly  as  any  Euro- 
pean Dog  of  his  size  and  age. 

This  variety  is  of  great  value  to  the  natives  of  tlie  bleak  and  dreary 
realms  where  the  Moose  and  the  Reindeer  are  objects  of  the  chase. 
Though  it  has  not  strength  fitting  it  for  ])ulling  down  such  game, 
yet  its  broad  feet  and  light  make  enable  it  to  run  over  the  snow 
without  sinking  if  the  slightest  crust  be  formed  on  it,  and  thus  easily 


94 


TERRIERS,   THE  SHEPHERD'S  DOG,  AND   GREYHOUND. 


to  overtake  the  Moose  or  Reindeer,  and  keep  them  at  bay  until  the 
hunters  conic  up.  In  the  Fox  the  pupil  is  oblong,  in  the  Dog  cir- 
cular ;  but  independently  of  this,  it  is,  to  say  the  least,  highly 
improbable  that  this  intelligent  Dog  is  specifically  identical  with  the 
Arctic  Fox  :  but  if  for  argument  we  grant  that  it  is,  as  some  contend, 
and  also  that  the  Esquimaux  Dog  is  identical  with  the  Wolf,  other 
Don-s  also  being  reclaimed  Wolves,  we  are  involved  in  a  dilemma  ; 
for  we  must  then  admit  that  the  W' olf  and  Fox  will  breed  together 
and  produce  a  fertile  offspring,  which  those  who  contend  for  the 
Wolfish  origin  of  the  Dog  by  no  means  will  allow  to  be  possible. 

The  Pomeranian  or  Wolf-dog  (chien-loup),  and  the  Siberian  Dog, 
the  Lapland  Dog,  and  the  Iceland  Dog,  of  Buffon,  appear  to  be 
closely  related  to  the  Esquimaux  Dog.  Bufton  regards  them  as 
varieties  of  the  Shepherd's  Dog,  which  he  considers  to  be  that  which 
of  all  is  nearest  to  the  primitive  type,  since,  as  he  observes,  m  all 
inhabited  countries,  whether  men  be  partially  savage  or  civilised. 
Dogs  resembling  this  more  than  any  other  are  spread  ;    and  he  at- 


Fig.  23S. — Rat-catclier  and  Terriers. 

tributes  its  preservation  to  its  utility,  and  its  being  abandoned  to 
the  peasantry  charged  with  the  care  of  flocks.  If,  however,  great 
ceiebral  development  and  intelligence  are  to  be  received  as  tests  of 
cultivation,  we  should  be  inclined  to  regard  the  Shepherd's  Dog  as 
one  of  the  most  remote  from  the  original  wild  type,  sharp  and  pointed 
as  are  its  nose  and  ears.  (Fig.  237,/.)  The  forehead  rises,  the  top 
of  the  head  is  arched  and  broad  between  the  ears,  and  the  hair  is 
long  and  sometimes  matted.  This  Dog  is  of  middle  size,  but  light, 
active,  and  strong. 

Of  the  sagacity  and  faithfulness  of  the  Shepherd's  Dog  many 
interesting  narratives  are  current ;  it  knows  its  master's  flocks,  it  w-ill 
single  out  a  Sheep  under  his  direction,  keep  it  separate,  or  disen- 
gage it  again  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  should  it  regain  or  mingle 
with  them  ;  it  will  keep  two  flocks  apart,  and  should  they  coalesce, 
re-divide  them.  It  will  watch  and  defend  them  from  strange  Dogs 
or  Foxes,  and  will  drive  them  to  any  place  required.     It  is,  in  fact, 


the  shepherd's  friend  and  assistant ;  it  watches  every  look  and 
every  sign,  is  quick  in  apprehension,  prompt  in  obedience,  and 
pleased  with  its  master's  praise  :  and  well  does  he  who  tends  his 
flocks  on  the  wide  pasture-lands  or  mountain  district  of  our  island 
appreciate  the  services  and  fidelity  of  his  attached  ally. 

Closely  allied  to  the  Shepherd's  Dog  is  the  Cur,  or  Drover's  Dog  ; 
it  is  generally  larger  than  the  former,  with  shorter  hair,  and  stands 
taller  on  the  limbs.  The  tail  is  mostly  cut  short ;  but  Bewick  says 
that  many  are  whelped  with  short  tails,  which  seem  as  if  they  had 
been  cut,  and  these  are  called  in  the  North  "Self-tailed  Dogs." 
Though  this  writer  thinks  the  Drover's  Dog  to  be  a  true  or  perma- 
nent breed,  it  seems  to  us  that  it  is  a  cross  between  the  Shepherd's 
Dog  and  some  other  race,  perhaps  the  Terrier.  These  Dogs  bite 
severely,  and  always  attack  the  heels  of  cattle,  and,  as  they  are 
prompt,  courageous,  and  intelligent,  a  fierce  Bull  is  easily  driven  by 
them. 

Supposing  the  Shepherd's  Dog  to  be  the  representative  of  a  small 

section  of  the  domestic  canine 
race,  the  next  to  which  we  may 
turn  is  that  of  the  Terriers.  Two 
breeds  of  this  spirited  and  well- 
known  Dog  are  common  :  one 
called  the  Scotch  Terrier,  with 
rough  wiry  hair,  short  legs, 
and  a  long  body ;  the  other, 
called  the  English  Terrier, 
sleek,  w'ith  longer  legs  and  a 
more  elegant  form ;  its  ordi- 
nary colour  is  black  with  tan- 
ned limbs,  and  a  tanned  spot 
over  each  eye.  In  both  the 
muzzle  is  moderately  long  and 
sharp,  and  the  ears  erect ;  the 
eye  is  quick,  and  the  power  of 
smell  acute  :  for  unearthing 
Fox  or  Badger,  for  worrying 
Rats,  and  for  courage  and 
determination,  these  Dogs  are 
celebrated  ;  and  they  make  ex- 
cellent house-guards.  Who  is 
not  familiar  with  the  pepper- 
and-mustard  breeds,  as  de- 
picted by  the  graphic  pencil 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott  ?  (See 
Figs.  238  and  239.) 

Fig.  238  represents  very 
spiritedly  three  of  these  Dogs 
engaged  in  the  occupation  of 
Rat-catching,  and  evidently 
entering  into  the  sport  with 
the  utmost  ardour,  encouraged 
by  their  professional  director, 
who  holds  in  his  hand  their 
assistant,  the  Ferret,  whiclr 
they  have  learned  to  regard  as 
their  ally. 

The  Lurcher  (Fig.  237,  d) 
appears  to  be  a  mixed  breed 
between  the  Rough  Terrier  or 
Shepherd's  Dog  and  the  Grey- 
hound. Bewick  informs  us 
that  it  is  shorter  than  the 
latter,  with  stronger  limbs,  and 
is  covered  with  a  rough  coat  of 
hair,  commonly  of  a  pale  yel- 
low colour.  As  this  Dog  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  a  fine 
scent,  it  is  often  employed 
in  killing  Hares  and  Rabbits 
in  the  night-time.  It  steals 
silently  and  cautiously  upon 
them  while  they  are  feeding,  and  then  suddenly  darts  forward  and 
seizes  them. 

The  Greyhound  (Fig.  231,  d,  at  page  91,  afife,  and  Fig.  240,  the 
Scotch  Greyhound;  Fig.  231,  e,  at  page  91,  ante,  the  English)  is 
the  example  of  a  distinct  group  :  Buffon  regards  the  French  Matin 
and  the  great  Danish  Dog  as  the  main  stocks  of  the  Greyhound 
race  ;  but  this  is  not  clear.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland  there  existed, 
in  very  ancient  times,  a  noble  breed  of  Greyhounds  used  for  the 
chase  of  the  Wolf  and  the  Deer,  and  which  appears  to  us  to  be  the 
pure  source  of  our  present  breed  ;  it  is  quite  as  probable  that  the 
INIatin  is  a  modification  of  the  ancient  Greyhound  of  Europe,  repre- 
sented by  the  Irish  Greyhound  or  Wolf-Dog,  as  that  it  is  the  source 
of  that  fine  breed.  Few,  we  believe,  of  the  old  Irish  Greyhound 
exist.  In  Scotland,  the  old  Deerhound  may  still  be  met  with,  and 
though  it  exceeds  the  common  Greyhound  in  size  and  strength,  it  is 
said  to  be  below  its  ancient  standard.     With  the  extirpation  of  the 


GREYHOUNDS,  SPAmELS,  AND  ST.  BERNARD  bOGS. 


Wolf  the  necessity  of  keeping  up  the  race  to  the  highest  perfection 
ceased.  The  hair  is  wiry,  the  chest  is  remarkable  for  volume,  and 
the  limbs  are  long  and  muscular.  A  similar  breed  existed  and  still 
continues  to  exist  in  Albania,  and  was  celebrated  by  the  ancients 
for  its  prowess.  In  England  the  Greyhound  was  larger  and 
stronger  formerly  than  at  present,  and  employed  in  chasing  the 
Stag.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  gratified  one  day  after  dinner  by  seeing, 
from  a  turret,  sixteen  Deer  pulled 
down  by  Greyhounds  upon  the 
lawn  at  Cowdrey  Park  in  Sus- 
sex. The  Italian  Greyhound  is 
well  known  as  an  elegant  attend- 
ant of  the  parlour. 

In  Arabia,  Persia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East,  a  breed  of 
Greyhounds  has  existed  time  im- 
memorial ;  these  Dogs  strongly 
resemble  light  coursing  Dogs 
represented  in  Egyptian  paint- 
ings, and  are  probably  descended 
from  them  ;  of  the  same  type  are 
the  semi-wild,  unowned  Street 
Dogs  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
South-western  Asia.  From  the 
antiquity  of  the  Greyhound  breed, 
we  might  be  induced  to  suppose 
that  in  it  may  be  seen  the  near- 
est approach  to  the  primitive 
source,  or  one  of  the  primitive 
sources  of  the  reclaimed  race, 
and  perhaps  the  Arabian 
Greyhound,  or  the  Lurcher-like 
Street  Dogs  of  Egypt,  retain 
some  characters  in  common 
with  the  primitive  stock.  (See 
Fig.  241.)  Care  and  attention 
have  elevated  the  British  Grey- 
hound far  above  the  ancient 
Egyptian  coursing  Dog,  or  that 
of  Arabia  (represented  by  Fig. 
242},  of  which  the  form  of  the 
head  is  Wolfish,  the  tail  fringed 
with  long,  hair,  and  the  ears,  as 
seen  in  the  paintings  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  erect  and 
very  acute.     Fig.  243  is  a  sketch 

of  the  Turkman  Watch-Dog  for  guarding  Sheep.  It  is  described 
as  a  large,  rugged,  fierce  animal,  equalling  the  Wolf  in  stature, 
shaped  like  the  Irish  Greyhound,  and  with  equally  powerful  jaws. 
The  ears  are  erect,  the  tail  rather  hairy,  the  general  colour  deep 
yellowish-red.  This  race  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  doubtless  still 
retains  much  of  its  pristine  aspect,  which  is  so  Wolf-like,  that, 
according  to  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith, 
"  a  friend  being  present  in  Asia  Minor 
at  a  Wolf-hunt,  allowed  one  (a  Wolf) 
to  pass  out  of  a  brake,  because  he  mis- 
took him  for  one  of  the  Turkman  Dogs." 

Of  the  races  with  pendent  ears  and 
a  moderately  lengthened  muzzle,  we  may 
first  advert  to  the  Spaniels,  among  which 
we  include  the  pure  Setter,  and  the 
rough  Water-Dog.  These  Dogs  are  re- 
markable for  intelligence,  docility,  and 
their  affectionate  disposition.  The  fur 
is  long  and  silky,  sometimes  curled  or 
crisped  ;  the  ears  are  large  and  pendent, 
and  the  expression  of  the  countenance 
is  spirited,  yet  gentle  and  pleasing. 
All  possess  excellent  scent,  especially 
the  Setter,  formerly  so  valued  by  the 
sportsman. 

The  Water-Spaniel  is  extremely  use- 
ful to  persons  engaged  in  the  pursuit 
of  Water-Fowl ;  it  swims  well,  is  very 
hardy,  and  is  an  excellent  Retriever. 
(Fig.  237,  a.)  The  French  Poodle  may 
be  referred  to  the  Spaniels  :  it  appears 
to  be  very  nearly  allied  to  the  rough 
Water-Dog  figured  by  Bewick,  the 
"Grand  Barbet"  of  Buflfon,  and  of 
which  there  is  a  smaller  variety  termed 
"Le  Petit  Barbet."     (See  Fig.  244.) 

The  rough  Water-Dog  is  a  most  in- 
telligent animal ;  it  is  robustly  made, 
and  covered  universally  with  deep  curly 
hair ;  it  exceeds  tlie  Water-Spaniel  in 
size  and  strength,   but   has  the   same 


95 


aquatic  habits  and  docility.     It  is  much  used  as  a  Retriever  by  the 
shooters  of  Water- Fowl. 

We  are  inclined  to  consider  the  Italian  Wolf-Dog  (used  in  the 
Abruzzi  by  the  shepherds  to  defend  their  flocks),  the  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador  Dog,  and  the  Alpine  Dog,  as  the  representatives  of  a 
distinct  group;  the  latter  Dog,  indeed,  approximates  to  the 
Mastifi's.     We  have  seen  several  noble  specimens  of  the  Alpine  or 


Encrlish  and  Scotch  Terriers, 


St.  Bernard  breed  :  their  size  is  equal  to  that  of  the  largest  Mastiff; 
the  muzzle  is  deep,  the  ears  are  pendulous,  the  fur  is  rather  long 
and  wiry,  the  eye  is  full  and  very  expressive,  and  the  form  of  the 
body  and  limbs  indicates  great  strength.  Their  sense  of  smell  is 
very  acute,  and  aids  them  in  the  work  of  mercy  to  which  the  worthy 
monks  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  have  applied  them.     To  the  honour 


Fig.  240.— Scotch  Greyhound. 


96 


ST.  BERNARD  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND  DOGS. 


of  those  excellent  men  be  it  spoken,  that  while  others  have  trained 
the  Dog  to  the  combat,  to  the  chase  of  the  runaway  slave,  and  to 
the  pursuit  of  game,  they  have  availed  themselves  of  the  power, 
intelligence,  and  courage  of  the  Dog,  in  rescuing  the  unhappy 
traveller  from  the  horrors  of  death  amidst  the  snows  of  the  moun- 
tains. 
One  of  these  noble  Dogs  was  decorated  with  a  medal  in  com- 


Fig.  241. — Street  Dogs  of  the  East. 

memoration  of  his  having  saved  the  lives  of  twenty-two  persons,  who 
but  for  his  sagacity  must  have  perished.  He  was  lost  in  1816,  in 
an  attempt  to  convey  a  poor  traveller  to  his  anxious  family.  The 
man  was  a  Piedmontese  courier,  who  arrived  at  St.  Bernard  in  a 
very  stormy  season,  labouring  to  make  his  way  to  the  little  village 
of  St.  Pierre,  in  the  valley  beneath  the  mountain,  where  his  wife  and 
children  dwelt  ;  it  was  in  vain  that  the  monks  attempted  to  check 
his  resolution  to  reach  his  family.  They  at  last  gave  him  two 
guides,  each  of  whom  was  accompanied  by  a  Dog,  of  which  one  was 


Fig.  242. — Arabian  Greyhound. 

the  remarkable  creature  whose  services  had  been  so  valuable  to 
mankind.  Descending  from  the  convent  they  were  in  an  instant 
overwhelmed  by  two  avalanches,  and  the  same  common  destruction 
awaited  the  family  of  the  poor  courier,  who  were  toiling  up  the 
mountain  to  obtain  some  news  of  their  expected  friend ;  they  all 
perished. 


The  Wolf-Dog  of  the  Abruzzi  is  pure  white,  somewhat  more 
lightly  formed  than  the  Newfoundland  Dog,  but  strong  and 
muscular.     The  hair  is  long  and  flowing.    ,(Fig.  245.) 

The  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  Dogs  are  often  confounded 
together.  The  Labrador  Dog  exceeds  in  size  the  Newfoundland 
animal,  and  is  often  of  extraordinary  dimensions.  A  fine  specimen, 
measured   some  time  since,  gave   us  the  following  particulars : — 


Fig.  243. — Turkman  Watch-Dog. 

Total  length,  including  the  tail,  6  feet  3  inches  ;  height  at  the 
shoulder,  2  feet  6  inches  ;  length  of  head  from  occiput  to  point  of 
nose,  II  inches;  circumference  of  chest,  3  feet  i  inch.  In  Labrador 
these  powerful  and  intelligent  Dogs  are  used  for  drawing  sledges 
loaded  with  wood,  and  are  of  great  service  to  the  settlers.  (Fig.  237, 
e,  at  page  93,  a?ite.) 

The  Newfoundland  Dog  is  of  less  stature,  but  more  compactly 
built,  and  is  muscular  and  sagacious.  These  animals  are  also  used 
for  drawing  sledges  and  little  carriages  laden  with  wood,  fish,  and 
other  commodities,  and  are  very  valuable  in  their  native  country. 


Fig.  244. — French  Poodle. 

Both  the  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  breeds  are  admirable  Water- 
Dogs,  and  make  excellent  Retrievers.  Their  fidelity  and  attach- 
ment to  their  masters  are  well  known,  and  all  are  familiar  with 
instances  in  which  human  beings  about  to  perish  in  the  water  have 
owed  their  life  to  the  courage  and  e.xertions  of  these  devoted 
creatures. 

Our  next  group  contains  the  Hounijs,  including  the  Pointer. 
Several  varieties  of  Hounds  now  exist  in  our  island,  and  of  these  the 
Beagle,  the  Harrier,  and  the  Fox-hound  are  familiar  to  all  our 
readers.  No  country  equals  England  in  the  swiftness,  spirit,  and 
endurance  of  its  Hounds,  and  in  no  country  is  so  much  attention 
paid  to  the  different  breeds,  especially  the  Harrier  and  Fox-hound. 
The  Beagle  (Fig.  246)  was  formerly  a  great  favourite,  but  is  now 
little  used.  It  is  of  small  stature,  but  of  exquisite  scent,  and  its 
tones,  when  heard  in  full  cry,  are  musical  It  has  not,  however,  the 
strength  or  fieetness  of  the  Harrier,  and  still  less  so  of  the  Fox- 
hound, and  hence  it  does  not  engage  the  attention  of  the  sportsmen 
of  the  modern  school,  who,  unlike  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  are  im- 
petuous in  the  field,  preferring  a  hard  run  to  a  tame  and  quiet 
pursuit.  The  Beagle  w-as  only  employed  in  hunting  the  Hare,  as  is 
the  Harrier;  but  the  Fo.x-hound  is  trained  both  for  the  Deer  and 


ENGLISH  AND   OTHER  HOUNDS. 


97 


the  Fox.  The  strength  and  powers  of  scent  of  the  Fox-hound  are 
very  great,  and  many  astonishing  instances  of  the  energy  and  en- 
durance of  these  animals  are  on  record. 

Formerly  two  noble  varieties  of  the  Hound  were  common  in 
England,  which  are  now  seldom  seen.  We  allude  to  the  old 
English  Hound  and  the  Blood-hound. 

Of  the  old  English  Hound,  which  is  described  by  Whittakcr,  in  his 
"  History  of  Manchester,"  as  the  original  breed  of  our  island,  we 
some  years  since  saw  a  fine  specimen  in  Lancashire.  It  was  tall 
and  robust,  with  a  chest  of  extraordinary  depth  and  breadth,  with 
pendulous  lips,  and  deeply-set  eyes  ;  the  ears  were  large  and  long, 
and  hung  very  low;  the  nose  was  broad,  and  the  nostrils  large  and 
moist.  The  voice  was  deep,  full,  and  sonorous.  The  general 
colour  was  black,  passing  into  tan  or  sandy-red  about  the  muzzle 
and  along  the  inside  of  the  limbs.  Shakspcare's  description  of  the 
Hounds  of  Theseus,  in  the  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  is  true 
to  the  letter  as  referring  to  this  breed,  with  which  he  was,  no 
doubt,  well  acquainted  : — 

"My  hounds  are  bred  out  of  the  Spavt.in  kind, 
So  flew'd,  so  sanded  ;  and  their  lieads  are  hung 
With  ears  that  sweep  away  the  morning  dew  ; 
Crook-knee'd  and  dew-lapped  like  Thessalian  bulls  ; 
Slow  in  pursuit,  but  match'd  in  mouth  like  bells, 
Each  under  each." 

Besides  the  old  English  or  Southern  Hound,  was  the  old  English 
Stag-hound,  or  Talbot  (Fig.   237,  g,  page  93,   ante),    a    powerful 
Dog,  but  of  lighter  form,  and  more  fleet,  than  the  former :  from  this 
breed   has    descended    the   still 
lighter  and  swifter  Fox-hound  of 
the  present  day. 

Among  the  Hounds  of  the 
"olden  time"  w-as  the  Blood- 
hound, so  celebrated  for  its  ex- 
quisite sense  and  unwearied 
perseverance,  qualities  which 
were  taken  advantage  of,  by 
training  it  not  only  to  the  chase 
of  game,  but  to  the  pursuit  of 
man.  A  true  Blood-hound  (and 
the  pure  blood  is  rare)  stands 
about  eight-and-twenty  inches 
in  height,  muscular,  compact, 
and  strong ;  the  forehead  is 
broad,  and  the  face  narrow 
towards  the  muzzle ;  the  nos- 
trils are  wide  and  well  de- 
veloped ;  the  ears  are  large, 
pendulous,  and  broad  at  the 
base  ;  the  aspect  is  serene  and 
sagacious  ;  the  tail  is  long,  with 
an  upward  curve  when  in  pursuit, 
at  which  time  the  Hound  opens 
with  a  voice  deep  and  sonorous, 
that  may  be  heard  down  the 
wind  for  a  very  long  distance. 
(Fig.  247,  and  also  237,  h,  at 
page  93,  a}ite.) 

The  colour  of  the  true  breed 
is  stated  to  be  almost  invariably 
a  reddish  tan,  darkening  gradu- 
ally towards  the  upper  parts  till 
it  becomes  mixed  with  the  black 
on  their  back  ;  the  lower  parts, 
limbs,  and  tail  being  of  a  lighter 
shade,  and  the  muzzle  tawny  : 
Pennant  adds,  "  a  black  spot 
over  each  eye;"  but  the  Blood- 
hounds in  the  possession  of 
Thomas  Astle,  Esq.  (and  they 
were  said  to  have  been  of  the 
original    blood),   had    not  these 

marksj  -  Some — but  such  instances  were  not  common — had  a  little 
white  about  them,  such  as  a  star  in  the  face,  &c.  The  better 
opinion  is,  that  the  original  stock  was  a  mixture  of  the  deep- 
mouthed  Southern  Hound  and  the  powerful  old  English  Stag-hound. 

Our  ancestors  soon  discovered  the  infallibility  of  the  Blood-hound 
in  tracing  any  animal,  living  or  dead,  to  its  resting-place.  To  train 
it,  the  young  Dog,  accompanied  by  a  staunch  old  Hound,  was  led 
to  the  spot  whence  a  Deer  or  other  animal  had  been  taken  on  for  a 
mile  or  two  ;  the  Hounds  were  then  laid  on  and  encouraged,  and 
after  hunting  this  "drag"  successfully,  were  rewarded  with  a 
portion  of  the  venison  which  composed  it.  The  next  step  was  to 
take  the  young  Dog,  with  his  seasoned  tutor,  to  a  spot  whence  a 
man,  whose  shoes  had  been  rubbed  with  the  blood  of  a  Deer,-  had 
started  on  a  circuit  of  two  or  three  miles  :  during  his  progress  the 
man  was  instructed  to  renew  the  blood  from  time  to  tmie,  to  keep 


the  scent  well  alive.  His  circuit  was  gradually  enlarged  at  each 
succeeding  lesson  ;  and  the  young  Hound,  thus  entered  and  trained, 
became,  at  last,  fully  equal  to  hunt  by  itself,  either  for  the  purpose 
of  woodcraft,  war,  or  "  following  gear,"  as  the  pursuit  after  the 
property  plundered  in  a  border  foray  was  termed. 

Laid  on  the  track  of  a  marauder,  it  kept  up  a  steady,  perseverinjj 
chase,  and  was  not  baffled  without  difficulty.  Sir  Walter  Scott  states 
that  the  breed  of  Blood-hounds  was  kept  up  by  the  Huccleuch  family, 
on  their  Border  estates,  till  within  the  i8th  century.  In  former  a"-es 
these  Dogs,  or,  as  the  Scotch  called  thum,  "  Sleuth-hounds,"  w'crc 
kept  in  great  numbers  on  the  Borders  ;  and  fugitive  kings  as  well  as 
moss-troopers  were  obliged  to  study  how  to  evade  them.  Bruce  was 
repeatedly  tracked  by  these  Dogs,  and  on  one  occasion  only  escaped 
by  wading  for  a  considerable  distance  up  a  brook,  and  climbing  a 
tree  which  overhung  the  w^ater.  "  A  sure  way  of  stopping  the  Dog 
was  to  spill  blood  upon  the  track,  which  destroyed  the  discriminatin;'- 
fineness  of  the  scent.  A  captive  was  sometimes  sacrificed  on  such 
occasions.  Henry  the  Minstrel  tells  a  romantic  story  of  Wallace, 
founded  on  this  circumstance.  The  hero's  little  band  had  been 
joined  by  an  Irishman  named  Fawdon,  or  Fadzean,  a  dark,  savage, 
and  suspicious  character.  After  a  sharp  skirmish  at  Black-Erne 
Side,  Wallace  was  forced  to  retreat  with  only  sixteen  followers.  The 
English  pursued  with  a  border  Blood-hound.  In  the  retreat,  Fawdon, 
tired,  or  affecting  to  be  so,  would  go  no  farther  ;  Wallace  having  in 
vain  argued  with  him,  in  hasty  anger  struck  off  his  head,  and  con- 
tinued to  retreat.  When  the  English  came  up,  their  Hound  stayed 
upon  the  dead  body."     (Notes  to  the  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.") 

In  1876,  a  murder  was  committed  at  Wigan,  in  Lancashire,  which, 


Fig.  245. — Italian  Wolf-Dogs. 

for  a  long  time,  remained  a  mystery.  But  at  last  a  Blood-hound 
was  put  on  the  scent,  and,  being  taken  to  a  barber's  shop,  instantly 
sprung  up  the  chimney,  and  brought  down  the  skull  and  other  bones 
of  the  victim,  a  little  girl,  who  had  been  murdered  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  shop,  and  who  stood  witness  of  this  singular  discovery  of  his 
crime. 

To  the  present  group  has  generally  been  referred  the  Cuban  Blood- 
hound, as  it  is  termed— a  Dog  of  Spanish  descent,  sagacious  and 
savage,  and  which  was  employed  by  the  Spaniards  with  atrocious 
barbarity  in  their  conquest  of  America  ;  and  more  recently  (179S)  m 
Jamaica  against  the  Maroons,  who  had  revolted,  and  were  waging  a 
bloody  and  successful  war  against  the  government  forces,  but  which 
the  very  terror  these  Dogs  inspired  at  once  happily  brought  to 
a  close. 

These  Dogs,  used  in  Cuba  in  the  pursuit  of  murderers  and  felons, 


98 


THE  POINTER,   BULL-DOG,  AND  MASTIFF. 


have  a  fine  scent  and  great  power :  specimens  once  existed  in  the 
Gardens  of  the  Zool.  Soc.    (Fig.  248.) 

Their  colour  is  tawny,  with  black  about  the  muzzle  ;  the  ears  are 
comparatively  small ;  the  muzzle  is  shorter  and  more  pointed  than 
in  the  ordinary  Hound,  and  they  are  shorter  on  the  limbs ;    in  some 


./^^ 


Fig.  246. — Beagle. 

points  they  approach  the  Mastiff  or  Ban-dog,  especially  in  the  form 
of  the  head,  which  approaches  that  of  the  Bull-dog  ;  indeed,  by 
many,  and  with  reason,  they  are  regarded  more  as  a  variety  of  the 
Mastiff  than  the  Hound  ;  and  for  ourselves,  we  hesitate  not  to  regard 
them  as  such;     The.y  make  excellent  Watch-Dogs,  and  attack  both 


the  Bull  and  the  Bear  with  determined  resolution.     Their  height  at 
the  shoulder  is  about  two  feet. 

We  have  hitherto  said  nothing  of  the  Pointer  (Fig.  237,  c,  p.  93, 
ante).  The  present  Pointer  is  derived  from  a  heavy  Dog,  possess- 
ing the  sense  of  smell  in  the  highest  perfection,  known  as  the  Old 

Spanish  Pointer,  and  decidedly  related 

to  the  Hound.  This  Dog  is  now  sel- 
dom seen  :  like  the  Talbot,  the  source, 
as  we  presume,  of  the  light,  active,  but 
vigorous  Fox-hound,  the  old  Spanish 
Pointer  has  merged  into  the  intelligent, 
vigorous  Dog  so  much  prized  by  the 
sportsman  for  its  excellent  qualifica- 
tions. In  some  breeds  of  Pointers  there 
is,  we  believe,  a  cross  of  the  Fox- 
hound, which  improves  their  strength 
and  energy. 

We  now  enter  upon  a  group  of  Dogs 
distinguished  by  the  shortness  of  the 
muzzle  and  the  breadth  of  the  head, 
this  latter  character  resulting,  not  from 
a  corresponding  development  of  the 
brain,  but  from  the  magnitude  of  the 
temporal  muscles,  which  are  attached 
to  a  bony  ridge  passing  down  the 
median  line  of  the  skull.  The  expres- 
-iion  of  the  eyes  is  lowering  and  feroci- 
ous ;  the  jaws  are  very  strong,  the  lips 
pendulous  ;  the  general  form  is  thick- 
set and  robust ;  the  limbs  are  mus- 
cular. 

This  group  comprehends  the  Bull- 
dog, the  Mastiff,  and  their  allies.  In 
sagacity  and  intelligence,  the  Dogs  of 
the  present  section  are  not  to  be  cora- 
ared  to  the  Newfoundland  Dog,  the 
Spaniel,  or  the  Shepherd's  Dog  ;  they 
surpass  all,  however,  in  determined 
courage  and  prowess  in  combat.  In 
early  times  the  English  Mastiff  was 
celebrated  for  its  strength  and  resolu- 
tion, characteristics  which  did  not  fail 
to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Romans 
when  this  island  formed  a  part  of  their 
widely-spread  empire.  To  a  people  in 
whom  a  partiality  for  scenes  of  blood- 
shed and  slaughter,  and  for  the  san- 
guinary games  of  the  amphitheatre, 
was  a  ruling  passion.  Dogs  so  fitted 
to  gratify  their  taste  were  peculiarly 
acceptable ;  and  accordingly  we  find 
that  they  were  bred  and  reared  by 
officers  specially  appointed,  who  se- 
lected such  as  were  distinguished  for 
combative  qualities,  and  sent  them  to 
Rome  for  the  service  of  the  amphi- 
theatres, where  they  were  matched  in 
fight  with  various  beasts  of  prey.  Dr. 
Caius,  a  naturalist  of  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  states  that  three  were 
reckoned  a  match  for  a  Bear,  and  four  for  a  Lion. 

Stowe,  in  his  "Annals,"  gives  us  the  account  of  an  engagement 
between  three  Mastiffs  and  a  Lion,  which  took  place  in  the  presence 
of  James   I.     "  One  of  the  Dogs,"  says  Stowe,  "  being  put  into  the 


Fig.  247. — English  Blood-hound. 


Fig.  248. — Cuban  Blood-hound. 


THE  BULL-DOG,   MASTIFF,   AND  BAN-DOG. 


99 


den  was  soon  disabled  by  the  Lion,  which  took  it  by  the  head  and 
neck  and  dragged  it  about.  Another  Dog  was  then  let  loose,  and 
served  in  the  same  manner ;  but  the  third,  being  put  in,  seized  the 
Lion  by  the  lip,  and  held  him  for  a  considerable  time  ;  till,  being 
severely  torn  by  his  claws,  the  Dog  was  obliged  to  quit  its  hold,  and 
the  Lion,  greatly  exhausted  in  the  conflict,  refused  to  renew  the 


Fig.  .->49.— The  Bull-dog,  a;  the  Mastiff,  b;  and  Ban-dog, 


engagement ;  but,  taking  a  sudden  leap  over  the  Dogs,  fled  into  the 
interior  part  of  his  den.  Two  of  the  Dogs  soon  died  of  their 
wounds  ;  the  last  survived."  The  Mastiff  is  by  far  the  most  sagaci- 
ous of  the  present  section,  and,  of  all  other  Dogs,  makes  the  best 
guardian  of  property.  It  is  attached  to  its  master,  but  towards 
strangers  is  fierce  and  suspicious.     Its  bark  is  deep  and  sonorous. 

Though  the  Mastiff  has  by  no  means  the  keen  sense  of  smell 
which  the  Hound  possesses,  it  seems  to  be  (at  least  such  is  our 
opinion,  and  that  not  hastily  formed)  either  an  offset  from  that 
branch,  or  a  cognate  branch  from  the  same  root.  The  Mastiff, 
however,  has  a  finer  scent  than  persons  are  generally  aware  of,  and 
its  hearing  is  very  acute.    A  Dog  of  this  breed,  chained  to  his  kennel. 


origin.  It  must  be  remembered  that  particular  instincts  and  quali- 
ties are  acquired,  and  that  the  excellences  of  the  Hound  are  the 
result  of  long-continued  and  judicious  culture.  We  do  not  say  that 
the  Mastiff  can  be  converted  inlo  the  Hound,  but  merely  that  two 
branches  from  the  same  root  may  be  so  cultured  as  to  assume,  to  a 

given  point,  diverse  characteristics.  

°         ^        '  The  huge  Thibet  Watch- Dog  (Fig. 

251)  belongs  to  the  present  section. 
This  Xio%{Canis  familiariSy^ax.  Mo- 
lossus  tliibctaiius)  is  kept  by  the  na- 
tives of  the  Thibet  range  of  hills  as 
a  guardian  of  their  flocks  and  their 
villages:  It  is  very  fierce,  and  its  bark 
is  loud  and  terrific.  The  colour  is  gene- 
rally black. 

The  Ban-dog  (Fig.  249,  c,  ante)  is  a 
term  given  to  any  of  the  fierce  animals 
of  the  present  section,  which  are,  in 
ordinary  cases,  kept  chained  or  secured 
in  kennels.  Bewick,  however,  applies  it 
to  a  Dog,  of  which  he  gives  an  excellent 
figure,  and  which  he  states  to  differ 
from  the  Mastiff  in  being  lighter,  more 
active  and  vigilant,  but  not  so  powerful 
or  so  large  ;"its  muzzle,  besides,  is  not 
so  heavy,  and  it  possesses  in  some 
degree  the  scent  of  the  Hound.  Its  hair 
is  described  as  being  rather  rough,  and 
generally  of  a  yellowish-grey  streaked 
with  shades  of  black  or  brown.  It  is 
ferocious  and  full  of  energy.  Bewick 
says  that  this  Dog  is  seldom  to  be  seen 
at  the  present  day  ;  we  have,  however, 
had  occasion  to  notice  varieties  of  the 
Mastiff  so  closely  agreeing  with  Be- 
wick's figure  and  description,  as  to  con- 
vince us  that  he  took  both  of  them  from 
nature. 

Of  all  the  Dogs  of  this  section,  none 
surpass,  in  obstinacy  or  ferocity,  the  Bull- 
dog. (See  Fig.  249,0,  (7«A'.)  This  animal 
is  smaller  than  the  Mastiff,  but  more 
compactly  formed ;  the  chest  is  broad 
and  deep  ;  the  loins  narrow  ;  the  tail 
slender  and  arched  up  ;  the  limbs  short 
and  robust ;  the  head  is  broad  and 
thick ;  the  muzzle  short  and  deep  ;  the 
jaws  strong,  the  lower  jaw  often  ad- 
vancing, so  that  the  inferior  incisor  teeth  overshoot  the  upper  ;  the 
ears  are  short  and  semi-erect,  the  nostrils  distended,  the  eyes 
scowling,  and  the  whole  expression  calculated  to  inspire  terror. 
This  Dog  is  distinguished  by  tenacity  of  tooth  and  indomitable  reso- 
lution,   in  all  its  habits  and  propensities  it  is  essentially  gladiatorial : 


Fig.  250.— Mastiff. 

and  never  suffered  to  wander  about  the  premises,  nor  treated  as  a 
friend  and  companion,  affords  but  a  poor  example  of  what  the  animal 
really  is.  Confinement  spoils  its  temper,  and  cramps  the  develop- 
ment of  its  noble  qualities.     (See  Fig.  249,  b,  and  250.) 

We  have  said  that  the  Mastiff  is  allied  to  the  Hound:  the  Cuban 
Mastiff,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  is,  indeed,  often  termed 
a  Blood-hound.  The  pendulous  ear,  not  so  large  in  the  Mastiff  as 
in  the  Hound,  the  thick  hanging  lips,  the  broad  moist  nose,  the 
brindled  markings,  and  the  general  figure,  attest  the  affinity.  The 
Mastiff  is  larger  and  stronger  than  the  Hound,  and  useless  for  the 
chase  ;  this  latter  circumstance,  however,  is  no  proof  of  diversity  of 


^.^ 


,■  .'\^.^ 


Fig.  251.— Thibet  Watch-Dog. 


it  is  a  fighting  Dog,  and  nothing  else  ;  its  intelligence  is  very 
limited  ;  and  though  Dogs  of  this  breed  are  attached  to  their 
masters,  they  exhibit,  in  the  demonstration  of  their  feelings,  unless 
when  incited  to  combat,  a  perfect  contrast  to  the  Newfoundland 
Dog  or  Spaniel.  These  latter  delight  to  accompany  their  master  in 
his  walks,  and  scour  the  fields  and  lanes  in  the  exuberance  of 
delight:  the  Bull-dog  skulks  at  its  master's  heels,  and  regards  with 
a  suspicious  glance  everything  and  everybody  t^"^'  P^^^"  Jtyj  "°^' 
indeed,  is  it  safe  to  approach  the  animal,  for  it  often  attacks  with- 
out the  slightest  provocation.  A  cross  between  the  Bull-dog  and 
the  Terrier  is  celebrated  for  spirit  and  determination. 


REMARKS  ON  THE   VARIOUS  BREEDS  OF  DOGS. 


It  has  been  usual  to  consider  the  Pug-dog  as  a  degenerate  variety 
of  the  Bull-dog,  but  we  doubt  the  correctness  of  this  theory.  It  has 
indeed  somewhat  the  aspect  of  the  Bull-dog,  on  a  miniature  scale  ; 
but  the  similarity  is  more  in  superficial  appearance  than  reality. 
The  Pug  is  a  little,  round-headed,  short-nosed  Dog,  with  a  preter- 
natural abbreviation  of  the  muzzle,  and  with  a  tightly  twisted  tad. 
Like  the  Giilaroo  Trout,  it  is  a  specimen  of  hereditary  malformation. 
Not  so  the  Bull-dog,  in  which  the  bones  of  the  skull  and  the  temporal 
muscles  are  finely  developed,  and  in  which  the  muzzle  and  head  are 
in  perfect  harmony. 

The  Pug-dog  is  snarling  and  ill-tempered,  but  cowardly,  and  by 
no  means  remarkable  for  intelligence.  Formerly  it  was  in  great 
esteem  as  a  pet,  but  is  now  little  valued,  and  not  often  kept. 

In  taking  a  review  of  the  various  breeds  of  the  domestic  Dog,  we 
cannot  fail  to  observe  that  they  are  endowed  respectively  with  quali- 
fications or  habits  certainly  not  innate,  but  the  result  of  education, 
at  least  originally;  which  education,  continued  through  a  series  of 
generations,  has  produced  permanent  effects.  For  example,  no  Dog 
in  a  state  of  nature  would  point  with  his  nose  at  a  Partridge,  and 
then  stand  like  a  statue,  motionless,  for  the  Dog  would  gam  nothing 
by  such  a  proceeding.  Man,  however,  has  availed  himself  of  the 
docility  and  delicacy  of  scent  peculiar  to  a  certain  breed,  and  has 
taught  the  Dog  his  lesson,  and  the  lesson  thus  learned  has  become 
second  nature.  A  young  Pointer  takes  to  its  work  as  if  by  intuition, 
and  scarcely  requires  discipline.  Hence,  therefore,  must  we  conclude 
that  education  not  only  effects  impressions  on  the  sensorium,  but 
transmissible  impressions,  whence  arise  the  predispositions  of  certain 
races.  Education,  in  fact,  modifies  organisation  :  not  that  it  makes 
a  Dog  otherwise  than  a  Dog,  but  it  supersedes,  to  a  certain  point, 
instin^ct,  or  makes  acquired  propensities  instinctive,  hereditary,  and 
therefore  characteristics  of  the  race.  The  effect  of  this  change  of 
nature  is  not  to  render  the  Dog  more  independent,  nor  to  give  it  any 
advantage  over  its  fellows,  but  to  rivet  more  firmly  the  links  of  sub- 
jection to  man. 

It  is  not  to  the  Pointer  alone  that  these  observations  apply  ;  all 
our  domestic  Dogs  have  their  own  acquired  propensities,  which,  be- 
coming second  nature,  make  them,  in  one  way  or  another,  valuable 
servants.  No  one,  we  presume,  will  suppose  that  the  instinctive  pro- 
pensities implanted  by  nature  in  the  Shepherd's  Dog,  make  it,  not  a 
destroyer,  but  a  preserver  of  Sheep.  On  the  contrary,  this  Dog,  like 
every  other,  is  carnivorous,  and  nature  intends  it  to  destroy  and 
devour.  But  education  has  supplanted  instinct  to  a  certain  point, 
and  implanted  a  disposition  which  has  become  an  hereditary 
characteristic,  and  hence  a  Shepherd's  Dog  of  the  true  breed  takes  to 
its  duties  naturally.  But  a  Shepherd's  Dog  could  not,  delicate  as  its 
sense  of  smell  is,  be  brought  to  take  the  place  of  the  Pointer  in  the 
field,  even  though  it  were  subjected  to  training  frorn  the  earliest  age  ; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  could  a  Pointer  be  substituted  with  equal 
adv'anta'^e  in  the  place  of  a  Shepherd's  Dog  as  the  assistant  of  the 
drover.  ^Each  is  civilised,  but  in  a  different  style,  and  education  has 
impressed  upon  each  a  different  bent  of  mind,  a  different  class  of 
propensities. 

Every  attempt  to  arrange  the  various  breeds  of  Dogs  under  differ- 


o    o 


^  C"^'S^  A  'h    i 


o 


pig.  252. — Roman  House-Dog. 


O        O 


little  beyond.  They  had  Watch-Dogs,  Hounds,  a  Greyhound  breed, 
and  probably  a  breed  of  Spaniels,  the  Cam's  Tuscits,  also  described 
as  Proles  de  sanguine  Ibcro.  "Fig.  252  is  a  copy  of  a  Dog  repre- 
sented on  a  mosaic  pavement  at  Pompeii,  fastened  by  a  chain,  with 
the  caution  "Cave  canem "  ("Beware  the  Dog")  written  at  its 
feet  :  the  small  sharp  ears  and  elongated  muzzle  give  it  a  wild 
aspect  :  it  appears  to  be  a  strongly-made,  vigorous  animal  ;  but  if 
it  represent  the  Dogue  de  forte  race  of  the  Romans,  we  cannot 
wonder  at  their  sending  to  Britain  for  our  old  indigenous  Mastiff. 

In  Egypt  the  Dog  was  a  favourite,  and  carefully  bred  ;  and,  as  the 
paintings  of  that  people  prove,  there  were  several  breeds.  It  would 
appear,  indeed,  that  some  kinds  were  regarded  with  religious  vene- 


ent  heads  will  necessarily  be  defective,  from  our  want  of  information 
respecting  the  races  of  antiquity  ;  an  accurate  knowledge  of  which 
would  throw  considerable  light  on  our  modem  varieties.  We  know 
indeed  that  the  Greeks  and  Romans  had  valuable  Dogs  for  hunting 
various  wild  animals,  and  paid  great  attention  to  them,  but  we  know 


Fig.  253. — Dogs,  from  Egyptian  Paintings. 

ration,  and  embalmed  after  death.  Mummies  of  them  are  slill 
found.  We  have  seen  the  remains  of  a  red  short-haired  Dog  thus 
preserved.  Figs.  253  and  254  are  outlines  of  Dogs  from  Egyptian 
paintings.  Fig.  253,  a,  two  Hounds,  or  a  Hound  and  Greyhound 
in  couples.  The  style  of  colouring  on  the  foremost  Dog,  regarded 
as  a  Hound,  reminds  us  of  the  Hounds  of  modern  days ;  b  is 
evidently  a  pet  domestic  Dog,  with  sharp  ears  and  a  curled  tail  ; 
c,  a  Hound  ;  d,  a  short-legged  Dog,  not  unlike  our  Turnspit,  with 

sharp  ears,  and  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  favour- 
ite. They  had  also  a  Watch- 
Dog,  of  the  "forte  race," 
excepting  that  its  tail  is 
more  curled  ;  it  has  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  the  Ro- 
man House-Dog  (Fig.  252)  : 
also  a  Hunting  Dog,  as  it 
would  seem,  being  found  fre- 
quently in  attendance  on 
chasseurs.  Fig.  254  is  a 
huntsman  with  an  Antelope 
and  a  brace  of  coupled 
Hounds.  The  modern  Grey- 
hound of  Arabia  (illustrated 
at  p.  96,  Fig.  242)  so  closely 
resembles  the  delineations 
of  the  ancient  Greyhound, 
that  we  cannot  doubt  their 
affinity.  The  Egyptians  m 
the  chase  used  the  bow  and 
spear,  and  intercepted  the 
game  as  it  fled  before  the 
Hounds,  discharging  their  arrows  whenever  it  came  within  range. 
When  a  fierce  Antelope,  as  the  Lcucoryx,  was  brought  to  bay,  the 
hunter  gallantly  used  his  spear,  as  the  Boar-hunter  of  the  middle  ages 
in  Europe.  On  the  level  plains  of  Egypt  the  chasseur  often  followed 
in  his  chariot,  urging  his  Horses  to  the  full  speed,  and  endeavouring 
to  meet  the  game,  or  place  himself  in  the  direction  the  Dogs  were 
forcing  it  to  take,  with  his  bow  and  arrows  ready.  It  was,  perhaps, 
the  partiality  evinced  by  the  Egyptians  to  the  Dog,  that  led  the 
Israelites  to  regard  it  with  abhorrence,  as  an  unclean  animal  ;  in 
which  feeling  they  have  been  followed  by  the  Mohammedans.     Be 


Fig.  254. — From  an  Egyptian  Painting. 


PARIAH  DOGS— THE   WOLF. 


this  as  it  may,  Palestine  "  is  the  country  in  which  this  animal  has 
the  longest  been  refused  that  entire  domestication  with  man  which 
he  has  enjoyed  in  most  other  lands  ;  in  other  words,  the  treatment 
of  the  Dog  has  almost  always,  in  Palestine,  been  such  as  it  has  only 
in  other  countries  been  subject  to  since  the  propagation  of  the 
Moslem  faith.  And  since  the  ideas  concerning  Dogs  have  been 
much  the  same  with  the  ancient  Jews  and  modern  Moslems,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  existing  practices  of  the  latter  illustrate  the 
ancient  practices  of  the  former.  Among  both  we  trace  the  despised, 
but  not  maltreated  Dog  of  the  streets,  and  among  both  we  dis- 
cover that,  with  every  predisposition  to  do  without  them,  certain 
breeds  of  Dogs  have  forced  their  services  upon  man,  from  the  indis- 
pensable nature  of  their  help  in  hunting  and  in  guarding  the  flocks." 
The  Street  Dogs,  called  Pariah  Dogs  in  India,  have  excited  the 
attention  of  all  travellers  in  India,  Turkey,  and  the  whole  of  the 
Levant.  They  roam  the  streets  of  towns,  cities,  and  villages,  owned 
by  no  one,  but,  for  their  services  in  clearing  away  carrion  and  offal, 
universally  tolerated.  We  find  allusions  to  them  in  the  earliest 
records  of  antiquity.  Homer  pictures  them  in  conjunction  with 
Vultures,  as  feeding  upon  the  slain  : — 

"  Whose  limbs  unburied  on  the  naked  shore, 
Devouring  dogs  and  hungry  vultures  tore." 

Pope's  Traiisl. 

In  the  Scriptures  there  are  abundant  allusions,  as  for  example, 
Exodus  .xxii.  31  ;  i  Kings  xxi.  19  and  23  ;  2  Kings  ix.  35,  and  else- 
where. The  passages  of  most  force,  "  In  the  place  where  the  dogs 
licked  the  blood  of  Naboth,  shall  dogs  lick  thy  blood,  even  thine;" 
and,  "The  dogs  shall  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wall  of  Jezreel,"  bring  to 
mind  the  picture  of  a  scene  painted  in  modern  days  by  a  poet,  who 
had  travelled  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  and  well  knew  the  habits  of  the 
masterless  Dogs  that  "wander  up  and  down  for  meat,  and  grudge 
if  they  be  not  satisfied." 

Pariah  Dogs  herd  together  in  troops,  and  keep  to  their  respective 
districts  ;  they  display  all  the  qualities  and  propensities  of  their  race, 
and  if  they  are  fierce  aud  ravenous,  it  is  because  they 
are  left  to  their  own  resources,  since  to  become  at  once 
domestic  they  require  only  to  be  owned  and  noticed. 
Colonel  Sykes,  speaking  of  the  Pariah  Dog  of  Dukhun, 
observes  that  it  is  there  very  numerous,  and  not  in- 
dividual property,  but  breeds  in  the  towns  and  villages 
unmolested.  He  remarks  that  the  Turnspit  Dog-,  long- 
backed,  with  short  crooked  legs,  is  frequently  found 
among  the  Pariahs.  There  is  also  a  petted  minute 
variety  of  the  Pariah  Dog,  usually  of  a  white  colour, 
with  long  silky  hair,  corresponding  to  a  common  Lap- 
Dog  of  Europe ;  this  is  taught  to  carry  flambeaux  and 
lanterns.  The  last  variety  noticed  is  the  Dog  with 
hair  so  short  as  to  appear  naked,  like  the  Barbary  or 
Egyptian  Dog.  It  is  known  to  Europeans  by  the  name 
of  the  Polygar  Dog.  Of  the  Domesticated  Dogs, 
Colonel  Sykes  states,  that  the  first  in  size  and  strength 
is  the  Brinjaree  Dog,  which  somewhat  resembles  the 
Persian  Greyhound,  but  is  much  more  powerful. 

It  may  here  be  expected  that  we  should  enter  into 
some  details  illustratmg  the  intelligence  and  fidelity  of 
this  animal,  which  seems  expressly  made  for  man, 
which  instinctively  clings  to  him,  and  which  watches 
his  every  look  and  gesture.  But  who  from  his  own 
experience  cannot  bear  testimony  to  the  good  qualities 
of  the  Dog !  It  has  been  somewhere  said,  and  with 
truth,  that  man  is  the  god  of  the  Dog,  for  to  man  he 
looks  up  with  reverence  and  affection,  and  the  praise 
of  his  master  is  his  richest  rew-ard.  Is  this  instinctive 
attachment  of  the  Dog  to  man  an  acquired  feeling,  or 
is  it  an  original  impulse  implanted  in  its  nature,  by  the 
All-wise  Creator,  for  man's  benefit,  so  that  in  the 
primitive  condition  of  society  he  might  have  a  friend 
and  assistant,  all-important  in  the  chase,  and  in  the  extirpation  of 
wild  beasts,  which  ere  he  can  settle  in  the  land  and  found  a 
colony,  he  must  drive  to  a  distance  or  destroy  ? 

Numerous  works  have  been  published  in  which  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  the  Dog  in  relation  to  man  have  been  illustrated. 
Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  Jesse's  "  Anecdotes 
of  Dogs,"  the  perusal  of  which  we  strongly  recommend  to  our 
readers.  Craven's  "Young  Sportsman"  also  supplies  many  in- 
teresting facts. 

AVe  have  alluded  to  the  great  similarity,  notwithstanding  their 
mutual  hostility,  which  exists  between  the  Esquimaux  Dog  and  the 
Wolf,  and  we  have  introduced  a  representation  (see  ante,  p.  92,  Fig 
235)  of  the  former  animal,  in  order  the  better  to  compare  it  with  the 
Wolf,  and  to  show  how  closely  it  resembles  a  mixed  breed  between 
the  Dog  and  the  AVolf,  of  which  we  have  given  a  large-size  illustra- 
tion, showing  the  head  of  a  hybrid  breed,  at  p.  90,  ante.  Fig.  255 
represents  the  two  specimens  of  the  mixed  breed  ;  Figs.  256,  2S7, 
the  Wolf.  We  have  already  denied  the  correctness  of  the  inference, 
that  because  the  Wolf  and  the  Jackal  respectively  breed  with  the 


101 

Dog,  they  are  therefore,  as  Hunter  affirmed,  all  of  one  species  :  no 
one,  we  thmk,  will  now  regard  the  Wolf  and  the  Tackal  as  identical  • 
nor  is  there  any  more  ground  for  believing  that  the  Dog  is  either  the 
one  or  the  other,  than  for  assuming  that  the  Wolf  and  the  Jackal 
are  one.  •' 

Figs.   258  and  259  show  the  skull  of  the  European  Wolf,  in  two 


Fig.  255.— Mixed  Breed  of  Dog  and  Wolf. 

views  :  it  differs  in  various  minor  details  from  the  skull  of  the  Canada 
Wolf,  of  which  Figs.  260  and  261  are  two  similar  views. 

Figs.  262  and  263  represent  the  skull  of  the  Jackal,  in  two  views  ; 
it  differs  from  those  both  of  the  European  and  American  Wolf. 

These  skulls  may  be  compared  with  those  of  the  various  breeds  of 
Dogs,  already  given  in  this  chapter.     In  Fig.  264  is  an  illustration  of 


Fig.  256.— Syrian  Wolf. 

the  head  of  a  Wolf,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  a  comparison  between 
it  and  that  of  the  nearest  of  the  Dogs. 

The  Wol'E— Cam's  Ln^us. 

As  the  natural  ally  of  the  Dog,  and  for  reasons  already  assigned  at 
p.  89,  ante,  we  next  describe  the  WOLF.  A  robust  but  gaunt  frame, 
a  skulking  or  irresolute  gait,  ferocity  mingled  with  cunning  and 
cowardice,  and  a  wild  yet  sinister  expression  of  the  physiognomy, 
characterise  this  beast  of  prey.  Spread  throughout  Europe  and 
various  parts  of  Asia,  it  is  more  particularly  in  mountain  and  forest 
districts  that  the  Wolf  prevails,  where  the  population  is  scanty,  and 
collected  into  small  towns  or  villages,  with  a  wide  country  around, 
destitute  of  human  dwellings.  In  the  Pyrenees,  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  in  Poland,  Hungary,  some  parts  of  Austria,  France,  Italy, 
and  Spain  ;  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia,  the  Wolf  is  yet  com- 
mon ;  as  well  as  in  western  Asia,  and  the  border  territories  included  in 
Europe.  Formerly  this  animal  was  abundant  in  the  British  Islands, 
and  the  plague  and  terror  of  the  country.     Verstcgan,  in  his  "  Resti  • 


103 


THE   WOLF. 


tution  of  Decayed  Intellig'ence  in  Antiquities,  concerning-  the  most 
Noble  and  Renowned  English  Nation,"  1605,  obsen-es  that  January 
was  called  Wolf-monat  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  "  because  people  were 
wont  in  that  moneth  to  be  more  in  danger  to  be  devoured  of  Wolves 
than  in  any  season  els  of  the  yeare,  for  that  through  tlie  extremity  of 
cold  and  snow  those  ravenous  creatures  could  not  find  other  beasts 


sufficient  to  feed  upon."  The  universal  fear  which  the  Wolf,  where 
numerous,  would  naturally  inspire,  was  formerly  heightened  by 
superstition,  and  fiends  or  malignant  beings  were  imagined  as 
having  power  to  assume  the  form  and  power  of  this  dreaded  animal. 
Lycanthropos  of  the  Greeks,  the  Were-Wolf  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
and  the  Loup-garou  of  the  French,  had  reference  to  some  such  pre- 
ternatural monster,  whose  name  was  associated  with  all  that  is 
horrible  and  mysterious.  Conspicuous  then,  and  dreaded  for  its 
power  and  ferocity,  we  can  scarcely  wonder  that  the  Wolf  should 
have  had  its  name  assumed,  or  given  to  men  of  distinction,  by  our 
barbarous  but  warlike  forefathers,  among  whom  such  appellations  as 
Ethehvolf,  Eadwolf,  Berthwolf,  and  many  more,  were  common. 


Fig.  25S. 


Skull  of  European  Wolf. 


It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  our  Saxon  ancestors 
tamely  suffered  the  Wolf  to  ravage  the  country.  The  attempt  at 
extirpatmg  this  animal  commenced  in  the  loth  century,  under  the 
reign  of  Edgar,  and  appears  to  have  succeeded  in  the  inh  century 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  as  no  historical  mention  is  made  of 
any  royal  edict,  subsequently  to  that  period,  to  promote  their 
destruction.  The  last  record  of  their  existence  in  any  formidable 
numbers  was  in  1281.  It  is  said  by  Mr.  Topham,  in  his  notes  to 
Somerville's  "  Chace,"  that  it  was  in  the  wolds  of  Yorkshire  where 
a  price  was  last  set  upon  a  Wolf's  head.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland 
the  Wolf  remained  for  a  considerable  period  longer.  In  i??? 
according  to  Hollinshed,  these  animals  were  destructfve  to  the  flocks 
in  Scotland,  and  in  Ireland  they  were  exterminated  only  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century. 

In  almost  every  department  of  France  infested  by  the  Wolf  there  is 
a  society  called  Society  de  Louveterie,  the  object  of  which  is  to  keep 
that  animal  down  ;  and  premiums,  varying  in  the  amount  accordinc^ 
to  the  sex  and  age  of  the  animals  killed,  are  likewise  paid.     The 


means  hitherto  employed,  however,  have  been  inadequate  to  effect 
the  purpose. 

Desmarest  says  that  the  Wolf  is  solitary  and  nocturnal,  but  that  in 
winter  it  unites  in  troops,  which  attack  Horses  and  men.  The  sense 
of  smell  is  very  aucte,  but  its  speed  is  not  very  great,  and  it  wearies 
out  its  victim  by  dint  of  untiring  perseverance.     When  in  full  chase 


Fig.  260. 


Fig.  261. — Skull  of  Canadian  Wolf. 

of  its  prey,  it  gallops  along,  pertinaciously  following  the  track  of  the 
fugitive.  The  description  of  a  troop  of  Wolves  in  pursuit  is  admir- 
ably described  by  Lord  Byron  in  his  poem  of  Mazeppa. 

From  the  numerous  allusions  to  the  Wolf  in  the  Scriptures,  it  is 
evident  that  it  must  have  been  well  known  formerly  in  Syria — and 
indeed  also  in  Egypt,  for  we  find  it  figured  on  ancient  sculptures, 
together  with  the  Hyaena  and  Greyhound.  At  present,  however, 
this  animal  is  seldom  met  with  in  Syria,  although  it  still  exists  in 
that  region,  but  keeps  itself  concealed. 

So  habitually  cautious  and  suspicious  is  the  Wolf,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  take  it  in  traps  ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  an3'thing  like  the  appear- 
ance of  artifice  deters  it  from  an  attack.     It  has  been  supposed  the 


Fis:.  262. 


Fig.  263.— Skull  of  Jackal. 

Wolf  never  carries  his  tail  elevated  ;  but  this  is  not  altogether  correct  ; 
we  have  often  watched  the  Wolves  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  gallop 
round  the  enclosure  with  the  tail  raised  up  as  it  is  when  the  animals 
are  in  chase  of  prey;  and  also,  as  Dr.  Richardson  states  from  ob- 
servation, when  they  gambol  with  each  other. 

When  pursued  the  Wolf  rushes  along:,  with  his  muzzle  almost  to 
the  ground,  his  eyes  like  glowing  fire,  the  hair  of  his  neck  and 
shoulders  erect,  and  his  tail  lowered  and  drawn  close ;  when  out  of 
danger,   he  slackens  his  pace,  raises   his  head,   sniffs   about,  and 


11 


104 


THE  JACKAL— THE  FOX. 


attacking-  the  Bear,  this  breed  of  Dogs,  as  previously  noticed,  fears 
the  Wolf,  and  makes  but  a  slight  resistance.  They  have  been 
known  not  only  to  steal  provisions  from  under  a  man's  head  in  the 
night,  but  even  to  come  into  a  traveller's  bivouac  and  carry  off  some 
of  his  Dogs. 

The  American  Wolf  is  extremely  cunning,  and  in  attacking 
Moose  or  Wapiti  Deer,  animals  which  exceed  it  in  speed,  it  has 
recourse  to  a  singular  stratagem.  Several  combine,  and  arrange 
themselves  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  and  thus  advance 
upon  their  prey,  so  as  cither  to  hem  it  in,  or  drive  it  over  a 
precipice.  Captain  Franklin  often  found  the  remains  of 
Deer  which  had  been  thus  dashed  down  steep  cliffs  and 
devoured  ;  and  he  states  that  this  is  a  frequent  expedient 
when  the  plains  are  bounded  by  precipitous  cliffs. 
"  \Vhilst  the  Deer  are  quietly  grazing,  the  Wolves  assem- 
ble in  great  numbers,  and,  forming  a  crescent,  creep  slowly 
towards  the  herd,  so  as  not  to  alarm  them  much  at  first ; 
but  when  they  perceive  that  they  have  fairly  hemmed  in 
the  unsuspecting  creatures,  and  cut  off  their  retreat  across 
the  plain,  they  move  more  quickly,  and  with  hideous  yells 
terrify  their  prey,  and  urge  them  to  flight  by  the  only  open 
way,  which  is  towards  the  precipice,  appearing  to  know 
that  when  the  herd  is  once  at  full  speed,  it  is  easily  driven 
over  the  cliff,  the  rearmost  urging  on  those  that  are 
before.  The  Wolves  then  descend  at  leisure,  and  feed  on 
the  mangled  carcasses." 

Of  the  American  Wolves  we  may  notice  the  Prairie  Wolf 
[Cant's  latrans.  Say),  which  inhabits  the  plains  of  the 
Missouri  and  Saskatchewan,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Co- 
lumbia. It  is  smaller  and  fleeter  than  the  common  Wolf, 
associates  in  large  troops,  and  dwells  in  burrows  on  the 
plains  remote  from  the  forests.  In  Mexico  is  found  a 
distinct  species  of  Wolf  [Cam's  Mc.n'canus,  Desm.)  ;  and 
a  species  termed  the  Red  Wolf  [Canis  jubatus,  Desm.) 
inhabits  the  Pampas  of  La  Plata.  The  Antarctic  Wolf 
[Cam's  A7itarcticus,  Desm.)  is  a  native  of  the  Falkland 
Isles,  and  seems  to  be  an  intermediate  link  between  the 
Wolves  and  Foxes.  It  feeds  principally  upon  a  species  of  Goose 
[Auser  !c!icoJ>fcrits),  goes  in  packs,  which  wander  about  by  day, 
but  more  commonly  in  the  evening,  and  dwell  in  holes  which  they 
burrow.  This  species  is  about  fifteen  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulder;  the  tail  is  short,  and  white  at  the  tip  ;  the  limbs  are  short, 
but  the  contour  of  the  head  is  Wolf-like.  It  is  termed  by  Pennant 
the  Antarctic  Fox. 

Colonel  Sykes  has  described  a  Wolf  from  Dukhun,  under  the  title 
of  Canis pallipes,  which  he  states  to  be  numerous  in  the  open  stony 
plains  of  that  region,  but  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  woods  of  the 
Ghauts. 

Mr.  Hodgson  notices  the  common  European  Wolf  as  occurring  in 
the  lower  region  of  the  Nepal  Mountains. 


The  Jaciovl — Canis  aureus: 

Of  the  animals  known  by  the  name  of  Jackals,  one  species  [Canis 
anf/ius)  is  a  native  of  Senegal;  another,  the  Cape  Jackal,  the 
black-backed  [Canis  7nesomclas)  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ;  and  a  third,  the  Common  Jackal  [Canis  aureus),  is  spread 


under  surface ;    the  tail  is  slightly  tipped  with  black.    (See  Fig. 

267.)_ 

I  his  animal  is  most  probably  the  Shual  of  the  Scriptures.  It  is 
the  Chical  of  the  Turks ;  Sciagal,  Sciuagal,  Sciachal,  or  Shacal  of 
the  Persians. 

The  Jackal  dwells  in  troops,  which  lie  concealed  in  holes  and 
burrows  during  the  day,  but  conic  forth  at  night  to  hunt  for  food, 
giving  chase  to  Sheep  or   Antelopes  and  other  animals,  like  the 


«=?r;!STr~--'^ 


Fig.  267. — ^Jackal. 

from  the  north  of  Africa,  through  Syria,  Persia,  and  the  greater 
part  of  India.  Colonel  Sykes  states  it  to  be  numerous  in  Dukhun, 
where  it  is  called  Kholah  by  the  Mahrattas.  It  is  somewhat  larger 
than  a  Fox,  but  its  tail  is  shorter  in  proportion,  reaching  only  to  the 
hock ;  its  head  is  short,  with  a  pointed  muzzle  :  the  general  colour 
above  is  grey,  abruptly  divided  from  a  paler  tint  spread  over  the 


Fig.  268. — ^Jackals  in  troops. 

Wolf,  stealing  Fox-like  into  Fowl-roosts,  and  attacking  any  animal 
they  are  capable  of  overcoming.  They  do  not,  however,  confine 
themselves  to  living  prey,  carrion  and  offal  of  every  description  being 
greedily  devoured.  Nor  are  roots  and  fruits  less  acceptable  ;  in  the 
vineyard,  indeed,  they  make  great  havoc,  and  their  fondness  for 
grapes  is  notorious.  The  "shriek"  of  the  Jackal  is  terrific. 
Those  travellers  who  have  heard  them,  describe  the  nocturnal  yells 
of  these  animals  as  extremely  piercing  and  dissonant  ;  now  close, 
now  at  a  distance,  troop  answering  troop  from  different  points, 
themselves  unseen,  while  their  fearful  chorus  breaks  the  stillness  of 
the  hours  of  darkness.  Their  cries  thus  heard  amidst  the  ruins  of 
cities  of  ancient  date,  might  seem  "  to  listening  Fancy's  ear  "  like 
the  wail  of  legions  of  spirits  over  the  departed  glories  of  other  days. 
Mouldering  ruins,  fallen  temples,  crumbling  tombs,  and  craggy 
rocks  are  the  abodes  of  the  Jackal. 

Sly  and  suspicious  in  its  disposition,  this  animal,  when  taken 
young,  is  nevertheless  easily  tamed,  and  loses  that  unpleasant 
odour  which  renders  the  wild  animal  almost  unbearable.  We  have 
seen  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  a  hybrid  between  the  Jackal  and 
Dog. 

The  preceding  cut  is  an  illustration  of  a  troop  of  Jackals  in  flight. 
(Fig.  268.) 

Foxes.— The  Common  'Pos.— Canis  vu!J)es,  &c. 

The  Common  Fox  [Canis  vul_pes,  Linn.  ;  Vuljies  vulgaris, 
Brisson.  Volpe,  of  the  Italians  ;  Rapasa,  Spanish ;  Rapoza, 
Portuguese  ;  Fuchs,  German  ;  Vos,  Dutch ;  Raff,  Swedish  ;  Rev, 
Danish  ;  Tod,  Scottish  provincialism ;  Llwynog,  and  female 
Lhvynoges,  of  the  Welsh),  the  representative  of  the  sub-genus 
Vulpcs,  characterised  by  a  linear  pupil  and  a  long  bushy  tail,  is 
too  well  known  to  need  a  minute  description.  This  wily  animal  is 
common  in  our  island,  andin  most  parts  of  Europe,  extending  into 
Northern  Asia,  and  is  everywhere  celebrated  for  its  cunning  and 
rapacity.  As  its  linear  pupil  intimates,  the  Fox  is  crepuscular  or 
nocturnal  in  its  habits,  but  is  occasionally  seen  abroad  during  the 
day.  In  general,  however,  it  is  as  the  dusk  of  the  evening  advances 
that  the  Fox  steals  from  its  burrow,  with  noiseless  steps,  to  prowl 
about  for  prey.  His  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  are  extremely  keen, 
and  he  listens,  and  snuffs  the  breeze,  attentive  to  every  sound, 
appreciating  every  odour.  His  eyes  gleam,  as  he  creeps  along  in  a 
crouching  attitude,  intent  upon  his  prey.  His  movements  are  all 
stealthy  :  he  surprises  the  Rabbit  gambolling  near  its  burrow ;  the 
Hare  in  her  form  ;  the  poultry  on  the  perch.  He  slaughters  all  he 
can,  reser\'ing  the  overplus  for  a  future  exigency,  and  for  that 
purpose  buries  it  in  the  earth.  In  times  of  scarcity  Field-Mice, 
Frogs,  Weasels,  and  even  insects  are  devoured.  On  the  continent 
the  Fox  visits  the  vineyards,  being  as  partial  to  the  ripe  grapes  as  is 
he  Jackal.     (See  Fig.  269.) 

The  Fox  is  solitary  m  its  habits,  and  dwells  alone  in   a  burrow, 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  FOX. 


»0S 


which  he  has  either  made  or  usurped,  and  which  is  generally  in  some 
secluded  situation,  not  readily  to  be  discovered,   and  in  the  nciijh- 
tjourhood  of  a  Rabbit-warren,  preserves  of  game,  or  farms      Xho 
female  breeds  in  April,  and  on  her  alone 
devolves   the   entire    care   of   the   cubs. 

She  produces  three  or  four  at  a  birth,  in  -_  _,  _ 

<a  deep  burrow,  where  she  has  prepared  _     -ry 

a  bed  of  dried  leaves,  grass,  and  moss. 
The  young  are  very  playful,  and  remain 
about  four  months  with  their  parent, 
who  is  watchful  and  resolute  to  the  ex- 
treme in  their  defence.  The  following 
cut  illustrates  the  young  Fo.x  (Fig.  270). 
Kven  when  taken  at  an  early  age,  the 
Fo.x  is  not  easily  tamed,  never  loses  its 
innate  suspiciousness,  and  never  be- 
comes truly  domestic  ;  adults  are  feroci- 
ous when  placed  in  confinement,  and 
soon  die.  Though  slightly  made,  the 
Fo.x  is  very  vigorous,  and  bites  with 
great  severity.  Its  power  of  endurance 
and  its  speed  have  in  our  country  re- 
commended it  to  all  lovers  of  the  chase, 
for  whose  gratification  the  breed  is  pre- 
served, where  possible.  Foxes  have 
been  known  to  run  before  the  Hounds 
fifty  miles  at  a  stretch :  when  hard 
pressed,  the  animal  neither  loses  his 
courage  nor  self-possession  ;  he  puts  in 
practice  every  expedient  which  cunning 
dictates,  to  baffle  the  Hounds  or  conceal 
liim  from  their  search  ;  and  if  all  fail,  he 
dies  defending  himself  to  the  last,  with- 
out uttering  a  cry.  It  is  probable  that, 
but  for  the  taste  for  Fox-hunting,  and 
its  consequent  protection,  it  would,  like 
the  Wolf,  have  long  ago  become  extinct 
in  this  country. 

The  voice  of  the  Fox  is  a  sort  of  yelp, 
which,  however,  it  only  occasionally 
exerts,  and  never  when  in  quest  of  prey. 
It  is  said  by  Bewick,  and  we  have  often 
heard  it  affirmed,  that  the  Fox  breeds 
with  the  Dog ;  and  have  seen  sharp- 
nosed  Dogs  called  Fox-dogs,  and  were 
at  the  same  time  assured  that  they  were 
a  cross  between  the  two  animals  ;  but  it 
has  always  so  happened  that  the  asser- 
tion could  not  be  substantiated. 

In  Italy  there  exists  an  allied  species 
of  Fox  [Cam's  {^julpes)  melanogaster), 
closely  allied  to  tlie  common  species. 
To  Dr.  Riippel  we  are  indebted  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  Vulpes  fa}nelicus,  the 
Vulpes  variegatus,  and  the  Vulpes 
pallidtis,  natives  of  Nubia  and  the 
adjacent  territories. 

The  Egyptian  Fox  {Cant's  Nilo- 
ticits). — In  Egypt  and  Syria  there  is  a 
species  of  Fox,  called  Tahaleb  by  the 
Copts,  Sabora  by  the  Arabs ;  it  is  the 
Canis  ^gyptiac2is  of  Sonnini ;  the 
Ca?iis  Niloticus  of  Geoffrey. 

It  is  the  size  of  our  common  Fox,  but 
the  ears  are  wider  apart  and  longer,  and 
it  stands  somewhat  higher  on  the  limbs. 
Foxes  apparently  of  this  species  are 
very  abundant  in  the  stony  country 
about  Bethlehem,  and  are  also  numerous 
near  the  convent  of  St.  John  in  the 
desert,  especially  about  the  vintage  time, 
and  are  then  very  destructive  in  the  vine- 
yards, which  must  be  strictly  watched  in 
order  to  prevent  their  incursions.  These 
animals  live  in  burrows,  and  have  the 
general  habits  of  the  common  European 
Fox,  to  which  they  are  nearly  related. 
(See  Fig.  271.) 

The  Caama  {Canis  Caama).—Oi  the 
African  Foxes,  which  are  numerous,  is 
the  Caama  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
{Cam's  {vzilpes)  Caama),  one  of  the 
smallest  of  its  race.  A  few  individuals 
of  this  species  are  to  be  met  with  within 
the  limits  of  the  colony,  but  its  favourite 
residence  seems  to  be  more  to  the  north- 
ward ;  though  there  it  is  becoming  less 


and  less  numorous,  owing  to  the  skins  being  much  in  request 
among  the  natives  as  a  covering  for  the  cold  season.  So  important 
are  these  skins  considered,  that  many  of  the  Bechuanas  arc  solely 


Fig.  270.— Young  Foxes. 


io6 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  FOX. 


employed  in  hunting  the  animal  down  with  Dogs,  or  laying  snares  in 
the  places  to  which  they  are  known  to  resort.  In  common  with 
other  Foxes  this  is  a  great  enemy  to  birds  which  lay  their  eggs  upon 
the  ground  ;  and  its  movements  in  particular  are  closely  watched  by 
the  Ostrich  during  the  laying  season.     (See  Fig.  272.) 

When  the  Caama  has  surmounted  all  obstacles  in  procuring  eggs, 


Fig.  271. — Egyptian  Fox. 

he  has  to  encounter  the  diflBculty  of  getting  at  their  contents  ;  but 
even  for  this  difficulty  his  cunning  finds  an  expedient — that,  namely, 
of  pushing  them  forcibly  along  the  ground,  until  they  come  in  con- 
tact with  some  substance  hard  enough  to  break  them,  when  the 
contents  are  speedily  disposed  of.  The  natives,  from  having  observed 
the  anxiety  of  the  Ostrich  to  keep  this  animal  from  robbing  her  nest, 
avail  themselves  of  this  solicitude  to  lure  the  bird  to  its  destruction  ; 
for,  seeing  that  it  runs  to  the  nest  the  instant  a  Fox  appears,  they 
fasten  a  Dog  near  it,  and  conceal  themselves  close  by,  and  the 


Fig.  272. — Caama. 

Ostrich,  on  approaching  to  drive  away  the  supposed  Fox,  is  fre- 
quently shot  by  the  concealed  hunter. 

Of  the  Asiatic  Foxes  we  may  notice  the  small  Indian  insectivorous 
'Fox  {Cam's  Be!?ga/ei!S!s),ioundm  Bengal,  and  also  in -the  Nepal 
hills  ;  the  Fox  of  the  Dukhun,  called  Kokree  by  the  Mahrattas 
[Cam's  Kukrce,  Sykes) ;  and  the  hill  Fox  of  the  Himala3-an  Moun- 
tains {Cam's  Himalaiciis),  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  fur.  It 
is  not  uncommon  in  Doon  and  in  Kumaon. 

The  American  Red  Fox  {Canis  fulvns,vs.x,  decussatus).—\i 
has  been  the  opmion  of  many  naturalists,  and  even  of  Cuvier,  that 
the  European  Fox  extends  over  the  northern  portion  of  the  American 
contment:  we  consider,  however,  the  Red  Fox  {Cam's  {vu/*es) 
fulvus)  of  that  portion  of  the  globe  to  be  a  distinct  species.  It 
differs  from  its  European  congener  in  the  same  points  and  de"-rees 
as  does  the  Wolf  of  the  one  country  from  that  of  the  other.  "^The 
American  Fox  is,  in  fact,  to  be  distinguished  by  the  breadth  of  its  feet, 
and  their  consequent  capacity  for  progression  on  the  snow,  and  by 
the  quantity  of  long  hair  clothing  the  back  part  of  the  cheeks,  which, 
in  conjunction  with  the  shorter  ears  and  nose,  gives  the  head  a  more 
compact  appearance.  The  Red  Fox  has  a  much  finer  brush  than  the 
European,  and  is  altogether  a  larger  animal.     The  fur  of  the  body  is 


full,  long,  soft,  and  of  a  bright  rufous  brown  ;  the  skin  is  therefore 
valued  as  an  article  of  trade,  and  several  thousand  are  annually 
imported  into  England  from  the  fur  countries,  where  the  animal  is 
very  abundant,  especially  in  the  wooded  parts.  It  is  not,  however, 
confined  to  the  colder  latitudes  ;  its  range,  in  fact,  extends  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  United  States.     In  habits  and  manners  the  Red 


Fig.  273. — American  Red  Fox. 

Fox  agrees  with   our  common  Reynard,  but  possesses  neither  the 
same  wind  nor  the  same  vigour  and  power  of  endurance. 

"  It  runs,"  says  Dr.  Richardson,  "  for  about  a  hundred  yards  with 
great  swiftness,  but  its  strength  is  exhausted  in  the  first  burst,  and 
it  is  soon  overtaken  by  a  Wolf  or  a  mounted  huntsman."  Foxes  of 
various  gradations  of  colour,  termed  Cross  Foxes,  are  common  in 
the  fur  countries  of  North  America.  These  are  considered  by 
Dr.  Richardson  and  most  naturalists  to  be  varieties  of  the  Red  Fox  ; 
and  such  is  the  opinion  of  the  native  hunters,  than  whom  none  are 
more  likely  to  possess  accurate  knowledge  on  such  points.  Fig.  273 
represents  the  ordinary  Cross  Fox,  distinguished  by  a  grey  fur 
mingled  with  black,  which  latter  colour  prevails  over  the  shoulders. 
A  rarer  and  more  valuable  variety  is  the  Black  or  Silver  Fox  {Ca?iis 
fulvus,  var.  a>-geiitatus').  Dr.  Richardson  states  that  seldom  more 
than  four  or  five  of  this  variety  are  taken  in  a  season  at  one  post, 
though  the  hunters  no  sooner  find  out  the  haunts  of  one  than  they 
use  every  art  to  catch  it,  because  its  fur  fetches  six  times  the  price  of 
any  other  fur  produced  in  North  America.  This  Fox  is  sometimes 
found  of  a  rich  deep  glossy  black,  the  tip  of  the  tail  alone  being 
white:  in  general,  however,  it  is  silvered  over  ("  sable  silvered  "), 
the  end  of  each  of  the  long  hairs  of  the  fur  being  white,  producing  a 
beautiful  appearance.  Specimens  of  this  animal  may  be  seen  at  the 
British  Museum. 

The  Virginian  Fox  (  ViiIJ>es  'Virginiamis)  appears  to  be  a  distinct 
species,  and  so  most  certainly  is  the  Kit,  or  Tricoloured  Fox  ( F". 
cinereo-argentatus),  of  which  the  skins  are  common  in  the  shops  of 
furriers.  This  animal  is  of  small  size,  and  is  numerous  on  the  plains 
extending  from  the  Saskatchewan  to  the  Missouri,  and  on  those  of 
Columbia.  It  prefers  the  open  country,  at  a  distance  from  wooded 
districts,  where  it  dwells  in  deep  burrows  of  its  own  excavation,  and 
is  e.xtremely  vigilant  and  fleet.  Dr.  Richardson  suggests  that  it  may 
be  regarded  as  the  American  representative  of  the  Corsac  Fox  of  the 
deserts  of  Tartary,  being  similar  to  that  species  in  habits  and 
manners,  and  frequenting  localities  of  the  like  character. 

The  Arctic  Fox  {Canis  [znclpes]  Z^^b/zcj-).— Terreanee-arioo  of 
the  Esquimaux  of  Melville  Peninsula  ;  Terieniak  of  the  Greenlanders  ; 
Wappeeskeeshew-makkeeshew  of  the  Cree  Indians ;  Peszi  of  tlie 
Russians. 

In  the  high  northern  latitudes  of  the  globe,  the  Arctic  Fox  is  the 
sole  representative  of  its  race.  Its  range  extends  through  Siberia, 
along  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  through  the  bleak  regions  of 
the  Esquimaux,  and  the  dreary  realms  of  Greenland. 

"  These  Foxes,"  says  Dr.  Richardson,  "  inhabit  the  most  northern 
lands  hitherto  discovered."  In  North  America  their  southern  limit 
appears  to  be  about  latitude  50°.  They  are  numerous  on  the  shores 
of  Hudson's  Bay,  north  of  Churchill,  and  exist  also  in  Behring's 
Straits.  They  breed  on  the  sea-coast,  and  chiefly  within  the  Arctic 
circle,  forming  burrows  in  sandy  spots,  not  solitary,  like  the  Red 
Fox,  but  in  little  villages,  twenty  or  thirty  burrows  being  constructed 
adjoining  to  each  other.  We  saw  one  of  these  villages  at  Point 
Tumagain,  in  lat.  68J  degrees.  Towards  the  middle  of  winter 
they  retire  southwards,  evidently  in  search  of  food  ;  keeping  as  much 
as  possible  on  the  coast,  and  going  much  farther  to  the  south  in  the 
districts  where  the  coast-line  is  in  the  direction  of  their  march. 
Captain  Parry  relates,  that  the  Arctic  Foxes,  which  were  previously 
numerous,  began  to  retire  from  Melville  Peninsula  in  November,  and 
that  by  January  few  remained.     Towards  the  centre  of  the  continent, 


THE  ARCTIC  FOX— THE  FENNEC. 


107 


65°,  they  were  seen  only  in  the  winter,  and  then  not  in  numbers, 
are  very  scarce  in  lat.  61°,  and  in  lat.  53°  two  only  were  seen  in 


inlat. 

They  are.  _-j ,  ._  ■,      .      ■    t- 

forty  years!  "  Hcarne  says  that  when  taken  young  the  Arctic  i-ox 
may  be  domesticated  in  some  degree,  but  he  never  saw  one  that  was 
fond  of  being  caressed."  Though  not  destitute  of  intelligence,  the 
Arctic  Fox,  unlike  the  Common  Fox,  is  unsuspicious  and  destitute  of 


Fig.  274. — The  Arctic  Fox  abroad. 


caution  :  it  has  been  known  to  stand  by  while  the  hunter  was  pre- 
paring a  trap,  and  on  his  retiring  to  run  headlong  into  it.  Captain 
Lyon  received  fifteen  from  a  single  trap  in  four  hours.  The  voice  of 
this  species  is  a  kind  of  yelp,  and  when  a  man  approaches  their 
breeding-places,  they  put  their  heads  out  of  their  burrows  and  bark 
at  him,  allowing  him  to  come  within  range  of  shot.  They  appear  to 
have  the  power  of  decoying  other  animals  within  their  reach  by 
imitating  their  voices. 

"  While  tenting,"  says  Captain  Lyon,  "we  observed  a  Fox  prowl- 
ing on  a  hill-side,  and  heard  him  for  several  hours  afterwards  in 
different  places  imitating  the  voice  of  a  brent-goose."  Eggs,  young 
birds,  blubber,  and  carrion  of  any  kind  constitute  the  food  of  this 
Fox — especially  different  species  of  Lemmings,  which  are  greedily 
devoured.     In  general  form  the  Arctic  Fox  resembles  the  European 


Fig.  275. — Arctic  Fox  at  home. 

Species,  but  is  considerably  smaller  ;  and  owing  to  the  great  quantity 
of  white  woolly  fur  with  which  it  is  covered,  is  somewhat  like  a  little 
Shock-dog.  The  brush  is  large  and  full,  affording  an  admirable 
covering  for  the  nose  and  feet,  to  which  it  acts  as  a  muff  when  the 
animal  sleeps.  Although  the  head  is  not  so  pointed  as  in  our 
English  species,  yet  it  has  that  air  of  slyness  which  is  so  character- 
istic of  all  Foxes.  The  eyes  are  clear  and  bright,  and  of  a  hazel 
colour.     (See  Figs.  274  and  275.) 

Captain  Lyon  remarks  that  tlie  muzzle  of  the  female  is  shorter 
than  that  of  the  male,  and  has  less  of  cunning  and  more  of  mildness 
in  its  expression.  The  ears  are  short,  and  thickly  covered  with  hair, 
and  their  edges  appear  as  if  they  had  been  cropped.  The  cheeks 
are  ornamented  by  a  projecting  ruff,  which  extends  from  behind  the 
ears  quite  round  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  to  which  it  gives  an 
agreeable  appearance.  The  legs  are  rather  long  than  otherwise, 
and  show  great  strength  of  muscle.  The  feet,  which  are  large,  are 
armed  with  strong  claws.  "  When  the  animal  is  standing  still,  the 
hind-legs  are  so  placed  as  to  give  the  idea  of  weakness  in  the  loins, 
which  is  certainly  not  the  case,  as  few  animals  can  make  more 
powerful  leaps.    The  general  weight  is  about  eight  pounds,  although 


some  were  found  to  be  as  low  as  seven,  and  a  few  as  high  as  nine 
pounds  and  a-half  when  in  good  case." 

The  Arctic  Fox  is  cleanly,  and  free  from  any  unpleasant  smell :  it 
is  habitually  watchful,  and  when  asleep,  opens  its  eyes  at  the 
slightest  noise  near  it.  Day  is  its  season  of  rest :  during  the  night 
its  activity  is  extreme,  and  it  gambols  or  hunts  for  food  till  daybreak. 
While  in  pursuit  of  its  prey  it  is  mute,  but  in  captivity,  or  when  irri- 
tated, it  utters  a  short  sharp  bark.  When  first  taken  its  rage  is 
ungovernable,  nor  is  it  ever  thoroughly  reconciled  to  confinement. 
Those  which  Captain  Lyon  had  were  observed  to  hide  their  food, 
like  the  Dog,  under  lumps  of  snow  ;  snow  also  was  their  substitute 
for  water,  and  they  would  roll  in  it  with  evident  satisfaction.  "  When 
the  snow  was  slightly  scattered  on  the  decks,  they  did  not  lick  it  up, 
as  Dogs  are  accustomed  to  do,  but  by  repeatedly  pressing  with  their 
nose,  collected  small  lumps  at  its  extremity,  and  then  drew  it  up  into 
the  mouth  with  the  assistance  of  the  tongue."  Though  a  few  Arctic 
Foxes  remain  white  during  the  summer,  it  is  only  in  the  winter  that 
the  majority  assume  this  pure  snowy  livery,  accompanied  by  an  in- 
crease in  the  fulness  and  thickness  of  the  fur,  which  deeply  covers 
even  the  soles  of  the  feet.  In  summer  the  fur  is  thinner,  and  of  a 
dusky  brownish  ash  or  leaden  tint ;  and  the  callous  pads  of  the  toes 
become  partially  visible.  Some  very  interesting  particulars  of  these 
Foxes,  and  also  of  the  Esquimaux  Dogs,  described  in  p.  93,  ante, 
may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Ross,  Parry,  and  other  Arctic  naviga- 
tors, as  also  in  the  reports  of  the  Arctic  Expedition  under  Captain 
Nares,  in  i875-'76. 

The  Fennec  {Megalotis Feiinccus). —  CatiisZerda,  Zimmermann ; 
Megalotis  Ccrdo,  llliger ;  Fennicus  Ccrdo,  Lacepede  ;  Viverra 
aurifa,  Blumenbach  ;  Fennec  of  the  Arabs^  Bruce.     (Sec  Fig.  276.) 


Fig.  276. — Fennec. 

For  our  first  knowledge  of  this  elegant  little  animal  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  celebrated  Abyssinian  traveller  Bruce,  who  discovered 
it  in  Nubia.  So  little,  however,  was  its  true  character  understood, 
that  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Supplement  to  Buffon's  work  it  is 
termed  "animal  anonyme,"  and  even  M.  Geoffrey  for  some  time  re- 
garded it  as  identical  with  the  Senegal  Galago ;  in  fact,  the  French 
naturalists  were  disposed  to  sink  the  Fennec  as  a  new  species  of 
Ca«/j  altogether.  Colonel  Denham,  however,  recognised  the  animal 
in  the  interior  of  North  Africa,  and  accurately  figured  it  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Appendix  to  his  Travels  :  he  also  brought  a  specimen  to  this 
country,  and  thus  established  the  truth ^of  Bruce's  description. 
Riippell  re-discovered  it  in  Nubia,  where  Bruce  had  first  seen  it. 
Whoever  examines  the  skeleton  of  the  Fennec  will  not  hesitate  for  a 
moment  as  to  the  place  in  nature  which  the  animal  occupies.  The 
skull,  the  teeth,  the  feet,  declare  it  at  once  to  belong  to  the  Canine 
group.  The  Fennec  frequents  tlie  sandy  desert  tracts  of  Nubia,  and 
other  districts  of  Northern  Africa,  dwelling  in  burrows  of  its  own 
excavation.  It  is  said  to  live  much  on  the  fruit  of  the  date,  and  to 
climb  trees  in  order  to  obtain  its  food  :  this  fact,  if  true,  is  very  re- 
markable, being  a  marked  departure  from  the  habits  and  manners 
of  the  rest  of  the  present  family.  Bruce,  indeed,  says. that  it  builds 
its  nest  in  trees,  and  docs  not  burrow  in  the  earth;  but  this  state- 
ment is  contradicted  by  M.  Riippell.  The  individual  which  Bruce 
had  in  his  possession  while  at  Algiers,  was  fond  of  dates  or  any 
sweet  fruit,  and  was  also  partial  to  eggs.  He  would  eat  bread  when 
hungry,  especially  if  sweetened  with  honey  or  sugar.  The  sight  of 
a  bird  aroused  him  to  eager  watchfulness  as  long  as  it  was  present, 
and  a  Cat  was  his  aversion.  He  would  endeavour  to  hide  from  the 
latter,  and  never  showed  a  disposition  to  resist  or  defend  himself. 
The  animal  was  disposed  to  sleep  by  day,  but  as  night  came  on 
became  restless  to  excess.  It  was  never  heard  to  utter  any 
sound. 

The  Fennec  is  small  and  slightly  made,  with  slender  limbs.  The 
length  of  the  head  and  body  is  about  thirteen  inches  ;  that  of  the  tail. 


io8 


THE  CAPE  HUNTING-DOG. 


eight ;  the  head  is  narrow,  the  muzzle  pointed  ;  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
large  and  black,  the  iris  deep  blue  ;  whiskers  long  and  thick.  The 
ears  are  extremely  large,  as  long  as  the  head,  broad  at  the  base, 
erect  and  pointed.  The  fur  of  the  body  is  rather  short,  but  full  and 
silky.  The  colour  is  uniform  pale  fawn  or  cream  colour,  passing 
into  white  beneath  ;  the  inside  of  the  ear  is  fringed  with  long  white 
hairs  ;  the  whiskers  are  white.  In  the  districts  of  Benni  Rlezzab 
and  Werglah,  where  the  date  grows,  the  Fennecs  are  hunted  for 
their  skins,  for  which,  according  to  Bruce,  there  is  a  market  at 
Mecca,  whence  they  are  exported  to  India. 

In  the  sub-genus  Megalotis,  Cuvicr  associates  with  the  Fennec  a 
species  from  South  Africa,  the  Canis  Megalotis  of  De  Lalande 
{Megalotis  Laiaadii,  H.  Smith).  This  animal  is  somewhat  less 
than  the  common  Fox,  but  comparatively  higher  on  the  limbs  ;  its 
general  colour  is  yellowish-grey,  but  the  feet  and  tail,  together 
with  a  stripe  down  the  spine,  are  black  :  the  ears  are  large  and 
spreading. 

The  Cape  Hunting-Dog  {Lycaon  tricolor,  Brookes).  Lycaoii 
fictus ;  Canis  ;pictiis,  Desmarest  ;  Hyeena  I'enatica,  Burchell. — 
This  daring  and  ferocious  animal,  one  of  the  pests  of  Southern 
Africa,  is  a  complete  Dog  in  the  form  of  the  skull  and  the  charac- 
ters of  the  teeth  ;  it  has,  however,  as  in  the  Hyaenas,  only  four  toes 
on  the  anterior  feet,  and  the  same  on  the  feet  behind.  In  iigure  it 
is  tall,  lightly  built,  but  muscular  and  well  proportioned  ;  the  limbs 
are  long,  the  cars  large  and  erect,  the  jaws  powerful,  and  the  teeth 
strong.  Its  aspect  is  wild  and  fierce,  and  its  disposition  treacher- 
ous.    The  fur  is  close  and  of  a  sandy  yellow,  irregularly  clouded  and 


Fig.  277. — Cape  Hunting-Dog. 

blotched  with  black  and  a  little  white.  The  tail  is  somewhat 
bushy  and  of  moderate  length.  The  colour  is  subject  to  variation. 
(Sec  Fig.  277.) 

Wild,  fleet,  and  savage,  this  species  hunts  in  packs  mostly  during 
the  night,  but  frequently  in  the  day  ;  and  so  fleet  is  it  that  few 
animals  can  escape.  It  often  commits  extensive  ravages  on  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  the  farmer,  though  it  seldom  attacks  horned 
cattle  openly,  but  steals  on  them  while  asleep,  and  bites  off  their 
tails,  even  at  the  root,  with  one  snap — a  feat  which  the  wide  gape 
and  vast  power  of  its  jaws  enable  it  to  do  with  ease.  Mr.  Burchell, 
on  his  return  from  Africa,  brought  a  living  individual  to  England, 
which  retained  during  life  all  its  native  ferocity.  A  specimen  in  the 
Tower,  many  years  ago,  arrived  in  company  with  a  young  Cape 
Lion,  both  occupying  the  same  den,  till  the  Lion  became  too  strong 
and  rough  in  his  play,  when  the  Hunting-Dog  was  associated  with 
a  Striped  Hyana,  and  two  of  the  spotted  species,  with  which  it 
agreed  tolerably  well. 

It  is  generally  the  opinion  of  naturalists,  that  this  species,  for 
which  the  celebrated  anatomist,  the  late  Joshua  Brookes,  Esq., 
founded  the  genus  Lycaon,  is  an  intermediate  link  in  the  chain  of 
the  Carnivora,  uniting  the  canine  group  to  the  Hyxnas  ;  indeed,  in 
some  points  of  general  aspect,  and  in  the  number  of  the  toes,  the 
approximation  of  this  Dog  to  the  latter  animals  is  so  marked,  that 
Mr.  Burchell  regarded  it  as  a  Hya;na,  and  as  such  Temminck  de- 
scribed it  under  the  title  of  Hytsna  J>icta,  though  he  afterwards 
assigned  it  to  the  genus  Canis.  The  name  of  Hyaena-Dog  has  also 
been  conferred  upon  it ;  but  as  Mr.  Swainson  gives  this  title  to  the 
Aard-Wolf  {Protcles),  we  drop  it  altogether  for  the  sake  of  avoiding 
confusion  or  misapprehension. 

In   size,   the  Cape  Hunting-Dog   (Wilde  Honden   of  the  Dutch 


colonists)  is  as  large  as  a  Pointer  or  Hound,  but  higher  on  the 
limbs  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  body.  We  are  not  aware  that 
any  serious  attempts  have  been  made  to  domesticate  it. 

In  concluding  our  remarks  on  the  Dog  family,  we  venture  to  quote 
a  beautiful  poem  by  Wordsworth,  on  the  fidelity  of  the  Dog  to  man. 

"A  barking  sound  the  shepherd  hears, 

A  cry  as  of  a  dog  or  fox  ; 
lie  halts,  and  searches  with  his  eyes 

Among  the  scattered  rocks  : 
And  now  at  distance  can  discern 
A  stirring  in  a  brake  of  fern  ; 
From  which  immediately  leaps  out 
A  dog,  and  yelping  runs  about. 

The  dog  is  not  of  mountain  breed  ; 

Its  motions,  too,  are  wild  and  shy  ; 
With  something,  as  the  shepherd  thinks, 

Unusual  in  its  cry  : 
Nor  is  there  any  one  in  sight 
All  round,  in  hollow  or  in  height ; 
Nor  shout  nor  whistle  strikes  his  ear  : 
What  is  the  creature  doing  here  ? 

It  was  a  cove,  a  huge  recess, 

That  keeps  till  June  December's  snow; 
A  lofty  precipice  in  front, 

A  silent  tarn  below. 
Far  in  the  bosom  of  Ilelvellyn, 
Remote  from  public  road  or  dwelling, 
Pathway,  or  cultivated  land. 
From  trace  of  human  foot  or  hand. 

There  sometimes  does  a  leaping  fish 

.Send  through  the  tarn  a  lonely  cheer ; 
The  crags  repeat  the  raven's  croak 

In  symphony  austere. 
Thither  the  rainbow  comes,  the  cloud  ; 
And  mists  that  spread  the  flying  shroud, 
And  sunbeams  ;  and  the  sounding  blast 
That,  if  it  could,  would  hurry  past. 
But  that  enormous  barrier  binds  it  fast. 

Not  knowing  what  to  think,  awhile 

The  shepherd  stood  ;  then  makes  his  way 

Towards  the  dog,  o'er  rocks  and  stones. 
As  quickly  as  he  may ; 

Nor  far  had  gone  before  he  found 

A  human  skeleton  on  the  ground. 

Sad  sight  !  the  shepherd  with  a  sigh 

Looks  round  to  learn  the  history. 

From  those  abrupt  and  perilous  rocks 

The  man  had  fallen,  that  place  of  fear ! 
At  length  upon  the  shepherd's  mind 

It  breaks,  and  all  his  clear: 
He  instantly  recall'd  the  name, 
And  who  he  was  and  whence  he  came  ; 
Remember'd,  too,  the  very  day 
On  which  the  traveller  pass'd  this  way. 

Eut  hear  a  wonder  now,  for  sake 

Of  which  this  mournful  tale  I  tell ! 
A  lasting  monument  of  words 

This  wonder  merits  well. 
The  dog,  which  still  was  hovering  nigh, 
Repeating  the  same  timid  cry. 
This  dog  had  been  through  three  months'  space 
A  dweller  in  that  savage  place. 

Yes,  proof  was  plain  that  since  the  day 

On  which  the  traveller  thus  had  died 
The  dog  had  w'atched  about  the  spot. 

Or  by  his  master's  side. 
How  nourished  here  through  such  long  time 
He  knows,  who  gave  that  love  sublime. 
And  gave  that  strength  of  feeling,  great 
Above  all  human  estimate." 

Having  described  the  chief  members  of  the  Dog  family,  or  CanidcB, 
we  pass  on  to  consider  the  second  family  of  the  Carnivora — viz., 
the  Felidcs,  embracing  Lions,  Tigers,  Cats,  Hyaenas,  &c. 


1 


THE  FELID^,  INCLUDING  LIONS,   CATS,  ETC. 


T09 


CHAPTER    X. 

MAMMALIA.-ORDF.R.  CARNIVORA— THE   FELIDiE,  INCLUDING  LIONS,  CATS,  Etc. 


i^ 


X  ,-;         ■:,  " 


m 


ffS* 


HATEVER  object  may  have 
been  intended  in  the  creation 
of  the  Fclidcv,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted  that   their   organisation  among    the 
Mammalia  is  of  the  highest  type.     In  this 
family  are  included  the  Lions,   the   Tiger, 
the  Leopard,  the  Lynx,  the  Cat,  and  many 
others.     It   scarcely   admits  of  any   subdi- 
vision,   and   in   it  are   comprehended   the   most 
sanguinary,  the  most  formidable,  and  the  most 
typical  of  the  order  Ca?-mz<o?-a.     That  is  to  say, 
in  these  animals  the  organs  of  destruction  ex- 
hibit the  highest  degree  of  development.     Among 
quadrupeds  they  are  what  the  Eagles  and  Fal- 
cons are  among  Birds. 

Essentially  carnivorous,  still,  unlike  the   Dog 
which   relishes    carrion,   they  reject  putrescent 
flesh,  and  consequently  arc  more  expressly  endowed 
and  fitted    for    the   work   of  w'holesale    slaughter. 
Their  instincts  and  powers  are,  in  fact,  in  admirable 
accordance.     Their  frame  is  vigorous,  but  agile — 
their  limbs  are  short,  the  joints  well  knit,  but  supple, 
and  every  motion  is  easy,  free,  and  graceful.    They 
leap  and  bound  with  astonishing  velocity.     Their  foot- 
fall is  silent,  the  feet  being  provided  with  elastic  pads  ; 
namely,  a  large  basal  ball  or  cushion,  and  one  under 
each  toe.     (See  Fig.  278.) 

In  the  form  of  their  bodies  the  Cats  are  all  light,  and 
excessively  muscular,  so  that  their  activity  is  most 
astonishing.  Their  legs  are  usually  of  moderate  length, 
but  exceedingly  powerful,  and  the  toes  (as  will  be  here- 
after illustrated)  are  armed  with  long,  curved,  and 
acute  claws,  which  are  preserved  from  being  blunted 
by  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  phalanges.  They 
always  take  their  prey  by  springing  suddenly  upon  it 
from  some  concealed  station  ;  and 
if  they  miss  their  aim  in  the  first 
attack,  rarely  follow  it  up.  They 
are  all,  accordingly,  cowardly, 
sneaking  animals,  and  never  wil- 
lingly face  their  enemy  unless 
brought  to  bay  or  wounded,  trust- 
ing always  to  their  power  of  sur- 
prising their  victims  by  the  aid  of 
their  stealthy  and  noiseless  move- 
ments. They  are  nocturnal  and 
solitary  in  their  habits,  or,  at  most,  live  in  families  ;  and  are  dis- 
tributed in  all  parts  of  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  Australia, 
but  principally  in  the  warmer  regions,  where  alone  the  larger  species 
are  met  W'ith. 

The  dentition  of  the  Fclidce  is  very  characteristic.  The  incisors 
are  very  small,  six  above  and  six  below.  The  canines  are  of  enor- 
mous size  and  strength  ;  the  false  molars  are  sharp  and  compressed  ; 
above,  there  are  two  on  each  side — the  first  small,  the  second  long 
and  conical.  This  is  followed  by  the  laniary  molar  {carnassiere), 
which  is  bicuspid  with  an  inner  blunt  tubercle  ;  behind  the  laniary  is 
a  very  minute  tuberculous  molar ;  but  this  is  wanting  in  the  lower 
jaW:  and  the  laniary  is  bicuspid. 


Fig.  278. 


Dental  formula.— See  Figures  279,  280,  281.) 
Incisors,--  ;   canines,  i^li;  molars, tli  =  ^o. 

Professor   Owen,  in  treating  on  the  dentilion 
of   the    Fclidcs,    assigns    it    as    follows  : — Inci- 
sors, ll^ ;    canines,    i^Hi ;    pre-molars,  3~3  . 
3-3  i-i  2-2 

molars,  ~  =  30. 
l-l 
The  shortness  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  boldness 
of  the  occipital  ridge,  give  an  appearance  to  the 
skulls  of  the  Fclidiz  as  if  they  were  drawn  out 
backwards  ;  the  forehead  has  no  sudden  rise, 
but  is  continued  from  the  nasal  bones  to  the 
occiput,  in  a  gradual  arch.  The  union  of  the 
interparietal  and  occipital  ridges  forms  a  beet- 
ling promontory  (to  which  is  attached  the  liga- 
mentum  nucha;),  overhanging  the  occipital  bone, 
which  has  a  perpendicular,  and  even  inwardly 
inclined,  direction  ;  so  that  the  back  of  the  skull  appears  abruptly 
truncate.  The  orbits  are  large,  of  a  somewhat  oval  form,  and 
obliquely  situated.  The  outer  ring  is  incomplete,  excepting,  as  far 
as  we  ourselves  have  examined,  in  one  species,  the  Felts  pla7i!ceps 
of  Sumatra,  in  which,  as  in  the  Ichneumons,  it  is  a  fair  circular 


'■s^;-.:^ 


ring  ;  indeed,  the  skull  of  this  species  we  considered  as  approaching 
in  its  contour  to  that  of  some  of  the  VivcrrcB.  The  tympanic  bulla, 
enclosing  the  internal  organs  of  hearing,  is  largely  developed.  In 
the  Fclis ;plajiiceps  it  is  of  peculiar  magnitude. 

The  bold   ridges,   and  the  strength   and  form  of  the  zygomatic 
arches,  indicate  the    immense  volume  ai^d    stress  of   the  muscles 


Fig.  2S1, 

destined  to  act  upon  the  lower  jaw.  The  articulating  condyles  are 
not  raised  above  the  straight  horizontal  line  carried  along  the  sides 
of  the  lower  jaw;  they  are  cylindrical,  and  firmly  locked  in  the 
transversely  elongated  glenoid  cavities,  the  margins  of  which  are  so 
elevated  before  and  behind  as  to  render  any  but  a  simple  hinge-like 
motion  impossible.     The  scissor-like  action   of  the  lowcr-jaw  is  in 


no 


THE  SKELETON  AND  LIMBS  OF  THE  FELID^. 


accordance  with  the  trenchant  character  of  the  molar  teeth,  the 
mutual  action  of  which,  on  each  other,  resembles  that  of  the  blades 
of  a  pair  of  shears.     (See  Figs.  282,  283,  and  284.) 

Professor  Owen,  in  describing  the  brain  of  the  Felid^,  remarks 
that  the  advance  of  intelligence  from  the  lower  animals  is  remark- 
ably illustrated  in  this  family.     In  the  Lion,  the  cerebrum  attains 
enormous  dimensions,  so  that 
the  other  elements  of  the  ence- 
phalon  are  hidden  in  its  folds. 
At  pages  3  and  4,  ante,  will  be 
found    some    remarks   on   this 
subject. 

The  skulls  of  the  Felidce  ex- 
hibit a  general  sameness  of 
contour ;  the  principal  differ- 
ence being  that  of  size,  ac- 
cording to  the  species.  The 
Ocelot  has,  perhaps,  the  most 
rounded  skull,  while  that  of 
the  Felis ^laniceps  is  flattened 
between  the  orbits,  and  nar- 
row. Those  of  tlie  Lion  and 
Tiger  are  very  similar,  and  not 
easy  to  be  discriminated  from 
each  other.  There  is  greater 
straightness  in  the  longitudinal 
outline  of  the  upper  surface  in 
that  of  the  Lion  ;  greater  flat- 
ness of  the  space  between  the 
orbits ;  and  the  infra-orbital 
foramina  are  larger  and  often 
double.  The  following  cha- 
racter, first  noticed  by  Pro- 
fessor Owen,  appears  to  be  an  unfailing  criterion.  In  the  Tiger, 
the  nasal  processes  of  the  maxillary  bones  never  extend  upwards 
as  far  as  the  union  of  the  nasal  bones  with  the  frontal,  failing  by  the 
third  of  an  inch  ;  while  in  the  Lion,  the  nasal  processes  of  the 
maxillary  bones  always  attain  the  line  of  union  between  the  nasal 
and  frontal  bones,  and  sometimes  even  pass  beyond  it. 


Fig.  2S2. 


Fig.  2S3. 

In  the  limbs  of  the  Felidawa  behold  the  finest  display  of  muscular 
development  which  can  be  conceived.  The  dissected  arm  of  a  Lion 
or  Tiger  is  a  subject  worthy  the  study  of  an  artist.  Hence  to  dash 
down  their  prey  is  an  easy  task.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Bengal 
Tiger  has  been  known  to  fracture  the  skull  of  a  man  with  one  stroke 
of  its  heavy  paw.  We  may  easily  conceive  the  force  of  the  muscles 
destined  to  act  on  the  claws  or  talons  to  which  we  have  already 
alluded.     There  are  five  toes  on  the  anterior,  and  four  on  the  poste- 


Fig.  2S4. 

rior  extremities  ;  and  these  armed  with  the  formidable  weapons  in 
question.  By  a  beautiful  structural  conformation  of  the  bones, 
ligaments,  and  muscular  parts,  they  are  always  preserved  without 
effort  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  are  retracted 
within  a  sheath,  so  as  to  be  kept  sharp  and  ready  for  service,  as 
already  explained. 


This  irivoluntary  retraction,  counteracted  only  by  the  action  of 
muscles,  is  effected  by  two  elastic  ligaments,  so  contrived  as  to  roll 
back  the  ultimate  phalanx  which  the  claw  encases,  and  bring  it  down 
by  the  outer  side  of  the  penultimate  phalanx,  which  is  flattened  off 
to  remove  every  obstruction.  From  this  position  the  talon  can  be 
thrown  forward  in  a  moment,  the  action  of  the  double  elastic  spring 


Fig.  2S5. 

being  counteracted  by  that  of  the  flexor  muscles.  In  the  act  of 
striking  with  great  violence,  the  flexor  muscles  strongly  contract, 
brace  up  the  tendon,  and  throw  out  the  talon,  which,  when  the  act 
is  over,  returns  to  its  sheath.  An  analogous  arrangement  exists  in  the 
claws  of  the  Sloth.  Its  hooks,  as  they  may  be  termed,  are  governed 
by  an  elastic  ligament,  but  its  tendency,  contrary  to  what  we  see  in 

the  Cat  tribe,  is  to  press 
them  towards  the  palm,  in 
order  to  enable  the  animal 
to  cling  without  fatigue  to 
the  branches  from  which 
it  suspends  itself.  In  Fig. 
285,  which  is  a  toe  from 
the  left  foot  of  a  young 
Lion,  represented  in  a  state 
of  extension,  a  points  to 
the  two  elastic  ligaments  ; 
b  the  tendon  of  the  exten- 
sor muscle  ;  c  a  slip  of  in- 
elastic tendon  ;  d  the  ten- 
don of  the  flexor  muscle, 
which  passes  over  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  last 
phalanx  at  e,  as  over  a 
pulley,  and  thus  assists 
the  powerful  action  of  that 
muscle. 

In  Fig.  286,  a  toe  from 
the  hind-foot,  the  two  elas- 
tic ligaments  {a)  converge 
to  be  inserted  into  the 
upper  angle  of  the  last  phalanx,  and  draw  it  backwards  upon, 
instead  of  by  the  side  of,  the  penultimate  phalanx,  c  is  a  slip  of 
the  lateral  inelastic  tendon,  and  d  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  profundus, 

which  is  strongly  strapped  down  by 
an  annular  ligament,  e. 

Figs.  287  and  2S8  are  also  illus- 
trative of  the  mechanism  described. 
Fig.  288,  a  and  b,  the  extremities 
of  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm  ;  c  c, 
the  carpal  or  wrist  bones;  dd,  the 
metacarpal  bones;  ee,  the  first  row 
of  phalangal  bones  ;  ff,  the  second 
row  of  phalangal  bones;    g g-,  the 
last  row  encased  with  the  claws. 
Fig.  287,  a,  second  phalanx  of  a 
toe  ;  b,  the  last  phalangal  bone  ;  c,  an  elastic  ligament. 

The  general  skeleton  of  the  Fclidcs,  as  exemplified  by  that  of  the 
Lion,  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  289. 


Fig;.  2S6. 


Fig.  2S7. 


Fig.  2SS. 


ORGAA^S  OP  THE  FELID^—THE  LION. 


Ill 


The  back  and  loins  arc  long  ;  the  vcrtcbrre  of  the  neck  are  remark- 
ably large  and  solid,  the  first  or  atlas  having  its  lateral  processes 
flat  and  expanded  ;  the  spinous  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebra;  arc 
long,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  two  or  three  ;  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  lumbar  vertebra;  are  large ;  the  spinous  processes  are 
broad,  but  rather  short,  and  inclined  gently  forwards,  but  become, 


apparatus  is  accordingly  developed.     We  have  already  noticed  the 
magnitude  of  the  tympanic  bulla. 

.SV«c//.— This  sense  is  also  in  great  perfection,  and  the  olfactory 
apparatus  is  complicated,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves.  The 
Fclidcc  are,  however,  less  distinguished  for  the  sense  of  smell  than 
the  canine  race. 


Fig.  2S9. 

as  they  advance  to  those  of  the  dorsal  vertebras,  more  upright;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  those  of  the  dorsal  in  descending  lose  their 
obliquity;  the  chest  is  deep;  the  scapula  is  broad,  with  a  high 
strong  spine  ;  the  clavicle  is  small,  and  merely  imbedded  in  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder;  the  humerus  is  short  and  stout;  it  is 
remarkable  for  a  high  ridge  or  crest,  which  rises  above  the  outer 
condyle  of  its  lower  articulation.  Above  the  inner  condyle  there  is 
an  orifice  for  the  passage  of  the  artery,  which  docs  not  run  round 
the  bone,  but,  as  it  were,  pierces  it  in  a  direct  course  onwards. 
This  orifice  is  found,  not  only  in  all  the  FeUdcs,  but  in  some  of  the 
American  Monkeys,  in  the  Seals,  the  Badgers,  the  Coatis,  the 
Racoons,  the  Mustete,  the  Civets,  the  Ichneumons,  and  others ;  but 
not  in  the  Dog,  the  Hyjena,  or  the  Bear. 

Professor  Owen,  in  describing  the  skeleton  of  the  FelidcB  as  typi- 
fied by  the  Lion,  says  that  there  are  13  dorsal,  7  lumbar,  3  sacral, 
and  23 — 25  caudal  vertebra.  The  spine  of  the  axis  is  very  high, 
long,  and  broad,  posteriorly.  The  anterior  dorsal  spines  are  lofty 
and  strong  for  the  origin  of  muscles  implanted  in  the  ridged  and 
pitted  back  part  of  the  skull,  whereby  the  head  can  be  raised,  together 
with  the  prey  which  the  jaws  have  seized.  A  Lion  thus  draws  along 
the  carcass  of  the  Buffalo,  and  can,  with  ease,  raise  and  bear  off  the 
body  of  a  man. 

With  respect  to  the  perfection  of  the  senses  in  the  Felidce,  a  few 
words  may  be  necessary. 

Sight. — The  sense  of  sight  is  very  acute,  and  adapted  not  only  for 


diurnal,  but  also  for  nocturnal  vision.  The  eyes  are 
placed  obliquely,  and  glare  in  the  dark,  owing  to  the 
brilliancy  of  the  tapetura  lucidum,  a  concave  mirror  at 
the  bottom  of  the  eye. 

This  glare  is  visible  even  during  the  day,  especially 
when  the  animals  are  enraged,  for  the  pupil  dilates  under  excite- 
ment.    In  the  smaller  Cats  the  pupil  is  vertically  linear  when  con- 
tracted ;   but  in  the  larger,  as  the  Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard,  Cheetah, 
Jaguar,  &c.,  it  is  circular. 

Hearing.— Th&  sense  of  hearing  is  exquisite,  and  the  auditory 


Fig.  291. 

Tasie. — The  sense  of  taste  is  not  very  refined.  The  tongue  is 
rough.  The  roughness  of  the  tongue  of  the  common  Cat  is  familiar 
to  every  one,  as  well  as  the  action  of  Lions  and  Tigers  in  licking  the 
bones  of  their  prey  in  order  to  scrape  off  the  adherent  particles  of 
flesh.  This  is  effected  by  numerous  horny  papilte,  differently 
arranged  in  different  species,  but  always  with  the  points  directed 
backwards.  Fig.  290  shows  these  papilla;  on  the  Lion's  tongue  ; 
and  Fig.  291,  a  magnified  view  of  them  on  a  small  portion. 

Feeling. — The  long  bristles  called  whiskers,  on  each  side  of  a  Cat's 
mouth,  are  familiar  to  all  :  these  are  important  organs  of  touch. 
They  are  attached  to  a  bed  of  close  glands  under  the  skin,  and  each 
is  connected  with  a  nerve.  Hence  they  communicate  to  the  animal 
an  impression  from  the  slightest  touch.  If  we  imagine  a  Lion  or 
Tiger  stealing  through  a  jungle  during  the  darkness  of  night,  we 
shall  be  able  to  account  for  the  use  of  these  whiskers.  They  indicate 
to  him,  through  the  nicest  feeling,  any  obstacle  which  may  present 
itself  in  his  progress  ;  they  prevent  him  from  rustling  the  leaves  or 
boughs,  and  alarming  his  prey  ;  and  they  thus,  in  conjunction  with 
the  soft  springy  pads  of  his  feet,  which  render  his  steps  noiseless, 
enable  him  to  steal  upon  his  unsuspecting  victim,  and  make  his  fatal 
bound.  We  have  already  noticed  an  analogous  provision  existing  in 
the  Bat  tribe,  at  page  69,  atite. 

The  Lion— /I'/w  Leo. 

This  animal,  the  most  noble  and  courageous  of  the  Carnivora 
(see  Fig.  292)  ;  the  Kimv  {Leon)  of  the  Greeks  (Aenira  {Lccctia^, 
Lioness)  ;  Leo  of  the  Latins  {Lea  xaALecana,  Lioness) ;  Leone  oiWw^ 
Italians  {Lco?iessa,  Lioness) ;  Leon,  Spanish  ;  Lio7i,  French  {Lionttc, 


Fig.  292. — The  Lion. 

Lioness  ;  Linceau,  cub) ;  Lowe,  German  {Likvinn,  Lioness) ;  Fcfis 
Leo,  Linn.,  is  the  subject  of  great  variation  in  regard  to  size,  colour, 
and  expression  ;  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  Lion 
of  Asia  really  differs  more  from  the  Lion  of  South  Africa,  than 
the  Lion  of  South  Africa  from  that  of  Ashantee,  Barbary,  or  Nubia, 
or  that  individuals  of  any  of  these  races  differ  from  each  other. 
But  the  Guzerat  Lion,  presented  by  the  Nawab  of  Joonagurh,  in 
Kattywar,  through  Sir  Erskine  Perry  and  Colonel  J.icob,  which  lived 
in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  from  1854  to 


113 


VARIETIES  OF  LIONS. 


erev  so  silvpruTs  VA  ^-^ry  irom  a  deep-red  chesnut-brown  to 
S^iont^Tsf  n'L'u'trATica  "xhfcL'j'^  belief  that  a  race  of 
equally.     In  the  Nubian  Tirmi;  ,f  °'°"''  °^  ^Iie  mane  varies 

Cape  Lions  blaclf.  b^^t"^;,"' ;" '' '  ^^""^  '^  ^'-^  ^"'™us,  and  in  the 
and  the  Cape  countries      The  foH 'v  ?'      f""^  ""''  ''"""'^  '"  ^ubia 


saS  n  th'e"sre°d  Recrrd,'  "o"'^  -^^'her  fro^m  numerous  pas- 
Pafthia  prodded  l^tmldrXfbre^i'P'Atp^LVt'tL^Lr"'^  ^""^ 
fined  to  the  nucrior  wilds  of  Africa,  to  som^oTthe  di     ict  °of  Ar^a 


wm 


Wi^ 


0\\V/' 


^e^eS  *^?^:  ^oi^f  rc^::^  tz^ -^f  T-^--  °^^ 

theCam'elswl#chctried%K™o?S  "^  ^'^^^ 

attacked  by  them  in  the  district  of  fh^e  pLnfans  aL  C^.'?"  ■''"" 
their  march  from  Aconthus  to  ThprmW,S  j    Z,    Crestonai,  on 

Saloniki):  he  adds  also  that  these^nifl''"''^"  Thessalonia,  now 
mountains  betw.een  the  ri  4s  NestusTT^^^^^^^^^  numerous  in  the 
Which  flows  through  Ac.r:^i^'T:sl^^-^^J^^^^- 


Tig.  293.— Head  and  Mane  of  an  African  Lion. 


■\  \ 


The  Cape  Lion  presents  two  varieties,  one  yellowish,  the  other 


THE  MANE  LESS  LION. 


I '3 


The 


brown,  the  mane  of  the  latter  often  deepening-  almost  to  black, 
dark  Lion  is  said  to  be  the  most  ferocious.     (Fig-.  296.) 

Of  the  Asiatic  breeds,  the  Bengal  Lion  has  the  mane  magnificently 
developed,  the  colourof  the  fur  of  a  dark  ycUowish-br&wn.  (Fig.  297.) 
It  attains  to  a  very  large  size.  The  Persian  or  Arabian  Lion  is  said 
to  be  characterised  by  the  pale  colour  of  the  fur.     (I'lg.  298.) 

Within  the  last  few  years,  a  maneless,  or  nearly  maneless,  breed 
has  been  discovered  in  Guzerat.  Pliny  alludes  to  a  maneless  Lion, 
which  he  regarded  as  a  hybrid,  occurring  in  Africa.  (See  Fig.  294.) 
It  is  to  Captain  Smee  that  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  the  maneless 
Lion.  On  his  return  from  Guzerat  to  England  he  brought  several 
skins  of  such  Lions  which  he  himself  had  shot  ;  some  of  these  he 
presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  and  communicated 
an  interesting-  paper  to  the  "  Zoological  Transactions  "  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  maneless  Lion  of  Guzerat  differs  from  its  Bengal,  Persian, 
and  African  relatives,  not  only  in  the  absence  of  a  full  mane,  but 
also  in  being  rather  lower  on  the  limbs,  and  in  having  a  somewhat 


among  the  cattle,  and  when  attacked  exhibit  great  boldness.  The 
native  name  for  this  Lion  is  Ontia/i  Daug,  or  Camel-Tiger,  an  ap- 
pellation from  the  resemblance  in  colour  to  the  Camel. 

The  habits  and  manners  of  the  Lion  have  been  detailed  by  Gordon 
Cummmg,  Livingstone,  Jules  Gerard,  and  various  other  travellers  ■ 
and  no  one  can  doubt  its  strength,  its  daring,  and  ferocity  Near 
the  precincts  ofcolonisation  in  Southern  Africa,  and  elsewhere  where 
fire-arms  are  in  use,  it  has  learned  by  experience  their  fatal  effects 
and  gained  a  consciousness  that  its  powers  avail  but  little  against 
such  weapons  of  destruction. 

The  king  of  the  forest  is  a  term  misapplied  to  this  noble  beast  ■ 
forests  are  not  its  haunts,  but  burning  desert  plains  and  wide  karroos 
covered  only  with  shrubby  vegetation,  or  interspersed  with  tracts  of 
low  brushwood.  In  India  it  frequents  the  jungles  and  the  luxuriant 
borders  of  rivers,  among  which  it  makes  its  lair. 

During  the  day  the  Lion  usually  slumbers  in  his  retreat ;  as  night 
sets  in  he  rouses  from  his  lair  and  begins  his  prowl.     The  nocturnal 


Fig.  294. — A  Maneless  Lion. 


shorter  tail,  furnished  at  its  tip  with  a  larger  brush.  The  colour  is 
pale  fulvous.  A  male  killed  by  Captain  Smee  measured,  including 
the  tail,  8  feet  9-^  inches  ;  his  w-eight,  exclusive  of  the  internal  vis- 
cera, was  thirty-five  stone  (fourteen  pounds  to  the  stone)  ;  his  height 
3  feet  6  inches  ;  and  the  impression  of  his  paw  on  the  sand  measured 
hi\  inches  across. 

It  is  along  the  banks  of  the  Sombermuttee,  near  Ahmedabad,  ac- 
cording to  Captain  Smee,  that  this  variety  of  the  Lion  is  found  :  it 
occurs  also  on  the  Rhun,  near  Rhunpor,  and  iiearPuttun  in  Guzerat. 
During  the  hot  months  they  inhabit  the  low,  brushy,  wooded  plains 
that  skirt  the  Bhardar  and  Sombermuttee  rivers  from  Ahmedabad  to 
the  borders  of  Cutch,  being  driven  out  of  the  large  adjoining  tracts 
of  high  jungle,  called  Bheers,  by  the  practice  annually  resorted  to  by 
the  natives,  of  setting  fire  to  the  grass  in  order  to  clear  it,  and  ensure 
a  succession  of  young  shoots  for  the  cattle  upon  the  first  fall  of  the 
rains.  So  numerous  are  they,  that  Captain  Smee  killed,  in  one  dis- 
trict, eleven  in  the   course  of  a   month.     They  make  terrible  havoc 


tempests  of  rain  and  lightning,  which  in  Southern  Africa  are  of 
common  occurrence,  are  to  him  seasons  of  joy  :  his  voice  mingles 
with  the  roar  of  the  thunder,  and  adds  to  the  confusion  and  terror  of 
the  timid  beasts  upon  which  he  preys,  and  upon  which  he  now  ad- 
vances with  less  caution  and  a  bolder  step.  In  general,  however,  he 
waits  in  ambush  or  creeps  insidiously  towards  his  victim,  which,  with 
a  bound  and  a  roar,  he  dashes  to  the  earth. 

Of  the  strength  of  the  Lion  we  have  most  extraordinary  examples 
on  record.  To  carry  off  a  man — and  this  has  but  too  often  happened 
— is  a  feat  of  no  difficulty  to  this  powerful  brute.  Indeed,  when  we 
find  that  a  Cape  Lion  seized  a  Heifer  in  his  mouth,  and,  though  the 
legs  dragged  upon  the  ground,  carried  her  off  with  apparently  the 
same  ease  as  a  Cat  does  a  Rat,  leaping  a  broad  dyke  with  her  with- 
out the  least  difficulty— that  another,  and  a  young  one,  too,  conveyed 
a  Horse  about  a  mile  from  the  spot  where  he  had  killed  it— that  a 
third,  which  had  carried  off  a  two-year-old  Heifer,  was  followed  on 
the  track  for  five  hours  by  horsemen,  who  observed  that  throughout 

Q 


114 


VARIETIES  OF  LIONS. 


the  whole  distance  the  carcass  of  the  Heifer  had  only  once  or  twice 
touched  the  ground  — we  luay  conceive  that  a  man  would  be  an  in- 
significant burden.  Sucn  a  powerful  animal,  however,  we  must  not 
expect  to  see  in  the  confined  dens  of  a  menagerie  :  there  their  limbs 
become  cramped,  their  muscular  system  undeveloped,  their  bones 
often  distorted,  and  their  daring  and  ferocity  subdued. 


Fig.  295. — The  Earbaiy  Lion. 

The  Indian  Lion  displays  the  same  courage  as  its  African  relative. 
Instead  of  retreating  on  the  hunters'  approach,  he  stands  his  ground, 
or  rushes  to  meet  them  open-mouthed  on  the  plain.  Lions  are  thus 
easily  shot  ;  but  if  they  be  missed  or  only  slightly  wounded,  they 
prove  very  formidable.  They  will  spring  on  the  heads  of  the  largest 
Elephants,  and  have,  it  is  asserted,  often  pulled  them  to  the  earth, 
riders  and  all. 

In  the  defence  of  her  cubs  the  Lioness  is  resolute  in  the  extreme, 
and  is  doubly  savage  during  the  time  they  remain  under  her  care. 
Her  mate  participates  in  her  feelings.  The  Lioness  goes  with  young 
five  months,  and  generally  produces  from  two  to  four  at  a  birth. 
They  are  born  blind.  For  several  months  their  fur  is  obscurely 
striped  or  brindled,  the  markings  reminding  us  of  those  of  the  Tiger  : 


Fig.  296. — Cape  Lions. 

these  stripes  branch  off  from  a  blackish  line  running  down  the 
middle  of  the  back.  Their  voice  has  a  Cat-like  mew.  Gradually 
the  uniform  colour  is  assumed,  and  at  about  the  end  of  twelve  months 
the  mane  begins  to  appear :  this  increases,  and  the  voice  deepens 
into  a  roar.  Fig.  299  gives  an  illustration  of  a  Lioness  and  her 
whelps. 

The  Lion  attains  to  maturity  about  the  fifth  year :  its  term  of  life 
is  of  considerable  extent.  Pompey,  which  died  in  the  Tower  in 
1760,  had  been  there  for  seventy  years  ;  and  one  from  the  Gambia 
died  there  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  Imagination  pictures  such  a 
one  in  the  solitary  desert :  age  has  overtaken  him,  his  eye  is  dim, 
his  force  abated,  he  fails  in  his  once  fatal  spring  ;  gaunt,  and  lean, 


and  feeble,  he  drags  his  weary  limbs  to  the  old  haunt— the  haunt 
from  which  he  once  went  forth  in  the  pride  of  his  strength,  when  his 
voice  scattered  terror  through  the  desert— there  at  length  to  die. 
Better  had  he  fallen  by  the  hunter's  javelin,  Vi-hen  "his  limbs  were 
strong  and  his  courage  higli,"  than  thus  drain  to  the  dregs  a  miser- 
able existence. 


Fig.  297. — Lion,  with  Lioness,  from  Eastern  Asia. 

It  has  long  been  a  popular  belief  that  the  Lion  lashes  himself  with 
his  tail  to  stimulate  himself  into  a  r."ge  :  and  though  such  a  use  for 
it  is  out  of  the  question,  a  sort  of  claw  or  prickle  has  been  detected 
at  the  termination  of  that  organ.  Mr.  Bennett  detected  it  in  the  tip 
of  the  tail  of  a  young  Barbary  Lion.  Blumenbach  had  previously 
ascertained  the  fact  of  its  existence  in  a  specimen  examined  by  him- 
self in  1829.  M.  Deshayes  announced  the  existence  of  this  prickle 
in  a  Lion  and  Lioness  which  died  in  the  Paris  menagerie.     Mr.  Wood 


Fig.  298. — Persian  Lion. 

detected  it  only  once  out  of  numerous  Lions  which  he  purposely 
examined  ;  he  also  found  a  similar  prickle  on  the  tip  of  the  tail  of  an 
Asiatic  Leopard. 

This  prickle  is,  in  fact,  only  occasionally  present ;  it  is  not  con- 
nected with  the  caudal  vertebra:,  but,  as  Mr.  Wood  states,  appears 
to  be  inserted  into  the  skin  like  the  bulb  of  a  bristle  ;  but  M.  Des- 
hayes asserts  that  it  is  of  a  conical  shape,  and  adheres  to  the  skin 
by  its  base  ;  as  does  also  Blumenbach.  (See  Fig.  300.)  We  are 
much  inclined  to  think  it  nothing  more  than  an  indurated  and  par- 
tially detached  cuticle;  certainly  it  falls  off  with  the  slightest 
touch. 

Hybrids  between  the  Lion  and  Tigress  (Fig.  301)  have  occurred  in 
our  countr}'.  One  litter  was  produced  in  1827,  in  Atkin's  menagerie, 
and  another  litter  subsequently,  from  similar  parents,  was  produced 
at  Windsor.      In  both   cases   the  hybrids  died  before  arriving  "at 


ANECDOTES  OF  THE  LION. 


"S 


maturity.     Their  colour  was  brighter  than  that  of  true  Lion-cubs, 
and  the  bands  more  defined  and  darker. 

Excepting  in  the  vast  wilds  of  Central  Africa,  untrodden  by  the 
foot  of  the  white  man,  the  Lion,  even  in  the  regions  to  which  it  is  at 


Fig.  299. — Lioness  and  Whelps. 

present  restricted,  is  much  more  rare  than  formerly.  The  ancient 
Romans  procured  incredible  multitudes  for  the  arena  :  Scylla 
brought  100  males  at  once  into  the  combat  ;  Pompey  gave  600,  of 
which  more  than  half  were  males  ;  Caesar,  400; 
nor  was  it  until  the  time  of  the  later  emperors 
that  any  difficulty  in  procuring  them  began  to 
be  experienced. 

There  are  few  travellers  in  Africa  who  have 
not  been  under  the  necessity  of  encountering 
this  formidable  beast ;  and  many  are  the  ex- 
citing narratives  which  have  been  related,  ot 
the  incidents  of  the  chase — of  escaping  from 
almost  certain  death — of  triumph  over  the  foe. 
Dr.  Livingstone's  account  of  his  adventures 
with  a  Lion  is  of  thrilling  interest.  Singular 
to  say,  his  body  was  certainly  identified,  when 
lately  brought  to  England,  by  Sir  W.  Fer- 
guson recognising  the  crushed  bone  of  the 
arm  that  had  been  caused  by  the  attack  of  a 
Lion  on  that  celebrated  traveller  some  twenty 
years  previously.  Sir  W.  Ferguson  had  re-set 
the  arm  during  Livingstone's  temporary  visit 
to  England  shortly  after  the  accident. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  Lion  is  ornamented 
with  a  mane  of  which  the  female  is  entirely 
destitute.  What  are  considered  as  the  true 
Lions  belong  exclusively  to  the  Old  World, 
where,  in  former  times,  they  were  both  widely 
and  abundantly  diffused ;  but  with  the  ad- 
vancement of  man  into  their  haunts,  their 
range  has,  every  year,  become  more  and  more  circumscribed,  until 
they  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  Asia  and  Africa.     They  no  longer 


Fig.  300. 


F'b-  jOI, — Liwii-'i'Jo';''  Cubs. 


I 


exist  in  Europe,  a  part  of  which,  there  is  no  doubt,  they  once  in- 
habited ;  nor  are  they  now  to  be  found  in  Egj^pt,  Palestine,  or  Syria. 
Even  in  India  and  Persia,  and  some  districts  of  Arabia,  they  have 
become  comparatively  rare  ;  while  the  African  Lion  is  gradually 
retiring  further  and  further  from  the  Cape. 
thus  acknowledging  his  incapability  of 
disputing  the  ground  of  his  native  habitat 
with  the  superior  intelligence  of  man. 
Mr.  Bennett,  formeriy  of  the  Tower  Me- 
nagerie, observes,  that  "  the  true  country 
of  the  Lion  is  Africa,  in  the  vast  and  un- 
trodden wilds  of  which,  from  the  immense 
deserts  of  the  north  to  the  trackless  forests 
of  the  south,  he  reigns  supreme  and  un- 
controlled. In  the  sandy  deserts  of  Ara- 
bia, in  the  wild  districts  of  Persia,  and  the 
vast  jungles  of  Hindostan,  he  still  main- 
tains a  precarious  footing ;  but  from  the 
classic  soil  of  Greece,  as  well  as  from  the 
whole  of  Asia  Minor,  both  of  which  were 
once  exposed  to  his  ravages,  he  has  been 
utterly  dislodged  and  extirpated." 

The  general  prey  of  the  African  Liou 
consists  of  the   largest  quadrupedal  her- 
bivora,  few  of  which  have  the  power  to 
combat    with  it,  or    to   escape    from   the 
deadly  effects  of  its  terrible  spring.     The 
Bullocks  of  the  farmer  frequently  become 
the   victims  of  its   power  ;    so  that  their 
owner  is  generally  possessed   of  a   good 
gun,  in  the  use  of  which  he  is  usually  so 
well  practised,  as  to  rarely  miss  his  aim 
when  brought  within  range  of  the  foe  of 
his  herds  and  flocks.       It  appears   that, 
when    the    Lion    is   roused,    it  walks    off 
quietly,  at  first,  with  a  sort  of  hesitating, 
uncertain  step;  nnd  if  there  be  no  cover 
near,    and   not  pursued,  it  gradually  in- 
creases  its   speed   to   a   trot,   till    it   has 
reached  a  secure  distance,  when  it  bounds 
away.     Upon   such  occasions  its  demeanour  is   described  as  of  a 
careless   description,  as    if  it   did   not   want  to   fight,  although,   if 
unduly  pressed,  was  quite  ready  for  the  combat.     When   pursued 
closely,   it   turns,   and   couches,  generally  with  its   face  to  its  ad- 
versary, which  is  the  moment  of  trial  to  the  nerves  of  the  sports- 
man.    If  he  be  sufficiently  cool  and  skilful  in  the  use  of  his  arm, 
the  rifle   ends   the  fray  at  once  ;    but  if,   in   the  flutter   of  the  un- 
expected turn  of  the  Lion,  he  miss  a  vital  part,  or  the  ball  whizzes 
past,  leaving  the  animal  unscathed,  he  often  charges  his  foe,  and, 
in  his  excited  fury,  takes  a  terrible  vengeance.     Even  then,  how- 
ever,  hunters  sometimes    save   themselves   by  collecting  resolution 
to   make  a  stand  in  the  face  of  the  beast.     In    the   "Travels   of 
Lichtenstein,"  the  following  thrilling  incident  is  related: — "When 
passing  near  the  Riet  river-gate,  and  while  our  oxen  were  grazing. 
Von  Wyk,  colonist,  stopped  and  said,  '  It  is  not  more  than  two  years 
since,  in  the  very  place  we  now  stand,  I  ventured  to  take  one  of  the 
most  daring  shots  that  ever  was  hazarded.     My  wife  was  sitting  within 
the  house, "near  the  door;  the  children  were  playing  about   her,  and 
I  was  without,  near    the    house,  busied   in  doing  something  to  a 
waggon,  when  suddenly,  though  it  was  mid-day,  an  enormous  Lion 
appeared,  came  up  and  laid  himself  quietly  down  in  the  shade,  upon 
the  very  threshold  of  the  door.     My  wife,  either  frozen  with  fear,  or 
aware  of  the  danger  attending  any  attempt  to  flee,  remained  motion- 
less in  her  place,  while  the  children  took  refuge  in  her  lap.     The  cry 
they  uttered  attracted  my  attention,  and  I  hastened  towards  the  door; 
but  my  astonishment  may  well  be  conceived  when  I  found  the  entrance 
to  it  barred  in  such  a  way.     Although  the  animal  had  not  seen  me, 
unarmed  as  I  was,  escape  seemed  impossible  ;  yet  I  glided  gently, 
scarcely  knowing  what  I  meant  to  do,  to  the  side  of  my  house,  up  to 
the  window  of  my  chamber,  where  I  knew  my  loaded  gun  was  stand- 
ing.    By  a  most  happy  chance,  I  had  set  it  in  the  corner,  close  by 
the  window,  so  that  I  could  reach  it  with  my  hand  ;  for,  as  you  may 
perceive,  the  opening  is  too  small  to  admit  of  my  having  got  in;  and, 
still  more  fortunately,  the  door  of  the  room  was  open,  so  that  I  could 
see  the  whole  danger  of  the  scene.     The  Lion  was  beginning  to  move, 
perhaps  with   the  intention  of  making  a  spring.      Tliere    was  no 
longer  any  time  to  think  ;  I   called  softly  to  the  mother  not  to  be 
alarmed  ;  and  invoking  the  name  of  the  Lord,  fired  my  piece  !     The 
ball  passed  directly  over  the  hair  of  my  boy's  head,  and  lodged  in 
the   forehead  of  the  Lion,   immediately  over  his    eyes,  which  shot 
forth,  as  it  were,  sparks  of  fire,  and  stretched  him  on  the  ground 
so  that  he  never  stirred  more.     My  relief  may  be  easily  imagined. 

Size  for  size,  the  Lion  is  among  the  strongest  of  all  animals.  The 
diminutive  Mole,  perhaps,  surpasses  it  in  the  point  of  sheer  strength  ; 
but,  comparatively,  its  activity  immeasurably  outreaches  that  crea- 
ture. Besides,  the  physical  power  ol  the  Mole  is  concentrated  in  its 
fore-quarters,  the  hind  parts  being  feeble;  whereas  the  power  oi  the 


n6 


QUALITIES  OF  THE  LION— THE  TIGER. 


Lion  is  distributed  over  its  whole  frame,  giving  to  its  movements  an 
unrivalled  easiness  of  grace  in  all  its  motions.  This  is  a  rare  quality 
in  an  animal  of  such  dimensions.  In  this  respect,  the  0.x,  the  Hip- 
popotamus, Rhinoceros,  or  even  the  Horse,  cannot  approach  it. 
"  There  are  several  Hebrew  words  which  are  used  for  the  Lion  ;  but 
the  one  which  signifies  the  animal  in  its  adult  state,  is  derived  from 
an  Arabic  word  signifying  strength ;  and,  therefore,  the  Lion  is 
called  the  sfrong  one,  as  the  Bat  is  called  the  night-flier.  No 
epithet  could  be  better  deserved,  for  the  Lion  seems  to  be  a  very 
incarnation  of  strength  ;  and,  even  when  dead,  gives  as  vivid  an 
idea  of  concentrated  power  as  when  it  is  living.  And  when  the  skin 
is  stripped  from  the  body,  the  tremendous  muscular  development 
never  fails  to  create  a  sensation  of  awe.  The  muscles  of  the  limbs, 
themselves  so  hard  as  to  blunt  the  keen-edged  knives  employed  by 
a  dissecter,  are  enveloped  in  their  glittering  sheaths,  playing  upon 
each  other  like  well-oiled  machinery,  and  terminating  in  tendons, 
seemingly  strong  as  steel,  and  nearly  as  impervious  to  the  knife. 
Not  until  the  skin  is  removed  can  any  one  form  a  conception  of  the 
enormously  powerful  muscles  of  the  neck,  which  enable  the  Lion  to 
lift  the  weighty  prey  which  it  kills,  and  to  convey  it  to  a  place  of 
security."     (See  remarks  at  p.  85,  ante.) 

In  reference  to  the  roar  of  the  Lion,  Gordon  Gumming  tells  us, 
that  it  is  one  of  the  most  striking  things  connected  with  the  king  of 
beasts.  It  is  grand  in  the  extreme.  "  It  consists,  occasionally,  of 
a  low,  deep  moaning,  repeated  five  or  six  times,  ending  in  faintly 
audible  sighs.  He  will  often  startle  the  forest  with  loud,  deep-toned, 
solemn  roars,  repeated  five  or  six  times  in  quick  succession,  each 
increasing  in  loudness  to  the  third  or  fourth,  when  his  voice  dies 
away  in  five  or  six  low  muffled  sounds,  very  much  resembling  distant 
thunder.  As  a  general  rule,  Lions  roar  during  the  night,  their  sigh- 
ing moans  comriiencing  as  the  shades  of  evening  envelop  the  forest, 
and  continumg  at  intervals  throughout  the  night.  In  distant  and 
secluded  regions,  however,  I  have  constantly  heard  them  roaring 
loudly  as  late  as  nine  or  ten  o'clock  on  a  bright  sunny  morning.  In 
hazy  and  rainy  weather,  they  are  to  be  heard  at  every  hour  in  the 
day,  but  their  roar  is  subdued." 

It  would  appear  that  there  is  hardly  any  other  animal  so  invisible 
as  the  Lion  is  in  the  dark.  Almost  every  hunter  has  remarked  this, 
informing  us  of  the  Lion's  approach  at  night,  striking  terror  into 
both  Dogs  and  cattle  as  he  draws  so  near  as  to  enable  his  breathing 
to  be  heard,  and  yet  his  form  quite  invisible.  "  Sometimes,  when  he 
has  crept  near  an  encampment,  or  close  to  acattle  inclosure,  he  does 
not  proceed  any  further,  lest  he  should  venture  within  the  radius 
illumined  by  the  rays  of  the  fire.  So  he  crouches  closely  to  the 
ground,  and,  in  the  semi-darkness,  looks  like  a  large  stone,  or  a 
little  hillock,  that  any  one  might  pass  close  to  it  without  perceiving 
its  real  nature.  This  gives  the  opportunity  for  which  the  Lion 
has  been  watching,  and  in  a  moment  he  strikes  down  the  careless 
straggler,  and  carries  off  his  prey  to  the  den.  Sometimes,  when  very 
much  excited,  he  accompanies  the  charge  with  a  roar;  but,  as  a 
general  fact,  he  secures  his  prey  in  silence." 

In  reference  to  the  dwelling-place  of  the  Lion,  we  find  that  this  is 
generally  chosen  in  the  very  depths  of  the  forest,  where,  doubtless, 
he  feels  security  from  both  the  annoyance  and  the  attack  of  other 
animals.  "  No  Fox  knows  every  hedge-row,  ditch,  drain,  and  covert, 
better  than  the  Lion  knows  the  whole  country  round  his  den.  Each 
Lion  seems  to  have  his  peculiar  district,  in  which  only  himself  and 
his  family  will  be  found.  These  animals  seem  to  parcel  out  the 
neighbourhood  among  themselves  by  a  tacit  law  like  that  which  the 
Dogs  of  Eastern  countries  have  imposed  upon  themselves,  and 
which  forbids  them  to  go  out  of  the  district  in  which  they  were  born. 
During  the  night  he  traverses  his  dominions  ;  and,  as  a  rule,  he 
retires  to  his  den  as  soon  as  the  sun  is  fairly  above  the  horizon. 
Sometimes  he  will  lie  in  wait  for  prey  in  the  broadest  daylight ;  but 
his  ordinary  habits  are  nocturnal;  and,  in  the  day-time,  he  is 
usually  asleep  in  his  secret  dwelling-place." 

In  the  Scriptures,  the  Lion  is  frequently  mentioned  in  a  manner 
that  shows  how  narrowly  his  characteristics  had  been  watched,  and 
how  well  they  were  known.  Many  passages  refer  to  his  roar ;  and 
Mr.  Wood,  in  his  "  Bible  Animals,"  observes — "  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  Hebrew  language  contains  several  words  by  which  the 
different  kinds  of  roar  are  described.  One  word,  for  example,  repre- 
sents the  low,  deep,  thunder-like  roar  of  the  Lion  seeking  its  prey. 
This  is  the  word  which  is  used  in  Amos  iii.  4,  '  Will  a  lion  roar  in 
the  forest  when  he  hath  no  prey?'  and  in  this  passage  the  word 
which  is  translated  as  Lion,  signifies  the  animal  when  full-grown 
and  in  the  prime  of  life;  Another  word  is  used  to  signify  the  sudden 
exulting  cry  of  the  Lion  as  it  leaps  upon  its  victim.  A  third  is  used 
for  the  angry  grunt  with  which  a  Lion  resents  any  endeavour  to 
deprive  it  of  its  prey — a  sound  with  which  we  are  all  familiar,  on  a 
minature  scale,  when  we  hear  a  Gat  growling  over  a  Mouse  which 
she  has  just  caught.  The  fourth  term  signifies  the  peculiar  roar 
uttered  by  the  young  Lion,  after  it  has  ceased  to  be  a  cub,  and  before 
it  has  attained  maturity.  This  last  term  is  employed  in  Jeremiah  li. 
38,  '  They  shall  roar  together  like  lions  ;  they  shall  yell  as  lions' 
whelps;'  in  which  passage  two  distinct  words  are  used,  one  signi- 
fying the  roar  of  the  Lion  when  searching  after  prey,  and  the  other 


the  cry  of  the  young  Lions."  The  great  strength  of  the  animal  is  a 
frequent  subject  of  allusion.  In  the  series  of  prophecies  uttered  by 
Jacob  on  his  death-bed,  "  the  power  of  the  princely  tribe  of  Judah  is 
predicted  under  the  metaphor  of  a  Lion  ;  the  beginning  of  its  power 
as  a  Lion's  whelp  ;  the  fulness  of  its  strength  as  an  adult  Lion  ;  and 
its  matured  establishment  in  power  as  the  old  Lion  that  couches 
himself,  and  none  dares  to  disturb  him.  Solomon,  in  the  Proverbs, 
speaks  of  him  as  '  the  strongest  among  beasts,  and  that  turneth  not 
away  from  any.'  "  Yet  will  he  quit  the  haunts  of  the  Gorilla,  and  is 
even  chary  of  combating  the  Rhinoceros.  In  the  same  book,  Solo- 
mon again  alludes  to  its  courage  in  the  passage,  "  The  wicked  fleeth 
when  no  man  pursueth  ;  but  the  righteous  are  bold  as  a  lion."  In 
the  second  book  of  Samuel,  too,  the  courage  of  Benaiah,  one  of  the 
mighty  three  of  David's  army,  is  especially  applauded,  because  he 
fought  and  killed  a  Lion  single-handed,  and  because  he  conquered 
"two  lion-like  men  of  Moab."  David,  their  leader,  had  likewise 
distinguished  himself,  when  nothing  more  than  a  herdsman,  by 
slaying  a  Lion  that  had  attacked  his  herd.  In  the  same  book,  brave 
men  are  frequently  described  as  having  the  hearts  of  Lions. 

The  Tiger. 

The  Royal  Tiger,  Tiypig  {Tigris)  of  the  Greeks ;  Tigris  of  the 
Latins;  Tigre  Royal,  Buffon's  Nat.  Hist.;  Felis  Tigris,  Linn.; 
Tigris  7-egalis,  as  it  is  often  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  smaller 
Tiger-Gats,  is  far  more  limited  in  its  range  than  the  Lion.  It  is  ex- 
clusively Asiatic.  Hindostan  may  be  considered  as  its  head-quarters, 
but  it  is  common  in  the  larger  islands,  as  Sumatra,  where  it  is  a 
fearful  scourge.  It  is  said  to  occur  in  the  south  of  China,  and  also 
in  the  deserts  which  separate  China  from  Siberia,  and  as  far  as  the 
banks  of  the  Obi.  It  is  found  in  Tonquin  and  Siam.  The  ancients 
regarded  India  and  Hyrcania  as  nurseries  of  the  Tiger.  Hyrcania 
was  a  province  of  the  ancient  Persian  empire,  at  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  the  Caspian  Sea  ;  but  its  boundaries  are  not  very  determi- 
nate. Whether  the  Tiger  still  inhabits  this  district  is  not  very  clear  ; 
there  is  no  reason,  however,  to  doubt  the  concurrent  testimonies  of 
the  ancient  writers.     (See  Fig.  302.) 


Fig.  302. — The  Royal  Tiger. 

The  Tiger  is  equal  in  size  to  the  Lion,  but  of  a  more  elongated 
form,  and  pre-eminently  graceful.  The  head  also  is  shorter  and 
more  rounded.  Occasionally  individuals  occur  exceeding  any  Lion 
we  have  contemplated  in  menageries ;  but  the  average  height  is 
from  3  feet  6  inches  to  4  feet.  The  general  tint  of  the  fur  is 
of  a  fine  yellow  or  reddish-yellow,  ornamented  by  a  series  of  trans- 
verse black  bands  or  stripes,  which  occupy  the  sides  of  the  head, 
neck,  and  body,  and  are  continued  on  the  tail  in  the  form  of  rings  : 
the  under  parts  of  the  body  and  inner  parts  of  the  limbs  are  almost 
white.  Individuals  are  sometimes  exhibited  of  a  very  pale  colour, 
with  the  stripes  very  obscure  ;  and  Du  Halde  says  that  the  Chinese 
Tiger  {Lon-chii,  or  Lazi-haii)  varies  in  colour,  some  being  white, 
striped  with  black  and  grey. 

The  ancients  make  frequent  mention  of  the  Tiger,  with  which  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  Aristotle  was  well  acquainted,  though  he 
talks  of  a  breed  in  India  between  this  animal  and  the  Dog,  meaning 
perhaps  the  Cheetah,  which  is  used  for  the  chase.  Pliny  describes 
the  "  tremendous  velocity  "  of  the  Tiger,  and  the  devoted  attach- 
ment of  the  Tigress  to  her  young.  Oppian  speaks  of  swift  Tigers, 
the  offspring  of  the  Zephyr  ;  and  of  its  swiftness,  Mr.  Bell,  the 
traveller,  and  Pere  Gerbillon,  were  witnesses  in  China,  the  chase  of 
this  animal  being  a  favourite  diversion  with  the  great  Cam-Hi,  the 
Chinese  monarch.     It  appears  that  Augustus  was  the  first  who  ex- 


THE   TIGER,    LEOPARD,   PANTHER,   AND   OUNCE. 


i'7 


hibited  a  Tiger  at  Rome,  which  was  tame,  and  kept  in  a  cage. 
Claudius  afterwards  exhibited  four ;  and  Cuvler  suggests  that  it  was 
in  commemoration  of  this  rare  spectacle  that  the  mosaic,  discovered 
some  years  since  at  Rome,  was  made,  representing  four  Royal 
Tio-ers  in  the  act  of  devouring  their  prey..  As,  however,  India  and 
its'^products  became  better  'known  to  the  Romans,  the  Tiger  was 
rendered  more  familiar  to  them,  but  was  never  exhibited  in  great 
numbers.     Ten  were  in  the  possession  of  Gordian  III. 


Fig.  303.' — Tiger-hunling. — Tiger  seizing  an  Elcj 

Active,  powerful,  and  ferocious,  the  Tiger  is  more  to  be  dreaded 
than  the  Lion,  because  it  is  more  insidious  in  its  attack,  and  also 
prowls  abroad  by  day  as  well  as  by  night.  In  some  districts  of 
India  and  in  Sumatra  its  ravages  are  frightful.  In  Sumatra  the 
infatuated  natives  seldom 
attempt  their  destruction, 
having  a  notion  that  they 
are  animated  by  the  souls 
of  their  ancestors.  Tiger- 
hunting  is  one  of  the  favour- 
ite field-sports  of  the  East ; 
and  as  the  chase  is  not 
unattended  with  danger,  it 
is  productive  of  proportion- 
ate excitement.  Though 
horsemen  as  well  as  persons 
on  foot  attend  on  these 
occasions,  it  is  more  for  the 
sake  of  "being  in  at  the 
death,"  than  of  taking  a  decided  part,  for  the  Horse  will  seldom 
stand  steadily  when  near  this  dreaded  beast.  It  is  to  the  armed 
riders  on  Elephants  that  the  dangerous  work  of  rousing  up  the  Tiger 
from  the  jungle  covert  is  left,   and   of  firing  at  him  as  he  bounds 


along.     The  Tiger's  first  object  is  to  escape  under  the  covert  of  the 

long  grass  or  jungle ;  but,  when  wounded  or  hard  pressed,  he  will 
tUrn  with  great  fury,  and  by  springing  on  the  Elephant's  head  or 
shoulder,  endeavour  to  reach  his  antagonists.  .  (See  Fig.  303.)  The 
agitation  of  the  Elephants,  which  often  lose  all  obedience  to  control 
at  such  a  moment,  together  with  the  rapidity  of  the  attack,  render 
this  a  critical  juncture,  and  fatal  accidents  have  often  embittered 
the  conclusion  of  the  contest.     Instances  are  on  record  in  which  men 

have  been  carried  off  by 
Tigers  while  travelling  in 
company  with  others.  In 
some  parts  of  India,  the  enor- 
mous destruction  of  men  and 
domestic  animals  has  le  1  to 
prize-money  being  given  for 
killing  Tigers,  &c.  Upwards 
of  ^'20,000  annually  is  thus 
distributed. 

Tigers  are  destroyed  by  vari- 
ous devices  —  pitfalls,  traps, 
the  spear,  and  gun.  The  plan 
of  the  box-trap  and  looking- 
glass  for  taking  Tigers,  Leo- 
pards, &c. — a  device  to  be 
found  in  ancient  sculpture, 
according  to  Montfaucon — is 
said  to  be  practised  by  the 
Chinese  at  the  present  day. 
Fig.  304  refers  to  this  kind 
of  trap. 

Those  who  have  represented 
the  Tiger  as  untameable  have 
no  ground  for  the  assertion. 
It  is  as  capable  of  being 
tamed,  and  of  attachment  to 
its  keeper,  as  any  other  ani- 
mal of  its  kind.  Yet  with  the 
Tiger,  the  Lion,  and  others  of 
the  race,  caution  should  be 
used.  Their  natural  disposi- 
tion is  ever  ready  to  break  out, 
and  the  mildest  will,  however 
tame  they  be,  often  show 
"the  wild  trick  of  their  an- 
cestors." 

Neither  the  Tiger  nor  the 
Lion  are  capable  of  climbing 
trees,  as  are  most  of  the 
lighterof  the  feline  race  :  their 
prey  is  therefore  exclusively 
confined  to  Antelopes,  Deer, 
Oxen,  Horses,  and  the  like; 
while  Monkeys,  and  even 
Birds,  are  among  the  prey  of 
the  Leopard,  the  Panther,  and 
the  smaller  Felidce. 

The  Leopard,  Panther, 
AND  Ounce. 

The  Leopard  {Felis  I.co- 
;pa rdiis  ;  L eopa rdus  i'ariiis\ 
the  Panther  {Felis  Pardus), 
arid  the  Ounce  of  Buffon 
{Felis  Uacia ;  Uncia  irbis),  have  been  by  many  naturalists  con- 
founded together,  and  even  with  the  Jaguar  of  the  American  conti- 
nent. With  respect  to  the  Leopard  and  Panther,  there  are  great 
difficulties  in  coming  to  a  determination  whether  they  are  distinct 
species  or  not.     In  both  we  observe  rosettes,  or  spots  arranged  in 


Head. 


Fig.  304. — Leopard-catching 


C^^^. 


Fig.  305. — The  I-.copard. 


ii8 


THE  LEOPARD,  PANTHER,  AND  OUNCE. 


rose-form,  on  a  fine  yellow   ground;    but   in   tlie 
arrangement    of    these    rosettes    there   is    the    g: 
Major  H.  Smith  defines  the  Leopard  as  differing 
in  being  of  a  paler  yellowish  colour,   of  rather 
smaller  size,  and  with  the  dots  rose-formed,  con- 
sisting of   several  dots   partially  united   into  a 
circular  figure   in  some   instances,    and   into   a 
quadrangular,  triangular,  or  other  less  determi- 
nate form,  in  others  ;  having  also  isolated  black 
spots,  especially  about  the  outside  of  the  limbs. 
(See  Fig.  305.) 

In  the  Panther  the  open  spots  have  the  central 
space  darker  than  the  general  colour  of  the 
sides.    The  subject  is  still  open  for  investigation. 

Both  these  beautiful  creatures  are  widely 
spread  in  the  Old  World,  being  natives  of  Africa, 
India,  and  the  Indian  Islands,  as  Ceylon,  Su- 
matra, &c.,  etc.  In  Java  a  black  variety  {Felis 
melas)  is  not  uncommon,  and  such  are  occa- 
sionally seen  in  our  menageries  :  they  are  deeper 
than  the  general  tint,  and  show  in  certain  lights 
only.  (Fig.  306.)  A  black  cub,  it  is  said,  occa- 
sionally occurs  in  the  same  nest  with  others  of 
the  ordinary  colours. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  grace  and  activity  of 
these  animals:  they  bound  with  astonishing  ease, 
climb  trees,  and  swim  ;  and  the  flexibility  of  the 
body  enables  them  to  creep  along  the  ground 
with  the  cautious  silence  of  a  Snake  on  their 
unsuspecting  prey.  In  India  the  Leopard  is 
called  by  the  natives  the  Tree  Tiger,  from  its 
genemlly  taking  refuge,  when  pursued,  in  a  tree, 
and  also  from  being  often  seen  among  the 
branches  :  so  quick  and  active  is  the  animal  in 
this  situation,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  take  a  fair 
aim  at  him. 

Antelopes,  Deer,  small  quadrupeds,  and 
Monkeys,  are  its  prey.  It  seldom  attacks  a 
man  voluntarily,  but  if  provoked  becomes  a 
formidable  assailant. 


size  and  minor  I  The'Leopard  is  taken  in  pitfalls  and  traps.  In  some  old  writers 
eatest  variation.  there  are  accounts  of  the  Leopard  being  taken  in  a  trap  by  means  of 
from  the  Panther  \  a  mirror,  which,  when  the  animal  jumps  against  it,  brings  the  door 


Fig.  307. — The  Senegal  Leopard. 


Fig.  30S. — Syrian  Leopards. 

down  upon  it.  This  story  may  have  received  some  sanction  from  the 
disposition  of  the  domestic  Cat,  when  young,  to  survey  her  figure  in 
a  looking-glass.     (See  Fig.  304,  ante.) 

The  Leopard  and  Panther  are  easily  tamed,  and  become  gentle 
and  affectionate,  purring  when  pleased,  and  rubbing  their  sides 
against  the  bars  of  their  cage,  or  against  their  keeper  like  a  Cat. 
When  at  play  they  bound  around  their  enclosure  with  the  agility  of 
a  Squirrel,  and  so  quick  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  follow  their  move- 
ments. From  such  an  exhibition  we  may  easily  form  some  idea  of 
their  agile  movements  in  a  state  of  nature. 

In  Loudon's  "  Magazine  of  Natural  History,"  is  an  account,  by 
Mrs.  Bowditch,  of  a  tame  Leopard  which  she  had  in  her  possession. 
She  won  the  affections  of  the  creature  by  presenting  him  with  laven- 
der-water on  a  tray-card.  The  animal  revelled  in  the  delicious 
essence  almost  to  ecstacy.  We  know  the  fondness  of  the  common 
Cat  for  mint,  valerian,  and  other  aromatic  herbs,  on  which  they  de- 
light to  roll.  The  Leopard  stands  about  two  feet  in  height :  its 
figure  is  slim  and  graceful,  but  vigorous,  and  its  proportions  ad- 
mirable. The  two  preceding  cuts  represent  the  Senegal  and  Syrian 
Leopard  respectively.     (Figs.  307  and  308.) 

The  Ounce  [Once,  Buffon),  Fe/i's  Uncia. — Whatever  maybe  the 
specific  distinction  between  the  Leopard  and  Panther,  no  one  can 


Fig.  309. — Ounce. 

hesitate  as  to  the  Ounce,  figured  by  Buffon,  and  after  him  by  Bewick 
("Quadrupeds").  Till  recently,  however,  it  was  confounded  with 
one  or  both  of  the  above  animals,  but  is  most  decidedly  a  different 
species.  Our  figure  (309)  is  taken  from  a  specimen  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  fur  is  full  and  long,  indicating  most  probably  a 
mountain  residence  rather  than  the  sultry  plains.      The  general 


THE  RIMAU-DAHAK^,   TIGER-CAT,  SERVAL,  AKW  CHEETAIT. 


»i9 


colour  is  grey  or  whitish-Errey,  tinsfed  with  yellow,  lighter  on  the 
breast  and'under  parts,  the  head  is  marked  on  the  top  with  black 
spots,  a  large  one  being  behind  the  ears.  The  body  and  sides  of  the 
limbs' are  variegated  with  irregular  wavy  marks,  forming  rounded  or 
rather  oval  figures,  but  not  definitely  nor  so  orderly  arranged  as  in 
the  Leopard.  The  tail,  which  is  very  long,  is  almost  bushy,  espe- 
cially at  its  termination,  the  hair  being  very  full. 

The  Rimau-D.\han 

(Ncofelis  macrncclis ;  Fclis  tnacroccUs,  Temm.)— This  beautiful 
species  is  a  native  of  Sumatra,  where  it  was  discovered  by  Sir  Stam- 
ford RafHes,  who  brought  a  young  specimen  alive  to  England,  where 
it  died  soon  after  its  an-ival.  A  larger  and  older  individual  was 
lost  in  the  "Fame."  Respecting  these  individuals,  Sir  S.  Raifles 
remarks  that  they  were,  while  in  confinement,  remarkable  for  good- 


Fig.  310. — Rimau-Dahan. 

temper  and  playfulness  ;  no  domestic  kitten  could  be  more  so  :  they 
courted  the  notice  of  persons,  throwing  themselves  on  their  backs, 
and  delighting  to  be  fondled     (See  Fig.  310.) 

With  a  small  Dog  that  was  on  board,  the  Rimau-Dahan  used  to 
play  and  gambol,  at  the  same  time  acting  with  great  gentleness. 
He  never  seemed  to  look  on  men  or  children  as  prey,  but  as  com- 
panions ;  and  the  natives  assert  that  when  wild  they  live  principally 
on  poultry,  birds,  and  the  smaller  kinds  of  Deer.  They  are  not 
found  in  numbers,  and  may  be  considered  as  rather  rare  even  in 
Sumatra  :  they  e.xist  in  the  interior  of  Bencoolen,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Bencoolen  river,  and  frequent  the  vicinity  of  villages,  not  being 
dreaded,  except  for  their  propensity  to  destroy  poultry.  The  natives 
assert  that  they  sleep  and  often  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey  in  trees,  and 
from  this  circumstance  they  derive  the  name  of  Dahan,  which  signi- 
fies the  fork  formed  by  the  branch  of  a  tree,  across  which  they  are 
said  to  rest  and  occasionally  stretch  themselves.  The  Rimau-Dahan 
is,  when  adult,  larger  than  the  Leopard,  and  is  remarkable  for  the 
thickness  and  strength  of  its  limbs  and  paws,  but  the  contour  of  its 
body  is  very  graceful.  The  head  is  small,  and  the  physiognomy  less 
expressive  of  ferocity  than  that  of  the  Tiger  or  Leopard.  The  tail  is 
extremely  long,  and  thickly  covered  with  fine  full  fur,  as  indeed  is  the 
body  also.  The  general  ground-colour  is  brownish-grey,  on  which 
are  dispersed  streaks  and  marbled  markings  of  black  of  an  irregular 
form,  and  more  or  less  angular.  Two  longitudinal  bands  pass  along 
the  spine  ;  a  band  stretches  from  each  ear  down  the  side  of  the  neck, 
and  two  obliquely  traverse  each  side  of  the  face.  The  large  marbled 
markings  have  an  abrupt  edge  behind,  and  the  black  has  the  appear- 
ance of  velvet. 

The  Nepaul  Tiger-Cat. 

(Felts  fardochroa;  Felis  Ncpalensis). — This  is  a  slender  species, 
measuring  about  i  foot  10  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body, 
that  of  the  tail  being  loj  inches.  Its  distinguishing  characters  arc 
its  lengthened  contour  and  the  slenderness  and  proportional  length 
of  the  tail.  The  ground  is  tawny-grey,  passing  into  white  on  the 
throat  and  under  parts ;  longitudinal  marks  of  a  deep  black  run 
down  the  back,  and  broad  irregular  dashes  of  the  same  colour  orna- 
ment the  sides,  flanks,  and  outer  surface  of  the  limbs  ;  the  under 
parts  are  marked  with  oval  spots,  the  thighs  externally  with  rounded 
spots  ;  the  tail  above,  excepting  at  the  extremity,  spotted  ;  the  cheeks 
streaked  with  two  black  lines,  and  a  transverse  lunar  mark  passes 
round  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  while  a  narrow  band  is  continued 
across  the  throat.  (See  Fig.  311.)  An  individual  of  this  species 
was  formerly  living  in  the  Gardens  ot  the  Zoological  Society,  London. 
It  was   extremely   savage   and   wild :    it   generally   sat   up   like   a 


domestic  Cat,  and  never  paced  its  den  as  do  most  of  the  feline 
animals.  It  is  stated  to  have  come  originally  from  Nepaul,  whence 
it  was  sent  to  Calcutta,  and  thence  brought  to  England. 

The  Serval— A'//j  Serval. 

The  Serval  is  a  native  of  Southern  Africa,  and  is  not  uncommon  in 
menageries  ;  specimens  are  living  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London.     It  is  frequently  very  tame  and  playful,  gambol- 


Fig.  311.— Nepaul  TigerCat. 

ling  like  a  kitten,  and  enduring  captivity  without  sullenness  or  a 
display  of  ferocity.  The  disposition  of  the  feline  race  greatly 
depends  on  the  treatment  they  experience  ;  so  that,  while  some  arc 
savage  and  distrustful,  others  of  the  same  species  are  familiar. 
Some  species,  however,  are  more  easily  reclaimed  than  others,  and 
of  these  we  may  count  the  Serval. 

The  Serval  stands  about  eighteen  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulders  : 
the  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  thirty-four  inches,  that  of  the  tail 
ten  inches. 

The  upper  parts  are  of  a  clear  j'ellowish-white  with  black  spots  ; 
the  lower  parts  are  white,  spotted  more  distantly  with  black. 
Symmetrical  lines  adorn  the  head  and  neck,  directed  towards  the 


Fig.  312. — Serval. 

shoulders.  The  back  of  the  ears  is  black  at  the  base,  then  barred 
transversely  with  white,  and  tipped  with  yellow  :  on  the  inside  ol  the 
fore-limbs  are  two  black  bars.     Tail  ringed  with  black.  . 

The  general  form  is  slender,  and  the  limbs  are  thin  ;  the  head  is 
long,  compressed,  and  viverrine  in  its  character  ;  the  ears  are  large 
and  broad,  and  their  bases  nearly  meet  each  other  on  the  top  ot  the 
head,  giving  a  singular  expression  to  the  physiognomy.  In  some 
specimens  the  markings  are  more  decided  than  in  others. 

The  QssmKYL—Cyyiaihirusjubatus;  Felis  julata. 

This  elegant  animal,  the  Cheetah,  or  Hunting  Leopard,  is  spread 
extensively  throughout  Africa  and  India.  Mr.  Bennett  observes  that 
Chardin,  Hornier,  Tavemier,  and  others  of  the  older  travellers,  had 
related  that  in  several  parts  of  Asia  it  was  customary  to  make  use  01 
a  large  spotted  Cat  in  the  pursuit  of  game,  and  that  this  animal  was 
called  Youze  in  Persia,  and  Cheetah  in  India  ;  but  the  statements  of 
these  writers  were  so  imperfect,  that  it  was  next  t°,^""P°^="^'^„  ° 
recognise  the  particular  species  intended.  We  ""^^v  /""yf/w^  nf 
with  certainty  that  the  animal  thus  employed  >s  the  /i;//^  ^^  A-rica 
naturalists,  which  inhabits  the  greater  part  both  of  Asia  and  Africa 
It  is  common  in  India  and  Sumatra,  as  well  as  in  Persia  arid  s  well 
known  both  in  Senegal  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  but  the  n- 
genuitv  of  the  savage  natives  of  the  latter  countries  has  n"'- !^" '^^ 
Ss  we  know,  been  exerted  in  rendering  us  services  available  in  the 


THE  CHEETAH  AND  THE   WILD  CAT. 


chase  in  the  manner  so  successfully  practised  by  the  more  refined 
and  civilised  inhabitants  of  Persia  and  Hindostan.     {See  Fig.  313.) 

The  Cheetah  differs  in  one  or  two  points  from  the  more  typical  of 
its  race.  The  Felidcc  in  general  possess  a  broad  rounded  paw, 
armed  with  sharp-hooked  and  completely  retractile  claws,  which  are 
protruded  at  pleasure  ;  but  in  the  Cheetah  the  foot  is  long  and 
narrow,  and  more  like  that  of  a  Dog ;  while  the  claws,  from  the 
laxity  of  the  spring-ligaments,  are  very  partially  retracted,  and  are 


consequently  worn  and  blunted  at  the  points.  As  large  in  the  body 
as  the  Leopard,  the  Cheetah  is  superior  to  that  animal  m  height,  and 
differs  from  it  also  in  general  figure.  In  the  first  place,  the  limbs, 
unadapted  for  climbing,  are  long,  slender,  and  tapering  ;  and  the 
body,  which  is  deficient  in  breadth,  reminds  one  in  some  degree  of 
that  of  the  Greyhound.  In  consequence  of  these  differences,  Wagler 
separated  it  into  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  title  of  Cyiiailurits,  in 
allusion  to  its  intermediate  station  between  the  canine  and  feline 
races.  The  African  Cheetah  has  been  by  some  regarded  as  a 
distinct  species  from  that  of  India,  under  the  supposition  that  the 
thin  mane  which  covers  the  back  of  the  neck  was  characteristic  only 
of  the  African  animal.  Under  this  impression,  the  term  jubafa 
(maned)  was  restricted  to  the  African,  and  the  term  venatica  (hunt- 
ing) given  to  the  Indian,  Cheetah.  This  is,  however,  altogether 
erroneous.  In  India  the  wild  animal  has  a  rough  coat  in  which  the 
mane  is  marked ;  but  domesticated  animals  from  the  same  part  of 
the  country  are  destitute  of  a  mane,  and  have  a  smooth  coat.  The 
general  colour  of  the  Cheetah  is  fawn-yellow,  covered  with  round 
black  spots  ;  a  distinct  black  stripe  passes  from  the  inner  angle  of 
the  eye  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  tip  of  the  nose  is  black. 
The  profile  of  the  forehead  and  face  is  convex  ;  the  eye  is  peculiarly 
large,  fine,  and  expressive  ;  the  pupils  are  circular  ;  the  tail  is  long, 
and  curled  up  at  its  extremity,  which  is  white  ;  the  fur  is  not  sleek, 
but  rather  crisp.     The  skin  of  the  Cheetah  is  an  article  of  some  ira- 


dream  of  employing  the  Cheetah  as  a  means  of  procuring  food  ;  they 
know  not  its  value  in  the  chase.  In  Persia  and  India  it  has,  hov/- 
ever,  been  employed  from  an  early  period.  In  the  "  Field-Sports  of 
India,"  the  mode  of  coursing  with  the  Cheetah  is  thus  described  :  — 
"They  (the  Cheetahs)  are  led  out  in  chains,  with  blinds  over  their 
eyes,  and  sometimes  carried  out  in  carts  ;  and  when  Antelopes,  or 
Deer,  are  seen  on  a  plain,  should  any  of  them  be  separated  from  the 
rest,  the  Cheetah's  head  is  brought  to  face  it,  the  blinds  are  removed, 
and  the  chain  is  taken  off.  He  immediately  crouches  (see  Fig.  314), 
and  creeps  along  with  his  belly  almost  touching  the  ground,  until  he 
gets  within  a  short  distance  of  the  Deer,  who,  although  seeing  him 
approach,  appears  so  fascinated  that  he  seldom  attempts  to  run 
away.  The  Cheetah  then  makes  a  few  surprising  springs,  and  seizes 
the  Deer  by  the  neck.  If  many  Deer  are  near  each  other,  they  often 
escape  by  flight,  their  number,  perhaps,  giving  them  confidence." 

We  may  add  to  this  that  the  Cheetah  takes  advantage  of  every 
means  of  making  its  attack,  and  that,  when  unsuccessful  in  its  effort, 
it  returns  sullenly  to  its  keeper,  who  replaces  the  hood,  and  reserves 
him  for  another  opportunity.  When,  however,  he  has  grappled  with 
the  .quarry  and  fixed  himself  upon  its  throat,  drinking  the  life-blood 
warm,  his  nature  breaks  out  in  all  its  violence,  so  that  it  requires 
some  management  to  separate  him  from  his  victim.  Partly  awed  by 
the  keeper's  voice,  partly  enticed  by  pieces  of  meat,  and  a  ladleful 
of  the  blood,  he  is  induced  to  relinquish  the  prize,  and  submit  to  be 
again  hooded.     In  all  this  we  are  reminded  of  the  art  of  falconry. 

In  captivity  the  Cheetah  is  familiar,  gentle,  and  playful ;  and 
becomes  greatly  attached  to  those  who  feed  or  notice  it.  The 
general  disposition  of  these  beautiful  creatures  is,  indeed,  frank  and 


Fig.  314. — The  Cheetah  hunting. 

portance  in  trade  at  Senegal,  but  is  neglected  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  :  this  animal,  called  Luipard  by  the  Dutch  colonists,  is  mdeed 
rare  in  that  district,  but  the  skin  is  occasionally  seen  worn  by  KafBr 
chiefs,   by  way  of  distinction.     In  Africa,    the  rude  natives   never 


Fig.  315.— Wild  Cat. 

confiding ;  and  consequently  there  is  little  trouble  in  rendering  them 
perfectly  domestic.  Their  voice  of  pleasure  is  3.  pur ;  of  uneasiness 
or  hunger,  a  short  reiterated  mew. 

The  Wild  Chrz—Fclis  Catus. 
This  Cat  is  the  Chat  Sativage  of  the  French,  Gafo  ISIontes  of  the 
Spaniards,    Wilde  Katze  and  Baumritter  of  the  Germans,  Vild 

Kat  of  the  Danes,  Cathgoed 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  and  Ca- 
tus Sylvestris  of  Klein.  This 
species,  which  yet  exists  in  the 
mountainous  and  wooded  dis- 
tricts of  the  British  islands,  is 
spread  through  a  great  part  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  com- 
mon in  the  forest  tracts  of  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Hungary,  the 
north  of  Asia,  and  Nepaul.  It 
is  larger,  and  has  fuller  fur,  in 
the  colder  latitudes. 

In  Britain  it  was  formerly  very 
abundant,  and  was   one   of  the 
beasts  of  chase,  as  we  learn  from 
King    Richard   II. 's  charter  to 
the  abbot  of  Peterborough,  giv- 
ing him  permission  to  hunt  the 
Hare,  Fox,  and  Wild  Cat.     The 
fur  in  those  days  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  of  much  value,  for 
it  is    ordained    in    Bishop  Cor- 
boyl's  canons,  A.D.  1127,  that  no 
abbess  or  nun  should  use  more  costly  apparel  than  such  as  is  made 
of  Lamb's  or  Cat's  skins.     The  Wild  Cat  is  still  found  in  the  hilly 
parts  of  the  north  of  England,  and  more  plentifully  in  Scotland  and 
some  parts  of  Ireland.     (See  Fig.  315.) 


THE   WILD  AND  THE  EGYPTIAN'  CATS~THE  JAGUAR. 


121 


Its  general  form  is  robust ;  the  tail  is  bushy,  and  fuller  at  the 
termination.  The  g-encral  colour  is  grey,  undulated  with  transverse 
blackish  stripes ;  a  black  streak  runs  down  the  back ;  the  tail  is 
annulated  ;  the  soles  of  the  feet  to  the  heel  are  black  ;  two  black 
stripes  pass  from  the  eyes  over  and  behind  the  cars.  The  fur  is 
deep.  Length  of  head  and  body,  i  foot  lo  inches;  of  the  tail,  ii 
inches.  Temminck  gives  the  total  average  length  as  three  feet. 
Hares,  Leverets,  Rabbits,  and  Birds  are  its  prey.  It  is  bold  and 
savage,  and  defends  its  young  with  great  obstinacy.  Formerly 
naturalists  regarded  this  Cat  as  the  origin  of  the  Domestic  Cat  ;  but 
of  late  years  this  opinion  has  been  questioned.  In  the  first  place,  a 
Cat  in  a  domestic  condition  was  one  of  the  animals  reverenced  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  mummies  of  it  are  found  in  the  pits  of 
Thebes.  Now  this  Cat  was  not  the  common  Wild  Cat,  but  a 
distinct  species.  In  the  second  place,  the  Domestic  Cat  is  not 
noticed  as  being  one  of  the  domestic  animals  of  the  ancient  Britons 
by  any  of  the  Latin  writers  ;  nor,  indeed,  do  we  hear  of  it  in  our 
island  till  the  tenth  century,  when  we  find  its  value  fi.\ed  at  a  high 
rate,  and  laws  enacted  to  regulate  its  preservation.  The  Welsh 
statutes  of  Howel  Dha  (who  died  A.D.  948),  are,  in  fact,  proofs  of  its 
importance  ;  and  such  laws  would  hardly  have  been  laid  down  had 
not  the  animal  been  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  new  and  important 
acquisition.  If  it  were,  indeed,  the  offspring  of  the  Wild  Cat,  which 
then  abounded  in  the  forests  of  our  island,  the  opportunities  of  pro- 
curing young  broods  would  have  been  so  abundant,  that  all  regula- 
tions respecting  it  would  have  been  superfluous  ;  and  still  less  would 
the  then  considerable  sum  of  a  penny  as  the  price  of  a  kitten  before 
it  could  see,  two-pence  until  it  caught  a  Mouse,  and  after  that  four- 
pence,  have  been  established.  There  are,  besides,  other  regula- 
tions, all  tending  to  prove  the  high  value  affixed  to  the  Domestic  Cat 
at  that  period.  In  the  third  place,  the  Wild  Cat  is  much  larger 
than  our  domesticated  Cat ;  and  this  is  contrary  to  the  general  rule, 
domesticated  animals  being  larger  than  their  wild  relatives.  It  may 
be  observed  that  the  tail  of  the  Wild  Cat  is  rather  short,  full,  and 
cylindrical  ;  while  in  the  Domestic  Cat  it  is  long  and  taper. 
Besides,  the  Wild  Cat  stands  higher  on  the  limbs,  and  is  of  a  more 
Lynx-like  figure.  Dr.  Fleming  considers  it  probable  that  the 
domestic  kind  is  originally  from  Asia  ;   but  Ruppel  and  Temminck 


Fig.  316. — Wild  Cat  seizing  its  prey. 

consider  it  as  decidedly  the  descendant  of  the  tame  Egyptian  Cat 
[Fe/i's  iiiaiiiculata) — next  to  be  described — found  now  wild  in  Upper 
ligvpt  and  Nubia.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  how  from  Egypt  the 
Domestic  Cat  would  pass  into  Greece  and  Italy,  and  so  into  the 
western  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  is  most  probable,  then, 
that  Temminck  and  Ruppel  are  correct ;  but  still,  has  not  the 
Domestic  Cat  in  Europe  subsequently  intermingled  with  the  Wild 
Cat,  and  produced  a  mixed,  though  fertile,  breed  ?  We  are  inclined 
to  think  so.  Cats  of  the  domestic  kind  often  assume  wild  habits, 
and  live  in  warrens,  preserves,  and  woods  :  we  must  distinguish 
between  these  and  the  true  Wild  Cat.     (See  Fig.  316.) 

The  Egyptian  Cat 

{Felt's  maiiiciilata). — This  Cat  was  discovered  in  Nubia  by  Ruppel, 
west  of  the  Nile,  near  Ambukol,  in  a  rocky  district  overrun  with 


^rnh^h  V  nf  1     '  °^  ^^^  ,""  °\  *  moderate  Domestic  Cat,  and  is 

probably  of  the  same  stock  as  that  of  the  Domestic  Cat  which  the 
Egyptians  honoured.  Ruppel  considers  it  a  descendant  of  that 
breed  ;  but  it  may  be,  and  probably  is,  from  the  wild  original  race. 
and  IS  indigenous  in  Nubia.  It  agrees  exactly  with  the  preserved 
mummies  of  Cats  which  the  Egyptians  embalmed.  The  following  is 
a  detailed  description  of  this  species  : — 

The  woolly  or  ground  hair  is  in  general  of  a  dirty  ochreous,  darker 
on  the  back  and  posterior  parts,  and  becoming  gradually  lighter  on 
the  anterior  and  lateral  parts ;  longer  hair  of  a  swarthy  dirty  white 
so  that  the  appearance  of  the  animal  is  greyish-yellow.  Skin  of  the 
edges  of  the  lips  and  of  the  nose  bare  and  black.  Beard  and  bristles 
of  the  eyebrows  shining  white,  brown  at  the  roots  ;  edges  of  eyelids 
black;  iris  glaring  yellow.  From  the  inner  corner  near  the  eye 
there  is  a  dark-brown  streak  running  in  the  direction  of  the  nose, 
and  there  is  a  white  streak  as  far  up  as  the  arch  of  the  eyebrows  ; 
between  these  two  streaks  is  another  greyish  one  extending  on  the 
forehead  by  the  side  of  the  ears  and  under  the  eyes.  Outside  of  the 
ears  grey,  inside  white  and  without  tufts  of  hair.  Eight  slender, 
black,  undulating  lines  arise  on  the  forehead,  run  along  the  occiput, 
and  are  lost  in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck.  Cheeks,  throat,  and  an- 
terior part  of  the  neck  shining  white.  Two  ochreous-yellow  lines 
spring,  the  one  from  the  outer  corner  of  the  eye,  the  other  from  the 
middle  of  the  cheek,  and  meet  both  together  under  the  ear,  and  two 
rings  of  the  same  colour  encircle  the  white  neck  ;  below  the  rings 
there  are  spots  of  ochreous-yellow.  Chest  and  belly  dirty  white, 
with  similar  spots  or  semicircular  lines.  A  dark  streak  along  the 
back  becomes  lighter  as  it  rises  over  the  shoulders,  and  darker  on 
the  cross.  This  streak  is  gradually  lost  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
tail,  the  lower  surface  of  which  is  white-yellow.  The  tail  is  almost 
of  an  equal  thickness,  rather  slender,  and  with  two  dark  rings  at  its 
point.  The  extremities,  which  have  less  hair  in  proportion  on  the 
outer  side,  are  of  the  general  colour,  with,  besides,  five  or  six  blackish 
semicircular  bands  on  the  fore-legs,  and  six  distinct  dark  cross 
streaks  on  the  hind-legs.    The  inner  sides  are  lighter  in  colour,  with 


Egyptian  Cat. 


two  black  spots  or  streaks  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  fore-legs,  and 
the  hind  extremities  show  the  cross  streaks  winding  around  the 
thighs  towards  the  inside.  Foot,  soles,  hJnd  parts  of  ankles,  and 
wrists  shining  black.  Length,  2  feet  5  inches,  the  tail  being  about 
nine  ;  height  at  the  shoulder  about  g.V  inches.  This  description  was 
taken  from  an  aged  female.    (See  Fig.  317.) 

The  Jaguar. 

{Felis  onqa ;  Leofardus  onqa). — The  Jaguar  is  the  Leopard  or 
Panther  of  the  American  forests,  and  in  power  and  daring  almost 
approaches  to  the  Tiger  of  the  Indian  jungles.  We  have  already 
stated  that  specimens  of  this  savage  beast  have  been  confounded 
with  the  Leopard  ;  but  the  Jaguar,  besides  differing  in  other  points, 
always  displays  a  bold  streak  or  two  of  black,  extending  across  the 
chest,  from  shoulder  to  shoulder,  which  is  a  distinctive  character. 
(See  Fig.  318.)  The  rosettes  on  the  body  are  very  large,  open,  and 
somewhat  angular,  with  a  central  spot  or  two  of  black  in  each  ;  a 
central  chain  of  black  dashes  extends  along  the  spine.  The  Jaguar, 
though  varying  in  size,  generally  exceeds  the  Leopard ;  and  its  form 
is  more  robust  and  less  agile  and  graceful.  The  limbs  are  short,  but 
immensely  thick  and  muscular ;  the  head  larger,  and  of  a  squarer 
contour,  and  the  tail  of  less  comparative  length.  Of  all  the  Ameri- 
can Felida,  the  Jaguar  is  the  most  formidable.  It  prefers  the 
marshy  and  wooded  districts  of  the  warmer  latitudes,  and  haunts  the 
vast  forests  along  the  larger  rivers.     It  swims  and  climbs  with  equal 


122 


THE  JAGUAR  AND  PUMA. 


ease,  and  preys  on  the  larger  domestic  quadrupeds,  on  Peccaries, 
Capybaras,  and  Monkeys,  as  well  as  on  fish  and  Tortoises.  Son- 
nini  saw  the  scratches  left  by  the  claws  of  the  Jaguar  on  the  smooth 
bark  of  a  tree  some  forty  feet  high,  without  branches  ;  he  traced  the 
marks  of  several  slips  made  by  the  climber ;  but  the  animal  had  at 
last  reached  the  top.  Humboldt  heard  the  Jaguar's  yell  from  the 
tops  of  the  trees,  followed  by  the  sharp,  shrill,  long  whistle  of  tlie 
terrified  Monkeys,  as  they  seemed  to  fiee.     It  takes  birds  in  their 


Fig.  31S.— Jaguar. 

nests,  and  fish  in  the  shallows  ;  and,  in  some  districts,  the  havoc  it 
makes  among  Horses,  Cattle,  and  Sheep  is  terrible.  So  great  are 
the  numbers  of  these  laeasts  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  that,  according 
to  Humboldt,  four  thousand  were  annually  killed  ;  and  two  thousand 
skins  were  exported  every  year  from  Buenos  Ayres  only.  The  empty 
shells  of  Turtles  were  pointed  out  to  Humboldt  as  having  been 
cleared  of  their  contents  by  the  Jaguar,  which  watches  them  as  they 
come  to  the  sandy  beaches  to  lay  their  eggs,  pounces  upon  them, 
and  turns  them  on  their  backs  :  he  then  insinuates  his  paw  between 
the  shells,  and  scoops  out  the  contents  as  clean  as  with  a  knife.  As 
he  turns  many  more  than  he  can  devour  at  a  meal,  the  Indians  often 
profit  by  his  dexterous  cunning.  The  eggs  of  the  Turtle  are  often 
ducT  up  by  him  out  of  the  sand,  and  devoured  ;  and  young  Turtles, 
on  "their  road  to  the  water,  or  in  shallows,  are  also  destroyed. 

In  his  "Aspects  of  Nature,"  Humboldt,  describing  the  nocturnal 
life  of  animals  in  primeval  forests,  makes  the  following  remarks  in 
respect  to  the  Jaguar  : — 

"A  striking  evidence  of  the  impenetrability  of  particular  parts  of 
the  forest  is  afforded  by  a  trait,  related  by  an  Indian,  of  the  habits  of 
the  large  American  Tiger,  or  Panther-like  Jaguar.  While  in  the 
Llanos  of  Varinas  and  the  Meta,  and  in  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
the  introduction  of  European  cattle.  Horses,  and  Mules  has  enabled 
the  beasts  of  prey  to  find  an  abundant  subsistence, — so  that  since 
the  first  discovery  of  America  their  numbers  have  increased  exceed- 
ingly in  those  extended  grassy  steppes  ;  their  congeners  in  the  dense 
forests  around  the  sources  of  the  Orinoco  lead  a  very  different  and 
far  less  easy  life.  In  a  bivouac  near  the  junction  of  the  Cassiquiare 
with  the  Orinoco,  we  had  the  misfortune  of  losing  a  large  Dog  to 
which  we  were  much  attached,  as  the  most  faithful  and  affectionate 
companion  of  our  wanderings.  Being  still  uncertain  whether  he  had 
actually  been  killed  by  the  Jaguars,  a  faint  hope  of  recoveriug  him 
induced  us,  in  returning  from  the  mission  of  Esmeralda,  through  the 
swarms  of  musquitoes  by  which  it  is  infested,  to  spend  another  night 
at  the  spot  where  we  had  so  long  sought  him  in  vain.  We  heard  the 
cries  of  the  Jaguar,  probably  the  very  individual  which  we  suspected 
of  the  deed,  extremely  near  to  us  ;  and  as  the  clouded  sky  made 
astronomical  observations  impossible,  we  passed  part  of  the  night  in 
making  our  interpreter  repeat  to  us  the  accounts  given  by  our  native 
boat's  crew  of  the  Tigers  of  the  country.  The  black  Jaguar  was, 
they  said,  not  unfrequently  found  there  ;  it  is  the  largest  and  most 
bloodthirsty  variety,  with  the  black  spots  scarcely  distinguishable 
on  its  deep  brown  skin.  It  lives  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of 
Mara"uaca  and  Unturan.  One  of  the  Indians  of  the  Durimund  tribe 
then  related  to  us  that  Jaguars  are  often  led,  by  their  love  of  wan- 
dering and  by  their  rapacity,  to  lose  themselves  in  such  impenetrable 
partsof  the  forest  that  they  can  no  longer  hunt  along  the  ground, 
and  live  instead  in  the  trees,  where  they  are  the  terror  of  the  families 
of  Monkeys  and  the  Kinkajou  {Cercolepies  caiidivolvulus )." 

It  is  not  often  that  the  Jaguar  voluntarily  attacks  man.  When 
hard  pressed,  however,  he  makes  a  resolute  defence.  The  Indians 
often  despatch  him  with  their  poisoned  arrows,  and  sometimes  boldly 


attack  him  with  lances.  On  the  plains  the  lasso  is  used  with  gfreat 
effect. 

There  is  a  black  variety  of  the  Jaguar,  le  jaguar  noir  of'  the 
French,  and  probably  ihe  jaqttarete  of  Marcgrave.  This  seems  to 
have  been  the  animal  noticed  by  Lieut.  Maw,  R.N.  ("Journal  of  a 
Passage  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  :"i829),  at  Para,  as  a  black 
On^a.  It  had  been  procured  up  the  rivers,  and  was  a  formidable 
beast,  with  limbs  as  thick  as  (Lieut.  Maw  says  thicker  than)  those  of 
a  Bengal  Tiger 

The  Puma 

{Fell's  co7icolor,  Linn.) — This  large  feline  animal  is  often  called 
the  American  Lion,  chiefly,  as  it  would  appear,  from  its  uniformity 
of  colour,  which,  combined  with  its  ferocity,  led  the  early  travellers 
to  give  it  that  appellation.  Thus  John  de  Laet  (1633)  says  that 
Lions  are  found  in  Peru,  though  they  be  few  and  not  so  ferocious  as 
they  are  in  Africa,  and  that  they  are  called,  in  the  native  tongue, 
;piii)ia.  In  "The  Perfect  Description  of  Virginia  "  (a  tract,  1649), 
''Lyons,  Beares,  Leopards,  and  Elkes"  are  enumerated.  Hernandez 
describes  it  (165 1)  as  the pi/;na  sen  leo  Ainerica>ius,  and  contends, 
rightly  enough,  that  it  is  not  a  Lion.  By  Piso  the  animal  is  noticed 
as  the  ciiguaciiara.  Marcgrave  terms  it  the  cicgiiacitraiia  of  the 
Brazilians  ;  D'Azara,  the  gotiazouara  of  Paraguay.  Hence  the 
French  name,  often  used  by  British  writers,  coiigiiar.  Charlevoi.x 
describes  it  under  the  erroneous  names  of  carcajou  and  qitincajou. 
The  Anglo-Americans  term  it  "Panther,"  and  under  this  name 
Lawson  Catesby  and  others  describe  it. 

In  its  general  contour,  the  Puma  is  elegantly  formed  ;  but  the  limbs 
are  very  thick,  while  the  head  is  comparatively  small,  particularly  in 
the  female.  The  general  colour  is  silvery-fawn  above,  fading  into 
white  beneath  and  on  the  inside  of  the  limbs  ;  the  cars  on  the 
outside,  particularly  at  their  base,  the  sides  of  the  muzzle  and  the 


?^$3^ 


Fig.  319. — Puma. 


end  of  the  tail,  which  is  destitute  of  a  tuft,  black.  Length,  from  nose 
to  root  of  tail,  about  four  feet  ;  of  the  tail,  upwards  of  two  feet.  The 
young  are  marked  with  three  chains  of  blackish-brown  streaks  along 
the  back,  and  the  sides,  shoulders,  and  neck  have  clouded  spots  of 
the  same  colour.  As  the  animal  advances  in  age,  these  markings 
fade,  and  ultimately  disappear.     (See  Fig.  319.) 

The  Puma  is  extensively  spread  throughout  North  and  South  Ame- 
rica ;  it  is  not  only  more  scarce  than  formerly,  but  its  range  is  more  con- 
tracted ;  and,  as  civilisation  advances,  will  be  still  further  reduced. 
This  beautiful  animal  is  savage  and  ferocious,  but  easily  tamed,  and 
soon  becomes  very  familiar.  The  elder  Mr.  Kean  had  one  in  his  pos- 
session, which  was  perfectly  domesticated  ;  and  w-e  have  seen  others 
very  gentle,  though  playful  and  animated.  Lawson,  who,  in  his  "His- 
tory of  Carolina,"  well  describes  the  Puma,  is  therefore  in  error  when 
he  states  that,  "when  taken  young,  it  is  never  to  be  reclaimed  from  its 
wild  nature."  This  writer  says,  "  T\\e  ^panther  (Puma)  climbs  trees 
with  the  greatest  agility  imaginable,  is  very  strong-limbed,  catching 
a  piece  of  meat  from  any  animal  he  strikes  at  ;  his  tail  is  exceeding 
long ;  his  eyes  look  very  fierce  and  lively,  are  large,  and  of  a  greyish 
colour  ;  his  prey  is  swine's-flesh.  Deer,  or  anything  he  can  take.  He 
halloos  like  a  man  in  the  woods  when  killed,  which  is  by  making  him 
take  to  a  tree,  as  the  least  cur  will  presently  do  ;  then  the  huntsmen 
shoot  him  ;  if  they  do  not  kill  him  outright  he  is  a  dangerous  enemy 
when  wounded,  especially  to  the  Dogs  that  approach  him.  This 
beast  is  the  greatest  enemy  to  the  planter  of  any  vermin  in  Carolina. 
His  flesh  looks    as    well   as    any   shamble's   meat  whatsoever :    a 


THE  OCELOT  AND  THE   CHATI. 


1^3 


great  many  people  eat  him  as  choice  food,  but  I  never  tasted  of  a 
Panther,  so  cannot  commend  the  meat  by  my  own  experience.  His 
skin  is  a  warm  covering  for  the  Indians  in  winter,  though  not 
esteemed  among  the  choice  furs.  This  skin  dressed  makes  fine 
women's  shoes  or  men's  gloves." 

The  Puma  is  indeed  a  very  destructive  animal :  not  only  the 
Peccary  and  the  Capybara  fall  a  prey  to  his  destructive  habits,  but 
Sheep,  Hogs,  and  Cattle  are  among  his  victims ;  of  the  former  he  has 
been  known  to  kill  fifty  in  a 
single  night.  It  is  not  often 
tliat  the  Puma  attacks  man, 
though  when  wounded  he 
becomes  a  dangerous  foe. 
Sir  F.  Head,  in  his  "Journey 
across  the  Pampas,"  gives  the 
following  interesting  narra- 
tive, in  proof  of  the  fear  of 
man  which  this  animal,  in 
common  with  others,  enter- 
tains. The  person  who  re- 
lated it  to  Sir  Francis  was 
himself  the  actor  in  the  scene. 

"  He  was  trying  to  shoot 
some  wild  Ducks,  and,  in  order 
to  approach  them  unperceived, 
he  put  the  corner  of  his 
poncho  (which  is  a  sort  of 
long  narrow  blanket)  over  his 
head,  and,  crawling  along  the 
ground  upon  his  hands  and 
knees,  the  poncho  not  only 
covered  his  body,  but  trailed 
along  the  ground  behind  him. 
As  he  was'thus  creeping  by  a 
large  bush  of  reeds,  he  heard 
a  loud  sudden  noise,  between 
a  bark  and  a  roar :  he  felt 
something  heavy  strike  his 
feet,  and,  instantly  jumping 
up,  he  saw,  to  his  astonish- 
ment, a  large  Lion  actually 
standing  on  his  poncho  ;  and, 
perhaps,  the  animal  was 
equally  astonished  to  find 
himself  in  the  immediate  pre- 
sence of  so  athletic  a  man. 
The  man  told  me  he  was  un- 
willing to  fire,  as  his  gun  was 
loaded  with  very  small  shot ; 
and  he  therefore  remained 
motionless,  the  Lion  standing 
on  his  poncho  for  many 
seconds :  at  last  the  creature 
turned  his  head,  and,  walk- 
ing very  slowly  away  about  ten  yards,  he  stopped  and  turned  again  : 
the  man  still  maintained  his  ground,  upon  which  the  Lion  tacitly 
acknowledged  his  supremacy,  and  walked  off." 

Audubon,  in  his  "  Ornithological  Biography,"  gives  a  spirited 
account  of  the  chase  of  the  Puma,  or  Cougar  as  he  terms  it,  which 
was  hunted  with  Dogs,  and  men  armed  with  rifles  :  it  was  driven  by 
their  united  exertions  from  tree  to  tree,  and  perished,  fighting  with 
the  Dogs,  having  received  several  balls,  one  of  which  produced  a 
mortal  wound.  On  the  Pampas  the  Puma  is  hunted  with  Dogs, 
and,  while  it  is  engaged  in  the  conflict,  surrounded  by  them,  the 
dexterous  Gaucho  strikes  him  senseless  with  his  bolas,  or  throws  his 
lasso  over  him,  and,  galloping  off,  drags  him  along  the  ground 
till  almost  lifeless,  when  the  Dogs  rush  upon  him  and  tear  him  to 
pieces. 

The  Ocelot 

{Fell's  panla lis). — This  elegantly-marked  species  of  Tiger-Cat  is  a 
native  of  Mexico,  Paraguay,  and  probably  of  Peru.  It  measures 
nearly  three  feet  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  ;  the  tail  is  about  I 
a  foot  long,  and  the  medium  height  is  about  eighteen  inches.  The 
ground-colour  of  the  fur  is  grey,  slightly  tinged  with  fawn  ;  upon 
this  are  disposed  longitudinal  bands,  of  which  the  margins  are  per- 
fectly black,  the  central  parts  being  of  a  deeper  fawn  than  the 
general  ground.  These  ribands  of  black,  enclosing  a  deep  fawn, 
become  deep  black  lines  and  spots  on  the  neck  and  head,  and  on 
the  outer  aspect  of  the  limbs.  From  the  top  of  the  head  towards 
the  shoulders  there  pass  several  diverging  black  bands,  and  on  the  top 
of  the  back  the  line  is  quite  continuous.  The  tail  is  spotted  upon  a 
ground  like  that  of  the  body.  The  term  Ocelot  is  a  corruption  of 
the  Mexican  names  Tlacoozelotl,  or  Tlalocelotl,  as  given  by  Her- 
nandez, who  terms  it  Cadts  pa7-dus  JSIcxicatizis.     (See  Fig.  320.) 

The  Ocelot  is  often  exhibited  in  menageries,  and  is  generally  good- 
tempered  and  playful  :  we  have  seen  several  which  might  be  said  to 


have  been  perfectly  domesticated.  Bewick  states  that  "  nothinir 
can  soften  the  natural  ferocity  of  its  disposition,  nor  calm  the  rest- 
lessness of  Its  motions.  One  of  these  animals,  shown  at  Newcastle 
in  1788  although  extremely  old,  exhibited  great  marks  of  ferocity 
It  was  kept  closely  confined,  and  would  not  admit  of  bein."-  caressed 
by  Its  keeper."  Harsh  usage  and  close  confinement  have  often 
spoiled  the  temper  of  animals,  and  the  fault  is  always  laid  to  their 
disposition,  and  not  to  mismanagement.     Mr.  Bennett  informs  us 


Fig.  320. — Ocelot  with  its  prey. 

that  a  specimen  which  was  kept  in  the  Tower  menagerie  was  ex- 
tremely familiar,  and  had  much  of  the  character  and  manners  of  the 
common  Cat.  Its  food  consisted  principally  of  Rabbits  and  Birds  ; 
the  latter  it  plucked  with  great  dexterity,  and  always  commenced  its 
meal  with  the  head,  of  which  it  seemed  particularly  fond  ;  but  it  did 
not  eat  with  the  ravenous  avidity  which  characterises  nearly  all  the 
animals  of  this  tribe. 

Of  the  manners  of  the  Ocelot  in  a  state  of  nature  little  is  known. 
It  inhabits  the  deep  forests,  and  preys  upivi  all  small  quadrupeds  and 
birds  ;  climbing  the  trees  in  quest  of  the  latter,  and  lying  in  wait  for 
them  concealed  among  the  foliage.  It  is  said  to  take  INIonkeys  by  a 
very  subtle  mode  of  proceeding.  When  it  perceives  a  troop  of  these 
active  creatures,  it  immediately  stretches  itself  out,  as  if  dead,  on 
the  limb  of  some  tree  ;  urged  by  curiosity  they  hasten  to  examine 
the  supposed-"  mortal  remains"  of  their  enemy:  the  foremost  pays 
dearly  for  his  curiosity. 

The  Ch-Iti. 

(Fdis  vn'h'sj.—lhs  Chati  is  regarded  by  Desmarest  as  the  Chibi- 
guazu  of  Azara.  It  is  a  native  of  Paraguay  and  other  parts  of  South 
America,  and  is  much  smaller  than  the  Ocelot.  Azara  describes  it 
as  averaging  3  feet  6  inches  in  total  length.  The  following  is 
Fred.  Cuvier's  description  of  a  female  living  in  the  menagerie  of 
Paris  :—"  About  a  third  larger  than  the  domestic  Cat:  length,  ex- 
clusive of  tail,  ratlier  more  than  two  feet ;  tail,  eleven  inches  ;  height 
to  middle  of  back,  about  i  foot  2  inches.  Ground-colour  of  fur 
on  the  upper  parts,  pale-yellow ;  on  the  lower,  pure  white  ;  at  the 
roots,  dull  grey,  and  very  thick  and  close.  Body  covered  with 
irregular  dark  patches  :  those  upon  the  back  entirely  black,  and 
disposed  longitudinally  in  four  rows  ;  those  upon  the  sides  surrounded 
with  black,  with  the  centres  of  a  clear  fawn,  arranged  in  neariy  five 
rows.  Spots  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  where  the  ground- 
colour of  the  iur  is  white,  lull,  and  arranged  in  two  lines  composed 


124 


THE  PAMPAS  CAT— THE  LYNXES. 


of  six  or  seven  patches  on  encVi  side.  Limbs  covered  with  nearly 
round  spots  of  smaller  dimensions :  on  the  fore-leg-s,  near  the  body, 
two  transverse  bands.  On  the  throat  a  sort  of  half  collar,  and 
on  the  under-jaw  two  crescent-shaped  spots.  Behind  each  ear  two 
bands  about  two  inches  long,  terminating  opposite  the  ear.  Fore- 
head bordered  by  two  lines,  between  which  are  numerous  spots, 
and,  at  their  origin,  a  blackish  mark  from  which  the  whiskers 
spring.  Outside  of  the  ear,  black,  with  a  white  spot  upon  the  small 
lobe.  Base  of  the  tail  spotted  with  small  blotches,  which  towards 
the  end  run  into  half-rings,  which  are  broadest  on  the  upper  surface. 
Pupil  round." 

This  animal  was  extremely  gentle  and  familiar;  so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  if  persons  to  whom  it  was  attached  passed  its  cage  or 
did  not  approach  it,  it  would  express  its  discontent  or  solicit  their 
attention  by  a  short  cry  ;  and  when  caressed  it  manifested  great 
delight.     (See  Fig.  321.) 


Fig.  321.— Chati. 

According  to  Azara,  the  Chibi-guazu  is  so  common,  that  his 
friend  Noseda  captured  eighteen  individuals  in  two  years,  within 
two  leagues  of  his  pueblo.  Yet  it  would  appear  that  few  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  animal,  neither  the  huntsman  nor  his  Dogs  being 
able  to  penetrate  its  haunts.  By  day  it  remains  concealed  in  the 
most  impenetrable  and  secluded  places,  only  coming  abroad  after 
dark,  especially  when  the  night  is  stormy.  The  Chibi-guazu  then 
daringly  enters  court-yards  and  destroys  the  poultry  or  carries  them 
away.  When  the  night  is  moonlit  they  do  not  venture  near  in- 
habited spots,  and  are  besides  so  wary,  that  it  is  hopeless  to  lie  in 
wait  for  them  with  a  gun.  Men  and  Dogs  are  most  cautiously 
avoided.  Each  pair  is  supposed  to  have  their  ovv-n  exclusive  range 
of  territory,  for  a  male  and  female,  and  no  more,  are  always  caught 
in  the  same  place.  Those  which  Noseda  caught  soon  became 
reconciled  to  captivity,  and  had  much  of  the  habits  of  a  Cat  :  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  day  they  passed  in  sleep,  rolled  up  in  ball-like  form  ; 
twilight  and  night  were  passed  in  pacing  to  and  fro  close  to  the 
sides  of  their  den.  They  never  quarrelled  unless  they  were  much 
irritated,  and  then  they  struck  at  each  other  with  their  fore-paws  ; 
when  they  crossed  or  interrupted  each  other's  movements  in  travers- 
ing the  den,  they  spit  and  gesticulated  like  a  common  Cat.  They 
were  fed  upon  various  kinds  of  flesh.  Rats,  Fowls,  Ducks,  young 
Dogs,  &c.  Cat's  flesh  gave  them  the  mange,  under  which  they 
soon  sank  :  Snakes,  Vipers,  and  Toads,  occasioned  violent  and  con- 
tinued vomiting,  under  which  they  wasted  away  and  died.  Dogs 
equalhng  themselves  in  size  they  would  not  attack  :  fowls  were  their 
favourite  food ;  these  they  caught  by  the  head  and  neck  and 
instantly  killed,  stripping  their  feathers  before  beginning  to  eat 
them.  In  the  night  their  eyes  shone  like  those  of  a  domestic  Cat, 
which  in  their  manners,  in  their  mode  of  licking  the  fur  and  cleaning 
themselves,  they  entirely  resembled.  Azara  concludes  by  stating, 
that  a  young  one  which  Noseda  caught  became  so  thoroughly 
domesticated,  that  it  slept  on  the  skirts  of  his  clerical  gown  and 
went  about  loose.  No  animal  could  be  more  tractable  ;  but  the 
neighbours,  among  whose  poultry  it  made  havoc,  killed  it. 

The  Pampas  Cat 

{Felis  Pajeros).—'T\\\i  species  is  also  called  Jungle-Cat,  and  by  the 
Spanish  colonists,  Gato  Pajero. 

The  fur  of  this  animal  is  very  long,  some  of  the  hairs  of  the  back 
being  upwards  of  three  inches,  and  those  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
back  four  and  a-half  or  nearly  five  inches  long.  General  colour 
pale  yellow-grey.  Numerous  irregular  yellow  or  sometimes  brown 
stripes  run  obliquely  from  the  back  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  On 
each  side  of  the  face,. two  stripes  of  a  yellowish  or  cinnamon  colour 
commence  near  the  eye,  and  extend  backwards  and  downwards  over 
the  cheeks,  on  the  hinder  part  of  which  they  join  and  form  a  single 
line,  which  encircles  the  lower  part  of  the  throat.  Tip  of  the  muzzle 
and  chin  white  ;  a  spot  in  front  of  the  eye,  and  a  line  beneath  the 
eye,  of  the  same  colour;  belly,  inner  side  and  hinder  part  of  fore- 


legs, white  also ;  an  irregular  black  lino  running  across  the  lower 
part  of  the  chest,  and  extending  over  the  base  of  the  fore-legs 
externally :  above  this  line  two  other  transverse  dark  markings 
more  or  less  defined  on  the  chest.  On  the  fore-legs  three  broad 
black  bands,  two  of  which  encircle  the  leg :  on  the  posterior  legs 
about  five  black  bands  externally,  and  some  irregular  dark  spots 
internally.  Feet  yellowish,  and  under-side  of  tarsus  of  a  slightly 
deeper  hue.  On  the  belly  numerous  large  irregular  black  spots. 
Ears  moderate,  with  long  white  hairs  internally  ;  externally,  of  the 
same  colour  as  the  head,  except  at  the  apex,  where  the  hairs  are 
black,  and  form  a  slight  tuft.  Tail  short,  somewhat  bushy,  and 
devoid  of  dark  rings  or  spots  ;  the  hairs  are,  in  fact,  coloured  as 
those  of  the  back.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  body  each  hair  is 
brown  at  the  base,  then  yellow,  and  at  the  apex  black.  On  the 
hinder  part  of  the  back  the  hairs  are  almost  black  at  the  base,  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  body  each  hair  is  grey  at  the  base  ;  there  is  then 
a  considerable  space  of  yellowish-white  colour :  towards  the  apex 
they  are  white,  and  at  the  apex  black.  The  greater  number  of  the 
hairs  of  the  moustaches  white.  Length,  from  nose  to  root  of  tail, 
twenty-six  inches  ;  of  tail,  fur  included,  eleven  inches.  Height  of 
body  at  shoulders,  thirteen  inches.  Size  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
common  Wild  Cat  of  Europe  ;  but  the  Pampas  Cat  is  stouter,  its 
head  smaller,  and  its  tail  shorter.     (See  Fig.  322.) 


Fig.  322. — Pampas  Cat. 

This  Cat  was  known  to  Azara,  but  till  recently  European  natural- 
ists were  but  little  acquainted  with  it.  Fischer,  in  his  "Synopsis 
Mammalium,"  put  it  among  those  species  that  are  not  well  deter- 
mined. Azara  says  that  the  natives  call  this  animal  gato  pajero, 
because  it  lives  on  the  plains,  concealing  itself  in  jungles  without 
entering  the  woods  or  thickets.  Whether  this  species  exists  in 
Paraguay,  Azara  states,  was  a  point  he  could  not  determine,  but  that 
it  might  perhaps  have  been  formerly  seen  there  before  the  country 
became  well  peopled.  He  caught  four  in  the  Pampas  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  between  35"  and  36°  S.  lat.,  and  three  others  on  the  Rio 
Negro.  They  are  found,  he  adds,  on  both  sides  of  La  Plata.  Its 
food  consists  principally  of  Apereas,  or  wild  Guinea-pigs. 

According  to  Mr.  Darwin  ("  Zoology  of  the  Beagle"),  this  Cat  in- 
habits Santa  Cruz,  Patagonia,  and  Bahia  Blanca. 

"This  animal,"  observes  Mr.  Darwin,  "takes  its  name  from 
paja,  the  Spanish  word  for  '  straw,'  from  its  habits  of  frequenting 
reeds.  It  is  common  over  the  whole  of  the  great  plains  which  com- 
pose the  eastern  side  of  the  southern  part  of  America.  From  the 
accounts  I  received  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  found  near  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  which  would  give  it  a  range  of  nearly  1,400  miles 
in  a  north  and  south  line,"  for  Azara  states  that  it  is  to  be  found  as 
high  north  as  30°  S.  lat.  One  of  Mr.  Darwin's  specimens  was 
obtained  at  50°  S.  at  Santa  Cruz  :  it  was  met  with  in  a  valley  where 
a  few  thickets  were  growmg.  When  disturbed  it  did  not  run  away, 
but  drew  itself  up  and  hissed.  The  other  specimen  which  Mr. 
Darwin  brought  to  England  was  killed  at  Bahia  Blanca. 

The  "Lx^yi-Ei.— a  sub-family  of  the  Felidm. 

The  L5mxes  form  a  sub-division  of  the  Cat,  or  Feh'dcs,  and  are 
distinguished  from  ordinary  Cats  by  the  shortness  of  their  tails,  and 
the  possession  of  pencils  of  hairs  at  the  tips  of  the  ears.  They  are 
smaller  than  the  typical  Cats.  They  chiefly  feed  on  birds  and  small 
animals.  They  are  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Asia  and 
America,  and  their  fur  is  a  valuable  article  of  commerce.  The 
general  colour  varies  from  grey  to  a  reddish  tint.  They  are  also 
distinguished  by  the  shortness  of  the  tail,  and  the  proportionate 
elevation  of  the  body  at  the  haunches. 

The  Lynx  is  one  of  those  animals  respecting  which  many  absurd 
fables  have  been  popularly  current,  but  which  are  now  in  no  danger 
of  being  revived.  Pliny  (lib.  vii.,  25)  classes  the  Lynx  amongst  the 
monstrous  productions  of  Ethiopia,  in  the  existence  of  which  he 
seems  to  have  implicitly  believed.  The  Lynx  is  often  alluded  to  by 
the  ancient  poets ;  but  from  many  expressions  we  easily  perceive 
that  they  had  no  very  precise  ideas  about  the  animal :  the  Lynx  of 


's 


CARACAL   AND    LYNX, 


I 


126 


THE  EUROPEAN  AND  CANADA  LYNXES. 


black,  and  encircled  by  a  white  ring.  Cheeks  and  whiskers  white, 
a  few  black  bristles  being  interspersed  among  the  latter :  back  of 
the  ears  grey-brown,  with  black  pencils.  Externally  the  limbs  are 
barred  with  four  or  five  transverse  black  bands.  The  tail  is  one- 
fourth  as  long  as  the  body,  and  annulated  towards  the  termination, 
which  is  black  and  abrupt.     (See  Fig.  325.) 

The  Chaus  inhabits  the  north  of  Africa  along  the  course  of  the 
Nile,  and  perhaps  more  remote  districts.    It  is  found  in  the  morasses 


^^^"i^m^^^ 


Fig.  325. — Chaus. 

and  bushy  lowlands  that  border  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  along  the 
banks  of  its  tributary  rivers.  It  is  said  to  be  common  in  Persia  ;  it 
is  also  an  inhabitant  of  the  Deccan.  Everywhere  it  appears  to  give 
preference  to  marshes  and  boggy  wastes,  where  brushwood  affords 
it  shelter.  It  lives  upon  birds,  small  quadrupeds,  and  even  fishes  : 
it  seldom  climbs  trees,  and  is  not  easily  tamed. 

The  European  Lynx 

{Felis  Lynx,  Temminck,  not  Linn,  and  Nilsson ;  F.  virgata, 
Nilsson). — This  is  the  ordinary  Lynx  of  Europe,  extending  from 
Scandinavia  to  Naples  and  the  Pyrenees.  GUldenstadt  states  it  to 
exist  on  the  Caucasus,  where  it  is  a  great  pest.  Besides  this  Lynx, 
Europe  possesses  the  following  : — 

The  Arctic  Lynx  {Felis  borealis,  Temminck,  not  Thunberg ; 
F.  Lynx,  Linn,  and  Nilsson).  It  inhabits  the  north  of  Scandinavia, 
and  probably  Siberia  and  the  forest  of  Ural. 

The  Great  Lynx  {Fe/is  cervaria,  Linn.  ;  F.  borcalis,  Thunberg, 
not  Temminck;  Siberian  Lynx  of  furriers;  Kat-lo  of  Swedes).  It 
inhabits  Norway,  Asiatic  Russia,  and  also  the  Caucasus,  according 
to  M.  Menestries,  who  says  the  Persians  call  it  Vaarchach. 

The  Pardine  Lynx  [Felis  -pardina,  Temminck).  This  is  the 
Portuguese  Lynx  of  furriers.  It  is  a  well-marked  species,  inhabiting 
the  mountain  regions  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  southern  districts. 
Colonel  Sykes  obtained  skins  in  Andalusia,  where  it  is  called  gato 
clavo.     It  inhabits  the  Sierra  Morena. 


Fig.  325. — European  Lynx. 

The  European  or  Red  Lynx,  represented  in  Fig.  326,  is  of  a  dull 
reddish-grey,  or  rufous  tint,  with  dark  rusty-brown  spots  of  an  oblong 
form  on  the  sides,  and  rounder  and  smaller  spots  on  the  limbs  ;  the 
under-parts  are  whitish  mottled  with  black.     In  winter  the  fur  is 


much  longer  than  in  summer,  and  also  fuller;  and  assumes  a  hoary 
tinge,  the  long  hairs  becoming  tipped  with  greyish-white  ;  the  ears 
are  pencilled  ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  tipped  with  black.  The  length 
of  the  head  and  body  is  nearly  three  feet ;  of  the  tail,  six  or  seven 
inches.  The  European  Lynx  feeds  upon  small  quadrupeds  and 
birds,  and  climbs  trees  easily.  Hares,  Squirrels,  Rabbits,  and  also 
Sheep,  fall  victims  to  it.  When  attacked  by  a  Dog  it  lies  down  on 
its  back  and  defends  itself  with  its  claws.  Those  we  have  seen  in 
captivity  were  very  playful.  Its  fur  is  valuable  in  commerce  ;_  the 
colder  the  climate  and  season  of  the  year,  the  finer  and  fuller  it  is. 

"  The  limits  of  the  Lynx,"  observes  Cuvier,  "  in  the  ancient  con- 
tinent are  not  perfectly  ascertained.  We  know,  indeed,  that  it  is 
common  in  the  forests  of  the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia.  MM. 
Blumenbach,  Bechstein,  and  Tiedemann  cite  instances  of  their 
having  been  killed  even  in  Germany ;  but  they  are  becoming  more 
and  more  scarce.  M.  Schintz  says  that  it  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
mountains  of  Switzerland.  M.  Delabre  cites  an  instance  of  one  killed 
in  Auvergne,  in  1788." 

The  Canada  Lynx 

[Felis,  or  Lynacs  Canadensis,  Geoff.). — There  is  some  question 
about  this  species,  which  we  believe  to  be  entirely  identical  with  the 
F.  borcalis  of  Temminck ;  and,  consequently,  that  the  title  Cana- 
detisis  is  a  mere  synonym.  The  range  of  this  Boreal  Lynx  is  not 
limited,  therefore,  to  the  Old  World  only,  but  is  also  extended  to  the 
northern  parts  of  America.  It  is  found  north  of  the  great  lakes,  and 
eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains :  it  is  rare  on  the  sea-coast,  does 
not  frequent  the  barren  grounds,  but  is  not  uncommon  in  the  wooded 
districts  of  the  interior.  It  is  found  on  the  Mackenzie  River  as  far 
north  as  66^  Specimens  in  the  Museum  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London  were  procured  by  Douglas  in  California.  Dr.  Richard- 
son states,  that  the  early  French  writers  on  Canada,  who  ascribed 
to  this  species  the  habit  of  dropping  from  the  trees  on  the  backs  of 
Deer,  and  destroying  them  by  tearing  their  throat  and  drinking 
their  blood,  gave  it  the  name  of  Loup  Cervier.  The  French  Cana- 
dians now  term  it,  indifferently,  Le  Chat  or  Le  Peeshoo.  With 
respect  to  its  attacking  Deer  in  the  way  said,  the  statement  is 
erroneous;  and  if  really  practised  by  any  ferocious  animal,  is  most 
probably  so  by  the  Puma.  The  same  habit  has  been  attributed  to 
the  Wolverene  or  Glutton,  from  a  mistake  of  Charlevoix  in  applying 
to  this  Lynx  the  name  of  Carcajou,  which  is  proper  to  the  Wolverene 
only.     The  following  is  Dr.  Richardson's  description  : — 

"  The  head  is  round,  the  nose  obtuse,  and  the  face  has  much  of 
the  form  of  that  of  the  domestic  Cat,  but  the  facial  line  is  more 
convex  between  the  eyes.  The  ears  are  erect,  triangular,  and  tipped 
by  an  upright  slender  tuft  of  coarse  black  hairs  :  they  are  placed 
about  their  own  breadth  apart,  and  on  their  posterior  surface  they 
have  a  dark  mark  beneath  the  tip,  which  is  continued  near  both 
margins  downwards  towards  their  bases.  On  the  body  and  extremi- 
ties the  fur  is  hoary,  most  of  the  hairs  being  tipped  with  white  ;  on 
the  crown  of  the  head,  and  for  a  broad  space  down  the  middle  of  the 
back,  there  is  a  considerable  mixture  of  blackish-brown,  and  on  the 
sides  and  legs,  of  pale  wood-brown.  In  some  specimens  these 
colours  produce  an  indistinct  mottling,  but  in  general  there  are  no 
defined  markings.  A  rufous  tinge  is  also  occasionally  present 
about  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  thigh. 
The  tail  is  coloured  like  the  back,  except  the  tip,  which  is  black. 
The  fur  is  close  and  fine  on  the  back  longer  and  paler  on  the  belly. 


When  blown  aside  it  shows  on  the  middle  of  the  back  a  dark  liver- 
brow-n  colour  from  the  roots  to  near  the  tip,  but  on  the  sides  it  is,  for 
the  greatest  part  of  its  length,  of  a  pale  yellowish-brown,  being 
merely  a  little  darker  near  the  roots.     The  legs  are  thick,  the  toes 


THE  HY^NA  FAMILY. 


'27 


very  thick  and  furr)',  and  arc  armed  with  very  sharp,  awl-shaped, 
white  claws,  shorter  than  the  fur.  There  are  four  toes  on  each  foot, 
tliose  on  the  hind-foot  being-  rather  the  largest ;  but  both  feet  have 
much  spread.     Length,  3  feet  I  inch."     (See  Fig.  327.) 

This  Boreal,  or  Canadian  Lynx,  is  by  no  means  courageous  :  it 
never  ventures  to  attack  large  quadrupeds,  but  preys  chieliy  on  the 
American  Hare,  for  the  capture  of  which  it  is  well  provided.  "Its 
larc'e  paws,  slender  loins,  and  long  but  thick  hind-legs,  with  large 
butlocks,  scarcely  relieved  by  a  short  thick  tail,  give  it  an  awkward, 
clumsy  appearance.     It  makes  a  poor  light  when  it  is  surprised  by  a 


I  hunter  in  a  tree  ;  for  though  it  spits  like  a  Cat,  and  sets  its  hair  up, 
it  is  easily  destroyed  by  a  blow  on  the  back  with  a  slender  stick ; 
and  it  never  attacks  a  man.  Its  gait  is  by  bounds  straightforward, 
with  the  back  a  little  arched,  and  lighting  on  all  the  feet  at  once. 
It  swims  well,  and  will  cross  the  arm  of  a  lake  two  miles  wide,  but 
is  not  swift  on  land.  It  breeds  once  a  year,  and  has  two  young  at  a 
time."  Its  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  is  white  and  tender, 
but  destitute  of  flavour,  and  closely  resembles  that  of  the  American 
Hare.  The  skin  of  this  species  is  an  important  article  in  commetce. 
Besides  this  Lynx  there  are  others  in  America. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


CARNIVORA.- 

7^- 


-FAMILY,  IIY/ENID/'E— THE   HYENAS;    THE   VIVERRID.E,    OR   CIVETS;    AND   THE 
MUSTELID/E,  OR  WEASELS. 


have  already,  at  p.  87,  ante,  described 
the  special  characteristics  of  the  Hytuiiiilis 
in  their  relation  to  the  Cats,  and  other 
carnivorous  animals.  We  also  gave 
the  formula  of  their  dentition,  which  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  cut  (Fig. 
1328),  which  shows  the  dentition  of  the 
Hyaena  :  a,  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  in  two 
views  ;  b,  those  of  the  lower  in  two  views  ; 
r,  the  teeth  of  both  jaws  together.  Fig.  329 
represents  the  skull  of  the  Spotted  Hyaena  in 
profile  ;  Fig.  330,  the  skull  of  the  same  animal  viewed 
from  above  ;  Fig.  331,  the  skull  of  the  Striped  Hya:na  in 
profile.  The  skull  of  the  Hyrena  is  remarkable  for  its 
solidity :  the  muzzle  is  short ;  the  zygomatic  arch  of  vast 
strength  and  thickness ;  and  the  sides  of  the  cranium 
are  compressed,  and  sweep  up  to  a  high  longitudinal 
ridge,  which  projects  far  back  from  the  occiput,  afford- 
ing space  for  an  immense  mass  of  the  temporal  muscles, 
w'hich,  with  those  of  the  neck,  are  greatly  developed. 
According  to  Cuvier,  the  vertebra;  of  the  neck  are  some- 
times found  to  be  anchylosed,  or  soldered  together,  in 
consequence  of  the  violent  and  continual  strain  to  which 
they  are  subject ;  and  hence  probably  arose  the  belief  that  these 
vertebra  in  the  Hyaena  were  one  solid  piece. 

In  the  port  and  figure  of  the  Hyaena  there  is  something  very  re- 
markable. The  neck,  chest,  and  shoulders  are  amazingly  robust, 
but  the  hind-quarters  are  low,  from  the  crouching  posture  of  the 
hind-legs,  which  may  be  termed  knock-kneed,  the  heel-joints  ap- 
proaching each  other.  The  movements  of  these  limbs  are  of  a 
dragging  character,  influencing  the  pace  of  the  animal,  which, 
though  rapid,  is  a  sort  of  awkward  shuffle.  The  toes  are  four  on 
each  foot,  furnished  with  blunt,  stout,  unretractile  claws.  The  ears 
are  large  and  erect ;  a  full  mane  runs  down  the  spine ;  there  is  a 
deep  glandular  subcaudal  pouch  ;  the  pupil  is  somewhat  oblong ; 
the  tongue  rough  ;  the  habits  are  nocturnal. 

The  Hyaenas  were  not  separated  by  Linnsus  from  the  genus 
Cam's,  but_subsequent  naturalists  have  placed  them  in  various  groups 
according  "to  their  views  of  affinity.  We  have  placed  them  in  a 
separate  family. 

The  Striped  Hy.ena 

{Hyana  vulgaris,  Desm.^  Hycsna  striata,  Zimmerman ;  H. 
orientalis,  Tiedem. ;  H.  Attfiqiiorum,  Temn. ;  Canis  Hyayia 
Linn. — This  species  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  of  northern  and  central 
Africa.  It  is  found  in  the  Caucasian  and  Altaic  mountains,  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Syria,  Turkey,  Persia,  India ;  and  in  Barbary, 
Arabia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  Saudan,  Senegambia,  &c.  Figs. 
332  and  333  represent  this  animal. 

We  may  here  premise,  that  much  of  what  relates  to  the  Striped 
Hyaena,  so  extensively  spread,  applies  equally  to  the  other  species, 
which  appear  to  be  confined  exclusively  to  South  Africa.  They  are 
all  destined  to  fill  up  an  important  station  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
It  is  their  part,  with  Vultures  and  other  foul-feeding  creatures,  to 
cleanse  the  earth  of  putrescent  animal  matters,  and  especially  of  the 
decaying  carcasses  of  the  larger  beasts,  whose  remains,  if  not  speedily 
removed,  would  infect  the  atmosphere  with  pestilential  effluvia. 
They  are  Nature's  scavengers,  aud  assiduously  do  they  labour  in  their 
vocation  :  they  clear  the  battle-field  of  the  victims  of  barbarous 
warfare,  gorging  on  the  bodies  of  the  slain  ;  they  disinter  the  dead 
Irom  the  lightly-covered  grave ;   they  ransack  towns  and  villages  in 


search  of  offal ;  they  prowl  about  fields,  and  around  the  enclosures 
of  human  dwellings.  The  carrion  which  chance  throws  in  their  way 
furnishes  a  luxurious  meal,  nor  are  the  strongest  bones  unacceptable 
— such  is  the  power  of  their  jaws,  that  they  crunch  the  thigh-bone 
of  an  Ox,  for  the  sake  of  the  marrow  it  encloses. 

Carrion  and  dead  bodies,  however,  are  not  their  only  food  •  they 


-^,V 


Fig.  328. — Teeth  of  Hyxna. 

prey  upon  Horses,  Sheep,  and  Cattle,  often  committing  extensive 
depredations ;  nor  are  human  beings  safe  from  their  murderous 
assaults.  They  seldom,  indeed,  attack  man  openly,  and  usually 
avoid  a  contest  with  him  ;  but  when  driven  to  self-defence,  they  turn 
furiously  upon  their  assailant,  and  combat  with  determined  obstinacy. 
On  the  contrary,  the  sleeping  man,  woman,  or  child,  which  they 
chance  to  discover  in  their  nightly  prowl,  almost  certainly  falls  a 
victim.  Their  haunts  by  day  are  dens  and  caves,  gloomy  rocks,  and  the 
ruins  of  towns  and  sepulchral  monuments  of  antiquity;  there  the 
"fell  Hya;na"  rears  her  brood,  As  darkness  sets  in,  these  fierce 
beasts  emerge  from  their  lair,  and  menacing,  with  teeth  displayed 
and  glaring  eyes,  warn  the  intruder  to  a  timely  retreat. 

In    some    districts    the    Striped   Hya;na  is  fearfully  numerous. 


128 


THE  HYJENA  FAMILY. 


Bruce  records  that  in  Abyssinia  they  were  the  scourge  of  the  country, 
"  both  in  the  city  and  the  field,  and  appeared  to  surpass  the  Sheep 
in  number.  From  evening-  till  dawn -of  day  the  town  of  Gondar  was 
full  of  them  ;  here  they  sought  the  different  pieces  of  slaughtered 
carcasses  which  were  exposed  in  the  streets  without  burial.'  Many 
a  time  in  the  night,  when  kept  late  in  the  palace,  on  going  across 


Fig-  329.— Skull  of  Spotteil  Ilyrcna. 

the  square  from  the  king's  house,  I  have  been  apprehensive  lest  they 
should  bite  me  in  the  leg.  They  grunted  in  great  numbers  around 
me,  although  I  was  surrounded  by  several  armed  men,  who  seldom 
passed  a  night  without  wounding  or  slaughtering  some  of  them. 
One  night  I  went  out  of  my  tent,  and  returning  immediately,  I 
perceived  two  blue  eyes  glaring  at  me  in  the  dark  ;  I  called  my 
servant  to  bring  a  light,  and  we 
found  a  Hya;na  standing  near 
the  head  of  the  bed,  with  two  or 
three  large  bunches  of  candles 
in  his  mouth,  by  keeping  which, 
he  seemed  to  wish  at  that  time 
no  other  prey.  I  was  not  afraid 
of  him,  but  with  a  pike  struck 
as  near  the  heart  as  I  could. 
It  was  not  until  I  had  done  this 
that  he  showed  any  signs  of 
fierceness ;  but  upon  feeling  his 
wound  he  dropped  the  candles, 
and  endeavoured  to  run  upon  the 
shaft  of  the  spear  to  arrive  at  me  ; 
so  that  I  was  obliged  to  draw  a 
pistol  from  my  girdle  and  shoot 
him,  and  nearly  at  the  same 
time  my  servant  cleft  his  skull 
with  a  battle-a.xe.  In  a  word, 
the  Hyaenas  were  the  plague  of 
our  lives,  the  terror  of  our  mid- 
night walks,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  our  Mules  and  Asses, 
which  are  their  favourite  food." 
Major  Denham  gives  a  similar 
account.  At  Kauka,  he  says, 
the  Hya:nas  are  "everywhere  in 

legions,  and  grew  now  so  extremely  ravenous,  that  a  good  large 
village  where  I  sometimes  procured  a  draught  of  sour  milk  on 
my  Duck-shooting  excursions,  had  been  attacked  the  night  before 
my  last  visit,  and  tlie  town  absolutely  carried  by  storm,  notwith- 


Fig.  330. — Skull  of  Spotted  Hyjena 


Fig.  331. — Skull  of  Striped  Hyaena. 

standing  defences  of  nearly  six  feet  high  of  branches  of  the  prickly 
trilloh,  and  two  Donkeys,  whose  flesh  these  animals  are  particu- 
larly fond  of,  carried  off  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  people." 

Few  animals  have  been  the  subject  of  mort;  false  and  superstitious 


opinions,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  than  the  Hyasna. 
Among  the  writers  of  antiquity,  however,  Aristotle  accurately  de- 
scribes it,  and  even  explains  the  popular  error  current  in  his  day,  as 
it  has  been  since,  respecting  the  bi-sexual  character  of  the  animal  ; 
an  error  in  which  Pliny  seems  to  acquiesce,  though  he  alludes  to 
Aristotle's  contradiction  of  it ;    but  it  is  evident  he  knew  nothing 


'„v,x-' 


r^ife^^iff)^. 


Fig.  332. — Striped  Ilycena, 


himself  of  the  true  history  of  the  animal ;  for,  as  Cuvier  has  observed, 
the  Romans  were  not  really  acquainted  with  the  animal  till  at  a 
comparatively  late  period.  Gordian  III.  is  the  first,  and  apparently 
the  only  one,  of  the  emperors  who  imported  it  ;  he  had  ten,  which 
were  exhibited  in  the  games  of  Philip,  in  the  year  of  Rome  1000,  or 
A.D.  247.  It  is  not,  in  fact,  until  within  the  last  few  years,  com- 
paratively speaking,  that  the  moderns  have  recognised  the  true 
Hyaena.  Belon,  who  wrote  in  1553-4-5,  &c.,  mistook  the  Civet  for 
it,  which  animal,  indeed,  resembles  the  Hyaena  in  having  scent- 
pouches,  a  mane,  and  a  transversely  barred  or  waved  style  of 
colouring ;  yet,  at  the  same  time  that  he  fell  into  this  error,  he  was 
in  possession  of  a  good  figure  of  the  true  Hyaina  ;  but,  without  sus- 
pecting the  real  fact,  he  gives  this  under  the  title  of  Sea-Wolf,  and 
describes  it  as  an  animal  from  the  coasts  of  England.  From  the 
time  of  Belon  to  that  of  Buft'on,  no  naturalist  figured  the  Hyffina 
from  nature  ;  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  its  real 
character  has  been  understood. 

The    Hyaena   has   been   represented   as   ferociously  untameable : 
nothing  can  be  more  untrue  ;    it  is  easily  domesticated.     Bishop 


Fig.  333.— SU-ipcd  Hy.-cna. 

Heber  saw  one  in  India  that  followed  its  master  and  fawned  on  him 
like  a  Dog.  Barrow,  speaking  of  the  South  African  Spotted  Hyaena, 
states  that  in  the  district  of  Schneuberg  it  is  domesticated  and  used 
like  a  Hound  for  the  chase.  Colonel  Sykes  kept  a  young  Hyaena 
tame  in  India,  and  brought  the  animal  over  to  England  ;  he  pre- 
sented it  (then  full-grown,  yet  gentle  as  a  Dog)  to  the  Zoological 
Society.  "  In  India,"  says  Colonel  Sykes,  "  it  was  allowed  to  run 
about  my  house,  and  on  board  it  was  released  from  its  cage  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  to  play  with  the  sailors  and  gambol  with  the 
Dogs.  It  early  recognised  my  person  and  voice,  would  obey  when 
called,  and  in  general  was  as  playful  and  good-humoured  as  a 
puppy.  My  visits  to  it  in  the  Gardens  have  been  rare  and  at  long 
intervals,  nor  have  I  ever  carried  it  food.  I  anticipated,  therefore, 
that  it  would  outgrow  its  early  affection,  and  that  I  should  be  to  it 
as  any  other  stranger  ;  but  it  has  always  greeted  me,  not  only  as  an 
old  acquaintance,  but  as  an  old  friend  ;  and,  if  I  am  to  judge  from  its 
agitation  and  peculiar  cries,  the  animal's  recognition  is  that  of  affec- 
tion. On  Sunday  last  it  was  asleep  when  I  approached.  On  calling 
it  by  its  name,  it  looked  up,  distinguished  me  in  the  crowd,  started 


THE  HY^NA   FAMILY. 


129 


on  its  legs,  and  on  my  applying-  my  hand  to  its  mouth  to  smell  to,  it 
threw  itself  down  against  the  bars,  rubbed  its  head,  nock,  and 
back  against  my  hand,  and  then  started  on  its  legs,  and  bounded 
about  its  cage  uttering  short  cries.  On  ceasing  to  speak  to  it 
and  moving  away,  it  looked  wistfully  after  me,  nor  resumed  its  mo- 
tions till  I  addressed  it  again.  Its  manifestations  of  joy  were  so 
unequivocal  as  to  e.xcite  the  surprise  of  a  great  number  of  by- 
standers." 4 

The  Spotted  Hy^na 

[Hyana  crocufd).  Tiger- Wolf  of  the  colonists  at  the  Cape  ;  Hycstia 
Cafiensis,  Desm.  ;  H.  inacttlata,  Thunberg. 

This  species  is  the  nuisance  and  even  terror  of  South  Africa, 
W'here  it  is  well  known  to  tlie  farmers,  who  too  often  experience  the 
effects  of  its  destructive  habits  ;  for  it  not  only  devours  the  carrion 
which  chance  throws  in  its  way,  but  it  invades  the  farmers'  pens  or 
folds  during  the  night,  and  often  succeeds  in  killing  or  mutilating 


Fig.  334. — Spotted  Ilysena. 

such  of  the  larger  kinds  of  live  stock  as  have  not  been  secured  before 
dusk.  Sickly  animals,  as  we  are  assured,  are  less  liable  to  suffer 
from  the  voracity  of  this  creature  than  those  which  are  in  full  health  : 
the  latter,  by  their  rapid  flight,  inspiring  the  enemy  with  a  courage 
of  which  by  nature  he  is  destitute  ;  whereas  the  sickly  face  him,  and 
thus  intimidate  him.  So  anxious  is  he  for  the  flight  of  animals  as  a 
preliminary  to  his  attack,  that  he  uses  all  the  grimace  and  threaten- 
ing he  can  command  to  induce  them  to  run,  and  never  dares  to 
attack  them  unless  they  do  so.  The  Spotted  Hya;na  never  moves 
abroad  during  the  day  ;  night  is  his  season  of  activity,  and  towards 
nightfall  his  bowlings  are  regularly  heard,  announcing  to  the  various 
animals  that  their  foe  is  on  his  prowl.  These  dismal  sounds  appal 
the  timid  ;  and,  as  they  are  heard  on  every  side  around,  confuse  the 
affrighted  fugitive,  who  often  runs  into  the  danger  from  which  he 
seeks  to  escape.  Formerly,  Hya;nas  were  in  the  habit  of  paying 
nightly  visits  to  the  streets  of  Cape  Town ;  and  even  now  occasionally 
approach  the  town,  and  their  bowlings  are  often  heard  from  the 
Table  Mountain.  In  the  Caffre  country  they  are  numerous  and 
daring,  approaching  the  villages,  and  attempting,  either  by  force  or 


Fig.  335. — Spotted  IlyEena. 

stratagem,  to  pass  the  wattles  by  which  the  bouses  are  defended. 
If  so  far  successful,  they  next  attempt  to  enter  the  houses,  and  not 
unfrequently  succeed  in  carrying  off  a  young  child  of  the  family. 
_  Mr.  Steedman,  in  his  "  Wanderings  and  Adventures  in  the  Inte- 
rior of  Southern  Africa,"  gives  most  appalling  accounts  of  the 
rapacity  of  the  Spotted  Hyaena.  He  states  that  Mr.  Shepstone,  in 
a  letter  from  Mamboland,  relates  that  the  nightly  attacks  of  Wolves, 
as  the  Hyainas  are  generally  called,  have  been  very  destructive' 
amongst  the  children  and  youth  ;  for  within  a  few  months,  not  fewer 
than  forty  instances  came  to  his  knowledge  wherein  that  beast  had 
made  a  most  dreadful  havoc.  "  To  show  clearly,"  says  that  gentle- 
man,   "  the  preference   of  the  Wolf  (Spotted  Hyaena)    for   human 


flesh,  it  will  be  necessary  to  notice  that,  when  the  Mambookies  build 
their  houses,  w-hich  arc  in  form  like  Beehives,  and  tolerably  large, 
often  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  the  floor  is  raised  at  the 
higher  or  back  part  of  the  house,  until  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the 
front,  where  it  suddenly  terminates,  leaving  an  area  from  thence  to 
the  wall,  in  which  every  night  the  calves  arc  tied  to  protect  them 
from  the  storms  or  wild  beasts.  Now  it  would  be  natural  to 
suppose,  that,  should  the  Wolf  enter,  he  would  seize  the  first  object 
for  his  prey,  especially  as  the  natives  always  lay  with  the  fire  at 
their  feet  ;  but,  notwithstanding  this,  the  constant  practice  of  this 
animal  has  been,  in  every  instance,  to  pass  by  the  calves  in  the 
area,  and  even  by  the  fire,  and  take  the  children  from  under  the 
mother's  kaross,  and  this  in  such  a  gentle  and  cautious  manner, 
that  the  poor  parent  has  been  unconscious  of  her  loss  until  the  cries 
of  her  little  innocent  have  reached  her  from  without  when  a  close 
prisoner  in  the  jaws  of  the  monster."  Mr.  Shepstone  then  particu- 
larises two  instances  within  his  own  knowledge,  one  of  a  boy  about 
ten  years  of  age,  and  the  other  of  a  little  girl  about  eight,  who  had 
been  carried  off  by  this  species,  and  wretchedly  mangled,  but 
recovered  by  the  attention  of  Mr.  Shepstone  and  his  friends. 

Various  methods  are  employed  for  the  destruction  of  this  ferocious 
beast,  as  snares,  pit-falls,  traps,  spring-guns,  &c.  ;  but  so  cunning 
and  suspicious  is  the  animal,  that  he  mostly  avoids  them. 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  yellowish-brown,  with 
numerous  spots,  more  or  less  distinct,  of  a  deeper  tint;  the  mane 
down  the  neck  and  back  is  less  full  and  long  than  in  the  Striped 
Hyaena,  and  the  hair  generally  is  shorter.     (See  Figs.  334  and  335.) 

The  Villose  Hv.ena 

{Hymna  villosa.  Smith).  Straand-Wolf  of  the  Dutch  colonists  of  the 
Cape. — For  our  knowledge  of  this  species,  which  resembles  in  some 
respects  the  Striped  Hyaena,  we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  A.  Smith,  who 
figured  and  described  it  in  the  fifteenth  volume  of  the  "  Linnasan 
Transactions."     The  Villose  Hyaena  is  a  native  of  South  Africa, 


Fig.  336. — Villose  Hyxiia. 

but  is  by  no  means  so  common  as  the  spotted  species,  and  is  found 
chiefly  along  the  sea-coast,  but  has  been  observed  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Nieuveld  Mountains,  a  considerable  distance  in  the  interior 
of  the  country.  The  Villose  Hysena,  or  Straand-Wolf,  devours 
carrion,  and  such  dead  animal  substances  (Whales  for  instance)  as 
the  sea  casts  up  ;  but  when  pressed  by  hunger  its  habits  seem  to 
resemble  those  of  the  other  species,  for  it  then  commits  serious 
depredations  on  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  colonists,  who  hold  its 
incursions  in  great  dread.  Mr.  Steedman,  who  states  this,  says  that 
he  saw  a  very  fine  specimen,  which  had  been  shot  by  a  farmer 
residing  in  the  vicinity  of  Blauwbcrg,  and  was  informed  that  it  had 
destroyed  three  large  calves  belonging  to  the  farmer.  He  adds, 
that  it  is  said  to  be  a  remarkably  cunning  animal,  retiring  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  scene  of  its  depredations  to  elude  pur- 
suit, and  concealing  itself  during  the  day-time  in  the  mountains,  or 
in  the  thick  bush  which  extends  in  large  patches  throughout  the 
sandy  district  in  which  it  is  usually  found. 

The  Villose  Hyaena  stands  about  2  feet  4  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulder,  and  measures  4  feet  4  inches  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of 
the  tail.  The  hair  of  the  body  is  long  and  coarse.  Its  general 
colour  is  dusky-grey,  variegated  with  indefinite  clouds  or  oblique 
bands  of  black,  the  latter  prevailing  on  the  limbs.     (See  Fig.  336.} 

The  fossil  bones  of  extinct  species  oi'Ryvs:X\3.—'Ci\^  Hyena  spelaus, 
or  Cave  Hyaena — prove  the  abundance  of  these  animals  at  one  period 
in  our  portion  of  the  globe.  In  the  Cave  of  Kirkdale  these  relics 
were  found  in  vast  numbers,  exceeding  those  of  any  other  carnivorous 
animal.  They  have  been  discovered  also  in  other  places  in  our 
island.     On  the  continent  they  occur  in  the  Cavern  of  Gaylenreuth, 

S 


130 


THE  EARTH-WOLF-THE  CIVET  FAMILY. 


and  in  most  of  those  where  the  fossil  bones  of  Bears  are  met  with, 
to  which  we  have  already  alluded. 

The  Proteles. 

(Proteles  crisiafa).  Aard  Wolf  (Eartlu-Wolf)  of  the  Dutch  colo- 
nists of  the  Cape  ;  Prutcles  Lalaiidii,  Isidore,  Geoffrey ;  Viverra 
Hyccrto'idcs,  Desmarest ;   Civette  Hycno'ide  of  F.  Cuvier. 

The  genus  Proteles,  which  appears  to  link  the  Hya;nas  to  the  Civets, 
contains,  as  far  as  known,  only  one  species,  which  is  a  native  of 
South  Africa.  In  general  contour  and  manners  this  singular  animal 
much  resembles  the  former  animals,  but  is  of  inferior  size :  the 
hinder  quarters  are  low  and  trailing  ;  the  shoulders  thick  and  mus- 
cular; while  a  full  coarse  mane  runs  along  the  side.     In  dentition  it 

is  very  remarkable.    The  molars  are  ^~^  much  separated  from  each 

.•5-3 
other.     Of  those  above,   the  three  first  are  false,   and  the  fourth 
is  small  and  tuberculous,  with  three  points.     The  three  molars  below 
have  each  the  character  of  false  molars.     Incisors  and  canines  as 
usual. 

On  their  fore-feet  there  are  five  toes,  but  the  thumb  is  short, 
rudimentary,  and  high  on  the  carpus,  as  in  the  Dog;  the  hinder  feet 
have  four  toes.  The  claws  are  strong,  large,  blunt,  and  well  adapted 
for  scratching.  There  are  no  decided  scent-pouches,  as  in  the 
Civets,  but  a  furrow  in  their  stead.  The  form  of  the  head  more  re- 
sembles that  of  the  Civets  than  the  Hyjenas,  being  somewhat  elon- 
gated, and  having  the  muzzle  conical  and  pointed.  The  ears  arc 
long,  erect,  acute,  and  thinly  covered  with  hair ;  the  whiskers  arc 
strong ;  the  tail  is  short  and  bushy,  with  coarse  hair.  The  body  is 
covered  with  woolly  fur,  intermixed  with  long  coarse  hairs.  The 
general  colour  is  of  a  yellowish-grey,  radiated  with  distinct  trans- 
verse stripes  of  dusky-black,  the  mane  being  waved  with  black, 
which  is  also  the  colour  of  the  feet  and  extreme  half  of  the  tail.  The 
young  are  much  darker,  both  in  general  colour  and  their  markings, 


Fig.  337. — Proteles,  or  Aard  Wolf. 

than  adults.  Length  of  an  adult  female  specimen  in  the  museum  of 
the  Zool.  Soc,  2  feet  6  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is 
eleven  inches.     The  male  is  somewhat  larger.     (See  Fig.  337.) 

The  Aard  Wolf,  or  Proteles,  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  con- 
structs a  deep  burrow,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  lies  concealed 
during  the  day-time.  This  subterranean  chamber,  to  which  there 
are  three  or  four  different  entrances,  is  usually  occupied  by  several 
individuals,  so  that  the  animal  appears  to  be  partially  greo-arious 
Notwithstanding  the  trailing  contour  of  its  hind-quarters,  ''it  runs 
with  considerable  quickness :  when  irritated,  it  erects  its  mane,  like 
the  Hyajna.  Its  food  consists  of  carrion  and  small  animals',  not 
excluding  Ants,  which  were  found  by  Sparrman  in  the  stomach  of 
one  he  killed. 

The  Viverrid^,  or  Civets. 

At  p.  87,  we  have  stated  that  with  the  Hycsm'dce  we  close  the 
digitrade  group  of  the  Cartiivora.  The  Vwerridcs,  or  Civets,  and 
the  AIiistelidcB,  or  Weasels,  are  properly  semi-plantigrade  ;  that  is, 
they  apply  a  portion  of  the  sole  to  the  ground,  but  the  heel  is  always 
raised  ;  whereas,  in  the  remaining  families,  as  the  Bears,  &c.,  those 
animals  are  truly  plantigrade,  and  apply  the  whole  sole  to  the  ground 
when  walking.  The  dentition,  and  other  special  characters  of  the 
Viverridic  and  MustelidcB,  have  already  been  described  at  p.  87. 
We  shall  therefore  proceed  to  describe  the  various  species. 

The  Civet 

(Viverra  Civetta),—Vcvc  restricted  genus  Viverra,  as  established 
by  modern  naturalists,  contains  only  a  limited  number  of  species, 
characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  large  double  sacculus,  secretint^ 
an  unctuous  substance  of  a  strong  musky  odour;  by  the  claws  bein^- 


half  retractile  ;  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  circular  during  the  day. 
The  dentition,  similar  to  that  of  the  Ichneumons  (Fig.  338),  is  as 

follows  : — Incisors,  ~  ;  canines, ;    molars,  - — -  =  40. 

6  1  —  I  0  —  0 

The  body  is  long  and  compressed  laterally  ;  the  fur  is  somewhat 

harsh,  full;  and  a  mane,  as  in  the  Proteles,  runs  along  the  spine. 

The  head  is  stout,  wide,  and  rounded ;  the  tail  is  shorter  than  the 

body.     The  eyes  gleam  in  the  dark  with  great  brilliancy. 


Fig.  338. — Teeth  of  Ichneumon. 

Of  nocturnal  habits,  wild  and  savage,  the  animals  of  this  genus 
arfi  decidedly  carnivorous,  preying  upon  birds,  reptiles,  and  small 
Ma/i27?ia/ia,  which  they  take  by  surprise  ;  and  taken  young  they  are 
easily  tamed,  but  adults  can  never  be  reconciled  to  captivity. 

The  Civet  is  peculiar  to  North  Africa,  and  is  especially  common  in 
Abyssinia,  frequenting  hilly,  uncultivated  districts  and  arid  situations. 
It  gives  its  name  to  the  musky  perfume  for  which  all  the  species  are 
equally  remarkable.  In  figure  the  Civet  is  robust,  but  the  body  is 
compressed  laterally ;  in  size  it  equals  a  Dog  of  middle  stature, 
being  about  twenty-six  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which 
is  thirteen  or  fourteen  inches.  Buffon  states  that,  in  his  time, 
numbers   were  kept  in  Holland  for  the  commercial  advantage  of 


^'g-  339.— Civet. 

obtaining  their  odorous  secretion  ;  but  we  are  not  aware  that  such 
IS  now  the  case.  In  North  Africa,  however,  the  practice  is  in  vogue. 
The  colour  of  the  Civet  is  dark  grey,  thickly  banded  with  black ;  a 
white  stripe  runs  along  the  sides  of  the  neck,  bounded  by  a  black  line 
above,  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  muzzle  being  black.  A  thick 
inane  of  coarse  black  hair  runs  along  the  neck  and  back,  and  con- 
tinues over  the  tail,  which  is  consequently  somewhat  bushy.  Figs. 
339  and  340  represent  two  varieties  of  the  Civet. 

In  India  the  Civet  is  represented  by  the  Zibet  ( Viverra  Zibetha, 
Linn. ;  Viverra  undulata.  Gray),  and  in  Java  by  the  Tangalung 


THE  CIVETS  AXD  GEXETS. 


(the  Tangalunga  Padi  of  the  natives).  This  is  the  Spotted  Civet, 
Vivcrra  Tangahujga,  of  Gray,  and  the  V.  Zihetha  of  F.  Cuvier, 
Dr.  Horsfield,  and  SirT.  Raffles,  who  confounded  it  with  the  former, 
from  which  it  is  distinct.    It  is  the  Viverra  Hardwickii  of  Lesson. 

The  Genet 

{Genetia  vulgaris). — The  Genets  are  distinguished  by  a  slim  and 
graceful  contour ;  the  neck  is  long ;  the  head  is  narrow,  and  termi- 
nates in  a  pointed  muzzle ;  the  limbs  are  short ;  the  ears  broad, 


Fig.  340. — Civets. 

short,  and  rounded ;  the  tail  lengthened ;  the  pupils  of  the  eyes 
linear  and  vertical  ;  the  musk-pouches  are  inconsiderable  or  reduced 
to  a  mere  depression. 

In  their  manners,  as  well  as  in  several  anatomical  peculiarities, 
the  Genets  approximate  closely  to  the  Cats.  Like  those  animals  they 
hiss  when  approached  or  irritated  ;  spring  upon  their  prey,  taking  it 
by  surprise  ;  strike  and  lacerate  with  their  talons,  which  are  com- 
pletely retractile  ;  and  climb  trees  with  ease  and  rapidity.  In  the 
markings  and  character  of  the  fur  also  we  see  a  marked  approach  to 
the  Cats.     (See  Fig.  341.) 

The  common  Genet  is  found  throughout  Africa,  and  occurs  in  the 
south  of  France  and  other  portions  of  Europe  adjacent  to  the  Medi- 


Fig.  341.— Genet, 

terranean.     It  is  said  to  haunt  the  borders  of  streams  and  rivers, 

especially  near  their  source.  This  beautiful  but  fierce  animal  is 
easily  domesticated,  and  is  kept  tame  in  Constantinople,  where  it  is 
in  repute  as  a  destroyer  of  Rats  and  Mice.  Its  odour  is  not  very 
powerful,  nor  at  all  disagreeable. 

The  general  colour  is  greyish-yellow,  with  black  lines  down  the 
back,  and  spotted  on  the  sides  with  the  same  ;  on  the  cheeks,  above 
the  eyes,  and  on  each  side  of  the  muzzle,  there  is  a  streak  of  white  • 
the  tail  is  alternately  banded  with  black  and  white.  ' 

The  Rasse  Genet 

{Genetta  Rasse).  Viverra  Rasse,  Horsfield ;  Vivcrra  Gunda, 
Hamilton,  MSS.— This  species,  which  is  a  native  of  Java,  appears  to 
be  different  from  the  Genetia  Itidica.  According  to  Dr.  Horsfield, 
It  frequents  forests  of  moderate  elevation,  where  'it  preys  upon  small 
birds  and  animals  of  every  description,  and  possesses  the  santruinary 
appetite  of  the  animals  of  this  family  in  a  high  degree.   In  confinement 


it  will  devour  a  mi.xed  diet,  and  is  fed  on  eggs,  fish,  flesh,  and  rice. 
The  natives  afiirm  that  salt  is  a  poison  to  it.  Its  odoriferous  secre- 
tion is  termed  dcdes  by  the  Javanese,  And  jidei  by  the  Malays,  and 
is  held  in  high  esteem.     (See  Fig.  342.) 

The  Delundung 

(Priofiodon  gracilis).-^Th\s  beautiful  and  singular  species,  a 
native  of  J.ava,  was  regarded  by  Dr.  Horsfield  as  so  intimately  re- 
lated to  the  Cats,  that  he  terms  it  J'ciis,  and  assigns  it  a  sectional 


Fig.  342. — Rasse  Genet. 

place  in  that  group.  We  consider  it  to  be  the  most  nearly  allied 
to    the    Genets,   though    destitute   of  scent-glands,   and   differing 

somewhat    in  the  dentition,  which    is    as    follows  : — Incisors,   —  ; 

6 

canines,  ^-1 ;  molars,  ^^?.      Of  the    molars  above,    the   first    is 

i-i  6-6 

bicuspid,  the  second  tricuspid,  as  is  the  third;  the  fourth,  or  car- 
nassiere,  has  an  elongated  cutting  edge ;  the  fifth  is  tubercular. 
This  jagged  form  of  the  teeth  has  suggested  the  name  of  Prionodon, 
from  Trpiuii',  "  a  saw,"  and  ociovg,   "  a  tooth."      (See  Fig.  343  ;  a, 


{/{t^^'^W^'^p'^ 


F'S-  343- — Head,  Teeth,  .ind  Feet  of  Delundung. 

an  external  view  of  the  teeth  of  both  jaws ;  d,  an  internal  view  of  the 
same  ;  c,  front  view  of  the  teeth.)  The  Delundung  was  discovered  in 
1806,  by  Dr.  Horsfield,  during  his  researches  in  the  district  of 
Blambangan,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Java,  where  it  is  very  rare, 
and  still  more  so  in  other  parts  of  the  island  :  it  inhabits  the  e.xten- 
sive  forests  with  which  the  district  is  almost  entirely  covered.  Of  its 
habits  no  details  were  collected.     (See  Fig.  344.) 


'32 


THE  CIVET  FAMILY. 


This  animal  is  extremely  slender  and  elongated,  with  a  tapering; 
head  and  sharp  muzzle,  a  long  thick  tail,  and  slender  delicate 
limbs.  The  eyes  are  sprightly,  the  iridcs  brown,  the  pupils  circular. 
The  claws  are  minute  and  sharp,  and  perfectly  retractile.  The  fur  is 
silky  at  the  base  and  soft  to  the  touch.  The  whiskers  are  very  long. 
The  ground-colour  is  of  a  delicate  yellowish-white;  four  broad 
transverse  bands  of  rich  blackish-brown  traverse  the  back  at  equal 
intervals;    an   interrupted  stripe,   originating  behind  the  eye  and 


between  the  ears,  passes  along  the  side,  and  terminates  in  large 
spots  on  the  thigh  ;  the  shoulder  is  similarly  spotted  ;  and  the  tail 
is  ringed  at  regular  but  increasing  intervals.  The  tout-ensemble 
brings' to  mind  the  cloudings  on  a  rich  piece  of  tortoiseshell.  Fig. 
343  presents  a  front  view  of  the  head  :  d,  the  fore-foot  covered  with 
fur  ;  e,  the  hind-foot  with  the  fur  removed. 

The  Cryptoprocta 

{CrypfoJ>rocta  ferox). — This  remarkable  and  rare  animal  is  a 
decided  link  between  the  Viverrine  and  the  Feline  groups,  approach- 
ing very  nearly  to  the  latter  in  external  characters,  and  still  more  so 
in  internal  anatomy. 

The  body  is  slender,  but  the  limbs  are  robust  and  muscular  ;  the 
head  is  narrow  ;  the  eyes  rather  small ;  the  ears  unusually  large  and 


Fig.  345. — Ciyptoprocta. 

rounded ;  the  toes  five  on  each  foot ;  the  tail  long.  General  colour 
a  light  brownish-red. 

The  individual  on  which  Mr.  Bennett  founded  his  description  was 
immature,  having  not  then  lost  its  milk-teeth  ;  it  was  thirteen  inches 
and  a-half  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  that  of  the  tail  being 
eleven  inches  and  a-half. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  Cryptoprocta  ferox  nothing  definitely  is 
known.  The  specimen  in  question  was  sent  to  the  Zool.  Soc.  by 
Mr.  Telfair,  President  of  the  Mauritius  Natural  History  Society, 
who  states  that  he  received  it  alive  from  the  interior  and  southern 
part  of  Madagascar,  and  that  he  had  not  seen  in  the  Mauritius  any 
of  the  Madagascar  people  that  were  acquainted  with  it.  Hence  it 
■would  seem  to  be  rare.  He  remarks,  "  It  was  the  most  savage 
creature  of  its  size  I  ever  met  with  ;  its  motions,  power,  and  activity 
were  those  of  a  Tiger,  and  it  had  the  same  appetite  for  blood  and 


the  destruction  of  animal  life.  Its  muscular  force  was  very  great, 
and  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  were  remarkably  full  and  thick." 

The  Suricate 

{Ryzoinaf  etradactyla,  III.). — Regarding  the  Proteles  as  leading  to 
the  Hyrenas,  and  the  Cryptoprocta  to  the  Cats,  another  line  of  the 
Viverridce  appears  to  conduct  us  to  the  Ferrets,  through  the  Ich- 
neumons. But  before  we  notice  these,  two  remarkable  genera  claim 
our  attention,  each  containing  a  species,  which  in  form  and  habits 
appears  to  e.xhibit  a  certain  degree  of  afSnity  to  the  Racoons, 
having,  like  those  animals,  a  long,  pointed,  movable  nose  ;  feet 
almost  entirely  plantigrade  ;  eyes  obliquely  set ;  the  body  strongly 


Fig.  346. — Teeth  of  Suricate. 

built,  and  the  habit  of  sitting  up  on  the  haunches,  while  the  fore- 
paws  are  employed  in  holding  food.  While,  however,  the  approach 
of  these  species  to  the  Racoons  is  discernible,  their  alliance  to  the 
Ichneumons  cannot  be  mistaken.  We  first  select  the  Suricate.  A 
nose  remarkably  long,  sharp,  and  flexible  ;  quick,  lively,  oblique  eyes, 
with  circular  pupils  ;  and  close  ears,  give  a  peculiar  expression  to 
the  physiognomy  of  the  animal.  The  toes  on  each  foot  are  four, 
those  of  the  anterior  limbs  being  armed  with  large  hooked  claws, 
miniature  copies  of  those  of  the  Sun-Bears.  The  dentition  (Fig. 
346)  resembles  that  of  the  Ichneumons,  except  that  there  is  one 
false  molar  less  on  each  side,  above  and  below. 


F'o-  347.— Suricate. 

This  rare  animal  is  a  native  of  Southern  Africa,  and  is  eminently 
carnivorous  in  its  habits.  Its  length  is  about  a  foot,  exclusive  of 
the  tail,  which  is  nearly  six  inches.  There  are  two  scent-glands. 
The  general  colour  is  yellowish-grey,  waved  transversely  with  dark 
brown  and  rufous,  the  hairs,  as  in  the  Ichneumons,  being  ringed 
with  different  tints  ;  the  tail  is  rufous-brown,  ending  in  black.  The 
fur  is  long  and  rather  coarse.     (See  Fig.  347.) 

We  have  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  two  specimens,  a  male 
and  a  female,  in  captivity  ;  they  were  lively,  inquisitive,  and  docile, 
but  betrayed  great  excitement  when  birds  or  other  small  animals 
were  presented  before  their  cage,  endeavouring  to  seize  or  dart  upon 


THE  EGYPTIAN  ICHNEUMON. 


'33 


them.  They  used  their  paws  with  much  address,  and  would  sit  up, 
peeping  between  the  wires,  or  caressing  each  other,  for  they  ex- 
hibited great  mutual  attachment.  The  female  died  first  ;  the  male 
became'duU,  pined,  and  shortly  followed  his  companion.  The  notes 
of  their  anatomy,  by  Professor  Owen,  are  given  in  the  "  Zoological 
Proceedings  "^ 


for  1830-31. 


The  Mangue 

{Crossarchus  oisairus).—The.  Mangue,  the  only  known  representa- 
tive of  the  genus  Crossarchus,  is  a  native  of  Sierra  Leone  and  other 
parts  of  Western  Africa.  It  resembles  the  Suricate  in  the  form  of 
the  head  and  nose,  in  dentition,  and  general  structure,  internal  as 


well  as  external.  It  has,  however,  five  toes  on  each  foot,  and  is 
fairly  plantigrade.  Its  general  colour  is  deep  chocolate-brown, 
grizzled  with  yellowish-white,  each  hair  being  ringed  with  this 
colour.  The  individual  which  we  have  observed  in  captivity 
resembled  the  Suricate  in  its  habits,  and  was  very  intelligent.  With 
respect  to  its  manners  in  a  state  of  nature  we  have  no  particular 


Fig.  349-— Egyptian  Ichneumons  feeding  on  the  eggs  of  the  Crocodile. 

details.  In  the  "  Zool.  Proceeds."  for  1834  will  be  found  our  ac- 
count of  the  internal  anatomy  of  this  animal,  compared  with  that  of 
the  Suricate  and  the  Viverrida  in  general.     (See  Fig.  348.) 

The  Egyptian  Ichneumon 

{Her;pesics  Pharao7iis,  Desm.,  Ichneumon).— V^Wh.  long  agile 
bodies,  small  glowing  eyes,  a  pointed  nose,  long  tail,  short  limbs, 


and  scmi-plantigradc  feet,  the  Ichneumons,  Mungoos,  or  Man- 
goustes,  as  they  are  also  called  {Mangusta,  Oliv.  ;  Ichneumon, 
Geoff.  ;  Hcrpcsles,  Illig.),  in  their  general  form,  no  less  than  in 
their  habits,  display  a  certain  approximation  to  the  Ferrets,  being 
bold,  active,  and  sanguinary,  and  unrelenting  destroyers  of  birds, 
reptiles,  and  small  Mtiminalia,  which  they  take  by  surprise,  darting 
rapidly  upon  them.  Beautiful,  cleanly,  and  easily  domesticated, 
they  are  often  kept  tame  in  the  countries  they  naturally  inhabit,  for 
the  purpose  of  clearing  the  houses  of  vermin,  though  the  poultry-yard 
is  not  safe  from  their  incursions.  The  ears  are  short,  wide,  and 
rounded  ;  the  hair  long,  rather  coarse,  and  waved  or  grizzled,  each 
hair  being  ringed  with  different  tints  ;  the  scent-gland  is  largo  ;  the 
feet  are  five-toed,  the  nails  sharp  and  semi-retractile  ;  the  pupils  of 
the  eyes  oblong:  Fig.  338,  p.  130,  a«/i?,  gives  the  dentition.  The 
Ichneumons  are  natives  of  the  hotter  parts  of  the  Old  World,  the 
species  being  respectively  African  and  Indian.  Night  is  their 
season  of  activity ;  they  then  prowl  in  quest  of  their  prey,  stealing 
along  with  noiseless  step,  urged  by  hunger  and  the  instinct  of  de- 
struction. The  Egyptian  Ichneumon  is  a  native  of  North  Africa,  and 
was  deified  for  its  services  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Its  Coptic 
name  is  Nems ;  its  Arabic,  among  the  Moors,  Serro.  Snakes, 
Lizards,  Birds,  Crocodiles  newly  hatched,  and  especially  the  eggs  of 
the  Crocodile,  constitute  its  food  ;  and  the  ancients  believed  that  it 
attacked  and  killed  that  huge  reptile  when  fully  grown.  Pliny 
states,  that  when  gorged  with  food,  and  lying  with  the  mouth  open, 
a  little  bird,  called  Trochilos,  enters  the  jaws  of  the  Crocodile  to 
pick  the  teeth,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the  monster  ;  and  he 
adds,  that  the  Ichneumon,  espying  him  asleep,  darts  down  his  throat 
and  tears  his  inside.  We  need  not  enter  into  any  grave  refutation 
of  this  marvellous  account. 

The  Ichneumon  is  fierce  and  daring,  and  glides  with  sparkling 
eyes  towards  its  prey,  which  it  follows  with  Snake-like  progression  ; 
often  it  watches  patiently  for  hours  together  in  one  spot,  waiting  the 
appearance  of  a  Mouse,  Rat,  or  Snake  from  its  lurking-place.  We 
have  frequently  seen  the  animal  sit  up  like  the  Suricate  while 
feeding.     In  a  state  of  domestication  it  is  gentle  and  affectionate, 

and  never  wanders  from  the 
house  or  returns  to  an  in- 
dependent existence ;  but  it 
makes  itself  familiar  with 
every  part  of  the  premises, 
exploring  every  hole  and 
corner,  inquisitively  peeping 
into  boxes  and  vessels  of  all 
kinds,  and  watching  every 
movement  or  operation. 

The  colour  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Ichneumon  is  brownish- 
grey,  each  hair  being  ringed 
with  white  and  dark  tints 
of  brown  ;  the  tail  tapers  to- 
wards the  extremity,  which 
is  tufted  and  black.  Length 
twenty-one  inches,  exclusive 
of  the  tail,  which  is  eighteen. 
The  annexed  illustration 
(Fig.  349)  represents  E.gj'p- 
tian  Ichneumons  feeding  on 
the  eggs  of  the  Crocodile. 


The  Indian  Ichneumon, 
^  OR  Mungoos 

{Hcrpestcs  griseus).—T\\\% 
species   is   much   less   than 
the    Egyptian     Ichneumon, 
and  of  a  beautiful  freckled- 
grey.    It  is  common  in  India, 
and   frequently    brought   to 
this    country;     it    is    easily 
tamed,   and    is    inquisitive, 
active,  cleanly,  and  docile. 
Mr.  Bennett,  in  his  account 
of  one  kept  in   the   Tower, 
says  that  on  one  occasion  it 
killed  no  fewer  than  a  dozen 
full-grown  Rats,  which  were 
turned  out   before    it    in  a 
room   sixteen  feet  square,  in  less  than  a   minute   and   a-half.     In 
India   this   animal   does   not   fear    to   attack   the   Cobra,    or  Naia 
tripudiafis,    and   usually    does   so    with  success  ;    the    Snake,    on 
being    brought    into   the   presence   of  its   seemingly  contemptible 
enemy,    sometimes  endeavouring  to  make   its  escape.     The  Mun- 
goos, of  course,  often  gets  bitten  in  these  encounters  ;  but  it  is  said 
to  use  a   root  which   serves   as   an  antidote  to   the   poison  of  the 
Snakes. 


134 


THE  INDIAN  ICHNEUMON,   OR  MUNGOOS. 


Fig.  350  illustrates  an  attack  of  a  Mungoos  on  a  Cobra.    A  speci- 
men is  usually  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

The  Garangan 

{Herpesfes  Javaniais). — According  to  Dr.  Horsfield,  this  species, 
termed  Garangan  by  the  Javanese,  inhabits  chicHy  the  large  teak- 
forests,  and  its  agility  is  greatly  admired  by  the  natives  :  it  attacks 
and  kills  Serpents  with  excessive  boldness.     "It  is  very  expert  in 


It  is  very  cleanly  in  its  habits ;  it  is  exclusively  carnivorous,  and 
very  destructive  to  poultry,  employing  great  artifice  in  surprising 
chickens  :  "  hence  the  natives  seldom  keep  it  tamed,  nor  is  it 
altogether  to  be  trusted,  as  it  is  subject  to  fits  of  excessive  violence. 
Its  mode  of  encountering  Serpents  was  related  by  the  natives  to 
Dr.  Horsfield,  exactly  as  it  is  described  by  Rumphius,  who  informs 
us  that  the  Javanese  nobles  amuse  themselves  with  these  contests. 
When  the  two  enemies  are  opposed  to  each  other,  the  Serpent 
endeavours  to  twine  round  the  quadruped  and  kill  it;    the   latter 


Fig.  350. — The  Mungoos,  or  Mangouste,  seizing  a  Cobra, 


burrowing  in  the  ground,  which  process  it  employs  ingeniously  in  the 
pursuit  of  Rats.  It  possesses  great  natural  sagacity,  and,  from  the 
peculiarities  of  its  character,  it  willingly  seeks  the  protection  of  man. 
It  is  easily  tamed,  and  in  its  domestic  state  is  docile,  and  attached  to 
its  master,  whom  it  follows  like  a  Dog ;  it  is  fond  of  caresses,  and 
frequently  places  itself  erect  on  its  hind-legs,  regarding  everything 
that  passes  with  great  attention.  It  is  of  a  very  restless  disposition, 
and  always  carries  its  food  to  the  most  retired  place  to  consume  it. 


rj'-'-^sS'^ 


Fig-  351.— Garangan. 


inflates  itself  to  turgcscence,  and,  as  the  reptile  is  about  to  inflict 
the  fatal  wounds,  contracts  its  body,  slips  through  the  scaly  coil,  and 
seizes  its  foe  by  the  neck.  We  suspect  that  in  this  story  some 
allowance  must  be  made  for  over-colouring.     (See  Fig.  351.) 

Steedman's  Cynictis 
{Cynictis  Steedmanti,  Ogilb.). — The   genus    Cynictis  differs  from 
He?-J>esies  in  the  number  of  the  toes  on  the  hind-feet  being  only 


Fig.  352. — Steedmann's  Cynictis. 


THE   WEASELS  AND  BADGERS. 


«3S 


four,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  false  molar  on  the  lower  jaw.  The  tail 
is  long-  and  bushy.  The  characters  of  the  skull  and  dentition  are 
seen  at  Fifj.  '^.^<^}i  :  a,  the  skull  from  above  ;  l>,  the  same  in  profile ; 
c,  the  dentition  of  the  upper  jaw;  d,  the  dentition  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  Cynktis  Steed niaiiii\%  a  native  of  South  Africa,  and  appears 
to  resemble  the  Ichneumons  in  its  general  habits.  It  excavates 
burrows,  in  which  it  dwells. 
Though  only  introduced  to 
our  knowledge  within  the  last 
few  years,  it  was  most  pro- 
bably seen  by  Sparrman  and 
Barrow,  the  latter  of  whom 
describes  an  animal  so  closely 
resembling  the  present,  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to 
their  identity.  The  general 
colour  is  Fo.xy-red  ;  the  tail 
is  bushy,  tipped  with  white. 
Length,  i  foot  6  inches,  ex- 
clusive of  the  tail,  which  is 
I  foot.  A  second  specimen 
of  this  genus,  Cynictis  mcla- 
iiiirus,  is  a  native  of  Sierra 
Leone ;  and  several  others 
have  been  discovered  in  South 
Africa.     (See  Fig.  352.) 

The  Common  Paradoxure 

[Paradoxurzis  Ty^iis).—Th.& 
genus  Paradoxirnts  appears 
to  be  one  of  the  links  which 
conduct  us  from  the  true 
Vi'jerrcBio  the  aberrant  forms 
of  the  Ursida;.  This  genus 
is  peculiar  to  India  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  It  is  cha- 
racterised by  a  semi-planti- 
grade condition  of  the  feet, 
the  greater  portion  of  the  sole 
being  naked  and  callous  ;  the 
toes,  five,  closely  united  toge- 
ther by  intervening  webs  ;  claws  short,  sharp,  and  semi-retractile ;  the 

pupil  linear  ;  a  mere  fold  instead  of  scent-pouches ;  molars   -^^  ■ 

6  —  6 ' 

nearly  resembling  those  of  the  Genets  ;  the  tail  frequently  spirally 
contorted,  but  not  prehensile  ;  the  fur  full. 

In  size  the  Paradoxure  exceeds  a  common  Cat,  its  total  length, 
including  the  tail,  being  three  feet.  The  general  colour  is  greyish- 
black,  tinged  with  yellow,  and  indistinctly  banded  and  spotted  with 
a  dusky  hue ;  a  whitish  streak  occupies  the  cheek  below  the  eye, 
and  another  runs  above  ;  muzzle  black.  The  Paradoxures  are  to  a 
great  extent  frugivorous,  and  are  in  the  habit  of  climbing  trees, 
which  they  do  with  great  facility.  Dr.  Horsfield,  in  his  "  Zoological 
Researches,"    gives    a    description    of   the    Java    Paradoxure,    or 


Fig.  353.— Skull  and  Teeth  of  Cynictis. 


It  is  most  abundant  near  the  villages  situated  at  the  confines  of 
large  forests,  and  constructs  a  simple  nest  in  the  manner  of 
Squirrels,  of  dry  leaves,  grass,  or  small  twigs,  in  the  forks  of  larger 
branches  or  in  the  hollow  of  trees.  From  these  it  sallies  forth  at 
night  to  visit  the  sheds  and  hen-roosts  of  the  natives,  in  search  of 
eggs,  chickens,  &c.  Its  rambles  are  also  particularly  directed  to 
gardens  and  plantations,  where  fruits  of  every  description  within  its 
reach,  and  particularly  pine-apples,  suffer  extensively  from  its 
depredations."  The  coffee  plantations  in  some  parts  of  the  island 
are  greatly  infested  by  it,  and  on  this  account  it  has  obtained  the 
name  of  Coffee-Rat.  It  selects  the  most  ripe  and  perfect  berries, 
and  as  the  seeds  pass  uninjured  through  the  alimentary  viscera,  it 
spreads  that  plant  extensively,  and  gives  origin  to  splendid  groves 
in  various  parts  of  the  forest,  but  particularly  on  the  declivities  of 
hills,  thus  counterbalancing  the  injuries  it  commits.  Its  native 
name  is  Leewak.     (See  Fig.  354.) 

Fig.  355  represents  the  dentition  of  the  Binturong  {Arti/is  Bin- 
tui'otig,  Tem. ;  Ictides  ater,  Cuv.). — This  animal,  a  native  of  Java 


Fig.  354. — Paradoxure. 

Musang,  well  worthy  of  notice.  Its  manners,  he  observes,  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Genet.  "If  taken  young,  it  becomes 
patient  and  gentle  during  confinement,  and  receives  readily  animal 
and  vegetable  food.  It  requires  little  attention,  and  contents  itself 
with  the  scanty  remains  of  the  meals  of  the  natives,  with  fish,,  eggs, 
rice,  potatoes,  Sic,  the  structure  of  its  teeth  being  particularly 
adapted  to  vegetable  diet.  It  prefers,  however,  the  delicate  and 
pulpy  fruits  ;  but  when  pressed  by  hunger  attacks  fowls  and  birds. 


TcelU  of  Binlurong. 


and  Sumatra,  represents  in  its  own  country  the  Kinkajou  of  the 
forests  of  South  America.  It  is  a  slow,  heavy,  plantig'-rade  animal, 
with  short  limbs,  and  a  long,  powerful,  prehensile  tail,  very  thick 
and  muscular  at  the  base,  and  with  which  it  assists  itself  in  climb- 
ing, being  arboreal  in  its  habits.  One  that  was  kept  alive  many 
years  by  Major  Farquhar  partook  both  of  animal  and  vegetable 
food.  It  is  timid  and  nocturnal,  sleeping  during  the  day,  and 
wandering  about  at  night  in  quest  of  food.  In  size  it  exceeds  a 
domestic  Cat,  measuring  2  feet  5  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head 
and  body,  the  tail  being  upwards  of  2  feet.  Its  fur  is  long  and 
coarse  ;  general  colour  black  ;  pupils  of  the  eyes  linear.  Cuvier 
notices  the  approximation  of  these  animals  to  the  Racoons. 

The  Mustelid^   or  Weasels,  and  the  Melid.e,  or 
Badgers. 

The  Musidid(B  are  often  united,  by  writers  on  Natural  History, 
either  with  the  Vivcrrida  or  the  Mel  idee,  or  both.  They  belong 
to  the  semi-plantigrade,  and,  therefore,  form  a  concluding  link 
between  the  digitrade  and  plantigrade  groups.  We  have  already 
given,  at  page"?;,  ante,  a  general  description  of  the  peculiarities 
oi\\\c  Micsteiidcc  x^-aA.  Mclida ;  and  shall  leave  to  our  more  scien- 
tific readers  to  distinguish  between  the  connection  of  the  groups 
above  named,  preferring  a  popular  description  rather  than  a  scien- 


136 


THE   WEASBL  FAMILY. 


tific  discussion  as  to  the  classification  of  the  Weasels  and  Badpi-ers, 
and  their  joint  connection  with  the  Bears,  or  Ursida,  to  which 
latter  we  shall  devote  a  separate  chapter. 

In  a  commercial  point  of  view  the  Weasel  family  is  by  no  means 
unimportant.  From  several  species  the  most  costly  furs  are  pro- 
cured, pre-eminent  for  beauty  :  we  need  only  mention  the  Sable 
[Marfcs  Zibelli/ia),  and  the  Ermine  {Alustchi  cr/iiiiica).  The  true 
Sable  is  a  native  of  the  dreary  regions  of  Siberia,  where  it  haunts 
the  gloomy  pine-forests  which  stretch  over  immense  tracts  of 
country  remote  from  human  abodes.  It  is  into  the  midst  of  these 
wilds  that  the  Sable-hunter  has  to  penetrate  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
game,  and  the  chase  is  carried  on  in  the  winter,  for  it  is  then  that 
the  fur  is  the  finest.     Great  are  the  hunter's  perils  and  privations. 


''"  /•  a)'/.  ^.^ 


Fig.  356.— British  Muslelidi2  (Weasels). 

He  has  to  traverse  plains  and  mountains  covered  with  snow,  and 
swept  by  the  keen  tempests  of  an  Arctic  winter  ;— to  spend  days  and 
nights   in   patient   watching,    and   in   the   solitudes   of  the   dismal 

forest; he  is  exposed  to  overwhelming  snow-storms,  of  which,  in 

our  climate,  we  can  form  but  an  imperfect  idea.  He  often  loses  his 
way  ;  his  provisions  fail,  and  he  finds  himself  exposed  to  all  the 
horrors  of  cold  and  famine.  Who  has  not  heard  of  the  hardships  of 
the  hunter  of  Sables  in  the  deserts  of  Siberia  ? 

We  have  several  British  species,  of  which  the  common  Weasel 
{Mustela  vulgaris),  the  Polecat  [M.  pidorius),  and  the  Stoat,  or 
Ermine  {M.  erminca),  are  the  best  known.  The  latter  is  the 
animal  that  furnishes  the  beautiful  white  fur  which  constitutes  such 
an  important  adjunct  to  all  robes  of  state.     This  is  the  winter  coat 


of  the  animal  ;  in  the  summer  it  is  reddish-brown  above,  and  white 
beneath,  but  the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  always  black.  The  Ferret 
{M.  fitro)  is  a  well-known  albino  variety  of  some  species  nearly 
allied  to  the  Polecat,  supposed  to  have  been  originally  a  native  of 
Africa.  It  is  kept  in  this  country  principally  for  the  destruction  of 
vermin,  which  it  pursues  into  their  holes;  and  also  to  drive  Rabbits 
from  their  burrows.  When  employed  for  the  latter  purpose  it  is 
usually  muzzled.  It  is  a  dangerous  inmate,  and  has  more  than 
once  been  known  to  attack  children  sleeping  in  the  cradle,  and  to 
inflict  serious  injuries  upon  them,  in  the  absence  of  the  nurse  or 
mother 

We   have  arranged,  in  the  following  cut  (Fig.  356),  a  group   of 
British  Mustelida;,  typical  of  the  family.     Of  these,  a  is  the  Polecat 

{Mustela  ^itforiics) ;  b,  the  Stoat 
(Mustela  erminca) ;  c,  the  Beech- 
Marten  {Marfes  fagoriim) ;  d,  the 
Ferret  {Mustelafurd) ;  e,  the  Weasel 
{Rhistela  vulgaris).  Fig.  357  repre- 
sents the  Pine-Marten  [Alusicla  abie- 
tiim) ;  Fig.  358,  the  Beech-Marten 
{Hfusfela/agorum). 

The  Polecat,  Fitchet,  or  Foumart, 
is  very  common  in  some  parts  of 
our  island,  where  the  farmer  and 
the  sportsman  make  common  cause 
against  it.  Poultry,  young  and  old. 
Ducks,  Geese,  and  Turkeys  fall  a 
prey  to  its  sanguinary  disposition  : 
it  destroys  all  within  its  reach.  Mr. 
Bell  instances  one  case  in  which 
sixteen  large  Turkeys  were  killed  by 
a  Polecat  during  the  course  of  one 
night ;  and  another  in  which  ten 
Ducks  were  similarly  destroyed  ;  and 
the  perpetrator  of  the  outrage,  when 
in  the  morning  the  door  of  the  out- 
house in  which  they  were  shut  was 
opened,  marched  out  licking  his 
bloody  jaws,  without  the  slightest 
alarm.  Many  similar  instances  have 
come  under  our  own  personal  know- 
ledge. The  predilection  of  the  Pole- 
cat for  the  brains  and  the  blood  of 
poultry  is  well  known :  it  seldom 
touches  the  rest  of  the  carcass  ;  and 
we  may  here  observe  that  Rats  dis- 
play the  same  taste  for  the  brains  of 
birds.  We  could  adduce  many  in- 
stances, within  our  own  knowledge, 
in  which  birds  kept  in  aviaries  have 
been  destroyed  by  Rats,  the  brain  of 
the  victims  being  in  every  case  eaten 
out  of  the  skull. 

It  is  generally  in  w-inter  that  the 
Polecat  haunts  the  farm-yard.  In 
summer  it  resorts  to  plantations, 
woods,  and  preserves  of  game,  where 
it  makes  havoc  among  Leverets, 
young  Partridges,  and  Pheasants  ; 
nor  arc  the  nests  of  birds  safe  from 
its  attacks,  the  eggs  or  callow  brood 
being  equally  acceptable.  No  ani- 
mal is  more  pernicious  in  the  Rabbit- 
warren.  It  can  follow  its  prey  through 
their  subterranean  galleries,  which 
the  Fox  cannot  do  ;  besides  which, 
its  love  of  slaughter  seems  insatiable. 
It  would  appear  that  even  the  tenants 
of  the  water  are  not  safe  from  its 
attacks.  Mr.  Bewick,  on  his  own 
~^'—  ■  testimony,    affirms   that   in    one    in- 

stance eleven  fine  Eels  were  dis- 
covered in  the  retreat  of  a  Polecat 
near  a  rivulet,  to  which  its  nocturnal 
visits  were  rendered  apparent  by  tracks  in  the  snow,  both  of  its  feet 
and  of  the  writhing  Eels.  In  Loudon's  "  Magazine  "  (vol.  vi.,  p.  206), 
an  instance  is  related  in  which  the  nest  of  a  female  Polecat  was 
opened  containing  five  young  ones,  while  in  a  side  hole  w'ere  packed 
forty  large  Frogs  and  two  Toads,  barely  alive,  each  having  been 
paralysed  by  a  bite  through  the  brain.  When  attacked  by  Dog  or 
man,  the  Polecat  makes  a  vigorous  resistance,  and  will  defend 
itself  to  the  last.  The  female  breeds  in  the  spring,  making  a  nest 
of  dry  grass  in  her  burrow.  The  young  are  from  three  to  five  in 
number.  The  adult  Polecat  measures  about  I  foot  4  or  5 
inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  measures  nearly  6 
inches.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  woolly  under-coat ;  and  this,  with 
the  base  of  the  long  hairs,  which  form   an  outer  garment,  is  of  a 


THE  FERRET,   WEASEL,  AND    ST0A7. 


U7 


pale  yellow  ;  the  extremities  of  the  long-  hairs  are  of  a  deep  glossy 
blackish-brown  ;  the  margins  of  the  ears  and  part  of  the  lips  are 
white.  Though  by  no  means  so  valuable  as  that  of  the  Sable  or 
Marten,  the  fur  of  this  animal  (known  generally  by  the  name  of 
Fitch)  is  imported  very  extensively  from  the  north  of  Europe,  and  is 
abundant  in  the  furriers'  shops  of  our  metropolis. 

The  Ferret  is  closely  allied  to  the  Polecat ;  so  closely,  indeed, 
that  many  naturalists  regard  them  as  the  same  species,  the  more 


Fig.  357. — Pine-Marten. 

especially  as  a  mixed  breed  between  them  may  be  procured.  We 
do  not,  however,  consider  this  opinion  to  be  correct.  The  Polecat  is 
a  native  of  temperate  and  northern  Europe  ;  the  Ferret,  of  Africa, 
whence,  as  we  are  told  by  Strabo,  it  was  imported  into  Spain  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  Rabbits,  with  which,  at  one  period,  that 
country  was  injuriously  overrun.  From  Spain  it  has  spread  through 
the  rest  of  Europe,  not  as  a  wild,  but  as  a  domesticated  animal. 

From  the  earliest  times  it  was  used  in  the  capture  of  Rabbits  by 
being  turned,  muzzled,  into  their  burrows.  Pliny  alludes  to  this 
practice  in  his  eighth  book.  The  ordinary  colour  of  the  Ferret  is 
yellowish-white  ;  but  we  have  frequently  seen  specimens  of  a  brown 
colour :  these,  indeed,  were  said  to  be  of  the  mixed  breed  between 


Fig.  358.— Beech-Marten. 

the  Polecat  and  the  Ferret ;  and  probably  were  so,  as  they  were 
always  larger  and  stouter  than  the  white.  One  of  the  brown  kind, 
in  the  possession  of  a  relative  of  the  writer's,  was  so  tame  as  to  be 
allowed  the  liberty  of  the  house,  and  it  slept  in  his  chamber — a 
dangerous  experiment,  as  instances  have  been  known  of  their 
attacking  persons  and  wounding  them  severely.  An  instance  in 
which  an  infant  nearly  fell  a  sacrifice  to  a  Ferret  is  related  by  Mr. 
Jesse,  in  his  "  Gleanings,"  and  quoted  by  Mr.  Bell.  The  child  had 
the  jugular  vein  and  the  temporal  artery  opened  ;  the  face,  neck,  and 
arms  lacerated  ;  and  the  sight  of  one  eye  destroyed.  The  Ferret  is 
not  only  employed  by  the  warrener,  but  also  by  the  Ratcatcher,  who 
prefers  the  mixed  breed. 

The  Ferret  is  very  sensitive  of  cold,  and  requires  to  be  kept  snug 
and  warm,  especially  during  winter,  as  it  perishes  if  exposed  to  the 
severity  of  the  season. 

The  Weasel  {Mtistera  vulgaris)  is  so  well  known,  that  any 
description  of  its  form  and  colour  is  useless.  Small  as  this  animal 
is,  it  has  all  the  courage  and  ferocity  of  its  race,  and  will  preyupon 
Leverets,  Chickens,  young  Pigeons,  and  Ducklings  ;  its  favourite 
food,  however,  are  Mice,  Rats,  Water-Rats,  and  even  Moles.  In  the 
farmer's  stack-yard  and  granary  it  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  and  well 


repays  by  valu.able  services  the  occasional  abstraction  of  a  Chicken, 
a  Pigeon,  or  a  few  eggs.  Of  this,  indeed,  many  farmers  are  well 
aware,  and  encourage  it  for  the  sake  of  the  incessant  warfare  it 
keeps  up  agamst  Mice  and  Rats,  which,  from  their  excessive  num- 
bers, often  occasion  a  serious  loss  in  grain,  besides  undermining  the 
barns  and  outhouses. 

The  \yeasel  climbs  trees  and  runs  up  the  side  of  a  wall  with 
facility,  its  movements  being  singularly  graceful.  When  it  attacks 
its  prey,  it  fixes  its  teeth  on  the  back  of  the  he.ad,  and  pierces  the 
brain,  which  it  then  devours.  It  is  said  to  prefer  putrid  flesh  to  that 
just  killed  ;  but  this  is  very  doubtful,  and  has  arisen  most  probably 
from  the  circumstance  of  dead  birds  in  a  putrid  state  having  been 
found  in  its  hole  or  near  its  retreat,  left  by  their  destroyer.  The 
\Veasel  hunts  by  the  scent,  like  a  Dog ;  and  follows  Mice  and  Moles 
with  the  utmost  perseverance,  tracking  them  through  all  their  runs 
or  winding  galleries.  It  will  even  cross  the  water  in  the  pursuit,  if 
its  prey  be  in  sight ;  nor  does  swiftness  avail,  for  onwards  will  the 
Weasel  travel,  till  its  victim  falls  from  exhaustion.  The  Wolverene 
of  North  America  {Gulo  arctkus)  pursues  the  Beaver  and  other  prey 
in  a  similar  manner. 

Instances  are  on  record  in  which  several  Weasels  have  united  in 
attacking  men,  who  with  difficulty  have  prevented  the  fierce  little 
animal  from  lacerating  their  throats  ;  and  certainly  twelve  or  fifteen 
Weasels  would  prove  no  mean  adversaries. 

The  Weasel  often  falls  a  prey  to  Hawks,  Owls,  and  Kites ;  but 
sometimes  succeeds  in  coming  off  victorious.  Many  anecdotes  are 
on  record  of  Weasels  and  Stoats  bringing  Eagles  or  large  Hawks  to 
the  ground  ;  and  Mr.  Bell  gives  an  instance,  assuring  us  of  its  truth, 
in  which  a  Kite  that  had  seized  a  Weasel  and  mounted  into  the  air, 
was  observed  to  wheel  irregularly,  and  at  length  to  fall  to  the  ground 
dead  ;  the  determined  little  animal  having  torn  open  the  skin  and 
large  blood-vessels  under  its  wing. 

The  Weasel  breeds  two  or  three  times  in  a  3'ear,  having  a  litter  of 
five  at  each  birth.  She  makes  her  nest  of  dry  herbage;  a  hole  in 
the  bank-side,  among  brambles,  or  in  an  aged  tree,  is   the  usual 


Fig.  359.— Teeth  of  Glutton. 

place  of  her  retreat ;  and  when  molested,  she  defends  herself  and  her 
progeny  with  indomitable  courage. 

The  Stoat  [Miisfcla  ermhica)  is  allied  very  closely  to  the  Weasel, 
but  is  considerably  larger,  being  upwards  of  nine  inches  long, 
excluding  the  tail.  Its  habits  are  precisely  those  of  the  Weasel  ;  but 
it  preys  habitually  on  larger  game,  as  Hares,  Leverets,   &c.,  not 

T 


r,8 


THE  GLUTTON. 


excluding  the  Rat  and  Water-Rat.  Of  the  latter,  indeed,  it  destroys 
great  numbers,  following  them  into  their  burrows.  It  hunts  its  prey 
by  the  scent.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  depredation  of  this 
animal  may  be  conceived  from  the  circumstance  of  two  Leverets,  two 
Leverets'  heads,  two  young  Partridges,  and  a  Pheasant's  egg  hnving 
been  found  m  the  retreat  of  one.  .  In  our  climate  the  Stoat  becomes 
partially  white  during  the  winter,  but  in  more  northern  regions  this 
change  is  complete,  the  tip  of  the  tail  alone  remaining  black.  In 
this  state  it  is  called  the  Ermine.  Large  importations  of  Ermine-fur 
are  made  from  Russia,  Norway,  and  Siberia,  to  our  country. 

The  Beech-Marten  {Martesfagoriun,  or  M.  foina)  and  the  Pme- 
Marten  {Martes  abictum)  are  both  natives  of  our  island  ;  but  the 
former,  distinguished  by  a  white  breast,  is  said  to  be  the  most  com- 
mon. The  Pine-Marten  is  distinguished  by  a  yellow  breast  and 
throat.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  specific  distinction 
between  these  two  animals  is  by  no  means  very  apparent,  nor  indeed 


Polecat  in  size,  and  the  tail  is  long  and  bushy.  The  ears  are  large 
and  open,  and  the  eyes  bright  and  lively.  In  general  instincts  they 
agree  with  the  other  Miistelidce. 

Distinct  from  both  of  these,  we  regard  the  American  Pine-Marten, 
characterised  by  a  shorter  tail  and  fuller  fur.  Its  skins  are  annually 
imported  into  England  from  North  America,  where  it  is  abundant  in 
the  high  latitudes.  Dr.  Richardson  observes,  that  in  America 
"  particular  races  of  Martens,  distinguished  by  the  fineness  and 
dark  colour  of  their  fur,  appear  to  inhabit  certain  rocky  districts. 
The  rocky,  mountainous,  but  wooded  region  of  the  Nipogon,  on  the 
north  side  of  Lake  Superior,  has  been  long  noted  for  its  black  and 
valuable  Martens'  skins."  The  animal  is  usually  taken  in  traps 
baited  with  the  head  of  a  bird.  It  is  verj'  bold,  and  when  attacked 
shows  its  teeth,  hisses  like  a  Cat,  and  bites  with  great  severity. 
Another  and  larger  species,  the  Pekan,  or  Fisher  [Martes  Cana- 
densis), is  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  America   ranging  from 


Fig.  360. — Gluttons. 


is  it  admitted  by  many.  We  have  many  times  seen  the  yellow- 
breasted  or  Pine-Marten  in  the  fir-woods  which  clothe  the  sides  of 
some  of  the  hills  in  Derbyshire,  and  especially  near  Buxton.  It 
prefers  wild  and  unfrequented  places,  deep  wooded  glens,  and  the 
depths  of  forests  ;  and  is  common  throughout  northern  Europe.  The 
Beech-Marten  also  frequents  woods,  but  not  so  exclusively  as  the 
former,  and  often  lurks  about  farm-houses  and  destroys^  poultry. 
Both  are  destructive  to  game.  They  take  up  their  retreats  in  hollow 
trees  or  holes  in  rocks,  and  the  female  makes  her  nest  of  leaves  and 
moss  for  her  brood.  The  agility  and  gracefulness  of  these  animals 
are  remarkable  ;  they  climb  trees  with  the  ease  of  the  Squirrel,  and 
traverse  their  branches  or  leap  from  bough  to  bough  with  admirable 
address  and  celerity-  Their  fur,  especially  that  of  the  Pine-Marten, 
is  full,  deep,  and  soft,  and  of  a  beautiful  brown,  and  not  far  inferior 
to  that  of  their  immediate  ally  the  Sable.     The  Marten  exceeds  the 


Pennsylvania  to  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  from  shore  to  shore 
across  the  country.  Its  fur  is  less  valuable  than  that  of  the  former. 
It  gives  preference  to  damp  spots  and  humid  forests  bordering 
water. 

The  Glutton,  or  Wolverene 

{Gulo  arcficus,  Desm.  ;  Gulo  luscus). — Pallas  and  Gmelin  referred 
the  Glutton  to  the  genus  Ursiis  ;  others  to  the  ]\IustelidcE,  as  Linnajus 
regarded  it  as  a  Mitstela.  By  other  naturalists  it  is  placed  under 
the  Melida:,  or  Badgers.  The  dentition  is  shown  in  Fig.  359.  In 
their  general  port  and  figure  the  Gluttons  are  intermediate  between 
the  Polecats  and  the  Badgers.  They  have  no  decided  scent-pouch, 
but  a  glandular  fold  of  the  skin. 

Two  varieties,  perhaps  species,   of  Glutton  are  known  :  one,  a 
native  of  the  high  northern  latitudes  of  the  Old  World  ;  the  other,  of 


THE  GLUTTON  AND  GRISON. 


»39 


and  short  ;^thefcet  sub  plantigrade,  .ith  five  toes,  armed  wah  sharp 


Fig.  361. — Glutton  and  Reindeer. 

claws ;  the  head  broad,  ending  in  a  narrow  muzzle ;  the  ears  are 
short  and  rounded ;  the  tail  moderate.  The  first  writer  who  has 
described  this  animal  is  Olaus  Magnus.  "  Among  all  animals,"  he 
says,  "  which  are  regarded  as  insatiably  voracious,  the  Glutton  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Sweden  has  received  an  express  appellation,  being 
called,  in  the  language  of  the  country,  Jerff ;  and  in  German,  Viel- 
frass.  In  the  Slavonian  language  its  name  is  Rossomaka,  in  allu- 
sion to  its  voracity  ;  in  Latin,  however,  it  is  only  known  by  the 
fictitious  name  of  Gulo,  from  its  habits  of  gorging  (gulo  a  gulositate 
appellatur)." — 01.  Mag.,  "  His.  de  Gent.  Septent." 

The  Glutton  is  indeed  a  voracious  animal,  but  by  no  means 
formidable  to  man  or  the  larger  beasts  ;  though,  in  proportion  to  its 
size,  its  strength  is  very  great.  Slow  in  its  movements,  it  makes  up 
by  perseverance  and  industry  for  this  defect,  and  at  a  steady  pace  pur- 
sues its  prey  for  miles,  hunts  out  weaker  dying  animals,  and  destroys 
Hares,  Marmots,  and  Birds,  which  it  seizes  unawares.     (Fig.  360.) 

Buffon,  relying  on  the  authority  of  Olaus  Magnus,  Isbrandt,  and 
others,  has  contributed  to  render  current  the  statement  (which  many 
later  naturalists  have  deemed  not  incredible),  that  the  Glutton  has 
recourse  to  the  most  subtle  artifice  in  order  to  surprise  its  victims, 
and  that  it  lurks  in  the  branches  of  trees  until  the  Reindeer 
approaches  to  browse  beneath,  when  it  throws  itself  upon  the 
unsuspecting  animal  with  unerring  rapidity,  fi.xes  its  strong  claws  in 
the  skin,  and  proceeds  to  tear  the  neck  and  throat  till  the  wretched 
victim  falls  exhausted  and  dies,  when  the  victor  devours  his  prey  at 
leisure.  Gmelin,  in  his  account  of  his  journey  through  Siberia,  after 
quoting  the  statement  of  Isbrandt,  adds,  "  This  address  of  the 
Glutton  managing  to  seize  animals  by  surprise  is  confirmed  by  all 
hunters."  »  •  »  "Although  it  feeds  on  all  animals,  living  or 
dead,  it  prefers  the  Reindeer.  It  lies  in  wait  for  large  animals  as 
a  robber  on  the  highway,  and  it  also  surprises  them  as  they  lie 
asleep."  (See  Fig.  361.)  To  the  circumstance  of  the  Glutton  fixing 
on  the  Reindeer,  and  also  the  Elk,  Desraarest  expressly  alludes, 
evidently  relying  on  the  narratives  of  the  earlier  writers.  On  the 
contrary,   Dr.    Richardson,  in    his  able    history  of  the  American 


Glutton  or  Wolverene,  affirms  that  no  such  artifice  is  resorted  to  by 
that  variety  ;  and  he  appears  altogether  to  disbelieve  the  account. 
No  doubt  the  details  have  been  exaggerated;  still  we  arc  not 
alto'^'cthcr  to  throw  aside  the  assurances  of  old  travellers  of  credit ; 
indeed  wc  think  it  very  probable  that  the  Glutton  may  steal 
uDon  tire  Reindeer  asleep,  or  attack  enfeebled  or  dying  Deer,  or 
^  young    fawns,   and    fixing   on   the 

great  blood-vessels   of   the   throat 
(as  the  Weasel  docs  when  attack- 
ing   the    Hare),  thus    destroy    its 
victims.     Gmelin,  Dr.  Richardson, 
and    Mr.    Graham    agree    in    the 
fact  that  the  Glutton   is  extremely 
annoying  to  the  fur-hunters,  visit- 
ing their  traps  and  devouring  the 
animals  taken  in  them.     In  Siberia 
it  rifles  the  traps  of  the  Sable  and 
Corsac  Fox  ;  and,  as  Mr.  Graham 
observes,    in  Northern   America  it 
will   follow   "the    IMartcn-hunter's 
path  round  a  line  of  traps  extend- 
ing forty,  fifty,  or  sixty  miles,  and 
render    the     whole     unserviceable 
merely  to  come  at  the  baits,  which 
are   generally  the   head  of  a  Par- 
tridge  on  a   bit  of  dried   venison. 
They  are  not  fond  of  the  Martens 
themselves,  but  never  fail  of  tear- 
ing them  in  pieces,   or  of  burj-ing 
them  in  the  snow  by  the  side  of  the 
path,    at   a    considerable   distance 
from  the  trap.     Drifts  of  snow  often 
conceal  the  repositories  thus  made, 
in  which  case  they  furnish  a  regale 
to  the  hungry  Fox,  whose    sagaci- 
ous nostril  guides   him   unerringly 
to  the  spot.     Two  or  three   Foxes 
are  often  seen  following  the  Wolve- 
rene for  this  purpose."     During  the 
summer  the  Beaver  is  the  common 
prey  of  this  animal. 

The  Glutton  is  nocturnal,  cun- 
ning, and  determined  :  it  fights 
very  resolutely,  and  is  more  than  a 
match  for  a  single  Dog,  its  strength 
being  very  great.  Its  fur  is  in  much 
request,  especially  that  of  the  Sibe- 
rian  animal,    which    is    dark    and 

beautifully  glossy.     The  length  of 

the  Glutton,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 

is  about  2  feet  6  inches  ;    that  of 

the   tail,    including    the   long   fur, 

10  inches.     The  female  breeds  once  a  year,  the  cubs  being  from 

two  to  four   in   number.     Their  fur  is  soft,  downy,  and  of  a  pale 

yellowish-white. 

The  Grison 
[Galicfis    vittata,    Bell);     Gulo    vittatus,     Desmarcst ;     Vivcrra 
vMata,   Linn.  ;    Petit furet,  D'Azara  ;     Grisonia  vittata,    Gray  ; 


Fig.  362. — Grison. 

Liitra  vitiafa.  Trail ;  Ursus  Braziliensis,  Thunbcrg ;  Fouine  de 
la  Gityane,  Buff.  "  Suppl.  III."  The  Grison  is  a  native  of  the 
intertropical  provinces  of  America,  Guiana,  Paraguay,  and  Brazil. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  sanguinary  and  fierce  disposition,  and  the 


140 


THE  SKUNK— THE  RATELS. 


disgusting  odour  of  the  secretion  of  its  scent-glands.  (See  Fig.  362.) 
In  its  figure  the  Grison  is  very  elongated,  the  head  is  flat,  and  the 
muzzle  somewhat  acute  ;  the  general  colour  is  grizzled  black  ;  the 
top  of  the  head  and  neck  grey,  with  a  white  semi-lunar  shaped  band 
across  the  forehead,  extending  to  the  shoulders.  Length  of  body, 
I  foot  6  inches  ;  of  tail,  6i  inches.  A  second  and  larger  species  has 
been  characterised  by  M'r.  Bell,  under  the  name  of" Ga//c//>  ^//«- 
7na?idi.  Linnaeus  applied  the  name  of  Mustcla  barbafa  to  a  large 
musteline  animal  inhabiting  the  woods  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay, 
which  Azara  denominated  the  Grand  Furet,  and  Pennant  the  Guiana 
Weasel.  By  Desmarest  it  is  referred  to  the  genus  Giilo,  and  is 
termed  Gulo  Barbulus.  This  animal  is  the  Tayra,  or  Galera  of 
Brown;  but  the  latter  animal  is  larger  than  the  Grison.  To  the 
musteline  group  belong  the  Zorilles  of  Africa  :  most  writers  seem  to 
consider  the  Zorille  as  constituting  a  single  species  {Zorilhi 
Capensis).  We  are,  however,  of  opinion  that  the  Cape  species  is 
different  from  that  which  we  have  seen  repeatedly  from  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.  The  Senegal  Zorille  is  stated  to  differ  from  the  Cape 
animal.  The  Zorille  is  less  than  the  Polecat,  and,  like  that  animal, 
is  fierce  and  e.xceedingly  active.  It  dwells  in  burrows,  which  it  digs 
in  the  ground,  concealing  itself  during  the  day.  The  colour  of  the 
back  is  an  irregular  mixture  of  black  and  white  in  broken  or  indefinite 
lines.  The  head,  sides,  and  under-surface  are  black,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  white  oval  spot  on  the  forehead,  and  a  white  mark  over 
each  eye.  To  this  genus  is  apparently  rcfcrrable  a  species  from 
Madagascar,  Mustela  striata,  Geoff. ;  Putorius  striatus,  Cuv.  ; 
Galictis  striata  of  Isidore  Geoffroy. 

The  Skunk 

{Mephitis  Americana,  M.  putorius). — Several  species  of  these 
animals,  called  Mouffettes,  Mephitic  Weasels,  Betes  puantes, 
Enfants  du  Diable,  &c.,  are  natives  of  America.  These  animals 
are  notorious  for  the  intolerable  odour  of  the  secretion  of  their 
glandular  pouches,  which  neither  man  nor  Dog  can  endure.  The 
head  is  small,  the  snout  pointed,  the  body  robust  and  covered  with 
long  coarse  hair,  the  tail  rather  long  and  very  bushy.  The  general 
colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  white,  interrupted  by  a  stripe,  more  or 
less  broad,  of  black  along  the  spine  ;  the  limbs  and  under-surface 
are  black.  According  to  Kalm,  the  Skunk  of  North  America 
"  brings  forth  its  young  in  the  hollows  of  trees  and  in  burrows  ;  it  is 
not  confined  to  the  ground,  but  climbs  trees  ,  it  is  an  enemy  to  birds  ; 
it  destroys  their  eggs,  and  also  devours  their  young ;  and  when  it 
can  enter  the  poultry-roost  it  makes  great  destruction.     When  it  is 


fear  to  attack  it,  and  flee  when  touched  by  a  drop."  (Fig.  363.) 
Mr.  Graham  confirms  this  account,  and  says  that  he  knew'sevcral 
Indians  who  had  lost  their  eyesight  in  consequence  of  inflammat 
produced  by  this  fluid  having  been  thrown  into  them  by  the 


ion 
anima'. 


Fig.  363. — Skunk  driving  away  a  Dog. 

chased,  either  by  men  or  Dogs,  it  runs  as  far  as  it  can,  or  climbs  a 
tree  ;  but  when  it  finds  itself  hard  pressed,  it  ejects  its  fluid  against 
its  pursuers  :  the  odour  of  this  is  so  strong  as  to  suffocate  ;  if  a  drop 
of  this  pestilential  secretion  falls  in  the  eyes,  it  is  at  the  risk  of 
losing  sight  ;  and  when  it  falls  on  the  clothes,  it  communicates  an 
odour  so  powerful,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  got  rid  of  it ;  most  Dogs 


F'2'  364.  -Teeth  of  Ratel. 

which  has  the  power  of  ejecting  it  to  the  distance  of  upwards  of  foui 
feet.  The  odour  produces  nausea,  a  sense  of  suffocation,  and  not 
unfrequently  fainting.  With  all  this,  however,  the  Skunk  is  often 
taken  young  and  tamed,  when  the  animal  seldom  gives  out  its  pesti- 
lential secretion  ;  its  flesh,  moreover,  is 
very  frequently  eaten,  and  is  said  to  be 
well  flavoured.  It  appears  that  when 
the  natives  kill  a  Skunk,  they  remove 
the  whole  of  the  glandular  sacs,  in  order 
that  no  unpleasant  smell  or  flavour  may 
be  communicated  to  the  flesh.  In  the 
northern  latitudes  the  Skunk  passes  its 
winter  in  a  hole,  seldom  stirring  abroad, 
and  then  only  for  a  short  distance.  It 
preys  on  young  Hares,  Rats,  and  Mice, 
and  has  been  observed  to  feed  on  Frogs. 
The  Skunk  is  about  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is 
nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  Besides 
the  common  Skunk  {Mephitis  Amcri- 
cana),  other  species  exist. 

The  Cape  Ratel 

[Ratelus  Capensis,  F.  Cuv.) ;  Mellivora 
Capensis,  Storr ;  Viverra  7)iellivora, 
and  Ursus  7nellivorics ,  Blumenb.  ; 
Taxiis  meliivorus,  Tiedem.  ;  Aides 
^nellivora,  Thunberg  ;  Ratel,  Sparrman  ; 
Honey-Weasel,  Shaw. — In  their  denti- 
tion, the  Ratels  closely  approximate  to 
the  true  Badgers  [Jilelcs),  excepting 
that  the  last  molar  is  smaller  and  nar- 
rower in  proportion  from  its  anterior  to  its 
posterior  edge  (see  Fig.364).  Manynatu- 
ralists  place  them  among  the  Badgers. 

The  Cape  Ratel  is  a  thick-set  clumsy 
animal,  with  short  limbs,  and  a  partially 
plantigrade  walk.  The  claws  are  very 
robust,  the  muzzle  is  elongated,  the  eyes 
are  small  and  sunk,  and  the  external 
ears  nearly  rudimentary  ;  the  general  aspect  is  Badger-like.  The 
Cape  Ratel  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  and  has  been  celebrated  for 
the  destruction  it  makes  among  the  nests  of  the  Wild  Bee,  to  the 
honey  of  which  it  is  very  partial.  Doubtless,  however,  it  avails 
itself  of  other  food,  and  probably,  like  the  Badger,  devours  flesh  and 
roots.     In  the  discovery  of  Bees'-nests,  it  is  said  to  be  directed  by 


THE  RATELS—THE  BADGER. 


141 


the  actions  and  voice  of  a  bird  termed  the  Honey-.c:uide  {Indicator 
Vaillantii).  These  insects,  in  South  Africa,  usually  build  their  cells 
in  the  deserted  excavations  of  the  Wild  Boar  or  the  Porcupnie,  and 
from  these  the  Ratel  digs  out  its  plunder.  It  preys  chiefly  in  the 
evening,  remaining  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  day  in  its 
burrow.  When  taken  young  it  is  easily  domesticated.  The  hide 
of  the  Ratel  is  extremely  tough  and  loose  ;  and,  according  to  Sparr- 
man,  if  a  person  catches  hold  of  it  by  the  back  part  of  the  neck, 
it  is  able  to  turn  round,  as  it  were,  in  its  skin,  and  bite  the  arm  that 
molests  it. 

The  Cape  Ratel  is  about  2  feet  6  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the 
tail,  which  is  about  8  inches.     The  general  colour  above  is  grey. 


iiij.  j'Jj. — Cape  Raid. 

the  under-parts  black,  and  a  white  line  runs  on  each  side  from  the 
ears  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  abruptly  dividing  these  two  colours. 
(See  Fig.  365.) 

The  Indian  Ratel 

{Rafelus  Indiciis). — This  species,  though  known  to  Pennant  and 
Shaw  (who  termed  it  Ursics  Jndicus),  was  not  then  recognised  as  a 
distinct  species.  Lesson  was  not  aware  of  the  difference — nay, 
neither  he  nor  Desmarest  appears  to  have  known  of  the  existence  of 
the  Indian  Ratel ;  and  General  Hardwicke,  who  figured  it  in  the 
"Linn.  Trans.,"  vol.  xi.,  makes  no  allusion  to  the  Cape  Ratel, 
apparently  overlooking  their  relationship.  Mr.  Bennett  observes 
that  the  only  difference  he  has  been  able  to  detect  between  the 
Asiatic  and  African  animals,  consists  in  the  absence  of  the  white 
line  dividing  the  two  colours  in  the  Indian  species,  and  which  are 
not  so  abrupt.  The  absence  of  this  line  we  consider  to  have  been 
an  individual  peculiarity.     The  Indian  Ratel  is  a  native  of  various 


Fig.  366. — Indian  Ratel. 

provinces  of  India,  on  the  high  banks  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna, 
where  it  rarely  comes  forth  from  its  burrow  by  day,  but  prowls  at 
night  about  the  houses  of  the  natives,  enters  the  cemeteries,  and 
with  extraordinary  celerity  works  its  way  to  the  bodies  recently 
interred,  which  it  greedily  devours.  It  feeds  also  upon  Rats,  Birds, 
&c.  When  taken  young,  the  Indian  Ratel  is  easily  tamed  and  be- 
comes playful.  It  is  fond  of  climbing,  but  its  actions  are  clumsy, 
though  it  securely  traverses  the  larger  branches.  Its  voice  is  a  deep' 
hoarse,  guttural  bark.     (See  Fig.  366.) 


The  following  description  of  a  specimen  from  Madras  is  from  the 
pen  of  Mr.  Bennett  : — "  As  far  as  its  manners  have  been  developed, 
it  appears  to  be,  with  regard  to  man  at  least,  one  of  the  most  play- 
ful and  good-tempered  of  beasts,  soliciting  the  attention  of  almost 
every  visitor  by  throwing  its  clumsy  body  into  a  variety  of  antic 
postures,  and,  when  noticed,  tumbling  head  over  heels  with  every 
symptom  of  delight.  But  towards  animals  it  exhibits  no  such  mild- 
ness of  temper  ;  and  it  is  curious  to  observe  the  Cat-like  eagerness 
with  which  it  watches  the  motions  of  any  of  the  smaller  among 
them  that  happen  to  pass  before  its  den,  and  the  instinctive  dread 
manifested  by  the  latter  on  perceiving  it.  Its  food  is  of  a  mixed 
nature,  onsisting,  like  that  of  the  Bears  and  other  less  carnivorous 
beasts,  of  bread  and  milk  in  the  morning,  and  flesh  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  day." 

Allied  to  the  Ratels  is  the  Teledu  {Mydaus  meliceps),  an  animal 
confined  to  the  mountain  districts  of  Java,  and  which  resembles  the 
Badger  in  its  habits.  It  is  well  described  by  Dr.  HorsCcld  in  the 
"  Zoological  Researches." 

The  Badger 

{Mdes  vulgaris,  or  Meles  taxus). — As  already  mentioned  at  p.  S7, 
ante,  the  Badgers,  or  Melidcc,  have  been  placed  by  some  zoologists 
among  the  Weasels,  and  by  others  among  the  Bears  ;  yet  is  there 
still  an  important  line  of  demarcation.  All  the  Ursida;  have  two 
true  molars  ;  in  the  true  Ursine  group  the  posterior  molar  is  long  ; 
in  the  aberrant  group,  moXMi^m'^  Ailiiriis,  Procyon,  Nasua,  and 
Cercoleptes,  the  two  molars  are  nearly  equal  in  size.  In  the 
Badger,  the  Ratel,  &c.,  as  in  the  Polecats,  there  is  but  one  true 


Fig.  367. — Teet^i  of  Badger. 

molar.  That  of  the  upper  jaw  in  the  Badger  is  very  large  (see  Fig. 
367,  the  teeth  of  the  Badger),  and  adapted  for  the  mastication  of 
vegetable  aliment. 

The  Badger  is  extensively  spread  through  Europe  and  Asia  ;  it  is 
recluse  and  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  frequenting  deep  w'oods,  where 
it  makes  a  deep  commodious  burrow,  for  the  excavation  of  which 
its  short  muscular  limbs  and  powerful  claws  are  well  adapted.  The 
burrow  has  only  one  entrance,  leading  into  different  chambers,  and 
terminating  in  one  of  a  circular  form,  which  is  comfortably  lined 
with  grass  and  hay.  Here  the  animal  spends  the  day  in  repose, 
moving  out  only  at  night,  in  search  of  food.  It  feeds  upon  roots, 
fruits,  insects,  Frogs,  young  Rabbits,  Field-Mice,  &c.,  as  well  as 
upon  the  eggs  and  young  of  Partridges  and  Pheasants,  &c.  It  is 
said  to  attack  the  nests  of  the  Wild  Bee,  plundering  the  store  of 
honey,  and  also  devouring  the  larva;,  without  dread  of  the  stings 
of  the  enraged  insects,  which  cannot  penetrate  its  thick  tough  skin. 

The  Badger  measures  about  2  feet  3  inches  in  the  length  of  the 
head  and  body,  that  of  the  tail  being  7^  inches.  The  head  is  long 
and  pointed  (see  Fig.  368),  the  ears  close,  the  body  broad,  stout, 
and  low,  the  hair  trailing  along  the  ground  as  the  animal  moves 
along.  The  fur  is  full,  coarse,  and  deep  ;  its  general  colour  above 
is  brownish-grey,  lighter  on  the  sides  and  tail  :  the  under-parts  are 
black,  as  are  also  the  legs  and  icet.     The  head  is  white,   with  a 


142 


THE  BADGER. 


black  stripe  extending  from  the  shoulder  over  the  oar  and  eye  almost 
to  the  muzzle  From  its  colour,  this  animal  is  in  some  parts  called 
the  Grey;  its  old  Anglo-Saxon  name  is  Broc,  a  word  still  retained 
in  Scotland  and  the  adjacent  counties  of  England.  It  has  a  glan- 
dular sub-caudal  pouch.  The  Badger  is  by  no  means  active  or  alert, 
and  is  generally  observed  to  be  very  fat,  as  is  the  case  with  most 


Fig.  36S. — Common  Badger. 

animals  that  lead  a  tranquil,  indolent  life,  and  feed  upon  vegetable 
as  well  as  animal  diet.  It  is  nowhere  very  common,  especially  in 
the  more  cultivated  countries,  where  the  woods  are  thinned,  and  its 
solitudes  invaded  by  the  axe.     (See  Fig.  368.) 

The  female  produces  from  three  to  five  young  in  the  summer, 
having  prepared  a  nest  in  her  deep  burrow  for  their  reception. 
They  are  nursed  for  five  or  six  weeks,  and  then  begin  to  shift  for 
themselves.  When  taken  at  an  early  age,  the  Badger  maybe  tamed 
with  little  trouble,  and  soon  becomes  playful,  and  very  attached  to 
its  keepers.  Though  harmless  and  indisposed  to  enter  unneces- 
sarily into  a  combat,  yet  it  shows,  when  assaulted,  great  spirit  and 
resolution,  and  is  no  mean  antagonist  for  a  Dog  twice  its  own 
weight  to  grapple  with ;  its  general  muscular  power  is  great ;  its 
skin  is   loose  and  tough,  and  well  protected  by  coarse  shaggy  fur. 


it  permanently  in  its  place.  From  its  prowess  and  bodily  qualifica- 
tions the  Badger  was  formerly  in  much  request  for  the  brutal  sport  of 
baiting,  a  favourite  and  exciting  pastime,  gratifying  to  those  who  are 
indifferent  to  the  pain  they  inflict,  and  incapable  of  purer  pleasures. 
The  skin  of  the  Badger  is  not  without  value  in  commerce.  It 
makes  excellent  pistol-holsters,  and  the  hair  is  used  for  painters' 
brushes,  and  various  other  purposes.  The  flesh,  or  at  least  the  hams, 
of  this  animal  are  said  to  be  palatable,  and  to  resemble  those  of  the 
Bear,  for  which  a  relish  has  been  felt  or  affected  by  sportsmen  epi- 
cures. In  China,  the  Badger,  as  "  Honest  John  Bell,"  the  travel- 
ler, states,  maybe  seen  in  the  meat-markets  by  dozens.  In  America, 
a  species  of  Badger,  the  Mclcs  Labradorica,  is  widely  spread  ; 
this  species,  according  to  some  naturalists,  forms  the  type  of  a 
distinct  family,  the  2\iX!dcB. 

The  Indian  Badger 

fArctonyx  collaris,  F.  Cuv.) ;  Meles  collaris ;  Balloo-soor,  Hindus- 
tanee. — This  animal  was  first  described  and  figured  by  Bewick,  in 


Fig.  369. — Badgers  in  their  Burrow. 

and  its  bite  is  dreadfully  severe  ;  indeed  the  jaws  are  endowed  with 
astonishing  strength,  and  the  lower  one,  at  its  joint  or  hinge  with 
the  skull,  "is  so  locked  as  to  be  inseparable,  the  cavity  into  which 
the  condyle  is  fitted  being  modified  in  such  a  manner  as  to  retain 


Fig.  370. — Indian  Badger. 

his  "History  of  Quadrupeds"  (from  a  living  specimen  kept  in  the 
Tower  about  the  year  1790),  under  the  title  of  Sand-Bear.  Bewick 
at  once  recognised  its  affinity  to  the  Badger  ;    but,  ignorant  of  the 

country  from  which  it  was 
brought,  suspected  it  to  be  the 
white  Badger  of  North  America 
described  by  Brisson ;  a  mis- 
take w'e  may  readily  pardon. 
Not  aware  that  any  English 
writer  had  described  it,  Duvau- 
cel,  who  saw  two  individuals  at 
Barrackpore,  in  the  menagerie 
of  the  governor-general,  con- 
sidered the  species  as  altogether 
new.  Fred.  Cuvier  regarded  it 
as  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus. 
(See  Fig.  370.) 

The  size  of  the  Sand-Hog,  for 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  term 
balloo-soor  (not  Bali-saur,  as 
Duvaucel  writes  it,  nor  Bhalloo- 
soor,  which  signifies  Bear-Pig), 
is  that  of  a  Badger  ;  but  it  stands 
higher  on  the  legs,  and  its  snout 
is  elongated  and  truncated  at  the 
extremity  like  that  of  a  Hog. 
The  ears  are  small,  covered  with 
hair,  and  surrounded  by  a  circle 
of  white.  The  muzzle  is  flesh- 
colour,  and  nearly  naked  ;  two 
black  bands  run  on  each  side  of 
the  head,  and  unite  near  the 
muzzle;  the  larger  of  these  bands 
on  each  side  passes  round  the 
eye  to  the  ear,  and  along  the 
neck  and  shoulder,  to  unite  with 
the  black  colour  prevailing  on 
the  fore-limbs.  The  general 
colour  of  the  body  above  is  yel- 
lowish-white, the  hairs  on  the 
back  being  coarse  and  tipped 
with  black.  The  under-surface 
is  very  thinly  clothed,  and  the 
tail  resembles  that  of  a  Hog. 
The  toes  (five  on  each  foot)  are 
united  together  their  whole  length,  and  armed  with  large  strong 
claws  adapted  for  digging.  Of  the  habits  of  this  animal  in  its 
natural  condition  little  is  known.  The  individuals,  a  male  and 
female,  observed  in  the  menagerie  of  the  governor-general  at  Bar- 


THE  OTTER. 


>43 


rackpore  by  Duvaucel,  were  remarkably  shy  and  wild.  The  female, 
however,  was  less  savag-e  than  the  male,  and  showed  a  certain 
degree  of  intelligence,  which  gave  reason  to  believe  that,  if  taken 
young,  this  animal  might  be  easily  domesticated.  They  passed  the 
greater  part  of  the  day  buried  beneath  the  straw  of  their  den  in  deep 
sleep.  All  their  movements  were  remarkably  slow.  Though  they  did 
not  altogether  refuse  animal  food,  yet  they  exhibited  a  marked  pre- 
dilection for  bread,  fruits,  and  other  substances  of  a  vegetable  nature. 
When  irritated,  they  uttered  a  peculiar  kind  of  grunting  noise,  and 
bristled  up  the  hair  of  their  back ;  if  still  further  tormented,  they 
would  raise  themselves  upon  their  hind-legs  like  a  Bear,  and  ap- 
peared, like  that  animal,  to  possess  a  power  in  their  arms  and  claws 
not  less  formidable  than  their  teeth.  This  is  confirmed  by  Mr.  John- 
son, in  his  "  Sketches  of  Indian 
Field  -  Sports." — "Badgers  in 
India,"  says  he,  "are  marked 
exactly  like  those  in  England  ; 
but  they  are  larger  and  taller, 
are  exceedingly  fierce,  and  wi' 
attack  a  number  of  Dogs.  I  have 
seen  Dogs  that  would  attack  a 
Hyrena  or  Wolf  afraid  to  en- 
counter them.  They  are  scarce, 
but  occasionally  to  be  met  with 
among  the  hills." 

The  Otter 

{Ltitra  vulgaris) ;  Miistela  Lu- 
tra,  Linn. — This,  there  can  be 
little  doubt,  is  the  Iwopk  (Enhy- 
dris)  of  Aristotle  and  the  Greeks, 
and  the  Lutra  of  the  ancient  Itali- 
ans. It  is  the  Lodra,  Lodria,  and 
Lontra  of  the  modern  Italians ; 
Nutria  and  Lutra  of  the  Span- 
ish ;  Loutre  of  the  French  ;  Otter 
and  Fisch  Otter  of  the  Germans  ; 
Otter  of  the  Dutch  ;  Utter  of  the 
Swedes  ;  Odder  of  the  Danes  ; 
Dyfigi  of  the  Welsh  ;  Balgair, 
Cu-donn  (Brown  Dog),  and  Ma- 
tadh  of  the  Northern  Celts  ;  and 
Otter  of  the  modern  British. 
{See  Fig.  371.) 

The  Otters  constitute  an  aqua- 
tic group  of  the  Musielcs ;  in- 
deed, many  of  the  true  Weasels 
resort  occasionally  to  the  water 
in  quest  of  prey  ;  the  Vison  of 
North  America  {Altisiela  visotz), 
and  a  near  ally,  the  Musiela 
lutrcola  of  northern  Europe 
and  Asia,  for  example,  are  aqua- 
tic and  Otter-like  in  their  habits ; 
and  appro.^imate  to  the  Otter  in 
form. 

The  Otters   are  distinguished 
by  the  peculiar  breadth  and  flatness  of  the  head,  and  the  rounded 
outline  of  the  muzzle  ;  the  lips  being  large  and  fleshy,  and  furnished 
with   strong  whiskers,  which   are  evidently  the    communicators  of 
feeling  ;  the  ears  are  very  small,  and  close  to  the  skull ;  and  the 
eyes,  of  moderate  size,  are  provided  with  a  nictitating  membrane 
as  a  defence   to  their  surface.      The   tail,  which  ia  most  aquatic 
Maminalia  is  an  important  instrument,  is  long, 
but  very  stout  and  muscular  at  the  base,  some- 
what   compressed    horizontally,    and    tapering 
gradually  to  the  extremity.     In   swimming  and 
diving    it    is  used  as  a   rudder,   enabling    the 
animal  to  turn  rapidly  and  abruptly,  and  assist- 
ing it  to  perform  its  varied  and  graceful  ma- 
noeuvres while  in  chase  of  its  finny  prey.     The 
tongue  is  somewhat  rough.     The  body  is  elon- 
gated and  flattened,  and  the  limbs  are  short  and 
stout ;  the  toes  (five  on  each  foot)  are  webbed, 
and  spreading  ;  the  soles  are  naked.     On  land 
the  progression  of  the  Otter  is  plantigrade,  and 
by  no  means  free  or  rapid  :    hence  it  trusts  to 
tire  water  for  safety,  makmg  to  it  when  attacked  or  in  any  danger. 
The  fur  of  these  animals  at  once  indicates  their  aquatic  habits  ;  it 
is  close,  short,  and  fine,  consisting  of  a  thick  woolly  under-coat,  and 
an  upper  layer  of  smooth  glossy  hairs.     In  their  dentition  (Fig.  373) 
the  Otters  differ  little  from  the  Polecats,  Martens,  and  Skunks,  the 

false   molars    being   5^^ ;  carnassiere,  i^li.  :     tuberculous,   IZ—- 
3-3  i-i  i-i 

Fig.  372  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  common  European  Otter. 


This  well-known  species  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  Europe,  but  abounds  also  on  mnny  parts  of  the  coast,  and 
is  common  on  the  shores  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  on  the 
rocky  Hebrides  and  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  dwells  in  hollows  and 
caverns,  going  out  to  sea  to  fish,  or  entering  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
and  making  sad  havoc  among  the  Salmon ;  on  which  account,  in 
Antrim,_  where  it  hides  among  the  basaltic  masses  on  the  cast  coast, 
a  price  is  set  upon  its  head.  The  Otter  is  nocturnal,  night  being 
the  period  in  which  it  carries  on  its  work  of  slaughter  ;  sly  and 
recluse,  it  lurks  by  day  in  its  deep  burrow,  the  mouth  of  which  is  con- 
cealed among  masses  of  stone,  the  luxuriant  herbage  of  some  steep 
bank  which  overhangs  the  water,  or  beneath  the  twisted  roots  of  an 
overshadowing  tree. 


Fig-  37I-— The  Otter. 

The  movements  of  the  Otter  in  the  water  are  remarkably  graceful, 
and  it  swims  at  every  depth  with  great  velocity  ;  every  now  and 
then  it  comes  for  a  moment  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  previously  ex- 
pelling the  air  pent  up  in  its  lungs,  which,  rising  in  bubbles,  mark  its 
sub-aquatic  course.  Having  taken  brsath  afresh,  it  dives  noise- 
lessly like  a  shot,  and  gives  chase   to  its  prey,  which  it  follows 


Fig.  372.— Skeleton  of  European  River  Otter. 

through  every  turn  and  maze,  till  at  length  the  exhausted  victim 
can  no  longer  evade  the  jaws  of  its  rapacious  foe.  Whoever  has 
witnessed  the  feeding  of  those  which  from  time  to  time  have  been 
kept  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  cannot  fail  to  have 
remarked  the  fine  sweep  of  the  body  as  the  animal  plunges  into  the 
water,  its  undulating  movements  while  exploring  its  prey,  the  swift- 
ness and  pertinacity  of  the  pursuit,  and  then  the  easy  turn  to  the 
surface  with  the  captured  booty.  This  is  generally  devoured  before 
the   chase   of   another  fish   is  commenced;    sometimes,   however. 


144 


THE  OTTER. 


instead  of  treating  tliem  thus  separately,  the  Otter  contrives  to 
bring  up  several  at  a  time,  managing  not  only  to  seize  them,  but  to 
carry  them  hanging  from  its  mouth.  In  eating  them  it  commences 
with  the  head,  which  it  crushes  in  an  instant  between  its  teeth. 
Eight  or  ten  moderate-sized  fish  serve  for  a  single  meal  ;  but  it  is 
well  known  that  in  a  state  of  nature  tli.-  (Hier  slaughters  a  much 


l'''S-  373- — Teeth  of  Otter. 


Fig.  374. — Otter-hunting. 


larger  number  of  fish  than  it  devours  :  hence  some  idea  may  be 
formed  of  the  havoc  occasioned  by  a  pair  of  Otters  in  support  of 
themselves  and_  their  young.  Indeed,  the  animal  seldom  devours 
more  of  a  fish  tlian  the  head  and  upper  portion  of  the  body.  When 
fish  is  scarce  the  Otter  will  feed  on  Frogs  and  Water-Rats.  Mr. 
Bell  informs  us,  that  "  when  driven  by  a  scanty  supply  of  fish,  it  has 
been  known  to  resort  far  inland  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  farm- 
yard, and  attack  Iambs,  sucking-pigs,  and  poultry,  thus  assuming 
for  a  time  the  habits  of  its  more  terrestrial  congeners."  In  winter, 
when  the  smaller  streams  and  ponds  are  frozen,  the  Otter  wanders  in 
search  of  places  in  the  river,  the  depth  of  which  secures  them 
against  the  effects  of  the  frost ;  or  travels  down  the  smaller  streams 
to  the  large  river,  into  which  they  merge,  and  there  continues  its 
work  of  destruction. 

It  is  during  the  spring  and  summer  months,  while  the  young  of 
the  Otter  are  dependent  upon  the  mother's  care,  that  the  destruction 
she  makes  among  the  fish  is  most  considerable  ;  she  has  not  only 
her  own  wants,  but  those  of  her  offspring  to  provide  for,  and  her 
exertions  during  the  silent  hours  of  night  are  unremitting.  The 
track  she  leaves  in  the  mud  or  the  soft  soil  on  the  water's  edge,  as 
she  goes  to  and  fro  from  her  retreat,  witnesses  the  extent  of  her 
labours,  and  also  their  success  :  a  fish  preserve,  if  near  her  haunt,  at 
this  season  suffers  immensely  from  her  depredations,  and  is  certain 
to  be  visited  night  after  night  until  none  but  the  smaller  fry  remain. 
The  mill-dams  of  Trout-streams  are  also  favourite  fishing-places  of 
this  cunning  animal,  and  are  often  sadly  thinned  of  the  finest  fish.  Nor 
is  the  injury  done  by  the  Otter  confined  to  the  mere  destruction  of 
fish  for  food ;  its  presence  militates  against  their  increase,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  scared  by  their  enemy  from  their  spawning-places,  and 
prevented  from  depositing  their  spawn  so  as  to  secure  the  vivification 
of  the  ova,  to  the  mortification  of  all  "honest  anglers."  Izaak 
Walton  says,  "  An  Otter  will  sometimes  go  five  or  six  or  ten  miles  a 
night  to  catch  for  her  young  ones,  or  glut  herself  with  fish  :"  but  it 
also  as  often  happens  that  where  the  Otter  finds  a  piece  of  water 
replete  with  prey,  that  it  there  takes  up  its  abode,  and  perhaps 
carries  on  for  weeks,  unsuspected,  its  depredations.  Independently, 
however,  of  the  footsteps  of  the  Otter  betraying  its  residence  in  the 
vicinity,  the  circumstance  of  its  always  voiding  its  spraint,  or  dung, 
on  one  spot  often  leads  to  its  discovery;  the  undigested  remains  of 
fish,  their  bones  and  scales,  denote  the  nature  of  their  devourer  ;  and 
the  alarm  of  an  Otter  in  the  neighbourhood  is  soon  followed  by  a 
search  for  the  delinquent. 

Otter-hunting  was  among  the  favourite  field-sports  of  our  ances- 
tors, and  is  still  eagerly  carried  on  in  the  islands  of  Scotland,  where 
the  difficulties  of  the  chase,  from  the  rocky,  broken  nature  of  the 
shore,  add  to  the  excitement.  Fig.  374  illustrates  an  Otter-hunt 
in  the  Hebrides. 
The  Otter  is  intelligent,  and  when  taken  young  easily  tamed,  and 

may  be  taught  to  assist  the  fisher- 
man by  driving  shoals  to  the 
nets,  or  by  catching  Salmon. 
Daniel,  Bewick,  Shaw,  and  Gold- 
smith record  instances  in  which 
the  Otter  has  been  domesticated ; 
as  do  also  Mr.  Bell  and  Mr.  Mac- 
gillivray.  The  late  Bishop  Heber 
noticed  in  India,  on  one  occa- 
sion, a  number  of  Otters  tethered 
by  long  strings  to  bamboo  stakes 
on  the  water's  edge,  and  was 
informed  that  it  was  customary 
to  keep  them  tame  in  conse- 
quence of  their  utility  in  driving 
the  shoals  of  fish  into  the  nets, 
as  well  as  of  bringing  out  the 
larger  fish  with  their  teeth. 

The  common  European  Otter 
measures  about  2  feet  2  inches 
m  the  length  of  the  head  and 
body,  the  tail  being  1  foot  4 
mches.  Its  usual  weight  is  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  pounds  ; 
but  instances  have  been  known 
m  which  it  has  attained  the 
weight  of  forty  pounds.  Those 
that  frequent  the  sea-coast  are 
generally  larger  and  darker- 
coloured  than  the  Otters  of  in- 
land rivers  or  sheets  of  water. 
The  female  produces  from  three 
to  five  young,  and  is  devoted  to 
them,  nursing  them  with  the 
greatest  assiduity. 

A  variety,  spotted  with  white, 
is  sometimes  seen  :  this  is  re- 
garded by  the  Scotch  peasantry 
as  the  king  of  the  Otters ;   and 


THE  SEA    OTTER— THE  BEAR  FAMILY. 


liS 


they  hold  that  it  bears  a  charmed  life,  and  is  never  killed  without 
the  sudden  death  of  some  man  or  other  animal  at  the  instant  it  ex- 
pires itself.  The  skin  is  considered  as  a  sure  preservative  from  in- 
fection, wounds,  and  dangers  of  the  sea. 

The  Canadian  Otter. 

A  nearly-allied  species  to  the  common  Otter — namely,  the  Cana- 
dian Otter  (Z«/;'d  Catzadensis),  has  a  curious  mode  of  amusing 
itself  during  the  winter.  Several  individuals  of  this  species  select  a 
spot  on  the  steep  bank  of  some  river,  where  the  current  has  resisted 
the  effects  of  the  frost,  and  upon  the  snowy  surface  they  slide  down 
in  succession  into  the  water,  returning  again  to  the  top  of  the  bank 
to  repeat  the  operation,  just  like  boys  sliding  on  the  ice.  The 
water  from  their  fur  being  quickly  frozen  on  the  snow,  soon  converts 
it  into  a  most  excellent  slide,  on  which  the  Otters  keep  up  the  game 
with  a  most  laudable  activity.  The  skin  of  both  this  and  the  Euro- 
pean Otter  furnishes  an  excellent  fur,  which  is  much  used  in  some 
countries  ;  but  this  is  greatly  exceeded  in  beauty  and  value  by  the 
fur  of  the  great  Sea  Otter  {Enhydra  luiris),  that  inhabits  the  coasts 
and  islands  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  and  which  is  described 
below. 

The  Sea  Otter. 

{Enhydris  Intra;  Enhydra  marina,  Fleming).  Luira  marina, 
Steller;  Musfela  lutris,  Linn.;  Enhydris  Stelleri,  Fischer; 
Kalan  of  the  natives  of  Kamtschatka. — This  remarkable  animal,  in 
many  respects,  approaches  nearer  the  Seals  than  the  Otters  of  the 
genus  Lutra,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an  intermediate  link  between 
the  two  groups.  The  muzzle  in  the  Sea  Otter  is  blunt  and  short, 
the  ears  are  rounded,  the  body  cylindrical,  the  fore-limbs  are  ex- 
tremely short,  the  paws  small  and  impacted  in  skin  to  the  end  of  the 
toes,  the  sole  being  naked  and  granular.  The  hind-legs  are  short, 
but  placed  as  far  back  as  possible ;  the  thigh-bone  is  thick,  with  a 
round  head,  destitute,  as  in  the  Seals,  of  the  ligamentum  teres  ;  the 
hind-foot  or  paddle  is  of  great  length  and  breadth  ;  and  the  toes 
(five  in  number)  are  regularly  granulated  from  the  inner,  which  is 
the  smallest,  to  the  outer  toe,  which  is  the  longest  and  stoutest  : 
they  are  all  united  by  webs  to  the  very  tip.     The  claws  are  small. 


The   dentition   is  as  follows  : — Incisors,  — . 

4' 
4-4 
5-5' 

second  is  larger;  the  third,  orcarnassiere,  is  large  and  compressed, 
with  three  rounded  tubercles  on  its  surface ;  the  last  molar  is  still 


molars. 


Of  the  molars  above,  the  first  is  very  small  and  conical  ;  the 


larger,  flat,  with  a  slightly  elevated  and  rounded  edge.  Of  the  five 
molars  below,  the  three  first  increase  gradually  in  size  ;  the  fourth  is 
large  and  flat,  with  three  small  and  rounded  tubercles  ;  the  last  is 
small  and  flat. 

The  tail  is  rather  short;  and  when  the  hinder  paddles  arc  stretched 
out  in  the  act  of  swimming,  this  organ  will  appear  placed  between 
almost  as  much  as  it  is  in  the  Seals.    (See  Fig.  375.) 


I'^'g-  37S-— Sea  Otter. 

The  Sea  Otter  is  a  native  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  from 
California  to  latitude  60",  and  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Asia,  from 
the  Yellow  Sea  to  the  north  of  Kamtschatka,  and  the  intermediate 
islands.  Its  fur,  which  is  of  a  black  colour,  sometimes  chestnut- 
brown,  and  occasionally  even  yellow,  is  soft,  full,  and  beautiful, 
and  is  an  object  of  commerce,  being  procured  by  the  Russians  for 
the  Chinese  market,  where  it  sells  for  a  high  price. 

This  animal  haunts  sea-washed  rocks,  and  lives  mostly  in  the 
water,  where  it  procures  its  food,  which  consists  of  fish,  and,  as  is 
indicated  by  the  characters  of  the  teeth,  which  arc  evidently  formed 
for  bruising  hard  substances,  shelled  molluscs,  and  Crustacea.  In 
summer  the  Sea  Otter  often  ascends  the  rivers  to  the  inland  lakes. 
The  female  produces  on  land  a  single  cub.  The  average  length  of 
this  species  is  three  feet,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  measures  about 
ten  inches. 


CHAPTER     XII. 


CARNIVORA.— URSIDyE,   OR   THE   BEARS,  Etc.;    AND   THE   CERCOLEPTID/E,  OR   KINKAJOUS. 


HE  Ursida,  or  Bear  family,  is  gene- 
rally found  in  the  forests  of  mountainous 
countries.  It  is  distributed  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world,  excepting  Australia,  and 
perhaps  Africa.  In  Europe  it  is  found  from 
the  extreme  north  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  it 
has  a  similar  range  from  north  to  south  in 
Asia.  In  America,  Bears  of  various  species 
are  found  throughout  the  northern  conti- 
nent, the  extreme  north  being  inhabited  by 
the  Polar  Bear. 
The  UrsidcB  are  characterised,  for  the  most  part, 
by  their  robust  figure,  by  their  heavy  gait,  and 
plantigrade  walk,  as  well  as  by  the  tubercular  surface 
of  the  grinders— a  form  connected  with  diet,  in  great 
part  at  least,  consisting  of  vegetable  products.  The 
alimentary  canal  is  simple.  Most  of  the  species  are 
expert  climbers  :  they  conceal  themselves  in  caves, 
^  holes  of  the  earth,  or  in  hollow  trees,  in  which  the 
rVj^  females  produce  their  young.  We  may  here  re- 
^  ^  mark,  that  under  the  general  term  Planttgrada 
^^i-  many  genera  have  been  associated  together,  which 
are  by  no  means  nearly  related ;  and  some  indeed 
have  been  placed  with  the  Bears,  only  from  their  feet 
bemg  plantigrade,  while  in  reality  they  belong  to 
another  family  group.  We  shall  include  in  the  Ursidce,  the  Bears. 
Racoons,  Coatis,  &c. 


The  animals  of  the  genus  Ursiis,  viz. ,  the  Bears,  are  distinguished 
by  their  ponderous  bulk,  massive  limbs,  and  heavy  gait  :  they  are 
completely  plantigrade  in  their  walk  ;  but  their  huge  claws,  which 
are  tremendous  weapons,  are  not  retractile  ;  they  are,  however,  well 
adapted  for  digging.  They  are  completely  omnivorous,  devouring 
flesh,  vegetable  roots,  grain,  fruits,  and  honey.     "  The  Bear,"  says 


Fig-  376.— The  Bear, 


146 


THE  BEAR  FAMILY. 


Aristotle,  "  is  an  omnivorous  animal,  and  by  the  suppleness  of  its 
body  climbs  trees,  and  eats  the  fruits,  and  also  legumes  ;  it  devours 
honey  likewise,  having  first  broken  up  the  hives  ;  as  well  as  Crabs, 
Ants,  and  flesh." 

The   dental   formula    of    the    genus    Ursus  is   as   follows : — In- 


L:il  ;   molars.  ^^  =  42  (Fig.  377.)     Fig.  378 
i-i  -j-j 

represents  the  skeleton  of  the  Polar  Bear.     The  feet  are  five-toed  ;  the 


cisors,  -  ;  canmes, 
6 


Fig-  377.— Teeth  of  Bear. 

tail  is  short ;  the  limbs  are  robust ;  the  eyes  are  small,  but  quick  and 
animated  ;  and  the  head  is  large  and  broad  across  the  top. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  Bear  is  found  generally  in  the 
north  of  both  hemispheres.  In  respect  to  Africa,  formerly  its 
presence  was  not  so  satisfactorily  ascertained.  Pliny  not  only  asserts 
that  the  Bear  is  not  an  African  animal,  but  expresses  surprise  at  a 
statement  in  some  records,  that  a  hundred  Numidian  Bears  were 
brought  to  Rome  during  the  consulship  of  M.  Piso  and  M.  Mcssala, 
for  the  Circus,  by  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  curule  rcdile,  who  also 
brought  a  hundred  ^Ethiopian  chasseurs  (see  lib.  viii.)  But  as 
Pliny  elsewhere  states  that  there  are  neither  Boars,  nor  Stags,  nor 
Goats,  nor  Bears  in  Africa,  we  know  how  far  he  can  be  trusted. 


Fig.  37S. — Skeleton  o(  Polar  Bear. 

That  there  are  Bears  in  Africa,  notwithstanding  all  that  has  been 
said  to  the  contrary,  is  now  well  established.  Ehrenberg  hunted  a 
Bear  in  Abyssinia  :  his  words  are,  "  Moreover,  we  ourselves  have 
seen  in  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  therefore  in  Africa  itself,  an 
animal  most  like  to  a  Bear — nay,  why  had  I  not  said  a  Bear  ? — and 
hunted  it  repeatedly,  but  in  vain.  It  is  called  by  the  natives 
Karrai."  ■^  And  he  also  observes  that  Forskal  has  brought  tidings  of 
an  indigenous  Arabian  Bear. 

It  is  ascertained,  moreover,  that  the  Bear  exists  on  the  range  of 
the  Atlas  and  the  Tetuan  mountains  ;  and  in  a  letter  to  the  curator 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  from  Edward  Blyth,  Esq.,  while  on  his 
voyage  to  India,  is  the  following  interesting  passage  : — 

"  Upon  questioning  Mr.  Crowther  respecting  the  Bear  of  Mount 


Atlas,  which  has  been  suspected  to  be  the  Syriaais,  he  knew  it  well, 
and  it  proves  to  be  a  very  different  animal.  An  adult  female  was 
inferior  in  size  to  the  American  Black  Bear,  but  more  robustly 
formed,  the  face  much  shorter  and  broader,  though  the  muzzle  was 
pointed,  and  both  its  toes  and  claws  were  remarkably  short  (for  a 
Bear),  the  latter  being  also  particularly  stout.  Hair  black,  or  rather 
of  a  brownish-black,  and  shaggy,  about  four  or  five  inches  long  ;  but, 
on  the  undcr-parts,  of  an  orange  rufous  colour ;  the  muzzle  black. 
This  individual  was  killed  at  the  foot  of  the  Tetuan  mountains,  about 
twenty-five  miles  from  that  of  the  Atlas.  It  is  considered  a  rare 
species  in  that  part  ;  and  feeds  on  roots,  acorns,  and  fruits.  It  does 
not  climb  with  facility ;  and  is  stated  to  be  very  different-looking 
from  any  other  Bear." 

The  Brown  Bear. 

(Ursus  arctos).  Ours  of  the  French  ;  Orso  of  the  Italians  ;  Bar  of 
the  Germans  ;  Bjorn  of  the  Swedes.— This  species,  which  is  spread 
through  all  the  mountain  districts  of  Europe,  from  the  Arctic  circle 
to  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  and,  as  it  is  stated,  through  Siberia, 
Kamtschatka,  and  even  Japan  to  the  eastward,  was  formerly  a  tenant 
of  the  forests  and  wild  hills  of  our  island  ;  whence,  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  it  was  imported  to  the  capital  of  the  world,  in  order  to 
gratiiy  the  people  by  its  combats  in  the  Circus.  If  Martial  may  be 
trusted,  its  ferocity  was  sometimes  turned  against  the  persons  of 
criminals,  who  were  condemned  to  a  horrid  death. 

The  Bear  appears  to  have  lingered,  as  did  the  Wolf,  longer  in 
Scotland  than  in  England,  that  country  affording  it  better  conceal- 
ment ;  for  in  "  The  History  of  the  Gordons,"  it  is  stated  that  one  of 
the  family,  so  late  as  the  year  1057,  was  directed  by  the  king  to  carry 
three  Bears'  heads  on  his  banner,  as  a  reward  for  his  valour  in  slay- 
ing a  fierce  Bear. 

In  later  times,  when  a  virgin  queen  enjoyed  the  sports  of  the  Bear- 
garden in  Southwark,  and  a  Bear-ward  was  kept  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  highest  nobility,  Bears  were  imported  from  the  continent 


Fig.  379. — Bear  and  Dogs. 

to  fight  with  savage  Dogs  for  "his  lordshippe's  pastime,"  no  less 
than  for  the  diversion  of  the  commonalty.  Such  were  the  recreations 
of  "the  good  old  English  gentleman,  all  in  the  olden  time."  (See 
Fig.  379.) 

The  general  habits  of  the  Bear  are  well  known :  unsocial  and 
solitary,  they  frequent  the  gloomiest  recesses  among  the  mountains 
glens,  and  caverns,  and  the  depths  of  the  forests  :  there  they  dig  or 


THE  BEAR  FAMILY. 


M7 


enlarge  a  cave  in  which  to  dwell,  or  usurp  the  hollow  of  some  huge 
decayed  tree,  or  form  a  sort  of  rude  den  under  the  covert  of  a 
maze  of  intertwined  branches,  lining  their  habitation  with  moss. 
Here  they  pass  the  winter,  in  a  state  bordering  on  torpidity  ;  and  it 
is  during  this  retirement,  in  January,  that  the  female  brings  forth 
her  young,  which  are  well  formed,  and  very  far  from  being  the  shape- 
less mass  supposed  by  the  ancients.  The  cubs  are  from  one  to 
three  in  number — mostly,  however,  two  :  at  first  their  eyes  are  closed, 
and  they  remain  blind  for  thirty  days.  When  the  Bear  retires  to  its 
winter  quarters,  on  the  approach  of  the  cold  season,  it  is  very  fat ;  but 
on  coming  forth  in  the  spring,  is  generally  observed  to  be  lean,  the 
fat  having  been  absorbed  for  the  nutriment  of  the  system  during  the 
animal's  torpidity  :  but  a  query  here  exists, — Is  the  female,  who  pro- 
duces her  young,  and  has  to  attend  to  them,  torpid  ?  and  can  she 
suckle  them  without  receiving  any  aliment  herself  ?  This  is  very  im- 
probable ;  and  tends  to  prove  that  the  seclusion  of  the  animal  is 
neither  so  absolute,  nor  its  torpidity  so  complete,  as  is  generally 
asserted.  That  Bears  support  themselves  in  their  winter  retirement 
by  sucking  their  paws  is  a  vulgar  error,  and  need  not  be  seriously 
refuted. 

Unless  provoked  by  aggression,  or  incited  by  hunger,  the  Brown 
Bear  seldom  attacks  man  ;  but  when  roused  is  most  formidable,  and 
displays  greater  activity  and  address  than  might  be  expected  from 
its  heavy  clumsy  figure.     Its  strength  is  prodigious.     Mr.  Nilsson, 


Fig.  3S0. — Bear  with  dead  Horse, 

a  Swede,  states  that  a  Bear  has  been  seen,  bearing  a  dead  Horse  in 
his  fore-paws,  to  walk  on  his  hind-legs  on  a  tree  stretched  across  a 
river.  (Fig.  380.)  The  firm  support  afforded  by  the  well-devoloped 
sole,  and  the  form  of  the  hinder  limbs  (the  thigh-bone,  though  shorter, 
closely  resembling  in  form  that  of  man),  enable  these  animals  not 
only  to  rear  themselves  up  on  their  hind-feet,  but  even  to  walk  erect 
with  considerable  facility. 

In  the  wilds  of  the  North  the  Bear  attains  to  a  prodigious  mag- 
nitude. Mr.  Lloyd  killed  one  of  the  weight  of  460  pounds,  and  they 
have  been  found  to  exceed  700. 

Though  Bears  may  reside  for  years  in  the  neighbourhood  of  cattle 
without  doing  them  any  injury,  yet  they  will  sometimes  visit  herds 
solely  from  the  desire  of  prey;  and  instances  have  been  known  of 
their  climbing  upon  and  tearing  off  the  roofs  of  Cow-houses,  in  order 
to  gain  admittance  to  the  cattle  confined  within,  which,  after  slaugh- 
tering, they  have  managed  to  drag  through  the  opening  in  the  low 
roof,  and  carry  away. 


In  the  North  the  Bear  is  hunted  and  taken  in  pit-falls  and  traps  of 
various  kinds ;  and  in  some  countries  there  is  no  part  of  the  animal 
which  is  without  value. 

The  courage  and  devotion  of  the  female  Bear  in  defence  of  her 
young  are  proverbial.  No  adventure  can  be  fraught  with  more  dan- 
ger to  the  hunter  than  an  attack  upon  one  accompanied  by  her  cubs, 
for  the  sake  of  which  wounds  and  even  death  are  encountered  with 
unflinching  resolution,  she  uttering  deep  growls  till  the  last  moment. 
_  The  Bear  climbs  trees  or  rocks  with  great  dexterity,  and  descends 
in  the  attitude  in  which  it  ascends,  availing  itself  cautiously  of 
every  projection.  Those  who  have  seen  the  Bears  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  climb  to  the  top  of  their  long  poles,  and  feadcssly  balance 
themselves  at  the  top,  soliciting  food  from  the  visitors,  may  conceive 
some  idea  of  the  animal's  address.  It  also  swims  well  and  fast, 
and  during  the  heat  of  summer  frequently  takes  the  water  for 
the  sake  of  the  bath.  When  captured  young,  the  Bear  is  easily 
domesticated,  and  evinces  no  trifling  share  of  intelligence.  The 
age  to  which  it  attains  is  very  considerable.  Individuals  have  been 
kept  between  forty  and  fifty  years  in  captivity. 

The  Siberian  Bear. 

[Ursus  collaris,  or  Siberiatms)  approaches  close  in  form  to  the 
Brown  Bear,  with  the  distinction  of  a  large  whitish  collar,  wliich 
passes  over  the  upper  part  of  the  back  and  shoulders,  and  is  com- 
pleted on  the  breast. 

Dr.  Richardson  describes  a  Brown  Bear  which  he  terms  the 
Barren-ground  Bear  {Ursus  Arcios?  Americanits),  and  which  is 
a  native  of  the  barren  lands  lying  northward  and  eastward  of  the 


Fig.  3S1. — Siberian  Bear. 

Great  Slave  Lake,  and  extending  to  the  Arctic  Sea.  "  It  differs," 
he  says,  "  from  the  American  Black  Bear,  in  its  greater  size,  profile, 
physiognomy,  longer  soles,  and  tail  ;  and  from  the  Grisly  Bear  also 
in  colour  and  the  comparative  smallness  of  its  claws.  Its  greatest 
afiinity  is  with  the  Brown  Bear  of  Norway;  but  its  identity  with  that 
species  has  not  been  established  by  actu'hl  comparison.  It  frequents 
the  sea-coast  in  the  autumn  in  considerable  numbers,  for  the  purpose 
of  feeding  on  fish."     (See  Fig.  381.) 

The  American  Black  Be.\r,  or  Musquaw, 

[Urszes  Americaaus).— This  species,  the  Sass  of  the  Chippew.i)'an 
Indians,  the  Musquaw  of  the  Crees,  is  smaller  than  the  Brown  Bear; 
its  muzzle  is  narrower,  more  arched  and  pointed,  continued  in  a  line 
without  interruption  from  the  forehead ;  the  ears  are  more  distant ; 
and  the  fur,  instead  of  being  shaggy,  is  soft,  smooth,  and  giossy 
black.     (See  Fig.  382.) 

"  The  Black  Bear,"  says  Dr.  Richardson,  "inhabits  every  wooded 
district  of  the  American  continent,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
and  from  Carolina  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea."  Everywhere, 
however,  its  numbers  have  been  greatly  thinned,  owing  to  the  value 
of  the  animal's  skin  in  commerce;  besides  which,  the  tide  of  Euro- 
pean colonisation  has  driven  it  to  remoter  districts,  to  mountain 
ranges,  and  vast  forests  as  yet  untouched  by  the  axe,  or  only  recently 
invaded  by  the  settler.  In  some  parts  of  Canada  it  is  still  common, 
and  tolerably  abundant  on  the  western  coast  as  far  as  California. 
It  has,  we  believe,  been  seen,  but  very  rarely,  in  the  Blue  Ridge  in 
Virginia. 

The  Black  Bear  feeds  on  berries  and  wild  fruits ;  and  to  these  it 
adds  roots  and  eggs ;  and  though  it  does  not  refuse  animal  food,  yet 


148 


THE  BEAR  FAMILY. 


it  does  not  eat  it  from  choice,  but  necessity  ;  utterly  neglecting  it  if 
veg-etable  aliment  can  be  obtained. 

This  species  is  not  very  daring,  and,  unless  forced  to  self-defence, 
or  wounded,  will  seldom  venture  to  attack  a  man,  except  in  the 
instance  of  a  female  with  cubs,  the  retreat  of  which  she  is  solicitous 
to  cover. 

Its  speed  is  said  not  to  be  very  great ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  a 
man  may  easily  escape,  especially  in  a  willow  grove,  or  in  the  midst 


Fig.  3S2. — American  Black  Bear. 

of  loose  grass,  where  it  stops  for  the  purpose  of  reconnoitring.  Dr. 
Richardson,  however,  "saw  one  make  off  with  a  speed  that  would 
have  bafSed  the  fleetest  runner  ;  and  ascend  a  nearly  perpendicular 
cliff  with  a  facility  that  a  Cat  might  envy."  In  the  Fur  Countries 
this  species  usually  hibernates,  selecting  a  spot  under  a  fallen  tree, 
where  it  scratches  a  hollow  in  the  earth  ;  here  it  retires  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  snow-storm,  and  the  snow  soon  furnishes  it  with  a 
close  warm  covering.  Its  breath  makes  a  small  opening  in  the 
snow,  and  the  quantity  of  hoar-frost  which  occasionally  gathers 
round  the  opening  serves  to  betray  its  retreat  to  the  hunter.  In 
more  southern  districts,  where  the  trees  are  larger.  Bears  often 
shelter  themselves  in  the  hollow  trunks.  It  has  been  observed  by 
the  Indians,  that  unless  Bears  are  very  fat  on  the  approach  of  winter, 
they  do  not  hibernate  ;  and  as  the  males  are  often  thin  and  exhausted 
in  September,  should  the  winter  set  in  before  they  have  time  to  re- 
cover their  fat,  they  migrate  southwards  in  search  of  food.  So  care- 
fully do  the  females  with  young  conceal  themselves,  that  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson's numerous  inquiries  among  the  Indians  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
ended  in  the  discovery  of  only  one  man  who  had  killed  a  pregnant 
Bear. 

In  the  northern  districts  of  America/as  in  Norway  and  other  parts 
of  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  chase  of  the  Bear  is  followed  up  with 
the  utmost  ardour ;  nor  will  it  surprise  us  to  learn  that  an  animal 
from  which  the  Indian  derives  so  much  benefit  (its  flesh  and  every 
portion  being  in  request),  and  which  in  the  hour  of  combat  is  terrible, 
should  be  the  subject  of  many  superstitious  observances,  pardon 
being  asked  for  its  slaughter,  to  which  necessity  impelled  the 
hunters,  and  every  means  taken  to  propitiate  the  offended  spirit  of 
the  dead  animal. 

The  Black  Bear  is  subject  to  varieties  of  colour,  its  fur  being 
sometimes  of  a  cinnamon  tint,  and  sometimes  of  a  still  more  yellow 
tone.  Occasionally  it  is  seen  with  a  white  throat-mark.  Cinnamon 
Bears,  as  well  as  black,  have  been  among  the  specimens  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  Their  collection  of 
Bears  is  generally  very  complete,  and  contains  examples  of  most  of 
the  known  species. 

The  Si^ectacled  Bear. 

{Ursiis  ornatiis). — The  Spectacled  Bear,  so  called  from  the  semicir- 
cular marks  of  buff-colour  extending  from  the  muzzle,  and  arching 
over  each  eye,  is  a  native  of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes  in  Chili. 
Its  general  fur  is  smooth,  shining,  and  black  :  the  muzzle  is  buff- 
coloured  ;  the  throat  and  chest  are  whitish.  Of  its  habits  nothing  is 
known.  Specimens  have  been  shown  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoologi- 
cal Society.     (See  Fig.  383.) 

The  Grisly,  or  Grizzly  Bear. 

fUrsus  ferox). —  Ursiis  horribilis.  Say ;  Mesheh  Musquaw  of  the 
Cree  Indians;  Hohhost  of  the  Chopunish  Indians. — This  formidable 
species  is  a  native  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  district  eastward 
of  them.  To  the  north  it  has  been  observed  as  far  as  sixty-one  de- 
grees of  latitude  :  to  the  south  it  is  said  to  extend  as  far  as  Mexico. 
Everywhere  it  is  dreaded  for  its  great  strength  and  ferocity  ;  even  the 
huge  Bison  falls  prostrate  before  it,  and  the  savage  conqueror  "  drags 
the  dark  bulk  along"  (weighing  a  thousand  pounds)  to  its  haunt, 
and  digs  a  pit  for  its  reception,  repairing  to  it  as  hunger  dictates,  till 
the  whole  is  consumed. 

Lewis  and  Clarke  give  the  measurement  of  one  of  these  Bears  as 
nine  feet  from  nose  to  tail,  but  had  seen  them  of  larger  dimensio  s. 


They  attain  the  weight  of  800  pounds.  The  length  of  the  fore-foot  is 
nine  inches,  of  the  hind-foot  twelve,  without  including  the  enormous 
claws ;  its  breadth  seven  inches.  The  tail  is  short,  and  lost  in  the 
shaggy  hair.     (See  Fig.  384.) 

The   Grisly  Bear  digs  with  great  facility,  but  when   adult  is  not 
capable  of  ascending  trees — a  fortunate  circumstance  for  the  hunter ; 


Fig.  3S3. — Spectacled  Bear. 


Fig.  3S4. — Grisly  Bear. 

for  such  is  the  animal's  tenacity  of  life,  that  it  seldom  falls  until  it 
has  received  many  balls.  It  would  seem  that  though  the  adult  Grisly 
Bears  cannot  climb  trees,  that  the  cubs  are  able,  if  the  reports  of  the 
Indians  are  to  be  credited.  The  cubs,  and  females  with  young, 
hibernate  ;  but  the  older  males  often  come  abroad  during  winter  for 
food.  This  tremendous  animal  is  apparently  more  ferocious  than  any 
other  species  of  Bear,  feeding,  as  it  does  to  a  great  extent,  on  animal 
food. 

The  Syrian  Bear. 

(Ursus  Syn'acitsJ. — Though  the  Bear  is  distinctly  alluded  to  in  the 
Scriptures  (see  2  Kings  ii.  23,  ctseg.;  also  i  Samuel  .xvii.  34,  £■/"  Jf^.) 
as  a  native  of  Syria,  few  travellers  have  noticed  the  existence  of  this 
animal  in  that  country.  Hasselquist  omits  it  in  his  catalogue  of  the 
animals  given  in  his  "Travels  in  the  Levant;"  nor  is  it  recorded 
as  a  species  by  Desmarest,  Fischer,  or  Lesson.  It  is,  in  fact,  com- 
paratively of  recent  years  that  naturalists  have  become  aware  that 
such  an  animal  still  prowled  about  the  mountains  of  Lebanon. 
(See  Fig.  385.) 

Matthew  Paris,  however,  in  his  "  England,"  relates  how  Godfrey, 
during  the  siege  of  Antioch,  rescued  a  poor  man  from  the  attack  cf 
a  Bear,  which,  turning  upon  the  warrior,  unhorsed  him,  having 
lacerated  his  steed,  whereupon  he  continued  the  combat  on  foot,  and, 
though  he  received  a  most  dangerous  wound,  succeeded  in  burying 
his  sword  up  to  the  hilt  in  his  savage  adversary,  and  killed  him 
("Hist.  Engl.,"  t.  ii.  p.  34,  fol.  Lond.  1640.)  Seetzen  (a  German 
traveller,  in  i8ii)was  informed  in  Palestine  that  Bears  existed  in 
the  mountains  ;  and  La  Roque  states,  that  in  his  time  they  were 
tolerably  abundant  upon  the  higher  Lebanon  mountains,  from  whicli 


ISO 


THE  BEAR  FAMILY. 


tors  ;  and  when  a  morsel  of  cake  is  held  at  a  small  distance  beyond 
its  reach,  it  expands  its  nostrils,  protrudes  its  upper  lip,  and  often 
its  tongue,  while  with  its  paws  it  makes  every  etTort  to  obtain  the 
proffered  delicacy.  Having  gained  it,  and  filled  its  mouth,  it 
places  the  remainder  with  singular  coolness  on  its  hinder  feet,  as  if 
to  keep  it  from  being  soiled  by  the  floor,  and  brings  it  in  successive 
portions  to  its  mouth.  It  often  places  itself  in  an  attitude  of 
entreaty,  earnestly  regarding  the  spectators,  and  stretching  forth  its 
paws  ready  to  receive  their  offering.     It  is  fond  of  notice,  conscious 


Fig.  3SS. — Borncan  Bear. 

of  kind  treatment,  and  delights  to  be  patted  and  rubbed  ;  but  when 
vexed  or  irritated,  refuses  all  attention  so  long  as  the  offending 
person  remains  in  sight.     (See  Fig.  3S8.) 

Both  this  and  the  preceding  species  excel  in  climbing  ;  and  they 
are  said  to  occasion  mucli  injury  to  groves  of  cocoa-nuts,  both  by 
climbing  up  them  and  devouring  the  top  shoot,  thereby  killing  the 
tree,  and  also  by  tearing  down  the  fruit,  to  the  milky  juice  of  which 
they  are  very  partial. 

The  Sloth-Bear. 

{UrsHS  {Prochilus)  lahiatus). — Ours  paresseus  and  Ours  jongleur 
of  the  French  ;  Aswail  of  the  Mahrattas. 

This  uncouth  animal  was  first  described  and  figured  (from  the  life) 
by  Bewick,  in  his  "  History  of  Quadrupeds,"  without  any  name,  bul 


Fig.  389. — Sloth-Bear. 

as  an  animal  that  had  hitherto  escaped  the  attention  of  naturalists. 
It  was  then  (1791)  taken  for  a  Sloth,  and  received  from  Shaw  the 
names  of  Bradypiis  ursiniis,  and  iirsiformis ;  and  from  Pennant 
that  of  Ursiform'Sloth.    Blainville  and  others  restored  it  to  the  genus 


'    Ursus ;  Illiger  having  previously  founded  the  genus /'roc^z7?«  for  its 
reception,  a  name  which  is  retained  in  a  sub-generic  sense  only. 

The  Sloth-Bear  is  a  rough  clumsy  animal,  with  short  massive 
legs,  and  huge  hooked  claws  ;  and  possessing  great  mobility  of  the 
snout.  It  inhabits  the  mountainous  parts  of  India,  and  was 
observed  by  Colonel  Sykes  in  Dukhun.     {See  Fig.  389.) 

It  dwells  in  caves,  and  its  food  is  said  to  consist  of  fruits,  honey, 
and  Termite  Ants,  for  the  demolishing  whose  houses  its  claws  are 
well  adapted.  It  is  said  also  frequently  to  descend  to  the  plains, 
and  commit  great  havoc  on  the  sugar-cane  plantations.  On  these 
occasions  it  laecomes  an  object  of  pursuit  to  the  Indian  and  European 
hunters. 

The  Sloth-Bear  attains  to  nearly  the  size  of  the  Brown  Bear  of 
Europe ;  it  is  robustly  framed.  The  hair  is  remarkably  long  and 
shaggy  ;  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  neck  it  is  sometimes 
twelve  inches  in  length,  and  separates  into  two  portions,  one  of 
which  overhangs  the  eyes,  imparting  a  peculiarly  heavy  appearance 
to  the  animal's  physiognomy ;  while  the  other  forms  a  thick  mane 
across  the  shoulders.  The  general  colour  is  black,  intermixed  with 
brown  :  a  triangular  mark  on  the  breast  is  white.  The  head  is 
carried  low  ;  the  back  arched  ;  the  muzzle,  which  is  of  a  dirty 
yellowish-white,  is  very  much  elongated ;  the  lips  are  thin,  flexible, 
and  project  at  all  times  considerably  in  front  of  the  jaws  ;  and 
possess  singular  mobility,  being  capable  of  protrusion  in  a  tubular 
form  far  beyond  the  muzzle,  thus  constituting  an  instrument  of 
suction.  The  tongue  is  long,  flat,  and  square  at  the  extremity. 
We  have  seen  the  animal  protrude  his  lips,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  were  kept  apart  for  several  minutes  together  ;  and  on  these 
occasions  the  interior  of  the  mouth  was  distinctly  visible. 

A  pair  of  these  animals,  which  we  have  observed  in  captivity,  were 
at  times  very  playful,  contending  with  each  other,  in  rude  sport,  with 
great  violence,  struggling  and  endeavouring  to  throw  each  other 
down,  and  all  the  while  uttering  a  loud  roaring  noise :  at  other 
times,  huddled  together,  they  passed  whole  hours  in  sleep.  In 
India  it  is  often  led  about  by  mountebanks  and  jugglers,  as  is  the 
Brown  Bear  in  Europe. 

According  to  Captain  Williamson  ("  Oriental  Field-Sports "), 
these  animals  are  numerous  on  the  boundaries  of  Bengal,  which  to 
the  east  and  west  are  mountainous,  rocky,  and  overrun  with  low 
underwood  :  their  principal  resort  is  under  banks,  in  large  burrows 
or  natural  cavities ;  but  they  do  not  hibernate.  Their  pace  is 
shuffling  and  awkward,  but  quick  enough  to  overtake  a  man  on  foot. 
They  ascend  trees  with  great  facility. 

The  natives  greatly  dread  them  ;  the  very  sight  of  a  Bear,  however 
distant,  disheartens  them,  knowing,  as  they  do,  the  strength  and 
savage  disposition  of  the  sable  shuffler.  Of  their  ferocity,  and  the 
dilatory  torments  to  which  they  subject  their  victim.  Captain 
Williamson  gives  several  horrible  instances  :  observing,  that  they 
"will  chew  and  suck  a  limb  till  it  is  a  perfect  pulp,"  not  biting 
away  the  flesh  like  most  beasts  of  prey. 

The  Polar  Bear. 

{Ursus,  or  ThaIassa7-ctos,  maritimus).  Ours  polaire  of  the 
French  ;  Wawpusk  of  the  Cree  Indians  ;  Nannook  of  the  Esqui- 
maux ;  Nennook  of  the  Greenlanders. 

Within  the  regions  of  the  Arctic  circle  dwells  the  Polar  Bear,  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  formidable  of  the  group.  Formed  to  endure 
the  most  intense  severity  of  cold,  this  monarch  of  a  gloomy  desolate 
realm  prowls  in  sullen  majesty  over  wastes  of  snow  and  among  ice- 
glazed  rocks  in  quest  of  food ;  he  traverses  fields  of  ice  along  the 
shore,  clambers  over  rugged  icebergs,  or  even  swims  out  from  floe  to 
floe,  or  from  island  to  island,  ravenous  for  his  prey.  He  dives  with 
admirable  address,  and  is  capable  of  contending  with  his  prey 
amidst  the  rolling  waves.  The  Seal  forms  its  favourite  diet,  together 
with  marine  exuvis,  such  as  dead  fishes  and  cetaceous  animals  ; 
and  he  will  attack  even  the  Walrus  himself.  In  summer,  mountain- 
berries  are  eagerly  sought  for,  nor  are  sea-weeds  or  marsh-plants 
rejected.  Of  the  activity  of  this  Bear  in  the  water,  we  may  form  an 
idea  from  a  statement  by  Cartwright,  that  he  saw  a  Polar  Bear  dive 
after  a  Salmon,  and  kill  his  fish. 

Captain  Lyon  gives  the  following  account  of  its  mode  of  hunting 
the  Seal: — "The  Bear,  on  seeing  his  intended  prey,  gets  quietly 
into  the  water,  and  swims  until  to  leeward  of  him,  from  whence,  by 
frequent  short  dives,  he  silently  makes  his  approaches,  and  so 
arranges  his  distance,  that,  at  the  last  dive,  he  comes  to  the  spot 
where  the  Seal  is  lying.  If  the  poor  animal  attempts  to  escape  by 
rolling  into  the  water,  he  falls  into  the  Bear's  clutches ;  if,  on  the 
contrary  he  lies  still,  his  destroyer  makes  a  powerful  spring,  kills 
him  on  the  ice,  and  devours  him  at  leisure."  (See  Fig.  390.)  The 
same  author  informs  us,  that  this  Bear  not  only  swims  with  rapidity, 
but  is  capable  of  making  long  springs  in  the  water.  Captain 
Sabine  states  that  he  saw  one  about  midway  between  the  north  and 
south  shores  of  Barrow's  Straits,  which  are  forty  miles  apart,  though 
there  was  no  ice  in  sight  to  which  he  could  resort  for  rest. 

The  pace  of  this  Bear  on  shore  is  a  kind  of  shuffle,  but  more  quick 
tlian  might  be  expected  ;  and,  when  at  full  speed,  as  rapid  as  the 


THE  RACOONS. 


iSi 


sharp  gallop  of  a  horse.  The  average  length  of  the  Polar  Bear 
(which  has  been  greatly  exaggerated)  is  about  six  feet ;  but  it 
occasionally  attains  to  larger  dimensions.  Pallas  describes  an  adult 
female  6  feet  9  inches  in  length.  The  greatest  length,  from  nose  to 
tail,  recorded  by  Captain  Phipps,  is  7  feet  i  inch  ;  the  weight  of  the 
beast  being  610  lbs.  Captain  Ross  records  the  measurement  of  one 
7  feet  10  inches,  the  weight  being  1,160  lbs.;  and  Captain  Lyon, 
that  one,  which  was  unusually  large,  measured  8  feet  7i  inches,  and 
weighed  1,600  lbs. 

It  is  stated  on  the  best  authorities,  that  the  male  does  not  hiber- 
nate, but  that  the  female,  on  the  approach  of  the  severer  season, 
retires  to  some  rift  among  the  rocks  or  ice,  or  digs  a  lair  in  the  frozen 
snow;  the  falling  snow  drifts  over  the  den,  covering  it  to  a  great 
depth,  a  small  aperture  for  breathing  being  always  open.  In  this 
retreat,  about  the  latter  part  of  December,  she  brings  forth  two  cubs, 
and  in  March  quits  the  den  with  them,  then  about  as  large  as  a 
Shepherd's  Dog,  and  prowls 
abroad,  lean,  gaunt,  and  fe- 
rocious ;  hunger  and  the  pre- 
sence of  her  offspring  adding 
fury  to  her  savage  temper. 

The  male  wanders  about  the 
marshes  and  adjacent  parts 
until  November  ;  he  then  goes 
out  to  sea  upon  the  ice  in  quest 
of  Seals,  and  becomes  very  fat 
It  often  happens  that  he  be 
comes  drifted  out  from  the 
coast  on  a  floating  field  of  ice  , 
and  in  this  way,  says  Dr 
Richardson,  "  Polar  Bears  are 
often  carried  from  the  coast 
of  Greenland  to  Iceland,  where 
they  commit  such  ravages  on 
the  flocks,  that  the  inhabit 
ants  rise  in  a  body  to  destroy 
them." 

Of  the  devotion  of  the  female 
Polar  Bear  to  her  young,  and 
of  the  danger  attendant  upon 
the  chase  of  these  animals, 
many  travellers  have  made 
mention,  and  recorded  various 
facts  which  came  under  their 
own  observation.  These,  how- 
ever, are  so  popularly  current, 
that  it  is  sufficient  only  to 
allude  to  them. 

This  species  is  of  a  more 
lengthened  form  than  that  of 
the  others ;  the  head  is  very 
much  elongated  and  flattened, 
the  ears  and  mouth  compara- 
tively small,    the    neck    very 

long  and  thick,  and  the  sole  of  the  foot  very  large.  The  fur  is 
silvery  white,  tinged  with  yellow ;  close,  short,  and  even  on  the 
head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  back;  long,  fine,  and  inclined  to 
be  woolly  on  the  hinder  parts,  legs,  and  belly.  The  sole  of  the  foot 
is  almost  entirely  covered  with  long  hair,  affording  the  animal  a  firm 
footing  on  the  ice.  The  claws  are  black,  not  much  curved,  thick,  and 
short.  Captain  Lyon's  crew  found  none  of  the  terrible  effects  (skin 
peeling  off,  &c.),  from  eating  the  flesh,  ascribed  to  it  by  some  of  the 
earlier  voyagers. 

Polar  Bears  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological 
Society's  Gardens,  London.  The  old  female  Bear,  which  was  there 
in  1879,  had  been  in  the  Gardens  since  1846 ;  and  the  male,  brought 
from  Spitzbergen,  was  presented  to  the  Society  in  1S71.  The  family 
of  Bears  has  had  a  comparatively  recent  addition  in  the  shape  of  the 
Japanese  Bear,  or  UrsKS  japonicus,  a  specimen  of  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

The  Racoons— Genus  Procyon. 

The  Racoon  (Procyoti  lotor).  Raton  of  the  French  ;  Mapach, 
YUamaton,  Maxile,  and  Cioatlamacazque  of  the  Mexicans,  accord- 
ing to  Hernandez. 

Notwithstanding  Buffon's  assertion  to  the  contrary,  the  Racoon 
inhabits  Canada  as  well  as  the  warmer  regions  of  America ;  its 
range  being  from  about  50"  north  lat.,  extending  through  Mexico 
and  the  United  States,  and  thence,  as  it  would  seem,  "into  South 
America  as  far  as  Paraguay.  In  size  these  animals  equal  a  common 
Fox,  having  a  stout  body  with  moderate  limbs,  and  a  plantigrade,  or 
rather  semi-plantigrade,  walk ;  for  though  the  sole  is  naked,  it  is 
only  when  the  Racoon  rests  that  it  is  totally  applied  to  the  groljnd. 
The  toes,  five  in  number,  are  armed  with  sharp  claws ;  the  muzzle  is 
acute,  the  nose  tapering  beyond  the  lips,  and  flexible  ;  the  eyes  are 
moderate,  with  a  circular  pupil;    the  ears  are  short,   erect,   and 


rounded ;  the  whiskers  long ;  the  tail  moderate,  and  somewhat 
bushy.  General  colour  brownish -grey,  the  tail  being  tinged  with  a 
blackish  tint ;  muzzle  dirty  white ;  a  black  or  dark-brown  mark 
across  the  eyes  and  check,  and  another  between  the  eyes,  extending 
from  the  forehead  ;  under-parts  pale  grey. 

The  Racoons  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  sleeping  out  the  day 
in  their  holes,  and  prowling  at  night  in  search  of  food.  The  borders 
of  the  sea  and  the  margins  of  swamps  and  rivers  are  their  favourite 
localities ;  and  they  prey  upon  small  animals,  birds,  eggs,  and 
insects,  adding  roots,  fruits,  and  sweet  succulent  vegetables  to  their 
diet.  Nor  are  Crabs,  Oysters,  and  other  "  shell-fish"  less  acceptable, 
for  which  they  visit  the  shores  at  low  water.  To  the  partiality  of  the 
Racoon  for  Oysters  we  can  ourselves  testify ;  for,  some  years  since,  we 
repeatedly  tried  one  of  these  animals  with  the  hard-shelled  moUusk 
in  question,  which  it  greedily  devoured.  Its  first  action  was  to  crush 
the  hinge  of  the  shell  between  its  teeth  :  which  done,  it  wrenched  the 


Fig.  390. — Polar  Bears  and  Seal. 

two  valves  so  far  asunder  as  to  enable  it  to  scrape  out  the  mollusc 
with  its  claws. 

In  the  description  of  a  tame  Racoon  by  M.  Blanquart  des  Salines, 
we  are  informed,  "  It  opens  Oysters  with  wonderful  skill ;  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  break  the  hinge  ;  its  paws  complete  the  work.  It  must  have 
an  excellent  sense  of  touch.  In  this  operation  rarely  docs  it  avail 
itself  of  sight  or  smell ;  for  instance,  it  passes  the  Oyster  under  its 
hind-paws  ;  then,  without  looking,  seeks  by  its  hands  the  weakest 
place:  it  there  digs  in  its  claws,  forces^apart  the  valves,  and  tears 
out  the  fish  in  fragments,  leaving  nothing  behind."  This  was  pre- 
cisely what  we  ourselves  witnessed. 

The  Racoon  is  asserted  to  have  the  habit  of  dipping  its  food  into 
water  before  eating  it,  whence  it  has  received  the  appellation  of 
lotor,  or  washer  ;  but  although  we  have  had  numerous  opportunities 
of  observing  the  animal  in  captivity,  we  never  saw  this  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding.    (See  Fig.  391.) 

Though  incapable  of  grasping  objects  with  its  paws,  the  Racoon 
can  hold  its  food  between  them  pressed  together,  in  doing  which  it 
usually  sits  upon  its  haunches  like  a  Bear,  and  in  this  attitude  it  very 
often  feeds. 

Of  the  senses  of  this  animal,  that  of  smell  is  the  most  developed, 
and  is  very  acute :  the  eyes,  though  the  pupil  is  round,  are  better 
adapted  for  twilight  or  night  than  for  the  glare  of  day ;  indeed,  a 
strong  light  distresses  and  confuses  these  animals  exceedingly.  In 
its  natural  state,  in  fact,  the  Racoon  is  nocturnal;  and  it  is  most  pro- 
bable from  the  circumstance  of  the  eyes  being  incapable  of  sustain- 
ing daylight,  that  blindness  from  cataract  (opacity  of  the  lens)  is  so 
common  "in  these  animals  in  a  state  of  captivity,  when  they  are 
liable  to  be  roused  up,  and  are  often  kept  awake,  during  the  whole  or 
greater  part  of  the  day. 

The  gait  of  the  Racoon  on  the  ground  is  oblique,  and  when  it 
moves  quickly  its  mode  of  progression  consists  of  a  series  of  bounds, 
reminding  us  of  the  Lemurs,  but  with  nothing  of  their  grace  and 


THE  RACOONS— THE  CO  ATI S. 


lig-htness.  When  taken  young  this  animal  is  easily  tamed,  becomes 
playful,  and  is  fond  of  being  noticed  and  caressed,  but  is  at  the  same 
time  very  capricious  and  easily  offended  ;  and  to  some  persons, 
■without  any  apparent  cause,  it  will  show  from  the  first  marked  signs 
of  hostility.  When  enraged  or  desirous  of  attackmg  a  person,  the 
Racoon  advances,  as  we  have  often  witnessed,  with  arched  back  and 
bristly  hairs,  and  with  its  chin  or  under-jaws  close  to  the  ground, 
uttering  gruff  sounds  of  displeasure.  If  once  injured  it  seldom  for- 
gives its  enemy. 

It  greedily  attacks  poultry  within  its  reach,  and  is  as  cunning  and  de- 
structive as  the  Fox  ;  though,  according  to  M.  Blanquart  des  Salines, 
it  only  devours  their  heads,  which  agrees  with  Dr.  Richardson's  ob- 
servations.    (See  Fig   392.) 

When  roused  from  its  diurnal  indolence,  the  Racoon  is  restless, 
inquisitive,  and  prying;  it  climbs  with  the  greatest  skill,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  Bear,  ascending  and  descending  a  tree,  a  pole,  or 
branches  fastened  in  its  apartment,  with  the  utmost  address.  It  is 
apt  to  become  very  fat,  and  its  flesh  is  said  to  be  palatable.  The  fur 
is  used  in  the  hat  manufacture,  and  the  skins  are  imported  in  large 
numbers  for  ladies'  boas,  &c. 


The  genus  is  represented  by  the  Panda,  or  Wah  {Aihirus  ftil- 
geJis). — The  Panda  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Himalayan  range, 
between  Nepal  and  the  Snowy  Mountains,  and  was  first  discovered 
by  General  Hardwicke,  who  published  a  description  in  the  fifteenth 
volume  of  the  "  Linn.  Trans."  Subsequently  M.  Duvancel  sent  the 
skm  of  the  animal  to  Paris,  and  a  description  and  figure  were  pub- 
lished by  F.  Cuvier,  in  the  fifteenth  number  of  the  "  Histoire  des 
Mammiferes,"  which  appeared  prior  to  the  paper  by  General  Hard- 
wicke.    (See  Fig.  395.) 

The  Panda  is  a  short-muzzled  animal,  covered  with  full  soft  fur, 
and  having  a  tail  of  moderate  length,  resembling  a  lady's  boa.  In 
size  the  animal  equals  a  Badger,  and  is  of  a  robust  figure.  Its 
limbs  are  stout :  its  feet  five-toed ;  but  the  soles,  instead  of  being 
naked,  are  covered  with  thick,  close  wool,  of  a  pure  white  in  some 
specimens,  of  a  greyish-white  in  others,  forming  a  sing-ular  contrast 
to  the  deep  black  of  the  legs  and  under-surface.  The  claws  are 
short,  sharp,  and  semi-retractile.  Fig.  394  :  a  represents  the  an- 
terior foot,  left  side  ;  b,  the  hinder  foot,  right  side  ;  c,  the  sole  of  one 
of  the  posterior  feet,  showing  its  woolly  covering.  The  ears  are 
short,  pointed,  and  lined  and  tufted  with  white  fur.     The  colour  of 


I'ig.  391.  —  R.icoons  feeding 


Another  species  of  the  Racoon  is  the  Crab-eating  Racoon,  or  Agoura 
{Procyon  cancrivora).—The.  dental  formula  of  the   genus  ProcyoJt 

is    as     follows:  — Incisors,  .-;   canines,  iHi;    molars,    - — 2  =  40- 

6  i-i  6-6 

The  two  true  molars  on  each  side  are  equal,  or  nearly  so ;  .and  the 
carnassiere  nearly  resembles  the  true  molars,  not  being  suited  to 
cutting  flesh. 

The  Panda,  or  Wah. 

The  genus  .^ /■/«;-/«  has  the  following  dental  formula  :— Incisors,  -  . 

canines,  1^1^  ;    molars,  5_r_5  =  36.      In   dentition   this    genus    ap- 

proaches  that  of  the  Racoons;  but  the  molars  have  their  crowns 
studded  with  sharp  tubercles,  which,  as  in  General  Hardwicke's 
specimen,  become  worn  down  by  long  usage.  The  molars  of  the 
upper  jaw  are  broad  and  large ;  those  of  the  lower  jaw  narrow.  Fig. 
393,  represents  the  teeth  of  the  Panda  ;  a  and  b  are  the  incisors,  or 
"front  teeth,  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw. 


the  upper  surface  is  beautiful  fulvous  red,  the  head  being  much 
paler ;  the  muzzle  is  white,  with  a  red  dash  beneath  the  eyes  ;  the 
tail  is  banded  red  and  yellow,  but  not  very  strongly  ;  the  limbs  and 
under-parts  are  abruptly  black.  The  fur,  which  is  very  full  and 
deep,  consists  of  a  woolly  under-coat,  with  long  soft  hairs  overlay- 
ing it. 

We  learn  from  General  Hardwicke  that  the  haunts  of  the  Panda 
"  are  about  rivers  and  mountain  torrents."  It  lives  much  in  trees, 
and  feeds  on  birds  and  the  smaller  Mammalia  ;  it  is  frequently  dis- 
covered by  its  loud  cry  or  call,  resembling  the  word  wha,  often 
repeating  the  same  ;  hence  is  derived  one  of  the  local  names  by 
which  it  is  known.     It  is  also  called  the  Chitwa. 

The  Brown  Coati. 

The  genus  Nasiia  embraces  the  Coatis,  or  Coati-mondis  (]Vas!/a 
narica,  &c.),  which  are  restricted  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
American  continent,  and  in  dentition  and  general  economy  approxi- 
mate to  the  Racoons. 

These  curious  animals,  formerly   placed   by  Linnajus   with  the 


THE  COATIS. 


^ii 


Viverres    cannot   easily   be  confounded   with   those   of  any   other 

group.  .  .         .    ,    . 

They  may  be  known  at  once  by  the  peculiar  elongation  of  their 
snout,  which  projects  considerably  beyond  the  lower  jaw.  This 
snout  is  not,  as  in  the  Hog,  supported  by  a  continuation  of  the  nasal 
bone,  but  is  a  cylindrical  and  flexible  proboscis,  with  a  truncated 
extremity,  forming  a  sort  of  disc  where  the  nostrils  open,  and 
altogether  giving  a  singular  character  to  their  physiognomy.     They 


Fig.  392. — Racoon  after  a  Bird. 

turn  it  about  in  various  directions  while  in  search  of  food,  and  root 
with  it  in  the  earth  in  quest  of  worms  and  insects.  The  eyes  are 
small,  but  quick  ;  the  ears  moderate  and  rounded  ;  the  body  long, 
deep,  and  compressed  ;  the  tail  long  ;  the  limbs  short  and  stout  ; 
the  toes  five  on  each  foot,  and  armed  with  large  powerful  claws, 
well  adapted  for  digging.  The  fur  is  rather  coarse,  but  long,  full, 
and  close  ;  the  tail  is  ringed  with  alternate  bands  of  dark  and  pale 
tints — in  the  Red  Coati  {Nasua  rufa),  of  rufous,  in  the  Brown  Coati 


[N.  fusca),  oi  dusky  hrowTt.  The  canine  teeth  arc  remarkable  for 
their  size  and  sharpness,  especially  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  which 
arc  compressed,  and  have  a  cutting  edge  both  before  and  behind. 

In  captivity  these  animals  sleep  much  during  the  day,  and  arc 
most  active  as  the  evening  advances,  at  which  time  they  traverse 
their  cage,  turn  their  snout  from  side  to  side,  and  pry  into  every 
corner.  They  do  not,  however,  pass  the  whole  of  the  day  in  sleep, 
but  are  active  for  hours  together,  retiring  to  rest  only  at  intervals. 

Their  temper  is  capricious  :  we  have, 
indeed,  seen  some  individuals  toler- 
ably good-tempered  ;  but  most  are 
savage,  and  their  bite  is  very  severe. 
In  drinking,  the  Coati  laps  like  a 
Dog  ;  but  as  its  long  snout  would  bo 
in  the  way  during  this  operation,  it 
turns  it  up,  so  as  to  prevent  its 
being  submerged. 

These  animals  arc  highly  gifted 
with  the  sense  of  smell ;  they  exam- 
ine everything  with  their  long  nose, 
which  is  in  almost  perpetual  motion. 
Their  temper  is  irritable  and  caprici- 
ous;— they  cannot  be  trusted  even  by 
those  with  whose  persons  they  are 
the  most  familiar,  and,  conse- 
quently, are  not  to  be  touched  with- 
out great  caution.  Their  voice,  sel- 
dom exerted,  is,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  a  gentle  hissing ; 
but  when  irritated  or  alarmed,  they 
utter  a  singularly  shrill  cry,  some- 
thing like  that  of  a  bird.  They 
defend  themselves  vigorously  when 
attacked  by  a  Dog,  or  any  animal, 
and  inflict  desperate  wounds.  Like 
the  Racoon,  they  are  said  to  be 
fond  of  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane, 
but  we  know  not  on  what  authority. 
Azara  does  not  allude  to  this  par- 
tiality ;  it  is,  however,  far  from  being 
improbable.  In  climbing,  they  de- 
scend head  foremost,  being  in  this 
respect  unlike  the  Bear,  which  ani- 
mal they  far  surpass  in  activity, 
being,  indeed,  better  climbers  than 
even  the  Cat,  and  exceeded  among 
their  own  tribe  only  by  the  Kinka- 
jou,  whose  prehensile  tail  gives  it  a 
great  advantage. 

In  their  native  climate  they  tenant 
the  woods,  living  for  the  most  part 
in  small  troops  among  the  trees,  which  they  climb  with  great 
address,  and  prey  upon  birds,  which  they  surprise,  rifling  also  their 
nests  of  eggs,  or  unfledged  young.  Worms,  insects,  and  roots  form 
also  part  of  their  diet. 

The  species  presented  in  the  cut  is  the  Brown  Coati  (.A^.  fused). 
(See  Fig.  396.)  Its  colours  are  very  variable,  the  brown  being  more 
or  less  tinged  with  yellow,  and  sometimes  shaded  with  black  ;  the 
under-surface  is  yellowish-grey ;  the  snout  is  generally  black,  and 
several  spots  or  marks  of  greyish-yellow  encircle  the  eye.  It  is  a 
native  of  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Paraguay. 


Fig.  393.— Teeth  of  Panda. 


Fig.  394.— Feet  of  Panda. 


154 


THE  KINKAJOU. 


The  Rufous  Coati. 

{N'asua  rtifa). — The  Rufous  Coati,  in  habits  and  manners,  agrees 
with  the  Brown  Coati,  living-  in  pairs  or  small  troops  in  the  forests  of 
South  America,  and  climbing  with  great  facility  ;  but  their  mode  of 
climbing  does  not  resemble  that  of  the  Cat  or  Squirrel,  or  of  any  of  the 


F'g-  395- —Panda. 

light-limbed  and  sharp-clawed  animals  : — they  do  not  run  up  a  tree 
and  bound  from  branch  to  branch,  but  proceed  in  the  same  heavy 
manner  as  on  the  ground ;  and  it  is  because  they  can  apply  the 
palm  of  their  paws,  or  the  sole  of  their  hind-feet,  fairly  to  any  object 
(not,  however,  grasping  it),  that  they  are  enabled  thus  to  climb. 
They  use  their  feet,  in  fact,  in  the  same  manner  as  man,  and  their 


Macauco  of  Pennant ;   the  true  affinities  and  situation  of  which  in 
the  system  of  Mammalia  seem  sadly  to  have  puzzled  naturalists. 
The  dental   formula   of  the   genus    Ccrcolej^tes  is  as  follows  : — 

Incisors,  -    ;   canines,  --~  ;    molars,  -5"  5  =  ,5^ 
6  i-i  5-5 

Fig.  398  represents  the  teeth  of  the  Kinkajou. 


Fig.  396. — Brown  Coati. 

mode  of  climbing  resembles  his,  except  that  their  paws  do  not 
grasp  ;  in  descending,  they  generally  come  down  hind-quarters  fore- 
most, carefully  availing  themselves  of  every  projection.  (See  Fig.  397.) 

The  Kinkajou. 

Of  the  genus  Cercolejtfes  one  species  only  is  known,  the  Kinkajou 
(Cercole^tes  caudivolvulus),    Potto,    Mexican    Weasel,    or  Yellow 


Fig.  397. — Rufous  Coati. 

The  Kinkajou  is  a  native  of  Southern  and  Intertropical  America, 
where  it  appears  to  be  extensively  spread,  and  is  known  under 
different  appellations.     In  New  Granada  it  is  called,  by  the  native 

Indians,  Gushumbi,  and  Manaviri 
in  the  country  of  Rio  Negro.  In 
its  manners  it  much  resembles  the 
Coati-mondi,  just  described  ;  but 
differs  from  that  animal  not  only 
in  the  shape  of  the  head,  which  is 
short  and  compact,  but  also  in 
having  a  prehensile  tail.  Of  re- 
cluse and  solitary  habits,  the  Kin- 
kajou lives  for  the  most  part  among 
the  branches  of  trees  in  large  woods 
or  forests,  and  is  in  every  respect 
well  adapted  for  climbing :  being, 
however,  decidedly  nocturnal,  it  is 
but  little  exposed  to  the  observa- 
tion even  of  those  who  sojourn 
among  the  places  frequented  by  it. 
During  the  day  it  sleeps  in  its 
retreat,  rolled  up  like  a  ball,  and, 
if  roused,  appears  torpid  and  inac- 
tive. As  soon,  however,  as  the 
dusk  of  evening  sets  in,  it  is  fully 
awake,  and  is  all  activity,  dis- 
playing the  utmost  restlessness 
and  address,  climbing  from  branch 
to  branch  in  quest  of  food,  and 
using  its  prehensile  tail,  to  assist 
Itself  in  its  manoeuvres.  Few 
Mammalia  are  more  incommoded 
by  light  than  the  Kinkajou :  we 
have  seen  the  pupils  of  the  eyes 
contracted  to  a  mere  round  point, 
even  when  the  rays  of  the  sun 
have  not  been  very  bright,  while 
the  animal  at  the  same  time  testi- 
fied by  its  actions  its  aversion  to 
the  unwelcome  glare. 

In  size,  the  Kinkajou  is  equal 
to  a  full-grown  Cat,  but  its  limbs 
are  much  stouter  and  more  mus- 
cular, and  its  body  more  firmly 
built.  In  walking,  the  sole  of 
the  foot  is  applied  fairly  to  the 
ground,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Badger.  Its  claws  are  strong 
and  curved,  the  toes  on  each  foot 
being  five.  The  ears  are  short  and  rounded.  The  fur  is  full, 
but  not  long,  and  very  closely  set.  There  is  no  animal  among 
the  Carnivo?-a  (as  far  as  our  experience  goes)  in  which  the  tongue 
is  endowed  with  more  remarkable  powers  of  extension.  (See 
Fig.  399.)  Among  ruminating  animals,  the  Giraffe  is,  as  we  know, 
capable  of  extending  this  organ  to  a  very  great  length,  and  of 
using  it  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Elephant  does  the  ex- 
tremity of  his  proboscis,  drawing  down  by  it  the  twigs  and  boughs 


THE  KINKAJOV. 


•^1% 


of  the  trees,  upon  the  leaves  of  which  the  creature  feeds ;  in 
like  manner  can  the  Kinkajou  thrust  forth  its  tongue,  along  and 
slender  instrument,  capable  of  being  inserted  into  crevices  or  fis- 
sures, in  search  of  insects,  reptiles,  or  the  eggs  of  birds.  Baron 
Humboldt  informs  us  that  this  animal  is  an  extensive  devastator 
of  the  nests  of  the  Wild  Bee,   whence   the   Spanish   missionaries 


Fig.  39S.— Teeth  of  Kinkajou. 


F'g.  399.— Kinkajou. 


have  given  it  the  name  of  "Honey-Bear,"  and  that  it  uses  its 
lung  tongue  to  lick  up  the  honey  from  the  cells  of  the  comb.  In 
addition,  however,  to  this  food,  birds,  eggs,  small  animals,  roots, 
and  fruits,  constitute  the  diet  of  the  Kinkajou  ;  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  will  draw  these  articles  towards  it  with  its  tongue,  when 
presented  just  within  its  reach.  In  drinking  it  laps  like  a  Dog, 
and  also  makes  use  of  its  fore-paws  occasionally  in  holding  food, 
and  even  in  conveying  it  to  the  mouth,  as  well  as  in  seizing  its 
prey.  In  its  aspect  there  is  something  of  gentleness  and  good- 
nature ;  and  in  captivity  it  is  e.xtremely  playful,  familiar,  and  fond 
of  being  noticed.  In  its  natural  state,  however,  it  is  sanguinary 
and  resolute. 

An  individual  of  this  species  died,  some  time  ago,  at  the  gardens  of 
tlie  Zoological  Society  :  it  had  lived  in  the  possession  of  the  Society 
about  seven  years,  and  was  remarkable  for  gentleness  and  its  play- 
ful disposition.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  day  it  was  usually 
asleep,  rolled  up  in  the  inner  partition  of  a  box  of  its  large  cage ; 
this,  indeed,  was  invariably  the  case  in  the  morning,  unless  pur- 
posely disturbed;  but  in  the  afternoon  it  would  often  voluntarily  come 
out,  traverse  its  cage,  take  food,  and  play  with  those  to  whom  it  was 
accustomed.  Clinging  to  the  top  wires  of  its  cage  with  its  hind- 
paws  and  tail,  it  would  thus  suspend  itself,  swinging  backwards 
and  forwards,  and  assuming  a  variety  of  antic  positions.  When 
thus  hanging,  it  could  bring  up  its  body  with  the  greatest  ease,  so 
as  to  cling  with  its  fore-paws,  as  well  as  the  hind  pair,  to  the  wires, 
and  in  this  manner  it  would  travel  up  and  down  its  cage  with  the 
utmost  address,  every  now  and  then  thrusting  forth  its  long  tongue 
between  the  wires,  as  if  in  quest  of  food,  which,  if  offered  outside  its 
cage,  it  would  generally  endeavour  to  draw  in  with  this  organ.  It 
was  very  fond  of  being  stroked  and  gently  scratched,  and,  when  at 
play  with  any  one  it  knew,  it  would  pretend  to  bite,  seizing  the  hand  or 
fingers  with  its  teeth,  as  a  Dog  will  do  when  gambolling  with  its 
master,  but  without  hurting  or  intending  injury.  As  the  evening 
came  on,  its  liveliness  and  restlessness  would  increase.  It  was  then 
full  of  animation,  traversing  the  space  allotted  to  it  in  every  direc- 
tion, examining  every  object  within  its  reach,  rolling  and  tumbling 
about,  and  swinging  to  and  fro  from  the  wires  of  the  cage  :  nor  was 
its  good-humour  abated  ;  it  would  gambol  and  play  with  its  keepers, 
and  exhibit  in  every  movement  the  most  surprising  energy.  In  this 
state  of  exercise  it  would  pass  the  night,  retiring  to  rest  on  the 
dawn  of  the  morning.  The  age  of  this  individual  was  not  ascer- 
tained ;  the  state  of  its  teeth,  however,  which  were  much  worn 
down,  showed  it  to  have  attained  an  advanced  period  ;  its  colour 
was  a  pale  yellowish-grey,  inclining  to  tawny — the  hairs,  in  certain 
lights,  had  a  glossy  appearance.     Its  dissection  after  death  fully 

confirmed  the  propriety  of  assigning 
it  a  place  among  the  plantigrade 
Carnivora. 

The  Binturong  {Arch'in  Dintu- 
rong,  Temminck ;  Tetides  ater, 
F.  Cuv.)  seems  to  take  the  place  of 
the  Kinkajou  in  the  forests  of  Java 
and  Sumatra.  These  animals  are 
prehensile-tailed  and  arboreal,  and 
resemble  the  Racoons  in  the  princi- 
pal details  of  their  dentition.  They 
live  both  on  animal  and  vegetable 
food,  and  are  particularly  fond  of 
plantains  :  they  also  eat  eggs  and 
birds. 

Fossil  ^mains  of  the  Car- 
nivora. 

In  the  Tertiary  Strata,  the  remains 
of  numerous  of  the  Carnivora  have 
been  found  in  a  fossil  state,  more 
especially  in  the  more  recent  of  tliose 
formations  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
tropical  forms  of  large  size  appear  to 
have  been  inhabitants  of  this  island 
at  a  period  which  must  have  been, 
comparatively  speaking,  but  little 
antecedent  to  the  commencement  of 
the  human  era. 

The  genus  Ursus  is  rich  in  the 
reliquia;  of  extinct  species.  These 
occur,  for  the  most  part,  in  various 
caverns  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
England,  along  with  the  bones  of 
other  Carnivora,  as  the  Wolf,  Hyaena, 
Tiger,  Glutton,  &c.,  and  also  of  her- 
bivorous animals,  though  these  are 
less  in  number.  In  most  of  these 
caves  (that  of  Kirkdale  excepted, 
where  the  remains  are  principally 
those  of  an  extinct  species  of  Hyaena), 


156 


THE  SEALS. 


the  bones  of  the  Bear  tribe  are  the  most  prevalent.  In  the  vast 
cavern  of  Gaylenreuth  this  is  remarkably  the  case,  the  bones  being 
referrable  to  three  distinct  species,  which  have  been  termed  Ursus 
^n'scus,  U.  arctdides,  and  U.  sjyelceus.     They  lie  for  tlie  most  part 


400. — a,  iooiuui  Machairoiius  ;  c,  Megalosaurus. 


confusedly  in  a  bed  of  animal  earth,  and  arc  often  encrusted  with 
stalagmite,  which  lines  the  roof  and  walls  of  the  cave.  Though 
scattered  and  broken,  these  bones  exhibit  no  tokens  of  having 
been  rolled.  Professor  Goldfuss  states  that,  with  regard  to  the  cave 
of  Gaylenreuth,  if  we  assume  1,000  buried  individuals  of  the  various 
species  found  there,  the  proportion  will  be  as  follows  : — Hycsua 
spelaa,  25  ;  Canis  s;pelcctes,  50  ;  Felts  spelaa,  25  ;  Gtilo  spelatis, 
30;   Ursiis  ■priscus,  \o\   Ursus  arctdides,  bo;   Ursus  spclaus,  ioo. 

Of  these  extinct  Bears,  the  skull  of  the  Ursus  spclaus  is  distin- 
guished by  the  bold  elevation  of  the  forehead,  and  its  size,  which 
indicates  the  animal  to  have  greatly  exceeded  any  living  species. 
The  skull  of  the  Ursus  arctdides,  though  as  large  as  that  of  U. 
spelccus,  has  the  forehead  much  less  elevated.  The  skull  of  Ursus 
priscus  is  smaller,  and  approaches,  in  size  and  contour,  that  of  the 
common  Brown  Bear,  but  is  more  flattened  along  the  upper  surface. 

It  may  here  be  observed  that  certain  serrated  canine  teeth  attri- 
buted to  Bears,  under  the  names  of  Ursus  ctruscus  and  Ursus 
cultride7is  by  Cuvicr  and  others,  and  to  the  genus  Felis  by  Bravard, 
are,  according  to  Kaup,  the  relics  of  an  animal  allied  to  the  Mega- 
losaurus, one  of  the  Saurian  reptiles,  but  of  a  distinct  genus,  to 
which  he  has  given  the  name  of  Machairodus.  In  Fig.  400,  a  is  a 
tooth  of  lilachairodus,  natural  size,  imperfect  below  ;  b,  the  outline 
of  a  cast  of  the  perfect  tooth  ;  c,  a  tooth  of  Megalosaurus,  natural 
size.  Professor  Owen,  however,  regards  the  teeth  [a,  c)  as  having 
belonged  to  a  mammiferous  animal,  not,  however,  a  Bear;  and  the 
proof  is  afforded  by  the  cast  [b],  which  shows  that  the  tooth  was 
originally  lodged  in  a  socket,  and  not  anchylosed  to  the  substance  of 
the  jaw,  and  that  the  fang  is  contracted  and  solidified  by  the  pro- 
gressive diminution  of  a  temporary  formative  pulp,  and  does  not 
terminate  in  an  open  conical  cavity,  like  the  teeth  of  all  known 
Saurians,  which  are  lodged  in  sockets. 

Our  space  will  not  permit  us  to  enter  more  fully  into  the  interesting 
subject  of  the  fossil  remains  of  the  Carnivora.  To  those  desirous 
of  pursuing  the  study,  we  may  recommend  generally  the  works  of 
Ansted,  Tennant,  Murchison,  and  other  eminent  geologists.  As  a 
guide  to  British  fossils,  one  of  the  best  works  is  that  of  Mr.  John 
Morriss,  entitled  a  "  Catalogue  of  British  Fossils." 

The  British  Museum  contains  a  very  valuable  collection  of  fossils 
of  the  Carnivora  and  other  Mammalia.  Here  we  may  remind  the 
student  of  Natural  History  of  the  great  value  which  is  attached  to 
the  study  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  Osteology,  and  Physiology. 
Many  of  our  fossil  remains  consist  only  of  a  few  bones  or  teeth  of 
the  extinct  species.  But  by  comparing  them  with  the  skeleton  or 
teeth  of  existing  species,  we  are  enabled,  with  almost  absolute  cer- 
tainty, to  assign  the  order,  species,  &c.,  to  which  the  fossils  belong. 


CHAPTER    XII  I. 


MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  PINNIPEDIA— SEALS,  Etc. 


£2Eiii^>  T  will  possibly  be  a  matter  of  some  diffi- 
^JijLr'^     culty,  on  the  part  of  those  unacquainted 
'^*i^  %       with  the  system  of  classification  in  Natu- 
ral History,  to  comprehend  what  possible 
relation  can   subsist  between  Seals,  Lions, 
Tigers,   Elephants,  &c.     But  the  inquiry 
is   easily   answered.     The   great    charac- 
teristic  of   the   Mammalia   is,  that  they 
bring  forth  their  young  alive,  and  nourish 
them  by  suckling  ;  hence  the  classification 
of  the  Seals  with  other  Mammals.     They 
are  called  Pin?zipedia,  or  fin-footed  animals,  from  two 
Latin  -words,  pinna,  a  fin,  and  pedes,  a  foot. 

The   order  of  the   Pinnipedia,    including   only  the 
Seals  and  the  Walrus,  is  at  once  distinguished  from 
all   other  Mammalia  by   the   peculiar   structure   and 
arrangement  of  the  extremities.     The  toes  of  all   the 
feet  are  united  almost  to  their  extremities  by  the  com- 
mon  integument,    by  which   they   are   converted   into 
broad  fin-like  organs  ;    the  bones  of  the  arm  and  leg 
being  usually  sliort,  and  concealed,  to  a  great  extent, 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  body.    The  tips  of  the  toes  are  armed 
with   strong  claws,    and  these  are  frequently   almost  the 
only  indication  of  their  existence,  although  the  bones  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  most  perfectly-organised  Mam- 
The  position  of  the  hind-feet  is  very  remarkable ;  they  are 
placed  quite  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  body,  and  thrown  back- 


malia. 


wards  into  a  nearly  horizontal  position  on  each  side  of  the  very  short 
tail,  so  as  to  resemble  the  horizontal  tail  of  the  Whale,  and,  like 
this,  they  constitute  the  principal  agents  in  the  locomotion  of  the 
animals  in  their  natural  element  the  water,  where  they  swim  and 
dive  with  the  greatest  facility.  When  swimming,  the  fore-paws  are 
applied  close  to  the  side  of  the  body,  and  are  only  used  in  turning 
about. 

The  general  form  of  the  animal  is  particularly  adapted  for  a  resi- 
dence in  the  water,  being  nearly  cylindrical,  and  tapering  gradually 
from  before  backwards  ;  the  neck  is  short,  and  the  head  small  and 
rounded.  Like  the  Cctacea,  which  they  resemble  in  their  general 
form,  the  Seals  have  the  surface  of  the  body  covered  with  a  stratum 
of  blubber,  which  serves  the  same  purposes  as  in  those  Mammalia. 
The  skin,  however,  is  covered  with  hair  of  two  kinds — a  soft  woolly 
down,  close  to  the  skin,  and  a  coat  of  long  smooth  hairs,  which  lie 
close  to  the  body,  and  form  a  shining  coat,  offering  no  resistance  to 
their  passage  through  the  water. 

The  skull  and  jaws  are  compact  and  powerful,  and  the  former 
exhibits  strong  ridges  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaws. 
The  orbits  are  usually  continuous  with  the  temporal  fossa;.  The 
teeth  are  always  of  three  sorts,  but  they  vary  considerably  in  number. 
The  incisors  are  usually  small,  but  the  canines  are  large  and  power- 
ful, curved,  and  sharp  at  the  point,  indicating  the  carnivorous  nature 
of  the  animals.  A  further  evidence  of  this  is  furnished  by  the  form 
of  the  molar  teeth,  which  are  remarkable  for  being  usually  furnished 
with  only  a  single  root ;  their  crowns  are  strongly  compressed  late- 
rally, with   sharp   cutting   edges,  which   are   usually  more   or   less 


THE  SEALS. 


i^7 


notched,  and  sometimes  (Fig.   401)  deeply  cleft,  so  as  to  form  three  j 
or  more  distinct  points. 

The  mouth  is  furnished  with  thick  fleshy  lips,  from  which  spring 
numerous  long  bristles.  The  tongue  is  smooth.  The  nostrils  are 
placed  at  the  front  of  the  snout,  and  are  capable  of  being  completely 
closed  when  the  animal  is  under  water.  The  external  ears  are 
usually  represented  by  a  small  valve,  which  closes  the  aperture 
under  the  same  circumstances.  The  eye  is  large,  full,  and  expres- 
sive of  great  intelligence — a  quality  which  is  exhibited  by  these 
animals  in  a  very  high  degree  ;  and  the  brain,  as  might  be  expected 


pophysis,  parapophysis,  and  pleurapophysis ;  the  hole  being  the 
interval  between  those  parts :  in  the  lumbar  vertebra;  the  pleurapo- 
physis is  short,  and  confluent  or  connate  with  the  diapophysis. 

Returning  to  the  skeleton  of  the  Walrus,  we  find  that  nine  pairs 
of  ribs  directly  join  the  sternum,  which  consists  of  eight  bones. 
The  transverse  processes  of  the  last  cervical  are  imperforate,  con- 


Fig.  401. — Teeth  of  the  Seal  {^Steiwrhyuchus). 

from  this  circumstance,  is  of  large  size,  and  of  a  very  high  type  of 
organisation.  The  mamma?  are  usually  only  two  in  number,  and 
placed  far  back ;  the  female  produces  a  single  young  one,  and 
attends  to  it  with  great  assiduity.  Their  voice  is  usually  a  kind  of 
bark,  whence  the  name  of  Sea  Dogs,  applied  to  them  in  some 
countries. 

The  habits  of  all  the  animals  of  this  order  are  very  similar.  They 
live  in  the  sea,  but  always  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coasts,  where 
they  wage  an  incessant  war  upon  the  fishes,  which  constitute  the 
principal  food  of  all,  with  the  exception  of  the  Walrus.  They  are 
not,  however,  like  the  Cefacea,  entirely  confined  to  the  water,  but 
can  easily  climb  upon  the  low  rocks,  where  they  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  lying  in  herds,  basking  in  the  sun.  When  thus  engaged 
they  are  exceedingly  watchful,  and  plunge  into  the  water  the 
moment  any  danger  approaches  them.  On  shore,  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  structure  of  their  feet,  their  movements  are  any- 
thing but  elegant ;  they  are  performed  by  the  action  of  the  strong 
muscles  of  the  back  ;  the  creatures  hold  by  their  fore-paws,  whilst 
they  curve  the  back  strongly,  and  thus  draw  forward  the  hind-feet  ; 
the  latter  then  form  the  point  of  support,  and  the  head  and  fore-paws 
are  pushed  on  by  the  straightening  of  the  body.  This  mode  of 
progression  is  evidently  very  laborious,  and  the  Seals  consequently 
never  travel  to  any  distance  on  land. 

In  reference  to  the  skeleton.  Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  in  the 
Phocidce,  or  Seal  family,  there  is  another  and  well-marked  stage 
gained  in  the  development  of  the  terrestrial  instruments  of  locomo- 
tion, compared  with  lower  forms  of  the  Mamttialia.  Hind  limbs 
arc  now  added — the  marine  mammal  has  become  a  quadruped. 
The  sphere  of  life  of  the  Seals  is  near  the  shores  ;  they  often  come 
on  land  ;  they  sleep  and  bring  forth  among  the  rocks  and  littoral 
caves :  hence  the  necessity  for  a  better  development  of  the  pectoral 
limbs,  although  these,  like  the  pelvic  ones,  still  retain  the  general 
form  of  fins.  The  fish-hunting  Seals  make  more  use  of  the  head  in 
independent  movements  of  sudden  extension,  retraction,  and  quick 
turns  to  the  right  and  left,  than  do  the  Ceiacea  of  like  diet  ;  and  the 
Walrus  (Fig.  402)  works  the  head,  as  the  place  of  attachment  of  its 
long,  vertical,  down-growing  tusks,  in  various  movements  required 
in  clambering  over  Hoes  and  bergs  of  ice.  Accordingly,  in  the  Seal 
tribe  we  find  the  seven  neck-vertebra;  {ib.)  c,  longer  and  with  more 
finished  and  free-playmg  joints  than  in  the  Whales  and  Dugongs. 
The  sigmoid  curve,  in  which  they  can  be  thrown  during  retraction 
of  the  head,  exceeds  that  in  most  other  mammals,  and  almost 
reminds  one  of  the  extent  of  flexion  of  this  part  of  the  spine  in  birds. 

In  the  Walrus,  the  skeleton  of  which  is  here  selected  to  exemplify 
the  phocal  modification  of  the  mammalian  skeleton,  the  vertebral 
formula  is  : — 7  cervical,  C  ;  11  dorsal,  D ;  5  lumbar,  L ;  3  sacral,  S  ; 
and  9  caudal,  cd.  ^As,  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  hind-limbs, 
a  sacrum  is  now  established,  the  characters  of  the  above  five  kinds 
of  body-vertebra:,  as  defined  in  man  and  other  mammals,  may  here 
be  given  :  the  cervical  or  neck-vertebrae  "  have  perforated  transverse 
processes;"  the  dorsal  vertebra;  "  bear  ribs  ;"  the  lumbar  vertebra; 
"have  imperforate  transverse  processes,  and  no  ribs;"  the  sacral 
vertebra:  "  are  anchylosed  together  ;"  the  rest  are  caudal  vertebra;, 
whatever  their  modification.  In  the  above  characters  the  term 
"rib"  is  given  to  the  vertebral  element  called  "pleurapophysis," 
when  this  is  long  and  movable  ;  that  element  may  be,  and  often  is, 
present,  but  short  and  fixed,  in  both  cervical,  lumbar,  sacral,  and 
caudal  vertebrae  :  in  some  mammals,  e.g.,  monotremes,  the  pleura- 
pophysis may  remain  unanchylosed  in  some  of  the  neck-vertebrae, 
but  it  is  short,  like  a  transverse  process  ;  and  the  so-called  "  per- 
forated transverse  process,"   in  all  mammals,  consists  of  the  dia- 


Fig.  402. — Skeleton  of  the  Walrus. 

sisting  of  the  diapophysis  only.  The  neural  arches  of  the  middle 
dorsal  vertebras  are  without  spines  and  very  narrow,  leaving  wide 
unprotected  intervals  of  the  neural  canal.  The  bones  of  the  neck 
are  modified  to  allow  of  great  extent  and  freedom  of  infiection.  The 
perforated  transverse  processes  of  the  third  to  the  sixth  cervicals, 
inclusive,  are  remarkable  for  the  distinctness  of  their  constituent 
parts.  Inferior  ridges  and  tuberous  processes,  called  "  hypa- 
pophyses,"  are  developed  from  some  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae. 
These  processes  indicate  the  great  development  of  the  anterior 
vertebral  muscles,  e.g.,  the  "  longi  colli  "  and  "  psoa;,"  and  relate 
to  the  important  share  which  the  vertebra;  and  muscles  of  the  trunk 
take  in  the  locomotion  of  the  Seal  tribe,  especially  when  on  dry  land, 
where  they  may  be  called  "  gastropods,"  in  respect  of  their  peculiar 
mode  of  progression.  The  Walrus  alone  seems  to  have  the  power 
of  supporting  itself  on  the  fore-fins,  so  as  to  raise  the  belly  from  the 
ground.  There  is  no  trace  of  clavicle  in  any  Seal.  The  upper  part 
of  the  scapula  exceeds  the  lower  one  in  breadth.  The  spine  termi- 
nates by  a  short  and  simple  acromion.  The  humerus  is  short  and 
thick,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  great  development  of  the  inner 
tuberosity  and  of  the  deltoid  ridge,  which  is  deeply  excavated  on  its 
outer  side.  The  inner  condyle  is  perforated.  The  scaphoid  and 
lunar  bones  are  connate.  Although  the  pollex,  or  the  first  digit, 
exceeds  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  in  length,  it  presents  its  charac- 
teristic inferior  number  of  phalanges,  by  which  the  front  border  of  the 
fin  is  rendered  more  resisting.  The  pelvic  arch  is  remarkable  for 
the  stunted  development  of  the  ilia,  and  the  great  length  of  the 
ischia  and  pubes.  The  femur  is  equally  peculiar  from  its  shortness 
and  breadth.  The  tibia  and  fibula  present  the  more  usual  propor- 
tions, and  are  anchylosed  at  their  proximal  ends.  The  bones  of  the 
foot  are  long,  strong,  and  are  modified  to  form  the  basis  of  a  large 
and  powerful  fin  :  the  middle  toe  is  the  shortest,  and  the  rest  increase 
in  length  to  the  margins  of  the  foot ;  the  inner  toe  has,  nevertheless, 
but  two  phalanges,  the  rest  having  three  phalanges,  whatever  their 
length  ;  and  this  is  the  typical  character,  both  as  to  the  number  of  the 
digits,  and  their  joints,  in  both  fore  and  hind  feet  of  the  MaDunalia. 
In  the  living  Walrus  and  Seal,  the  digits  of  each  extremity  are  not 
only  bound  together  by  a  common  broad  web  of  skin,  but  those  of 
the  hind-limbs  are  closely  connected  Mth  the  short  tail :  being 
stretched  out  backwards,  they  seem  to  form,  with  it,  one  great 
horizontal  caudal  fin  ;  and  they  constitute  the  chief  locomotive  organ 
when  the  animal  is  swimming  rapidly  in  the  open  sea.  The  long 
bones  of  Seals,  like  those  of  Whales,  are  solid. 

With  regard  to  the  skull  in  the  Seal  tribe,  it  may  be  remarked  that 
an  occipito-sphenoidal  bone  is  formed,  as  in  man,  by  the  coalescence 
of  the  basioccipital  with  the  basisphenoid  ;  the  parts  of  the  dura 
mater  or  outer  membrane  of  the  brain,  called  "  tentorium,"  with  the 
posterior  part  of  the  "falx,"  are  ossified.  The  sella  turcica  is 
shallow,  but  w-ell  defined  behind  by  the  overhanging  posterior  clinoid 
processes  :  the  petrosal  shows  a  deep  transverse  cerebellar  fossa, 
and  is  perforated  by  the  carotid  canal.  The  frontal  forms  a  small 
rhinencephalic  fossa,  and  contributes  a  very  large  proportion  to  the 
formation  of  the  orbital  and  olfactory  chambers. 

In  Fig.  402,  a7ite,  62  is  the  ilium  ;  63,  the  ischium,  and  6),  the 
pubes ;  65  is  the  femur,  or  thigh-bone ;  66,  the  tibia ;  66',  the 
patella  or  knee-pan  ;  67,  the  fibula  ;  68,  the  tarsus ;  and  66,  the 
metatarsus  and  phalanges  of  the  hind-foot ;  the  numbers  on  the 
other  bones  correspond  with  these  in  the  skeleton  of  the  Dugong,  to 
be  subsequently  described. 

The  PejinipcdicB  are  divided  into  two  families,  one  of  which 
embraces  the  true  or  typical  Seals,  while  the  other  consists  of  the 
Trickca'dcE,  or  Walrus  family.     The  latter  connects  the  true  Seals 


iS8 


THE  SEALS 


with  the  herbivorous  Cetacea,  that  will  subsequently  be  described. 
The  Seals  are,  for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  seas  of  the 
northern  and  southern  part  of  the  world,  and  especially  in  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  regions.  The  common  Seal  is,  however,  abundant  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Scotland,  and  is  of  much  value  on  account  of 
rile  oil  and  fur  it  affords. 

The  Common  Seal. 

{PJwca  vitulind).  CaIoce;phalus  vitidinus,  F.  Cuvier;  Le  Veau 
marin  and  Phoque  commun  of  the  French  ;  Vecchio  marino  of  the 
Italians  :  Lobo  marino  of  the  Spanish  ;  Meerwolf  and  Meerhund  of 


Fig.  403.— Skull  of  Seal. 


Fig.  404. — Skull  of  Seal. 


Fig.  405.— Skull  of  Seal. 


the  Germans  ;  Zeehund  of  the  Dutch  ;  Seel-hund  of  the  Danes ;  Sial 
of  the  Swedes;  and  Moelrhon  of  the  ancient  British. 

For  the  general  characters  of  the  skull,  in  the  genus  Phoca, 
reference  may  be  made  to  Fig.  403,  an  upper  view;  Fig.  404,  an 
under  view;  and  Fig.  405,  a  profile  of  the  i^/wfa  iI/o«acA2^j.     Fig. 

406  illustrates  the  dentition.     Molars,  ^~^. 

5-5 

The  common  Seal  is  found  along  the  shores  of  temperate  Europe, 
and  is  common  on  many  parts  of  the  Scottish  coast,  and  also  of 
those  of  England  and  Ireland.  It  is  gregarious  in  its  habits,  and 
haunts  caverns,  and  recesses 
among  the  rocks,  to  which  the 
females  retire  to  breed.  The 
young  are  sometimes  two  in 
number,  and  the  mother  nurses 
them  with  great  assiduity  and 
affection,  taking  them  out  to 
sea  very  early.  When  sur- 
prised basking  on  the  shore, 
which  the  Seal  often  does, 
luxuriating  in  the  sun,  its  first 
effort  is  to  make  for  the  water  ; 
but  if  intercepted,  it  shows 
fight,  and  with  a  growl  turns  on  its  adversary,  who,  unless  he  avoid 
the  attack,  is  in  some  danger,  for  the  animal  has  great  power  and 
weight  (often  224  pounds) :  having  overset  its  antagonist,  it  shuffles 
to  tlie  water,  and  there  disappears.  All  are  familiar  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  humorous  narrative  of  Hector  Maclntyre's  discomfiture  by  a 
"Phoca."  ("The  Antiquary.")  The  voice  of  the  Seal  is  a  gruff 
grunt,  not  unlike  that  of  a  Pig,  but  when  wounded  it  often  utters  a 
peculiar  moaning  sound.  These  animals  are  sagacious  and  watch- 
ful, and  while  half-slumbering  on  the  beach  their  customary  caution 
seldom  leaves  them,  for  one  of  their  number  is  usually  placed  a  little 
higher  on  the  rock  than  the  others,  and  he  seems  constantly  awake, 
and  ever  and  anon  upraises  his  "  grim  feature,"  scenting  the  wind- 
ward air.  Flatfish,  especially  Flounders,  are  the  favourite  food  of 
this  species,  at  least  off  the  coast  of  Colonsay,  where  it  is  common. 
In  the  estuary  of  the  Tees  it  makes  great  havoc  among  the  Salmon. 
This  Seal  is  hunted,  as  are  others  also,  for  the  sake  of  its  skin  and 
blubber.  The  fishing  commences  in  autumn,  and  is  practised  by 
means  of  nets  stretched  across  narrow  sounds  where  the  Seals  are  in 
the  habit  of  swimming.  In  these  nets  they  are  entangled  ;  but  it  is 
only  the  young  that  can  be  thus  captured  ;  the  old  ones  are  shot,  or 
their  recesses  and  caves  are  entered  at  night  by  boatmen  with 
torches  and  bludgeons,  upon  which  the  animals,  alarmed  by  the 
glare  and  the  shouts  of  the  men,  rush  tumultuously  forward  to  the 
sea,  and  as  they  push  along  in  confusion  and  terror  they  are  knocked 
on  the  head  with  clubs,  the  men  being  duly  stationed  for  the  purpose. 

The  common  Seal  can  remain  under  water  for  about  five  minutes, 
and  swims  so  rapidly  that,  if  alarmed,  it  will  proceed  nearly  half  a 
mile  during  that  period.  The  Seal  is  intelligent  and  docile,  and 
easily  domesticated  ;  it  becomes  attached  like  a  Dog  to  its  master, 
and  may  be  readily  taught  to  assist  in  fishing.  Many  anecdotes  re- 
specting tame  Seals  are  recorded.     Few  animals  have  a  finer  sense 


of  hearing,  and  musical  sounds  appear  to  afford  it  great  delight. 
Laing,  in  his  account  of  a  voyage  to  Spitzbergen,  states  that  the 
violin,  when  played  on  board  the  vessel,  would  generally  draw  around 
it  a  numerous  audience  of  Seals,  which  would  continue  to  follow  it 
for  miles. 


Teeth  of  Seal. 


The  following  cuts  represent  the  common  Seal  and  its  skeleton. 

The  common  Seal  is  from  four  to  five  feet  in  length  ;  its  colour  is 
yellowish-grey,  more  or  less  dappled  and  spotted  with  dusky-brown. 

F'ig.  409  represents  Seal-hunting  in  Scotland  ;  but  the  Seal  figured 
is  not  the  common  Seal ;  it  is  a  much  larger  and  fiercer  species,  viz., 


Fig.  407. — Common  Seal. 


^^ 


Fig.  40S. — Skeleton  of  Seal. 


THE  SEALS. 


'59 


the  Grey  ScaX,  ffalichcsrus  Gryphus  (Phoca  Gryphus,  Fabricius), 
which  is  also  common  round  the  Fam  Islands.  (See  Mr.  Selby's 
observations  in  "  Ann.  and  Mag.  Hist.  Nat.,"  February,  1841,  p. 
462.)  -• 

The  Grey  Seal  is  of  great  size,  sometimes  attaining  the  length  of 
twelve  feet,  and  producing  upwards  of  twenty  gallons  of  oil.  It 
swims  and  dives  with  wonderful  rapidity  ;  but,  from  its  curiosity,  often 
comes  within  range  of  the  rifle  ;  for  as  the  boats  approach  it  while 
reposing  on  the  rocks,  or  swimming  on  the  water,  it  raises  its  head 
and  remains  for  many  minutes  gazing  at  the  objects  of  its  attention. 
The  Grey  Seal  has  but  little  intelligence,  and  cannot  be  tamed. 


Seal-hunting  in  Scotland. 


The  young,  which  are  produced  in  August,  grow  rapidly,  and  are 
able  to  follow  their  dams  to  the  water  within  a  fortnight  after 
birth. 

Mr.  Newman,  in  his  interesting  "  Notes  on  Irish  Natural  History," 
observes,  that  "  these  Seals  are  most  abundant  all  round  the  coast  of 
Connemara,  from  Galway  to  the  Killery  ;  indeed,  I  imagine,  on  every 
part  of  the  coast  of  Ireland  :  they  are  strong,  resolute,  and  ferocious 
animals,  and  totally  different  from  the  Phoca  vitulina,  which  is  in 
these  respects  the  reverse.  The  Halicharus  Gryphus  grows  occa- 
sionally to  an  enormous  size,  sometimes  attaining  even  the  length  of 


Fig.  410. — Immature  Ilarp-Seal. 

twelve  feet ;  and  Mr.  Ball,  of  Dublin,  told  me  of  one  he  had  killed  at 
Howth  Harbour,  which  he  believed  to  weigh  five  hundred  pounds. 
Phoca  vitulina  occurs  not  unfrequently  on  the  north  coast  of  Ireland, 
and  among  the  Scotch  islands  ;  but  it  appears  to  be  nearly  expelled 
from  the  southern  half  of  Ireland  by  the  more  powerful  and  savage 
species  above  referred  to."     Mr.  Selby  records  one  killed  in  the 


Fam  Islands,  weighing  upwards  of  forty-seven  stone,  fourteen  pounds 
to  the  stone. 

The  Grey  Seal  is  stated  by  Nilsson  to  be  solitary  in  the  Baltic  ;  but 
such  is  not  the  case  either  on  the  Farn  Islands  or  the  coast  of 
Ireland,  where  it  tenants  caves  and  rocks,  in  parties  of  twelve  or 
fourteen,  or  perhaps  more.  No  doubt,  like  the  common  Seal,  it  is 
often  seen  alone. 

The  Harp  Seal. 

(Phoco  GrcenlandicaJ.—T^s  native  regions  of  this   Seal  are  the 
shores  of  Greenland,  Newfoundland,  Iceland,  Kamtschatka,  &c.     It 

is  one  of  the  species  in  the 
chase  of  which  the  Greenlander 
encounters  so  many  perils. 
Crantz,  in  his  history  of  Grcen- 
^is:_,^  land,    states   that    it   is    there 

>^^=^'^  called  Attarsoak.     "  It  has  a 

pointed  head  and  big  body, 
and  is,  when  full-grown,  nearly 
three  yards  long  ;  it  is  then 
almost  all  of  a  white-grey 
colour,  and  has  a  black  figure 
on  its  back  like  two  half-moons, 
with  their  horns  in  a  uniform 
direction  towards  one  another. 
But  there  are  others  somewhat 
blackish  all  over.  All  Seals 
vary  annually  in  colour  till  they 
are  full-grown,  but  no  sort  so 
much  as  this,  and  the  Green- 
landers  vary  its  name  accord- 
ing to  its  age.  In  the  first  year 
it  is  called  Attarak,  and  is  of  a 
cream  colour :  in  the  second 
year,  Atteisiak  ;  it  is  then  grey  : 
in  the  third  year,  Aglcktok  ;  it 
is  then  painted :  in  the  fourth 
year  it  is  Milektok  ;  spotted  : 
in  the  fifth  year,  Attarsoak  ;  it 
then  wears  its  half-moon,  the 
signal  of  maturity." 

It  is  singular  that  the  Green- 
land Seal,  in  its  immature 
livery,  occasionally  visits  the 
British  shores  and  also  the 
coasts  of  France.  In  the  "  Pro- 
ceedings  of  the  British  Institu- 
tion" for  1836,  there  is  an  ac- 
count of  two  caught  in  the 
Severn  :  one  captured  on  the 
coast  of  France  lived  for  some  time  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at 
Paris.  Fred.  Cuvier,  considering  it  a  new  species,  gave  it  the  title 
of  Caloccphaliis  (Phoca)  discolor.  Professor  Nilsson  also  re- 
garded the  immature  as  a  distinct  species,  and  characterised  it  as 
such  under  the  name  of  Phoca  ajiiicl/afa.  The  titles,  therefore, 
discolor  and  anncllata,  must  both  merge  into  Gi-amlandica. 

Fig.  410  is  the  immature  Harp-Seal,  the  Phoca  discolor  oi  F. 
Cuvier,  from  a  specimen  which  was  captured  on  the  coast  of  France, 
and  lived  for  several  weeks  in  the  Paris  Menagerie ;  and  Fig.  411 
illustrates  an  adult  Seal.     M.  F.  Cuvier  declares  that  he  never  knew 


Fig.  411.— An  adult  Ilarp-Seal. 

any  wild  animal  that  was  more  easily  tamed  or  attached  itself  more 
strongly.  When  it  first  came  to  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  it  did  its 
best  to  escape  when  M.  F.  Cuvier  tried  to  touch  it ;  but  in  a  very 
few  days  its  timidity  vanished,  and  it  rather  courted  his  caresses 
than  shunned  them.  In  the  same  enclosure  with  it  were  two  little 
Dogs,  and  they  amused  tliemselves  by  mounting  on  the  Seal's  back, 
barking,  and  even  biting  it :  the  Seal,  however,  took  it  in  good  part, 
and   seemed  pleased  with  them,  though  it  would   sometimes  give 


i6o 


THE  SEALS. 


them  slight  blows  with  its  paws,  as  if  more  to  encourage  their  play 
than  repress  their  liberties.  When  the  little  Dogs  made  their  way 
out  of  the  enclosure,  the  Seal  tried  to  follow  them,  not  deterred  bv 
the  rough  and  stony  ground.  In  cold  weather  they  all  three  huddled 
kindly  and  warmly  together.  If  the  Dogs  snatched  the  fish  from 
the  Seal's  mouth  when  he  was  feeding,  he  bore  it  patiently  ;  but  he 
exhibited  very  different  conduct  to  another  Seal,  who  shared  his 
mess  ;  for  they  generally  had  a  fight  over  their  meal,  the  combat 
ending,  as  usual,  in  the  defeat  of  the  weakest. 

The  Sea-Leopard. 

(Stenorhy)tchus  Icopardinus) ;  St.  IVeddclUi,  Lesson  ;  Phoca  Ico- 
fardina,  Jamieson. — The  genus  Stenorhynchtis  is  characterised  by 
the  prominence  of  the  muzzle  and  the  jagged  form  of  the  teeth, 


Fig.  412.— Teeth  of  Sea-Leopard. 

which  have  each  a  bold,  acute,  middle  tubercle,  and  an  anterior  and 
posterior  acute  tubercle  of  smaller  size,  separated  from  the  middle 
one  by  a  deep  notch.     Claws  very  small. 


5  =  32 


Dental    formula  :— Incisors,  4  ;  canines,  I ^- ;  molars,  5 

4  i-i  '5-5 

Fig.  413  represents  the  skull  of  a  species  of  Stc7io- 


(see  Fig.  412.) 
rhy7icluis. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  Sea-Leopard  little  is  ascertained.  It  inhabits 
the  South  Shetlands  (south  of  Terra  del  Fuego),  in  60°  2,1'  S.  lat., 
and  attains  to  the  length  of  eleven  feet.  The  hair  is  soft  and  thin,' 
greyish  above,  yellowish  on  the  under  parts  ;  the  whole  of  the  upper 


Fig.  413.— Skull  of  Sea-Leopard. 

surface  is  spotted  with  whitish.  The  claws  are  sharp,  black,  curved, 
and  grooved.     (See  Fig.  414.) 

The  Monk  Seal  (S.  monaclms)  inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  and 
attains  a  length  of  from  ten  to  twelve  feet. 

The  Crested  Seal. 

\Siemniatopus  cristatiis). — In  the  genus  Siemmalojius  the  head  is 
surmounted  by  a  curious  hood-like  appendage,  the  nature  of  which 
is  not  well  understood.  Molars  with  simple  roots,  short,  wide,  and 
striated  only  on  the  crown  ;  muzzle  narrow  and  obtuse.      Dentition  : 


^Incisors,  1 ;  canines,  i 
2  I 


i;  molars,  ^ — ^=30.      (See  Fig.    415.) 

Fig.  416  represents  the  skull,  and  Fig.  417  the  animal  itself. 
The  Crested  Seal  is  a  native  of  Greenland  and  various  parts  of 


the  coast  of  North  America.  Crantz  says  it  is  called  Neitsersoak  by 
the  Greenlanders,  and  also  Clapmutz,  from  the  "thick  folded  skin 
on  its  forehead,  which  it  can  draw  down  over  its  eyes  like  a  cap  to 
defend  them  against  the  storm,  waves,  stones,  and  sand."  The 
apparatus  consists  of  a  cartilaginous  crest  which  arises  from  the 
muzzle,  and  mcreases   rapidly  in  height  as  it  passes  backwards. 


Fig.  414. — Sea-Leopard. 


Fig.  415.— Teeth  of  Crested  Seal. 

being  about  seven  inches  high  at  its  posterior  edge,  which  is 
separated  into  two  planes  by  an  intervening  depression  an  inch 
deep :  this  cartilaginous  appendage  is  a  development  of  the  septum 
of  the  nose,  and  it  runs  into  the  hood  or  sac-like  appendage  of  the 
head,  which  is  strongly  muscular,  with  circular  fibres  round  its  two 

orifices  at  the  snout  like  nostrils, 
the  true  nostrils  opening  on  each 
side  of  the  cartilaginous  crest 
beneath  the  hood,  and  are  of  an 
oblong  figure.  In  the  females  and 
young  the  curious  apparatus  is 
undeveloped,  being  peculiar  to 
the  adult  male.  The  eyes,  which 
are  capable  of  being  drawn  deeply 
into  the  socket  during  repose, 
are  eminently  formed  for  discern- 
ing distant  objects.  The  fur  is  soft, 
long,  and  woolly  beneath  ;  in  old  individuals  it  is  black,  silvered  on 
the  under-parts.  In  young  animals  it  is  grey,  spotted  irregularly 
with  brown.  The  dilatable  sac  which  crowns  the  head  is  covered 
with  short  brown  hair. 


Fig.  416.— Skull  of  Crested  Seal. 


THE  SEALS. 


i6i 


The  Crested  Seal  attains  to  the  length  of  eight  feet.  It  haunts 
the  open  sea,  and  is  said  to  visit  the  land  chiefly  in  April,  May,  and 
June.  These  animals  are  commonly  seen  on  large  ice-islands, 
where  they  sleep  without  precaution.  Great  numbers  are  found  in 
Davis's  Straits,  where  they  are  stated  to  make  two  voyages  a  year — 
in  September  and  March.     They  depart  to  bring  forth  their  young, 


Fig.  417. — Crested  Seal. 

and  return  in  June  very  lean  and  exhausted.  In  July  they  proceed 
again  to  the  north,  where  they  appear  to  procure  plenty  of  food,  for 
they  return  in  high  condition  in  September.  One  male  is  lord  of 
many  females.  They  fight  among  themselves  very  desperately,  in- 
flicting deep  wounds  with  the  claws  and  teeth.  Their  bite  is,  indeed, 
very  formidable.  The  voice  of  this  Seal  is  stated  to  resemble  the 
bark  and  whine  of  a  Dog.  Great  numbers  of  the  skins  of  this 
animal  are  brought  to  England,  and  it  is  one  of  those  Seals  which 
are  so  valuable  to  the  Greenlanders.  It  is  the  Phoca  cristata  of 
Gmelin,  and  the  Phoca  leonina  of  Fabricius. 

The  Elephant-Seal,  or  Bottle-Nose. 

{CysioJ>?!ora  froboscidca,  Macrorhinus ^roboscideiis);  Bottle-Nose 
of  Pennant ;  Phoque  a  trompe  of  Peron  ;  Miouroung  of  the  Austra- 
lians.— In  this  genus  the  males  have  the  power  of  lengthening  their 
large  movable  snout  into  a  proboscis  resembling  that  of  the  Tapir, 


Fig.  418.— Teeth  of  Elephant-Seal. 

through  which,  when  excited,  they  respire  violently.  The  teeth  con- 
sist of  four  incisors  above,  and  two  below,  formed  like  the  canines  : 
the  canines  themselves  are  very  large,  conical,  and  recurved :  the 

molars  are  i^i,  with  simple  roots  far  exceeding  in  circumference 

the  crowns,  which  are  mere  mammillary  projections.    (See  Fig.  418.) 

Fig.  415  represents  the  skull  of  the  genus. 

The  whiskers  are  strong,  coarse,  long,  and  screw-twisted;  the 
eyes  are  large  and  prominent ;  the  paddles  well  developed,  the  nails 
small ;  hair  short  and  close ;  its  colour  greyish  or  bluish-grey,  rarely 
blackish-brown.  Length  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet ;  girth  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  feet.  In  the  female  there  is  no  proboscis  ;  the  colour  is 
dark  olive-brown  above,  passing  into  yellowish-bay  on  the  under- 
parts.  The  hair  lies  in  patches  in  all  directions,  giving  a  spotted 
appearance  to  the  body  somewhat  like  watered-silk.  No  nails  on 
the  hmd-toes. 

The  Elephant-Seal  (see  Figs.  420  and  421)  is  a  native  of  the 
bouthern  hemisphere,  both  in  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Southern 
oceans,   between    35°  and   55^   S.   lat.,   Kerguelen's   Land,   South 


Georgia,  Juan  Fernandez,  South  Shetland,  and  the  Falklands. 
This  huge  Seal  lives  in  troops,  which  at  certain  seasons  frequent 
various  islands  in  the  Southern  seas,  especially  where  fresh-water 
lakes  or  swamps,  in  which  they  delight  to  wallow,  are  easily  ac- 
cessible. They  are,  in  fact,  migratory  animals,  advancing  with  the 
winter  season  towards   the   tropic  of  Capricorn,   and  towards  the 


Fig.  419.— Skull  of  Elephanf-Seal, 

south  in  the  summer.  It  is  in  the  middle  of  June  that  they  perform 
their  first  migration,  covering,  in  countless  multitudes,  the  shores  of 
King  Island,  which,  as  the  sailors  report,  arc  sometimes  blackened 
by  them.  Here  the  females  produce  their  young,  and,  as  it  is 
afBrmed,  the  males  form  a  line  between  the  females  and  the  sea, 
while  the  latter  are  nursing  their  cubs,  in  order  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  their  deserting  their  charge,  even  for  the  shortest  space  of 
time.  The  period  of  nursing  and  imprisonment  lasts  for  seven  or 
eight  weeks,  during  which  time  the  females  are  debarred  from  food, 
and  become  extremely  emaciated;  some,  it  is  said,  occasionally 
perish.  The  growth  of  the  young  is  very  rapid.  After  birth  they 
measure  between  four  and  five  feet,  but  in  eight  days  are  double 


Fig.  420. — Elephant-Seals — Males, 


Fig.  421. — Elephant.Seal — Female. 

their  original  dimensions,  and  in  the  third  year  are  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-five  feet  in  length.  At  this  period  the  proboscis  begins  to  be 
developed  in  the  male.  When  the  term  of  imprisonment  has  expired, 
the  whole  troop,  young  and  all,  visit  the  sea,  where  the  females  soon 
recover  their  strength  and  condition,  and  where  they  sojourn  for 
about  a  month,  when  they  again  visit  the  shore,  which  now  becomes 

Y 


l62 


THE  SEALS. 


the  arena  of  most  furious  conflicts  between  the  adult  males,  the 
females  remaining  passive  spectators.  \Vhen  these  scenes  of  blood- 
shed and  excitement  have  ended,  the  troop,  under  the  guidance  of  a 
leader,  leave  the  shores  of  the  islands  in  lat.  2,;^,  and  migrate  south- 
wards towards  the  Antarctic  circle,  where  they  spend  the  summer 
months.  It  is  observed,  however,  that  a  few  remain  in  the  former 
localities,  even  during  the  summer,  probably  in  consequence  of 
being  disabled  by  wounds  or  debility  from  undertaking  the  ordinary 
journey.  As  soon  as  the  frost  commences  in  the  low  southern 
latitudes,  the  herds  begin  their  return  towards  the  tropic,  and  in 
June  have  arrived  at  their  accustomed  breeding-places. 

Captain  Carmichael,  in  his  description  of  the  island  of  Tristan 
d'Acunha  (see  "  Linn.  Trans.,"  vol.  xii.),  observes  that  a  full-grown 
male  will  yield  seventy  gallons  of  oil ;  indeed,  as  they  crawl  along, 
their  body  trembles  like  a  great  bag  of  jelly.  "These  Seals  pass 
the  greater  part  of  their  time  on  shore  :  they  may  be  seen  in  hundreds 
lying  asleep  along  the  sandy  beach,  or  among  the  long  grass  which 
borders  the  sea-shore  The  huge  animals  are  so  little  apprehensive 
of  danger,  that  they  must  be  kicked  or  pelted  with  stones  before 
they  make  any  effort  to  move  out  of  one's  way.  When  roused  from 
their  slumber,  they  raise  the  fore-part  of  their  body,  open  wide  their 
mouth,  and  display  a  formidable  set  of  tusks,  but  never  attempt  to 
bite.  Should  this,  however,  fail  to  intimidate  their  disturbers,  they 
set  themselves  at  length  in  motion,  and  make  for  the  water ;  but  with 
such  deliberation,  that  on  an  excursion  we  once  made  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  island,  two  of  our  party  were  tempted  to  get  upon 
the  back  of  one  of  them,  and  rode  him  fairly  into  the  water." 
These  animals  taken  young  are  easily  tamed,  and  become  very  affec- 
tionate ;  one  petted  by  an  English  seaman  became  so  attached  to  his 
master  from  kind  treatment  for  a  few  months,  that  it  would  come  at 
his  call,  allow  him  to  mount  upon  its  back,  and  put  his  hands  into 
its  mouth. 

The  voice  of  the  male  is  deep,  hoarse,  and  terrific,  and  may  be 
heard  at  a  great  distance  ;  that  of  the  females  and  young  is  a  kind 
of  loud  bellowing. 

The  food  of  the  Elephant-Seal  appears  in  great  part  to  consist 
of  Cuttle-fish  and  seaweed ;  the  beaks  of  the  former  and  remains 
of  the  latter,  often  mixed  with  pebbles,  being  commonly  found  in  the 
stomach. 

It  is  for  the  oil  of  this  species  principally,  which,  besides  being 
yielded  in  great  abundance,  is  clear  and  inodorous,  that  the  Seal- 
fisheries  of  the  South  Pacific  are  conducted.  The  skin,  however,  is 
valuable,  from  its  strength  and  thickness,  and  is  extensively  used  for 


carriage  and  horse  harness.  The  flesh  is  oily  and  disgusting;  but 
the  tongues,  when  salted,  are  said  to  be  very  excellent. 

The  Ursine  Seal,  or  Sea-Bear 

fOtaria  ursina;  Arctocephalus  ursimis ) ;  Phoca  ursina,  Lmn.; 
Ursus  marinus,  Steller;  L'  Ours  marin  of  Buffon. — The[characters 
of  this  genus   are   as   follows : — Head    with    a    narrow    retracted 

muzzle:    the  dentition  thus: — Incisors, —  :  canines, —^^  ;  molars, 

4  1-1 

— ~—  =  36.     (See  Fig.  422.) 

Small  external  ears.     Fig.  423  represents  the  skull  of  the  genus. 
The  Ursine  Seal  attains  the  length  of  nearly  eight  feet ;  its  fur  is 
brown,  washed  with  grey  ;  it  is  long  and  erect,  especially  around  the 
neck  in  old  males,  where  the  hair  is  two  inches  in  length  and  stiff; 
_  there  is  beneath  the  hair  a  soft 

brownish-red  wool  close  to  the 
skin.  This  species  inhabits  the 
islands  on  the  north-west  of 
America,  Kamtschatka,  the  Ku- 
rile  Islands,  &c.,  and  is  migra- 
tory in  its  habits.  When  these 
Seals  appear  off  Kamtschatka 
and  the  Kuriles  early  in  the 
spring,  they  are  in  high  condi- 
tion, and  the  females  are  preg- 
nant. They  remain  on  or  about 
the  shore  for  two  months,  during  which  the  females  bring  forth. 
They  are  polygamous,  and  live  in  families,  every  male  being  sur- 
rounded by  a  crowd  of  females  (from  fifty  to  eighty),  whom  he 
guards  with  the  greatest  jealousy.  These  families,  each  including 
the  young,  amounting  to  100  or  120,  live  separate,  though  they 
crowd  the  shore,  and  that  to  such  an  extent  on  the  islands  oS 
the  north-west  point  of  America,  that  it  is  said  they  oblige  the 
traveller  to  quit  it  and  scale  the  neighbouring  rocks.  Both  male 
and  female  are  very  affectionate  to  their  young,  and  fierce  in  their 
defence ;  but  the  males  are  often  tyrannically  cruel  to  the  females, 
which  are  very  submissive.  If  one  family  encroaches  on  the  station 
of  another,  a  general  fight  is  the  consequence.  They  will  not,  in 
fact  they  dare  not,  leave  their  stations,  for  if  they  did  they  must 
encroach  on  that  of  some  other  family.  Steller  relates  that  he 
had  been  beset  by  these  Seals  for  six  hours  together,  and  was 
at  last  obliged  to  climb  a  precipice  to  get  rid  of  the  infuriated 
animals,  at  the  imminent  peril  of  his  life.  They  have  their  war- 
notes  and  several  other  intonations.  When  amusing  themselves  on 
the  shore,  they  low  like  a  Cow,  chirp  like  a  Cricket  after  a  victory, 
and,  when  they  are  wounded,  cry  like  a  whelp.  They  swim  very 
swiftly,  and  are  as  great  a  terror  to  other  Seals  as  the  Sea-Lion 
is  to  them. 


Fig.  422, — Teeth  of  Ursine  Seal. 


Fig.  423.— Skull  of  Ursine  Seal. 


Fig.  424. — Ursine  Seal. 

The  skin  of  the  Ursine  Seal  is  very  thick,  and  from  its  full  deep 
fur  makes  excellent  winter  clothing.  Steller  speaks  of  a  garment 
which  he  made  for  himself  from  one,  when  he  was  in  Behring's 
Island,  with  grateful  remembrance.  Fig.  424  represents  the  Ursine 
Seal. 

The  Sea-Lion. 

(Otaria  jubaia  ;  Platyrhynclms  Fosteri)  ;  Otaria  Fostcri,  Less., 
in  "  Diet.  Class.;"  Phoca  Forsteri,  Fischer. — Forster's,  or  the  Pata- 
gonian  Sea-Lion,  is  a  native  of  the  Southern  seas,  frequenting  the 
Magellanic  coast,  Terra  del  Fuego,  and  the  Magellanic  Islands. 
The  skin  is  thick,  the  hair  reddish,  yellowish,  or  dark-brown  ;  no  fur 


THE  WALRUS,   OR  MORSE. 


163 


or  short  wool  under  the  long  hair.  A  mane  on  the  neck  of  the  male 
reaches  to  the  shoulders.  Head  small  in  proportion  to  the  body, 
which  is  everywhere  equally  thick-looking,  as  Buffon  describes  it, 
like  a  great  cylinder,  more  suited  for  rolling  than  walking,  Ears 
conical,  about  six  or  seven  lines  long ;  cartilage  iirm  and  stiff,  but 
yet  rather  curled  at  the  margin.  Upper  lip  overhanging  the  lower  ; 
both  furnished  with  long,  coarse,  black  whiskers,  which  become 
white  with  age.  Length  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet;  the  females 
shorter  and  more  slender.     (See  Fig.  425.) 


Fig.  425. — The^Sea-Lion. 

Captain  Cook  stated  that  it  was  not  at  all  perilous  to  go  among 
these  animals,  for  they  either  fled  or  stood  still.  The  only  danger 
was  going  between  them  and  the  sea  ;  for  if  they  took  fright  at  any- 
thing, they  would  come  down  in  such  numbers,  that  the  person  in  the 
way  would  be  run  over.  When  he  and  his  party  came  suddenly  upon 
them,  or  waked  them  out  of  their  sleep,  they  would  raise  up  their 
heads,  snort  and  snarl,  and  look  fierce,  as  if  they  meant  to  devour 
the  intruder  ;  but  when  the  men  advanced,  the  Sea-Lions  always  ran 
away.  He  stated  that  the  male  is  surrounded  by  from  twenty  to 
thirty  females,  and  that  he  is  very  attentive  to  keep  them  all  to  him- 
self, beatmg  off  every  male  that  attempts  to  come  to  his  flock. 
Others,  again,  had  a  less  number ;  some  no  more  than  one  or  two ;  and 
here  and  there  was  seen  one  lying  growling  in  a  retired  place,  suf- 
fering neither  males  nor  females  to  come  near  him.  These  he  judged 
to  be  old  and  superannuated. 

Forster  relates  that  the  rocks  along  the  shore  in  New  Year's 
Harbour  were  covered  with  multitudes  of  these  Sea-Lions.  "We 
put  into  a  little  cove  under  the  shelter  of  some  rocks,"  says  he,  "  and 
fired  at  some  of  these  fierce  animals,  most  of  which  immediately 
threw  themselves  into  the  sea.  Some  of  the  most  unwieldy,  however, 
kept  their  ground,  and  were  killed  by  our  bullets.  The  noise  which 
all  the  animals  of  this  kind  made  was  various,  and  sometimes 
stunned  our  ears.  The  old  males  snort  and  roar  like  mad  Bulls  or 
Lions  ;  the  females  bleat  exactly  like  calves,  and  the  young  cubs  like 
lambs.  They  live  together  in  numerous  herds.  The  oldest  and 
fattest  males  lie  apart,  each  having  chosen  a  large  rock  to  which 
none  of  the  rest  dare  approach  without  engaging  in  furious  combat." 
Forster  goes  on  to  relate  that  they  were  often  seen  to  seize  each 
other  with  an  indescribable  degree  of  rage,  and  that  many  of  them 
had  deep  gashes  on  their  backs,  which  they  had  received  in  the 
wars.  The  younger  active  Sea-Lions,  with  all  the  females  and  the 
cubs,  lay  together.  They  commonly  awaited  the  approach  of  the 
people ;  but  as  soon  as  some  of  the  herd  were  killed,  the  rest  pre- 
cipitately fled,  some  females  carrying  off  a  cub  in  their  mouths, 
while  many  were  so  terrified  that  they  left  the  young  behind.  When 
undisturbed,  they  were  often  observed  caressing  each  other  in  a 
most  tender  manner,  and  their  snouts  often  met  together  as  if  they 
were  kissing.  The  same  author  states  that  they  come  on  shore  on 
those  uninhabited  spots  to  breed,  and  that  they  do  not  feed  during 
their  stay  on  land,  which  sometimes  lasts  for  several  weeks  ;  they 
then  grow  lean,  and  swallow  a  considerable  quantity  of  stones  to 
distend  the  stomach.  He  adds  that  the  stomachs  of  many  of  them 
were  found  entirely  empty,  and  those  of  others  were  filled  with  ten 
or  twelve  round  heavy  stones,  each  of  the  size  of  two  fists. 

As  will  have  been  seen,  the  Eared  Seals,  or  Sea-Lions  and  Sea- 
Bears,  form  a  very  distinct  group  of  marine  carnivorous  animals, 
readily  known  from  the  true  Seals  by  the  presence  of  a  small  exter- 
nal ear.  In  i866  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  first  obtained  a 
living  specimen  of  one  of  these  remarkable  animals,  which  proved 
to  be  of  no  ordinary  interest  both  to  scientific  observers  and  to  the 
public.  Upon  its  death  the  Council  determined  to  send  the  late 
Francois  Lecomte— the  keeper  who  had  it  under  his  charge — out  to 
the  Falkland  Islands,  in  order  to  obtain  other  individuals  of  the 
same  species.     Lecomte  returned  from  this  expedition  in  August, 


1867 ;  but,  owing  to  various  unforeseen  circumstances,  only  succeeded 
in  landing  alive  in  this  country  one  out  of  the  four  Sea-Lions  with 
which  he  had  started  from  Port  Stanley.  This  individual,  which,  in 
1877,  was  quite  adult,  is  a  female,  captured  by  Lecomte  at  North 
Point  Island,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  East  Falkland  Island,  on  Tune 
8th,  1867. 

Of  the  smaller  Sea-Lion  of  the  Capo,  a  single  specimen  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Society  by  H.  E.  Sir  Henry  Barkly,  Governor  of  the 
Cape  Colony  in  187 1.  It  was  very  fierce  and  wild  on  its  first 
arrival,  but  is  now  quite  as  tame  and  tractable  as  its  larger  com- 
panion. Other  specimens  of  the  Seal  tribe  may  be  seen  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Society  in  Regent's  Park,  London. 

The  Walrus,  or  Morse. 

{Trichecus  Rosmarus). — Leaving  the  genuine  Seals,  we  come  to 
the  genus  Tric/iccus,  of  which  we  are  acquainted  with  only  one 
species,  the  Walrus,  or  Morse,  and  Sea-Cow  of  the  British  ;  Morse, 
Vache  Marine,  Cheval  Marin,  and  Bete  a  la  grande  dent  of  the 
French.  It  is  the  Horse-Whale  or  Whale-Horse  (Hval-ros)  of 
Octher,  the  Norwegian,  who,  about  the  year  890,  made  his  report  of 
it  to  Alfred,  as  having  in  its  teeth  bones  of  great  price  and  excel- 
lency, some  of  which  he  brought  to  the  king  on  his  return  from  his 
voyage  beyond  Norway :  also  Rosmar  of  the  Norwegians ;  Morss 
or  Morsh  of  the  Russians,  and  Morsk  of  the  Laplanders.  The 
Walrus  forms  the  family  Trichecida. 

The  Walrus  is  a  native  of  the  Polar  regions  of  both  hemispheres ; 
and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  Arctic  animal  is  specifically 
distinct  from  the  Antarctic,  though  in  habits  and  manners  tlicy 
agree  precisely.  The  Arctic  Walrus  has  occasionally  visited  the 
British  shores,  and  is  therefore  figured  by  Mr.  Bell  in  his  "  History 
of  British  Quadnipeds,"  though  it  can  scarcely  be  accounted  one  of 
their  number.  In  general  form,  no  less  than  in  habits,  the  Walrus 
closely  resembles  the  larger  species  of  Seals  ;  but  it  differs  from  all 
the  species  of  this  group  in  the  general  contour  of  the  skull,  and  in 
the  dental  formula.  Fig.°426  represents  the  skull  and  lower  jaw; 
Fig.  427,  the  molars  and  tusks  of  this  animal. 


Fig.  426. — Skull  and  Lower  Jaw  of  Walrus, 

The  first  peculiarity  which  strikes  us  in  the  skull  of  the  Walrus 
consists  in  the  enormous  magnitude  of  the  canine  teeth  of  the  upper 
jaw,  which  are  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in  length,  stout  and 
solid,  with  large  roots  imbedded  in  protuberant  alveoli,  or  sockets, 
occupying  the  anterior  part  of  the  muzzle,  and  rising  above  the 
cranium,  which  appears  of  disproportionate  volume.  The  immense 
development  of  the  alveoli  of  these  canines,  gives  a  swollen  appear- 
ance to  the  face,  which  is  increased  by  the  tumid  character  of  the 
lips,  covered  with  thick  wiry  moustaches.  The  dentition  is  as 
follows  : — Upper  jaw,  incisors  four,  of  which  the  two  middle  are 
deciduary,  falling  out  at  an  early  period  ;  the  two  lateral  have  the 
character  of  molars.  Of  the  enormous  canines  we  have  already 
spoken.  Molars  on  each  side  four,  cylindrical,  short,  and  obliquely 
truncate;  lower  jaw,  incisors  wanting,  canines  wanting  ;  molars  as 
in  the  upper  jaw.  The  lower  jaw  is  not  only  small  in  proportion  to 
the  general  volume  of  the  skull,  but  is  compressed  as  it  proceeds,  in 
order  to  fit  in  between  the  huge  canines  of  the  upper  jaw,  which 
sweep  with  a  gentle  curve  perpendicularly  downward.  The  nostrils, 
in  consequence  of  the  development  of  those  imbedded  in  the 
maxillary  bones,  are  thrown  upwards,  so  as  to  open  considerably 
above  the  muzzle  with  a  vertical  aspect.     The  eyes  are  small,  but 


1 64 


THE  WALRUS. 


brilliant ;  the  orifices  of  the  ears  are  placed  very  far  backwards  on 
the  head ;  the  neck  is  short  and  thick,  the  chest  of  great  volume ; 
the  tail  short ;  the  body  thinly  clothed  with  short,  stiff,  brownish 
hair;  the  hinder  paddles  are  large.  In  length  the  Walrus  attains  to 
fifteen  or  sixteen  feet,  and  its  body  not  only  yields  abundance  of  oil, 
but  its  skin  is  highly  valued  for  its  toughness  and  durability.     The 


Fig.  427. — Molars  and  Tusks  of  Walrus, 

tusks  of  this  animal,  which  remind  us  of  those  of  the  Elephant,  are 
instruments  both  of  defence  and  -of  progression ;  by  their  aid  it 
assists  itself  in  clambering  up  floating  icebergs,  or  in  traversing  the 
fields  of  ice  along  the  shore,  to  which  it  resorts  both  to  rest  and 
breed.  It  uses  them  also  with  great  effect  in  defending  itself  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Polar  Bear,  which  may  be  regarded  as  its  most 
formidable  adversary,  and  with  which  it  often  engages  in  bloody 
conflicts.  But  there  is  also  another  use  to  which  these  tusks  are 
destined :  the  Walrus  feeds  to  a  great  extent  on  a  species  of 
marine  vegetable,  the  fticus  digitatus,  and  these  instruments  are 
admirably  calculated  for  tearing  up  the  long  wreaths  of  seaweed, 


Fig.  428.— Walruses, 


fast  rooted  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  Besides  this  vegetable,  they 
also  feed  upon  other  aliment.  Mr.  Scoresby  found  in  their  stomachs 
Shrimps,  a  kind  of  Crayfish,  and  the  remains  of  young  Seals.  They 
are  probably  omnivorous. 

The  Walrus,  like  the  Seal,  is  gregarious  in  its  habits,  and  is  often 
observed  in  vast  flocks  reposing  upon  the  ice,  or  upon  rocky  islands, 
or  sand-banks ;  on  these  occasions  some  appear  to  act  as 
sentinels,  and  give  notice  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy; 
their  voice  is  a  loud  roar  or  bray,  and  may  be  heard  at  a 
considerable  distance.  Captain  Cook  observes,  that  in  the 
night,  or  in  foggy  weather,  the  roaring  of  the  Walruses 
gave  notice  of  the  vicinity  of  the  ice  before  it  could  be  seen. 
When  attacked,  or  fired  at,  the  whole  troop  rushes  tumultu- 
ously  into  the  sea  ;  should  one  be  wounded,  its  companions 
hasten  with  loud  cries  to  the  rescue,  and,  emboldened  by 
their  numbers,  assail  the  boat  with  great  ferocity,  and 
endeavour  to  upset  or  break  it  with  their  powerful  tusks. 
The  thickness  and  toughness  of  the  skin  render  it  no  easy 
matter  to  drive  a  lance  or  harpoon  into  the  animal's  body, 
and  a  sharp  weapon  not  unfrequently  glances  off  without 
piercing.  When  wounded  on  shore,  the  Morse  turns  furi- 
ously upon  its  adversary,  striking  right  and  left  with  its 
tusks,  and  endeavouring  to  dash  him  to  the  ground  ;  then 
roaring  with  pain  and  fury  it  makes  off  into  the  sea,  where 
it  is  joined  by  its  companions.  Zorgdrager,  in  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  Greenland  fishery  (1750),  states,  that  before  the 
Morse  had  been  so  persecuted,  large  troops  would  often 
advance  on  the  shore  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  edge 
of  the  water,  so  that  it  was  easy  to  cut  off  their  retreat,  and 
the  more  so  as  the  animals  exhibited  no  alarm  on  seeing 
the  approach  of  the  hunters,  who  would  often  kill  several 
before  the  rest  attempted  to  regain  the  sea.  As  is  the  case 
with  the  Whale,  the  annual  slaughter  made  among  these 
animals  for  the  sake  of  their  oil,  and  of  their  tusks,  which 
are  of  the  finest  ivory,  has  thinned  their  numbers,  or  driven  them 
from  haunts  where  they  formerly  abounded,  to  seek  shelter  in  more 
inaccessible  localities.  That  they  are  not  without  courage  or  sym- 
pathy for  their  wounded  companions  there  is  ample  testimony. 
When  Martens  wounded  one,  others  speedily  surrounded  the  boat, 
and  whilst  some  endeavoured  to  pierce  it  with  their  tusks,  others 
raised  themselves  out  of  the  water  and  endeavoured  to  board  her. 
Captain  Phipps  (afterwards  Lord  Mulgrave)  relates,  that  when  near 
a  low  flat  island  opposite  Waygat's  Straits,  in  1773,  two  of  the 
officers  went  in  a  boat  in  pursuit  of  Sea-Horses.  They  fired  at  one 
and  wounded  it.     The  animal  was  alone  when  it  was  wounded,  but 

diving  into  the  sea,  it  brought 
^  back  a  number  of  others.    They 

made  a  united  attack  upon  the 
boat,  wrested  an  oar  from  one 
of  the  men,  and  were  with  diffi- 
culty prevented    from    staving 
or  oversetting  her  ;  but  a  boat 
from    the   "Carcass"    joining 
that    firom    the   "  Racehorse," 
they  dispersed.  Captain  Phipps 
adds  that  one   of  that  ship's 
boats  had  before  been  attacked 
in  the  same  manner  off  Moffen 
Island.     Sir  Edward  Parry  en- 
countered about  200  in  Fose's 
Channel,  lying  piled  as  usual 
over  each  other  on  the  loose 
drift-ice.     A  boat's  crew  from 
both  the  "  Fury"  and  "  Hecla" 
went  to  attack  them,  but  they 
made  a  desperate  resistance, 
some  with  their  cubs  mounted 
on  their  backs,  and  one  of  them 
tore  the  planks  of  a  boat  in  two 
or  three  places.    Their  parental 
affection    is    great.    ,  Captain 
Cook   states,   that  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  boats,  which  were 
hoisted  out  to  attack  them  in 
Behring's  Straits,  all  the  Wal- 
ruses   took    their  cubs    under 
their  fins,  and  endeavoured  to 
escape  with  them  from  the  ice 
into  the    sea.     Several  whose 
young  were  killed  and  wounded, 
and  were   left  floating  on  the 
surface,  rose  again  and  carried 
them  down,  sometimes  just  as 
the  people  were  going  to  take 
them  into  the  boat :  and  they 
might  be  traced  bearing  them 
to  a  great  distance  through  the 


THE   WALRUS. 


i6s 


water,  which  was  coloured  with  their  blood.  They  were  afterwards 
observed  bringing  them  up  at  times  above  the  surface,  as  if  for  air, 
and  again  diving  under  it  with  a  dreadful  bellowing.  The  female  in 
particular,  whose  young  had  been  destroyed  and  taken  into  the 
boat,  became  so  enraged  that  she  attacked  the  cutter,  and  struck 
her  tusks  through  the  bottom  of  it. 

In  the  Arctic  regions  the  flesh  of  the  Walrus  is  held  by  the  natives 
in  great  estimation  ;  Sir  Edward  Parry  remarks  that  the  flesh  was 
tolerably  good,  affording  variety  amid  the  ordinary  sea  fare.  The 
ivory  is  finer  than  that  of  the  Elephant ;  the  skin  makes  excellent 
carriage-harness  ;  and  the  oil  is  valuable,  though  only  from  twenty 
to  thirty  gallons  are  yielded  by  a  single  carcass  ;  its  blubber,  as 
Crantz  says,  being  white  and  solid  like  bacon,  and  a  hand's  breadth 
thick,  but  not  giving  out  much  fluid  oil. 

Fig.  429  represents  a  Greenlander  in  his  kajak  hunting  Seals. 

Seals' flesh,  says  Crantz,  supplies  the  Greenlanders  "with  their 
most  palatable  and  substantial  food ;  the  fat  furnishes  them  with 
oil  for  lamp-light,  chamber  and  kitchen  fire  ;  and  whoever  sees  their 
habitations,  presently  finds  that,  even  if  they  had  superfluity  of  wood, 
it  would  not  be  of  use  :  they  can  use  nothing  but  oil  in  them.    They 


also  mollify  their  dry  food,  mostly  fish,  with  oil ;  and  finally  they 
barter  it  for  all  kinds  of  necessaries  with  the  factor.  They  can 
sew  better  with  fibres  of  the  Seals'  sinews  than  with  thread  or  silk  ; 
of  the  skins  of  the  entrails  they  make  window-curtains  for  their 
tents,  and  shirts ;  part  of  the  bladder  they  use  as  a  float  to  their 
harpoons,  and  they  make  oil-flasks  of  the  stomach.  Neither  is  the 
blood  wasted,  but  is  boiled  up  with  other  ingredients,  and  eaten  as 
soup.  Of  the  skin  of  the  Seal  they  stand  in  the  greatest  need,  be- 
cause they  must  cover  with  Seal-skins  both  the  largo  and  small  boats 
in  which  they  travel  and  seek  their  provisions.  They  must  also  cut 
out  of  them  their  thongs  and  straps,  and  cover  their  tents  with  them, 
without  which  they  could  not  subsist  in  summer.  No  man  therefore 
can  pass  for  a  right  Greenlander  who  cannot  catch  Seals.  This  is 
the  ultimate  end  they  aspire  at  in  all  their  device  and  labour  from 
their  childhood  up."  To  the  Greenlander,  then,  the  sea  is  his  pas- 
turage, where  his  flocks  and  herds  are  fed  ;  the  sea  is  his  hunting- 
domain,  where,  in  his  light  kajak,  he  skims  over  the  waves. — In  the 
Arctic  collection  at  the  British  Museum,  some  beautiful  articles, 
manufactured  by  the  Esquimaux,  may  be  seen.  The  neatness  and 
elegance  of  the  work  can  hardly  be  excelled  by  European  workmen. 


Fig.  429.— Greenlander  in  his  Kajak,  hunting  Seals, 


i66 


RODENT  QUADRUPEDS. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

MAMMALIA.-ORDER,  RODENTIA-THE  GNAWERS,  OR  RODENTS. 


■■-a^j 


tiJi-i'r 


^^ 


^^ 


>i^ 


^'0, 


i~^ 


HILE,  in  most  of  the  orders 
of  the  Mamnialia,  the  species 
and  genera  are  readily  incor- 
porated   into    families,     the 
Rode7itia  order  presents  great  diffi- 
culties, owing  to  the  great  number  of 
species   it   embraces.      Consequently 
ideas    have    greatly  differed    in    the 
classification  of  the  order.     The  gene- 
ral characteristics,  however,  are  sufficiently 
marked.    The  animals  are  all  of  small  size  ; 
the  individuals  are  very  prolific  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, we  find  the  Rodents  abundantly 
distributed  in  the  world. 
A"  -^v  Mr.  Dallas  remarks,  that  their  most  con- 

^^,.  spicuous  character  is  to  be  found  in  their 

dentition,  which  is  very  peculiar,  and  only 
occurs  elsewhere  in  a  remarkably  aberrant  form 
of  the  Quadrumana.  The  teeth  are  of  two  sorts, 
incisors  and  molars,  the  canine  teeth  being  entirely 
deficient.  The  incisors  are  two  in  number  in  each  jaw  ; 
their  bases  pass  into  the  jaw,  beneath  the  molar  teeth, 
where  usually  there  is  a  permanent  pulp,  by  the 
action  of  which  the  incisors  are  kept  constantly  grow- 
ing during  the  life  of  the  animal,  so  as  to  supply  the 
continual  wear  going  on  at  the  extremities,  where  the 
upper  and  lower  teeth  come  in  contact.  The  substance 
of  the  body  of  these  teeth  is  moderately  soft ;  but  their 
anterior  surface  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  very  hard 
enamel,  secreted  by  a  membrane  coating  the  anterior 
wall  of  the  socket.  The  thin  layer  of  hard  enamel 
which  coats  the  front  of  the  tooth,  resists  abrasion  much 
better  than  the  dentine  of  which  the  body  of  the  tooth  is  composed  ; 
the  latter  consequently  wears  away  most  rapidly,  and  thus  the  enamel 
always  constitutes  a  sharp  projecting  edge,  like  that  of  a  chisel, 
of  which  the  dentine  forms  the  bevelled  portion.  The  object  of 
this  arrangement  is  very  apparent.  These  animals  feed  to  a  great 
extent  upon  hard  substances,  or  such  as 
are  enclosed  in  hard  coverings,  as  nuts, 
&c. ;  and  in  order  to  get  at  their  food  they 
require  both  sharp  and  strong  teeth  :  the 
requisite  sharpness  is  furnished  by  the  thin 
plate  of  enamel ;  but  as  this  by  itself  would 
break  away  directly  when  applied  to  its 
ordinary  purposes,  it  is  strengthened  by  a 
thick  layer  of  dentine,  which,  although  it 
furnishes  the  necessary  support,  wears 
away  so  readily  as  never  to  interfere  with 
the  efficiency  of  the  edge.     (See  Fig.  430. 

Behind  the  incisors  there  is  a  large  gap, 
beyond  which  the  molars  are  situated. 
These  vary  in  number  from  two  to  six,  and  are  usually  destitute 
of  true  roots;  in  fact,  like  the  incisors,  they  generally  continue 
growing  throughout  the  animal's  existence.  They  are  sometimes 
composed  of  a  simple  prism  of  dentine  coated  with  enamel ;  the 
latter  is  occasionally  folded  so  as  to  produce  transverse  ridges  at 


Fig.  430. — Skull  of  a  Ro- 
dent Mammal. 


the  surface  of  the  tooth,  which  is  usually 
worn  flat,  and,  in  some  cases,  exhibits 
small  isolated  spots  of  enamel  in  the  body 
of  the  dentine.  These  teeth  are  evidently 
adapted  for  the  comminution  of  vegetable 
substances  ;  and  although  many  of  these 
animals  are  omnivorous,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  vegetable  matters  constitute  the 
principal  part  of  their  nourishment. 

Professor  Owen  remarks,  in  reference  to 
the  dentition  of  the  Rode?ih'a,  some  of 
which — e.  g.,  the  Rat — are  mixed  feeders, 
but  most  of  them  herbivorous,  that  the 
canine  teeth  are  wanting  in  both  jaws, 
and  the  incisors,  reduced  to  two  in  num- 
ber, are  the  seat  of  that  excessive  and 
uninterrupted  growth,  which  makes  them 
allied  to  tusks. 

These  incisors  (Fig.  431,  i)  are  curved, 
the  upper  part  describing  a  larger  part  of 
a  smaller  circle,  the  lower  ones  a  smaller 
part  of  a  larger  circle,  the  latter  being  the  longest,  and  usually 
having  their  sockets  extending  from  the  fore  to  the  back  part  of  the 
under  jaw.  The  tooth  consists  of  a  body  of  compact  dentine,  with  a 
plate  of  enamel  laid  upon  its  anterior  or  convex  surface,  and  the 
enamel  commonly  consists  of  two  layers,  of  which  the  anterior  and  ex- 
ternal one  is  the  densest.    Thus  the  substances  of  the  incisor  diminish 


Fig.  431. — Skull  and  Teeth  of  a  Porcupine, 

in  hardness  from  the  front  to  the  back  part  of  the  tooth.  The  wear 
and  tear  from  the  reciprocal  action  of  the  upper  and  lower  incisors, 
produce,  accordingly,  an  oblique  surface,  sloping  from  a  sharp  an- 
terior margin  formed  by  the  denser  enamel,  like  that  which,  in  a 
chisel,  slopes  from  the  sharp  edge  formed  by  the  plate  of  hard  steel 
laid  on  the  back  of  that  tool ;  these  teeth  have,  therefore,  been 
called  "chisel-teeth"  {denies  scalprarii).  Their  growth  never 
ceases  while  the  animal  lives,  and  the  implanted  part  retains  the  form 
and  size  of  the  exposed  part,  and  ends  behind,  in  a  widely  open  or 
hollow  base,  which  contains  a  long,  conical,  persistent  forming  pulp. 
This  law  of  unlimited  growth  is  unconditional,  and  constant  exercise 
and  abrasion  are  required  to  maintain  the  normal  form  and  service- 
able proportions  of  the  scalpriform  teeth  of  the  Rodents.  When,  by 
accident,  an  opposing  incisor  is  lost,  or  when,  by  the  distorted 
union  of  a  broken  jaw,  the  lower  incisors  no  longer  meet  the  upper 
ones,  as  sometimes  happens  to  a  wounded  Hare  or  Rabbit,  the  in- 
cisors continue  to  grow  until  they  project,  like  the  tusks  of  the 
Elephant ;  and  the  extremities,  in  the  poor  animal's  attempts  to 
acquire  food,  also  become  pointed  like  tusks.  Following  the  curve 
prescribed  to  their  growth  by  the  form  of  their  socket,  their  points 
often  return  against  some  part  of  the  head,  are  passed  through  the 
skin,  cause  absorption  of  the  bone,  and  perhaps  again  enter  the 
mouth,  rendering  mastication  impracticable,  and  causing  death  by 
starvation.  In  the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  there  is  a 
lower  jaw  of  a  Beaver,  in  which  the  scalpriform  incisor  has,  by  un- 
checked growth,  described  a  complete  circle  ;  the  point  has  pierced 
the  masseter  muscle,  entered  the  back  of  the  mouth,  and  terminated 
close  to  the  bottom  of  the  socket  containing  its  own  hollow  root. 

The  difference  in  the  diet  of  the  Rodent  quadrupeds  is  very  great ; 
there  is  a  corresponding  difference  in  the  mode  of  implantation  of 
their  molar  teeth.  Those  which  subsist  on  mixed  food,  and  which, 
like  the  Rats,  betray  a  tendency  to  carnivorous  habits,  or  which 
subsist,  like  Squirrels,  on  the  softer  and  more  nutritious  vegetable 
substances,  as  the  kernels  of  nuts,  suffer  less  rapid  abrasion  of  the 


THE  SQUIRRELS. 


167 


grinding  teeth  ;  a  less  depth  of  crown  is,  therefore,  needed  to  per- 
form the  office  of  mastication  during  the  brief  period  of  life  allotted 
to  these  active  little  mammals  ;  and,  as  the  economy  of  nature  is 
manifested  in  the  smallest  particulars  as  well  as  in  her  grandest 
operations,  no  more  dental  substance  is  developed,  after  the  crown 
is  formed,  than  is  requisite  for  the  firm  fixation  of  the  teeth  in  the 
jaw. 

The  Rodents  that  exclusively  subsist  on  vegetable  substances, 
especially  of  the  coarser  and  less  nutritious  kinds,  as  herbage,  foli- 
age, and  the  bark  and  wood  of  trees,  wear  away  more  rapidly  the 
grinding  surface  of  the  molar  teeth  ;  the  crowns  are,  therefore, 
larger,  and  their  growth  continues  by  a  reproduction  of  the  formative 
matrix  at  their  base,  in  proportion  as  its  calcified  constituents,  form- 
ing the  working  part  of  the  tooth,  are  worn  away.  So  long  as  this 
reproductive  force  is  active,  the  molar  tooth  is  implanted,  like  the 
incisor,  by  a  long  undivided  continuation  of  the  crown.  These  root- 
less and  perpetually  growing  molars  are  always  more  or  less  curved, 
for  they  derive,  from  this  form,  the  same  advantage  as  the  incisors, 
in  the  relief  of  the  delicate  tissues  of  the  active  vascular  matrix,  from 
the  effects  of  the  pressure  which  would  otherwise  have  been  trans- 
mitted more  directly  from  the  grinding  surface  ;  the  Capybara,  and 
the  Patagonian  Hare  {Dolichotis),  afford  good  examples  of  this  more 
complex  condition  of  the  grinding  teeth. 

In  the  Rodents  the  skull  is  small,  and  the  jaws,  especially  the 
lower  one,  large  and  strong.  To  give  full  action  to  the  gnawing  in- 
cisors, the  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  skull  by  an  elongated  con- 
dyle, which  allows  it  to  move  freely  backwards  and  forwards.  The 
head  is  more  or  less  rounded,  with  the  snout  pointed,  and  usually 
furnished  with  long  moustaches.  The  opening  of  the  mouth  is 
small ;  but  the  cheeks  often  form  large  pouches,  in  which  tlie  ani- 
mals can  convey  food  to  the  hoards  which  they  lay  up  in  their 
dwelling-places.  The  brain  is  small,  and  exhibits  scarcely  any  con- 
volutions ;  and  the  cerebellum  is  almost  entirely  exposed.  In  these 
characters  the  Rodenfta  approach  the  Marsupial  animals,  close  to 
which  they  are,  indeed,  placed  by  many  zoologists.  The  legs  are 
generally  short,  and  adapted  either  for  walking  or  climbing  ;  the 
feet  are  furnished  with  four  or  five  free  toes,  armed  with  nail-like 
claws  ;  but  the  thumb  is  never  opposible.  The  eyes  and  external 
ears  are  usually  of  moderate  size  ;  but  the  latter  sometimes  attain  a 
great  length.  The  skin  is  generally  covered  with  soft  hair  ;  but,  in 
some  cases,  with  bristles  and  spines.  The  tail  varies  greatly  in  its 
development,  and  is  sometimes  naked  or  scaly,  and  occasionally 
covered  with  hair. 

The  Rodents  are  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  even  New 
Holland  possessing  apparently  in- 
digenous species.  Very  few  are 
domesticated ;  but  the  flesh  of 
some  species  is  eaten ;  whilst  the 
skins  of  others  are  sought  after 
as  furs.  Notwithstanding  their 
small  size,  their  great  numbers, 
their  habit  of  storing  up  large 
quantities  of  provisions,  and  their 
extraordinay  propensity  for  gnaw- 
ing, cause  them  to  commit  great 
devastations  in  many  places. 

The  attempt  at  instituting  a 
natural  arrangement  of  the  Ro- 
dentia  (that  is,  an  arrangement 
exhibiting  the  multiform  links  and 
affinities  of  different  groups],  is 
confessedly  a  work  of  difficulty ; 
but  peculiarly  so  as  it  respects  the 
component  parts  of  the  present 
order,  as  already  pointed  out.  In 
itself,  indeed,  this  order  is  definite, 
and  based  upon  characters  which 
form  a  clear  line  of  separation 
between  it  and  every  other  ;  but 
when  we  come  to  investigate  the 
species  it  embraces,  we  soon  feel 
ourselves  perplexed  among  a  mul- 
titude of  forms,  and  begin  to  hesi- 
tate at  every  step.  Hence  it  is 
that  no  two  naturalists  have 
arranged  the  Rodcntia  in  tlic 
same  manner  ;  nay,  Cuvier  him- 
self, in  the  last  edition  of  hir 
"  Regne  Animal,"  set  aside  the 
principles  by  which  in  his  earlier 
edition  he  was  guided,  and  fol- 
lowed out  other  views. 

Among  those  naturalists  who  have  devoted  their  attention  to  the 
Rodentia,  Mr.  Waterhouse  takes  a  foremost  place  ;  and  his  arrange- 
ment, founded  on  the  truest  philosophical  principles,  is  a  decided 
step  in  the  advancement  of  this  department  of  Zoology.  It  would  be 
out  of  place,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  to  follow  this  naturalist 


through  his  tram  of  researches  ;  but  we  may  give  an  outline  of  their 
results.  Mr.  Waterhouse  considers  that  the  Rodents  resolve  them- 
selves mto  three  great  primary  sections  :  first,  the  Murine  section  ; 
secondly,  the  Hystricine  section  ;  and  thirdly,  the  Leporine  section. 

Each  of  these  sections  embraces  several  families,  each  of  the 
latter  comprehendmg  several  genera.  The  principal  genera  con- 
tamed  in  the  Murme  section,  are  Scitiriis,  Arctoviys,  S^crmophilus, 
Tamias,  Myoxiis,  Dipus,  Mas,  Arvicola,  Geomys,  and  Castor. 
Tlie  principal  genera  contained  in  the  Hystricine  section,  arc 
Bathurgus,  Orycterus,  Poephagomys,  Ociodon,  Abrocoma,  Myo- 
■potamtis,  Capromys,  Echunys,  A  ulacodtis,  Jlisinx,  Dasyprocta, 
Chinchilla,  Cavia,  and  Hydrochccrus.  The  Leporine  section  con- 
tains the  genera  Lepus  and  Lagoniys. 

Mr.  Dallas,  on  the  other  hand,  prefers  the  arrangement  of  Wagner. 
With  such  a  difference  among  "  doctors,"  we  may  perhaps  be  par- 
doned if  we  follow  none  of  their  views  specifically,  but  rather  give  a 
popular  account  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  species,  in 
partial  independence  of  the  strict  law  of  classification. 

The  Squirrels,  or  Sciurid^e. 

These  elegant  animals  are  distributed  throughout  every  quarter  of 
the  world,  Australia  excepted.  The  general  characters  of  the  true 
Squirrels  (^Sf^wrzcj),  as  exhibited  by  our  well-known  British  species, 
are  familiar  to  all :  its  fine  full  eyes,  its  light  contour,  its  activity,  its 
deep  soft  fur,  and  long  bushy  tail,  have  contributed  to  render  it  a 
general  favourite.  They  arc  furnished  with  proper  clavicles,  or 
collar-bones,  and  possess  the  use  of  the  fore-arm  and  paws  in  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  ;  the  toes  are  four,  with  the  rudiment  of  a  thumb, 
on  the  anterior  feet ;  five  on  the  hind-feet ;  the  claws  are  sharp  and 


Ears  often  tufted  with   a  pencil   of  long 


hooked.    Molars,  ^ — 5. 
4-4 

hairs.  In  feeding,  these  animals  sit  up  on  the  haunches,  and  hold 
their  food  (nuts,  &c.),  not  between  the  fingers  of  their  joined  fore- 
paws,  but  between  the  rudimentary  thumbs,  while  they  work  at  it 
with  their  teeth. 

The  Northern  Grey  and  Black  Squirrel. 

iScitirus  leucofis). — It  is  to  Dr.  Bachman,  D.D.,  President  of  the 
Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc,  Charlestown,  S.  Carolina,  that  we  are  indebted 
for  clearing  up  the  mass  of  confusion  in  which  the  Squirrels  of 
America  have  been  involved. 


Fig.  432.— Northern  Grey  and  Black  Squirrel. 

It  appears  from  this  author  that  several  Black  Squirrels  exist, 
totally  distinct  from  each  other,  and  that  of  these  some  are  mere 
varieties.  Of  the  genuine  species  he  notices  the  large  Louisiana 
Black  Squirrel  {S.  Auduhonii),  the  Black  Squirrel  [Saurtis  wger, 
Linn.,  not  Catesby),  and  the  Dusky  Squirrel  {S.  nigrescetis).    There 


i68 


THE  SQUIRRELS. 


is  a  black  variety  of  the  Fox  Squirrel  {Sc.  capistratus'),  and  a  black 
variety  of  the  Northern  Grey  Squirrel,  the  species  figured.  The  Grey 
Squirrels  are  numerous,  and  perplexing  to  the  naturalist.  The 
Northern  Grey  Squirrel  has  been,  for  instance,  confounded  with  the 
Carolina  Grey  Squirrel,  from  which  it  is  distinct.  The  Northern 
Grey  and  Black  Squirrel  is  a  very  common  species,  and  exceedingly 
active  and  sprightly.  (See  Fig.  432.)  It  is  spread  through  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States  :  it  is  abundant  in  New  York  and  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  and  extends  as  far  north  as 
Hudson's  Bay  :  southwards,  it  occurs  in  Virginia,  and  perhaps  still 
farther  south. 

Like  all  the  true  Squirrels,  this  species  is  arboreal  in  its  habits, 
quick  and  alert ; — it  rises  with  the  sun,  and  continues  industriously 
engaged  in  search  of  food  during  four  or  five  hours  in  the  morning, 
running  over  logs,  ascending  trees,  and  playfully  coursing'from  limb 
to  limb.  During  the  warm  weather  of  spring  it  prepares  its  cradle 
or  nest  on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  constructing  it  of  dried  sticks  which 
it  breaks  off,  or,  if  these  are  not  at  hand,  of  green  twigs  as  thick  as 
a  finger,  which  it  gnaws  from  the  boughs.  These  it  lays  in  the  fork 
of  a  tree  or  of  some  large  branch  so  as  to  make  a  framework :  it  then 
lines  this  framework  with  leaves  ;  and  over  these  again  spreads  a 
layer  of  moss.  In  the  preparation  of  this  nest,  a  pair  is  usually  en- 
gaged for  an  hour  in  the  morning,  during  several  successive  days, 
and  the  noise  they  make  in  cutting  the  branches  and  dragging  the 
leaves  may  be  heard  at  some  distance.  In  winter  they  reside  en- 
tirely in  holes  of  trees,  where  their  young  in  most  instances  are 
brought  forth.  The  young  are  from  four  to  six  in  number  ;  and  in  a 
few  weeks  are  sufficiently  advanced  to  leave  their  nest.  It  is  gene- 
rally believed  that  this  Squirrel  lays  up  a  gi-eat  hoard  of  food  as  a 
winter  supply  ;  but  Dr.  Bachman  doubts  the  fact,  though  he  admits 
that  other  northern  species  do.  Further,  he  states  that  the  species 
\vhich  inhabit  the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States,  where  the 
ground  is  seldom  covered  with  snow,  derive  in  winter  a  precarious 
subsistence  from  seeds,  insects,  and  worms,  which  are  scratched  up 
among  the  leaves.  We  may  here  observe  that,  singular  enough, 
no  one  has  noticed  the  fact,  excepting  Mr.  C.  Coward  ("  Mag.  Nat. 
Hist.,"  New  Series,  June,  1839,  p.  311),  of  our  common  British 
Squirrel  {Sciurus  inilgaris)  being  carnivorous  as  well  as  frugivor- 
ous  ;  such  is,  however,  the  case  :  it  attacks  young  birds  and  greedily 
devours  them,  nor  is  even  the  Wood-Pigeon  safe  from  its  assaults. 
The  Northern  Grey  Squirrel  feeds  on  nuts  and  various  seeds  ;  but  it 
seems  to  prefer  the  shell-bark  (Carya  alba)  and  the  several  species 
of  hickory  to  any  other  food.  Green  corn  and  young  wheat  suffer 
greatly  from  its  depredations,  and  hence  a  war  of  wholesale  destruc- 
tion is  everywhere  waged  against  it.  In  Pennsylvania  an  old  law 
existed  offering  threepence  a  head  for  every  Squirrel  destroyed ;  and 
in  1749,  the  enormous  sum  of  ;^8,ooo  was  paid  out  of  the  treasury  for 
the  destruction  of  these  depredators.  The  extensive  migrations 
which  are  undertaken  by  this  species,  either  from  a  scarcity  of  food 
or  from  some  other  inexplicable  cause,  have  often  excited  not  only 
wonder,  but  apprehension.  They  generally  take  place  in  autumn, 
but  by  no  means  with  regularity.  It  would  appear  that,  in  the  far 
north-west,  multitudes  congregate  in  different  districts,  forming 
scattered  troops,  which  all  bend  their  way  instinctively  in  an  eastern 
direction,  collecting  into  larger  bodies  as  they  proceed;  neither 
mountains  nor  rivers  stop  their  progress  :  onward  they  come,  a  de- 
vouring army,  laying  waste  the  corn  and  wheat  fields  of  the  farmer; 
and  as  their  numbers  are  thinned  by  the  gun,  others  fill  up  the  ranks  : 


Fig.  433. — Malabar  Squirrel. 

few  perhaps  none,  ever  return  westwardly ;  those  that  escape  the 
carna<^e  take  up  their  abode  in  the  forests  of  their  newly-e.xpIored 
countnr.  The  Grey  Squirrel  has  many  enemies  ;  the  Fox,  the  Lynx, 
the  Weasel,  Hawks,  and  Owls,  are  all  eager  to  seize  it :  when 
attacked  by  the  Red-tailed  Hawk,  its  most  formidable  foe,  it  is  amus- 
ing to  see  the  skill  and  dexterity  exercised  by  both,  in  the  attack 


and  in  the  defence;  often,  indeed,  the  Squirrel,  by  dodging  and 
twisting  round  the  branches  and  large  limbs  of  the  tree,  foils  and 
wears  out  his  antagonist ;  when,  however,  a  pair  of  Hawks  combine, 
the  Squirrel  has  no  chance. 

The  Malabar  Squirrel. 

{Scfurus  maximus). — Of  the  Indian  Squirrels,  one  of  the  finest  is 
the  Malabar  Squirrel,  measuring  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  in  the 
length  of  the  head  and  body,  and  somewhat  more  in  that  of  its  full 
bushy  tail.  This  species  is  found  in  Malabar,  and  also  in  Ceylon. 
Like  the  rest  of  its  tribe,  it  is  eminently  arboreal,  tenanting  the 
summits  of  palm-trees,  and  feeding  to  a  great  extent  upon  the 
cocoa-nut,  to  the  milk  of  which  it  is  said  to  be  very  partial.  We 
have  seen  several  specimens  in  captivity.  They  soon  become  tame 
and  familiar,  but  are  not  to  be  trusted  too  far :  their  bite  is  very 
severe.  General  colour  above,  rich  chocolate,  deepening  about  the 
shoulders  into  black;  under-parts  abruptly  pale-reddish  yellow; 
ears  tufted  with  a  long  full  brush.     (See  Fig.  433.) 

The  Rocky-Mountain  Flying  Squirrel. 

{Pferomys  Alj)tnus,  or  Pi.  Sabinus,_  var.  /3,  Richardson).— The 
flying  Squirrels  {Petromys,  Geofr. ;  Sct'urojiierus,  F.  Cuv.)  agree  in 
the  general  characters  of  their  dentition  with  the  rest  of  the  family. 


Fig.  434.— Teeth  of  Tamias. 


Fig.  435. — Teeth  of  Sciurus. 

(See  Fig.  434  for  the  teeth  of  Tamias,  and  Fig.  435  for  the  teeth 
of  Sciurus.)     The  incisors  are  laterally  compressed :    the  molars, 

5^  5^   rarely  1^, 

4-4  4-4 

anterior  molar  of  the  upper  jaw,   where  they  are  5  —  5,  which  is 

smaller  than  the  rest.     The  series  of  molars  on  each  side  are  widely 

separate  and  parallel.     It  is  in  the  possession  of  a  lateral  fold  of 

skin,  forming,  when  extended,  a  parachute,  enabling  them  to  take 


are  equal  in  size  or  nearly  so,  excepting  the 


FLYING  SQUIRRELS, 


\ 


f^ 


I 


170 


THE  MARMOTS. 


brown  ;  tail  with  a  narrow  white  margin,  and  black  at  the  extremity. 
This,  according  to  Dr.  Richardson,  who  first  named  the  species,  is 
the  Ground-Squirrel  of  Heme  ;  the  Quebec  M.arniot  of  Forster  ;  the 
Seek-Seek  of  the  Esquimaux  ;  the  Thce-thiay  (Rock  Badger)  of  the 
Chepewyans;  and  the  Arctomys  Al^iiia  of  Parry's  "Second 
Voyage." 

Dr.  Richardson  states  that  it  inhabits  the  barren  grounds  skirting 


the  season,  with  tender  shoots  of  herbaceous  plants,  berries  of  the 
alpine  arbutus,  and  of  other  trailing  shrubs,  or  the  seeds  of  grasses 
and  leguminous  plants.     They  produce  about  seven  young  at  a  time. 

The  Marmots. 
The  true  Marmots,   genus  Arctomys,  are  thicker,  more  robust, 
and  less  elegant  in  figure   than   the   Spermophiles.      The  head  is 


Fig.  43S. — Parry's  Spevmophile, 


the  sea-coast  from  Churchill  in  Hudson's  Bay,  round  by  Melville 
Peninsula,  and  the  whole  northern  extremity  of  the  continent,  to 
Behring's  Straits,  where  specimens  precisely  similar  were  procured 
by  Captain  Beechey.  It  is  abundant  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort 
Enterprise,  near  the  southern  verge  of  the  Barren  Grounds,  in  lat. 
65°,  and  is  also  plentiful  on  Cape  Parry,  one  of  the  most  northern 
parts  of  the  continent.  It  is 
found  generally  in  stony  dis- 
tricts, but  seems  to  delight 
chiefly  in  sandy  hillocks 
amongst  rocks,  where  bur- 
rows, inhabited  by  different 
individuals,  may  be  often 
observed  crowded  together. 
One  of  the  society  is  generally 
observed  sitting  erect  on  the 
summit  of  a  hillock  whilst  the 
others  are  feeding  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Upon  the 
approach  of  danger,  he  gives 
the  alarm,  and  they  instantly 
hurry  to  their  holes,  remain- 
ing, however,  chattering  at 
the  entrance  until  the  advance 
of  the  enemy  obliges  them  to 
retire  to  the  bottom.  When 
their  retreat  is  cut  off,  they 
become  much  terrified,  and, 
seeking  shelter  in  the  first 
crevice,  they  not  unfrequently 
succeed  only  in  hiding  the 
head  and  fore-part  of  the  body, 
whilst  the  projecting  tail  is, 
as  is  usual  with  them  under 
the  influence  of  terror,  spread 
out  flat  on  the  rock.  Their 
cry,  in  this  season  of  distress, 
resembles  the  loud  alarm  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Squirrel, 
and  is  not  very  unlike  the 
sound  of  a  watchman's  rattle. 
The  Esquimaux  name  is  an 
attempt  to  express  this  sound. 
Heme  states  that  they  are 
easily  tamed,  and  very  cleanly 
and  playful  when  domestica- 
ted. They  never  come  abroad 
during  the  winter.  Their  food 
appears  to  be  entirely  vege- 
table ;  their  pouches  being 
generally  filled,  according  to 


Fig.  439. — Alpine  Marmot. 

broad  and  flat,  and  the  muzzle  obtuse  ;  the  limbs  are  short,  and 
there  are  no  cheek-pouches.  Among  the  Marmots  are  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

The  Alpine  Marmot. 

{Arcfomys  Jilarmofa  :  see  Fig.  440.) — This  well-known  species  is 
common  in  the  high  mountain  districts  of  Europe,  where  it  takes  up 


Fig.  440.— Group  of  Alpine  Marmots. 


THE  DORMICE. 


171 


its  abode  just  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  excavating-  a  deep 
burrow,  to  which  it  has  recourse  on  every  appearance  of  an  enemy. 
In  this,  which  it  lines  with  dried  grass,  moss,  &c.,  it  hibernates 
durin"- the  severity  of  the  season.  The  burrows  of  the  Marmot  are 
always  constructed  in  dry  situations,  and  mostly  on  declivities  ex- 
posed to  the  south  or  south-east.  They  are  of  considerable  extent, 
and  are  worked  out  and  tenanted  by  families  consisting  of  from  five 
to  fifteen  individuals.  They  begin  by  a  passage  which  runs  for 
about  six  feet,  and  is  just  capable  of  admitting  the  animal's  body. 
From  the  farther  end  of  this  gallery  two  others  bifurcate,  one  of 
which,  according  to  Desmarest,  leads  to  a  sort  of  chamber  in  the 
form  of  an  oven,  from  three  to  seven  feet  in  diameter ;  the  other  ends 
abruptly,  and  serves  as  a  storehouse  for  dried  grasses,  &c.  Accord- 
ing to  some,  these  passages  are  not  always  to  be  met  with,  and 
MM.  Geoffrey  and  F.  Cuvier  assert  that  the  cell  is  at  the  end  of  the 
first  gallery.  During  the  summer  months,  groups  of  these  animals 
may  be  seen  feeding  and  sporting  on  the  mountain-side.  They 
never  wander  to  any  great  distance  from  their  burrows,  and  have 
always  one  or  more  of  their  number  posted  as  sentinels,  which  by  a 
piercing  cry  give  warning  of  danger.  About  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember they  betake  themselves  to  their  winter  dormitories,  and  close 
the  entrance  with  earth  and  the  dried  grass  which  they  have  accu- 
mulated :  here  they  sink  into  a  profound  repose,  from  which  they  do 
not  awaken  till  the  return  of  April.  Though  timid  and  inoffensive, 
these  animals  defend  themselves  resolutely  when  driven  to  an 
extremity,  and  their  powerful  incisors  inflict  severe  wounds.  They 
lift  their  food  to  their  mouths  while  sitting  Squirrel-like,  and  will 
walk  on  their  hind-feet.  On  retiring  for  the  winter,  they  are  at  first 
very  fat,  and  numbers  are  taken  at  this  season,  partly  for  the  sake 
of  their  skins,  and  partly  for  their  flesh,  which  is  eaten  by  the  moun- 
taineers. The  young  are  easily  tamed,  and  are  often  carried  about 
by  the  Savo3'ards  for  the  purpose  of  exhibition.  The  Marmot  pro- 
duces from  three  to  five  at  a  birth. 

This  species  is  about  the  size  of  a  Rabbit.  Its  general  colour  is 
yellowish-grey,  passing  into  hoary  about  the  cheeks,  and  blackish- 
grey  on  the  top  of  the  head  ;  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  black. 

The  Bobac  {Arcfoinys  Bobac). — This  species  inhabits  the  regions 
of  Poland  through  which  flow  the  Dnieper  and  its  tributary  streams, 
whence  it  ranges  through  a  great  part  of  Northern  Asia.  It  gives 
preference  to  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  where  it  chooses  a  dry  locality 
in  which  to  construct  its  burrows.  These  are  carried  to  a  great  depth, 
and  are  tenanted  by  families  consisting  of  twenty  or  even  forty  indi- 
viduals. 


Fig.  441. — Bobac. 

The  Bobac  accumulates  in  its  retreat  a  quantity  of  dried  herbage 
for  use,  before  the  severity  of  the  season  commences,  and  for  early 
spring  consumption,  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  warmth.  General 
colour  of  the  fur,  greyish-yellow  mingled  with  brown,  which  latter 
forms  transverse  undulations  on  the  upper  parts.  Under-parts  rust- 
brown.  Length  of  head  and  body,  sixteen  or  seventeen  inches;  of 
the  tail,  six  inches.    (See  Fig.  441.) 

The  Quebec  Marmot  {Arctomys  Emfctfa).—1\)\%  species  is 
one  of  the  American  Marmots,  and  is  a  native  of  Canada  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  the  Quebec  Marmot  of  Pen- 
nant and  Godman  ;  the  Common  Marmot  of  Langsdorff;  the  Thick- 
wood  Badger  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  residents;  the  SifSeur  of  the 
French  Canadians,  who  apply  the  same  name  to  the  other  species  of 
Marmot  and  to  the  Badger  ;  Tarbagan  of  the  Russian  residents  on 
Kodiak(.^);  Wcenusk  of  the  Crees  ;  Kath-hilla5-Kooay  of  the  Che- 
pewyans;  Ahts  Enipctra  of  Pallas;  and  Arctomys  Etnpetra  of 
Sabine  and  others.     (See  Fig.  442.) 

Dr.  Richardson,  who  gives  the  above  synonyms,  states  that  the 
Quebec  Marmot  inhabits  the  woody  districts  from  Canada  to  lat. 
61",  and  perhaps  still  farther  north.     He  says  that  it  appears  to  be  a 


solitary  animal,  inhabits  burrows  in  the  earth,  but  ascends  bushes 
and  trees,  probably  in  search  of  buds  and  other  vegetable  produc- 
tions on  which  it  feeds.  Mr.  Drunimond  killed  two,  one  on  some 
low  bushes,  and  the  other  on  the  branch  of  a  tree.    According  to 


Fig.  442. — Quebec  Marmot. 

Mr.  Graham  it  burrow^s  perpendicularly,  selecting  dry  spots  at  some 
distance  from  the  coast,  and  feeding  on  the  coarse  grass  which 
gathers  on  the  river-sides.  The  Indians  capture  it  by  pouring  water 
into  its  holes.  Its  flesh  is  considered  delicate  when  the  animal  is 
fat,  but  its  fur  is  valueless. 

Dormice— Family  Myoxidce. 

The  Dormice,  or  Myoxida,  seem  to  connect  the  Squirrels,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  the  Murine  or  Mouse  groups  on  the  other.  They  are 
arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  clothed  with  fine  soft  fur.  The  toes  are 
four  on  each  fore-foot,  with  the  vestige  of  a  fifth  ;  the  hind-feet  have 

five  toes.     The  dentition  (Fig.  443)  is  as  follows  :- 

lars,  3 — ft.     Incisors  laterally  compressed  ;  molars  unequal  in  size, 
4-4 

rooted ;  the  series  on  each  side  of  each  jaw  widely  separated  and 
parallel. 

The  Common  Dormouse  {Myoxus  aveUanariiis).—'X\\\%  ele- 
gant httle  creature  is  the  Muscadin,  Croque  Noix,  and  Rat  d'or  of 
the  French  ;  Moscadino  of  the  Italians  ;  Liron  of  the  Spanish  ;  Rothe 
Wald-maus,  Hasel-maus,  and  Hasel-schliifer,  of  the  Germans; 
Skogsmus  of  the  Swedes  ;   Kassel-muus  of  the  Danes;  and  Pathew 


-Incisors,  - 
2 


Fig.  443. — Teeth  of  Dormouse. 

of  the  ancient  British.  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  it  was 
this  species  which  the  Romans  fattened  in  their  Gliraria  for  the 
table  ;  but  that  animal  was  most  probably  the  Loir  (M.  Glis),  which 
is  common  in  the  woods  of  Italy,  and  which  approaches  the  Squirrel 
in  size. 

Though  common  in  the  southern  and  midland  counties  of  England, 
the  Dormouse  is  not  so  abundant  in  France  as  the  Lerot  (next  to  be 
described)  ;  yet  its  distribution  is  very  extensive.  It  ranges  from  the 
south  of  Europe  as  far  north  as  Sweden.  The  favourite  resorts  of 
this  little  animal  are  dense  thickets,  low  woods  and  coppices  of 
hazel,  bushy  dells,  and  tangled  hedgerows.  It  creeps  about  the 
branches  with  a  quick  but  gliding  sort  of  movement,  and  with  singu- 
lar facility.  It  leaps  nimbly,  and  makes  its  way  so  quickly  through 
intertangled  brushwood,  that  it  cannot  be  easily  captured.  The 
Dormouse  appears  to  be  in  some  degree  gregarious,  or  at  least  to 
colonise  favourite  spots,  and  ten  or  a  dozen  of  their  nests  have  been 
seen  at  no  great  distance  apart  in  the  shrubs  of  a  thicket.      These 


1/2 


DORMICE— JERBOA  S. 


nests  are  made  of  leaves,  grass,  &c. :  they  are  of  a  rounded  form, 
about  six  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  aperture  at  the  top.  It  is  in 
these  that  the  young  are  brought  forth  and  reared.  The  number  of 
the  young  is  about  four :  they  "are  born  blind  ;  in  a  few  days,  how- 
ever, their  eyes  are  opened  ;  and  in  a  short  period  they  are  capable 
of  providing  for  themselves.  Corn,  haws,  hazel-nuts,  and  fallen 
acorns,  constitute  the  food  of  the  Dormouse.  It  eats  sitting  up  like 
a  Squirrel,  holding  the  food  between  its  paws  ;  and  often  it  hangs 
suspended  by  its  hinder  feet,  in  which  position  it  feeds  as  easily  as 
in  its  ordinary  attitude.     (See  Fig.  444.) 


Fig.  444. — Common  Dormouse. 

Mr.  Bell  states  that  the  name  Avellanarius  is  not  well  chosen, 
and  that  he  never  saw  any  Dormouse  that  could  gnaw  through  the 
shell  of  that  nut  when  fully  ripe.  We,  however,  have  frequently 
seen  the  Dormouse  open  with  its  teeth  the  hard  shell  of  a  nut,  and 
clear  it  out  with  great  address.  The  Dormouse  hibernates,  and 
hoards  up  a  store  of  provisions  in  holes,  and  the  crevices  about  the 
roots  of  trees,  &c.,  to  which  to  have  recourse  in  the  winter;  for  its 
torpidity  is  not  without  interruption.  A  mid-day  gleam  of  sunshine 
rouses  it  up  in  its  snug  retreat ;  and  invites  it  forth,  when  it  takes  a 
little  food  ;  on  the  diminution  of  the  temperature  it  betakes  itself  to 
its  dormitory,  and  rolling  up  itself  into  a  ball,  sinks  into  a  profound 
slumber  ;  hence  it  has  been  called  the  Sleeper.  Its  name  Dormouse 
refers  to  its  habits  of  sleeping.  In  this  condition  it  may  be  handled, 
or  rolled  about  a  table,  if  not  exposed  to  the  influence  of  warmth, 
without  being  roused  from  its  trance.  It  is  not  until  the  spring  has 
fairly  set  in  that  the  Dormouse  regains  its  full  activity,  and  it  is  at 
this  period  that  its  magazine  is  of  the  greatest  service  ;  for  without 
a  store  thus  providently  accumulated,  it  would,  for  some  time  at 
least,  be  straitened  for  food. 

The  head  of  this  species  is  proportionately  large ;  the  eyes  are 
large,  black,  and  prominent :  the  ears  are  broad  ;  and  fur  soft ;  the 


Fig.  445. — Lerot,  or  Garden  Doimouse, 

tail  long,  fringed  with  hair  on  each  side,  and  somewhat  tufted  at 
the  end  ;  the  body  plump  ;  the  limbs  short.  General  colour  cinna- 
mon red,  passing  into  pale  yellow  below.  The  young  are  of  a  Mouse- 
grey.  Length  of  the  head  and  body,  two  inches  eight  lines  ;  of  the 
tail,  two  inches  six  lines. 

The  Garden  Dormouse,  or  Lerot  [Myoxtis  Nitela).    The 
Greater  Dormouse  of  Shaw.— This  species  is  a  native  of  the  whole  of 


the  temperate  portions  of  Continental  Europe,  and  indeed  it  is  found 
as  high  north  as  Poland  and  Prussia.  In  France  it  is  very  common, 
gardens  and  orchards  being  its  favourite  abode  :  it  makes  sad 
havoc  among  wall-fruits,  attacking  peaches,  apricots,  pears,  &c., 
with  great  avidity.  Its  winter  store,  however,  consists  of  nuts,  peas, 
beans,  and  the  like,  which  are  collected  in  great  abundance,  and 
stowed  away  in  some  convenient  recess,  where  eight  or  ten  indivi- 
duals assemble  to  pass  away  the  colder  season  in  sleep.  The 
summer  nest  of  the  Lerot,  in  which  it  rears  its  young,  is  built  in  the 
holes  of  walls  or  the  chinks  of  aged  trees.  The  young  are  four  or 
five  in  number.  The  colour  of  this  pretty  but  annoying  creature  is 
reddish-grey;  beneath,  white;  a  black  patch  surrounds  the  eye, 
and  spreads  behind  the  ear.  The  tail  is  covered  with  short  black 
hair,  except  at  the  end,  which  is  tufted  v/ith  white.  Length  of 
head  and  body,  four  inches  and  a-half ;  of  the  tail,  four  inches.    (See 

Fig.  445-) 

The  Cape  Graphiure  {Graphiurus  Cape7isis).—T\\^  genus 
Graphiurus  is  scarcely  to  be  separated  from  Myoxus  :  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Cape  Graphiure,  a  native  of  South  Africa.  This  species 
is  about  the  size  of  the  Lerot,  which  it  much  resembles  in  the  style  of 


Fig.  446. — Cape  Graphiure. 

its  colouring,  the  general  tint  above  being  of  a  deep  brownish-grey ; 
the  muzzle  and  sides  of  the  face  reddish-white  ;  under-parts  greyish- 
white,  with  a  tinge  of  red  ;  tail  brown — the  tip,  which  is  not  tufted, 
reddish-white  ;  a  band  of  blackish-brown  extends  from  the  eyes  to 
the  base  of  the  ears.    (See  Fig.  446.) 

The  Jerboas— Family  Dipodida. 

The  Jerboas  constitute  a  group  of  the  section  of  Rodents,  termed 
by  Mr.  Waterhouse  Dipodidcs ;  of  which,  he  observes,  the  genera 
Dipus,  Alactaga,  and  Alen'ones  are  examples. 

All  the  animals  of  this  tribe  are  remarkable  for  the  shortness  of 
the  fore-limbs,  the  development  of  the  hinder  limbs,  and  the  length 
and  slendemess  of  the  metatarsus  ;  they  resemble  in  these  points 
the  Kangaroos.  They  bound  along  on  their  hind-limbs  with  great 
rapidity,  and  appear  almost  to  skim,  like  birds,  the  flat  plains  or 
sandy  wastes  where  they  take  up  their  abode.  In  an  elaborate  me- 
moir by  M.  F.  Cuvier  on  the  Jerboas  and  Gerbilles,  he  divides  these 
animals  into  different  genera.  The  Jerboas  [Dipus)  have  only  three 
toes  on  the  hinder  feet,  and  these,  as  in  birds,  are  articulated  to  a 
single  elongated  metatarsal  bone,  commonly  known  as  the  canon- 
bone.  In  the  Alactaga  there  are  five  toes  ;  of  these  the  three 
central  are  articulated  to  a  single  metatarsal  bone,  while  the  other 
two  have  each  their  own  slender  metatarsal  bone. 

In  the  genera  JMerioiies  and  Gei-bflhts  the  toes  are  five,  each  with 
their  own  distinct  metatarsal  bone.  The  incisors  of  the  Alactaga 
are  simple,  whilst  those  in  the  upper  jaw  of  the  Jerboas  are  divided 
longitudinally  by  a  furrow.  The  molars  of  the  latter  genus  are 
complicated  in  form,  and  but  little  resemble  those  of  the  former. 
They  are  four  in  number  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  three  in  the  lower; 
but  the  first  in.  the  upper  is  a  small  rudimentary  tooth,  which  pro- 
bably disappears  in  aged  individuals.  After  a  detailed  account  of 
the  structure  of  the  grinding-teeth,  M.  Cuvier  observes,  that  the 
general  structure  of  the  head  of  the  Alactagas  and  Jerboas  is  evi- 
dently the  same,  and  is  characterised  by  the  large  size  of  the  cranium, 
the  shortness  of  the  muzzle,  and,  above  all,  by  the  magnitude  of  the 
sub-orbital  foramina.  The  cranium  of  the  Jerboa  is  distinguished  by 
its  great  breadth  posteriorly,  resulting  from  the  enormous  develop- 
ment of  the  tympanic  bone,  which  extends  beyond  the  occipital 
posteriorly  and  laterally,  as  far  as  the  zygomatic  arch,  which  is  by 
no  means  the  case  in  the  Alactagas,  where  all  the  osseous  parts  of 
the  ear  are  of  moderate  dimensions.  Another  differential  character 
between  the  two  genera  is  presented  by  the  maxillary  arch,  which 
circumscribes  externally  the  sub-orbital  foramina,  and  which  in  the 
Alactagas  may  be  said  to  be  linear,  presenting  a  very  limited  sur- 


THE  JERBOAS. 


173 


face  for  the  attachment  of  muscles.  He  then  notes  a  difference  in 
tile  relative  development  of  the  jaws,  the  lower  being:  comparatively 
much  shorter  in  the  Alactagas  than  in  the  Jerboas.  Having  ^t- 
scribedanewspeciesofyl/iJcAz^^-^z,  a  native  of  Barbary,  under  the 
name  oi  Alactaga  aruiidinis,  M.  F.  Cuvier  proceeds  to  consider  the 
characters  and  affinities  of  the  genera  GcrbiUus  and  Merwues,  and 
enters  into  a  critical  examination  of  all  the  species  referred  to  those 
genera,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  they  have  a  closer  affinity 


Fig.  447. — SkuU  and  Teeth  of  Dipiis  hirtipcs. 

with  the  true  Muridcs  than  with  the  Jerboas  and  Alactagas.  Fig. 
447  represents  the  skull  and  teeth  of  Diptis  hirtipes :  a,  skull,  pro- 
file ;  b,  the  same  seen  from  above  ;  c,  the  same  seen  from  below ;  d, 
e,  the  teeth. 

Fig.  448  represents  the  skull  and  teeth  of  Alactaga:  a  and  b, 
the  cranium,  one-third  larger  than  the  natural  size ;  c  and  d,  the 
teeth,  five  times  enlarged. 


The  Egyptian  Jerbo.\  i^Dipus  ^gyptiiis).—\n  the  true  Jerboas 
the  head  is  large,  and  not  unlike  that  of  a  Rabbit  in  form  ;  the  ears 
are  long  and  somewhat  pointed  ;  the  eyes  arc  full  and  prominent ; 
the  tail  is  very  long,  cylindrical,  and  covered  with  short  hair,  except 
at  the  extremity,  which  is  tufted.  The  fur  of  the  body  is  soft  and 
delicate ;  the  whiskers  are  long,  the  fore-feet  are  very  small,  and 
have  four  toes  and  the  rudiment  of  a  thumb,  furnished,  however,  with 
a  nail.  In  the  hind-feet  of  these  animals  we  behold  palpable  evi- 
dences of  their  express  adaptation  to  the  deserts  where  they  habitu- 
ally reside.  Not  only  is  the  metatarsal  portion  of  the  foot  extremely 
elongated,  but  the  toes  are  clad  on  Uie  under-surface  with  long 
bristly  hairs,  which,  while  they  add  to  their  span,  and  give  firmness 
and  security  to  their  tread  on  a  loose  and  yielding  surface,  defend 
the  foot  from  the  heat  of  a  glowing  waste  beneath  a  fervid  sun. 

The  Egyptian  Jerboa  is  found  in  Egypt,  Barbary,  Nubia,  and  the 
warmer  parts  of  Syria  and  Arabia.  It  lives  in  troops,  which  colonise 
the  most  arid  parts  of  the  desert,  where,  on  hillocks  of  sand  or  the 
crumbled  heaps  of  ruins,  they  w^ork  out  long  burrows  in  which  to 
dwell.  In  these  burrows  they  make  their  nests  and  rear  their  young. 
So  powerful  are  their  teeth,  that  they  not  only  gnaw  in  a  short  time 
through  the  hardest  wood,  but,  as  Sonnini  affirms,  through  thin 
layers  of  stone  beneath  the  sand.  According  to  some,  these  animals 
are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  stealing  forth  to  feed  and  sport  when 
evening  begins  to  close.  They  are,  however,  not  altogether  noctur- 
nal, for  Sonnini  observed  them  in  broad  day  playing  around  the 
mouths  of  their  subterranean  habitations  ;  and  he  particularly  noticed 
that  those  which  he  kept  delighted  to  bask  in  the  sun,  and  were  always 
lively  in  that  situation.  The  Jerboas  are  very  timid  creatures,  and 
hasten  to  their  burrows  for  security  on  the  least  noise  :  if  intercepted, 
they  trust  to  their  speed,  and  seem  to  fly  across  the  plain  :  so  great, 
indeed,  is  the  rapidity  with  which  they  bound  along,  that  a  Grey- 
hound has  some  difficulty  in  the  chase.     (See  Fig.  449.)     In  making 


Fig.  44S. — Skull  and  Teeth  of  Alact.iga. 


Fig.  449. — Egyptian  Jerboa. 

each  leap  they  spring  from  the  hind-feet,  the  impulse  being  given  by 
the  powerful  muscles  of  the  thighs,  while  the  tail  serves  as  a  balance 
and  rudder.  In  the  act  of  springing  the  fore-paws  are  pressed  close 
to  the  chest ;  they  descend,"  however,  upon  them  ;  but  such  is  the 
quickness  of  the  leap,  and  the  celerity  with  which  they  recover  their 
duo  posture,  and  spring  again,  that  the  eye  is  completely  deceived, 
for  it  appears  as  if  they  never  used  the  fore-paws  at  all,  but  alike 
sprang  from  and  alighted  on  their  long  slender  hind-legs  alone. 
When  undisturbed,  their  common  attitude  is  that  of  sitting  up  on  the 
haunches  ;  and  the  fore-paws  are  us^  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
Squirrels  and  Marmots.  (See  Fig.  450,  a  group  of  Jerboas.)  The 
food  of  the  Jerboa  consists  principally  of  bulbous  roots,  which  the 
animals  dig  up  wirh  their  fore-paws ;  they  also  devour  grain  and 
other  vegetable  matters.  It  would  appear  that  the  Jerboa  hiber- 
nates ;  but  the  duration  of  its  torpor  cannot  be  very  protracted. 

The  flesh  of  these  animals,  though  unsavoury,  is  eaten  by  the 
Arabs  and  Egyptians,  who  contrive  to  capture  them  by  stopping  up 
all  the  openings  of  their  subterranean  retreat  except  one,  which  is 
netted. 

Few  animals,  if  we  may  judge  from  our  own  observations,  bear 
confinement  so  impatiently  as  the  Jerboas  :  they  sedulously  exclude 
themselves  from  observation  ;  and  when  they  come  forth  from  their 
retreat  in  the  evening,  they  are  restless  and  distrustful  in  the 
extreme. 

In  size  this  species  is  equal  to  a  large  Rat ;  the  general  colour  is 
pale  tawny  yellow,  passing  into  a  lighter  tint  beneath  ;  the  terminal 
tuft  of  the  tail  is  black,  merging  at  the  tip  into  white  ;  a  white  or 
whitish  strip  appears  on  each  of  the  buttocks  below  the  base  of  the 
tail. 

The  Dark-banded  Jerboa.— Of  this  Jerboa,  which  is  figured 
by  Shaw  under  the  name  of  "  the  Jerboa,"  we  have  never  seen  an 
example.  It  is  neither  noticed  nor  figured  by  Lichtenstein,  who  has 
published  the  best  monograph  of  these  animals  that  has  yet  ap- 
peared.    For  ourselves,   we  have   no   doubt  but  that  the  original 


»74 


THE  JERBOAS. 


figure  was  taken  from  a  specimen  of  the  Egyptian  Jerboa,  in  which 
the  abrupt  border  to  the  white  mark  was  darker  than  usual ;  for  in 
some  instances  the  back  is  washed  with  a  dusky  tint,  which  has  a 
tendency  to  assume  wavy  transverse  bands,  one  of  which,  on  the 
haunch,  as  it  is  said,  is  occasionally  distinct.  (See  Fig.  451.) 
With  regard  to  the  Alactagas,  to  which  we  have  alluded,  the  typi- 


Fig.  450. — Group  of  Egyptian  Jerboas. 

cal  species,  the  Siberian  Alactaga  {Dipus  Jacidus,  Gmel. ;  the 
Alactaga,  Buff.  ;  the  Siberian  Jerboa,  Pennant),  is  distributed  from 
Arabia,  through  Persia,  Tartary,  and  Turkey,  and  as  far  north  as 
the  Volga  and  Irtish.  It  inhabits  the  plains  and  flat  districts,  where 
it  makes  extensive  burrows ;  in  general  habits  it  resembles  the 
common  Jerboa  of  Egypt,  but  is  of  larger  size. 

Its  food  is  stated  to  consist  not  only  of  vegetable,  but  also  of 
animal  substances,  as  small  birds  and  insects  ;  and,  as  we  learn 
from  Pallas,  it  spares  not  even  its  own  species.  The  subterranean 
habitations  of  these  animals  are  extremely  capacious,  and  formed 
about  half  a  yard  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  passage 
leading  to  them  is  of  great  length,  and  pursues  a  circuitous  course, 


having  at  intervals  additional  shafts  or  openings  upwards,  affording 
extra  facilities  for  escape  in  the  event  of  danger.  During  the  winter 
they  hibernate  ;  retiring  to  their  subterranean  chambers,  they  shut 
up  the  openings,  and  sink  into  a  complete  state  of  lethargy.  It  is 
affirmed  by  Gnielin,  that  when  their  burrows  are  opened  at  this  sea- 
son, a  quantity  of  grain,  dried  shoots,  and  herbs  are  found  within 

them  ;  on  the  contrary,  Pallas  affirms 
that  they  collect   no   stores  of  pro- 

^^ ^  vision  for  the  winter.     It  is  possible 

iii^^-VS*?*^  that  both  these  naturalists,  who  had 

ample  opportunities  of  investigating 
the  habits  of  the  Alactaga  in  a  state 
of  nature,  may  be  correct,  and  that 
in  the  more  northern  districts  of  its 
range  it  may  accumulate  a  store  of 
provision,  for  use  in  the  spring,  when 
it  first  rouses  from  its  torpidity.  The 
Alactaga  is  more  numerous  and  fer- 
tile in  the  warmer  than  in  the  colder 
latitudes  ;  but  it  is  nowhere  to  be 
seen  in  such  numbers  as  the  Egyptian 
Jerboa.  From  its  large  size,  and  the 
superior  flavour  of  its  flesh,  it  is  more 
sought  after,  as  food,  than  that  ani- 
mal, and  is  chased,  and  also  taken 
by  stratagem,  by  the  Arabs  and 
Tartars.  Such  is  its  swiftness  that 
it  appears  to  skim  the  plain  without 
touching  the  ground  ;  even  a  mounted 
horseman  on  a  fleet  steed  can  scarcely 
overtake  it.  The  fur  of  the  Alactaga 
is  extremely  soft  and  fine ;  on  the 
upper  parts  it  is  of  a  pale  fawn  yel- 
low, clouded  with  greyish-brown  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  back  ;  a  white 
crescentic  line  extends  on  each  side 
of  the  crupper,  below  the  root  of  the 
tail.  Tlie  under-parts  of  the  body 
and  inside  of  the  limbs  are  white  ; 
the  tail  is  brown,  except  the  tuft  at 
the  extremity,  which  is  black  tipped 
with  white. 

The  Labrador  Jumping-Mouse 

{Meriones,  or  Jactilus  Labradori- 

cus). — This  species  appears  to  be  the 

Labrador  Rat  of  Pennant;  the  Ger- 

bilhis  Hiidsofiius  of  Rafinesque  ;    3Ius  Labradorius  of  Sabine  ; 

Gerbillus  Labradorius  of  Harlan  ;  the  Labrador  Jumping-Mouse 

of  Godman  ;  and  Katse  (the  Leaper)  of  the  Chepewyan  Indians. 

(See  Fig.  452.) 


Fig.  451.— Dark-banded  Jerboa. 


Fig.  452. — Labrador  Jumping-Mouse. 

The  genus  Mcrioncs,  in  dental  formula,  differs  in  some  points  from 
Dipus.  The  upper  incisors,  of  a  deep  orange  colour,  are  marked 
with  a  longitudinal  furrow  ;  the  molars  are  four  on  each  side  above, 
and  three  below  ;  the  first  above  is  very  small  ;  the  surfaces  of  the 
rest  in  both  jaws  are  marked  with  irregular  winding  lines  of  enamel. 
(See  Fig.  453.)  The  muzzle  is  narrow  and  elongated  ;  the  ears 
rounded,  the  hind-limbs  considerably  developed;  the  tail  long, 
ringed  with  scales,  and  thinly  covered  with  short  hair. 


CAPS  LEAPING  HARE— THE  GERBILLES. 


I7S 


The  Labrador  Jumping-Mouse,  whieh  was  first  described  by  Pen- 
nant in  his  "Arctic  Zoology,"  is  very  common  in  the  fur  countries 
of  North  America,  as  far  north  as  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  perhaps 
farther ;  but  of  its  habits  we  have  no  precise  details.  Its  general 
colour  is  brownish-yellow,  merging  into  white  beneath.  The  length 
of  the  head  and  body  is  about  five  inches,  that  of  the  tail  five  and  a 


Fig.  453. — Teeth  of  Labrador  Jumping-Mouse. 

half.  Dr.  Richardson  remarks,  respecting  the  Jumping  Mice,  of 
which  there  are,  it  would  appear,  several  species,  that  Ihose  inhabit- 
ing different  districts  in  America  require  to  be  compared  with  each 
other,  before  the  true  number  of  species,  and  their  geographical  dis- 
tribution, can  be  ascertained. 

The  Cape  Leaping  Hare  {Pedetes  Capetisis,  111. :  Helamys 
Capensts,  F.  Cuvier).  Grande  Gerboise,  Buffon  ;  Spring  Haas  of 
the  Dutch  Colonists  ;  Cape  Jerboa,  Pennant. 

This  curious  animal  occupies  an  undeterminate  situation  among 
the  Rodents ;  but  is  most  probably  the  most  nearly  related  to  the 
true  Jerboas,  which  it  resembles  in  external  appearance.  The 
molars  are  four  on  each  side  in  each  jaw,  of  simple  structure,  with 
two  laminae;  the  incisors  are  large,  strong,  and  broad.  (See  Fig.  454.) 


F'g-  454-— Teeth  of  Cape  leaping  Hare. 

The  anterior  limbs  are  short,  but  very  strong,  furnished  with  five 
toes  armed  with  powerful  claws.  The  hind-limbs  are  developed  and 
muscular,  four-toed,  the  toes  armed  with  long-pointed  and  somewhat 
hoof-hke  claws.  Tail  long.  The  Leaping  Hare  equals  our  common 
Hare  in  size  :  the  fur  is  soft,  and  of  a  dark  fawn  or  brownish-yellow, 
passing  into  white  beneath  ;  the  tail  is  hairy,  and  tufted  at  the  ex- 
tremity with  a  pencil  of  black.  The  head  is  large  ;  the  ears  are  lono- 
and  pointed ;  and  the  eyes  full  and  dark.  Native  country.  South 
Africa      (See  Fig.  455.) 

the  Leaping  Hare  is  a  burrowing  animal,  making  its  holes  in  the 
soft  sandy  ground,  which  it  digs  up  with  its  fore-paws,  spurtino-  it 
backwards  with  its  hind-feet,  as  is  done  by  the  Rabbit.  In  these 
burrows  it  sojourns  during  the  day,  secure  from  the  attacks  of  the 
various  carnivorous  animals  which  infest  the  precincts  of  its  retreat. 
JNight  IS  the  season  of  acrivity:  it  steals  forth  on  the  close  of  day- 
light to  teed  ;  and  in  some  districts  where  it  abounds,  the  depreda- 


tions which  it  commits  in  the  fields  of  grain  are  very  serious.  It 
proceeds  in  the  same  manner  as  does  the  Jerboa,  by  a  series  of 
bounds  :  and  when  the  animal  is  pursued,  each  bound  it  makes 
clears  a  space  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet.  It  eats  sitting  nearly  upright, 
and  using  its  fore-feet  in  the  manner  of  a  Squirrel,  to  bring  the  food 
to  the  mouth.  It  also  sleeps  in  the  same  attitude,  excepting  that  the 
head  is  bent  down  between  the  hind-limbs,  while  the  fore-paws  cover 
the  eyes  and  cars. 

The  Leaping  Hare  gives  preference  to  the  sides  of  steep   and 
craggy  mountains,  and  in  some  places  they  colonise  a  considerable 


F'g-  455- — Cape  Leaping  Hare, 

extent  of  ground,  making  it  a  complete  warren.  Mr.  Burchell,  on 
his  second  journey  to  Asbestos  Mountain,  observed  their  burrows  in 
abundance.  Whether  this  animal  lays  up  a  store  of  winter  provision, 
or  whether  it  hibernates  during  a  part  of  the  year,  does  not  appear 
to  be  ascertained  :  but  it  is  very  certain  that,  in  the  localities  it  fre- 
quents, it  is  not  only  subject  to  a  low  temperature  during  the  cold 
season,  but  that  it  will  also  experience  a  scarcity  of  its  usual  food. 
Its  voice  is  a  kind  of  inarticulate  grunt. 

The  Caffres  esteem  these  creatures  for  food,  and  expel  them  from 
their  burrows  by  pouring  water  into  the  entrances,  when  they  issue 
forth  and  are  easily  taken. 

The  GERBILLES— il/«7b«/a'cj-. 

The  Gerbilles  are  chiefly  inhabitants  of  Africa,  but  a  few  species 
occur  in  India.  By  some  authors  they  have  been  placed  among  the 
Jerboas,  and  by  others  among  the  Aliirida:,  or  Rat  and  Mouse 
family.  The  contour  of  the  skull  and  the  characters  of  the  teeth  are 
confessedly  Murine.  (See  Fig.  456  :  a,  the  skull,  profile ;  b,  the 
same  seen  from  above ;  c,  the  sam^seen  from  below  ;  d,  c,  teeth  of 
the  same.)  Though  the  Gerbilles  have  the  posterior  limbs  developed, 
their  development  is  by  no  means  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the 
Jerboas ;  and  there  is  a  far  more  equal  proportion  between  them 
and  the  anterior  pair ;  hence  these  animals  run  as  well  as  leap. 
They  are  active,  elegant  little  creatures,  living  in  burrows,  which 
they  excavate  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  F.  Cuvier  enumerates  eight  species,  respectively  natives  of 
Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  Africa^  and  India.  The  species  figured 
(Fig.  457)  has  been  described  by  F.  Cuvier.  (See  "Trans.  Zool.Soc," 
vol.  ii.)  Of  its  peculiar  habits  we  know  nothing  definite,  but  they,  in 
all  probability,  agree  with  those  of  the  Indian  Gerbille,  so  well 
described  by  General  Hardwicke  in  the  eighth  volume  of  the  "  Linn. 
Trans."  The  Indian  Gerbille  is  common  in  Hindostan,  and  seems 
to  be  gregarious,  great  numbers  associating  together.  "  These 
animals  are  very  abundant  about  cultivated  lands,  and  are  particu- 
larly destructive  to  wheat  and  barley  crops,  of  which  they  lay  up 
considerable  hoards  in  spacious  burrows  near  the  scenes  of  their 
plunder.  They  cut  the  culms  of  the  ripening  corn  just  below  the 
ears,  and  convey  them  thus  entire  to  one  common  subterraneous 
repository,  which,  when  filled,  they  carefully  close,  and  do  not  open 
for  use  until  supplies  abroad  become  distant  and  scarce.  Grain  of 
all  kinds  is  their  favourite  food  ;  but,  in  default  of  this,  they  have 
recourse  to  the  roots  of  grass  and  other  vegetables.  About  the  close 
of  the  day  they  issue  from  their  burrows,  and  traverse  the  plains  in 


176 


RATS  AND  MICE. 


all  directions  to  a  considerable  distance ;  they  run  very  fast,  but 
oftener  leap,  making  bounds  of  four  or  five  yards  at  a  time,  carrying 
the  tail  extended  in  a  horizontal  direction.  When  eating,  they  sit 
on  their  hind-legs  like  a  Squirrel,  holding  the  food  between  their 
fore-feet. ,  They  never  appear  by  day,  neither  do  they  commit 
depredations  within  doors.  I  have  observed  their  manners  by  night, 
in  moonlight  nights,  taking  my  station  on  a  plain,  and  remaining 
for  some  time  with  as  little  motion  as  possible.     I  was  soon  sur- 


Fig.  436. — Skull  and  Teedi  of  Burton's  Gerbille. 

rounded  by  hundreds  at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards,  but  on  rising 
from  my  seat  the  whole  disappeared  in  an  instant,  nor  did  they 
venture  forth  again  for  ten  minutes  after,  and  then  with  much  caution 
and  circumspection. 

"A  low  tribe  of  Hindoos,  called  Kunjers,  whose  occupation  is 
hunting,  go  in  quest  of  these  animals,  at  proper  seasons,  to  plunder 
their  hoards  of  grain  ;  and  often,  within  the  space  of  twenty  yards, 
find  as  much  corn  in  the  ear  as  could  be  crammed  into  a  common 
bushel.  They  inhabit  dry  situations,  and  are  often  found  at  the  dis- 
tance of  some  miles  out  of  the  reach  of  water  to  drink.  In  con- 
finement this  animal  soon  becomes  reconciled  to  its  situation,  and 


Fig-  457- — Burton's  Gerbille. 

docile  ;  sleeps  much  in  the  day,  but  when  awake  feeds  freely  at 
night.  The  Hindoos  above  mentioned  esteem  them  good  and 
nutritious  food."        i 

The  Indian  Gerbille  is  of  the  size  of  a  common  Rat ;  its  eyes  are 
full  and  black  ;  the  ears  are  large,  rounded,  and  almost  naked. 
The  general  fur  is  bright  bay,  variegated  on  the  back,  with  pencil- 


like strokes  of  dark  brown  ;  the  under-parts  are  white ;  the  tail  is 
cylindrical,  thickly  covered  with  short  hair  except  at  the  tip,  which 
is  somewhat  tufted,  and  of  a  dark  brown. 

Mitchell's  Jerboa. — This  animal,  a  native  of  Australia,  and 
described  by  Mr.  Ogilby  under  the  name  of  Dipiis  Mitchellii 
("Linn.  Trans.,"  vol.  xviii.),  belongs,  apparently,  to  the  genus 
Hapalotis.  It  seems  to  take  the  place,  on  the  open  plains  of 
Australia,  of  the  Jerboas  and  Gerbilles  of  the  deserts  and  plains  of 
Africa  and  Asia ;  or  of  the  Jumping  Mice  of  North  America.  This 
singular  species  was  found  on  the  reedy  plains  near  the  junction  of 
the  Murray  and  Murrumbidgee,  on  the  northern  boundaries  of 
Australia  Felix.  The  cut  is  taken  from  the  figure  in  Sir  T.  Mit- 
chell's account  of  "Three  Expeditions  into  the  Interior  of  Eastern 
Australia."  Sir  T.  Mitchell  states,  that  the  fore  and  hind  legs  of 
this  animal  resemble  in  proportion  those  of  a  Kangaroo ;  and  it 
used  the  latter  by  leaping  on  its  hind-quarters  in  the  same  manner. 
It  was  not  much  larger  than  a  common  Field-Mouse,  but  the  tail 
was  longer  in  proportion  than  even  that  of  a  Kangaroo,  and  termi- 
nated in  a  hairy  brush  about  two  inches  long.    (See  Fig.  458.) 


Fig.  458. — Mitchell's  Jerboa. 


The  Rats  and  Mice — Family  Muridts. 

The  genus  Mus,  which  includes  the  true  Rats  and  Mice,  is 
typical  of  the  extensive  family  Muridce.  The  characters  of  this 
genus  may  be  thus  summed  up :  incisors  of  the  usual  number  ; 
those  of  the  lower  jaw  compressed  and  pointed  ;  molars  on  each 
side,  both  above  and  below,  three,  with  true  roots,  and  a  trans- 
versely tuberculated  surface,  the  ridges  varying  in  number  in  each 
tooth  ;  the  anterior  molar  is  the  largest,  the  posterior  the  smallest. 
(See  Fig.  459.)  The  muzzle  is  elongated  and  sharp  ;  the  ears  are 
oblong  or  rounded,  and  almost  naked.  The  toes  of  the  anterior 
feet  are  four,  with  the  minute  rudiment  of  a  thumb  ;  those  of  the 
hind-feet  are  five.  The  limbs  are  short ;  the  tail  is  long,  cylindrical, 
tapering,  and  annulated  with  scales  of  epidermis,  from  between 
which  emerge  short  hairs,  forming  a  scanty  covering.  The  fur  is 
soft,  but  traversed  by  long  outer  hairs  of  a  stiffer  quality  than  those 
composing  the  under-coat.  All  these  animals  are  of  small  size, 
yet  many  are  among  the  greatest  pests  to  man.  Although  vegetable 
aliment,  as  grain,  peas,  &.C.,  forms  their  principal  food,  still,  to  a 
certain  extent,  they  are  carnivorous.  We  know  the  partiality  of  the 
Mouse  to  cheese,  butter,  lard,  tallow,  &c.,  and  of  the  Brown  Rat  to 
raw  flesh.  The  stronger  and  larger  species  often  prey  upon  the 
smaller,  and  in  times  of  scarcity  they  will  attack  and  devour  each 
other.  All  are  nocturnal,  and  most,  if  not  all,  subterranean  in  their 
habits,  and  also  gregarious.  Some  frequent  the  fields  and  woods, 
some  the  gardens,  and  some  the  abodes  of  man,  undermining 
floors  and  walls,  and  breeding  within  the  precincts  of  his  habitation. 
They  are  spread  through  every  quarter  of  the  globe ;  and  the 
common  Mouse  and  the  Brown  Rat  have  been  introduced  by  the 
indirect  agency  of  man,  even  into  the  remotest  and  most  desolate 
islands.  (See  "Zoology  of  the  Voyage  of  Vi.M..?>.  Beagle — Mam- 
malia," No.  ii.  of  pt.  ii,,  p.  31,  et  seq.)  With  respect  to  the  Brown 
Rat  {Mus  decmnanus),  sometimes  erroneously  called  the  Norway 
Rat,  it  appears  to  have  been  originally  transported  from  Persia  or 
India  into  Europe ;  its  place  was  previously  occupied  by  the  Black 


RATS  AND  MICE. 


m 


Rat  (Mas  ratfus),  a  smaller  and  more  timid  animal,  and  in  some 
districts  now  quite  extirpated  by  its  more  powerful  rival.  The 
Brown  Rat  was  not  known  in  England  before  1730,  nor  in  France 
before  1750.  According  to  Pallas,  it  did  not  appear  in  Russia  and 
Siberia  till  1766;  and  Dr.  Harlan  states  that  it  did  not  make  its 
appearance  in  North  America  till  1775.  When  Dr.  Richardson 
wrote  his  "  Fauna  Boreali-Americana,"  it  was  common  in  Lower 
Canada,  but  had  not  advanced  much  beyond  Kingston  in  Upper 


Fig.  459. — Teeth  of  Common  Mouse. 

Canada.  He  did  not  observe  it  in  the  fur  countries,  and  believes, 
if  it  exists  there,  that  it  is  only  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river, 
or  at  the  factories  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay.  Mr.  Darwin 
found  it  at  Buenos  Ayres,  Valparaiso,  East  Falkland  Island,  and 
Keeling  Island.  With  respect  to  the  Black  Rat,  even  that  is,  in  all 
probability,  of  foreign  origin.  It  was  not  known  in  Western  Europe 
before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  Gesner  was  the  first 
who  described  and  figured  it. 

In  the  island  of  Ascension,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Mr.  Darwin 
found  two  varieties,  as  he  and  Mr.  Waterhouse  consider,  of  the 
Black  Rat  {Miis  ratfus).  These  two  animals  differ  in  the  colour  of 
the  fur,  one  being  of  a  grizzled  brownish  colour,  the  other  black, 
with  more  soft  or  glossy  fur.  "  The  specimen  which  has  a  black 
and  glossy  fur,  frequents  the  short  coarse  grass  near  the  summit  of 
the  island,  where  the  common  Mouse  likewise  occurs.  It  is  often 
seen  running  about  by  day,  and  was  found  in  numbers  when  the 
island  was  first  colonised  by  the  English  a  few  years  since.  The 
other  and  browner  coloured  variety  lives  in  the  outhouses  near  the 
sea-beach,  and  feeds  chiefly  on  the  offal  of  the  turtles  slaughtered 
for  the  daily  food  of  the  inhabitants.  If  the  settlement  were 
destroyed,  I  feel  no  doubt  that  this  latter  variety  would  be  compelled 
to  migrate  from  the  coast.  Did  it  originally  descend  from  the 
summit  ?  and  in  the  case  first  supposed  would  it  retreat  there  ?  and 
if  so,  would  its  black  colour  return  }  It  must,  however,  be  observed 
that  the  two  localities  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  space, 
some  miles  in  width,  of  bare  lava  and  ashes.  Does  the  summit  of 
Ascension,  an  island  so  immensely  remote  from  any  continent,  and 
the  summit  itself  surrounded  by  a  broad  fringe  of  desert  volcanic 
soil,  possess  a  small  quadruped  peculiar  to  itself  ?  or,  more  pro- 
bably, has  this  new  species  been  brought  by  some  ship  from  some 
unknown  quarter  of  the  world  ?  Or,  I  am  again  tempted  to  ask,  as 
I  did  in  the  case  of  the  Galapagos  Rat,  has  the  common  English 
species  been  changed  by  its  new  habitation  into  a  strongly  marked 
variety? — D."     {"Zool.  of  Voyage  oi  Beagle,"  p.  36.) 

This  zoological  problem  is  one  of  the  many  so  difficult  to  solve. 
Mr.  Waterhouse  remarks — "  It  appears  as  if  the  Brown  and  Black 
Rats  (M.  decumanus  and  M.  rattus),  and  likewise  the  common 
Mouse  {ISIus  7niisciilus),  all  of  which  follow  man  in  his  peregrina- 
tions, and  which,  to  a  certain  degree,  are  dependent  upon  man,  and 
may  be,  therefore,  termed  semi-domestic  animals,  are,  like  really 
domestic  animals,  subject  to  a  greater  degree  of  variation  than 
those  species  which  hold  themselves  aloof  from  him." 

The  common  Mouse  {l\Ius  musculus)  is  undoubtedly  indigenous 
in  Europe,  and  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  times ;  it  is  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Mus,  the  German  Maus,  the  Danish  Muys,  the  Latin 


Mus,  and  the  Greek  Muc.  In  Spanish  its  name  is  Rat ;  in  Portuguese, 
Ratinho  ;  in  Italian  it  is  called  Sorice  ;  and  in  French,  Souris  :  from 
the  Latin  Sorex,  employed  by  zoologists  to  designate  the  Shrews. 

This  elegant  but  troublesome  little  animal  needs  no  description : 
all  are  well  acquainted  with  it.  "Domestic  in  its  habits,"  says 
Mr.  Bell,  "nourished  by  almost  every  article  of  human  food,  and 
finding  effectual  shelter  in  the  secret  recesses  of  the  habitations 
which  human  art  has  raised,  it  has  accompanied  man  in  all  his  ad- 
ventures for  colonisation,  and  identified  itself  with  every  new  terri- 
torial occupation  of  of  our  race."  The  Mouse  is  easily  tamed,  and 
it  is  interesting  to  observe  it  sitting  up  holding  its  food  between  its 
paws,  or  cleansing  with  them  the  sides  of  its  face  and  the  back  of  its 
ears,  its  black  eyes  glistening  with  animation.  An  Albino  variety 
(white,  with  red  eyes)  is  not  uncommon  (Fig.  460),  and  often  kept  io 


Fig,  460. — Common  Mouse. 

cages  for  the  sake  of  its  beauty.  It  breeds  freely  in  captivity,  per- 
petuating a  white  race,  which,  bom  and  bred  in  captivity,  are  gentle 
and  familiar,  and  when  allowed  to  run  about  a  room  never  attempt 
to  escape. 

The  common  Mouse  produces  young  to  the  number  of  five  or  six, 
several  times  during  the  course  of  the  year.  In  about  a  fortnight 
they  leave  the  mother,  and  obtain  their  living  independently. 

Many  years  ago  (i855-'56),  a  great  sensation  was  created  in 
London  by  the  "  discovery  "  of  a  Singing  Mouse.  It  was  about  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  Mouse,  and  was  of  a  grey  colour.  The  voice 
resembled  that  of  a  young  Chaffinch,  and  the  animal  seemed  to  use 
it  for  the  purpose  of  calling  for  food.  It  chiefly  "  sang"  at  break  of 
day.  The  note  was  really  an  extraordinary  development  of  the  or- 
dinary squeaking  of  the  Mouse  and  Rat  family. 

The  Barbary  Mouse  [Mus  Barbarus). — In  size  this  beautiful 
species  is  intermediate  between  the  common  Mouse  and  Rat.  It  is 
found  in  Barbary,  where  the  natives  term  it  Phar  Azeph,  the  Pal- 
metto Mouse.     Some  time  ago  three  individuals  were  living  in  the 


Fig.  461.— Barbary  Mouse, 

Vivarium  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  Lond.  ;  and  were  described  and  figured 
by  Mr.  Bennett,  who  may  be  said  to  have  really  introduced  this 
species  to  science  :  for,  since  the  time  of  Linnajus,  who  first  described 
the  animal  in  the  addenda  to  the  twelfth  edition  (the  last  published 
by  himself)  of  his  "  Systcma  Naturx,"  no  naturalist  appears  to  have 

'  2  A 


178 


MICE. 


seen  it.  So  completely,  indeed,  had  it  escaped  the  researches  of 
later  zoologists,  that  M.  Desmarest  ventured  to  suggest  a  doubt  of 
its  existence. 

"  The  ground-colour  of  the  Barbary  Mouse  is  dark  brown,  marked 
on  each  side  with  five  or  six  yellowish  stripes,  about  half  as  broad  as 
the  intervening  spaces,  extending  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
body,  and  becoming  confused  towards  the  under-parts,  which  are 
nearly  white.  On  the  fore-feet  only  three  of  the  toes  are  at  first 
visible  ;  and  this  circumstance,  mentioned  in  the  specific  character 
given  by  Linnasus,  has  led  many  subsequent  naturalists  to  doubt 
whether  the  Barbary  Mouse  really  belongs  to  the  genus  with  which 
it  was  associated.  LinnEus  himself  liad,  however,  stated  in  his  de- 
scription of  the  species,  that  rudiments  of  a  thumb,  and  also  of  a 
fifth  toe,  were  observable  on  a  closer  inspection  ;  and  this  staternent 
has  been  fully  confirmed  by  an  examination  of  the  specimens  in  the 
Zool.  Gardens."  ("Gardens  and  Menagerie  delineated,"  p.  31.) 
(See  Fig.  461.) 

Of  the  native  habits  and  manners  of  the  Barbary  Mouse  we  have 
no  definite  information.  Those  in  confinement,  to  which  we  have 
alluded,  resembled  the  Rat  in  actions  and  disposition.  Their  carni- 
vorous propensities  indeed  were  amply  evinced  on  the  death  of  one 
of  their  number,  by  the  two  survivors  having  commenced  devouring 
the  body. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  the  specimens  e.xamined  by  Linnaeus  were 
very  young,  for  he  describes  them  as  being  smaller  than  the  common 
Mouse. 

A  beautiful  striped  Mouse,  termed  the  Cape  Striped  Mouse  {Mus 
pumilio),  is  peculiar  to  the  districts  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It 
was  first  described  by  Spanman,  who  gives  a  figure  of  it  in  his 
"Travels  in  Africa,"  taken  from  a  young  individual.  The  general 
colour  is  brownish-grey,  with  four  black  stripes  along  the  back  ;  the 
upper  surface  of  the  head  is  black.  Another  species,  the  Indian 
Striped  Mouse  {]\Ius  striatus),  of  which  a  few  years  since  little  was 
known,  may  also  be  noticed.  The  general  colour  is  grey  with  a 
tinge  of  reddish  or  yellow,  and  the  back  is  marked  with  a  dozen 
longitudinal  rows  of  small  white  spots  distinct  from  each  other, 
forming  so  many  interrupted  stripes  ;  the  under-parts  are  whitish. 

D.\rwin's  Mouse  (^Mus  Danuiini'). — Among  the  numerous 
small  Rodents  belonging  to  the  family  Muridce,  collected  by  Mr. 
Darwin  (see  "Zool.  of  H.M.S.  Beagle"), \s  a  small  group,  the 
species  of  which,  Mr.  Waterhouse  observes,  though  very  closely 
allied  to  the  genus  Mus,  offer  some  slight  modification,  not  only  in 
their  external  form,  but  also  in  the  structure  of  the  teeth.  (See 
Fig.  462.)     "  They  have  the  fur  soft  and  silky ;  the  head  large ;  and 


Fig.  462. — Darwin's  Mouse. 

the  fore-legs  very  small  and  delicate  ;  the  tarsus  moderately  long, 
and  bare  beneath.  In  the  number  and  proportion  of  their  toes  they 
agree  with  the  true  Rats  ;  the  tail  is  moderately  long,  and  more 
thickly  clothed  with  hair  than  in  the  typical  Rats.  The  ears  are 
large  and  clothed  with  hair.  Like  the  true  Rats,  they  have  twelve 
rooted  molars  ;  the  folds  of  enamel,  however,  penetrate  more  deeply 
into  the  body  of  each  tooth,  and  enter  in  such  a  way  that  the  crowns 
of  the  teeth  are  divided  into  transverse  and  somewhat ,  lozenge- 
shaped  lobes  of  a  triangular  form.  In  the  front  molar  of  the  upper 
jaw  the  enamel  enters  the  body  of  the  tooth  twice,  both  in  the  outer 
and  inner  sides  ;  and  in  the  second  and  posterior  molars,  both  of  the 
upper  and  under  jaws,  the  enamel  penetrates  but  once  externally  and 
internally  in  each.  In  the  front  molar  of  the  lower  jaw  the  enamel 
enters  the  body  of  the  tooth  three  times  mternally,  and  twice  exter- 
nally "("  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,"  1837,  p.  27).  These  Murine  animals 
Mr.  Waterhouse  regards  as  constituting  a  sub-genus,  for  which  he 
proposed  the  name  of  Phyllotis.  Darwin's  Mouse,  Mus  [Phyllotis) 
Darwinii,  was  found  in  dry  and  stony  places  at  Coquimbo  m  Chile. 
The  fur  above  consists  of  cinnamon-coloured  and  blackish  hairs 
intermixed  ;  the  space  before  the  eyes  is  of  a  greyish  tint ;  the  sides 
of  the  face  and  body  are  of  a  pale  cinnamon  colour ;  the  under-parts 
and  limbs  white  ;  the  ears  are  large  ;  the  tail  as  long  as  the  head 


and  body;   brownish  above,  white  beneath.     Length  of  head  and 
body,  six  inches. 

In   North  America  there  are   some  interesting  genera    of    the 
Murida,  which  may  here  be  noticed — namely,  Neotoma  and  Sigmo- 
don,  both  established  by  Say  and  Ord  in  the  "Journal  of  the  Acad. 
Nat.  Soc,"  Philadelphia.     To  the  first  genus  belongs  the  Florida 
Rat  (Neotoma  FIorida?ia),  larger  than  the  ordinary  Rat,  with  soft 
velvety  fur  of  a  lead  colour,  with  yellowish  and  black  hairs  inter- 
mixed.    The  specimen  described  by  Say  and  Ord  was  discovered  in 
a  log  granary  situated  in  a  ruined  and  deserted  plantation  in   East 
Florida.     "  When  first  aroused  it  ran  a  short  distance,  then  returned, 
and  stood  close  by  us,  allowing  us  to  touch  it  with  a  gun  before  it 
again  retreated.     It  was  mild,  or  without  that  suspicious  and  cun- 
ning air  so  remarkable  in  the  common  Brown  Rat.    We  have  reason 
to  think  that  the  species  is  not  uncommon  in  Florida,  as  several  in- 
dividuals were  seen  by  Mr.  Say  in  an  old  mansion  ;   but  he  was 
unprovided  with  the  means  of  capturing  them."      Specimens   are 
preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc.     A  second  species  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Drummond  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and   is  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Richardson  under  the  title  oi Neotoma  Dritmmondii. 
This  animal   "makes  its  nest  in  the  crevices  of  high  rocks,  and 
seldom  appears  in  the  daytime.     Its  food  most  probably  consists  of 
herbage  of  various  kinds,  and  of  small  branches  of  pine-trees,  be- 
cause there  is  generally  a  considerable  store  of  those  substances  laid 
up  in  the  vicinity  of  its  residence.     It  is  very  destructive.     In  the 
course  of  a  single  night,  the  fur  traders  who  have  encamped  in  a 
place  frequented  by  these  animals,  have  sustained  much  loss  by  their 
packs  of  fur  being  gnawed,  the  blankets  cut  in  pieces,  and  many 
small  articles  carried  entirely  away.    Mr.  Drummond  placed  a  stout 
pair  of  English  shoes  on  the  shelf  of  a  rock,  and,  as  he  thought,  in 
perfect  security,  but  on  his  return  after  an  absence  of  a  few  days,  he 
found  them  gnawed  into  fragments  as  fine  as  sawdust.    This  species 
is  nine  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  its  tail  being  seven 
and  a-half  inches.     Its  general  colour  is  yellowish-brown  above,  and 
white  beneath  :  the  fur  is  full  and  soft,  and  the  tail  is  bushy  and 
densely  hairy,  instead  of  being  round,  tapering,  and  thinly  covered 
with  hair,  as  in  the  Florida  Rat.     With  respect  to  the  genus  Sigmo- 
don,  the  dentition  of  which  is  characterised  by  the  flexures  which  the 
folds  of  enamel  on  the  molar  teeth  present,  one  species  only  is  de- 
scribed,  viz.,   the   Rough-haired  Sigmodon  {S.  kispidum).      This 
animal  is  very  numerous  in  the   deserted  plantations  lying  on  the 
river  St.  John  in   East  Florida,  particularly  in  the   gardens.     Its 
burrows  are  seen  in  every  direction.     Emigrants  to  that  section  of 
the  country  will  find  the  species   a  great  pest  to  rural  economy. 
General  colour,  pale  dirty  ochre  mixed  with  black  ;    under-surface, 
ashy-grey.     Length  of  head  and  body,  six  inches;  of  the  tail,  four 
inches.     Closely  allied  to  the  genus  Neotoma  is  a  species  termed 
the  White-footed  Mouse  {Mus  leucopus),  found  in  California,  and  on 
the  borders  of  the  Columbia  river.     The  habits  of  this  elegant  little 
creature  are  well  described  by  Dr.  Richardson,  who  observed  it  as 
far  north  as  the  Great  Bear  Lake.     "  The  gait  and  actions  of  this 
little  animal  are  so  much  like  those  of  the  English  domestic  Mouse, 
that  most  of  the  Europeans  resident  at  Hudson's  Bay  have  considered 
it  to  be  the  same  species,  although  overlooking  the  obvious  differ- 
ences of  their  tails  and  other  peculiarities.     This  American  Mouse, 
however,  has  a  habit  of  making  hoards  of  grain  or  little  pieces  of 
fat,  which  I  believe  is  unknown  of  the  European  domestic  Mouse  ; 
and   what   is   more   singular,   these  hoards  are  not  formed  in  the 
animals'  retreats,  but  generally  in  a  shoe  left  at  the  bed-side,  the 
pocket  of  a  coat,  a  nightcap,  a  bag  hung  against  the  wall,  or  some 
similar  place.     It  not  unfrequently  happened  that  we  found  barley 
which  had  been  brought  from  a  distant  apartment,  and  introduced 
into  a  drawer  through  so  small  a  chink,  that  it  was  impossible  for 
the  Mouse  to  gain  access  to  its  store.     The  quantity  laid  up  in  a 
single  night,  nearly  equalling  the  bulk  of  a  Mouse,  renders  it  pro- 
bable that  several  individuals  united  their  efforts  to  form  it.     This 
Mouse  does  considerable  mischief  in  gardens,   and  in  a  very  few 
nights  will  almost  destroy  a  plantation  of  maize,  by  tracing  the  rows 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  seeds,  and  depositing  them  in  small 
heaps  under  the  loose  mould,  generally  by  the  side  of  a  stone  or 
piece  of  wood.     From  the  facility  with  which  it  seems  to  transport 
the  substances  it  preys  upon,  I  suspected  that  it  had  cheek-pouches, 
but  none  were  found  on  examination.     The  Ermine  is  a  most  invete- 
rate enemy  to  this  species,  and  pursues  it  even  into  the  sleeping 
apartments  of  houses."     The  colour  above  is  fine  dark  brown;    the 
under-part  and  feet  are  white. 

The  Long-tailed  Field-Mouse  {Mus  syhjaficus). — Eyes  full, 
black,  and  bright;  colour  above  reddish-brown,  beneath  whitish; 
ears  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  head ;  tail  somewhat  shorter 
than  the  head  and  body.  Length  of  head  and  body,  three  inches 
eight  lines.     It  is  Le  Mulot  of  Buffon. 

This  beautiful  but  mischievous  little  animal  is  spread  over  the 
whole  of  temperate  Europe.  It  frequents  woods,  plantations,  parks, 
orchards,  and  gardens,  where  it  commits  great  devastations.  In 
some  places  it  multiplies  in  hosts ;  and  instances  are  on  record  of 
young  plantations  covering  acres  having  been  totally  destroyed  by 
their  depredations.     They  strip  the  bark  and  shoots  from  off  the 


MICE. 


»79 


sapling-  trees,  and  root  up  the  newly-planted  acorns  ;  nor  are  they 
less  injurious  in  wheat-fields.  Each  individual  lays  up  in  its  hole  or 
burrow  a  winter  store  of  food,  consistinsf  of  grain,  acorns,  nuts,  peas, 
(Src.  ;  and  hence  it  is  not  only  from  what  they  devour  at  the  time,  but 
also  from  what  they  carry  awav  that  they  cause  such  injuries.  In 
the  kitchen-ffarden,  as  we  can  personally  testify,  they  are  not  a  little 
annoying,  digging  up  peas  and  beans  when  newly  sown  or  when  be- 
ginning to  germinate.     One  of  their  natural  enemies,  and  one  of  the 


Fig.  463. — Long-tailed  Fleld-Mouse. 

most  efficient  agents  in  their  destruction,  is  the  Short-eared  Owl 
(Oils  ziliila).  Latham  informs  us,  that  in  certain  districts  which 
have  been  infested  with  these  Mice,  the  "Owls  have  collected  in 
large  troops,  and  attacked  the  depredators  to  their  utter  extermina- 
tion." It  is  not  exclusively  to  vegetable  matters  that  these  IMice 
confine  their  diet ;  young  birds  become  their  prey ;  and  when  food  is 
scarce  they  will  attack  each  other,  the  younger  or  weaker  falling 
victims  to  the  more  powerful.     (See  Fig.  463.) 

The  Field-Mouse,  though  extremely  timid,  is  easily  tamed  and 
rendered  familiar,  and  its  manners  are  very  engaging.  It  is  free 
from  the  unpleasant  odour  which  renders  the  common  Mouse  a 
nuisance.  The  Field-Mouse  breeds  twice  in  the  year,  producing 
from  six  to  ten  young  at  a  time.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  calculate 
the  rapidity  of  its  multiplication,  and  to  account  for  the  sudden  ap- 
pearance of  swarms  in  spots  where  few  had  been  previously  observed. 
Buffon  states  that,  by  means  of  a  single  trap,  2,300  were  killed  in 
twenty-three  days  in  a  single  field  of  about  forty  acres  in  extent.     In 


Fig.  464. — Sliort-taikJ  Field-Mice. 

some  parts  of  our  own  country  their  numbers  have  been  incalculable, 
and  their  devastations  frightful. 

The  Short-tailed  Field-Mouse  {Arvicola  agrestis).~-T\i^ 
Campagnot  of  Buffon;  Arvicola  arvalis  of  Selys-Longchamps. 
The  Short-tailed  Field-Mouse  (or  Field-vole  of  Bell)  is  one  of  those 
Rodcntia  from  which  we  often  receive  extensive  injury,  proving  how 


necessary  it  is  that,  in  order  to  keep  their  numbers  within  due  bounds, 
an  incessant  warfare  be  maintained  against  them — a  warfare  to 
which  birds  and  beasts  of  prey  are  appointed.     (See  Fig.  46.).) 

This  species  is  a  native  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  is  com- 
mon in  our  island,  where  its  depredations  (and  in  France  and  other 
parts  of  the  continent  the  same  may  be  said)  have  rendered  it  no- 
torious. It  is  exclusively  a  tenant  of  woods,  plantations,  corn-fields, 
and  meadows  ;  and  not  unfrequently  appears  in  enormous  multitudes! 
Often  is  the  farmer  disappointed  of  his  crop  of  wheat,  the  newly- 
sown  grain  having  been  all  rooted  up  and  devoured  by  an  army  of 
these  "  wee  cowerin  creepit  timorous  beasties,"  formidable  not  from 
their  individual  size,  but  their  numbers.  Whole  plantations  of 
young  trees  have  in  like  manner  been  destroyed,  the  root  of  every 
sapling  being  eaten,  or  the  bottom  of  the  stem  barked  round.  In 
the  years  1813  and  1814,  the  ravages  of  these  animals  in  the  New 
Forest  and  the  Forest  of  Dean  were  so  great,  as  to  create  an  alarm 
lest  the  whole  of  the  young  trees  in  those  extensive  woods  would  be 
destroyed  by  them.  In  the  first  vol.  of  the  "  Zool.  Journal"  is  a 
letter  from  Lord  Glenbervie  to  Sir  Joseph  Bankes,  entering  into  a  de- 
tailed account  of  the  devastations  committed.  Mr.  Jesse,  in  his 
"  Gleanings,"  referring  to  the  plantations  in  these  forests,  says,  that 
soon  after  their  formation,  "  a  sudden  and  rapid  increase  of  Mice 
took  place  in  them,  which  threatened  the  destruction  of  the  whole  of 
the  young  plants :  vast  numbers  of  these  were  killed,  the  Mice 
having  eaten  through  the  roots  of  five-year-old  oaks  and  chestnuts, 
generally  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hollies  also,  which 
were  five  or  six  feet  high,  were  barked  round  the  bottom  ;  and  in 
some  instances  the  Mice  had  crawled  up  the  tree,  and  were  seen 
feeding  on  the  bark  of  the  upper  branches.  In  the  reports  made  to 
government  on  the  subject,  it  appeared  that  the  roots  had  been  eaten 
through  wherever  they  obstructed  the  runs  of  the  Mice." 

Various  plans  were  adopted  for  their  destruction  ;  and  in  holes 
dug  purposely  to  entrap  them,  in  the  Dean  Forest  alone,  30,000 
Mice  were  caught  in  about  three  months,  and  a  much  greater 
number  destroyed  by  Stoats,  Weasels,  Kites,  Hawks,  Owls,  Crows, 
&c.,  and  also  by  Cats  purposely  turned  out.  In  the  New  Forest 
about  the  same  number  were  also  destroyed  ;  and  it  was  calculated 
that  the  total  destruction,  including  those  caught  in  pits  and  traps, 
and  those  killed  by  other  animals,  and  by  their  own  species  (for 
when  their  food  fell  short  they  attacked  nnd  devoured  each  other), 
amounted,  in  the  two  forests,  to  more  than  200,000. 

The  Field-Vole  measures  four  inches  one  line  in  the  length  of  the 
head  and  body,  and  one  inch  three  and  a-half  lines  in  that  of  the 
tail.  The  fur  is  reddish-brown  above,  grey  beneath.  A  distinct 
species,  the  Bank- Vole  (^rz^zw/a  ^ratoz/j,  Baillon  ;  A.  riparica, 
Yarrell ;  .^.  rz//"Mce«j,  Selys-Longchamps),  is  found  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  in  some  parts  of  England.  It  is  less  than  the  former 
species,  with  a  longer  tail,  and  differs  in  several  particulars  in  its 
internal  anatomy. 

The  Harvest-Mouse  {Miis  Messorius). — Of  all  our  British 
Mammalia  the  Harvest-Mouse  is  the  smallest.  This  beautiful 
little  species  was  first  discovered  in  our  island  by  Gilbert  White,  and 
described  in  his  "Natural  History  of  Selborne."  Yet  it  is  by  no 
means  uncommon  in  the  corn  counties,  and  especially  in  Hampshire, 
though  so  long  overlooked  by  British  naturalists.  It  is  found  in 
Wiltshire,  Gloucestershire,  Devonshire,  and  Cambridgeshire,  and 
occurs  in  France,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Siberia.  It  is  the  Mulot 
pain  and  Rat  de  moissons  of  F.  Cuvier ;  the  Mits  minntus  of 
Pallas,  and  the  Mies peiidiilinus  of  Hermann. 

The  Harvest-Mouse  is  a  lively,  active,  playful  little  creature  ;  its 
eyes  are  dark :  its  general  colour  above  is  delicate  reddish-fawn  ; 
the  under-parts  are  abruptly  white  :  the  ears  are  short  and  rounded  ; 
the  tail  is  rather  shorter  than  the  bojiy.  Length  of  head  and  body, 
two  inches  six  lines. 

This  animal  lives  entirely  in  the  fields,  resorting  in  the  winter  to 
burrows  of  its  own  construction,  or  to  corn-ricks,  into  which  it  pene- 
trates, and  there  finds  food  and  shelter.  The  asylum  in  which  it 
rears  its  young  is  an  artful  and  beautiful  nest  of  a  spherical  figure, 
consisting  of  the  split  leaves  and  panicles  of  grasses  artificially  in- 
terwoven together,  and  suspended  among  the  stalks  of  standing 
corn,  or  thistles,  or  other  plants,  to  which  it  is  secured,  and  of  which 
the  leaves  will  shroud  it  from  notice. 

According  to  Dr.  Gloger,  the  entrance  of  the  nest  is  rather  below 
the  middle,  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  stems,  and  is  scarcely 
observable ;  the  parent  closes  it  when  she  leaves  the  nest,  and 
probably  while  she  remains  herself  within.  The  inside  is  warm, 
smooth,  and  neatly  rounded.  One  nest,  examined  by  Dr.  Gloger, 
contained  five  young  ;  another  nine. 

It  would  appear  that  the  Harvest-Mouse  is  insectivorous  as  wdl 
as  granivorous  ;  and  this  fact  was  first  noticed  by  the  Rev.  W. 
Bingley,  who  obtained  a  female,  which  after  its  capture  produced 
eio-ht  young  ;  but  being  disturbed  by  a  conveyance  of  several  miles, 
sh'e  killed  them,  as  the  Rabbit  is  frequently  known  to  do.  "  One 
evening,"  he  observes,  "as  I  was  sitting  at  my  writing-desk,  and 
the  animal  was  playing  about  in  the  open  part  of  its  cage,  a  large 
blue  fly  happened  to  buzz  against  the  wires  ;  the  little  creature, 
althouo-h  at  twice  or  thrice  the  distance  of  her  own  length  from  it, 


i8o 


THE  HAMSTER. 


sprang  along- the  wires  with  the  greatest  agility,  and  would  certainly 
have  seized  it  had  the  space  between  the  wires  been  sufficiently 
wide  to  have  admitted  her  teeth  or  paws  to  roach  it.  I  was  surprised 
at  this  occurrence,  as  I  had  been  led  to  believe  that  the  Harvest- 
Mouse  was  merely  a  granivorous  animal.  I  caught  the  fly,  and 
made  it  buzz  in  my  fingers  against  the  wires.  The  Mouse,  though 
usually  shy  and  timid,  immediately  came  out  of  her  hiding-place, 
and,  running  to  the  spot,  seized  and  devoured  it.     From  this  time 


Fig.  463. — Harvest-Mouse. 

I  fed  her  with  insects  whenever  I  could  get  them,  and  she  always  pre- 
ferred them  to  every  other  kind  of  food  that  I  offered  her."  The  same 
writer  observed  that  the  tip  of  the  tail  possessed  a  prehensile  povifer, 
and  that  the  animal  used  it  while  climbing  about  the  wires  of  its 
cage.  We  have  seen  the  Har\'est-Mouse  in  captivity  tolerably 
tame,  and  reconciled  to  its  prison.  It  often  sits  erect,  and  feeds 
itself,  holding  grain  between  its  paws,  which  it  also  uses  in  dressing 
its  soft  fur.  "it  drinks  by  lapping  the  water  with  its  tongue,  and 
sleeps  rolled  up  into  a  ball.     (See  Fig.  465.) 

The   Hamster  {Cricctus  vulgaris).— Yoxi-ansXAy  for  England, 
the  Hamster  is  not  indigenous  within  the  precincts  of  the  island.  _  It 
inhabits  the  whole  tract  of  countries  extending  between  the  Rhine 
and  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  between  the  German  Sea  and  Baltic 
to  the  north  and  the  Danube  to  the  south,  wherever  it  finds  a  con- 
genial soil.     It  is  very  common  in  Thuringia.     Its  proper  soil  is  a 
deep  alluvial  mould  with  a  substratum  of  clay  ;  in  dry,  strong-soiled, 
or  stony  districts,  it  is  not  often  found.     The  teeth  of  the  Hamster 
closely  resemble  those  of  the   Rat.     (Fig.  466.)     The  tail  is  short 
and    hairy.     There   are   large    cheek-pouches,  as    in  some  of   the 
Monkeys,  in  the  form  of  sacks,  which  serve  for  carrying  home  food  : 
they  extend  from  the  inside  of  the  cheeks  beneath  the  skin,  along 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  even  over  the  shoulders.     The  general  figure 
is  thick  :  the  limbs  are  short ;  there  are  four  toes  and  a  small  thumb 
on  the  anterior  feet ;  five  toes  on  the  hind-feet ;  the  head  is  large, 
the    muzzle    abruptly    pointed,    the   ears   rounded.     The    general 
colour  is  as  follows  :  head  and  upper  parts  reddish-grey,  verging  to 
yellow  on  the  face  ;  under-parts  black,  with  the  exception  of  the 
throat   and  feet,  which  are  white.      Three  large  distinct  spots  of 
white  are  also  disposed  on  each  side,  one  on  the  cheeks,  one  on  the 
shoulder   and  one  on  the  ribs.     Black  varieties  are  not  unfrequent ; 
in  these  the  nose  and  feet  are  white.     There  are  two  oblong  spaces 
on  the  skin,  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  spme,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance in  front  of  the  thighs,  which,  instead  of  havmg  the  usual  fur, 
are  covered  with  short,  brown,  stiff  hairs.     These  patches,  which 
are  about  an  inch  long,  are  not  always  directly  perceptible,  being 
obscured  by  the  surrounding  long  fur,  which  must  be  blown  aside  to 
^hnw  them      The  adult  measures  from  nme  to  twelve  mches   ex- 
clusive of  the  tail,  which  is  about  three  inches  long.     The  weight  is 
sometimes  more  than  a  pound.     The  female  is  smaller  by  one-fourth. 
(See  Fig.  467.) 


The  Hamster  is 


short  growling  tones  ;  but  when  irritated  its  voice  is  a  shrill  yelling 
cry.  In  collecting  food,  as  beans,  peas,  wheat,  &c.,  it  uses  its  paws 
to  press  the  grain  backwards  to  the  bottom  of  the  pouches,  in  order 
to  make  room  for  the  entrance  of  more.  When  these  are  well  filled, 
it  returns  to  its  burrow  to  unload  them,  in  which  act  it  again  uses 
its  paws.  In  summer  it  feeds  upon  green  fodder  and  the  leaves  of 
many  plants  ;  but  the  Hamster  is  also  carnivorous,  attacking  and 
devouring  Rats,  Mice,  Birds,  Lizards,  insects  and  their  larvae,  and 


nocturnal  in  its  habits:  during  the  day  it  lies 

rolled  up  in  its  burrow  :  at  night  it  issues  forth  to  ramble  in  quest  of 

W     auer  midnight  it  returns  to  its  burrow  and  rests  ti  1  about  an 

hour 'be  ore  sunris?,  when  it  takes  a  second  ramble  till  the  morning 

airly  dawns.     Its  Movements  are  slow  and  creeping  :  it  often  utters 


Fig.  466. — Teeth  of  Hamster. 

the  weaker  of  their  own  species.  Even  the  two  sexes  live  in  har- 
mony only  during  the  few  days  of  each  breeding  season.  The 
Hamster  fights  obstinately,  and  will  jump  with  equal  fury  at  a 
waggon-wheel  or  at  a  Horse  if  he  tread  near  it  ;  and  when  two  rival 
males  meet,  they  engage  in  a  desperate  conflict  till  one  retreats  or 
perishes.  In  these  paroxysms  of  fury  the  cheek-pouches  become 
distended  with  air,  the  animal  at  the  same  time  blowing  and  uttering 
at  intervals  its  shrill  cry. 

In  the  construction  of  its  burrows  the  Hamster  displays  great 
ingenuity.  They  are  in  some  respects  modified  by  age,  sex,  and 
soil ;  for  each  individual  has  its  own  exclusive  burrow.  Each 
burrow  has  at  least  two  openings  ;  one  descends  obliquely,  the  other 
perpendicularly.  The  former  is  termed  the  "  creeping-hole,"  and 
this  is  excavated  from  without ;  but  the  perpendicular  passage, 
termed  the  "plunging-hole,"  is  worked  out  from  one  of  the 
chambers ;  that  is,  from  within  the  subterranean  domicile,  and  is 
often  four  feet  deep.     The  distance  of  these  two  holes  from  each 


Fig.  467. — Hamster. 

other  varies  from  four  to  ten  feet,  and  between  the  termination  of 
these  two  passages  are  the  chambers.  The  creeping-hole  is  not  in 
such  constant  use  as  the  other  ;  and  in  an  inhabited  burrow  it  is 
regularly  found  stopped  with  earth  at  the  distance  of  about  a  foot 
from  the  mouth.  The  chambers  are  more  or  less  oval,  and  of  large 
size  ;  that  nearest  the  creeping-hole  is  the  smallest,  and  is  well  lined 
with  a  bed  of  soft  fine  straw  :  it  has  three  openings,  one  into  the 
creeping-passage,  one  into  the  plunging-passage,  and  one  com- 
municating with  the  store-chambers,  of  which  there  are  several, 
at  least  in  the  burrows  of  the  old  male.  Each  chamber  is  filled  in 
the  autumn  with  provisions,   and   sixty-five   pounds   of  corn,  or   a 


VARIETIES  OF  RATS  AND  MICE. 


i8i 


hundredweight  of  horse-beans,  have  been  found  in  the  magazines  of 
a  sino'le  Hamster.  The  burrow  of  a  female  has  from  three  or  four 
to  eight  plunging-holes,  all  terminating  in  her  nest-chamber.  Here 
she  produces  her  litter,  from  six  to  eighteen  in  number.  The  young 
are  born  blind  and  naked,  but  in  eight  or  nine  days  their  eyes  are 
opened  ;  they  grow  rapidly,  and  in  about  a  fortnight  begin  to  dig 
small  burrows,  each  making  its  own.  The  female  has  several 
litters  in  the  course  of  a  year.  About  the  middle  of  October  the 
Hamster  retires  for  good  to  its  retreat,  stopping  up  first  the  creeping- 
holes,  then  the  plunging-holes  ;  after  this  the  animal  keeps  awake 
(though  under  ground)  for  about  two  months,  living  on  its  store  and 
becoming  very  fat.  When  the  cold  of  winter  has  fairly  set  in  and 
reached  it,  it  sinks  into  a  complete  state  of  torpor,  which  continues 
till  the  middle  of  February.  About  the  middle  of  March  it  begins 
to  open  its  passage,  and  re-visits  the  fields  ;  it  now  abandons  its  old 
burrow,  and  begins  to  form  a  fresh  one.  The  flesh  of  the  Hamster 
is  said  to  be  very  good  ;  the  fur  is  also  esteemed  ;  and  the  Hamster- 
hunter,  who  trades  in  the  skins,  usually  opens  the  burrows  after  the 
corn  has  been  reaped,  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  the  grain  which  the 
Hamster  has  accumulated. 

The  Caffre  Broad-e.^red  Rat  {Euryotis  imisukafus). — This 
species  of  Rat  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  whence  it  was  brought  by 
M.  Delalande.  It  forms  the  type  of  the  genus  Euryotis  of  Brands, 
to  which  title  that  of  Otoniys,  proposed  by  F.  Cuvier,  must  give 
place.  Dr.  A.  Smith  has  appropriated  the  term  Otomys  to  another 
group  of  Rodents.     In  its  dentition  (Fig.  468)  this  animal  closely 


Fig.  46S.— Teeth  of  CaflFre  Broad-eareJ  Rat. 

approximates  to  the  true  Rats,  as  also  in  general  form  and  structure  : 
the  eyes  are  large  ;  the  ears  are  ample  and  broad,  and  furnished 
with  an  internal  projecting  membrane,  which,  when  its  edges  are 
approximated,  entirely  shuts  the  entrance  of  the  auditory  opening. 
The  fur  is  thick  and  soft,  and  the  general  tone  of  colouring  is  a 
clouded  yellow  tint,  becoming  yellowish-white  on  the  under-parts. 
Length  of  head  and  body,  about  six  and  a-half  inches  ,  of  tail,  nearly 
three  inches.  Of  the  habits  and  manners  of  this  animal  we  have  no 
definite  information.     (See  Fig.  469.) 


Fig.  469. — Caffre  Broad-eared  Kal, 

The  Hydromvs  {Hydromys  leucogasfer  and  ckrysogasfer). — 
Though  we  refer  the  genus  Hydromys  to  the  Mi/ridcB,  it  differs  in 
dentition  from  the  other  members  of  that  family.  There  are  only 
two  molars  on  each  side,  above  and  below ;  the  first  above  is  three 


times  the  size  of  the  second,  and  is  composed  of  three  irregular 
portions,  each  portion  being  depressed  in  its  centre,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  ridge  of  enamel ;  the  second  molar  is  composed  of 
two  unequal  parts  ;  the  first  molar  below  is  twice  the  size  of  the 
second,  and  both  are  composed  of  two  parts:,  (See  Fig.  470.)  The 
Hydromys  is  an  aquatic  animal,  and  well  adapted  for  swimming : 


470. — Teeth  of  Hydromys. 


the  head  is  flat ;  the  body  Otter-like,  elongated,  and  covered  with 
close  glossy  fur :  on  the  fore-feet  there  are  four  toes  and  the  rudi- 
ment of  a  thumb ;  on  the  hind-feet  there  are  five  toes,  united  by 
webs.  The  tail  is  long  and  cylindrical,  covered  with  close  stiff 
hairs ;  the  ears  are  short  and  rounded  ;  the  upper  surface  is  brown  ; 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  for  about  a  third  of  its  length,  white  ;  the 
under-surface  varies  from  white  to  a  fine  deep  orange-yellow. 
Some  writers  have  regarded  these  varieties  as  distinct  species  ; — we 
have  seen  specimens  with  the  colour  of  the  under-surface  in  inter- 
mediate stages  between  white  and  yellow.  Length  of  head  and 
body,  about  twelve  inches  ;  that  of  the  tail,  nearly  as  much.  The 
Hydromys  is  a  native  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  various  small 
islands  in  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel.    (See  Fig.  471.) 


Fig.  471. — Hydromys. 


The  Economist  Mouse  {Arvic(fla  csconomus).—\x^  the  genus 

Arvicola  the  molars  are  ^—3,  composite  with  flat  crowns,  present- 
i-i 

ing  angular  enamelled  laminas.  (Fig.  472.)  The  ears  are  moderate, 
the  muzzle  obtuse,  the  tail  shorter  than  the  body,  and  hairy.  The 
Economist  Mouse  is  a  native  of  the  northern  sweep  of  Siberia  and 
Kamtschatka.  It  would  appear  that  the  same,  or  a  closely  allied 
species,  inhabits  Iceland.  It  is  a  burrowing  animal,  and  constructs, 
beneath  the  turf,  narrow  galleries  which  lead  to  a  chamber,  in  the 
form  of  an  oven,  communicating  with  another  used  as  a  magazine, 
in  which  it  stores  up  food  for  winter  consumption.  This  consists  of 
bulbous  roots,  and  various  grains  and  berries  ;  and  the  quantity  of 
provision  amassed  is  often  very  considerable.  These  animals  breed 
several  times  in  the  year,  producing  three  or  four  at  a  birth.  Like 
the  Lemming,  for  some  unknown  cause,  these  Mice,  at  irregular 
periods,  but  always  in  the  spring,  perform  extensive  migrations. 
Multitudes  assemble  together,  forming  an  army  myriads  strong.  In 
Kamtschatka  their  progress  is  westward  ;  neither  rivers,  nor  lakes, 
nor. even  arms  of  the  sea  stop  them:  thousands  are  drowned  or 
destroyed  by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey;  but  onwards  the  army 
marches,  pursuing  their  course  until  they  have  crossed  the  river 
Penshim,  when  they  bend  their  way  towards  Judoma  and  Ochot, 
which  they  usually  reach  about  July  :  they  return  to_  Kamtschatka 
in  October,  but  sadly  reduced  in  numbers  by  the  accidents  of  flood 


l82 


THE   WATER-RAT— THE  BEAVER  FAMILY. 


and  field.  According  to  Dr.  Henderson,  the  Economist  Mouse  of 
Iceland  displays  great  sagacity  in  conveying  home  and  stocking  its 
provisions;  and  he  corroborates  the  account  of  ]\IM.  Olafsen  and 
Povelson  respecting  their  mode  of  conveying  them  across  such 
streams  as  they  may  meet  with  in  their  foraging  expeditions.  "  The 
party,  which  consists  of  from  six  to  ten,  select  a  flat  piece  of  dried 
cow-dung,  on  which  they  place  the  berries  in  a  heap  in  the  middle ; 


Fig.  472. — Teeth  of  Economist  Mouse. 

then  by  their  united  force  they  bring  it  to  the  water's  edge,  and, 
after  launching  it,  embark  and  place  themselves  round  the  heap  with 
their  heads  joined  over  it,  and  their  backs  to  the  water,  their  tails 
pendent  in  the  stream  serving  the  purpose  of  rudders."  (Fig.  473.) 
The  truth  of  this  fact,  he  says,  was  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of 


Fig.  473. — Economist  Mice. 

two  credible  witnesses,  the  clergyman  of  Briamsloek,  and  Madame 
Benedictson,  of  Stickesholra.  He  further  states  that  they  make  a 
drainage  from  their  burrow,  leading  into  a  deep  hole,  intended  for 
the  reception  of  the  water. 

The  Water-Rat  [Arvtcola  amj>htbia).  Rat  d'eau.  Buff. — The 
Water-Rat  is  by  many  regarded  as  a  variety  of  that  destructive  ani- 
mal the  common  Rat,  which,  as  is  well  known,  often  takes  up  its 
quarters  in  drains  and  ditches,  and  the  banks  of  canals,  especi- 
ally near  houses,  farms,  stables,  &c.,  making  deep  burrows  in  which 
to  rear  its  young.  From  this  pest  the  Water-Rat  is  totally  distinct. 
It  frequents  the  borders  of  large  ponds,  reservoirs,  streams,  and 
rivers,  dwelling  in  burrows  of  considerable  extent  to  which  there  are 
generally  two  or  more  outleto.  The  main  outlet  is  in  most  instances 
close  to  the  water's  edge,  so  that  during  floods  it  is  not  unfrequently 
below  the  surface  ;  but  the  gallery,  sloping  upwards  as  it  proceeds  in 
the  bank,  terminates  in  a  chamber  which  the  water  does  not  reach. 
Here,  in  a  snug  bed  of  dried  grass  and  vegetable  fibres,  the  female 
rears  her  young.  Nocturnal  or  crepuscular  in  its  habits,  it  is  chiefly 
as  the  dusk  of  evening  steals  on  that  the  Water-Rat  emerges  from 
its  retreat,  but  it  seldom  ventures  far  from  the  margin  of  the  pond  or 
river,  into  which,  when  alarmed,  it  immediately  plunges,  and  swims 
under  the  cover  of  overhanging  roots  and  herbage  to  its  burrow. 


Though  not  web-footed,  it  is  at  home  in  the  water,  and  dives  with 
great  ease.  There  are  few  persons  who  have  not  noticed  its  way- 
marks  on  the  surface  of  stagnant  ponds,  or  ditches  mantled  over 
with  a  thick  crop  of  chickweed.  These  tracts  are  made  during  the 
night,  the  season  in  which  it  wanders  in  search  of  food  or  its  fellows. 
The  roots  of  aquatic  plants,  especially  the  Typlia,  the  stems  of  equi- 
sctum,  buds,  and  bark,  &c.,  constitute  the  diet  of  this  species  :  it 
has  been  affirmed  that  it  feeds  also  upon  insects,  small  fishes.  Frogs, 
&c.  ;  but  for  this  assertion  there  is  not  the  slightest  foundation.  It 
would  appear  that  the  Water-Rat  hibernates  during  some  portion  of 
the  winter,  and  also  lays  up  a  store  of  food.  Mr.  White  says,  "  As 
a  neighbour  was  lately  ploughing  in  a  dry  chalky  field,  far  removed 
from  any  water,  he  turned  out  a  Water-Rat  that  was  curiously  laid 
up  in  an  hibemaculum  artificially  formed  of  grass  and  leaves.  At 
one  end  of  the  burrow  lay  above  a  gallon  of  potatoes  regularly 
stowed,  on  which  it  was  to  have  supported  itself  for  the  winter."     It 


Fig.  475. — Molar  Teeth  of 
the  Beaver. 


Fig.  474.— Water-Rat. 

must  be  acknowledged  that  there  are  some  points  in  the  history  of 
this  species  to  be  cleared  up.  In  size  this  animal  equals  the  com- 
mon Brown  Rat,  but  the  head  is  thicker  and  more  obtuse,  the 
muzzle  being  blunt  and  short ;  the  ears  are  scarcely  apparent,  being 
buried  in  the  fur ;  the  eyes  are  small  and  black;  the  tail  is  little 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  body,  and  thinly  covered  with  short 
hairs.  The  fur  is  thick  and  close  ;  its  colour  on  the  upper  parts  is 
dark  reddish-brown,  mixed  with  grey  ;  on  the  under-surface  brown- 
ish-white :  a  black  variety  sometimes  occurs.  The  species  is  spread 
over  most  parts  of  Europe.     {See  Fig.  474.) 

The  Castorid^,  or  Beaver  Family. 

The   CastoridcB,  or  Beavers,  are  large,  stout-built  Rodents,  with 

five  toes  on  all  the  feet ;  and  those  of  the  hinder  pair  united  by  a 

swimming   membrane.     The   incisor  teeth   are    of  great   size   and 

strength  ;  and  the  molars,  of  which  there  are  four  on  each  side  in 

each  jaw,    exhibit    a    most    complicated 

arrangement   of   the   enamel   (Fig.    475), 

which  forms  three  folds  on   one   side   of 

the  tooth,  and  a  single  fold  on  the  other. 

The  tail  in  one  of  the  genera  included  in 

the  family,   is  broadly  depressed,   ovate, 

and  scaly  ;  in  the  other  it  is  rounded,  and 

clothed  with  hair. 

The  Beaver  (Castor  fiber)  is  not  ex- 
clusively confined  to  the  northern  portions  of  the  American  continent. 
Herman  (see  "Journey  round  the  Earth,"  &c.)  informs  us  that  it 
"  abounds  in  the  Obi,  and  is  taken,  not  for  the  sake  of  its  fur,  but  for 
its  musk,  which  bears  a  very  high  price."  It  is  common  along  the 
Euphrates,  and  a  skin  sent  home  by  Colonel  Chesney  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Zool.  Soc. ,  Lond.  The  Beaver  occurs  also  along  some 
of  the  large  rivers  of  Europe,  as  the  Rh6ne,  the  Danube,  the  Weser, 
and  the  Nuthe,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Elbe.  It  was  formerly 
an  inhabitant  of  our  own  island,  and  Giraldus  Cambrensis  gives  us  a 
short  account  of  their  manners  in  Wales  ;  but  in  his  time  (1188)  they 
were  only  found  in  the  river  Teify.  By  the  laws  of  Hoel-dda,  the 
price  of  a  Beaver's  skin  was  fixed  at  120  pence,  a  great  sum  in  those 
days.  Whether  the  European,  Asiatic,  and  American  Beavers  are 
specifically  identical  or  not,  yet  remains  to  be  determined.  Certain 
it  is  that  the  European  Beaver,  as  proved  by  the  little  colony  in  the 
Nuthe,  displays  the  same  manners  and  building  propensities  as  its 
Transatlantic  brethren  ;  and  ^er  C07it}-a,  the  various  scattered 
Beavers  near  the  settlements  in  America  were  solitary  animals, 
dwelling  in  burrows  like  the  scattered  few  along  the  Rhone  ;  though 
it  must  be  observed  that  one  from  the  latter  river  in  captivity  exhi- 
bited as  marked  a  constructive  disposition  as  any  American  Beaver 
under  the  same  restrictions.  The  mode  of  building,  as  conducted  by 
the  Beaver  of  America,  is  described  by  Hearne  with  great  clearness 
and  the  absence  of  the  ordinary  exaggeration.  The  situation  chosen 
is  various  :    where   the   Beavers  are  numerous,  they  tenant  lakes, 


BEA  VERS. 


183 


rivers,  and  creeks,  especially  the  two  latter,  for  the  sake  of  the 
current,  of  which  they  avail  themselves  in  the  transportation  of  the 
materials.  They  also  choose  such  parts  as  have  a  depth  of  water 
beyond  the  freezing-power  to  congeal  at  the  bottom.  In  small 
rivers  or  creeks  in  which  the  water  is  liable  to  be  drained  off  when 
the  back-supplies  are  dried  up  by  the  frost,  they  are  led  by  instinct 
to  make  a  dam  quite  across  the  river,  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
their  houses,  thus  artificially  procuring  a  deep  body  of  water  in  which 
to  build.  The  dam  varies  in  shape  :  where  the  current  is  gentle,  it 
is  carried  out  straight ;  but  where  rapid  it  is  bowed,  presenting  a  con- 
vexity to  the  current.  The  materials  used  are  drift-wood,  green 
willows,  birch,  and  poplars,  if  they  can  be  got,  and  also  mud  and 
stones  ;  these  are  intermi.xed  without  order,  the  only  aim  being  to 
carry  out  the  work  with  a  regular  sweep,  and  to  make  the  whole  of 
equal  strength.  (See  Fig.  476.)  Old  dams  by  frequent  repairing 
become  a  solid  bank,  capable  of  resisting  a  great  force  of  water  and 
ice  ;  and  as  the  willows,  poplars,  and  birches  take  root  and  shoot  up, 
they  form  by  degrees  a  sort  of  thick  hedge-row,  often  of  considera- 
ble height.  Of  the  same  materials  the  houses  themselves  are  built, 
and  in  size  proportionate  to  the  number  of  their  respective  inhabit- 
ants, which  seldom  exceeds  four 
old  and  six  or  eight  young  ones. 
The  houses,  however,  are  ruder 
in  structure  than  the  dam  ;  the 
only  aim  being  to  have  a  dry 
place  to  lie  upon,  and  perhaps 
feed  in.  When  the  houses  are 
large,  it  often  happens  that  they 
are  divided  by  partitions  into  two 
or  three  or  even  more  compart- 
ments, which  have,  in  general, 
no  communication,  except  by 
water  ;  such  may  be  called  double 
or  treble  houses,  rather  than 
houses  divided.  Each  compart- 
ment is  inhabited  by  its  own 
possessors,  who  know  their  own 
door,  and  have  no. connexion 
with  their  neighbours,  more  than 
a  friendly  intercourse,  and  join- 
ing with  them  in  the  necessary 
labour  of  building.  So  far  are 
the  Beavers  from  driving  stakes, 
as  some  have  said,  into  the 
ground  when  building,  that  they 
lay  most  of  the  wood  crosswise, 
and  nearly  horizontal,  without 
any  order  than  that  of  leaving  a 
cavity  in  the  middle  ;  and  when 
any  unnecessary  branches  pro- 
ject inward,  they  cut  them  off 
with  their  chisel-like  teeth,  and 
throw  them  in  among  the  rest 
to  prevent  the  mud  from  falling 
in.  With  this  wood  is  mixed 
mud  and  stones,  and  the  whole 
compacted  together.  The  bank 
affords  them  the  mud,  or  the 
bottom  of  the   creek,  and  they 

carry  it,  as  well  as  the  stones,  under  their  throat  by  the  aid  of 
their  fore-paws  ;  the  wood  they  drag  along  with  their  teeth.  They 
always  work  in  the  night,  and  have  been  known  during  the  course 
of  a  single  night  to  have  accumulated  as  much  mud  as  amounted 
to  some  thousands  of  their  little  handfuls.  Every  fall  they  cover 
the  outside  of  their  houses  w'ith  fresh  mud,  and  as  late  in-  the 
autumn  as  possible,  even  when  the  frost  has  set  in,  as  by  this 
means  it  soon  becomes  frozen  as  hard  as  stone,  and  prevents  their 
most  formidable  enemy,  the  Wolverene  or  Glutton,  from  disturbing 
them  during  the  winter.  In  laying  on  this  coat  of  mud  they  do  not 
use  their  broad  fiat  tails,  as  has  been  asserted — a  mistake  which  has 
arisen  from  their  habit  of  giving  a  flap  with  the  tail  when  plunging 
from  the  outside  of  the  house  into  the  water,  and  when  they  are 
startled,  as  well  as  at  other  times.  The  houses,  when  complete,  have 
a  dome-like  figure,  with  walls  several  feet  thick,  and  emerging  from 
four  to  six  feet  above  the  water.  The  only  entrance  is  deep  under 
water,  below  a  projection  called  the  "angle"  by  the  hunters,  and 
beyond  the  reacli  of  the  frost :  near  this,  also  under  water,  is  laid  up 
their  winter  store,  a  mass  of  branches  of  willows  and  other  trees,  on 
the  bark  of  which  they  feed.  These  they  stack  up,  sinking  each 
layer  by  means  of  mud  and  stones,  and  often  accumulate  more  than 
a  cartload  of  materials.  Besides  these  winter-houses,  in  which  they 
are  shut  up  during  the  severities  of  the  season,  they  have  always  a 
number  of  holes  in  the  banks  which  serve  them  as  places  of  retreat 
when  any  injury  is  offered  to  their  houses,  and  in  these  they  are 
generally  taken.  The  entrance  to  these  holes  is  deep  below  the 
water,  which  fills  a  great  part  of  the  vault  itself.  When  the  hunter 
forces  the  houses  of  the  Beaver  in  winter  (the  hunting  season),  the 


animals  swim  beneath  the  ice  to  these  retreats,  the  entrances  of 
which  are  discovered  by  striking  the  ice  along  the  banks  with  an 
iron  ice-chisel,  the  sound  indicating  to  practised  ears  the  exact  spot: 
they  cut  a  hole  in  the  house  and  surprise  their  booty.  During  the 
summer  the  Beavers  roam  about  at  pleasure,  and  it  is  during  this 
season  that  they  fell  the  wood  necessary  for  repairing  tlieir  houses 
and  dams,  or  for  building  others,  commencing  the  latter  about  the 
end  of  August.  Such  is  the  strength  and  sharpness  of  their  teeth 
that  they  will  lop  off  a  branch  as  thick  as  a  walking-stick  at  a  single 
effort,  and  as  cleanly  as  if  cut  with  a  pruning-knife.  Large  stems 
they  gnaw  all  round,  taking  care  that  their  fafl  shall  be  towards  or 
into  the  water.  They  rapidly  fell  a  tree,  the  shaft  of  which  is  as 
thick  or  thicker  than  a  man's  thigh,  or  from  six  to  ten  inches  in 
diameter ;  and  places  of  more  than  three  acres  in  front  of  the  river, 
and  one  in  depth,  have  been  seen  with  the  timber  all  felled  by  these 
animals,  though  many  of  the  trees  were  as  thick  as  a  man's  body. 
The  Beaver  docs  not  attain  its  full  growth  before  three  years,  but  it 
breeds  before  that  time.  It  produces  from  two  to  six  at  a  birth. 
The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  esteemed  by  the  Canadian  hunters,  and 
by  the   natives,  as   a  great  delicacy  ;  and  we   need   not  say  how 


Fig.  476. — Beavers  Building  their  Houses. 

valuable  its  fur  is  as  an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  from  certain 
glandular  sacs  in  the  Beaver  that  the  substance  called  castor,  or  cas- 
toreum,  used  in  medicine,  is  obtained,  and  which  (procured  from  the 
European  variety)  was  well  known  tO/the  ancients. 

In  captivity  the  Beaver  soon  becomes  familiar  and  sociable,  and, 
if  permitted,  will  even  in  a  room  exercise  itself  in  attempts  to  build, 
using  brushes,  baskets,  boots,  sticks,  and,  in  short,  anything  it  can 
get  hold  of  for  the  purpose. 

The  fine  fur  of  the  Beaver  varies  from  glossy  brown  to  black  ;  the 
tail,  or  caudal  paddle,  used  as  a  rudder  in  diving  or  in  ascending,  is 
flat,  scaled,  and  oar-like.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  of  a  full- 
grown  animal  is  about  forty  inches  ;  of  the  caudal  paddle,  one  foot. 
The  feet  are  all  five-toed ;  those  of  the  hind-feet  are  united  by  a 
broad  palmated  expansion  ;  the  nails  are  strong,  and  that  of  the 
second  toe  of  the  hind-feet  consists  of  two  portions.  _  On  land  the 
gait  of  the  Beaver  is  awkward  and  shuffling,  owing  in  part  to  the 
outward  tournure  of  the  hind-feet,  which  fits  them  for  aquatic  pro- 
gression, and  in  part  to  the  thick  and  clumsy  configuration  of  the 
body. 

The  MuSQtTASH  {Ondatra  zibeihica).— Fiber  zibefhicus,Sa.h\'ne; 
Musk-Rat,  Godman  ;  Ondathra  of  the  Hurons  ;  Musquash,  Watsuss, 
or  Wachusk,  and  also  Peesquaw-Tupeyew  ("  the  animal  that  sits  on 
the  ice  in  a  round  form  ")  of  the  Cree  Indians.  The  dentition  of 
this  animal  (Fig.  477)  presents  a  close  affinity  to  that  of  the  Water- 

3-3 
Rat  and  other  species  of  Arvicola  ;  namely  :— Molars,  -— ,• 

The  Musquash  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and  in  its  general 


184 


THE  MUSQUASH— THE  MOLE-RAT. 


form  it  resembles  the  common  Water-Rat,  size  excepted.     In  the 

length  of  the  head  and  body  it  measures  about  fourteen  inches,  that 
of  the  tail  being  eight  or  nine.  iThe  fur,  which  is  much  like  that  of 
the  Beaver,  is  dark  umber  brown,  passing  into  brownish-yellow  on 
the  under-parts  :  pied  and  even  white  varieties  are  sometimes  seen. 
The  hind-feet  are  not  webbed ;   the   tail    is  compressed   laterally. 


fig-  477.— Teeth  of  Musquash. 

broadest  in  the  middle,  and  covered  with  a  thin  sleek  coat  of  short 
hairs  ;  longer  hairs  run  along  the  acute  margins.     (See  Fig.  4/8.) 

The  range  of  this  animal  is  from  lat.  30°  as  high  north  as  69°. 
Small  grassy  lakes,  or  swamps,  or  the  grassy  borders  of  slow  streams, 
are  its  favourite  haunts.  Vegetable  matters  are  its  principal  food, 
as  roots,  tender  shoots,  the  leaves  of  various  carices,  &c. :  to  which 
it  adds  fresh-water  Mussels  [U?n'o).  The  Mus- 
quash swims  and  dives  well,  plunging  into  the 
water  on  the  least  alarm,  and  diving  instantane- 
ously on  perceiving  the  flash  of  a  gun.  This  ani- 
mal builds  winter  habitations,  but  far  less  solid 
and  durable  than  those  of  the  Beaver.  These 
habitations  are  thus  described  by  Dr.  Richard- 
son : — "In  the  autumn,  before  the  shallow  lakes 
and  swamps  freeze  over,  the  Musquash  builds  its 
house  of  mud,  giving  it  a  conical  form,  and  a 
sufficient  base  to  raise  the  chamber  above  the 
water.  The  chosen  spot  is  generally  amongst 
long  grass,  which  is  incorporated  with  the  walls 
of  the  house  from  the  mud  being  deposited 
amongst  it  ;  but  the  animal  does  not  appear  to 
make  any  kind  of  composition  or  mortar  by  tem- 
pering the  mud  and  grass  together.  There  is, 
however,  a  dry  bed  of  grass  deposited  in  the 
chamber.  The  entrance  is  under  water.  When 
ice  forms  over  the  surface  of  the  swamp,  the  Mus- 
quash makes  breathing-holes  through  it,  and  pro- 
tects them  from  the  frost  by  a  covering  of  mud. 
In  severe  winters,  however,  these  holes  freeze  up 
in  spite  of  their  coverings,  and  many  of  the  ani- 
mals die.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  the  small 
grassy  lakes  selected  by  the  Musquash  for  its 
residence  are  never  so  firmly  frozen  nor  covered 
with  such  thick  ice  as  deeper  and  clearer  water. 
The  Indians  kill  these  animals  by  spearing  them 
through  the  walls  of  their  houses,  making  their 
approach  with  great  caution,  for  the  Musquashes 
take  to  the  water  when  alarmed  by  a  sound  on  the 
ice.  An  experienced  hunter  is  so  well  acquainted  with  the  direction 
of  the  chamber  and  the  position  in  which  its  inmates  lie,  that  he  can 


transfix  four  or  five  at  a  time.  As  soon  as,  from  the  motion  of  the 
spear,  it  is  evident  that  the  animal  is  struck,  the  house  is  broken 
down,  and  it  is  taken  out.  The  principal  seasons  for  taking  the 
Musquash  are  the  autumn  before  the  snow  falls,  and  the  spring, 
after  it  has  disappeared,  but  while  the  ice  is  still  entire.  In  the 
winter-time,  the  depth  of  snow  prevents  the  houses  and  breathing- 
holes  from  being  seen.  One  of  the  first  operations  of  the  hunter  is 
to  stop  all  the  holes  with  the  exception  of  one,  at  which  he  stations 
himself  to  spear  the  animals  that  have  escaped  being  struck  in  their 
houses  and  come  hither  to  breathe.  In  the  summer  the  Musquash 
burrows  in  the  banks  of  the  lakes,  making  branched  canals  many 
yards  in  extent,  and  forming  its  nest  in  a  chamber  at  the  extremity, 
in  which  the  young  are  brought  forth.  When  its  house  is  attacked 
in  the  autumn,  it  retreats  to  these  passages,  but  in  the  spring  they 
are  frozen  up.  The  Musquash  may  be  frequently  seen  on  the  shores 
of  small  muddy  islands,  sitting  in  a  rounded  form,  and  not  easily  to 
be  distinguished  from  a  piece  of  earth,  until,  on  the  approach  of 
danger,  it  suddenly  plunges  into  the  water.  In  the  act  of  diving, 
when  surprised,  it  gives  a  smart  blow  to  the  water  with  its  tail.  Its 
flesh  is  eaten  by  the  natives,  though  it  has  a  strong  musky  flavour. 
The  fur  is  used  for  hat-making.  The  Musquash  breeds  three  times 
in  the  year,  producing  from  three  to  seven  at  a  birth. 

The  Mole-Rat  [Aspaiomys  typhlus,  Laxmann).  Sfalax 
typhlus,  Guldenst.  ;  Aspalax  typhhis,  Desm. ;  Zemni,  Rzaczinski ; 
Slepez,  Gmelin  ;  Podolian  Marmot,  Pennant. 

This  strange  animal  (which  forms  the  type  of  a  distinct  family,  the 
Georhychidce,  or  Mole-Rats)  is  expressly  organised  as  a  miner.  The 
body  is  Mole-shaped,  and  covered  with  close  fur;  the  limbs  are  short 
and  thick,  with  strong  short  claws.  The  head  is  broad  and  flat, 
with  a  lateral  margin  or  ridge  running  from  the  great  naked  nose  to 
the  ears,  and  indicated  by  a  line  of  white  stiff  hairs.  Breadth  of 
head  across,  2\  inches  ;  length  the  same.  Total  length,  11  inches. 
Tail  wanting.  Teeth  white  :  general  colour,  pale  sandy  ash-grey ; 
the  hairs  pale  lead  colour  at  the  base.    The  specimen  from  which 


fig.  47S. — Musc^uash. 


Fig.  479.— Mole-Rat. 

these  notes  were  made  (in  the  Paris  Museum),  was  brought  from 
Russia  ("  le  pays  des  Cosaques  du  Donn") :  a  second  specimen, 
from  Syria,  was  smaller  ;  8i  inches  long,  with  bright-orange  teeth, 
and  the  lateral  ridg'e  of  the  head  not  fringed  with  white  hairs ;  its 
colour  also  was  darker. 

The  Mole-Rat  is  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and 
Southern  Russia  between  the  Tanais  and  Volga.  The  Russians 
term  it  Slepez,  or  the  blind  ;  and  the  Cossacks,  Sfochor  Nomon, 
which  has  the  same  meaning.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the 
(iujraXa?  (Aspalax)  of  Aristotle  ;  but  as  a  species  of  Mole  inhabiting 
Europe  [Talpa  caca)  has  the  eyes  also  rudimentary,  this  point  is 
doubtful.  In  the  Mole-Rat  the  eye  is  a  minute  black  grain  lying  be- 
neath the  skin,  which  passes  over  it,  and  is  besides  covered  with  the 
fur  :  it  is  evident  that  the  sense  of  vision  is  denied  to  this  creature; 
but,  by  way  of  amends,  its  internal  organs  of  hearing  are  largely 
developed,  and  the  external  orifice  is  wide,  though  the  conch  of  the 
ear  is  almost  obsolete.  The  mouth  is  small ;  the  tip  of  the  nose  is 
largely  bare  and  cartilaginous,  with  the  nostrils  wide  apart  and 
placed  below.  The  Mole-Rat  has  much  of  the  manners  of  our  com- 
mon Mole  :  it  is  gregarious,  and  its  burrows  are  clustered  together. 
Rich  level  plains  are  its  favourite  localities.     Its  burrows  consist  of 


THE  SAND-RAT  AND  POUCHED-RAT. 


185 


galleries  at  a  little  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which 
communicate  with  chambers  sunk  to  a  greater  depth.  From  its 
galleries  it  drives  lateral  passages  in  search  of  roots,  particularly  of 
the  bulbous  Clucrophyiluiii ,  on  which  it  feeds.  According  to  Rzac- 
zinski,  it  also  devours  grain,  of  which  it  amasses  a  store  in  its 
burrow  for  winter  consumption.  Its  actions  are  sudden  and  quick, 
but  irregular;  and  it  moves  along  with  equal  ease  both  forwards  and 
backwards.  It  burrows  very  expeditiously.  In  the  morning  it  often 
quits  its  retreat  and  basks  with  its  mate  in  the  sun.  At  the  least 
noise  it  raises  its  head  to  listen,  and  in  a  menacing  attitude  ;  when 
attacked,  it  snorts  and  gnashes  its  teeth,  and  defends  itself  reso- 
lutely, inflicting  severe  wounds.  There  is  a  superstition  among  the 
people  of  the  Ukraine,  that  the  hand  which  has  suffocated  one  of 
these  animals  is  gifted  with  the  virtue  of  curing  scrofulous  affections. 
(See  Fig.  479.) 

The  CAN.-iDA  Sand-Rat  {Geotfiys  bursarius).  Mtis  biirsarius, 
Shaw. — Fischer  regards,  and  perhaps  correctly,  the  genera  Sacco- 
^hortis,  Pseudostoina,  Diplosfoma,  and  Saccojnys,  as  synonymous 
with  the  genus  Gcomys  of  Rafinesque  (family  Psamnioryctidcs),  and 


■  Fig.  4S0.— Canada  Sand-Rat. 

which  is  represented  by  the  Sand-Rat,  distinguished  by  large  cheek- 
pouches,  which,  when  full,  have  an  oblong  form,  and  nearly  touch  the 
ground ;  but  when  empty,  are  retracted  for  three-fourths  of  their 
length.  (See  Fig.  480.)  Their  interior  is  very  glandular,  particu- 
larly the  orifice  that  opens  into  the  mouth.     The  incisors  are  illi 

4-4 


^  JK  l\ 


Fig.  4S1.  —Skull  and  Teelh  of  Canada  Sand- Rat, 


Fig.  481  represents  the  skull  and  teeth  of  Gcomys,  as  given  by  Dr. 

Richardson  :  i,  2,  3,  skull,  natural  size,  in  different  views:  4,  lower 
jaw;  5,  palate  and  upper  teeth  ;  6,  upper  grinder  magnified.  Fig. 
4S2  represents  the  teeth  of  Geomys  (Saccomys,  V.  Cuv.)  enlarged. 

The  skull  is  large  and  depressed  ;  the  nose  short ;  the  nasal  and 
frontal  bones  are  in  the  same  plane ;  the  palate  is  very  narro\»    and 


Fig.  4S2.— Teclh  of  Canada  Sand-Rat. 

the  zygomatic  arch  is  but  little  depressed  below  the  upper  surface  of 
the  skull. 

The  nostrils  are  somewhat  lateral ;  the  mouth  is  contracted  ;  the 
pendulous  cheek-pouches  are  thinly  clothed  with  short  hairs,  and 
sometimes  almost  naked — they  open  into  the  mouth  by  the  side  of 
the  molar  teeth  ;  auditory  openings  large,  external  ear  almost  obso- 
lete ;  eyes  small  and  far  apart ;  body  cylindrical ;  tail  of  moderate 
length,  round,  tapering,  and  more  or  less  hairy.  Limbs  short ;  toes 
five  on  each  foot,  with  strong  claws. 

Dr.  Richardson  observes  that  the  Sand-Rats  burrow  in  sandy  soils, 
and  feed  on  acorns,  nuts,  roots,  and  grass,  which  they  convey  to 
their  burrows  in  their  cheek-pouches  ;  they  throw  up  little  mounds  of 
earth,  like  Mole-hills,  in  summer,  but  are  not  seen  abroad  in  the 
winter  season.  Speaking  of  the  Columbia  Sand-Rat,  he  observes,  that 
when  in  the  act  of  emptying  its  pouches  it  sits  up  like  a  Marmot  or 
Squirrel,  and  squeezes  the  sacs  against  its  breast  with  its  fore-paws 
and  chin.  These  animals  commit  great  havoc  on  the  potato-fields. 
This  animal  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  Rat,  and  of  a  pale 
greyish-brown.  A  specimen  of  the  Mole-like  Sand- Rat  ((?.  falpoidcs) 
is  preserved  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 
It  was  a  native  of  the  borders  of  the  Saskatchewan. 

The  Camas  Pouched-Rat  [Dip/ostofna  bidbivoriini).—T\\c 
animals  of  this  genus  differ  from  those  of  the  genus   Geo7nys,  in 


/ 


Fig.  4S3.— Camas  Pouched-Rat. 

having  cheek-pouches  which  open  e.xtemally  at  the  sides  of  the 
mouth,  and  are  carried  inwards  and  downwards  along  the  side  of 
the  lower  jaw ;  these  pouches  are  not  pendulous  ;  the  mouth  is  a 
vertical  fissure  nearly  an  inch  long,  entirely  exposing  the  incisors ; 
and  the  lateral  fold  of  skin  before  the  opening  of  the  pouch  is 
covered  internally  and  externally  with  fur.  The  iDody  resembles  that 
of  a  great  Mole  with  a  large  clumsy  head. 

2B 


1 86 


THE  COAST-RAT,   RABBIT  CERCOMYS,  AND   OCTODON. 


The  animals  of  this  genus  were  termed  "  Gauffres,"  by  the  early 
French  travellers  :  there  appear  to  be  several  species. 

The  Camas  Pouched-Rat  is  common  in  N.  America,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Columbia  river,  and  the  Multnomah,  where  it  is  known  under 
the  name  of  Camas-Rat,  because  the  bulbous  root  of  the  Quamash  or 
Camas-plant  {Sci'lla  csciilenta)  forms  its  favourite  food.  It  is  eleven 
inches  long-,  and  of  a  chestnut-brown  colour.  These  animals,  the 
Gauffres  of  the  French,  are  excessively  voracious,  and  they  are  very 
destructive  to  beets,  carrots,  and  similar  vegetables.  They  live 
almost  exclusively  under-ground,  working  their  way  like  a  Mole,  and 
are  said  to  fill  their  cheek-pouches  with  the  earth  by  means  of  their 
paws,  and  to  empty  them  of  their  contents  at  the  mouth  of  the 
burrow. 

The  Coast- Rat  {Bafhiergus  maritimus).—'\.\\Q  dental  form  of 


Bathiergus  {Orycterus,  F.  Cuv.)  is  as  follows  : — Molars, 


4-4 
4-4 


(see 


Fig.  484.).     In  this  genus  are  comprehended  several  species  of  Mole- 
like Rodents  peculiar  to  Africa,  the  whole  form  and  organisation  of 


Fig.  4S4. — Teeth  of  Coast-Rat. 

which  fit  them  for  an  under-ground  existence.  The  most  remarkable 
is  the  Coast-Rat,  or  Sand-Mole  of  the  Downs.  This  species  is  a 
native  of  Southern  Africa,  frequenting  sandy  tracts  along  the  coast. 
On  the  surface  of  the  ground  it  proceeds  slowly,  but  it  burrows  with 
great  rapidity,  and  works  out  long  galleries,  throwing  up  hillocks  as 
does  the  Mole.  In  some  districts  these  are  extremely  numerous, 
rendering  it  dangerous  to  pass  over  them  on  horseback,  and  not 
pleasant  even  on  foot,  the  earth,  where  excavated,  suddenly  giving 
way.  This  animal  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  is  about  three  inches.  The  incisors  are  of  enormous  size,  and 
those  above  have  a  deep  longitudinal  furrow  down  the  front ;  and  a 
hairy  palate  e.xtends  behind  them.  The  general  colour  is  greyish- 
ash.     (See  Fig.  485.) 


Fig.  485.— Coast-Rat. 


The  Rabbit  Cercomys. — This  animal,  which  in  shape  resembles 
a  Rat,   represents   the  genus   Cercomys,  closely  allied  to  that  of 

The  molars  are  - — 3;  rooted. 
4-4 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  deep  brown  above,  paler  on  the 
sides  and  cheeks  ;  all  the  under-parts  are  whitish  ;  the  tail  is  lon^^, 


Echymys,  containing  the  Spiny  Rats. 


like  that  of  the  Rat ;  ears  and  eyes  large.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil. 
The  teeth  of  the  genus  Echymys  (a  South  American  group)  are 
shown  in  Fig.  487. 

Cuming's  Octodon  (Octodon  Cumingii).    Dendrobius  Degiis, 
Meyen. — The  family  Octodontida  was  established  for  a  few  allied 


Fig.  4S6. — Rabbit  Cercomys. 


I 

1 


Fig.  4S7. — Teeth  of  Echymys. 

genera  peculiar  to  South  America,  of  which  that  termed  Octodon  is 

the  type.    Molars,  4 — 4_     jjig  antorbital  foramen  is  as  large  as  the 
4-4 

orbit,  or  nearly  so.  The  descending  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw  is  deeply 
emarginated  behind,  and  the  posterior  angle  acute.  Fig.  488  repre- 
sents the  skull  of  the  Octodon  in  different  views. 


I 


I 


Fig.  488. — Skull  of  Cuming's  Octodon. 

Cuming's  Octodon,  in  size  and  shape,  resembles  a  Water- Rat. 
General  colour,  brownish-grey,  clouded  with  dusky  black ;  under- 
surface,  dusky  grey ;  base  of  the  tail  beneath,  nearly  white.  (See  Fig. 
489.) 

These  animals  are  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  central  parts  of 
Chile.  They  frequent  by  hundreds  the  hedge-rows  and  thickets, 
where  they  make  burrows  which  communicate  with  one  another.  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  Valparaiso  multitudes  may  be  seen  together 
feeding  fearlessly  in  the  day-time.  Sometimes  they  ascend  the 
lower  branches  of  small  shrubs,  but  not  often.    They  are  very  de- 


THE  TUCUTUCO  AND  THE   UTIA. 


187 


structive  to  fields  of  young  corn.  On  being  disturbed,  they  all  run 
like  Rabbits  to  their  burrows.  Wlien  running  they  carry  their  tails 
raised  up,  more  like  Squirrels  than  Rats  ;  and  tliey  also  sit  up  like 
those  animals.  According  to  Molina,  they  lay  up  a  winter  store  of 
food,  but  do  not  become  dormant.  The  Octodon  is  the  Degu  of  that 
writer :  he  says  that  the  Indians  used  formerly  to  eat  them  with  much 


Fig.  4S9. — Cuming's  Octodon. 

relisli.  Piebald  and  albino  varieties  are  not  uncommon.  The 
greatest  enemy  of  these  active  little  creatures  is  a  species  of  Horned- 
Owl,  which  feeds  chiefly  upon  them. 

The  Tucutuco  {Cicnoiiiys  MagcIIaniciis). — General  colour 
brownish-grey,  tinged  with  yellow,  and  slightly  varied  by  a  blackish 
tint ;  under-parts  paler  ;  chin  and  throat  pale  fawn.  Length  of  head 
and  body  about  seven  inches;  of  the  tail,  about  two  inches  and  a 
quarter.  Toes,  as  in  the  Octodon,  five  on  each  foot.  Fig.  490  repre- 
sents the  skull  of  this  animal. 


Fig.  490.— Skull  of  Tucutuco. 

Locality.— The  east  entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Magelhacns  at  Cape 
Gregory,  and  the  vicinity  (King;.  The  wide  plains  north  of  the 
Rio  Colorado  are  undermined  by  these  animals  ;  and  near  the  Strait 
of  Magelhaens,  where  Patagonia  blends  with  Tierra  del  Fuec^o,  the 
whole  sandy  country  forms  a  great  warren  for  them.  (See  'Fit^ 
491.) 

Mr.  Darwin  ("  Journal  and  Remarks")  gives  a  circumstantial  ac- 
count of  this  curious  animal,  which  he  well  describes  as  a  Rodent 
with  the  habits  of  a  Mole.  The  Tucutuco,  says  that  author  "  is  ex- 
tremely abundant  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  but  is  difficult  to  be 
procured,  and  still  more  difficult  to  be  seen  when  at  liberty.  It  lives 
almost  entirely  under-ground,  and  prefers  a  sandy  soil  with  a  gentle 
inchnation  The  burrows  are  said  not  to  be  deep,  but  of  great 
length._  They  are  seldom  open  ;  the  earth  being  thrown  up  at  the 
mouth  into  hillocks,  not  quite  so  large  as  those  made  by  the  Mole 
Considerable  tracts  of  country  are  so  completely  undermined  by  these 
animals,  that  Horses,  m  passing  over,   sink  above  their  fetlocks. 


.Lhe  Tucutucos  appear,  to  a  certain  degree,  to  be  gregarious.  The 
man  who  procured  specimens  for  me  had  caught  si.>c  together,  and 
he  said  this  was  a  common  occurrence.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits ;  and  their  principal  food  is  afforded  by  the  roots  of  plants, 
which  IS  the  object  of  their  extensive  and  supcrlicial  burrows.  Azara 
says  they  are  so  difficult  to  be  obtained,  that  he  never  saw  more  than 
one.  He  states  that  they  lay  up  magazines  of  food  within  their 
burrows.     This  animal  is  universally  known  by  a  very  peculiar  noise 


Fig.  491. — Tucutuco. 

which  it  makes  when  beneath  the  ground.  A  person,  the  first  time 
he  hears  it,  is  much  surprised:  for  it  is  not  easy  to  tell  whence  it 
comes,  nor  is  it  possible  to  guess  what  kind  of  creature  utters  it. 
The  noise  consists  in  a  short  but  not  rough  nasal  grunt,  which  is 
repeated  about  four  times  in  quick  succession  ;  the  first  grunt  is  not 
so  loud,  but  a  little  longer  and  more  distinct  than  the  three  follow- 
ing :  the  musical  time  of  the  whole  is  constant,  as  often  as  it  is 
uttered.  The  name  Tucutuco  is  given  in  imitation  of  the  sound.  In 
all  times  of  the  day,  where  this  animal  is  abundant,  the  noise  may  be 
heard,  and  sometimes  directly  beneath  one's  feet.  When  kept  in  a 
room,  the  Tucutucos  move  both  slowly  and  clumsily,  which  appears 
owing  to  the  outward  action  of  their  hind-legs ;  and  they  are  like- 
wise quite  incapable  of  jumping  even  the  smallest  vertical  height. 
When  eating  they  rest  on  their  hind-legs,  and  hold  the  piece  in  their 
fore-paws  ;  they  appear  also  to  wish  to  drag  it  into  some  corner. 
They  are  very  stupid  in  making  any  attempt  to  escape;  when  angry 
or  frightened,  they  utter  the  Tucutuco.  Of  those  I  kept  alive, 
several,  even  the  first  day,  became  quite  tame,  not  attempting  to  bite 
or  to  run  away ;  others  were  a  little  wilder.  The  man  who  caught 
them  asserted  that  many  are  found  blind.  A  specimen  which  I  pre- 
served in  spirits  was  in  this  state.  When  the  animal  was  alive,  I 
placed  my  finger  within  half  an  inch  of  its  head,  and  not  the  slightest 
notice  was  taken  :  it  made  its  way,  however,  about  the  room  nearly  as 
well  as  the  others." 

The  Utia  {Caproniys  Ftirnicri).  Isodon  Pilorides,  Say. — Mr. 
Waterhouse  considers  the  genus  Caproniys  as  one  of  those  included 
in  the  Histricine  section  of  Rodents.  The  anterior  paws  have  four 
toes  and  a  rudimentary  thumb  ;  the  hind-feet  are  thick,  broad,  and 
strong,  and  five-toed  ;  the  claws  are  strong ;  the  soles  of  all  the  feet 
are  naked,  and  covered  with  a  coarse  granular  black  skin,  divided 
into  pads  by  deep  fissures.     The  muzzle  is  obtuse ;  the  nostrils  are 


Fig.  492. — Muzzle  and  Paws  of  Utia. 

open,  oblique,  edged  cxteraally  with  an  elevated  rim,  and  separated 
by  a  medial  furrow,  running  to  the  fissure  of  the  upper  lip.  The 
whiskers  are  long;  the  tail  is  annulated  with  a  scaly  epidermis,  with 
short  thinly-set  hairs  from  between  each  scale.    (Sec   Fig.  492 :  a. 


THE   UTIA   AND  THE  COYPU. 


muzzle  ;  b,  portion  of  tail ;  c,  under-part  of  fore-foot ;  d,  under-part 
of  hind-foot.)   The  ears  are  moderate,  erect,  almost  rounded.    Molars, 

^— :5,  with  the  crown  traversed  by  folds  of  enamel.     Eyes  small. 
4-4 

This  animal  is  a  native  of  Cuba,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Utia.  It  appears  to  have  been  described  by  Bomare  and  Oviedo 
300  years  ago.     The  general  colour  of  the   Utia  is  glossy  brown, 


F^g-  493-— Utia. 

grizzled  with  yellowish-grey;  the  muzzle,  chest,  and  under-parts 
greyish-white  ;  the  fur  of  a  coarse  texture ;  length  about  2  feet  2 
inches,  of  which  the  tail  is  eight  inches.     (See  Fig.  493.) 

With  respect  to  the  habits  "of  the  Utias  in  a  wild  state,  it  is  only 
known  that  they  are  found  in  the  woods,  that  they  climb  trees  with 
great  facility,  and  that  they  live  on  vegetables.  From  observations 
on  those  kept  in  a  domesticated  state,  M.  Desmarest  gives  the 
following  details  : — Their  intelligence  appears  to  be  developed  to  as 
great  a  degree  as  that  of  Rats  and  Squirrels,  much  more  so  than 
that  of  Rabbits  and  Guinea-pigs.  They  have,  indeed,  a  great  share 
of  curiosity.  At  night  they  are  very  wakeful,  and  the  form  of  the 
pupils  is  indicative  of  nocturnal  habits.  The  sense  of  hearing  does 
not  appear  to  be  so  acute  as  that  of  Rabbits  or  Hares.  Their  nostrils 
are  incessantly  in  motion,  especially  when  they  smell  any  new  object. 
Their  taste  is  sufficiently  delicate  to  enable  them  to  distinguish  and 
reject  vegetables  which  have  been  touched  by  animal  substances,  to 
which  they  manifest  the  greatest  repugnance.  They  agree  perfectly 
well  together,  and  sleep  close  by  each  other.  When  they  are  apart 
they  call  each  other  by  a  sharp  cry,  differing  little  from  that  of  a 
Rat.  _  Their  voice,  when  they  express  pleasure,  is  a  low  soft  kind  of 
grunting.  They  scarcely  ever  quarrel  except  for  food— as  when  one 
piece  of  fruit  is  given  between  both  ;  in  that  case  one  seizes  and 
runs  away  with  it,  until  the  other  is  able  to  take  it  from  him.  They 
sometimes  play  for  a  long  time  together,  holding  themselves  upright 
in  the  manner  of  Kangaroos,  firmly  supported  upon  the  broad  soles 
of  their  hind-feet  and  the  base  of  the  tail,  and  striking  each  other 
with  their  paws,  until  one  of  them,  finding  a  wall  or  some  other  body 
against  which  to  support  himself,  acquires  an  additional  power,  and 
gains  an  advantage ;  but  they  never  bite  each  other.  Towards 
other  animals  they  manifest  the  greatest  indifference,  paying  no 
attention  even  to  Cats.  They  are  fond  of  being  caressed,  and  par- 
ticularly of  being  scratched  under  the  chin.  They  do  not  bite,  but 
slightly  press  with  the  incisor  teeth  the  skin  of  those  who  caress 
them.  _  They  do  not  ordinarily  drink,  but  occasionally  suck  up  water 
as  Squirrels  do.  Their  food  consists  of  vegetables  exclusively,  such 
as  cabbage,  succory,  grapes,  nuts,  bread,  apples,  &c.  They  are  not 
very  dainty  in  the  choice  of  their  food,  but  still  have  a  particular 
fondness  for  strong-flavoured  herbs  and  aromatic  plants,  as  worm- 
wood, rosemary,  geraniums,  pimpernel,  celery,  &c.  Grapes  pleased 
them  much,  to  obtain  which  they  would  instantly  climb  up  a  long 
pole,  at  the  top  of  which  the  fruit  was  placed.  They  are  also  fond 
of  bread  steeped  in  aniseed,  or  even  wine.  These  animals  are  plan- 
tigrade :  their  movements  are  slow,  and  their  hinder  parts  are  em- 
barrassed when  they  walk,  as  is  obser\'able  in  the  Bear.  They  leap 
occasionally,  turning  suddenly  round  from  head  to  tail  like  the  Field- 
Mouse.  When  they  climb,  which  they  do  with  the  greatest  ease, 
they  assist  themselves  with  the  base  of  their  tail  as  a  support,  and 
the  same  in  descending.  In  certain  positions,  on  a  stick  for  ex- 
ample, the  tail  serves  as  a  balance  to  preserve  their  equilibrium. 
They  often  raise  themselves  to  a  listening  attitude,  sitting  erect,  with 
the  paws  hanging  down,  like  Rabbits  and  Hares.  In  eating  they 
employ  sometimes  only  one,  sometimes  both  their  fore-paws ;  the 
former  is  the  case  when  the  substance  they  are  holding  is  small 


enough  to  be  held  between  the  fingers  and  the  tubercle  at  the  base 
of  the  thumb. 

The  Coypu  {Myo^otamus  Coypu).  Quoiya,  d'Azara ;  Coui,  Mo- 
lina ;  Hydromys  Cnypiis,  Geoff. ;  Ahts  Castorides,  Burrow. — This 
animal  is  placed  by  some  naturalists  among  the  Casioridcr,  or 
Beavers,  but  differs  from  them  in  its  round  hairy  tail.  It  is  a  much 
smaller  animal  than  the  true  Beaver. 

The  Coypu  is  common  in  certain  districts  of  South  America,  as 
Chile,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Tucuman.  The  head  is  large  ;  the  muzzle 
obtuse :  the  ears  small  and  round ;  fore-feet  with  a  rudimentary 
thumb  and  four  toes,  all  free  :  hind-feet  plantigrade,  with  five  toes, 
of  which  the  outermost  only  is  free,  the  rest  palmated.     Tail  strong 

and  scaly,  and  sprinkled  with  scattered  hairs.      Molars  2 — 4,  in- 

4-4 

creasing  in  size  from  the  first  to  the  last,  with  winding  folds  of 
enamel  (see  Fig.  494.)     The  eyes  are  small,  approximating  to  each 


•"SX 


Fig.  494. — Teeth  of  Coypu. 

other,  and  placed  high  in  the  head.  Behind  the  upper  incisors  there 
is  a  hairy  palate  or  space,  a  peculiarity  noticed  also  in  Bathiergus. 
The  body  is  clothed  with  two  sorts  of  hair,  an  under-garment  of  fine 
close  fur  almost  water-proof,  and  an  upper  layer  of  long,  shining, 
straight  hairs  of  a  rich  brown,  which  is  the  general  colour,  the  muzzle 
being  dirty  white.  The  limbs  are  short  but  strong  ;  and  the  move- 
ments of  the  animal  on  land  are  slow  and  crawling.     (See  Fig.  495.) 


Fig.  495.— Coypu. 

The  Coypu  remained  unknown  to  the  scientific  world,  while 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  its  skins,  under  the  name  of  Racoonda, 
had  been,  for  more  than  forty  years,  annually  imported  into  Europe, 
for  the  sake  of  the  fine  under-fur,  which,  like  that  of  the  Musquash 
and  Beaver,  was  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats. 

This  animal  is  gregarious  and  aquatic,  residing  in  burrows  which 
it  excavates  along  the  banks  of  rivers :  and  in  these  burrows  the 
female  produces  and  rears  her  young,  from  three  or  four  to  seven  in 
number,  to  which  she  manifests  great  attachment.  In  the  Chonos 
Archipelago,  according  to  INIr.  Darwin,  these  animals,   instead  of 


THE  PORCUPINE  FAMILY. 


189 


inhabitin.s:  fresh  water,  live  exclusively  in  the  bays  or  channels  which 
extend  between  the  innumerable  small  islets  of  that  ffroup.  The  in- 
habitants of  Chiloe,  who  sometimes  visit  this  Archipelago  for  the 
purpose  of  fishing,  state  that  these  animals  do  not  live  solely  on 
vegetable  matter,  as  is  the  case  with  those  inhabiting-  rivers,  but  that 
they  sometimes  eat  shell-fish.  The  Coypu  is  said  to  be  a  bold  animal, 
and  to  fight  fiercely  with  the  Dogs  employed  in  chasing  it.  Its  flesh 
when  cooked  is  white  and  good  to  eat.  An  old  female,  procured  on 
these  islands,  weighed  between  ten  and  eleven  pounds.  An  extensive 
trade  in  the  skins  of  these  animals  is  carried  on  at  Buenos  Ayres, 
where  they  are  improperly  called  "  Nutrias,"  or  Otters.  In  captivity 
the  Coypu  soon  becomes  gentle  and  attached ;  and  is  evidently 
pleased  with  marks  of  attention  from  those  with  whom  it  is  familiar. 
Length  of  adult  male,  I  foot  II  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail  which  is 
1  foot  3  inches. 

The  HYSTRiciDi-E,  OR  Porcupines. 

The  Porcupine  family,  or  Hystricidce,  are  distinguished  from 
other  Rodoitia  by  the  spiny  excrescences  on  their  bodies,  which, 
however,  in  some  of  the  American  species  are  almost  concealed  by 
the  fur.  They  are  divided  into  the  genera  Hystrix,  Erethizoti, 
Syncthercs,  (Sic,  and  are  respectively  distributed  over  Europe  and 
North  Asia,  Africa,  India  and  its  islands,  and  North  and  South 
America.  All  the  Porcupines  have  the  molars  four  in  each  jaw  on 
each  side  ;  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  furnished  with  distinct  roots ; 
when  worn,  the  surfaces  present  tortuous  folds  of  enamel.  (See  Fig. 
496,  the  teeth  of  Hystri.x,  and  Fig.  497,  the  teeth  of  Ercthizon.) 


Fig.  496. — Teeth  of  H3'strix. 


The  tongue  is  rough  with  papilla;,  like  those  of  the  Cats  ;  the  head 
is  short  and  blunt  ;  the  nostrils  large  and  open  ;  the  cars  and  eyes 
comparatively  small ;  and  tlic  general  form  thick  and  clumsy. 

Two  figures  (Figs.  498  and  499)  represent  the  skull  of  a  species 
termed,  by  F.  Cuvicr,  Acanthion  jaratiiciim,  and  that  of  the 
common  Porcupine,  by  way  of  comparison.     With  respect  to  the 


Fig.  49S. — Skull  of  Acanthion  Javanicum. 


Fig.  497. — Teeth  of  Ercthizon. 


Fig.  499. — Skull  of  Common  Porcupine. 

genus  Aca7ithio7i,  founded  by  F.  Cuvier  on  the  characters  of  two 
skulls,  one  of  which  was  brought  from  Java,  we  are  strongly  inclined 
to  consider  it  identical  with  the  genus  Atkerura  of  Baron  Cuvier; 
though  the  latter,  in  his  "  Regne  Animal,"  makes  no  allusion  to  the 
genus  proposed  by  his  brother.  Fischer  gives  the  Acajithioii 
java7iiciiin  of  F.  Cuvier  as  identical  with  the  fasciculated  Porcupine 
{Atheriira  fasciculata),z.'!\6^  is  probably  correct.  The  fasciculated 
Porcupine  has  been  long  known  to  science,  and  is  figured  by  Buffon 
as  the  "  Pore-epic  de  Malacca  ;  "  but  it  was  not  till  some  time  after 
his  death  that  a  specimen  reached  Europe. 

The  name  of  Porcupine,  given  to  these  animals,  is  derived  from 
the  French  name,  and  signifies  "Spiny  Pig" — a  denomination 
which  is  justified  not  only  by  the  heavy  Pig-like  appearance  of  the 
animals,  but  also  by  their  peculiar  grunting  voice.  They  are  found 
in  both  hemispheres  ;  but  those  of  the  Old  World  differ  greatly  in 
their  habits  from  those  of  the  American  continent. 

The  Common  Porcupine  {Histrix  crisfafa).  Pore-epic  of 
the  French :  Istrice  of  the  Italians;  Stachelschwein,  Dornschwein, 
and  Porcopick  of  the  Germans. — This  spine-covered  animal  is 
found  in  Italy,  throughout  Africa,  in  Southern  Tartary,  the  borders 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Persia,  and  India;  it  was  observed  by  Mr. 
Hodgson  inhabiting  the  central  and  lower  regions  of  Nepdl.  \\'hen 
full-grown  it  is  upwards  of  two  feet  in  length  ;  but  the  specimens 
from  Italy  are  generally  smaller  than  the  African,  and  have  shorter 
quills.  It  would  appear  that  in  Italy  it  is  not  indigenous,  but  has 
become  naturalised.     (See  Fig.  500.) 

The  Porcupine  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  of  quiet  and  secluded 
habits,  passing  the  day  in  its  subterranean  retreat,  for  the  digging 
of  which  its  muscular  limbs  and  stout  claws  are  well  adapted.  At 
night  it  steals  forth  to  feed ;  roots,  bark,  fruits,  and  vegetables  con- 
stitute its  diet.  In  winter  it  appears  to  undergo  a  pirtial  hiberna- 
tion. Sluggish  and  timid,  the  Porcupine  is  yet  enabled,  clothed  in 
its  array  of  spears,  to  repel  the  assault  of  enemies  :  when  driven  to 
act  on  the  defensive,  he  bends  his  head  down,  turns  his  back 
towards  his  assailant,  erects  his  spines,  and  receiving  the  r.ash 
assault,  pushes  them  forcibly  by  the  action  of  the  whole  body  against 
the  aggressor.  The  wounds  thus  inflicted  are  very  severe,  and  do 
not  heal  readily.  The  spines  of  the  Porcupine  are  of  two  sorts  :  one 
sort  being  long,  slender,  and  bending ;  the  other  spines,  concealed 
beneath  the  former,  are  short,  thick  in  the  middle,  and  tapering  to  a 
sharp  point ;  they  are  ringed  black  and  white.  The  length  of  the 
short  spines,  which  are  the  true  eftective  weapons,  is  from  four  to 
ten  inches,  and  the  point,  which  consists  of  flint-like  enamel,  is 
somewhat  compressed  with  two  slightly  raised  and  opposite  ridges, 
which,  when  minutely  examined,  are  found  to  be  finely  jagged.^ 
There  is  another  sort  of  furniture  on  the  tail— namely,  a  number  of 
6xy,  hollow,  open  quills,  of  considerable  circumference,  and  sup- 
ported upon  long  and  very  slender  stalks,  which  vibrate  with  every 
motion.     When  the  Porcupine  clashes  these  together  they  produce  a 


190 


THE  PORCUPINES. 


rustling  noise.  The  apparatus  by  which  the  spines  and  these  hollov; 
rattles  are  clashed  and  raised  consists  of  a  strong  muscular  expan- 
sion underneatli,  and  adherent  to  the  thick  skin.  From  the  raising 
and  clasliing  of  the  spines,  and  perhaps  the  accidental  falling  of  one 
looser  than  the  rest  (about  to  be  shed  naturally),  has  arisen  the  belief 
that  the  animal  was  capable  of  darting  his  spines,  like  a  javelin, 
point  foremost — an  error  which  we  need"  not  stay  to  confute. 


Fig.  500. — Porcupine. 

Among  the  Old  World  species  are  the  Sumatran  Porcupine 
{^Hysfrix  lo7igicauda)  and  the  Javan  Porcupine  {Hystrix  java- 
nica). — Specimens  of  the  species  may  be  seen  in  the  menagerie  of 
the  Zoological  Society  in  Regent's  Park,  London. 

The  American  Porcupines,  of  which  there  are  at  least  seven 
species,  differ  from  the  Eastern  Porcupines  in  their  habit  of  ascend- 
ing trees ;  and  with  the  exception  of  one  species,  the  Ercfhizoiz 
dorsata,  or  North  American  Porcupine,  they  are  all  furnished  with 
long  prehensile  tails.  The  species  thus  provided  form  the  genus 
Cerco/ahcs,  and  are  peculiar  to  South  America.     Among  these  is — 

The  BRAZiLi.'iN  Porcupine  {Cercoiabes,  or  Synctheres p-elmi- 
silis).  Cuandu  of  Marcgrave ;  Coendu,  Buffon  ;  Prehensile  Porcu- 
pine  of  Pennant.— In  Brazil  we   are  presented  with   the   species 


Fig.  501. — Brazilian  Porcupine. 


termed  Cuandu,  decidedly  organised  as  a  climber,  having  a  prehen- 
sile tail,  resembling  that  of  the  Opossum.  The  muzzle  is  broad 
and  short;  the  head  convex  in  front,  the  spines  rather  short;  the 
tail  very  long,  and  naked  for  half  its  length.  The  feet  have  only 
four  toes.  The  length  of  this  species  is  about  two  feet,  exclusive  of 
the  tail,  which  is  about  eighteen  inches  ;  the  nose  is  covered  with 
brownish   hair  ;    the   ears  are   nearly  naked  ;  the  body  is   covered 

above  with  spines ;  the  longest 
^  (on  the  lower  part  of  the  back) 

are  about  three  inches  in  length  ; 
those  on  the  sides  and  base  of 
the  limbs  are  the  shortest.  All 
are  sharp,  and  barred  near  their 
points  and  roots  with  white  ; 
brown  in  the  middle.  The  basal 
half  of  the  tail  is  clad  with  sliort 
spines  ;  the  breast,  under-parts, 
and  lower  portion  of  the  limbs, 
with  dark  brown  bristles. 
•  The  Brazilian  Porcupine  ap- 
pears very  much  to  resemble  the 
Canada  Porcupine  in  its  habits, 
living  in  woods,  sleeping  by  day, 
and  feeding  on  fruits,  &c.,  by 
night.  Marcgrave  states  that 
its  voice  is  like  that  of  a  Sow. 
The  quills  are  stated  to  have  the 
same  penetrating  and  destructive 
quality  as  those  of  the  Canadian 
species.  It  is  a  sluggish  animal, 
climbing  trees  very  slowly,  and 
holding  on  with  its  prehensile 
tail,  especially  in  its  descent.  It 
grows  very  fat,  and  the  tlesh  is 
said  to  be  white  and  well-tasted. 
Our  cut  is  taken  from  a  speci- 
men formerly  in  the  garden  of 
the  Zoological  Society.  (See 
Fig.  501.) 

The  Chinchillid.^,  or 
Chinchillas. 

The  family  of  the    Chinchil- 
lidcB,  or  Chinchillas,   includes  a 
small   number  of  elegant   little 
animals,  w'hich  are  entirely  con- 
fined  to   South  America,  where 
the  greater  part  of  them  inhabit 
the  mountains  at  a  considerable 
altitude.     In  these,  the  hind-feet  are  considerably  longer  than  the 
anterior ;    and  the  animals,  when  feeding,   always   sit   upon   their 
haunches,  and  hold  the  food  between  the  short  fore-paws.     The  cars 
are  very  large  and  broad  ;   the  tail  is  long,  and  covered  above  with 
long  hairs,  which  form  a  large  tuft  at  the  tip,  and  the  molar  teeth  are 
composed  of  three  transverse  laminae  of  bony  matter  and  enamel, 
united  by  cement.     The  clavicles  are  complete. 

The  fur  of  the  Chinchillas  is  very  thick,  and  of  a  soft,  woolly 
texture,  especially  in  those  species  which  live  at  a  considerable  alti- 
tude ;  it  is  usually  of  a  grey  colour,  very  elegant  in  its  appearance  ; 
and  that  of  some  species,  especially  the  Chinchilla  (Eriomys 
lanigcr),  is  greatly  admired  for  winter  clothing.  With  one  excep- 
tion, these  animals  are  found  upon  the  Andes,  in  Chili,  and  Peru. 
Here  they  live  in  societies,  retreating  into  natural  cavities  amongst 
the  rocks,  and  only  making  their  appearance  on  the  surface  at  night. 
The  Mountain  Viscacha  {Lagidiuiii  Cttvieri)  lives  on  the  plateaux 
of  the  Peruvian  Andes,  always  at  an  elevation  of  at  least  twelve  or 
thirteen  thousand  feet,  and  usually  near  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
It  is  a  larger  animal  than  the  Chinchilla,  but  its  fur  is  not  of  so  much 
value.  The  Viscacha  [Lagostomus  trichodactylus),  a  species 
nearly  allied  to  the  preceding,  inhabits  the  great  plains  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  where  it  digs  burrows  for  itself;  it  is  the  largest  species,  but 
its  skin  is  held  in  no  esteem.  These  species  are  more  fully  described 
as  follows  : — 

The  Chinchilla  {Ertomys  or  Chinchilla  lanigerj. — The 
Chinchilla  appears  to  have  attracted,  in  very  early  times,  the  notice 
of  travellers,  though  the  accounts  scattered  in  their  works  have  been 
but  little  regarded  by  naturalists.  In  1824,  Schmidtmeyer,  in  his 
travels  over  the  Andes  into  Chili,  notices  the  Chinchilla  as  a  woolly 
Field-Mouse  which  lives  under-ground,  and  chiefly  feeds  on  wild 
onions.  Its  fine  fur  is  well  known  in  Europe ;  that  which  comes 
from  Upper  Peru  is  rougher  and  larger  than  the  Chinchilla  of  Chili, 
but  not  always  so  beautiful  in  its  colour.  Great  numbers  of  these 
animals  are  caught  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Coquimbo,  and 
Copiapo,  generally  by  boys  with  dogs,  and  sold  to  traders,  who 
bring  them  to  Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  from  whence  thev  are 
exported.     The  Peruvian  skins  arc  either  brought  to  Buenos  Ayres 


THE  CHINCHILLA. 


191 


from  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Andes,  or  sent  to  Lima.  The  extensive 
use  of  this  fur  has  lately  occasioned  a  very  considerable  destruction 
of  the  animals.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  there  are  two  or 
more  species  of  Chinchilla,  respectively  Chilian  and  Peruvian,  and 
hence  we  suspect  is  to  be  accounted  for,  the  difference  in  the  colour 
and  quality  of  the  Chinchilla  fur,  which  wc  have  frequently  observed. 
Our  examination  of  specimens  in  the 
Paris  museum  also  leads  us  to  the 
same  conclusion. 

A  native  of  the  valleys  in  the 
high  mountain  districts  of  South 
America,  where  the  cold  is  often 
very  severe,  the  deep  woolly  coat  of 
the  Chinchilla  is  well  calculated  for 
preserving  warmth.  Whether  in  the 
winter  season  the  animal  hibernates 
or  not,  yet  remains  to  be  discovered. 
Of  its  manners,  indeed,  we  know 
little.  In  captivity  it  is  quiet,  in- 
offensive, and  cleanly :  it  feeds 
sitting  up  on  its  haunches  like  a 
Squirrel,  holding  its  food  between 
its  fore-paws.  Its  ratio  of  intelli- 
gence is  on  the  same  par  with  that 
of  the  Rabbit  or  Guinea-pig  ;  hence 
it  displays  no  indications  of  attach- 
ment to  those  who  feed  it,  nor  much 
animation  or  playfulness.  In  its 
Alpine  valleys  it  associates  in  num- 
bers (see  Fig.  502),  excavating  bur- 
rows, in  which  it  resides.  The 
female  breeds  twice  a  year,  produc- 
ing from  four  to  six  young  at  a  birth. 
Various  roots,  especially  those  of 
bulbous  plants,  constitute  the  diet  of 
the  Chinchilla.  The  colour  of  the 
fur  of  this  species  is  clear  grey 
above,  but  varying  in  depth,  and 
passing  into  white  on  the  under- 
parts  :  its  quality  is  exquisitely  fine, 
and  its  length  renders  it  well  adapted 
for  spinning.  Indeed,  Molina  in- 
forms us,  that  the  ancient  Peruvians, 
who  were  far  more  industrious  than 

the  modem,  made  of  this  wool  coverlets  for  beds,  and  valuable  stuffs. 
The  tail  is  covered  with  long  bushy  hairs,  and  usually  kept  turned 
up  towards  the  back.  In  length  the  Chinchilla  measures  about  nine 
inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  five  inches.  The  fore-limbs 
are  comparatively  short :  the  head  has  much  resemblance  to  that  of 
a  young,  full-haired  Rabbit ;  the  muzzle  is  short  and  blunt,  and 
furnished  with  long  whiskers  ;  the  eyes  are  black ; 
the  ears  are  ample.  The  skull  is  remarkable  for 
the  size  of  the  antorbital  foramen  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  tympanic  bulla.  The  general  skele- 
ton is  slightly  built,  and  the  bones  are  slender  ; 
the  ribs  are  thirteen  on  each  side.  Fig.  503  re- 
presents the  skull  and  skeleton  of  the  Chinchilla  : 
a,  skull  seen  from  above ;  b,  the  same  seen  from 
below  ;  c,  the  lower  jaw. 

Cuvier's  L.A.GOTIS,  OR  Mountain  Viscach.a. 
{Lagidium  Cuvicri,  ox  Lagotis  Ciivieri). — In  this 
animal,  the  toes  of  the  anterior  as  well  as  pos- 
terior feet  are  four.  The  hind-limbs  are  consider- 
ably developed ;  the  muzzle  is  somewhat  elon- 
gated and  narrow,  and  furnished  with  long  whis- 
kers ;  the  eyes  are  moderate,  but  prominent ;  the 
ears  are  elongated,  rounded  at  the  tip,  and  rolled 
inwards  at  the  edges.  The  fur  is  soft,  long,  and 
downy,  and  but  loosely  attached  to  the  skin.  The 
tail  of  tolerable  length,  and  bushy,  with 
stiff,  wiry  hairs.  General  contour  Rabbit-like, 

Fig-  504-) 

M.  Desmarest  was  the  first  to  suggest  that  a 
Viscacha  observed  by  FeuiUee  in  Peru,  and,  as 
he  says,  often  domesticated  in  the  houses  at  Lima, 
was  a  distinct  species  from  the  Viscacha  of  the 
Pampas ;  and  a  careful  examination  of  the  scat- 
tered notices  published  by  travellers  respecting 
the  Viscachas  of  the  eastern  and  western  sides 
of  the  Andes,  led  Mr.  Bennett  to  form  the  same 
opinion,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  acquisition 
of  a  living  animal  regarded  as  the  Peruvian  Vis- 
cacha of  the  older  writers.     The  references  to  the 
Peruvian  Viscacha  by  various  of  the  early  travellers  in  South  Ame- 
rica are  by  no  means  limited,  and  in  collating  them,   Mr.   Bennett 
evinced  a  spirit  of  laborious  research.     He  refers  to  Pedro  de  Ciera, 
1554;   Acosta,    1590;    Garcilago   de  la  Vega,   1C09;    Nicrembcrg, 


1635  ;  Feuillee,  1725  ;  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  1772.  The  last  writer, 
in  his  "  Noticias  Americanus,"  gives  a  correct  account  of  the  habits 
and  manners  of  the  animal  in  question.  Mr.  Bennett's  translation 
is  as  follows  :— "  Taking  the  place  of  the  Rabbit,  which  is  wanting 
in  Peru,  there  is  another  kind  of  animal,  called  Viscacha,  which  is 
not  found  in  Quito.     In  form  and  in  the  colour  of  the  fur  it  is  similar 


Fig.  502. — Group  of  Chinchillas. 

to  the  Rabbit,  but  differs  from  it  in  having  a  long  tail  furnished  with 
tufted  hair,  which  is  very  thin  towards  the  root,  but  thick  and  long 
as  it  approaches  the  tip.  It  does  not  carry  its  tail  turned  over  the 
head  like  the  Squirrel,  but  stretched  out,  as  it  were,  in  a  horizontal 
direction:  its  joints  are  slender  and  scaly.  These  animals  conceal 
themselves  in  holes  of  the  rocks  in  which  they  make  their  retreats. 


long, 
(See 


Fig.  503. — Skeleton  and  Skull  of  Chinchilla. 

not  forming  burrows  in  the  earth  like  Rabbits.  There  they  congre- 
gate in  considerable  numbers,  and  are  mostly  seen  in  a  sitting 
posture,  but  not  eating  :  they  feed  on  the  herbs  and  shrubs  that  grow 
among  the  rocks,  and  are  very  active.     Their  means  of  escape  do  not 


iga 


THE  VISCACHA. 


consist  in  the  velocity  of  their  flight,  but  in  the  promptitude  with 
■which  they  run  to  the  shelter  of  their  holes.  This  they  commonly  do 
when  wounded  ;  for  which  reason  the  mode  of  killin.s;'  them  is  by 
shooting  them  in  the  head ;  as,  if  they  receive  the  charge  in  any 
other  part,  although  much  injured,  they  do  not  fail  to  go  and  die  in 
the  interior  of  their  burrows.  They  have  this  peculiarity,  that  as  soon 
as  they  die  their  hair  falls  off;  and  on  this  account,  although  it  is 


characters : — the  molars  consist  of  two  oblique  lamellae,  excepting 
the  posterior  one  in  the  upper  jaw,  which  consists  of  three  ;  anterior 
feet  with  only  four  toes,  hinder  feet  with  only  three  ;  tail  moderate. 
(See  Fig.'5o6).  Of  this  genus  {Lagostoinus)  we  know  but  one  species, 
of  which  the  earliest  notice  to  be  found  is  in  Dobrizhoffer's  "  His- 
toria  de  Abiponibus,"  1784.  He  informs  us  that  it  is  called  by  these 
people  Nehelaterek,  and  that  it  resembles  a  Hare  with  the  tail  of  a 


Fig.  504. — Cuvier's  Lagotis. 

softer  and  somewhat  longer  and  finer  than  that  of  the  Rabbit,  the 
skin  cannot  be  made  use  of  for  common  purposes.  The  flesh  is 
white,  but  not  well  flavoured,  being  especially  distasteful  at  certain 
seasons,  when  it  is  altogether  repugnant  to  the  palate."  Molina 
speaks  of  the  employment  of  its  wool  among  the  ancient  Peruvians  ; 
adding,  that  the  Chilians  of  the  present  day  (his  work  was  originally 
published  in  1782,  and  reprinted  with  additions  in  i8io)use  it  in  the 
manufacture  of  hats. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Viscacha  of  the  western  acclivities  of  the 
Peruvian  Andes,  or  Cuvier's  I,agotis,  or  Mountain  Viscacha  (Z. 
Cuziicn),  is  greyish  ash,  clouded  here  and  there  with  a  tint  of  brown. 
The  hairs  of  the  tail  are  mingled  black  and  white.     The  ears  equal 


Fig.  505. — Skeleton  and  Skull  of  Cuvier's  Lagotis,  or  Mountain  Viscacha. 


the  head  in  length.  The  body  measures  sixteen  inches,  including 
the  head;  the  tail,  about  twelve  inches.  Fig.  505  represents  the 
skeleton,  with  the  skull  of  this  animal:  a,  skull  seen  from  above; 
b,  the  same  seen  from  below ;  c,  lower  jaw ;  d,  crown  of  the  two 
anterior  molar  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  enlarged  ;  e,  crowns  of  the  two 
posterior  molar  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw,  enlarged. 

The  Viscacha  or  Biscacha  of  the   Pampas  {Lagostomus 
trychodactylus,  Brookes).     The  Marmot  Diana  of  Griffith.— Generic 


Fig.  50C. — The  Viscacha. 

Fox.  "  It  digs  its  burrows  on  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  plains 
with  so  much  art,  that  no  aperture  is  left  by  which  the  rain  can  pene- 
trate, and  these  burrows  are  divided  into  distinct  settlements,  nu- 
merous families  inhabiting  the  same  locality.  On  the  surface  of  the 
ground  are  several  entrances  into  the  burrow,  at  which,  towards  sun- 
set, the  animals  may  be  seen  seated  in  crowds,  diligently  listening 
for  the  sound  of  any  person  approaching.  If  everything  remains 
quiet,  they  venture  forth  by  moonlight  to  feed ;  and  commit  sad 
havoc  on  the  neighbouring  fields,  for  they  devour  both  European 
wheat  and  Indian  corn  with  great  avidity,  despising  grass  when 
either  is  to  be  obtained.  Hence  the  stations  of  the  Biscachas  are 
seldom  to  be  met  with  in  the  desert  plains,  but  indicate  with  cer- 
tainty the  proximity  of  Spanish  settlements  ;  and  it  has  often  been 
a  matter  of  surprise  to  me  that  I  have  never  seen  the  Biscacha  in  the 
territories  (though  well  covered  with  crops  of  all  kinds)  either  of  the 
Abipones  or  the  Guaranis.  They  are  in  the  habit  of  heaping  up  at 
the  entrances  of  their  burrow  dry  bones,  chips  of  wood,  and  refuse 
articles  of  every  sort  which  fall  in  their  way.  The  purpose,  however, 
for  which  these  things  are  collected,  is  beyond  con- 
jecture. The  Spanish  colonists  occasionally  spend 
an  idle  hour  in  hunting  them  ;  they  pour  buckets 
of  water  into  the  subterranean  retreats  of  the  crea- 
tures, which  to  avoid  being  drowned  issue  forth 
into  the  plain,  where,  without  any  means  of  escape, 
they  are  killed  with  sticks.  Their  flesh,  unless  they 
are  very  old,  is  not  considered  despicable  even  by 
the  Spaniards."  In  1789,  the  Abbe  Jolis  wrote  a 
work,  which,  however,  appears  not  to  have  been 
completed,  entitled  "  An  Essay  on  the  Natural 
History  of  Granchaco  "  (Saggio  sulla  Storia  Natu- 
rale  della  Provincia  del  Granchaco)  ;  and  in  this  he 
gives,  from  long  observation,  a  description  of  the 
Pampas  Biscacha,  which  differs  in  some  particulars 
from  that  of  Dobrizhoffer.  "  They  resemble,"  he 
says,  "  our  Hares,  but  have  the  body  somewhat 
more  arched.  They  live  in  society,  in  burrows 
under-ground,  which  they  form  for  themselves,  ex- 
cavating in  all  directions  to  the  extent  of  a  mile  in 
circumference,  with  various  exits  and  separate  re- 
treats, in  which  the  old  live  distinct  from  the  young. 
The  soil  in  which  these  are  usually  made  is  that 
which  is  hard  and  barren,  and  destitute  of  ever)'- 
thing,  but  with  bushes  (boscaglie)  at  no  great  dis- 
tance, and  pasture  of  tender  grass,  roots,  and  the 
bark  of  trees.  They  collect  around  their  retreats 
bones,  dried  leaves,  and  whatever  they  find  in  the 
neighbourhood  ;  if  anythmg  is  missing  in  their  dis- 
tricts, it  is  to  be  found  with  certainty  piled  up  in 
these  situations  the  following  day.  As  they  are 
animals  that  avoid  the  light,  having  little  power  of 
vision,  they  are  not  to  be  seen  in  the  day-time, 
unless  at  dawn,  or  towards  evening  after  sunset.  The  night,  and 
especially  when  the  moon  shines,  is  the  proper  time  for  seeking 
their  food.  Fierce  and  courageous,  they  defend  themselves  with 
all  their  might  against  the  Dogs,  and  sometimes  even  attack  the 
legs  of  the  hunters." 

But  neither  of  those  authors  mentions  the  somewhat  anomalous 
companions  with  which  the  Biscachas  are  associated  ;  and  we  select, 
from  the  travels  of  Proctor,  Head,  Miers,  and  Haigh,  the  account  of 


THE  AGOUTIS. 


"93 


the  first-named  traveller,  which,  as  Mr.  Bennett  observes,  g-ives 
nearly  all  the  particulars  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  rest.  "  The 
whole  country,  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  San  Luis  de  la  Punta,  is  more 
or  less  burrowed  by  an  animal  between  a  Rabbit  and  a  Badger, 
called  the  Biscacha,  which  renders  travelling  dangerous,  particularly 
by  night,  their  holes  being  so  large  and  deep  that  a  Horse  is  almost 
sure  to  fall  if  he  steps  into  one  of  them.  The  Biscacha  never  ventures 
far  from  its  retreat,  and  is  seldom  seen  till  the  evening,  when  it 
comes  out  to  feed,  and  hundreds  may  be  observed  sporting  round 
their  holes,  and  making  a  noise  very  similar  to  the  grunting  of  Pigs. 
Their  flesh  is  much  liked  by  the  people,  and  they  are  remarkably 
fat,  and  on  that  account,  when  caught  at  any  distance  from  their 
holes,  are  easily  run  down  ;  they  will,  however,  defend  themselves 
from  a  Dog  a  considerable  time.  The  holes  of  these  animals  are  also 
inhabited  by  vast  numbers  of  small  Owls,  which  sit,  during  the  day, 
gazing  at  the  passing  travellers,  and  making  a  very  ludicrous  ap- 
pearance. The  parts  of  the  road  most  frequented  by  the  Biscacha 
are  generally  overrun  by  a  species  of  small  wild  melon,  bitter  to  the 
taste  ;  whether  it  thrives  particularly  on  the  manure  of  the  animal, 
or  whether  the  Biscacha  chooses  its  hole  nearer  this  running  plant, 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  ascertained." 

The  Viscacha  of  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Paraguay  is, 
when  fully  grown,  as  large  as  our  common  Badger.  Above  it  is  a 
blackish-grey,  beneath  white.  The  head  is  large  and  obtuse,  and  a 
whitish  band,  beginning  on  the  nose,  passes  across  the  face  beneath 
each  eye  to  the  root  of  the  ear,  producing  a  sort  of  crescent-shaped 
mask  when  the  face  is  viewed  in  front.  The  sides  of  the  lips  are 
furnished  with  a  tuft  of  thickly-set  whiskers,  composed  of  long  black 
bristles  ;  and  from  the  angles  of  the  mouth  across  the  cheeks,  below 
the  white  band,  extends  a  brush  of  black  bristles,  stouter  than  those 
of  the  whiskers,  but  shorter,  the  lowermost  being  sharply  pointed. 
This  brush  reaches  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  forming  a  beard :  it  does 
not,  however,  end  here  abruptly,  but  may  be  traced  by  bristly  hairs 
intermingled  with  the  fur  across  the  shoulders  as  far  as  the  middle  of 
the  back.  The  ears  are  moderate  and  rounded :  the  fore-lege  are 
rather  slender  and  short ;  the  hind-legs  are  long,  and  the  metatarsal 
portion  reminds  one  of  the  same  part  in  the  limb  of  the  Kangaroo, 
though  it  is  not  so  disproportionally  elongated.  At  the  heel  there  is  a 
long,  naked,  callous  sole  or  pad,  before  which  is  a  part  covered  with 
hair :  the  toes  are  three  in  number,  of  which  the  middle  is  the  most  elon- 
gated :  all  are  furnished  with  strong  hoof-like  nails,  and  with  naked 
pads  beneath.  The  tail  is  rather  short,  and  covered  with  greyish- 
brown  hairs,  of  which  the  longest  form  a  fringe  on  the  upper  surface  : 
it  is  generally  kept  retroverted  on  the  back,  The  incisor  teeth  are 
remarkably  large  and  strong. 


jf'g-  507. — Skeleton  of  Viscacha. 

.  Fig-  507  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  Pampas  Viscacha  :  a,  under 
view  of  skull;  b,  lower  jaw;  c,  crown  of  the  second  molar  tooth  of 
the  left  side  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  d,  crown  of  the  last  molar  tooth  of  the 
right  side  of  the  upper  jaw. 


The  AGOori— Family  Dasyf>roct!dts. 

The  family  termed  Dasyp-octida  next  claims  our  notice.  It  cm- 
braces  two  genera,   Calogcnys  and  Dasyprocta.     In  these  genera 

the  molars  are  ^~A,  rooted,  and  bear  much  resemblance  to  those  of 

4-4 

the  Porcupines  ;  they  are  crowned  with  distinct  tubercles,  which, 
wearing  down  with  use,  give  place  to  winding  lines  of  enamel,  set  in 
the  interior  bony  cement. 

The  genus  Ccclogctiys  includes  the  Pacas  (a  corruption  of  the  word 
Pag  of  the  Brazilians,  or  Paig  of  the  natives  of  Paraguay ;  and  Pakiri 
of  some  of  the  tribes  of  Guiana). 

These  animals,  the  Pacas,  are  remarkable  for  a  curious  structural 
peculiarity  in  the  skull,  which  imparts  a  singular  aspect  to  their 


Fig.  SoS.— Skull  of  Paca. 


Fig.  509. — Upper  Jaw  of  Paca. 

physiognomy.  We  give  a  sketch  of  the  skull  of  the  Fulvous  Paca 
\Ca:logc7iys  fulvus),  in  profile  (Fig.  508),  and  as  viewed  on  its  palatal 
aspect  (Fig.  509).  The  peculiarity  in  question  is  the  immense  de- 
velopment of  the  zygomatic  arch,  forming  an  expansive  shield  of 
bone,  almost  concealing  the  lower  jaw,  rough  and  convex  externally, 
and  deeply  concave  within.  This  broad  projecting  convex  plate  has 
its  concavity  lined  by  a  continuation  or  reduplicature  of  the  skin  of 
the  face,  constituting  a  sort  of  pouch,  with  a  narrow  linear  opening 
just  below  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  and  having  its  edges,  from  which 
the  pouch  leads  directly  upwards,  almost  if  not  quite  destitute  of 
hair. 

Notwithstanding  this  narrow  orifice,  the  sac  or  pouch  is  so  closed, 
that  it  cannot  be  serviceable  as  the  receptacle  for  food,  for  neither 
is  the  orifice  dilatable,  nor  the  pouch,  enclosed  as  the  latter  is  within 
walls  of  unyielding  bone.  The  use  of  this  sac  is  not  ascertained  : 
perhaps  a  secretion  of  some  kind  may  take  place  from  the  sub-zygo- 
matic  fold  of  skin  ;  but  this  remains  to  be  determined.  Besides  the 
sac  described,  the  Pacas  have  true  cheek-pouches  of  considerable 
extent,  opening  from  the  mouth,  and  extending  down  the  sides  of  the 
neck,  and  below  the  inferior  margin  of  the  zygomatic  shield. 

The  lower  jaw,  which  is  almost  concealed,  is  shown  at  Fig.  510. 
The  characters  of  the  molar  teeth,  worn  by  use,  are  well  depicted. 

2  C 


194 


THE  4G0UTIS. 


Fig.  511  represents  the  germ  of  the  first  molar,  before  the  tooth  is 
completely  developed,  in  three  views — namely,  the  outer  aspect,  the 
inner  aspect,  and  the  crown  with  its  tubercles.  The  Pacas  are 
animals  of  considerable  size,  and  of  a  heavy  clumsy  figure,  having  a 
thick  muzzle,  with  the  upper  lip  deeply  cleft;  a  large  inelegant 
head  ;  prominent  eyes,  rounded  ears,  and  stout  limbs,  of  which  the 


Fig.  510. — Lower  Jaw  of  r.ica. 


Fig.  511.— Tooth  of  Taca. 

hinder  pair  exceed  in  length  the  anterior ;  but  as  the  greater  portion 
of  the  tarsus  rests  habitually  on  the  ground,  the  body  smks  even 
lower  at  the  haunches  than  at  the  shoulders.  The  fore-feet  are 
divided  into  five  toes,  of  which  the  innermost  is  a  mere  rudiment, 
seated  high,  and  furnished  with  a  small  claw.  The  hind-feet  have 
also  five  toes,  but  of  these  the  outermost  on  each  side  is  small,  and 
seated  high  :  the  three  central  are  large,  strong,  and  furnished  with 
powerful  iioof-like  nails.  The  tail  is  wanting.  The  body  is  clothed 
with  short,  stiff,  wiry  hairs. 

The  Dusky  Paca.— This  species,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  identi- 
cal with  the  Fulvous  Paca  ;  but  we  have  examined  the  skulls,  and 
find  them  different.  In  the  former  the  bones  of  the  skull  are  smooth, 
and  the  zygomatic  arches  less  inordinately  developed.  The  general 
colour  of  the  Dusky  Paca  is  brownish-black,  with  four  lateral  rows 
of  white  spots,  which  begin  on  the  shoulders  and  terminate  on  the 
buttocks.  The  lowest  line  is  almost  confounded  with  the  white  of 
the  under-surface.  The  sides  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  throat,  and 
chest  are  also  white.  Total  length  of  head  and  body,  about  two 
feet;    average    height,    fourteen   inches.     (See    Fig.  512.)     These 


Fig.  512. — Dusky  Paca. 

animals  are  natives  of  the  whole  of  the  eastern  portion  of  South 
America,  from  Surinam  to  Paraguay,  and  formerly  existed  also  in 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  Forests  in  the  vicinity 
of  water ;  wooded,  marshy  places  ;  and  borders  of  rivers,  are  their 
favourite  localities  :  they  inhabit  burrows,  which  they  excavate,  but 
so  superficially,  that  they  are  apt  to  give  way  beneath  the  foot  of  a 
person  passing  over  them,  no  less  to  his  annoyance  than  that  of  the 
animal,  which  thus  suddenly  finds  itself  in  open  daylight.  These 
burrows  have  three  openings,  which  the  animal  conceals  with  dry 
leaves  and  branches.  In  order  to  capture  the  Paca  alive,  the  hunter 
stops  two  of  these  apertures,  and  proceeds  to  work  at  the  third,  till 
he  arrives  at  the  chamber  to  which  the  avenues  lead.     Driven  to  an 


e.xtremity,  the  Paca  makes  a  desperate  resistance,  often  inflicting 
very  severe  wounds. 

When  not  disturbed,  the  Paca  often  sits  up  and  washes  its  head 
and  whiskers  with  its  two  fore-paws,  which  it  licks  and  moistens 
with  its  saliva  at  each  ablution,  like  a  Cat ;  and  with  these  fore- 
paws,  as  W'ell  as  with  the  hind-ones,  it  often  scratches  itself  and 
dresses  its  fur.  Though  heavy  and  corpulent,  it  can  run  with  a  good 
deal  of  activity,  and  often  takes  lively  jumps.  It  swims  and  dives 
with  great  adroitness,  and  its  cry  resembles  the  grunting  of  a  young 
Pig.  Its  food  consists  of  fruits  and  tender  plants,  which  it  seeks  in 
the  night,  hardly  ever  quitting  its  burrow  in  the  day,  the  strong 
light  of  which,  as  is  the  case  with  other  nocturnal  animals,  being 
oppressive  to  its  eye  :  the  planter  often  rues  the  visits  made  by  these 
midnight  foragers  to  his  sugar-canes.  The  female  is  said  to  bring 
forth  at  the  rainy  season,  and  to  produce  but  a  single  young  one, 
which  stays  a  long  time  with  the  mother.  The  Pacas  are  very 
cleanly  creatures  in  all  their  habits,  and  keep  their  subterranean 
dwelling  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  purity. 

It  appears  that  these  animals  root  in  the  ground  with  their  nose — 
a  circumstance  which,  taken  in  conjunction  with  their  voice,  a  Pig- 
like grunt,  the  bristly  character  of  their  hair,  and  the  flavour  of  their 
flesh,  probably  gave  rise,  as  Mr.  Bennett  observes,  to  the  com- 
parisons made  by  the  older  writers  between  them  and  the  tenant  of 
the  sty.  Those  which  we  have  seen  in  captivity  were  gentle,  but 
certainly  not  intelligent ;  and  so  far  we  agree  with  F.  Cuvier,  who 
observes  that  when  the  animal  is  offended,  it  throws  itself  violently 
at  the  object  which  has  displeased  it,  and  then  makes  a  kind  of 
grumbling,  which  at  length  breaks  out  into  a  sort  of  bark.  The 
greater  part  of  the  day  it  passes  in  repose,  delighting  in  a  soft  bed, 
which  it  forms  of  straw,  hay,  and  similar  materials,  collecting  the 
materials  with  its  mouth,  and  making  a  little  heap,  in  the  centre  of 
which  it  lies  down.  M.  Buffon  gives  a  detailed  account  of  one  of 
these  animals,  which  he  kept  alive  in  his  house  for  some  time,  and 
which  was  gentle  and  very  familiar. 

The  flesh  of  these  animals  is  in  great  estimation,  and  in  some 
districts  is  in  ordinary  consumption,  but  as  it  is  fat  and  rich  it  is  apt 
to  cloy.  It  is  prepared  for  cooking  by  being  scalded  like  a  Sucking- 
Pig  and  roasted.  The  fur  is  of  no  value,  but  the  skin  might  be  useful 
if  converted  into  leather. 

The  Agoutis  {Dasyprocta,  Illig. ;  Chhrmys,  F.  Cuv.)— These 
animals  differ  from  the  Pacas  in  the  formation  of  the  skull  and  the 
conformation  of  the  feet  and  toes.  With  respect  to  the  former,  the 
zygomatic  arch  presents  nothing  of  that  strange  development  so 
remarkable  in  the  Pacas.  The  toes  are  distinctly  four  on  each  of 
the  anterior  feet :  of  these  the  outermost  toe  on  each  side  is  small 
and  seated  high,  while  the  two  middle  are  long,  and  armed  with 


Fig.  513. — Teeth  of  Agoutis. 

stout  claws.  The  hind-feet  are  divided  into  three  toes,  furnished 
with  claws  of  a  hoof-like  character,  and  of  considerable  strength. 
The  limbs  are  slender,  and  the  hinder  pair  considerably  exceed  in 
length  the  anterior  :  hence  the  pace  of  these  animals  is  tolerably 
rapid  for  a  short  distance,  though  they  seldom  trust  to  speed  for 
safety,  but  seek  shelter  and  security  in  the  first  hollow  tree  they  meet 
with,  or  under  a  rock.  Here  they  allow  themselves  to  be  captured, 
without  offering  any  resistance,  only  uttering  a  shaip  plaintive  note 


THE  AGOUTIS. 


»9S 


of  alarm.  The  head  of  the  Agouti  is  large,  the  forehead  convex, 
the  nose  swollen  ;  the  ears  round,  short,  and  nearly  naked  ;  the  eyes 
large  and  black  ;  the  tail  is  very  short,  generally  indeed  a  mere 
tubercle.  The  hair  is  glossy  and  of  a  wiry  character,  and  annulated 
in  different  degrees  with  black,  yellow,  or  white,  and  olive  green. 

The  molars  are  tli,  nearly  all  of  the  same  size,  and  when  worn 
4-4 

presenting  winding  folds  of  enamel  on  the  flat  crowns.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  convey,  by  mere  description,  an  idea  of  the  figures  which 
these  convolutions  assume,  and  which  vary  in  proportion  to  the 
wearing  down  of  the  tooth  :  we  therefore  refer  to  Fig.  513,  where  a 
and  b  represent  respectively  the  upper  and  lower  jaws.  No.  i  repre- 
sents the  teeth  when  much  worn  down  ;  2,  the  same  in  an  inter- 
mediate state  ;  and  3,  the  same  when  the  tubercles  are  just  effaced, 
and  the  surface  smoothed  down  to  a  level. 

The  flesh  of  the  Agouti  is  in  some  districts  highly  esteemed,  being 
white  and  tender. 

The  Agoutis  use  the  fore-paws  as  hands  to  convey  their  food  to 
the  mouth,  and  usually  sit  upright  on  their  haunches  to  eat :  they 
frequently  also  assume  the  same  position  in  order  to  look  around 
them,  or  when  they  are  surprised  by  any  unusual  sound  or  occur- 
rence. Their  food  is  exclusively  of  a  vegetable  nature,  and  consists 
most  commonly  of  wild  yams,  potatoes,  and  other  tuberous  roots  ;  in 
the  islands  of  the  different  West  India  groups  they  are  particularly 
destructive  to  the  sugar-cane,  of  the  roots  of  which  they  are  ex- 
tremely fond.  The  planters  employ  every  artifice  for  destroying 
them,  so  that  at  present  they  have  become  comparatively  rare  in  the 
sugar  islands,  though  on  the  first  settlement  of  the  Antilles  and 
Bahamas,  they  are  said  to  have  swarmed  in  such  countless  multi- 
tudes as  to  have  constituted  the  principal  article  of  food  for  the 
Indians.  They  were  the  largest  quadrupeds  indigenous  in  these 
islands  upon  their  first  discovery.  The  same  rule  of  geographical 
distribution  holds  good  generally  in  other  cases — viz.,  that  where 
groups  of  islands  are  detached  at  some  distance  from  the  mainland 
of  a  particular  continent,  the  smaller  species  of  animals  are  usually 
found  spread  over  both,  whilst  the  larger  and  more  bulky  are  con- 
fined to  the  mainland  alone,  and  are  never  found  to  be  indigenous  in 
the  small  insulated  land. 

Though  the  Agoutis  use  the  fore-paws  as  described,  yet  they  are 
incapable  of  climbing  trees  ;  and  though  the  nails  are  strong,  they 
do  not  burrow,  but  conceal  themselves  in  hollow  trees,  among  fallen 
logs  and  timber  in  the  forest,  and  similar  places  of  concealment. 
Here  they  produce  and  rear  their  young,  which  are  born  with  the 
eyes  closed  :  they  soon  become  capable  of  shifting  for  themselves. 

The  Common  Agouti  {Dasyprocta  acuta).— 'lh:\=,  species  is  very 
abundant  in  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  occurs  also  in  Paraguay,  where 
it  was  observed  by  D'Azara,  who  informs  us  that  the  Guarinis  term 
it  Cotia :  in  size  it  is  about  equal  to  a  Rabbit,  but  it  rarely  if  ever 
makes  a  burrow.  It  frequents  densely-wooded  districts  in  preference 
to  open  lands,  and  generally  takes  up  its  residence  in  the  hollow 
trunks  of  decayed  trees,  where  it  remains  concealed  during  the  day. 
This  retreat  usually  serves  for  several  individuals,  for  it  appears  to 
be  gregarious,  associating  in  small  troops  consisting  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  individuals.     Its  movements  are  rapid,  active,  and  abrupt, 


Fig.  514. — Common  Agouti. 

and  when  chased  it  bounds  along  like  a  Hare,  to  gain  its  accus- 
tomed hiding-place  :  it  is,  however,  seldom  seen  e.xcept  during  the 
night,  or  as  evening  begins  to  sink  into  twilight. 
_  In  Brazil  and  Guiana  the  Agouti  is  exposed  to  wholesale  destruc- 
tion for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  said  to  be  intermediate  in 
flavour  between  the  Hare  and  Rabbit ;  but  in   Paraguay,  according 


to  D  Azara,  no  one  eats  it ;  and  M.  Morcau  St.  Mery  observes  that 

It  has  a  strange  sort  of  flavour,  and  is  a  dish  of  little  relish  to  the 
palate.  The  latter  writer  also  informs  us  that  the  Agouti  is  common 
in  the  island  of  St.  Lucia,  and  also  inhabits  others  of  the  West  India 
group  ;  and  that  in  1788  several  were  taken  in  St.  Domingo,  which 
had  made  a  hollow  tree  their  domicile.  It  is  said  to  breed  several 
times  in  a  year,  and  to  produce  from  three  to  six  at  a  birth.  The 
general  colour  of  tlie  Agouti  is  grizzled  reddish-brown,  tinged  on  the 
neck,  chest,  and  under-surface  with  yellow.  The  hairs  of  the  upper 
and  fore  parts  of  the  body  are  annulated  with  brown,  yellow,  and 
black,  which  gives  the  animal  a  speckled  yellow  and  green  appear- 
ance on  the  neck,  head,  back,  and  sides  ;  on  the  croup,  however, 
they  are  of  a  uniform  golden  yellow,  much  longer  than  on  any  other 
part  of  the  body,  and  directed  backwards,  concealing  the  tail,  wliich 
IS  a  mere  naked  stump  ;  the  moustaches  and  feet  black.  The 
general  length  of  the  hair  on  the  upper  and  anterior  parts  of  the 
body  is  about  an  inch  ;  that  of  the  croup  is  upwards  of  four  inches 
long  ;  and  all,  excepting  the  short  coarse  fur  of  the  legs  and  feet, 
and  that  on  the  breast  and  belly,  is  of  a  stiff,  harsh  nature,  partaking 
more  of  the  quality  of  bristles  than  of  simple  hair.    (See  Fig.  514.) 

The  Golden  Agouti  differs  from  the  common  species  principally 
in  its  brighter  colouring. 

The  Black  Agouti  {Dasyprocta  cristata).—'Y\i\%  species,  to 
which  the  term  crested  {cristata)  is  ill  applied  (since  the  hairs  of  the 
head  and  neck  are  not  longer  than  those  of  the  shoulders),  is  smaller 
than  the  common  species,  but  its  general  proportions  and  form  are 
the  same  ;  it  differs,  however,  in  colour,  for  the  hairs  of  the  back  and 
sides,  instead  of  being  annulated  with  various  tints,  as  in  that 
animal,  are  nearly  of  a  uniform  black,  whilst  the  long  hairs  of  the 
croup   are   perfectly  so.     A   specimen  we   regarded  as   the   Black 


F'S-  5'S- — Black  Agouti. 

Agouti,  in  the  Paris  Museum,  might  be  thus  described: — Black, 
beautifully  freckled  with  pure  white,  especially  about  the  cheeks  and 
sides,  each  hair  on  those  parts  being  once  ringed  with  white ;  length, 
twenty  inches.     (See  Fig.  515.) 

The  Acouchi  {Dasyprocta  actichi). — This  animal  differs  from 
the  Agouti  in  being  of  a  much  smaller  size,  lighter  make,  and 
deeper  colour,  and  especially  in  having  a  much  longer  tail,  this  ap- 
pendage measuring  two  inches  :  it  is  very  slender,  being  not  much 
thicker  than  a  crow-quill,  and  covered  with  short  scattered  hairs. 


Fig.  516. — Acouchi. 

Its  manners  resemble  those  of  the  Agouti,  and  it  also  inhabits  the 
woods  of  Guiana,  but  is  not  by  any  means  so  common  as  that  animal. 
M.  D'Azara  was  mistaken  in  asserting  the  Acouchi  to  be  identical 
with  the  Agouti  ;  and  it  is  very  obvious  that  he  never  saw  the 
former,  for,  if  he  had,  the  distinction  could  not  have  escaped  his 
notice  ;  indeed,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  a  n.ative  of  Paraguay. 
Specimens  of  the  Acouchi,  as  well  as  its  skeleton,  are  in  the  museum 
of  the  Zool.  Soc.  Two  living  individuals  (now  the  museum  speci- 
mens alluded  to)  were  described  in  the  "  Proceeds.  2ool.  Soc," 
1830,  by  T.  Bell,  Esq.,  who  obtained  them  from  Guiana.  "Both 
individuals,"  he  observes,  "are  mild  and  gentle  in  their  disposi- 
tions, but  somewhat  timid :  they  are,  however,  familiar  with  their 


iq6 


THE  CAVIES. 


master,  and  run  to  him  whenever  he  enters  the  room  in  which  they 
are  kept,  and  about  which  they  are  allowed  to  range  during  the 
day.  Their  food  is  entirely  vegetable ;  they  are  especially  partial 
to  nuts  and  almonds  ;  they  drink  but  very  little.  They  are  extremely 
cleanly,  and  take  great  pains  to  keep  their  fur  in  order,  in  cleansing 
which  they  assist  each  other.  They  leap  occasionally  in  play  to  a 
considerable  height,  and  frequently,  in  springing  from  the  ground 
to  an  elevation  of  two  feet,  descend  on  the  spot  from  which  they 
rose.  Their  voice  is  a  short,  rather  sharp,  plaintive  pur.  The  indi- 
viduals, male  and  female,  show  great  attachment  to  each  other. 
They  frequently  agitate  their  tails  with  a  quick  tremulous  motion." 
Mr.  Bell  observes  that  he  had  never,  before  the  arrival  of  these 
individuals,  seen  a  specimen  of  the  Acouchi,  nor  was  he  aware  of  the 
existence  of  even  a  preserved  skin  in  any  English  collection.  It  is 
the  Olive  Cavy  of  Pennant.  The  general  colour  is  olive,  mixed 
with  yellow  and  black  ;  the  hairs  of  the  croup  are  not  so  long  as  in 
the  Agoutis,  and  black.     (See  Fig.  516.) 

The  Ca\^' — Family  Cavidcs. 

The  Cavies  {CavidcB)  constitute  a  group  which  is  one  of  the  most 
distinctly  marked  in  the  order  Rodenfia,  3.a&.\\h\c\\  should  not  be 
confounded  with  that  of  the  Pacas  and  Agoutis,  the  difference  being 
very  great,  both  as  respects  the  conformation  of  the  skull  and  the 
characters  of  the  teeth.  The  molars,  as  seen  in  the  teeth  of  the 
Guinea-pig  [Cavi'a  apcrecF,  or  cobaia),  Fig.  517,  and  of  the  Kerodon, 
Fig.  518,  may  be  compared  with  those  of  the  Agouti,  Fig.  513, 
p.  194,  a)ite,  and  the  wide  distinction  will  be  at  once  appreciated. 


Fig.  517.— Teeth  of  Guinea-pig. 


Fig.  518.— Teeth  of  Kerodon. 


The   molars   are 


lamellose,   and  composite ;    the  folds  of 


4-4' 

enamel  enclose  triangular  or  cordiform  interspaces.  A  projecting 
ridge  always  occurs  on  the  outer  side  of  the  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw. 
In  the  genus  Cavia  the  anterior  feet  have  four  toes,  the  posterior 
three  ;  the  nails  are  short  and  robust  ;  there  is  no  tail.  As  an  ex- 
ample of  this  genus  we  may  take  the  common  Guinea-pig,  the 
domestic  descendant  of  a  species  still  common  in  a  wild  state  in 
various  parts  of  South  America.  Mr.  Darwin,  who  met  with  the 
wild  animal  abundantly,  states  it  to  be  "  exceedingly  common  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  several  towns  which  stand  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rio  Plata.  It  frequents  different  kinds  of  stations,  such  as  hedge- 
rows made  of  the  agave  and  opuntia,  or  sand  hillocks  ;  and  again 
marshy  places  covered  with  aquatic  plants,  the  latter  appearing  to 
be  its  favourite  haunt.  Where  the  soil  is  dry  it  makes  a  burrow,  but 
where  otherwise  it  lives  concealed  amidst  the  herbage.  These 
animals  generally  come  out  to  feed  in  the  evening,  and  are  then 
tame  ;  but  if  the  day  be  gloomy  they  make  their  appearance  in  the 
morning.  They  are  said  to  be  very  injurious  to  young  trees.  An 
old  male  killed  at  Maldonado  weighed  i  lb.  3  oz."  Mr.  Darwin 
observed  that  in  this  animal  the  attachment  of  the  fur  to  the  skin  is 
very  slight.  Possessing  but  little  intelligence  and  very  timid,  the 
Guinea-pig  is  nevertheless  tamed  without  any  difficulty.  Azara,  who 
kept  one,  remarks,  that  though  he  took  no  pains  to  make  it  familiar, 
it  manifested  no  fear  when  in  his  presence,  and  seemed  quite  uncon- 
cerned. It  is  to  this  ease  with  which  the  wild  animal  becomes 
domesticated  that  we  owe  the  introduction  of  it  into  Europe,  for, 
excepting  that  it  is  a  very  pretty  creature,  there  is  nothing  to  render 
it  a  valuable  acquisition.  It  is,  however,  eaten  by  the  native  tribes 
of  Paraguay,  who  sometimes  capture  it  by  hundreds  when,  driven 
from  the  lowlands  by  sudden  inundations,  it  retreats  for  safety  to  the 
adjacent  hilly  grounds,  where  it  finds  neither  shelter  nor  conceal- 
ment. 

Of  the  genus  K'crodon  we  may  notice  the  Rock  Kerodon  [K'erodn?i 
mocu,  F.  Cuv.  ;  Cavi'a  rii;pesirts,  Pr.  Max).  It  is  a  native  of  the 
rocky  mountain  districts  in  the  interior  of  Brazil.  It  is  less  than  the 
Guinea-pig,  and  its  fur  is  very  thick  and  short.  The  colour  is  grey 
mi.xed  with  black,  and  reddish-brown  above,  the  under-parts  being 
white.  A  second  species.  King's  Kerodon  {Kerodon  Kiiigii),  was 
introduced  to  science  by  Mr.  Bennett.  It  was  found  by  Captain 
King  at  Port  Desire,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Patagonia.  In  size  it 
is  less  than  the  Guinea-pig,  being  about  nine  inches  long.  Its 
colour  is  more  uniform  than  that  of  the  Rock  Kerodon,  and  of  a 
deeper  tint  ;  a  slight  dash  of  white  is  perceptible  behind  each  ear, 
and  a  line  of  the  same  tint  marks  the  edge  of  each  branch  of  the 
lower  jaw.  Mr.  Darwin  states  that  this  Kerodon  "  is  common  at 
intervals  along  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  from  the  Rio  Negro  (lat.  40") 
to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  It  is  very  tame,  and  commonly  feeds  by 
day.  It  is  said  to  bring  forth  two  young  ones  at  a  birth.  At  the 
Rio  Negro  it  frequents  in  great  numbers  the  bottoms  of  old  ruins. 
At  Port  Desire  it  lives  beneath  the  ruins  of  the  old  Spanish  build- 
ings. At  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  I  have  seen,  amongst  the  Pata- 
gonian  Indians,  cloaks  for  small  children  made  with  the  skins  of  this 
little  animal.  And  the  Jesuit  Falkner  says  that  the  people  of  one  of 
the  southern  tribes  take  their  name  from  the  number  of  these 
animals  which  inhabit  their  country.  The  Spaniards  and  half-civi- 
lised Indians  call  the  Kerodon  '  Conejos,'  or  Rabbit,  and  thus  has 
the  mistake  arisen  that  Rabbits  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Straits  of  Magellan." 

The  Patagonian  Cav-v^  or  Mara  {DoIicJwtis  Pafac/wm'ca, 
Desm.  ;  Cavia  PatachoJiica,  Shaw). — This  large  Cavy  is  rare  in 
European  museums.  A  fine  specimen,  however,  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  and  the  Museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc.  It  is  a  beautiful 
animal,  standing  high  on  the  legs,  with  much  of  the  port  of  some  of 
the  bush  Antelopes  of  Africa.  Its  height  at  the  shoulder  is  about  a 
foot  and  a-half.  Its  length  is  about  2  feet  6  inches,  including  the 
tail,  which  is  nearly  two  inches  long.  It  lives  on  the  Pampas,  south 
of  IBuenos  Ayres,  and  especially  in  Patagonia.  It  is  noticed  by 
Narborough,  Wood,  and  Byron  as  being  very  abundant  in  Port 
Desire,  and  also  at  Port  St.  Julian,  where,  however,  it  does  not  now  ■ 
appear  to  exist.  It  is  only  where  the  country  has  a  desert  character 
that  this  species  is  common  ;  and  in  the  wilds  of  Patagonia,  little 
groups  of  two,  three,  or  four  may  be  continually  seen  hopping  after 
each  other  in  a  straight  line,  over  plains  of  gravel  thinly  clothed 
with  a  few  thorny  dreary  bushes  and  a  withered  herbage.     (See  Fig. 

519O 

According  to  Azara,  this  Cavy  does  not  range  higher  north  than 
latitude  35°  ;  but  in  this  statement  he  appears  to  be  mistaken,  for 
Mr.  Darwin  observed,  that  near  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  its  northern 
limit  is  formed  by  the  Sierra  Tapalguen,  in  latitude  37°  30',  where 
the  plains  rather  suddenly  become  greener  and  more  humid  ;  and  he 
remarks  that  its  limit  there  certainly  depends  on  this  change,  since 
near  Mendoza,  33°  30' ,  four  degrees  farther  northward,  where  the 
country  is  very  sterile,  this  animal  again  occurs.  Azara  states  that 
this  Cavy  never  excavates  its  own  burrow,  but  always  uses  that  of 
the  Viscacha,  or  Biscacha  ;  and  Mr.  Darwin  considers  that  where 


THE  CAPYBARA. 


'97 


tliat  animal  is  present,  Azara's  statement  is  doubtless  correct,  but 
that  on  the  sandy  plains  of  Bahia  Blanca,  where  the  Biscacha  is  not 
found,  this  Cavy,  as  the  Spaniards  maintain,  is  its  own  workman. 
The  same  thing,  he  adds,  occurs  with  the  little  Owls  of  the  Pampas 
{Noctua  cunicularia),  which  have  been  described  by  travellers  as 
standinjj  like  sentinels  at  the  mouths  of  almost  every  burrow  ;  for  in 
Banda  Oriental,  owing-  to  the  absence  of  the  Biscacha,  these  birds 
are  obliged  to  hollow  out  their  own  habitations.  Azara  moreover 
states  that,  e.\cept  when  pressed  by  danger,  this  Cavy  does  not  have 


I'atcigonian  Cavy. 


recourse  to  its  burrow  for  safety,  but  crouches  on  the  plains,  or  trusts 
to  its  speed;  adding,  however,  that  it  is  soon  run  down.  On  the 
contrary,  Mr.  Darwin  asserts,  that  at  Bahia  Blanca  he  repeatedly 
saw  two  or  three  animals  sitting  on  their  haunches  by  the  mouths  of 
their  holes,  which  they  quietly  entered  as  he  passed  by  at  a  distance. 
He  remarks,  however,  that,  different  from  most  burrowing  animals, 
they  wander,  commonly  two  or  three  together,  to  miles  or  even 
leagues  from  their  home,  and  he  was  not  able  to  ascertain  whether 
or  not  they  returned  at  night.  This  species  is  diurnal  in  its  habits, 
roaming  about  by  day.  It  is  very  shy  and  watchful,  seldom  squats 
after  the  manner  of  a  Hare,  and  cannot  run  fast,  so  that  indifferent 
Dogs  easily  overtake  it.  The  female  breeds  in  her  burrow,  generally 
producing  two  young  ones  at  a  birth.  The  flesh  of  this  animal  is 
white,  but  dry  and  insipid.  The  skin  with  the  fur  on  is  in  esteem, 
being  used  for  rugs,  and  is  beautiful  from  the  character  of  the  hair, 
which  is  full  and  soft,  and  from  the  tasteful  arrangement  of  the 
marking.  The  colour  of  the  back  is  brown,  grizzled  with  white, 
verging  into  yellow  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  on  the  limbs,  but 
becoming  black  as  it  approaches  the  haunch  :  this  dark  hue  is  there 
abruptly  interrupted  by  a  white  band  passing  transversely  above  the 
root  of  the  tail,  and  spreading  on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  thighs. 
The  appearance  of  this  white  mark  is  very  striking.  The  chest, 
inside  of  the  limbs,  and  under-part  of  the  body,  are  also  white.  The 
ears  are  three  inches  and  a-half  in  length,  erect  and  pointed.  Full- 
grown  individuals  weigh  between  twenty  and  twenty-six  pounds. 
The  young,  it  is  said,  may  be  easily  domesticated. 

The  Capybara,  or  Water-Pig  {Hydrochcerus  capybara). 
Cabiai,  Buff. — -The  Capybara  (the  only  known  species  of  the  genus 
Ilydrochccriis)  is  the  largest  of  all  the  Hodeniia ;  and  its  size,  its 
massive,  heavy  proportions,  its  thick  head,  and  the  bristly  character 
of  its  hair,  give  it  a  degree  of  resemblance  to  some  of  the  Pachy- 
dcrmata.  Marcgrave  regards  it  as  a  sort  of  aquatic  Hog ;  Fermins,  in 
his  "  History  of  Surinam,"  1775,  terms  it  Parens fluviatilis,  or  River- 
Hog  ;  while  Pennant  gives  it  the  title  of  Thick-nosed  Tapir.  It  is 
also  the  Cochon  d'eau of  Desmarchais  ;  the  Sus maximus^aliistris 
of  Barrere  ;  and  the  Sus  hydrocJucrus.  Pig-like  as  the  Capybara 
may  be  in  its  external  aspect,  it  is  nevertheless  a  genuine  Rodent,  as 
much  so  as  the  Hare  or  Agouti.  Its  dentition  consists  of  the  usual 
incisors,  which  are  of  prodigious  size  and  strength :  those  in  the 
upper  jaw  have  a  deep  longitudinal  furrow  on  their  outer  surface. 
The  molars  are  four  on  each  side,  above  and  below  ;  and  consist  of 
a  series  of  obliquely  transverse,  parallel  lamina;  of  enamel  (Fig.  520), 
presenting  acute  lateral  projections  in  the  three  first  teeth :  these 
projections  are  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  upper  teeth  and  the  inner 
edge  of  the  lower.  The  spaces  enclosed  by  the  layers  of  enamel  are 
filled  in  with  osseous  matter,  and  the  whole  is  united  into  a  single 
mass  by  intervening  cortical  matter,  or  crusta  petrosa.  The  molars 
of  the  Capybara  are  in  fact  analogous  to  those  of  the  Elephant. 

We  have  stated  that,  in  some  Rodents,  the  fauces,  or  back  of  the 
mouth,  is  continued  funnel-shaped,  opening  into  the  oesophagus 
through  a  small  orifice  surrounded  by  a  muscle  of  circular  fibres, 
allowing  only  the  gradual  transmission  of  food  which  has  been  pre- 
viously reduced  to  a  thorough  pulp.  This  structural  peculiarity  was 
first  pointed  out  in  the  Capybara  by  Mr.  Morgan  ("  Linn.  Trans.," 
vol.  xvi.) ;  but  we  meet  with  it  also  in  the  Coypu,  the  Capromys,  and 
the  Beaver.  (See  "  Proc.  Zool.  Soc."  1832,  p.  -^t,;  1835,  p.  175-) 
In  the  Capybara  the  head  is  large,  the  muzzle  thick  and  blunt,  the 
upper  lip  deeply  fissured  ;  the  eyes  are  moderately  large  ;  the  ears 
small  and  rounded.     The  naked  patch,  of  the  size  of  half-a-crown, 


occupies  the  cheek  a  little  below  each  eye.  The  fore-limbs  arc  short 
hlrd'Z,?'-""'  ' ''  t°<-:^'^^■■">^^fo"^,  furnished  with  strong  claws  Uie 
n   ;  ;  .^r       .'••''  '°  ""'■'■  ''?'  '•''"-"  "^•■'"  "^o^<^  before,  and  the  whole 

^[n  .nil  ■"^'^  °r-''"'  three  in  number,  having  strong  large  hoof- 
hke   nails,  and  being  partially  connected  together  by  intervening^ 


Fig.  520. — Teeth  of  Capybara. 

membranes.  The  tail,  a  mere  rudiment,  is  scarcely  to  be  perceived. 
This  animal  exceeds  3  feet  6  inches  in  length,  and  its  body,  which  is 
rnore  than  3  feet  in  girth,  owing  to  its  bulk  and  the  shortness  of  the 
limbs,  almost  touches  the  ground.  It  is  covered  with  long,  coarse, 
thinly-set  hairs  of  a  sandy  or  brownish-grey.  A  line  specimen, 
stuffed,  is  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  and  a  living 
one  may  be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  that  Society.     (See  Fig.  521.) 


Fig.  521. — Capybara. 

The  Capybara  is  a  gregarious  animal,  frequenting  the  rich  and 
wooded  borders  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  in  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Para- 
guay. Mr.  Darwin  states  that  it  is  common  wherever  there  are  large 
rivers  or  lakes,  over  that  part  of  the  South  American  continent  which 
lies  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Plata,  a  distance  of  nearly  1,400 
miles.  They  are  not  generally  supposed  to  extend  south  of  the 
Plata  ;  but  he  heard  that  there  were  Capybaras  (provincially  termed 
Laguna  Carpincho)  high  up  the  Salado.  and  presumes  that  they 
have  sometimes  been  seen  south  of  the  former  river.  This  animal 
lives  usually  in  small  companies,  which  remain  concealed  among 
the  thickets  and  dense  herbage  of  the  borders  of  the  water  during 
the  day,  and  wander  forth  at  night  to  feed.  When  alarmed,  the 
Capybara  utters  a  loud  cry  like  the  vow-el  sounds  a-pr,  and  imme- 
diately makes  for  the  water,  into  which  it  plunges,  swimming  with 
great  ease  and  quickness,  little  more  than  its  nose  appearing  above 
the  surface.  If  hard  pressed  or  wounded,  it  dives  in  order  to  bafHe 
its  pursuers,  and  then  endeavours  to  gain  a  more  secure  place  of 
concealment.  It  is  eagerly  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is 
accounted  good,  though  of  a  musky  flavour :  the  hind-quarters  are 
made  into  hams.  Of  its  natural  enemies,  the  terrible  Jaguar  is  the 
most  formidable :  this  powerful  beast  steals  ugon  the  Capybara  by 
surprise,  and  destroys  numbers.     The  food  of  the  Capybara  consists 


1 98 


THE  HARE  FAMILY. 


exclusively  of  grass  and  vesjetables,  as  water-melons,  gourds,  &c. 

Azara  does  not  believe  that  tliese  animals  ever  frequent  salt  water. 

Mr.  Darwin  shot  one  in  the  bay  of  Monte  Video,  an  old  female, 

measuring,  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  stumji-Iikc  tail, 

3  feet  8i  inches  ;  in  girth,  3  feet  2  inchr  . 

and  weighing  gS  lbs.     Several  also  w. 

seen  by  the  officers  of  the  Bcag!  ■  -•■"  • 

island  of  Guritti,  off  Maldonadn, 

the  water  is  nearly  as  salt  as  in  ih,    .,  .1. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Apure,  HumboMi 
saw  the  Capybara,  which  he  calls  Clii 
guira,   in  troops  of  fifty   or   si.xty.     lb 
notices  the  ease  of  the  Capybara  in  tin 
water;  and  states  that  he  saw  with  sur 
prise  the  animals,  affrighted  by  the  ap 
proach  of  a  boat,  dive  and  remain  from 
eight  to  ten  minutes  under  water.     On 
the  Apure,  Arauco,  &c.,  and  in  the  va~ 
savannahs  of  the  Llanos,  the  animal  1 
said  to  be  often  seen  in  droves  of  a  hun 
dred.     They  there  browse  upon  a  sort  of 
grass  called  chiguirirero. 

The  common  posture  of  the  Capybara, 
when  atrest,  is  sitting  upon  the  haunches, 
the  soles  of  the  hind-feet  being  applied 
flat  to  the  ground,  like  the  Agouti,  the 
Viscacha,  and  many  others  of  the  Ro- 
dents. The  female  breeds  once  in  a 
year,  and  brings  forth  from  four  to  six 
or  seven  at  a  birth,  having  prepared  a 
snug  bed  of  dried  herbs  and  grasses. 

The  Hare — Family  LeporidcB. 

The  Leporida,  or  Hares,  are  at  once 
distinguished  from  all  the  other  Rodents 
by  the  possession  of  a  small  additionnl 
incisor  behind  each  of  the  two  larL;^' 
chisel-like  incisorteeth  in  the  upper  jaw. 
They  also  present  several  other  remark- 
able characters,  amongst  which  we  may 
notice  that  the  orbits  communicate  with 
each  other  through  an  aperture  in  the 
septum — a  structure  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  class  of  birds.  The  max- 
illary bones  are  pierced  with  numerous 
sieve-like  holes — a  character  which  is 
otherwise  peculiar  to  the  Ruminants. 
The  molar  teeth  have  a  transverse  ridge 
of  enamel,  so  that  they  appear  to  be 
composed  of  two  halves  ;  they  are  usually 

six  in  the  upper,  and  five  in  the  lower  jaw ;  but  in  some  species  the 
upper  jaw  has  only  five  molar  teeth.  The  Leporidcs  are  all  strictly 
herbivorous  animals. 

The  Common  Hare  {Lcpus  Timidiis).    Aaywf  (Lagos)  of  the 


Greeks ;  Lcpus  of  the  Latins ;  Lepre  and  Lievora  of  the  modern 
Italians  ;  Liebre  and  Lebratello  of  the  Spaniards ;  Lebre  and  I.c- 
brimho  of  the  Portuguese  ;  Lievre,  French  ;  Has,  Haas,  and  Hase  of 
the  Germans  ;   Haas  and  Haze  of  the  Danes  :   Hara  of  the  Swedes  ; 


Fig.  522, — Teeth  of  Common  Hare. 


Hara  of  the  Anglo-Saxons ;  Ysgyfarnog,  Ceinach,  of  the  Ancient 
British. 

Dental  formula: — Incisors,  4  ;    molars,  -^^.    (See  Fig.  522.)  The 
2  5—5 

ears  are  long ;  the  eyes  large  ;  the  tail  short  and  turned  upwards ; 
five  toes  before,  four  behind  ;  feet  and  toes  hairy  beneath. 

The  common  Hare  of  this  country  is  distributed  in  most  parts  of 
Europe.  It  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  true  Hares,  in  which 
the  disproportion  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs  attains  its  highest 
degree  ;  and  its  habits  may  therefore  serve  to  exemplify  thfse  of  that 
group  of  the  family.  The  Hare  frequents  thickets  [(see  Fig.  523), 
where  it  rests  during  the  day  in  a  shallow  depression,  which  it  makes 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  comes  abroad  at  night  to  feed  on 
the  tender  herbage.  This  resting-place  is  called  the  form,  and  the 
Hare's  attachment  to  it  is  proverbial;  it  shifts  its  residence,  how- 
ever, with  the  season,  so  as  to  get  a  warm  place  in  the  winter.  Its 
senses  are  exceedingly  acute,  and  give  it  timely  notice  of  the  approach 
of  danger :  when  pursued  it  runs  with  the  greatest  swiftness,  and 
adopts  a  great  variety  of  expedients  to  escape  from  its  enemies.  It 
takes  the  water  freely,  not  only  when  pursued,  but  in  passing  from 
one  place  to  another;  and  the  "Magazine  of  Natural  History" 
contains  an  account  of  a  Hare  being  seen  to  swim  across  an  arm  of 
the  sea  a  mile  in  breadth — apparently  on  his  return,  like  another 
Leander,  from  his  beloved,  who  came  down  to  the  shore  to  see  him 
off.  The  chase  of  the  Hare  is  a  favourite  sport  in  most  countries, 
and  its  flesh  is  veiy  highly  esteemed  ;  the  ancients  even  attributed 
medicinal  properties  to  it.  It  has  frequently  been  tamed,  and  ap- 
pears then  to  be  an  amusing  pet.  In  cold  climates  it  is  said  to  be- 
come white  in  the  winter ;  but  this  phenomenon  is  presented  in  a 
more  striking  manner  by  some  of  the  northern  species,  of  which  the 
Alpine  Hare  (Z.  variabilis),  which  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  this 
country,  is  an  example.  North  America  possesses  numerous  species 
of  Hares  ;  in  some  of  these  the  tail  is  upwards  of  five  inches  long. 

The  Alpine  Hare  is  intermediate  in  size  between  the  Rabbit  and 
the   English  Hare.      In  Sutherlandshirc  and    other  parts  of  the 


TAME   RABBITS. 


THE  RABBIT. 


199 


The  flesh  of  the 
with  M.  Ude  in 


Scottish  Highlands  it  tennnts  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  hiding- 
in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  amonq-  rocky  fragments.  During- the  winter, 
lichen  is  its  staple  food.  At  this  season  it  descends  to  a  lower  and 
less  exposed  station  ;  and  its  fur,  gradually  losing  the  light  fulvous 
grey  of  summer,  becomes  of  a  snowy 
white,  the  tips  of  its  ears  (which  are 
shorter  than  the  head)  remaining 
black. 

The  common  Hare  of  Ireland  (Ze- 
j)us  Hibernic7is)  is  again  distinct 
from  the  common  Hare  of  England. 

Though  somewhat  larger  than  the 
English  species,  its  head  is  shorter 
and  more  rounded ;  its  ears  still 
shorter  than  its  head,  and  its  limbs 
less  lengthened.  The  fur  also  dif- 
fers greatly  in  its  quality  from  that 
of  our  common  Hare,  and  is  useless 
as  an  article  of  trade. 

The  Rabbit  {Lepus  Cunicuhis). 
Coney,  Anglice  ;  Coneglio  of  the 
Italians  ;  Conejo,  Spanish  ;  Coelho, 
Portuguese  ;  Koniglein  and  Kanin- 
chen,  German  ;  Konin,  Dutch  ; 
Kanin,  Sw'cdish  ;  Kanine,  Danish  ; 
and  Cwningen  of  the  Welsh.     (See 

Fi.?-  525-) 

Size  excepted,  the  Rabbit  closely 
resembles  the  Hare  in  all  its  prin- 
cipal characters.  It  may,  however, 
be  at  once  distinguished  by  the 
comparative  shortness  of  the  head 
and  ears,  as  well  as  of  the  hinder 
limbs  ;  the  absence  of  a  black  tip  to 
the  ears  ;  and  by  the  brown  colour 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail.  Its 
habits  and  general  economy  are 
totally  opposite  to  those  of  the 
Hare ;  and  its  flesh,  instead  of 
being  dark  and  highly  flavoured,  is 
white,  and,  though  delicate,  some- 
what insipid,  especially  that  of  the  tame  breed, 
latter  is  indeed  preferred  by  some,  but  we  agree 
thinking  it  very  inferior. 

It  would  appear  that  the  Rabbit  is  not  an  aboriginal  of  our  island, 
but  the  date  of  its  introduction  is  unknown.  In  the  year  1309,  at 
the  installation  feast  of  the  Abbot  of  St.  Austin's,  six  hundred  of 
these  animals  were  provided,  at  the  then  greait  cost  of  ;^I5  ;  the 
price  of  each  (sixpence)  being  that  of  a 
Pig.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
Rabbit  was  first  introduced  into  Spain 
from  Africa  by  the  Romans,  whence  it 
gradually  spread,  naturalising  itself  in 
temperate  climates. 

This  animal  is  eminently  gregarious  ; 
and,  as  is  well  known,  makes  extensive 
burrows,  in  which  it  habitually  dwells 
and  rears  its  young.  Sandy  soils,  with  a 
superficial  layer  of  fine  vegetable  mould 
clothed  with  thyme,  fine  grass,  and 
other  herbage,  which  at  the  same  time 
afford  food  and  are  easily  mined,  are 
favourable  spots  for  the  increase  of  the 
Rabbit.  They  delight  in  steep  sand- 
banks overhung  with  brushwood  and 
furze  ;  and  we  have  remarked,  that  when 
the  old  red  sandstone  crops  out,  and  is 
rendered  friable,  or  somewhat  decom- 
posed by  the  action  of  the  atmospheric 
elements.  Rabbits  are  very  numerous, 
burrowing  with  great  facility.  They 
abound  also  in  woods,  especially  such 
as  clothe  the  declivities  of  hills,  whence, 
like  the  Hare,  they  make  incursions  into 
the  adjacent  corn-lands.  A  Rabbit- 
warren — that  is,  a  wide  sandy  heath,  or 
extensive  common,  devoted  to  their  in- 
crease and  feeding — when  visited  at  the 
close  of  day  or  by  moonlight,  affords  an 
amusing  spectacle.  Hundreds  may  be 
seen  of  all  sizes,  gambolling  and  sport- 
ing, and  chasing  each  other  with  astonishing  rapidity, 
alarmed,  they  take  to  their  burrows,  disappearing  as  if  by  magic. 
(See  Fig.  525.) 

The  female  is  capable  of  breeding  at  six  months  old  ;  and  four  or 
five  litters,  consisting  each  of  about  five  young,  arc  annually  pro- 
duced.    The  Hare  produces  her  young  clothed,  capable  of  seeing, 


and  soon  in  a  condition  to  shift  for  themselves.     With  the  Rabbit 
circumstances  are  widely  different.     The  young  are  born  blind,  .ind 

at  the  bottom  of  which  she  makes  a  nest  of  dried  grass,  lining  it 


V//I  (  ^ 
Fig.  524. — Group  of  Hares. 


with  fur  taken  from  her  own  body.  In  this  nest  she  deposits  her 
young ;  carefully  covering  them  over  every  time  she  leaves  them. 
It  is  not  until  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day  that  the  young  are  able 
to  see  ;  nor  do  they  leave  the  burrow  till  four  or  five  weeks  old. 

The  Wild  Rabbit  is  undoubtedly  the  origin  of  our  various  domestic 
breeds.  Tame  Rabbits,  indeed,  easily  resume  their  natural  state  of 
freedom,  and  return  to  their  instinctive  habits.    Albinoes  are  com- 


When 


Fig.  525.— Group  of  Rabbits. 

mon  in  a  state  of  domestication,  and  it  often  happens  that  one  or 
two  apoear  in  a  litter  when  neither  of  the  parents  are  so. 

The'"Ostend"    Rabbits,  of  which   hundreds  of  thousands  are 
yeariy  imported  into  England,   are  a  variety  which   are  bred  like 
Sheep,  in  flocks,  for  the  purpose  of  food, 
variety  of  objects. 


The  skins  are  used  for  a 


THE  CALLING-HARES. 


The  Syrian  Hare. — According  to  Desmarest,  the  common 
Hare  of  Europe  exists  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Syria.  It  is, 
however,  very  probable  that  the  Egyptian  Hare  [Lcpiis  JEgyptius) 
extends  into  the  latter  region.     It  differs  from  the  European  species 


""'"^kk. 


Fig.  326. — Syrian  Hares. 

principally  in  the  greater  proportionate  length  of  its  hind-limbs  and 
ears.     (See  Fig.  526.) 

The  Dwarf  'Pika,  or  Calling-Hare  {Lagomys  ^usilhts). 
The  Calling-Hare  of  Pennant  ;  Semlanoi  Saetshik,  or  Ground-Hare, 
of  the  Russians  about  the  Volga ;  Tschatschat  or  Ittsitskan, 
Barking  Mouse,  of  the  Tartars  ;  Rusla  of  the  Calmucs. 

In  the  genus  Lagomys  the  muzzle  is  acute  ;  the  cars  short  and 
somewhat  rounded,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  hairy ;  the  tail  is 
wanting.     The  dental  formula  approaches  that  of  the  genus  Lepus : — 


and  the  west  part  of  the  Altaic  chain,  but  occurs  nowhere  in  the 
east  beyond  the  Obi. 

These  animals  delight  in  sunny  valleys  and  the  declivities  of  hills, 
where  food  is  plentiful,  and  especially  where  woods  or  forests  afford 
them  a  refuge  in  time  of  danger.  They 
dig  deep  and  intricate  burrows,  the 
openings  of  which  are  not  above  two 
inches  in  diameter,  and  are  usually 
formed  beneath  the  concealment  of  a 
bush,  in  situations  abounding  with 
thickets  and  underwood,  and  with  the 
XT? "^^^ /' r/jJAi^-  various  shrubs  and  grasses  upon  which 

">Oit/^l '  P  ^^Jci-»  they  feed.    They  lead  for  the  most  part  a 

solitary  life  ;  sleep  during  the  day,  with 
unclosed  eyelids,  like  the  Hare,  and 
emerge  from  their  retreats  at  night,  in 
search  of  food,  which  principally  con- 
sists of  the  bark  of  the  young  bushes, 
flowers,  buds,  and  grass.  They  form 
no  winter  store  ;  but  during  the  incle- 
ment portion  of  the  year,  still  continue 
to  seek  out,  by  excavating  tracks  be- 
neath the  snow,  their  accustomed  fare, 
and  they  are  frequently  subjected  to 
severe  privations,  and  even  death,  in 
consequence  of  a  deficiency  of  their 
favourite  plants.  They  drink  often  when 
they  happen  to  be  near  water,  but  can 
exist  with  very  little.  The  females  pro- 
duce, at  each  litter,  five  or  six  young, 
which  are  born  blind,  helpless,  and  with- 
out fur  ;  but  in  eight  days  they  acquire 
sight,  are  covered  with  hair,  and  begin 
to  enjoy  the  use  of  their  limbs. 

The  most  obvious  peculiarity  of  these 
Pikas   is   their  voice,    from  which  they 
have   acquired  their  trivial  name.     Its 
tone  is  so  like  that  of  a  Quail,  that  it 
is  often  mistaken  for  it  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  their  native  districts.     It  is  heard 
only  in  the  morning  and  evening,  except 
in  dark  and  cloudy  weather,  and  is  re- 
peated five  or  six  times  by  each  animal  at  regular  intervals,  and  is 
loud  and  sonorous.     Both  the  male  and  female  utter  this  note  ;  but 
the  latter  is  silent  for  some  time  after  she  has  brought  forth  her 
young,  which  takes  place  in  the  month  of  May. 


Incisors,  ft  ; 


molars,  ^ — ^ 
5-5' 


The    genus  Lagomys  is  widely  dis- 


tributed, though  the  species  described  are  not  numerous.  About 
five  are  known,  and  of  these  three  are  natives  of  the  rocky  deserts  of 
Tartary  and  Siberia  ;  the  fourth  is  a  native  of  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains ;  a  fifth,  of  the  Rocky  Blountains  in  the  high  northern  regions 
of  America,  from  latitude  52°  to  60°. 

The  Pikas  are  pretty  little  animals,  with  something  of  the  manners 
of  our  Rabbits,  and  dwell  in  burrows,  which  are  artfully  concealed. 

The  Dwarf  Pika,  or  Calling-Hare,  measures  little  more  than  six 
inches  in  total  length.  It  has  the  head  longer  than  usual  with 
Hares,  and  thickly  covered  with  fur,  even  to  the  tip  of  the  nose  ; 
numerous  hairs  in  the  whiskers  ;  ears  large  and  rounded ;  legs  very 
short ;  soles  furred  beneath  ;  its  whole  coat  very  soft,  long,  and 
smooth,  with  a  thick,  long,  fine  down  beneath,  of  a  brownish-lead 
colour  ;  the  hairs  of  the  same  colour — towards  the  ends  of  a  light 
grey,  and  tipped  with  black  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  body  hoary  ;  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  fur  yellowish.  Weight  from  three  and  a 
quarter  to  four  and  a-half  ounces  ;  in  winter  scarcely  two  and  a-half 
ounces.     (See  Fig.  527.) 

The  Dwarf  Pika,  or  Calling-Hare,  is  found  in  the  south-east 
parts  of  Russia,  and  about  the  mountain. ridge  spreading  from  the 
Ural  chain  to  the  south  ;  it  also  frequents  the  borders  of  the  Irtish, 


Fig-  527. — Dwarf  Pika. 

The  Pikas  are  exceedingly  gentle.  Pallas  states  that  they  will 
acquire  confidence,  and  become  tame,  in  the  course  of  a  day  after 
captivity.  They  sit  in  a  crouching  posture,  like  the  Chinchilla,  and 
are  extremely  cleanly,  frequently  rubbing  their  faces  with  their  fore- 
paws,  after  the  manner  of  Rabbits,  and  scratching  their  fur  with 
their  hinder  claws.  They  run  by  short  leaps  ;  and  sleep  stretched 
out  at  full  length. 


THE  ARMADILLO  AND  SLOTH. 


CHAPTER     XV. 

MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  EDENTATA,  OR  BRUTA— TOOTHLESS  ANIMALS. 


HE  Edentata  {orms  a  very  remarkable 
and  interesting-  order  of  the  Mammah'a, 
lore  especially  as  some  extinct  members 
afford  a  connecting-  link  between  the  present 
and  a  much  earlier  era  of  the  natural  history 
of  our-world.  The  fossilised  remains  of  these 
animals  present  us  with  gigantic  creatures, 
before  wliich  even  the  largest  Elephant  is 
ij  diminutive  in  size  ;  and  not  only  so  ;  their  dis- 
covery  affords  many  important  facts  relating- 
to  the  distribution  of  the  order  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  The  distinguishing  character  of 
the  order  is  found  in  the  total  absence  of  the  incisor 
teeth,  with  the  exception  of  one — the  Armadillo 
{^Dasypits  setosus),  in  which  a  single  tooth  is  found 
in  each  intermaxillary  bone,  but  placed  so  completely 
at  the  sides  of  these  bones,  that  the  front  of  the 
mouth  is  quite  destitute  of  teeth.  The  canine  teeth 
are  also  deficient  in  most  of  the  species,  and  some  are 
even  destitute  of  molars,  so  that  the  jaws  exhibit  no 
trace  of  teeth.  The  latter  are  exceedingly  simple 
in  their  construction,  quite  destitute  of  roots,  and 
remarkably  similar  in  each  species.  (See  Fig.  528.) 
The  structure  of  the  skeleton  varies  considerably, 
according  to  the  particular  habits  of  the  animals  ;  in 
some  it  is  adapted  for  terrestrial  progression  ;  whilst 
in  others-  it  is  remarkably  fitted  for  climbing  upon  trees.  The  toes 
are  furnished  with  very  long  and  powerful  curved  claws. 

The  skin  is  often  covered  with  hair  ;  sometimes  with  horny  or  even 
bony  scales  or  plates  ;  the  external  ear  is  frequently  wanting,  and 
the  tail  varies  greatly  in  its  de- 
velopment, being  occasionally  of 
great  length;  at  times  rudimen- 
tary. 

The  Edentata  are  all  confined 
to  the  tropical  parts  of  the  world, 
and  principally  to  the  Southern 
hemisphere.  They  are  sluggish 
animals,  for  the  most  part  noctur- 
nal in  their  habits  ;  some  of  them 

live  upon  vegetable,  and  some  upon  animal  food  ;  the  former  are 
arboreal  in  their  habits  ;  whilst  the  latter  are  terrestrial,  and  gene- 
rally burrow  in  the  earth.  They  are  usually  of  small  or  moderate 
size ;  but  the  remains  of  some  gigantic  extinct  species  have  been 
found  in  South  America,  which  is  still  the  country  in  which  the 
Edentata  most  abound.  A  description  of  these  animals  will  subse- 
quently be  given. 

Mr.  Dallas  remarks  that,  according  to  the  views  of  some  natural- 
ists, there  are  three  leading  families — the  MyrmecophagidcB,  or 
ANT-EATERS,  the  Dasypodidcs,  or  Armadillos,  and  the  Bradypo- 
didcB,  or  Sloths.  Other  naturalists  resolve  them  into  two  great 
sections — namely,  the  Leaf -eaters ,  and  the  Insect-  or  Ftesh-eaters. 
The  first  to  which  we  shall  draw  attention  is  the  Bradypodtdce,  or 
Sloth  family. 

Bradypodid.5:,  or  Sloths. 

The  Common  Sloth,  or  Ai  {Bradyjius  tHdactylus),  represents 
creatures  as  extraordinary  in  their  habits  as  in  their  organisation, 
the  one  having  a  mutual  relationship  to  the  other.  They  are  exclu- 
sively arboreal  ;  the  trees  afford  them  at  once  their  needful  food  and 
their  permanent  abiding-place  :  and  for  the  trees  alone  are  they 
structurally  adapted.  It  is  not  long  since  that  the  Sloth  was  con- 
demned as  a  degraded  miserable  being  ;  slow  and  embarrassed  in 
all  its  movements,  and  wretchedly  framed,  as  if  Nature  had  bungled 
in  its  creation.  Inconsistent  with  philosophy,  and  presumptuous  in 
the  extreme,  is  such  an  opinion.  The  tall  Giraffe  and  the  sinewy- 
limbed  Antelope  are  not  more  directly  organised  for  their  respective 
requirements,  than  is  the  Sloth  for  its  appointed  place  in  the  scale  of 
creation.  Were  it  a  terrestrial  animal,  then  indeed  might  we  call 
its  structure  defective  ;  but,  its  mode  of  life  taken  into  consideration, 
we  view  it  in  another  light,  and  perceive  that  it  affords  a  marked  ex- 
ample of  design  and  purpose. 

Buffon's  eloquent  misrepresentation  of  the  Sloth  need  not  detain 
us  ;  but  we  cannot  avoid  expressing  our  surprise  that  the  great  Cuvier 
not  only  quotes  the  words  of  that  naturalist,  but  even  follows  up  his 
ideas.     The  only  e.xcuse  is,  that  the  habits  of  the  animal,  till  re- 


Fig.  528.— Skull  of  the  Armadillo. 


cently,  were  very  imperfectly  understood  ;  yet  might  we  not  expect 
that  a  philosopher  would  pause  before  concluding  that,  in  the  works 
of  nature,  there  occurred  exceptions  to  the  laws  of  harmony  by  which 
the  whole  is  governed. 

Professor  Owen,  who  has  made  elaborate  investigations  into  the 
recent  and  extinct  families  of  the  Edentata,  makes  the  following  re- 
marks in  regard  to  the  skeleton  of  the  Sloth  :— The  transition  from 
the  quadrupeds  with  hoofs  to  those  with  claws,  seems  in  the  present 
series  to  be  abrupt ;  but  it  was  made  gradual  by  a  group  of  animals, 
now  extinct,  which  combined  hoofs  and  claws  in  the  same   foot. 
Some  of  the  outer  toes,  at  least,  were  stunted  and  buried  in  a  thick 
callosity,  for  the  ordinary  purpose  of  walking,  whilst  the  other  toes 
were  provided  with  very  long  and  strong  claws  for  uprooting  or  tear- 
ing off  the  branches  of  trees.     These  singular  beasts  were  of  great 
bulk,  and  appear  to  have  been  peculiar  to  America.     As  restored  by 
anatomical  science,  they  have  received  the  names  oi  Mcgatlierium, 
Mcgalonyx,  My/odon,  &c.     They  were  huge  terrestrial'Sloths  :  the 
present  remnants  of  the  family  consist  of  very  few  species,  enabled 
by  their  restricted  bulk  to  climb  the  trees  in  quest  of  their  leafy  food, 
and  peculiarly  organised  for  arboreal  life.     The  toes,  which  were 
modified  in  their  huge  predecessors,  to  tread  the  ground,  are  reduced 
to   rudiments,    or  are  undeveloped;    and  those   only  are   retained 
which  support  the  claws,  now  rendered,  by  their  length  and  curva- 
ture, admirable  instruments  for  clinging  to  the  branches.    Thew-hole 
structure  of  the  hind  and  fore-limbs  is  modified  to  give  full  effect  to 
these  instruments  as  movers  and  suspenders  of  the  body  in  the  re- 
treats for  which  the  Sloths  are  destined  ;  and  in  the  same  degree, 
the  power  of  the  limbs  to  support  and  carry  the  animal  along  the 
bare  ground  is  abrogated.     Accordingly,  when  a  Sloth  is  placed  on 
level  ground,  it  presents  the  aspect  of  the  most  helpless  and  crippled 
of  creatures.     It  is  less  able  to  raise  its  trunk  above  its  limbs  than 
the  Seal,  and  can  only  progress  by  availing  itself  of  some  inequality 
in  the  soil  offering  a  holdfast  to  its  claws,  and  enabling  it  to  drag 
itself  along.     But  to  judge  of  the  creative   dispensations  towards 
such  an  animal  by  observation  of  it,   or  reports  of  its  procedure, 
under  these  unnatural  circumstances,  would  be  as  reasonable  as  a 
speculation  on  the  natural  powers  of  a  tailor  suddenly  transferred 
from  his  shop-board  to  the  rigging  of  a  ship  under  weigh,  or  of  a 
thorough-bred  seaman  mounted  for  the  first  time  on  a  full-blood 
horse  at  Ascot.     Rouse  the  prostrate  Sloth,  and  let  it  hook  on  to  the 
lovifer  bough  of  a  tree,  and  the  comparative  agility  with  which  it 
inounts  to  the  topmost  branches  will  surprise  the  spectator.     (See 
Fig.  529.)     In  its  native  South  American  woods  its  agility  is  still 
rnore  remarkable,  when  the  trees  are  agitated  by  a  storn-i.     At  that 
time  the  instinct  of  the  Sloth  teaches  it  that  the  migration  from  tree 
to  tree  will  be  most  facilitated.     Swinging  to  and  fro,  back  down- 
wards, as  is  its  habitual  position,  at  the  end  of  a  branch  just  strong 
enough  to  support  the  animal,  it  takes  advantage  of  the  first  branch 
of  the  adjoining  tree  that  may  be  swayed  by  the  blast  within  its 
reach,  and  stretching  out  its  fore-limb,  it  hooks  itself  on,  and  at  once 
transfers  itself  to  what  is  equivalent  to  a  fresh  pasture.     The  story  of 
the  Sloth  voluntarily  dropping  to  the  ground,  and  crawling,  under 
pressure  of  starvation,  to  another  tree,  is  one  of  the  fabulous  excres- 
cences of  a  credulous  and  gossipfng  zoolog)'. 

In  the  Sloth,  accordingly  (Fig.  530),  the  fore-limbs  are  much 
elongated,  and  that  less  at  the  expense  of  the  hand  than  of  the  arm 
and  fore-arm.  The  humerus,  53,  is  of  unwonted  length — is  slender 
and  straight;  the  radius,  55,  and  ulna,  54,  are  of  similar  proportions 
— the  former  straight,  the  latter  so  bent  as  to  leave  a  wide  interosse- 
ous space.  Now,  moreover,  these  bones,  instead  of  being  firmly 
united  as  one  bone,  are  so  articulated  with  each  other,  as  to  permit 
a  reciprocal  rotatory  movement,  chiefly  performed,  however,  by  the 
radius  ;  and  since  to  this  bone  the  carpal  segment  of  the  hand  is 
mainly  articulated,  that  prehensile  member  can  be  turned  prone  or 
supine,  as  in  the  human  arm  and  hand.  Six  bones  are  preser\'cd  in 
the  carpus  of  the  three-toed  Sloth  {Bradypus  trtdactytus),  answering 
to  those  called  "  lunare,"  "  cuneiforme,"  "unciforme,"  and  "  pisi- 
forme ;  "  also  to  the  "  scaphoides  and  trapezium"  united,  and  to 
the  "  trapezoides  and  magnum"  united.  The  scaphotrapezium  is 
characteristic  of  the  Sloth  tribe,  and  is  found  in  the  extinct  as  well 
as  existing  species.  The  articulation  of  the  carpus  with  the  radius, 
and  with  the  metacarpus,  is  such  as  to  turn  the  palm  of  the  long 
hand  inwards,  and  bring  its  outer  edge  to  the  ground.  The  three 
fully-developed  metacarpals  are  confluent  at  their  base,  which  is  also 
anchylosed  to  the  rudiments  of  the  first  and  fifth  metacarpals ;  the 
proximal  phalanges  of  the  digits  answering  to  tt.  Hi,  and  iv,  are 
confluent  with  their  metacarpals,  and  those  digits  appear,  therefore, 

2  D 


2oa 


SKELETON  OF  THE  SLOTH. 


to  have  only  two  ioints.     The  last  phalanx  is  remarkably  modified 
for  the  attachment  of  the  very  long:  and  strong-  claw. 

With  regard  to  the  blade-bone  of  the  Sloth,  5 1 ,  it  is  much  broader  in 
proportion  to  its  length  than  in  the  swift  cloven-footed  herbivores  ; 
the  spinous  process  is  usually  short ;  the  acromion  is  of  moderate 
length,  and  unexpanded  at  its  extremity ;  the  supra-spinal  fossa  is 
the  broadest,  and  has  a  perforation  instead  of  the  usual  "supra- 
spinal" notch.  There  is  a  short  clavicular  bone  attached  to  the 
acromion,  but  not  attaining  to  the  sternum. 


Fig.  529.— Sloths  Climbing. 

The  iliac  bones,  62,  repeat  the  modifications  of  their  homotypes 
the  scapute,  and  are  of  unusual  breadth  as  compared  with  those  of 
other  quadrupeds ;  they  soon  become  anchylosed  to  the  broad 
sacrum,  S  ;  the  ischia,  63,  and  pubes,  64,  are  long  and  slender,  and 
circumscribe  unusually  large  "thyroid"  and  "ischial"  foramina, 
the  latter  being  completed  by  the  coalescence  of  the  tuberosities  of 
the  ischia  with  the  transverse  processes  of  the  last  two  sacral  verte- 
brae. The  head  of  the  femur,  65,  has  no  impression  of  a  liga- 
mentum  teres.     The   patella,   66',  is    ossified;    there  is    a  fabella 


behind  the  externa!  condyle.  The  tibia,  66,  and  fibula,  67,  are  bent 
in  opposite  directions,  intercepting  a  very  wide  interosseous  space. 
The  anchylosis  of  their  two  extremities,  which  has  been  found  in 
older  specimens,  has  not  taken  place  here.  The  inner  malleolus 
projects  backwards,  and  supports  a  grooved  process.  The  outer 
malleolus  projects  downwards,  and  fits  like  a  pivot  into  a  socket  in 
the  astragalus,  turning  the  sole  of  the  foot  inwards — a  position  like 
that  of  tiie  hand — best  adapted  for  grasping  boughs.  The  calca- 
neum,    68,   is   remarkably   long  and  compressed.     The   scaphoid, 

cuboid,  and  cuneiform  bones 
have  become  confluent  with  each 
other  and  the  metatarsals,  of 
which  the  first  and  fifth  exist 
only  in  rudiment.  The  other 
three  have  likewise  coalesced 
with  the  proximal  phalanges  of 
the  toes  which  they  support : 
these  toes  answer  to  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth,  in  the  human 
foot. 

The  short  and  small  head  of 
the  Sloth  is  supported  on  a  long 
and  flexible  neck,  presenting  the 
very  unusual  character,  in  the 
Mammalian  class,  of  nine  verte- 
bra, C — the  superadded  two, 
however,  appearing  to  have  been 
impressed  from  the  dorsal  scries 
D  by  their  short,  pointed,  and 
usually  movable  ribs.  The  head 
and  mouth  can  be  turned  round 
every  part  of  a  branch  in  quest 
of  the  leafy  food,  by  this  me- 
chanism of  the  neck.  As  the 
trunk  is  commonly  suspended 
from  the  limbs  with  the  back 
downwards  (see  Fig.  531).  tfie 
muscles  destined  for  the  move- 
ments of  the  back  and  support 
of  the  head,  are  feebly  developed, 
and  the  vertebral  processes  for 
their  attachment  are  proportion- 
ately short.  The  spines  of  the 
neck-vertebras  are  of  more  equal 
length  than  in  most  mammals — - 
that  of  the  dentata  being  little 
larger  than  the  rest :  the  spines 
gradually  subside  in  the  posterior 
dorsals,  and  become  obsolete  in 
the  lumbar  vertebrae.  The  first 
pair  of  fully-developed  ribs, 
marking  the  beginning  of  the 
true  "dorsal "  series  of  vertebrae, 
are  anchylosed  to  the  breast- 
bone, which  consists  of  eight 
ossicles.  In  the  two-toed  Sloth 
(the  Unau),  however,  which  has 
twenty-three  dorsal  vertebrae, 
there  are  as  many  as  seventeen 
sub-cubical  sternal  bones  in  one 
long  row,  with  their  angles  trun- 
cated for  the  terminal  articula- 
tions of  the  sternal  ribs,  which 
are  ossified. 

The  skull  of  the  Sloth  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  size,  shape, 
and  connections  of  the  malar 
bone,  which  is  freely  suspended 
by  its  anterior  attacliment  to  the 
maxillary  and  frontal,  and  bifur- 
cates behind;  one  division  ex- 
tending downwards,  outside  the 
lower  jaw,  the  other  ascending 
above  the  free  termination  of  the 
zygomatic  process  of  the  squa- 
mosal. The  premaxillary  bone 
is  single  and  edentulous,  being 
represented  only  by  its  palatal 
portion  completing  the  maxillary  arch,  but  not  sending  any  pro- 
cesses upwards  to  the  nasals. 

The  skull  in  the  toothless  Ant-eater  chiefly  forms  a  long,  slender, 
slightly-bent  bony  sheath  for  its  still  longer  and  more  slender 
tongue,  the  main  instrument  for  obtaining  its  insect  food.  The 
mouth  in  the  living  animal  is  a  small  orifice  at  the  end  of  the 
tubular  muzzle,  just  big  enough  to  let  the  vermiform  tongue  glide 
easily  in  and  out.  The  fore-limbs  are  remarkable  for  the  great  size 
and  strength  of  the  claw  developed  from  the  middle  digit :  this  is 


THE  SLOTH,   OR  AI. 


203 


the  instrument  by  which  the  Ant-eater  mainly  effects  the  breach  in 
the  walls  of  the  Ant  fortresses,  which  it  habitually  besieges  in  order 
to  prey  upon  their  inhabitants  and  constructors.  As  in  the  Sloths, 
both  fore  and  hind  feet  have  an  inclination  inwards,  whereby  the 


Fig.  530. — Skeleton  of  the  Sloth. 

sharp  ends  of  the  long  claws  are  prevented  from  being  worn  by  that 
constant  application  to  the  ground  which  must  have  resulted  from 
the  ordinary  position  of  the  foot.  The  trunk-vertcbrje  of  the  Ant- 
eater  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  number  of  accessory  joints  by 
which  they  are  articulated  together.  This  complex  structure  is  also 
met  with  in  the  Armadillos,  in  which  the  anterior  zygapophyses  of 
the  dorsal  vertebrae  send  processes — the  metapophyses  (Fig.  532), 
7)1,   m — upwards,   outwards,   and  forwards,  which   processes,  pro- 


;p&-. 


Fig.  531. — Sloth:  mode  of  progression. 

gressively  increasing  in  the  hinder  vertebras,  attain,  in  the  lumbar 
region,  a  length  equal  to  that  of  the  spinous  processes,  n  s,  and 
have  the  same  relation  to  them,  in  the  support  of  the  osseous  cara- 
pace, as  the  "  tie-bearers  "  have  to  the  "  king-post"  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  a  roof. 

Mr.  Burchell  observed,  that  his  captive  Sloths  assumed,  during 
sleep,  a  position  of  perfect 
ease  and  safety  on  the  fork  of 
a  tree,  their  arms  embracing 
the  trunk,  their  backs  resting 
on  the  angle  of  a  branch,  and 
their  head  reclining  on  their 
own  bosom.  The  animal  is 
thus  rolled  up  nearly  in  the 
form  of  a  ball ;  the  entire 
vertebral  column,  including 
the  neck,  assumes  a  nearly 
circular  curve  ;  and  not  only 
is  the  weight  of  the  whole 
body  maintained  in  an  atti- 
tude of  ease  and  safety,  but 
the  head  is  supported  be- 
tween the  arms  and  chest,  Fig.  532. — Portions  of  Dermo- and  Neuro- 
and  the  face  lies  buried  in  Skeletons — Armadillo  (Dasypus  tykincius). 
the   long  wool   which  covers 

those  parts,  and  is  thus  protected,  during  sleep,  from  the  myriads 
of  msects  which  would  otherwise  attack  it.  According  to  Mr.  Bur- 
chell, the  buds  and  young  shoots  of  a  species  of  Cccropia  form 
tlie  pnncjpal  food  of  the  Sloth.    Those  trees  grow  only  in  damp 


places,  and  rise,  with  a  slender  stem,  to  the  height  of  thirty  or  forty 
feet,  giving  off  horizontal  branches,  hollow  internally,  except  at  the 
extremities.  Along  these  branches  it  travels,  and  the  young  cling 
round  the  body  of  the  mother.  It  would  appear  that  the  moisture  of 
leaves  or  buds  suffices  the  Sloth  for  drink,  as  none  kept  by 
Mr.  Burchell  took  liquid  in  any  other  way.  In  the  aspect  of  the 
Sloth  there  is  an  expression  of  profound  melancholy ;  it  seldom 
utters  any  cry  ;  it  notices  nothing  with  any  positive  mark  of  atten- 
tion except,  perhaps,  the  trees  to  which  unerring  instinct  draws 
it,  nor  by  any  action  evinces  much  intelligence. 

The  Sloths  bring  forth  and  suckle  their  young  like  ordinary 
quadrupeds.  They  have  two  mamma;,  which  arc  situated  on 
the  breast;  and  the  young  Sloth,  from  the  moment  of  its  birth, 
adheres  to  the  body  of  its  parent  till  it  acquires  sufficient  size 
and  strength  to  shift  for  itself.  The  head  of  the  AV  is  short  ;  the 
face  small  and  round  like  that  of  the  American  Monkeys  ;  the 
ears  concealed  in  the  long  hair  which  surrounds  them  ;  the  eyes 
small  and  deeply  sunk  in  the  head,  and  the  tail  is  a  mere  rudi- 
ment. The  Indians  like  its  flesh,  and  arc  in  continual  pursuit 
of  it. 

Naturalists  reckon  two  distinct  species  of  the  At,  and  three 
or  four  varieties  ;  some  of  which  may  be  found  to  be  super- 
ficially different,  when  they  come  to  be  dissected  and  carefully 
compared  with  one  another.  The  common  Ai  [Bradypus  tri- 
dactyhts)  has  a  short  round  head,  furnished  with  coarse  shaggy 
hair,  disposed  on  the  crown  in  verging  rays,  like  that  of  the 
human  species ;  the  face  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  covered  with 
very  short  hair ;  whilst  that  of  the  body  and  extremities  is  uni- 
versally long  and  shaggy  ;  the  eyes  arc  encircled  by  a  brown 
ring ;  the  hair  of  the  body  varied  with  irregular  patches  of  dark 
and  light  brown,  or  silvery  white :  between  the  shoulders  there 
is  an  oval  patch  of  short  orange-coloured  hair,  of  a  finer  quality  than 
that  found  on  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  divided  in  the  centre  by 
a  longitudinal  black  stripe  :  the  throat  and  breast  are  frequently  of 
a  light  straw-colour.  The  texture  of  the  hair  is  altogether  peculiar, 
and  more  resembles  dry  hay,  or  grass  shrivelled  and  withered  by 
the  sun,  than  the  hair  of  ordinary  quadrupeds.  It  is  coarse  and 
flattened  at  the  extremity,  but  as  small  at  the  root  as  the  finest 
Spider's  web  ;  and  its  dry  and  withered  appearance  forms  the  Ai's 
principal  security  against  its  pursuers,  as  it  renders  it  extremely 
diSicult  to  detect  it  whilst  at  rest  among  the  branches  covered  with 
bark  and  moss  of  the  same  colour;  it  is  only  when  in  motion  that  it 
can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  trunk  beneath  which  it  hangs 
suspended.  In  other  respects,  different  individuals  of  this  species 
vary  considerably  from  one  another,  in  the  shade  and  disposition 
of  their  colours,  and  in  the  intensity  of  the  mark  between  the 
shoulders  ;  some  even  want  this  latter  mark  altogether,  others  are 
of  a  uniform  ash-colour  over  the  whole  body,  and  there  are  others 
still,  which  have  the  hair  of  the  head  parted  in  the  centre,  and 
hanging  down  upon  each  side.  Length  of  the  adult  about  seventeen 
or  eighteen  inches. 

The  Collared  Ai  {Brady fus  collaris)  is  a  very  distinct  species, 
even  in  the  bony  structure  of  its  cranium.  Its  face  is  naked,  and  of 
a  black  colour  ;  the  hair  of  its  body  less  flattened  and  withered- 
looking  than  in  the  common  species  ;  the  forehead,  temples,  chin, 
throat,  and  breast,  covered  with  reddish  or  rust-coloured  hair, 
slightly  frizzled  ;  on  the  crown  of  the  head  it  is  long  and  yellow, 
and  on  the  rest  of  the  body,  pale  orange  :  but  the  most  distinguish- 
ing mark  of  the  species  is  a  large  black  collar  which  completely  sur- 


Fig.  533. — Skeleton  of  Unau. 

rounds  the  neck,  and  from  which  its  specific  name  of  coUaris  is 
derived.  Beneath  this  outer  coat  there  is  an  inner  one,  of  very  fine 
fur,  which  is  of  a  dark  brown  colour  on  the  collar,  but  gradually  dimin- 
ishes in  intensity  towards  the  croup,  where  it  is  entirely  white. 


204 


FOSSIL  EDENTATA. 


Both  these  species  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  bring  forth 
but  a  sing-Ie  young  at  a  birth.  When  in  motion  in  the  forests,  they 
emit  a  feeble  plaintive  cry,  resembling  the  word  Ai,  and  which  is  the 
origin  of  the  name  they  bear  among  the  Europeans  settled  in 
America.  They  are  extremely  retentive  of  life,  and  have  been  seen 
to  move  their  legs,  and  exhibit  other  symptoms  of  vivacity,  a  full 
half-hour  after  being  deprived  of  their  heart  and  other  viscera. 

The  Unau,  or  Two-toed  Sloth,  of  which  we  figure  the  skeleton 
(Fig.  533),  is  placed  by  Illiger  in  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  title  of 
CholcEpus.  It  is  the  Sradypus  didactyltts  of  Linnjcus.  In  its 
manners  it  closely  resembles  the  Ai,  which  it  exceeds  in  size. 

In  both  genera  the  skull  is  rounded,  and  the  muzzle  short,  but 
more  especially  in  the  Ais.  The  zygomatic  arch  is  very  bold  and 
stout  ;  but  is  incomplete  in  the  centre.  The  malar  bone  is  very 
developed,  and  gives  off  a  descending  branch,  reaching  over  the 
lower  jaw  ;  but  its  zygomatic  process  does  not  reach  the  correspond- 
ing process  of  the  temporal  bone  ;  hence  the  arch,  as  we  have 
said,  is  imperfect.  The  orbits  are  nearly  circular,  but  incomplete 
behind.     The  lower  jaw  is  large  and  strong. 

In  the  Two-toed  Sloth  there  are  no  pro-dorsal  or  supernumerary 
vertebrae  in  the  neck  ;  the  feet  are  far  less  universally  consolidated 
together. 

Extinct,  or  Fossil  Edentata. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  Edeniaia  afford  some  most  interesting 
fossilised  remains  of  extinct  species.  They  are  indigenous  to  South 
America,  where  the  recent  species  are  now  found.  Professor  Owen 
has  included  certain  of  them  in  one  family  called  Gravigrada, 
including  the  Megalonyx,  Megatherium,  Mylodon,  Scelidotherium, 
Ccelodon.  and  Sphenodon,  all  being  extinct,  and  only  known  by  their 
fossil  relics.  The  cliief  characters  are  :— Feet  short,  very  strong, 
equal  or  sub-equal ;  fore-feet  with  five  or  four  toes,  of  which  one  or 
two  of  the  outermost  are  unarmed,  fit  for  support  and  progression  ; 
the  rest  are  armed  with  huge  claws.  Zygomatic  arch  complete, 
clavicles  perfect ;  tail  moderate  or  stout,  acting  as  a  fulcrum  or  prop. 
The  following  is  a   description  of  these  interesting  animals,  the 


formed  for  tearing  down  the  trees  of  the  forest,  and  not  living  in 
their  branches,  showed  that  it  was  closely  related  to  the  comparatively 
pigmy  Sloths  of  the  present  day.  Conceive  of  a  Sloth  of  the  size 
and  bulk  of  a  Rhinoceros  or  Hippopotamus,  but  with  bones  infinitely 


Fig.  535. — Lower  Jaw  of  Mylodon. 


Fig.  534. — Skeleton  of  the  Mylodon  Roluslu!. 

fossils  of  which,  arranged  as  in  the  subsequent  engravings,  may  be 
seen  in  the  British  and  other  museums  : — 

The  Mylodon  Robustus. 

The  skeleton  of  this  extinct  giant  (see  Fig.  534),  now  preserved 
in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  which,  except  that  it  was 


Fig.  536. — Right  branch  of  the  above  :  external  view. 

more  massive,  muscles  infinitely  more  voluminous  and  powerful,  with 
a  thick  tail  acting  as  a  support,  and  forming  with  the  hind-limbs  a 
firm  tripod,  while  the  animal  thus  raised  upright,  and  exerting  its 
enormous  strength,  sways  the  tree  to  and 
fro,  and  lays  it  at  last  prostrate  ; — and  our 
reader  will  have  a  good  idea  of  what  this 
mighty  devastator  of  the  primeval  forests 
of  South  America  must  have  been. 

The  skeleton  in  question  was  discovered, 
as  we  are  informed  by  Professor  Owen,  in 
the  year  1841,  by  M.  Pedro  de  Angelis, 
seven  leagues  north  of  the  city  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  in  the  fluviatile  deposits  constitut- 
ing the  extensive  plain  intersected  by  the 
great  Rio  Plata  and  its  tributaries,  and 
which  has  been  raised,  during  a  recent  geo- 
logical epoch,  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  this  formation,  and  most  probably 
anterior  to  its  elevation,  the  animal  must 
have  been  buried  entire,  and  if  the  present 
heat  of  the  climate  prevailed,  soon  after 
its  death,  for  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  were 
found  little  disturbed,  and  the  very  few 
bones  that  are  wanting  are  such  as  would 
be  likely  to  escape  the  search  of  the  most 
diligent  collector. 

About  the  same  time,  and  near  the  same 
place,  a  tessellated  osseous  carapace  of 
some  large  quadrupedlike  an  Armadillowas 
exhumed,  and  information  of  this  discovery 
having  been  communicated  to  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  by  Sir  Woodbine  Pa- 
rish, then  Her  Majesty's  Charge  d' Affaires 
at  Buenos  Ayres,  both  this  carapace  and 
the  above-mentioned  skeleton  were  pur- 
chased by  the  College.  They  arrived  in 
November,  1841,  in  many  pieces,  fragile 
from  the  loss  of  the  animal  matter  ;  but 
having  been  restored  in  some  measure  to 
their  original  tenacity,  the  parts  of  the 
carapace  were  re-united,  the  skeleton  was 
articulated,  and  both  «i-ere  placed  in  the 
museum. 

We  may  here  observe  that  the  tessellated 
carapace  belongs  to  a  large  extinct  Arma- 
dillo, to  which  the  largest  living  species,  the 
Dasypus gigas,  is  but  a  pigmy  ;  it  is  termed 
by  Professor  Owen,  Glyptodoti  clavipcs. 
With  respect  to  the  fossil  genus  Mylodon,  Professor  Owen  de- 
scribes three  distinct  species — viz.,  M.  Darzvtnii,  M.  IIarlam,a.xid 
M.  Robustus,  which  far  exceeds  the  others  in  size. 

We  regret  that  want  of  space  prevents  us  from  following  Professor 
Owen  through  his  elaborate  examination  of  the  skeleton  of  Jl/ylodon 
Robustus,  which  to  the  scientific  is  replete  with  interest ;  nor  enter 


THE  MEGATHERIUM. 


20S 


into  the  affinities  of  the  Mylodon  to  the  Megatherium,  Megalonyx, 
and  other  extinct  Edentata,  which  are  rigidly  scrutinised. 

Fig.  535  represents  the  lower  jaw  of  Mylodon  :  Fig.  536,  the  ex- 
ternal view  of  the  right  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  of  Mylodon.  Figs. 
537  and  SjS.  f'e  simple  teeth  of  the  Mylodon,  showing  the  depth  of 
their  implantation.     The  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  tooth  is  seen  at  a, 


Fig.  537. — Tooth  of  Mylodon. 


Fig.  53S. — Tooth  of  Mylodon. 


Fig.  537.  As  in  the  Sloth,  the  Megatherium,  and  Megalonyx,  these 
teeth,  formed  for  crushing  leaves,  are  composed  of  a  central  pillar 
of  coarse  ivory,  immediately  invested  with  a  thin  layer  of  fine  dense 
ivory,  and  the  whole  surrounded  with  a  thick  coating  of  cement. 

From  the  structure  of  these  teeth  it  is  evident  that  the  Mylodon 
fed  on  leaves,  like  the  Sloths  of  the  present  day.  But,  notwithstand- 
ing Dr.  Lund's  opinion,  it  was  certainly  not  adapted  for  climbing 
trees ;  besides,  what  trees  could  bear  its  weight  ?  How  then  did  it 
obtain  its  food  ?  The  whole  of  its  osseous  conformation  suggests  the 
answer — it  was  formed  to  uprend  the  trees  that  bore  its  sustenance. 
The  enormous  expanse  of  the  pelvis,  the  great  bulk  and  strength  of 
the  hind-legs,  the  solidity  of  the  tail,  to  which  its  evidently  vast 
muscles  were  attached,  enabling  it  with  the  hind-limbs  to  complete  a 
firm  tripod  of  support,  the  proportions  of  the  fore-limbs,  unequalled 
for  massiveness  by  those  of  any  existing  or  extinct  animal,  tlie  size 
and  strength  of  its  claws, — in  short,  the  whole  mechanism  of  the 
colossal  frame  becomes  intelligible  only  on  the  ground  of  the  her- 
culean labour  to  which  the  animal  was  appointed.  Perhaps  it  com- 
menced the  process  of  prostrating  the  chosen  tree  by  scratching 
away  the  soil  from  the  roots,  and  then  proceeded  to  grapple  with  it 
thus  partially  undermined,  and  apply  the  surpassing  strength  of  its 
limbs  and  body,  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  extremities  being 
animated  by  the  influence  of  the  unusually  large  spinal  chord. 

It  may  here  be  stated  that  the  skull  of  the  specimen  described  by 
Professor  Owen  had  at  some  time  or  other  been  fractured,  and  had 
healed  ;  the  animal  living  long  afterwards  :  and  it  will  at  once  occur 
to  the  reader  that  these  animals  must  have  been  unusually  liable, 
from  their  habits,  to  blows  from  heavy  falling  bodies.  To  meet  such 
accidents  the  skull  was  peculiarly  constructed,  its  outer  and  inner 
table  being  separated  by  extensive  air-cells,  so  that  the  fracture  of 
the  outer  table  might  occur  without  injury  to  the  brain.  It  was  by 
virtue  of  this  structure  that  the  subject  of  the  Professor's  memoir 
appears  to  have  been  saved. 

The  Scelidotherium. 

The  following  figure  represents  (Fig.  539)  the  remains  of  the  skull ; 
Fig.  540,  the  dentition  of  an  extinct  animal,  to  wOiich  Professor 
Owen  has  given  the  title  of  Scelidotherium.  Fig.  541  shows 
the  depth  of  the  implantation  of  the  teeth  and  their  structure  ;  e,  the 
crown  of  a  tooth  seen  from  above. 

This  animal  was  evidently  allied  to  the  Mylodon  and  Megatherium, 
and  belong;s  to  the  same  family. 

The  fossil  remains — viz.,  a  cranium,  several  vertebra;,  the  scapute, 
and  various  bones  of  the  limbs,  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Darwin  at 
Punta  Alta,  in  northern  Patagonia,  and  in  the  same  bed  of  partly 
consolidated  gravel  as  that  wherein  the  lower  jaws  of  Toxodon  and 
a  species  of  Mylodon  were  imbedded.  All  the  parts  were  discovered 
in  their  natural  relative  position,  indicating,  as  Mr.  Darwin  observes, 


that  the  sub-littoral  formation  in  which  they  had  been  origin.-illy 
deposited  had  been  but  little  disturbed.  This  beach  is  covered  at 
spring-tides,  and  many  portions  of  the  skeleton  were  encrusted  with 
Jtustrcs.  Small  marine  shells  were  lodged  within  the  crevices  of 
the  bones. 

The  teeth  in  structure  resemble  those  of  the  Mylodon  ;  there  are 


Fig.  539. — Remains  of  Skull  of  Scelidothcr 


Fig.  540. — Teeth  of  the  Scelidotherium. 

neither  incisors  nor  canines  ;  the  molars  are  five  on  each  side  above, 
and  four  below.  According  to  Professor  Owen,  the  Cape  Ant-eater, 
or  Aard-vark,  of  all  the  Edc7itata,  most  nearly  resembles  the 
Scelidotherium  in  the  form  of  the  skull ;  and  next  to  the  Aard-vark 
may  be  cited  the  Great  Armadillo  {Dasypus  gigas). 

"Although  the  Scelidothere,  like  most  other  Edentals,  was  of  low 
stature,  and,  like  the  Megatherium,  presented  a  disproportionate 
development  of  the  hinder  parts,  it  is  probable  that,  bulk  for  bulk,  it 
equalled,  wlien  alive,  the  largest  existing 
Pachyderms  not  proboscidean.  There  is 
no  evidence  that  it  possessed  a  tessellated 
osseous  coat  of  mail." 

The  Megatherium. 

The  relics  of  this  colossal  beast,  of  w-hich 
Figs.  542,  543,  and  544  represent  the 
skeleton,  and  Fig.  545,  the  skeleton  and 
the  restored  animal,  have  been  discovered 
only  in  South  America,  of  which  continent, 
at  some  remote  period,  it  was  an  in- 
habitant. 

The  affinity  of  this  animal  to  the  Sloths 
and  other  Edentata  was  pointed  out  by 
Cuvie^  but  many  points  required  elucida- 
tion ;  m  fact,  zoologists  at  first  were  led, 
not  without  apparent  grounds,  into  some 
errors,  since  corrected. 

For  a  long  time  the  museum  of  Madrid 
afforded  the  only  relics  of  the  Megathe- 
rium in  Europe  ;  but  the  skeleton  they  compose  is  deficient  in  several 
of  its  parts  ;  fortunately,  the  acquisition,  by  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  of  a  great  portion  of  the  bones  of  this  animal,  has  tended 
to  supply  the  defects,  at  least  to  a  considerable  extent. 

These  splendid  and  valuable  remains  form  the  subject  of  an 
interesting  paper  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Clift,  in  the  third  vol.,  p.  3,  of 
the  "Trans.  Geol.  Soc.  Lond.,"  accompanied  by  an  improved  figure 
of  the  skeleton,  and  figures  of  various  detached  parts,  together  with 
a  map  of  that  part  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  which  the 
places  where  the  bones  in  question  were  found,  and  also  those  of  the 
Madrid  specimen,  are  marked  down. 

The  acquisition  of  these  remains  by  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons is  due  to  the  zeal  and  liberality  of  Sir  Woodbine  Parish. 
They  were  found  in  the  river  Salado,  which  runs  through  the  flat 
alluvial  plains  to  the  south  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Their  dis- 
covery was  owing  to  a  succession  of  unusually  dry  seasons  in  the 
three  preceding  years,  which  lowered  the  waters  in  an  extraordinary 
degree,  and  exposed  part  of  the  pelvis  to  view  as  it  stood  upright  in 


Fig.  S41.— Teeth  of  the 
Scelidotherium, 


206 


THE  MEGATHERIUM. 


the  bottom  of  the  river.  It  appears  that  this  and  some  other  parts 
of  the  skeleton,  having  been  carried  to  Buenos  Ayres  by  tlie  country- 
people,  were  very  liberally  placed  at  Mr.  Parish's  disposal  by  Don 
Hilario  Sosa,  the  owner  of  the  property  on  which  they  were  found. 
In  the  hope  of  obtaining  the  other  parts  of  the  skeleton,  an  intelli- 
gent person  was  subsequently  sent  to  the  same  spot,  who  succeeded, 


Fig.  542. — Skeleton  of  Megatherium. 

after  considerable  difficulties,  in  getting  out  of  the  mud  forming  the 
bed  of  the  river  the  remainder  of  the  collection.  Further  inquiry  led 
Mr.  Parish  to  suppose  that  similar  remains  might  be  met  with  in 
other  parts  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  he  applied  to  the 
local  authorities  to  assist  him  in  making  further  search.  This  was 
given  by  the  governor,  Don  Manual  Rosas,  and  the  remains  of  the 
two  other  skeletons  were  found  on  his  excellency's  own  properties  of 
Las  Averias  and  Villanueva,  one  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the  south 


Fig.  S43. — Skeleton  of  Megatherium. 

of  the  Salado,  but  at  no  great  distance  from  the  place  where  the 
first  had  been  discovered.  In  the  latter  instance  the  osseous  remains 
were  accompanied  by  an  immense  shell,  or  case,  portions  of  which 
were  brought  to  this  country.  A  fragment  of  this  shell,  or  osseous 
shield,  was  figured  by  Mr.  Clift ;  its  external  surface  is  rough,  and 


it  appears  to  consist  of  an  assemblage  of  smaller  parts,  like  rosettes 
in  sculpture,  united  together  by  suture  ;  the  sutures  being  plainly 
marked  on  the  under-surface,  which  is  smooth.  By  M.  Blainville, 
Dr.  Buckland,  and  indeed  by  most  naturalists,  this  buckler  or  cara- 
pace was  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Megatherium,  whose  colossal 
bulk  it  was  supposed  to  have  protected,  as    is    the    case   in  the 

Armadillos,  to  which  it  was  believed 
to  be  closely  related,  not  only  in 
structure  and  habits,  but  also  food. 

It  was,  however,  subsequently  de- 
monstrated by  Professor  Owen,  and 
we  believe  to  the  entire  satisfaction 
of  Dr.  Buckland  himself,  that  the 
tessellated  carapace  found  with  the 
Salado  remains  did  not  belong  to 
the  Megatherium,  but  to  a  large 
Armadillo-like  animal,  to  which  Pro- 
fessor Owen  assigned  the  title  of 
Glyptodon,  and  whose  hind-feet,  like 
the  fore-foot,  appear  to  be  so  modi- 
fied as  to  form  the  bases  of  colum- 
nar limbs  destined  to  support  an 
enormous  incumbent  weight.  More- 
over, from  a  rigorous  examination  of 
the  details  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
Megatherium,  into  which  we  for- 
bear to  enter,  he  proves  the  incom- 
patibility of  such  a  shield  with  its 
osseous  structure,  which  differs  in 
marked  essentials  from  that  of  the 
Armadillo,  in  which  latter  animal 
the  skeleton  is  expressly  modilied 
for  the  armour  which  covers  the 
back  and  head. 

In  his  paper  on  the  Glyptodon, 
wherein  the  claims  of  the  Mega- 
therium to  this  armour  are  discussed.  Professor  Owen  gives  a  tabular 
account  of  the  discovery  of  twelve  skeletons  of  the  Megatherium, 
and  in  no  instance  did  any  portion  of  bony  armour  occur  with  or 
near  the  bone  ;  and,  in  a  note,  the  writer  of  the  article  "Mega- 
therium," in  the  "Penny  Cyclopasdia,"  states  as  follows: — "Sir 
Woodbine  Parish  has  just  now  (May  29th,  1839)  kindly  communi- 
cated to  us  a  letter  received  by  him,  giving  information  of  the  dis- 
covery of  an  almost  entire  skeleton  of  an  adult  Megatherium  on  the 
banks  of  the  Rio  de  la  Matanza,  with  all  the  vertebrse  of  the  body, 
all  the  ribs,  all  the  teeth,  the  head  and  the  legs — in  short,  with  the 
whole  of  the  bones  except  the  tail  and  one  foot.  Close  to  it  was  the 
skeleton  of  a  'Tatou  Gigantesque  '  (Glyptodon  probably),  with  its 
bony  armour  complete.  There  was  also  found  a  very  small  and  per- 
fect Megatherium,  which  must  have  been  only  just  born  at  the  epoch 
of  destruction.  No  mention  is  made  of  any  traces  of  bony  armour 
or  shell  about  the  Megafkeri'a.  In  the  old  animal  only  one  foot  is 
wanting.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  so-called  young  Megathe- 
rium may  possibly  be  a  skeleton  of  Scelidotherium."     (See  p.  205.) 

It  is,  then,  to  the  Armadillo-like  Glyptodon  (see  Fig.  546),  and  not 
to  the  Megatherium,  that  the  strong  bony  armour  belongs  :  of  this 
latter  animal  relics  have  been  found  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pedernal, 
near  Monte  Video,  and  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  that  town. 
Portions  of  bony  armour  also  have  been  obtained  in  the  Rio  Seco 
and  Banda  Oriental,  similar  in  structure  to  the  specimen  of  the 
Pedernal. 

"  The  collection  of  fossils,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "brought  to 
England  from  South  America  by  Mr.  Darwin,  has  enabled  me  to 
add  the  following  facts  to  the  history  of  the  Megatherium.  Its  teeth, 
for  example,  do  not  differ  in  number  from  those  of  the  Sloths,  there 
being  five  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw.  Microscopic  examination 
having  demonstrated  a  marked  difference  in  the  intimate  structure 
of  the  teeth  of  the  Sloths  and  Armadillos,  I  have  ascertained,  by  this 
mode  of  investigation,  that  the  teeth  of  the  Megatherium  have  the 
same  texture  and  composition  as  those  of  the  Sloth.  And  if  from 
identity  of  dental  structure  in  two  different  animals  we  may  predicate 
a  similarity  in  their  food,  a  glance  at  the  bony  framework  of  the 
Megatherium  is  sufBcicnt  to  show  that  it  must  have  resorted  to  other 
means  of  obtaining  its  leafy  provender  than  that  of  climbing  for  it, 
whereby  the  necessity  of  inferring  a  proportionate  magnitude  of  the 
trees  which  nourished  the  Megatherium  is  obviated."  It  would 
appear  that,  like  the  Mylodon,  the  Megatherium  uprooted  the  trees, 
on  the  leaves  of  which  it  fed,  and  was  furnished  with  a  small  pro- 
boscis as  an  adjunct  to  the  tongue  in  stripping  off  the  smaller 
branches  of  the  prostrate  tree  ;  its  skull,  moreover,  has  the  two 
tables  separated  by  cells,  as  in  the  Mylodon.  Fig.  547  represents 
the  pelvis  and  hind-leg  of  the  Megatherium  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons ;  Fig.  548,  the  ungueal  phalanx ;  Fig.  549,  the  tooth  of 
Megatherium. 

With  respect  to  the  Megalonyx,  it  was  an  animal  closely  related 
to  the  Megatherium,  and  doubtless  of  the  same  habits,  but  of  inferior 
size,  not  excccdmg  the  size  of  an  Ox,  though  more   solidly   and 


THE  MEGATHERIUM— ARMADILLOS. 


207 


heavily  built.     Its  relics  are  apparently  more  rare  than  those  of  the 
Megatherium  ;  at  least  fewer  have  been  recovered. 

Professor  Ansted  makes  the  following  remarks  on  the  fossil 
Edentata  : — "  At  the  same  period  (the  latter  part  of  the  Great  Ter- 
tiary) in  South  America,  there  existed  a  continent  of  the  same 
general  shape  as  at  present,  but  much  narrower,  and  with  less  lofty 


Fig.  544. — Skeleton  of  Megatherium. 

mountains,  on  its  western  side,  gradually  becoming  elevated,  though 
■with  occasional  intervals  of  repose,  covered  with  vegetation,  and 
havinij  large  and  deep  rivers. 

"  On  the  land  were  tribes  of  Edentata,  or  toothless  animals — the 
gigantic  types  of  the  Sloth,  the  Armadillo,  and  perhaps  the  Ant- 
eater.  Of  these  animals,  numerous  skeletons,  perfectly  preserved, 
afford  us  means  of  reconstructing  them  in  every  detail,  and  we  are 
enabled  to  speak  of  their  peculiarities  and  habits,  as  if  we  saw  them 
bodily  before  us  at  the  present  time. 


Fig.  545. — Megatherium  restored. 

"  In  the  vast  forests  of  that  day,  there  moved  about,  slowly  per- 
haps, and  with  some  little  difficulty,  a  singular  and  clumsy-looking 
monster  ;  its  body  larger  than  that  of  an  Elephant,  and  its  hinder 
extremities  many  times  thicker  and  stronger  in  proportion  ;  endowed 
with  a  degree  of  resisting  strength,  compared  with  which,  almost 
every  existing  animal  would  rank  as  powerless.  The  habits  of  this 
creature  were,  it  may  be  supposed,  rather  peculiar.  Judging  from 
its  heavy  hind  extremities  and  powerful  tail — the  arrangement  of  its 
fore-legs,  in  which  it  somewhat  resembled  the  Bear — the  nature  of 


Fig.  546. — The  Glyptodon. 


its  head  and  teeth,  and  the  form  and  strength  of  its  claws,  we  may 
safely  imagine  it  performing  the  task  of  tlie  modern  Sloth,  its  nearest 
representative,  but  enabled  to  root  up  and  pull  down  the  trees  of  the 
forest,  instead  of  climbing  to  strip  tliem  of  their  leaves.  The  crea- 
ture here  referred  to  is  the  Megatherium  ;  and  there  were  several 
smaller  but  still  gigantic  animals  similarly  constituted,  and  assisting 
to  clear  away  leaves  and  twigs,  by  bringing 
their  powerful,  though  sluggish,  limbs  to 
bear  upon  the  task.  The  Mylodon,  one  of 
these,  was  nearly  as  large  as  a  Rhinoceros  ; 
and  of  it  a  complete  skeleton  may  be  seen  at 
the  College  of  Surgeons,  as  well  as  a  restored 
figure  in  the  Crystal  Palace  grounds,  recon- 
structed from  the  skeleton  by  Mr.  Hawkins. 
"At  present,  the  Armadillo  clears  away 
the  decaying  wood  and  offal  of  all  kinds  in 
the  Brazilian  forests,  and  a  magnified  re- 
presentative accompanied  the  Megathere. 
The  Glyptodon,  as  this  animal  was  called, 
is  known  by  a  complete  specimen  of  the 
hard,  horny  covering  or  shell,  also  in  the 
College  of  Surgeons  ;  and  the  length  of  this 
specimen  is  nearly  twelve  feet  on  the  curve, 
from  the  tip  of  the  tail  to  the  snout ;  while 
its  height  is  between  four  and  five  feet. 

"  Large  Rodents,  or  gnawing  animals. 
Horses,  and  several  other  species  nearly 
allied  to  existing  races,  accompanied  these 
singular  animals." 

Insectivorous  Edentata. 

The  Armadillos  {Dasypus)  arc  divided  by 
Cuvierinto  five  minor  groups,  or  sub-genera,  according  to  the  number 
of  the  teeth  and  fore-claws  ;  viz.,  Cachichames,  Apars,  Encouberts, 
Cabassous,  and  Priodontes.  They  are  now  placed  under  the  family 
Dasypodida;. 

The  Cachichames  have  four  toes  on  each  foot,  and  seven  teeth  on 
each  side  above  and  below.  The  Apars  have  four  toes  on  each  foot, 
and  nine  or  ten  teeth  in  each  side  in  both  jaws.  The  Encouberts 
have  five  toes  on  the  fore-feet,  and  nine  or  ten  teeth  on  each  side 


Fig.  547. — Pelvis  and  Hind  Leg  of  Megatherium. 

above  and  below,  with  two  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper.  The  Cabas- 
sous  have  five  toes,  but  those  of  the  fore-feet  are  disposed  obliquely, 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  thumb  and  index  finger  are  small, 
the  middle  and  fourth  toes  armed  with  tremendously  large  trenchant 
claws,  and  the  fifth  very  small :  teeth  nine  or  ten  on  each  side  above 
and  below.  The  Priodontes,  in  addition  to  the  unequal  toes  and 
enormous  claws  of  the  Cabassous,  have  from  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
four  small  teeth  on  each  side  in  each  jaw. 

The  Armadillos  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  warmer  portions  of 
the  American  continent,  and  the  species  are  tolerably  numerous, 
none,  however,  attaining  to  a  very  large  size  excepting  the  Dasypius 


208 


THE  ARMADILLOS. 


gigas,  which  itself  is  but  a  pigmy  to  the  extinct  Glyptodon,  illustrated 
at  p.  207,  Fig.  546,  ante. 

These  animals  are  burrowing  in  their  habits,  with  thick,  short, 
powerful  limbs,  and  a  flattened,  broad,  stout  body,  covered  above 
with  plates  and  bands  of  horny  armour.  The  head  is  broad  between 
the  eyes,  whence  it  runs  to  a  pointed  muzzle  ;    the  mouth  is  small ; 


Fig.  54S. — Ungucal  Ph.ilanx  of  Jlcgathevium, 

the  teeth  are  cylindrical,  feeble,  destitute  of  true  roots,  set  apart 
from  each  other,  and  mutually  fit,  when  the  jaws  are  closed,  into  the 
intervals.  The  tongue  is  smooth,  slender,  and  moderately  exten- 
sible ;  it  is  most  probably  endowed  with  the  sense  of  taste  in  a  high 
degree,  as  we  have  observed,  especially  in  one  species,  the  Dasyptis 
;peba,  the  animal  touched  with  it  whatever  was  presented  by  way  of 
food  ;  and  we  know  that  it  is  lubricated  abundantly  with  a  glutinous 
fluid,  poured  out  chiefly  from  the  sub-maxillary  gland. 

The  portions  of  armour  which  cover  these  animals  consist  of  a 
triangular  or  oval  plate  on  the  top  of  the  head,  or  rather  on  the 
chaffron,  its  posterior  margin  projecting  over  the  neck  ;  a  large 
buckler  over  the  shoulders^  and  a  similar  buckler  over  the  haunches, 


Fig.  549. — Tooth  of  Megatherium. 

while  between  these  solid  portions  there  intervenes  a  series  of  trans- 
verse bands  overlapping  each  other's  edges,  and  allowing  to  the 
body  due  freedom  of  motion.  Each  of  these  separate  portions 
consists  of  a  multitude  of  small  parts,  all  consolidated  together, 
giving  the  idea  of  what  is  termed  mosaic-work,  especially  on  the 
head  and  shoulders,  the  pattern  differing  in  different  species.  The 
limbs,  which  are  short  and  thick,  are  almost  entirely  concealed  by 
the  edges  of  this  armour  ;  but  the  feet,  which  are  unprotected  by  it, 
are  covered  by  a  hard  tuberculated  skin.  The  tail  is  covered  with  a 
series  of  rings ;  the  skin  of  the  under-surface  of  the  body  is  very 
rough  and  beset  with  long  scattered  hairs  ;  and  from  between  the 
joints  of  the  rings  and  plates  of  the  dorsal  armour  there  issue  hairs 
of  the  same  kind,  more  numerous  in  young  than  adult  individuals. 
In  some  species,  however,  as  the  Mataco  {Dasypiis  aj>ar),  whose 
armour  is  peculiarly  tliick  and  solid,  no  hair  is  to  be  discovered. 

In  reference  to  the  armour.  Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  in  the 
Armadillo,  the  dermal  bones.  Fig.  532,  p.  203,  ante,  o,  b,  are  small, 
polygonal,  usually  five  or  six-sided,  smooth  on  their  inner  surface, 
which  rests  on  the  soft  sub-cutaneous  layer  of  cellular  tissue,  vari- 
ously sculptured  on  the  outer  and  exposed  side,  but  with  a  pattern 
constant  in,  and  characteristic  of,  each  species.  They  are  united 
together  at  their  thick  margins  by  rough  or  "  sutural  "  surfaces,  and 
resemble  a  tessellated  pavement.  The  trunk  is  protected  by  a  large 
buckler  of  this  bony  armour ;  the  head  is  defended  by  a  casque  of 
the  same ;  and  the  tail  is  encased  in  a  sheath  of  similar  interlocked 
ossicles.  To  allow  of  the  requisite  movements  of  the  trunk  in  the 
small  existing  Armadillos,  which,  when  attacked,  roll  themselves 
into  a  ball,  from  three  to  nine  transverse  rows  of  the  dermal  bones. 
b  b,  are  interposed,  having  a  yielding  elastic  junction  with  each 
other,  and  with  the  anterior,  o  o,  and  posterior  fixed,  and  larger, 
parts  of  the  trunk-armour.  By  this  modification  the  head  and  limbs 
can  be  withdrawn  beneath  the  armour  when  its  parts  are  pulled  to- 
gether by  the  strong  cutaneous  muscles  into  a  hemispheric  form.  In 
South  America,  to  which  continent  the  Armadillos  are  peculiar,  re- 
mains of  gigantic  quadrupeds,  similarly  defended,  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  more  recent  tertiary  deposits  (see  a?itc,  p.  207)  ;  but 
in  these  colossal  Armadillos  [Glyptodon)  the  trunk-armour  was  in 
one  immovable  piece,  covering  the  back  and  sides,  and  was  not 
divided  by  bands.  Besides  the  defence  which  such  a  modification 
of  the  integuments  would  afford  against  the  attacks  of  predatory 


animals,  the  Armadillos  and  Glyptodons  habitually  frequenting  the 
great  forests  of  South  America  may  have  been  protected  by  the  same 
hard,  arched  covering  from  falling  timber. 

The  eyes  of  the  Armadillos  are  small  and  lateral ;  the  ears,  vary- 
ing in  size  in  the  different  species,  are  firm,  and  covered  with  tuber- 
culated skin.  Most  of  the  species  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  re- 
maining concealed  in  their  burrows  during  the  day  ;  these  are  of 
considerable  extent,  dipping  at  an  inclination  of  about  forty-five  de- 
grees ;  they  have  one  or  two  sharp  turns,  and  very  narrow,  just  ad- 
mitting the  passage  of  their  occupier.  The  animals  make  these 
burrows  with  great  expedition,  and  can  only  be  forced  out  by  smoke 
or  water  ;  such  is  their  strength  and  the  tenacity  of  their  hold,  that 
they  have  been  known  to  leave  their  tail  in  the  hands  of  the  hunter, 
on  his  attempt  to  drag  them  forth. 

When  alarmed  during  their  excursions,  the  first  endeavour  of  these 
animals  is  to  gain  their  burrows,  to  which  they  run  with  a  degree  of 
celerity  little  to  be  expected  from  their  clumsy  appearance.  Most 
of  the  species  will  easily  outstrip  a  man  ;  their  movements,  however, 
resemble  those  produced  by  mechanism,  for  as  the  spinous  processes 
of  the  vertebral  column  are  all  inclined  the  same  way,  viz.,  towards 
the  tail,  there  being  no  central  points  to  which  those  of  the  upper 
and  those  of  the  lower  portion  mutually  converge,  so  the  motions  of 
the  limbs  are  unaccompanied  by  corresponding  inflexions  of  this 
column,  as  is  the  case  in  other  animals  whose  progressive  motions 
are  free  and  unconstrained. 

When  hard  pressed,  and  unable  to  gain  their  burrow,  they  either 
attempt  to  dig  a  temporary  place  of  refuge,  or  they  gather  up  their 
limbs  beneath  their  coat  of  mail,  bend  down  their  head,  assume  a 
partially  roUed-up  figure,  and  wait  the  event.  The  Mataco,  which 
does  not  burrow,  and  is  by  no  means  swift,  can  roll  itsslf  up  com- 
pletely. They  never  attempt  to  bite  or  otherwise  defend  themselves. 
The  food  of  the  Armadillos  consists  principally  of  fallen  fruits,  roots, 
and  Worms;  but  they  do  not  reject  carrion,  and  have  been  known 
to  penetrate  into  graves,  when  not  properly  protected  by  stones  or 
brick-work.  Azara  informs  us  that  Ants  are  never  found  in  the 
districts  inhabited  by  the  Armadillos  ;  and  that  these  animals  break 
into  the  Ant-hills,  and  devour  the  insects  as  greedily  as  the  true 
Ant-eaters.  Nature,  it  is  true,  has  not  provided  them  with  the 
same  apparatus  for  this  purpose,  but  the  Armadillos  may,  notwith- 
standing, destroy  vast  quantities  of  Ants,  though  it  is  probable  that 
they  expel  them  from  their  own  peculiar  districts,  as  much,  at  least, 
by  destroying  the  habitations  as  by  actually  devouring  the  insects 
themselves.  The  ordinary  food  of  the  Armadillos  consists  chiefly  of 
the  roots  of  the  manioc,  of  potatoes,  maize,  and  other  similar  sub- 
stances of  a  vegetable  nature,  though,  as  already  observed,  without  re- 
jecting animal  substances  naturally  soft,  or  so  far  decomposed  as  tobe 
easilytorn  without  the  help  of  canine  teeth.  Theyare  also  verydestruc- 
tive  to  the  eggs  and  young  of  such  Birds  as  build  their  nests  on  the 
ground  ;  and  greedily  devour  Worms,  Frogs,  small  Lizards,  and  M. 
Azara  says,  even  Vipers.  The  chief  animal  food  of  the  Armadillos, 
however,  is  derived  from  the  immense  herds  of  wild  cattle  which 
cover  the  plains  and  savannas  of  every  part  of  South  America. 
These  are  rarely  slaughtered  but  for  the  sake  of  the  hide  and  tallow  ; 
and  as  the  carcasses  are  left  to  rot  on  the  Pampas,  or  plains,  the 
smell  soon  attracts  vast  crowds  of  carnivorous  animals  of  various 
species,  and  among  others,  great  numbers  of  Armadillos,  which 
greedily  devour  the  half-putrid  flesh,  and  soon  become  extremely 
fat  and  corpulent.  In  this  condition,  notwithstanding  the  filthy 
nature  of  their  food,  their  flesh  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  both 
by  the  native  Indians,  and  by  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  of 
America.  The  animal  is  roasted  in  its  shell,  and  considered  one  of 
the  greatest  dainties  which  the  country  produces. 

The  Armadillos  see  but  indifferently  ;  particularly  in  bright  sun- 
shiny weather ;  but  their  sense  of  hearing  is  extremely  acute,  and 
amply  compensates  for  any  imperfection  of  sight.  When  alarmed 
by  any  unusual  or  strange  sound,  they  prick  up  their  ears,  stop  for 
a  moment  to  satisfy  themselves  of  its  distance  and  direction,  then 
commence  a  precipitate  retreat  to  their  burrow,  or,  if  that  be  too 
remote,  begin  to  construct  a  new  one.  Smell  is,  however,  by  far  the 
most  acute  of  their  senses. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  female  Armadillo  brings  forth  but 
once  during  the  year,  but  she  produces  at  a  birth  frequently  six, 
eight,  or  even  ten  young  ones ;  yet  she  has  never  more  than  four 
teats ;  and,  according  to  the  report  of  M.  Azara,  the  most  accurate 
and  extensive  observer  who  has  written  upon  the  history  of  these 
animals,  in  some  species  only  two — an  anomaly,  with  respect  to  the 
number  of  young,  and  the  number  of  teats,  which  appears  to  con- 
tradict the  general  rule  observable  among  other  mammals. 

It  may  here  be  observed,  that  one  of  the  Weasel-headed  Arma- 
dillos fD.  EncoubcrtJ,  formerly  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  pro- 
duced only  two  at  a  birth  :  when  first  born  they  were  quite  blind, 
about  four  inches  in  length,  soft,  and  white  ;  but  the  skin  presented 
all  the  furrows  and  mosaic-work  which  characterise  it  when  indu- 
rated and  solid.  The  growth  of  these  animals  was  not  a  little  sur- 
prising ;  in  six  or  eight  weeks  they  attained  nearly  to  the  size  of 
their  parents.  One  born  on  the  3rd  of  September,  1S31,  and  which 
died  on  the  i6th  of  November  of  the  same  year,  had  increased  in 


THE  ARMADILLOS. 


209 


weight,  during  that  short  period,  52  ounces  2  drachms,  and  measured 
II J  inches  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  The  young  are  far 
more  hairy  than  the  adults. 

The  Peba  {Dasypus  Pcha). — The  Tatouhou,  or  Black  Tatu,  of 
the  Guaranis,  is  an  example  of  Cuvier's  group  of  Cachichames, 
\vhich,  according  to  Gumilla,  is  the  general  name  of  the  Armadillos 
on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco.  In  Zoological  catalogues  we  find  it 
under  the  ambiguous  names  of  Dasyptts  septemci?ictiis,  D.  octo- 
chictus,  and  D.  iwvcincincfiis ;  three  different  species  being  thus 
made  out  from  the  erroneous  supposition  that  the  number  of  mov- 
able bands  on  the  back  was  invariable  in  the  same  species  :  whereas 
the  truth  is,  that  the  number  of  bands  is  subject  to  a  certain  degree 
of  variation  ;  thus,  in  the  Mule  Armadillo,  there  are  six  or  seven 
bands  ;  in  the  Peba,  from  six  to  nine.  It  appears  also  that  the 
young  have  not  the  full  complement  of  bands,  by  one  or  two, 
which  become  developed  afterwards.  The  Peba  is  a  native  of 
Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Paraguay,  and  is  timid  and  nocturnal ;  it  is 
tolerably  rapid  in  its  movements,  and  very  expert  in  burrowing. 

It  is  never  found  in  woods,  but  frequents  the  open  and  cultivated 
plains,  and  is  much  hunted  by  the  inhabitants  on  account  of  its  flesh, 
which,  when  roasted  in  the  shell,  is  said  to  be  extremely  delicate, 
resembling  that  of  a  Sucking-Pig. 

The  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  about  sixteen  inches  ;  of  the 
tail,  which  is  slender  and  tapering,  fourteen  inches.  The  muzzle  is 
greatly  elongated,  straight,  and  pointed  ;  the  ears  are  rather  large, 
and  the  eyes  small ;  the  tongue  long,  narrow,  pointed,  and  extensible. 
The  general  colour  of  the  shell  is  dusky  black.     (See  Fig.  550.) 

■Allied  to  the  Peba  is  the  Mule  Armadillo  {Dasypus  hybridus, 


Fig-  550.— Peba. 

Desm.),  called  the  Courigua,  or  Mule  Tatu,  by  the  Guaranis,  in 
allusion  to  its  long  upright  ears.  It  is  of  smaller  size  than  the 
Peba,  and  its  tail  is  comparatively  shorter.  It  wanders  by  day  over 
the  plains,  feeding  on  Beetles,  larvae,  roots,  &c.  ;  differing  from  the 
Peba  in  being  diurnal  in  its  habits.  It  is  common  on  the  Pampas 
of  Buenos  Ayres. 

The  Mataco  {Dasypus  Apar). — This  species  is  an  example  of 
Cuvier's  group  of  Apars.  The  Mataco,  or  Bolita  (little  ball),  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  has  its  shell  of  defence  extremely  hard  and  solid, 


Fig.  551.— Mataco. 

forming  an  admirable  coat  of  mail.  It  has  only  three  bands  on  the 
back.  Of  all  the  Armadillos,  the  Mataco  is  the  only  one  which  can 
assume  the  complete  figure  of  a  ball,  enclosing  the  head  and  legs  ; 
and  this  faculty,  together  with  the  strength  of  the  skull,  appears  the 
more  necessary,  as  it  does  not  burrow,  its  limbs  being  feeble,  and 
its  claws  little  adapted  for  scratching  up  the  ground.  It  is  diurnal 
in   its   habits,  and  slow  in  its  movements      It  is  a  native  of  the 


Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  the  tail  is  short,  not  much  exceeding  two 
inches  in  length,  while  the  head  and  body  measure  nearly  fifteen 
inches.  Rolled  up  in  its  tessellated  shell,  it  is  safe  from  the  attacks 
of  Dogs;  "For  the  Dog,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "not  being  .able  to 
take  the  whole  m  its  mouth,  tries  to  bite  one  side,  and  the  ball  slips 
away.  The  smooth  hard  covering  of  the  Mataco  offers  a  better 
defence  than  the  sharp  pines  of  the  Hedgehog."  A  shell  of  this 
species,  which  formed  the  cup  of  a  cacique,  is  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  London.     (See  Fig.  s=;i.) 

The  Poyou,  or  Wea.sel-headed  Armadillo  {Dasypus  En- 
coubert,  Desm.) — This  Armadillo  belongs  to  Cuvier's  section 
termed  Encouherts :  it  is  very  common  in  Paraguay,  and  burrows  in 
the  ground  with  almost  incredible  celerity.  Its  strength  and  activity 
are  very  remarkable  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  shortness  of  the 
legs,  few  men  can  overtake  it.  It  is  of  a  restless,  unquiet  disposi- 
tion, inquisitive,  and  confident;  and  when  any  noise  is  made  at  the 
entrance  of  its  burrow,  it  is  said  to  come  fearlessly  forth  to  investi- 
gate the  cause.  Its  voice  is  a  low  grunt,  like  that  of  a  young  Pig. 
These  animals  live  solitary  or  in  pairs,  and  haunt  wooded  districts, 
where  they  excavate  very  deep  burrows :  when  danger  threatens 
they  carry  on  their  mining  operations,  rendering  it  ditBcult  to  dig 
them  out.  They  feed  upon  melons,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables  ; 
but  also,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  carrion  ;  the  natives,  nevertheless, 
eat  the  fiesh  of  this  species  without  any  repugnance.  When  it  stops 
or  rests  on  the  ground,  it  has  a  habit  of  squatting  like  a  Hare  in  her 
form,  and  in  this  situation  the  great  breadth  of  the  body  is  very  ap- 
parent. The  head  is  large,  flat,  and  nearly  triangular :  the  face 
short,  and  the  muzzle  blunt ;  the  ears  are  moderate.    (See  Fig.  552.) 


Fig.  552. — Weasel-headed  Armadillo. 

Several  individuals  of  this  Armadillo  have,  at  various  times,  lived 
in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zool.  Soc.  They  appear  to  have  little  fear, 
and  soon  become  familiar,  even  with  strangers  ;  when  running  about 
their  enclosure,  during  warm  or  sunny  weather,  they  turn  up  the 
turf  rapidly  with  their  noses,  apparently  in  search  of  Worms  or 
insects ;  bread  and  milk  is  the  diet  on  which  they  are  fed  :  their 
actions  are  prompt  and  rapid.  The  Poyou  measures  about  sixteen 
inches  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  ;  the  tail  is  about  six  or 
seven  inches  long. 

Another  example  of  this  section  is  the  Pichiy,  or  Pichy  {Dasypus 
minutus).  It  is  extremply  abundant  on  the  arid  plains  near  the 
Sierra  Ventana,  and  likewise  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rio 
Negro.  "AtBahia  Blanca,"  /ays  Mr.  Darwin,  "I  found  in  the 
stomach  of  this  Armadillo,  coleoptera,  larva:,  roots  of  plants,  and 
even  a  small  Snake  of  the  genus  Aniphisba^iia. 

"The  Pichy  prefers  a  dry  soil;  and  the  sand-dunes  near  the 
coast,  where  for  many  months  it  can  never  taste  water,  are  its 
favourite  resort.  In  the  course  of  a  day's  ride  near  Bahia  Blanca, 
several  were  generally  met  with.  The  instant  one  was  observed,  it 
was  necessary,  in  order  to  catch  it,  almost  to  tumble  off  one's 
Horse  ;  for,  if  the  soil  was  soft,  the  animal  burrowed  so  quickly, 
that  its  hinder  quarters  almost  disappeared  before  one  could  alight. 
The  Pichy  likewise  often  tries  to  escape  notice  by  squatting  close  to 
the  ground.  It  appears  almost  a  pity  to  kill  such  nice  little 
animals  ;  for,  as  Gaucho  said,  while  sharpening  his  knife  on  the 
back  of  one,  '  Son  tan  mansos'  (They  are  so  quiet)." 

The  Pichiy  measures  only  ten  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head 
and  body,  and  about  four  inches  in  that  of  the  tail,  "it  is  diurnal  in 
its  habits. 

The  Tatouay  {Dasyptts  Tafouay,  Desm.) — This  species  is  an 
example  of  Cuvier's  section  Cabassous.  The  Tatouay,  or  Wounded 
Armadillo,  is  so  called  by  the  Indians  in  allusion  to  its  tail,  which  is 
naked,  or,  as  it  were,  rudely  deprived  of  the  crust  or  bony  tube 
which  covers  this  organ  in  all  the  other  species.  The  whole  length 
of  the  Tatouay,  as  given  by  Azara,  is  twenty-six  inches  and 
a-half,   including    the    tail,   which   is    seven    inches   and    a-half, 

2  £ 


210 


THE  ARMADILLOS. 


round,  pointed,  and  naked,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  round 
scales  or  crusts  on  the  under-surface  of  the  third  nearest  to  the 
extremity,  which  frequently  trails  along  the  ground  when  the  animal 
walks:  the  rest  is  covered  with  soft  brown  "fur,  interspersed  with  a 
few  stiff  short  hairs  on  the  superior  surface.  The  head  is  longer, 
narrower,  and  more  attenuated  than  that  of  the  Poyou,  though  con- 
siderably less  so  than  in  the  Peba  and  Mule  Armadillo ;  the  ears 


Fig-  SSj. — Tatouay. 

arc  unusually  large,  being  nearly  two  inches  long,  and  in  figure 
forming  a  segment  of  a  circle  ;  the  body  is  round  ;  the  claws  of  the 
fore-feet,  particularly  that  of  the  middle  toe,  are  excessively  large. 
The  bucklers  of  the  croup  and  shoulders  are  composed  of  ten  and 
seven  rows  of  scales  respectively,  each  scale  forming  an  oblong 
rectangle ;  the  movable  bands  are  thirteen  in  number,  composed 
of  scales  much  smaller  than 
those  of  the  bucklers,  and  of 
a  nearly  square  figure.  It  in- 
habits Guiana  and  Brazil,  and 
is  rarely  found  so  far  south  as 
Paraguay.     (See  Fig.  553.) 

The  Great  Armadillo 
{Dasyptts  gigas). — This  Ar- 
madillo is  an  example  of 
Cuvier's  group  Prwdonies. 
The  Great  Armadillo  mea- 
sures nearly  3  feet  3  inches 
in  length,  from  the  nose  to  the 
origin  of  the  tail  ;  the  head 
is  seven  inches  and  a-half 
long,  the  ears  an  inch  and 
three-quarters,  and  the  tail 
one  foot  five  inches.  Its 
superior  size  is  alone  suf- 
ficient to  distinguish  this 
species  from  all  the  other 
known  Armadillos ;  but  it 
possesses  numerous  other 
characters,  not  less  remark- 
able. Its  head  is  propor- 
tionately smaller  than  in  the 
other  species  ;  the  forehead 
is  more  protuberant,  and  the 
face,  from  the  eyes  down- 
wards, assumes  a  tubular 
cylindrical  form,  like  that  of 
the  Peba ;  the  ears  are  of  a 
moderate  size,  pointed  and 
habitually  crouched  back- 
wards ;  the  bucklers  of  the 
shoulders  and  croup  are  com- 
posed of  nine  and  eighteen 
rows  of  plates  respectively, 
and  separated  by  movable 
bands  to  the  number  of  twelve 

or  thirteen,  formed  of  rectangular  scales,  about  half  an  inch  square. 
The  tail  is  thick  at  the  root,  being  upwards  of  ten  inches  in  cir- 
cumference :  it  is  gradually  attenuated  towards  the  tip,  covered 
•with  plates  disposed  in  rings  at  the  base,  and  forming,  spiral  or 
crescent-shaped  lines  througliout  the  rest  of  its  length.  The  claws 
are  large  and  powerful,  but  in  their  relative  form  and  dimensions 
differ  little  from  those  of  the  Tatouay,  already  described. 

This  species  inhabits  Brazil  and  the  northern  parts  of  Paraguay. 
It  is  never  found  in  the  open  country,  but  keeps  close  to  the  great 
forests,  and  burrows  with  surprising  facility.  Those  who  are  em- 
ployed in  collecting  the  Jesuits'  bark  frequently  meet  with  it  in  the 
woods,  and  report  that  when  any  of  their  companions  happen  to  die 
at  a  distance  from  the  settlements,  they  are  obliged  to  surround 


the  body  with  a  double  row  of  stout  planks,  to  prevent  it  from  being 
scratched  up  and  devoured  by  the  Great  Armadillo.  (See  Fig.  554.) 
The  Pichiciago  {Chlamyphorus  truncatus). — This  extraor- 
dinary little  creature,  though  scarcely  six  inches  in  length,  is  formed 
on  the  plan  of  the  utmost  strength  and  solidity,  being  destined  for 
burrowing  habits.  It  is  a  native  of  Chili,  where,  like  a  Mole,  it 
works  out  galleries  in  the  rich  soil  of  the  valleys,  living  for  the  most 


Fig-  5S4-— The  Great  Armadillo. 

part  under-ground  in  quiet  seclusion.  So  rare  is  this  animal,  that  it  is 
regarded  by  the  natives  as  a  curiosity.  Its  food,  so  far  as  we  are 
assured  by  its  dentition  and  the  imperfect  accounts  collected,  con- 
sists of  insects  and  larvs  :  night  probably  is  the  season  of  its 
activity,  and  of  its  unfrequent  visits  to  the  "  upper  world." 

The  appearance  of  the  Pichiciago  reminds  us  of  the  Armadillos, 
for  it  is  covered  above  by  a  shell,  not,  however,  of  very  hard  con- 
sistence, nor  very  thick,  but  of  a  texture  between  horn  and  leather. 


Fig-  555.— Pichiciago. 

(See  Fig.  555 .)  This  shield-like  plate  commences  on  the  head,  and 
extends  over  the  back  and  haunches,  over  which  latter  it  dips  down 
quite  abruptly  and  perpendicularly,  so  as  to  make  it  seem  as  if  the 
body  was  cut  off  abruptly  at  its  hinder  part.  It  is  divided  by  inter- 
secting furrows  into  a  series  of  bands  or  strips,  each  strip  being  itself 
made  up  of  fifteen  or  twenty  plates  of  a  square  form,  except  on  the 
head,  which  is  covered  with  a  single  plate  composed  of  a  mosaic- 
work  of  rounded  and  irregular  portions,  and  the  perpendicular 
haunch-plate,  which  is  also  tessellated.  This  horny  covering  or 
shield  is  not  fixed  by  the  whole  of  its  inferior  surface  to  the  integu- 
ments beneath,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Armadillo  ;  but  merely  rests 
on  the  back,  free  throughout,  excepting  along  the  spine  of  the  back 
and  top  of  the  head ;  being  attached  to  the  back,  immediately  above 


THE  AARD-VARK,   OR  EARTH-IIOG. 


211 


the  spine,  by  a  loose  cuticular  production,  and  by  two  remarkable 
bony  processes  on  the  top  of  the  os  frontis  (bone  of  forehead),  by 
means  of  two  larafe  plates,  which  are  nearly  incorporated  with  the 
bone  beneath  ;  but  for  this  attachment,  and  the  tail  being  firmly 
curved  beneath  the  belly,  the  covering  would  be  very  easily  detached. 


I  skeleton  is  equally  indicative  of  the  animal's  habits.  The  skull  is 
firm,  and  prevented  from  being  pressed  upon  by  the  shield  which 
rests  on  the  two  projections.  The  bones  of  the  fore-limbs  are  short, 
thick,  and  angular  ;  the  scapula;  broad  and  strong :  the  ribs  thick, 
and  capable  of  resisting  great  pressure.     The  hip-bones  arc  of  sin- 


Fig.  556. — Extremity  and  Tail  of  Pichiciago. 

The  extremity  of  the  tail  is  formed  like  a  paddle.     The  whole  surface 
of  the  body  and  under-side  of  the  shield  are  covered  with  fine  silk- 
like hair  (of  a  delicate  straw-colour),  longer  and  finer  than  that  of 
the  Mole,  but  not  so  thick.     The  anterior  of  the  chest  is 
large,    full,    and   strong :    the   anterior   extremities   short, 
clumsy,   and  powerful.     The   hand,  which   is   amazingly 
thick  and  compact,   is  furnished  with   five  powerful  but 
compressed  nails,  which,  arranged  together  in  their  natu- 
ral situation,  constitute  one  of  the  most  efficient  scrapers 
or  shovels  which  can  be  possibly  imagined  ;  and  expressly 
adapted  for  progression  under-ground,  but  in  an  equal  ratio 
ill-fitted  for  celerity  on   the  surface.     The  hind-legs  are 
comparatively  weak,  the  feet  being  long  and  plantigrade, 
and  the  toes  furnished  with  small  flattened  nails.     Sight 
is  but  a  secondary  sense  as  regards  its  importance  in  the 
economy   of  an   animal   living  in   darkness   beneath   the 
ground.     The  organs  of  vision,  therefore,  are  very  minute, 
and  buried  in  the  silky  fur  by  which  the  circular  orifices  of 
the  ears  are  completely  concealed.     The  head  is  almost  conical  in 
figure,  going  off  from  a  broad  base  to  a  pointed  muzzle  furnished 
with  an  enlarged  cartilage,  somewhat  as  in  the  Hog,  and  doubtless 
for  the  purpose  of  grubbing  and  burrowing  for  food. 
In  accordance  with  the  details  of   external  configuration,  the 


Fig.  561. — Cervical 
Vertebrx. 


Fig.  562.— Pelvis, 
behind. 


Fig.  564.— Tail. 


F'g-  563.— Pelvis, 

below. 


gular  construction,  and  admirably  formed  for  protecting  the  internal 
organs  from  injury.  Such  is  an  outline  of  the  structure  and  habits 
of  the  Chlamyphorus,  an  animal  which,  though  bearing  in  some 
points  a  resemblance  to  the  Armadillos,  yet  possesses  characters  so 
exclusively  its  own  as  to  render  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  dis- 
coveries in  zoology. 

Fig.  556  represents  the  tail ;  Fig.  5,57,  a  lateral  view  of  the  skull  of 
the  Pichiciago  ;  Fig.  558,  an  upper  view  ;  Fig.  559,  a  basal  view  of  the 
same  ;  Fig.  560,  lower  jaw  ;  Fig.  561,  the  cervical  vertebra;,  and  first 


Fig.  557- — Skull  of  Pichiciago,  side  view. 


Fig.  S5S-— Skull,  top.         Fig.  559.— Skull,  base.        Fig.  560.— Lower  Jaw. 


Fig.  565. — Skeleton  of  Pichiciago. 

bone  of  the  sternum,  with  parts  of  the  first  and  second  ribs  seen  from 
below.  Fig.  565,  the  skeleton;  Fig.  562,  pelvis  seen  from  behind; 
Fig.  563,  same  seen  from  below  :  Fig.  564,  vertebra  of  tail. 

The  Aard-Vark  {Orycteropus  Ca^ens/s). — This  animal,  known 
to  the  colonists  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  the  name  of  Aard-vark, 
or  Earth-Hog,  is  the  sole  example,  as  far  as  ascertained,  of  the  genus 
Oryctcropus.     The  Aard-vark  is  essentially  burrowing  in  its  habits, 


Fig.  566. — Aard-vark. 

and  insectivorous  in  its  diet.  Its  proportions  are  thick  and  strong, 
though  the  general  contour  is  elongated  and  the  limbs  short.  It  is 
neither  protected  by  plates  nor  scales,  but  the  skin  is  thick,  tough, 
and  coarse,  and  covered  with  stiff  hair,  resembling  bristles  in  quality, 
and  somewhat  scantily  disposed,  especially  on  the  head.  The 
muzzle  is  elongated,  narrow,  and  Hog-like  at  its  apex  ;  the  mouth 
small,  and  the  tongue  extensible  ;  the  eyes  are  rather  small ;  the  ears 
large,  long,  and  pointed  ;  the  tail  tapering  from  a  very  stout  base  ; 
the  limbs  are  short,  thick,  and  very  muscular  ;  the  fore-feet  have 
four  stout  toes  armed  with  large  solid  nails,  resembling  hoofs  in 
appearance,  and  admirably  adapted  as  scrapers  of  the  dry,  hard 


212 


THE  ANT-EATERS. 


ground  of  an  African  desert.  The  hind-feet  are  long  and  planti- 
grade, having  five  toes  armed  with  naiis  of  the  same  character  as 
those  of  the  fore-feet. 

The  teeth  consist  of  seven  molars  on  each  side  above,  of  which  the 
first  is  minute  and  distinct  from  the  rest,  and  six  on  each  side  below. 
Fig.  567  gives  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  in  two  views ;  Fig.  568, 
those  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  Fig.  569,  the  teeth  of  both  jaws  together. 


Fig.  567. — Teelli  of  Aard-vaik. 


Fig.  56S.— Teeth  of  Aard-vark. 


Fig.  569. — Teeth  of  Aard-vark. 

The  Aard-vark  attains  to  a  considerable  size,  measuring,  when 
fully  grown,  upwards  of  five  feet  in  total  length,  of  which  the  tail  is 
I  foot  8  or  9  inches.  Its  food  consists  exclusively  of  Ants,  which  it 
takes  by  means  of  its  long  glutinous  tongue,  after  effecting  a  breach 
in  the  dome-like  houses  of  solid  indurated  mud-work  which  those  in- 
sects construct,  and  which  are  very  abundant  in  certain  districts. 
These  hillocks  are  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  their  structure  is 
irregularly  cellular,  not  unlike  volcanic  honeycomb  stone,  exhibiting 
a  maze  of  passages  opening  into  each  other.  In  demolishing  these 
buildings  for  the  sake  of  their  multitudinous  inmates,  which  are 
devoured  by  wholesale,  the  Aard-vark  employs  the  active  portion  of 
its  existence.  The  dwelling  of  the  Aard-vark  itself  is  in  a  burrow  at 
a  little  distance  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  out  of  which  it 
comes  forth  only  during  the  night,  for  in  its  habits  it  is  entirely  noc- 
turnal ;  hence  during  the  day  it  is  seldom  seen,  but  may  be  observed, 
as  the  dusk  approaches,  creeping  from  its  hole,  intent  upon  its  prey. 
These  burrows,  where  numerous  (as  they  are  in  some  districts,  where 
also  innumerable  Ant-hills  cover  the  plain),  are  dangerous  to 
waggons  travelling  over  the  country ;  and  Cattle  and  Horses  occa- 
sionally break  through  the  surface  of  the  ground  into  them,  and  thus 
suddenly  stumble  or  fall.  They  are  often  very  extensive,  and  it  is 
incredible  with  what  despatch  the  animal  makes  them,  and  with 
what  rapidity  it  mines  onwards  when  endeavouring  to  elude  the 
search  of  persons  attempting  to  dig  it  out  of  its  retreat  •  hence  it  is 
not  captured  without  difficulty.  The  flesh  of  the  Aard-vark,  and 
especially  the  hind-quarters,  when  made  into  hams,  are  accounted 
excellent. 

The  Myrmecophagid.^;,  or  Ant-eaters. 

The  Myrmecophagidcs,  or  Ant-eaters,  are  distinguished  by  the  re- 
markable structure  of  the  tongue,  which,  by  a  peculiar  arrangement 
of  the  muscles  of  which  it  is  composed,  is  capable  of  being  protruded 
from  the  mouth  to  a  great  length,  and  again  retracted  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  animal.;  The  tongue  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  annular 
or  ring-like  muscles  ;  and  it  is  by  the  contraction  of  these  that  its 
extraordinary  extensibility  is  produced.  It  is  usually  of  a  cylindrical 
or  Worm-like  form  ;  but  in  the  genus  Orycfcropus  it  is  flattened 
and  strap-shaped.  Its  surface  is  smooth,  and  indued  with  a  viscous 
matter,  and  it  thus  becomes  instrumental  in  enabling  these  creatures 
to  procure  their  food,  which  consists  entirely  of  insects,  and  princi- 


pally of  Ants  and  Termites ;  the  tongue  is  exserted  amongst  the 
crowds  of  these  insects,  which  then  adhere  to  its  surface,  and  are 
drawn  back  into  the  mouth  by  its  contraction.  The  jaws  are  elon- 
gated, but  the  external  opening  of  the  mouth  is  of  very  small  size  ; 
so  that  without  this  extensible  tongue,  the  animals  of  this  family 
would  be  unable  to  procure  their  nourishment.  In  the  majority  the 
jaws  are  quite  destitute  of  teeth  ;  these  organs  occur  only  in  one 
genus  {Orycteropiis),  including  two  species,  both  natives  of  Africa. 
The  Qryctcropuda  arc  also  the  only  species  of  this  family  in  which 
the  ears  attain  any  considerable  size. 

The  legs  are  rather  short,  but  very  powerful — adapted  for  terres- 
trial motion,  and  armed  with  very  strong  claws,  which  are  employed 
by  the  animals  in  digging  into  the  Ant-hills  in  search  of  their 
favourite  food  ;  the  Ants  and  White  Ants  crowding  into  the  breach 
as  soon  as  they  find  their  dwelling  is  invaded,  and  thus  giving  their 
enemy  an  excellent  opportunity  of  inserting  his  long  tongue  amongst 
their  ranks. 

The  Great  Ant-eater,  or  KiAi-v,Y,k.^{Myr7}iecophagajiibata). 
The  Tamanoir  of  Buffon. — This  species,  a  native  of  Guiana,  Brazil, 
and  Paraguay,  is  characterised  by  the  total  absence  of  teeth,  a 
narrow  head,  with  an  extremely  slender  elongated  snout,  contrasting 
strangely  with  the  clumsy  massive  contour  of  the  limbs  and  body. 
The  mouth  is  a  small  slit  at  the  extremity  of  the  snout ;  the  eyes  are 
small,  and  the  tongue  long,  cylindrical,  and  protractile,  constituting 
an  organ  for  obtaining  insect  food,  and  is  lubricated  by  a  gummy 
saliva ;  the  limbs  are  short,  but  of  great  thickness,  furnished  with 
huge  hook-like  claws  well  adapted  for  making  forcible  entrance  into 
the  solid  dwellings  of  the  Termite  Ants.  The  claws  of  the  fore-feet 
are  four  in  number,  the  inner  one  being  the  smallest ;  of  the  hind- 
feet,  five.  Those  of  the  fore-feet,  in  a  state  of  repose  or  when  the 
animal  is  walking,  are  doubled  inwards  on  a  rough  callous  pad,  and 
the  outer  portion  only  of  the  fore-feet  is  applied  to  the  ground.  The 
claws  of  the  hind-feet  are  short,  and  the  sole  is  a  naked  protuberant 
pad.  The  ears  are  short  and  round ;  the  tail  is  of  great  thickness 
at  the  base,  whence  it  narrows  to  the  apex,  being  laterally  com- 
pressed, but  its  form  is  hid  beneath  a  profusion  of  long,  coarse, 
flowing  hair,  which  hangs  like  a  full  plume  or  fringe. 

The  hair  of  the  head  is  short  and  close,  but  over  all  the  rest  of  the 
animal  it  is  long  and  shaggy,  particularly  on  the  top  of  the  neck  and 
along  the  back,  where  it  forms  a  kind  of  long  mane  ;  and  on  the  tail, 
where  it  is  a  foot  in  length,  and  hangs  down  on  each  side,  sweeping 
the  ground  when  the  Ant-eater  walks.     (See  Fig.  570.) 


I'ig-  570.— The  Great  Ant-eater. 

The  prevailing  colour  on  the  head,  face,  and  cheeks  of  the  Ant- 
eater  is  a  mixture  of  grey  and  brown  ;  that  on  the  upper  parts  of  the 
body  and  tail  is  deep  brown  mixed  with  silvery  white.  A  broad 
black  band,  bordered  on  each  side  with  a  similar  one  of  white  or 
light-greyish-brown  colour,  commences  on  the  chest  and  passes  ob- 
liquely over  each  shoulder,  diminishing  gradually  as  it  approaches 
the  loins,  where  it  ends  in  a  point.  The'sides,  arms,  and  thighs  are 
silvery-grey,  with  a  slight  mixture  of  brown,  marked  with  two  deep 
black  spots,  one  on  the  carpus,  and  the  other  on  the  toes  ;  the  hind- 
legs  are  almost  perfectly  black,  and  the  breast  and  belly  of  a  deep 
brown,  almost  equally  obscure. 


THE  ANT-EATERS. 


213 


Dr.  Schomburg-k  observes,  that  at  a  distance  the  Ant-eater  appears 
to  be  a  much  taller  animal  than  it  really  is,  owintj  to  the  elongated 
and  nearly  erect  hair  of  the  mane,  and  also  the  erect  manner  in 
which  it  carries  its  large  bushy  tail.  When  walking,  the  outer  por- 
tion of  the  fore-foot  is  applied  to  the  ground,  and  the  long  claws  arc 
then  doubled  inwards.  It  runs  with  a  peculiar  trot,  and  is  not,  as 
has  been  represented,  slow  in  its  movements  and  easily  overtaken; 
for  when  chased,  it  will  keep  a  Horse  in  canter,  and  does  not  tire 
readily.  White  Ants,  or  Termites,  constitute  its  chief  food.  When 
the  Ant-eater  meets  with  one  of  the  tumuli  constructed  by  the  White 
Ants,  it  immediately  pulls  the  fabric  down  by  means  of  its  large 
strong  claws,  and  when  the  Ants  are  thus  exposed,  its  long  slender 
tongue  is  thrust  out  to  collect  them.  The  movements  of  the  tongue, 
alternately  being  protruded  and  retracted,  are  so  rapid,  says  Dr. 
Schomburgk,  that  it  is  no  longer  surprising  how  so  large  an  animal 
can  satiate  its  appetite  with  such  minute  insects.  The  Ant-eater  is, 
however,  an  economist,  and  does  not  destroy  more  than  he  wants. 
When  he  finds  that  the  Termites  diminish  on  the  surface,  and  every 
one  seeks  to  escape  in  the  numerous  galleries  of  the  ruined  edifice, 
he  uses  his  left  foot  to  hold  some  large  lumps  of  the  nest,  whilst  with 
the  right  he  leisurely  pulls  them  to  pieces.  Specimens  of  the  Ant- 
eater  may  be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's 
Park,  London. 

With  the  Termites  he  swallows  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
material  of  which  the  Ants'  nest  is  constructed.  Of  this  fact  Dr. 
Schomburgk  assured  himself  by  dissection,  and  he  is  of  opinion  that 
the  substance  of  the  nest  serves  as  a  corrector. 

"It  has  been  generally  thought,"  says  Dr.  Schomburgk,  "that 
the  Ant-eater  lives  exclusively  on  Ants  ;  this,  however,  is  not  the 
case.  In  one  which  I  dissected  a  year  ago,  a  species  of  Jiiliis  was 
found  ;  and  the  avidity  with  which  an  adult  one  now  in  my  posses- 
sion swallowed  fresh  meat,  which  was  hashed  up  for  it,  makes  me 
believe  that  even  in  the  wild  state  it  does  not  satisfy  itself  exclusively 
with  Ants,  and,  provided  the  food  is  of  such  a  size  that  it  can  take  it 
up  with  its  movable  upper  lip,  it  does  not  despise  it."  According  to 
the  same  authority,  the  Great  Ant-eater  makes  no  burrow,  its  tail 
serving  as  a  sufficient  protection  :  the  female  produces  a  single  off- 
spring, which  she  carries  on  her  back  ;  she  defends  herself  by  strik- 
ing with  her  fore-feet,  while  raised  on  her  haunches,  or  throws 
herself  on  her  back,  dealing  blows  with  both  her  claws.  The  young 
soon  become  tame  and  familiar,  growl  like  a  puppy,  or  utter  a  plain- 
tive whine.  The  sense  of  smell  is  exquisite  ;  and  the  animal  is 
directed  more  by  this  than  by  sight.  The  teats  of  the  female  are 
two,  and  pectoral.  The  young  remains  with  its  parent  for  the  space 
of  a  year. 

Dr.  Schomburgk  domesticated  an  adult  female  Ant-eater,  which 
he  found  capable  of  climbing  with  great  facility,  and  also  of  taking 
up  objects  with  its  paws.  It  ate  beef  and  even  fish  cut  small.  When 
not  asleep,  it  rested  on  its  haunches  ;  but  in  feeding  kneeled  as 
Goats  and  Sheep  often  do.  Its  height  was  3  feet ;  the  length  of  the 
head,  i  foot  3  inches ;  of  the  back,  3  feet  7  inches  ;  of  the  tail, 
3  feet  6  inches.  The  Ant-eaters,  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London,  are  fed  with  a  mixture  of  egg  and  finely-chopped 
meat. 

The  Tajiandua  {Tainandua  letradadyle;  Myrmecophaga  Ta- 
■ina?idua,  Cuv.)  The  Middle  Ant-eater,  Shaw;  theCagouare  of  Azara. 

This  species  is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay.  In  the  general 
plan  of  its  osteology,  the  Tamandua  agrees  with  the  Tam.anoir,  but 
the  bones  of  the  muzzle  are  shorter  than  the  cranial  portion,  instead 
of  being  twice  as  long  ;  hence  the  whole  head  is  more  abbreviated  : 
the  snout  is  also  more  conical,  and  presents  a  less  tubular  appear- 


Fig.  57'' — Tamandua. 

ance.  Independently,  however,  of  this  difference,  the  Tamandua  is 
easily  distinguished  from  its  congener.  It  is  far  inferior  in  size,  and 
its  tail,  instead  of  being  furnished  with  full  flowing  hair,  is  a  long, 
taper,  thinly  covered  organ  of  prehension,  nearly  naked  indeed  at 
the  tip,  though  well  covered  at  the  base.  The  fur  of  the  body  is 
thick,  dense,  and  harsh  ;  and  on  the  hinder  quarters  of  tolerable 
length,  but  on  the  head  and  fore-quarters  it  is  short,  wiry,  upright, 
and  glossy,  and  radiates  from  an  areola  between  the  shoulders  :  the 
point  of  the  muzzle  is  bare  ;  the  eyes  are  small ;  the  ears  of  a  mode- 


rate size  and  rounded ;   the  mouth  is  small,  and  the  nostrils  arc 
lateral  slits.     (See  Fig.  571.) 

In  the  structure  of  the  limbs  it  closely  resembles  its  larger  con- 
gener. The  Tamandua,  when  fully  grown,  measures  about  two  feet 
in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  and  sixteen  or  seventeen  inches 
in  that  of  the  tail.  A  young  specimen  measured  nineteen  inches  in 
the  body,  and  thirteen  in  the  tail.  Its  colour  on  the  head  and  fore- 
quarters  was  yellowish-white  :  the  sides  of  the  body,  the  haunches, 
and  the  under-surface,  together  with  the  base  of  the  tail,  being  black, 
and  a  black  stripe  passed  along  each  shoulder. 

M.  Geoffroy  regards  as  distinct  species  one  altogether  black, 
which  he  terms  T.  nigra,  and  another,  with  a  double  shoulder- 
stripe,  which  he  has  named  T  bivittatd.  They  are,  however,  most 
probably,  only  varieties  ;  at  least  Cuvier  states,  in  his  "  Ossemens 
Fossiles,"  that  however  these  animals  may  vary  in  colour,  they  pre- 
sent no  difference  in  their  proportions,  nor  in  the  details  of  their 
skeletons,  though  he  has  rigidly  compared  them  together.  Azara 
tells  us  that  he  once  found  dead  a  Cagouare  thirty-seven  inches  and 
three-quarters  long,  which  was  of  an  universal  yellowish-white  ; 
whence  he  concludes  that  the  perfect  livery  is  not  gained  until  the 
second  year.     The  young  are  of  an  universal  pale  cinnamon  colour. 

In  its  manners  the  Tamandua  agrees  with  the  Tamanoir,  with  this 
difference,  that  it  often  climbs  trees,  aiding  itself  by  its  prehensile 
tail,  which,  however,  is  much  inferior  as  a  prehensile  organ  to  that 
of  the  little  two-toed  Ant-eater,  and  its  claws  are  also  less  calculated 
for  arboreal  habits.  Azara  suspects  th.at  it  feeds  much  upon  honey 
and  Bees,  which  he  adds,  are  here  (in  Paraguay)  destitute  of  stings, 
and  take  up  their  abode  in  trees.  When  reposing,  the  Tamandua 
doubles  its  head  on  its  chest,  lies  on  its  belly,  places  its  fore-limbs 
along  its  sides,  and  its  tail  over  its  body.  It  smells  strongly  of 
musk,  and  the  odour,  when  the  animal  is  irritated,  is  very  disagree- 
able, and  may  be  perceived  at  a  great  distance.  The  female  pro- 
duces one  at  a  birth  ;  it  is,  says  Azara,  very  ugly,  and  is  carried  by 
the  mother  on  her  shoulders. 

The  Little  Ant-eater  {Myrmecophaga  didadyla  Linn.) — 
The  distinguishing  characters  of  this  species  consist  in  the  shortness 
of  the  muzzle,  which  is  conical  ;  in  the  number  of  the  claws,  which 
are  two  on  each  fore-foot,  of  hook-like  shape,  compressed  laterally 
and  very  sharp,  the  outer  one  being  considerably  the  largest ;  in  the 
oblique  position  of  the  hind-feet,  which  are  armed  with  four  short 
compressed  claws  ;  and  lastly,  in  the  strongly  prehensile  power  of 
the  tail,  which  is  very  long,  and  covered  with  fine  silky  fur,  like  that 
of  the  body,  except  for  three  inches  of  the  under-surface  at  the  tip, 
where,  as  in  the  Spider-Monkey,  it  is  perfectly  naked.  The  claws 
of  the  fore-feet,  which  resemble  those  of  the  Sloth,  are  folded  down 
on  a  callous  pad  ;  and  with  these  the  little  creature  can  cling  to  a 
branch  while  the  inward  tournure  of  the  hind-limbs  combines  with 
the  prehensile  structure  of  the  tail  to  fit  it  for  its  arboreal  residence. 
It  may  be  observed  that  the  animal  possesses  clavicles,  which  do 
not  exist  in  the  Great  Ant-eater,  the  Tamandua,  nor  yet  in  the  Pan- 
golins    (See  Fig.  572.) 


Fig.  572. — Little  Ant-catcr. 

The  eyes  are  small,  the  ears  close  and  buried  in  the  fur;  the 
mouth  is  small,  and  the  tongue  long  and  vermiform.  The  fur  is  ex- 
quisitely fine,  soft,  curled,  and  silky  ;  the  general  colour  is  delicate 
golden-straw,  with  a  brownish  mark  on  the  back,  often  wanting. 
Length  of  head  and  body,  ten  inches ;  of  the  tail,  ten  inches  and 

The  Little  Ant-eater  is  a  native  of  Guiana  and  Brazil,  where  it 
tenants  the  forests,  suspending  itself  by  its  long  tail,  as  well  as 
clino-ino-by  means  of  its  claws  :  it  searches  for  insects  among  the 
fissures^of  the  bark,  and  attacks  the  nests  of  Wasps,  the  nympha;  of 
which  it  pulls  out  with  its  fore-claws  or  nippers,  and  eats  them  while 
it  sits  up  like  a  Squirreh  In  defending  themselves,  these  animals 
strike  with  both  the  fore-paws  at  once,  and  with  considerable  force. 
In  their  habits  they  are  nocturnal,  sleeping  with  the  tail  twisted 


214 


THE  PANGOLINS,  OR  MANIS. 


round  their  perch.  They  utter  no  cry.  The  female  is  said  to  breed 
in  the  hollows  of  trees,  making  a  bed  of  leaves,  and  producing  only 
one  at  a  birth.  There  is  a  pale  variety,  regarded  by  some  as  a  dis- 
tinct species. 

The  Pangolins. 

The  American  Ant-eaters,  Mant'na,  are  represented  in  India  and 
Africa  by  the  Pangolins,  or  Scaly  Ant-eaters  {Mam's ;pcntadacfyla), 


Fig.  573. — Short-tailed  Manis  and  Long-tailed  Manis, 


Fig.  574. — Temminck's  Manis. 

which  constitute  the  genus  Manis  of  Linnaeus.  These  singular 
animals  may  at  once  be  known  by  their  armour  of  dense  horny 
scales,  or  triangular  plates  overlapping  each  other,  by  which  every 
part  of  the  body,  except  the  middle  line  of  the  under-surface,  is  com- 
pletely invested.  The  body  is  depressed,  rounded  above,  long  and 
low  ;  the  head  is  small  and  conical,  the  eyes  are  minute ;  there  are 
no  external  ears;  the  mouth  is  small,' and 
the  tongue  long  and  extensible  ;  the  tail  is 
long  and  broad,  and  covered  above  and  below 
with  hard  imbricated  scales  ;  the  limbs  are 
very  short  and  thick,  and  mailed  like  the 
rest  of  the  body  ;  no  distinct  toes  are  ap- 
parent beyond  the  claws,  which  on  the  fore- 
feet are  five  in  number,  the  three  central 
ones  being  of  enormous  size,  arched,  thick, 
and  bluntly  pointed.  The  first  and  the  last 
claws  are  very  small.  The  large  claws  fold  Fig.  575.— Skull  of  Short- 
down  on  a  thick  coarse  pad,  as  in  the  Ant-  tailed  Manis. 


eater,  and  the  mode  of  progression  in  both  cases  is  the  same.  The 
hind-feet  have  five  short,  thick,  blunt  claws,  edging  a  pad-like  sole, 
covered  with  coarse  granular  skin,  and  so  protuberant  that  the  claws 
do  not  fairly  touch  the  ground.  The  ungueal  phalanges,  or  last  joints 
of  the  toes  (both  of  the  fore  and  hind-feet),  which  are  sheathed  by 
the  claws,  are  remarkable  for  being  bifurcated  at  their  extremity,  a 
peculiarity  found  in  no  other  of  the  Edeiitata.  It  is  evidently  a 
conformation  intended  to  give  the  claws  a  more  secure  attachment. 

The  osseous  framework,  in 
general,  is  moulded  upon  the 
same  plan  as  that  of  the  Ant- 
eaters.  Slow  in  their  motions, 
and  unfurnished  with  weapons 
of  offence,  the  Manis  defies  the 
assaults  of  almost  every  foe ; 
when  attacked,  it  rolls  itself  up 
into  a  ball,  wraps  its  tail  over 
the  head,  and  raises  all  its 
pointed  and  sharp-edged  scales 
in  serried  array,  and  thus  in- 
vulnerable, conquers  by  passive 
resistance.  The  food  of  the 
Manis  consists  of  Termites  and 
Ants,  which  it  takes  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  American  Ant- 
eaters.  It  dwells  in  holes  which 
it  burrows  out  in  the  ground. 

The  Short-tailed  Manis 
{Ma/iis  brachyura,  Erxl.) — 
This  species  is  a  native  of 
India,  and  is  very  common  in 
the  Dukhun,  living  on  Termite 
Ants.  It  measures  about  four 
feet  in  total  length.  A  second 
Indian  species  is  from  Java  ;  it 
is  the  Manis  Java7iica  of  Des- 
marest.  A  third  species  has 
been  discovered  by  Mr.  Hodg- 
son, in  Nepal. 

The  Long-tailed  Manis 
{Ma?iis  lo?2gica7tdata,  Geoff.) 
— This  is  the  best  known  of  the 
African  species,  and  attains  to 
a  large  size,  measuring  about 
two  feet  in  the  length  of  the 
body,  and  about  three  feet  in 
the  length  of  the  tail.  Both  of 
these  species  are  represented 
in  Fig.  573. 

Temminck's  Manis  {Manis  Temminckii,  Smuts). — This  Pan- 
golin is  a  native  of  South  Africa.  Mr.  Bennett  observes,  that  the 
most  remarkable  features  of  this  animal  are  the  shortness  of  the 
head,  the  breadth  of  the  body,  and  the  breadth  of  the  tail,  which  is 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  body,  and  continues  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  its  extent  of  nearly  the  same  width,  tapering  only 
slightly  towards  the  end,  where  it  is  rounded  and  almost  truncate. 
Mr.  Bennett  further  remarks,  that  a  peculiarity  in  the  distribution  of 
the  scales  of  the  Manis  Teniminckii  is  the  cessation  of  the  middle 


Fig.  576.— Skull  of  Short- 
tailed  Manis. 


Fig.  577.— Skull  of  Short, 
tailed  Manis. 


THE  PANGOLINS,    OR  MANIS. 


215 


series  of  them  at  a  short  distance  anterior  to  the  extremity  of  the 
tail,  so  that  the  last  four  transverse  rows  consist  of  four  scales  each, 
each  of  the  preceding  rows  havin.e:'  five. 

Dr.  Smith  relates,  that  when  the  Main's  Te>nminckti\s  discovered 
it  never  attempts  to  escape,  but  instantly  rolls  itself  up  into  a  glo- 
bular form,  taking  especial  care  of  its  head,  which  is  the  only  part 
that  is  easily  injured.  Ants  constitute  its  chief  and  favourite  food, 
and  these  it  secures  by  extending  its  projectile  tongue  into  holes 
which  may  exist  in  the  habitations  of  these  insects,  or  which  it  may 
itself  form ;    and  when,  by  means  of   the    glutinous   matter   with 


which  its  tongue  is  covered,  a  full  load  has  been  received,  a  sudden 
action  of  the  retractor  muscles  carries  both  into  its  mouth,  after 
which  the  Ants  are  immediately  swallowed.     (See  Fig.  574.) 

It  is  a  rare  species,  the  natives  having  a  prejudice  against  it,  and 
burning  every  individual  they  find,  so  that  it  is  almost  extirpated  in 
many  places.  Fig.  575  represents  the  posterior  view  of  the  skull  of 
the  Short-tailed  Manis  ;  Fig.  576,  the  skull  seen  from  above ;  Fig. 
577,  ditto  seen  from  below;  Fig.  579,  ditto  profile;  Fig.  580,  the 
fore-foot  ;  Fig.  581,  the  hind-foot ;  'Fig.  578,  the  skeleton  ;  Fig.  582, 
the  pelvis. 


Fig-  578.— Skeleton  of  Short-tailed  Manis. 


Fig.  5S0.— Feet  of  Short-tailed  Manis. 


Fig.  5S1.— Feet  of  Short-lailed  Manis 


Fig.  582.— Pelvis  of  Short-tailed  Manis. 


2l6 


THE  RUMINANT  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER     XVI. 
MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  RUMINANTIA— OXEN,  Etc. 


N  the  Bible  may  be  found,  perhaps,  the 
best  definition  of  the  order  RUMINANTIA 
— "Whatsoever  parteth  the  hoof,  and 
is  cloven-footed,  and  cheweth  the  cud, 
among  the  beasts,  that  shall  thou  eat," 
Lev.  xi.  3.  These  animals  are  especially  distin- 
guished by  the  remarkable  faculty  of  ruminating, 
or  chewing  their  food  twice  over,  which  they  all 
possess  in  an  eminent  degree.  They  form  a  member  of 
the  Ungulated  or  hoofed  animals  ;  but  present  charac- 
teristics which  make  them  a  very  distinct  group  of  the 
Mammalia.  To  man  their  existence  is  a  necessity  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  world.  In  temperate  climates  we 
have  only  to  refer  to  two  animals,  the  Ox  and  Sheep,  to  at 
once  remind  the  reader  how  far  we  are  indebted  to  those 
Ruminants.  Many  of  our  most  valued  articles  are  derived 
from  them,  including  food,  clothing,  and  a  vast  variety  of  products 
of  comparatively  minor  importance.  Their  wide  distribution  indi- 
cates how  far  their  creation  was  intended  to  subserve  the  purposes 
of  man,  from  the  Reindeer  of  the  Polar  regions  to  the  Sacred  Bull 
of  the  Hindoos.  As  far  as  Europe,  but  especially  Great  Britain,  is 
concerned,  one  of  the  most  important  manufactures,  that  of  wool, 
depends  on  the  products  of  various  Ruminants,  especially  the  Sheep  ; 
and,  to  a  minor  degree,  the  hair  of  the  other  members  of  the  order 
is  similarly  utilised.  For  our  supplies  of  leather  we  depend  almost 
entirely  on  the  Ruminants,  while  their  tallow  affords  material  for 
candles,  soap,  grease,  &c.  In  fact,  from  the  hoof  to  the  head  or 
horn,  every  part  of  these  animals  is  utilised  by  man,  whether  civil- 
ised or  savage.  We  learn  from  both  sacred  and  profane  history,  that, 
in  ancient  times,  a  man's  riches  were  solely  estimated  by  the  extent 
of  his  flocks  and  herds. 

The  head  in  the  Ruminants  is  usually  small  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  body  :  it  is  of  an  elongated,  conical  form,  with  the  jaws 
of  large  size,  but  by  no  means  so  strong  as  in  the  Equida;,  or  Horee 
family.  In  the  majority,  the  lower  jaw  is  furnished  with  incisor 
teeth,  the  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  being  the  Camelidcc,  or  Camel. 
The  number  of  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  varies  from  six  to  eight  ; 
but  when  the  latter  number  is  present,  the  two  outer  ones  have  been 
regarded  by  some  zoologists  as  canines.  The  place  of  the  incisors 
in  the  upper  jaw  is  taken  by  a  hardened  gum,  against  which  those 
of  the  lower  jaw  press  in  the  act  of  biting.  The  canine  teeth  are 
generally  altogether  absent  in  both  jaws,  unless  we  regard  the  two 
outer  incisors  as  their  representatives  ;  and  this  view  is  supported  by 
the  fact,  that  the  Camelida,  which  possess  distinct  canine  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  have  only  six  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower.  The  little  ani- 
mals, called  Musk  Deer,  possess  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  and 
these,  in  the  males,  are  of  great  length,  and  project  downwards  be- 
yond the  lower  jaw.  Of  the  molars,  which  are  separated  from  the 
front  teeth  by  a  considerable  gap,  there  are  always  six  on  each  side 
in  each  jaw.  The  three  hindmost  of  these,  or  tfie  true  molars,  are 
each  composed  of  two  columns,  which,  in  the  upper  jaw,  are  convex 
internally,  flat,  and  furnished  with  three  prominent  ribs  externally  ; 
in  the  lower  jaw,  on  the  contrary,  the  convex  surface  is  external,  and 
the  flat  one  turned  towards  the  interior  of  the  mouth.  The  teeth  are 
completely  surrounded  with  a  thick  layer,  of  enamel,  which  is  also 


folded  inwards  so  as  to  form  two  semilunar  figures 
in  each  column  of  the  tooth  ;  these  are  exposed 
as  the  teeth  are  worn  away  in  grinding  the  food, 
and  each  tooth  is  then  seen  to  consist  of  four 
crescentic  folds  of  enamel,  with  their  interstices 
filled  up  with  dentine.  The  three  foremost  teeth 
in  each  jaw  consist  of  a  single  column,  and  con- 
sequently present  only  two  crescents  of  enamel. 

In   most   Ruminants   the  frontal  bone  is  fur- 
nished  with  a  pair  of  appendages,    or   horns, 
which,  however,  differ  greatly  in  their  nature  in 
the  different  families.     In  some  the   horns  are 
permanent,  consisting  of  a  bony  process  of  the 
frontal  bone,  which  forms  the  core  of  the  horn, 
and  is  coated  with  a  hollow  cone,  of  a  substance 
analogous  to  that  of  which  the  hoofs  and  nails 
of  the  Alammalia   in   general   are   composed ; 
these  are  the  true  horns.     In  the  Giraffe,  this 
horny  coat  is  replaced  by  hairy  skin  similar  to 
that  of  the  body,  and  the  horn  is  terminated  by 
a  tuft  of  hairs  ;  these  are  also  permanent.     But 
the  Stags,  in  which  these  weapons  are  almost 
always  confined  to  the  males,  possess  large  branched  bony  antlers, 
that,   notwithstanding  their  size,  are  produced  every  year  a  little 
before  the  season  of  their  amours,  and  shed  soon  after  this  period  of 
excitement  has  passed. 

In  the  general  arrangement  of  the  skeleton,  there  is  nothing  to 
which  we  need  refer  here,  with  the  exception  of  the  structure  of  the 
feet,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  order.  The  peculiarity  com- 
mences in  the  metatarsus,  formed  of  a  single  elongated  bone,  the 
composition  of  which,  by  the  amalgamation  of  two  of  the  true  meta- 
tarsal bones,  is,  however,  always  distinctly  recognisable.  At  its 
lower  extremity  this  bone  exhibits  two  separate  condyles,  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  basal  phalanges  of  the  two  complete  toes,  with  which 
each  foot  terminates  ;  these  are  followed  by  two  others,  so  that  each 
toe  is  composed  of  three  phalanges,  the  last  of  which  is  inclosed  in  a 
complete  lioof,  and  the  extremity  of  the  foot  is  deeply  cleft.  The 
animal  consequently  always  walks  upon  two  toes  ;  but  besides  these, 
two  others  are  often  present  at  the  back  of  the  foot ;  these,  however, 
are  always  but  slightly  developed,  and  furnished  with  very  small 
hoofs,  that  are  of  considerable  service  to  the  animals  in  descending 
steep  declivities.  The  structure  of  all  the  four  feet  is  exactly 
similar,  and  the  same  conformation  prevails  throughout  the  order, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Camels,  which  present  as  remarkable 
peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  their  feet  as  in  their  dentition.  Pro- 
fessor Owen's  views  on  the  dentition  and  skeleton  will  be  found 
further  on. 

The  Riimi7ia7itia  are  generally  of  moderate  or  tolerably  large 
size,  and  endowed  with  great  swiftness  of  foot.  They  feed  in  herds, 
usually  headed  by  an  old  male,  and  their  diet  consists  exclusively  of 


e  f      a  * 

Fig.  5S3.— Stomach  of  the  Sheep. 

a,  oesophagus ;  b,  cardia ;  c,  psalterium ;  d,  intestine ;  e,  pylorus  ;  /,  aboma- 
sus ;  g,  reticulum ;  li,  paunch. 

vegetable  matter.  As  they  naturally  require  a  considerable  quantity 
of  this  food  for  their  support,  and  its  proper  mastication  is  a  work  of 
time,  whilst  in  a  wild  state,  they  are  constantly  exposed  to  the  at- 
tacks of  carnivorous  beasts,  from  whose  clutches  they  can  only 
escape  by  flight,  they  would  stand  but  a  poor  chance  of  obtaining  a 
sufficiency  of  nourislimeut,  if  the  conforinatiun   of  their  intestinal 


THE  RUMINANT  ANIMALS. 


217 


canal  were  the  same  as  that  of  the  ordinary  Mammalia ;  and  we 
accordinijly  find  that  they  have  been  furnished  with  a  most  remark- 
ably complicated  dig:estive  apparatus,  that  enables  them  to  take  in 
as  much  food  as  they  require  by  grazing  for  a  comparatively  short 
time,  leaving  the  necessary  comminution  of  the  food  until  they  can 
retire  to  repose  in  a  place  of  security.  For  this  purpose  the  stomach 
is  divided  into  four  separate  compartments,  which  are  usually  de- 
scribed as  four  distinct  stomachs.  The  first  of  these,  called  the 
■paunch  {rumen)  is  by  far  the  largest,  and  forms  the  receptacle  into 
which  the  food  is  passed  when  first  swallowed.  The  interior  of  this 
is  covered  with  numerous  villi.  The  second  chamber  communicates 
with  the  first  by  a  rather  wide  opening ;  it  is  very  much  smaller  than 
the  paunch,  and  its  inner  surface  is  furnished  with  anastomosing 
ridges,  forming  numerous  polygonal  cells,  from  which  it  has  received 
the  name  of  the  reticulum.  The  third  cavity  is  called  the  psal- 
terium  :  it  is  also  of  small  size,  and  its  lining  membrane  forms 
several  longitudinal  plates,  which  have  been  compared  to  the  leaves 
of  a  book,  whence  the  name  applied  to  it.  The  -psalterium  leads 
immediately  into  the  abomasiis,  or  fourth  stomach,  which  is  gene- 
rally regarded  as  the  analogue  of  the  true  stomach  of  those  Mam- 
malia in  which  that  organ  forms  a  single  cavity  ;  this  is  an  elon- 
gated pyriform  sac,  that  exhibits  numerous  folds  upon  its  inner 
surface,  and  leads,  by  its  smaller  end,  to  the  commencement  of  the 
intestine.     (See  Figs.  583  and  584.) 

The  mode  in  which  this  complicated  organ  is  employed  in  the 
digestion  of  food  is  as  follows  : — The  oesophagus  leads  down  to  an 
open  canal,  which  communicates  with  the  two  first  stomachs,  and 
allows  the  crude  vegetable  matters  to  pass  directly  into  the  paunch. 
Here  the  food  appears  to  undergo  little  alteration,  beyond  moisten- 
ing with  a  saliva-like  fluid ;  but,  w'hen  rumination  is  about  to  com- 
mence, a  small  portion  of  it  is  passed  into  the  reiiculufn,  where  it  is 
formed  into  a  ball.  From  this  it  is  expelled  again  into  the  canal  of 
the  oesophagus,  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  which  it  is  carried  up 
into  the  mouth,  there  to  undergo  the  process  of  mastication.     When 


i  ft 

Fig.  584. — Section  of  the  Stomach  of  the  Sheep. 

a,  oesophagus  ;  b,  groove  ;  r,  psalterium  ;  d,  abomasus  ;  e,  intestine  ; 
/,  reticulum ;  g,  paunch, 

sufl5ciently  comminuted,  the  portion  of  food  again  passes  down  the 
oesophagus  ;  but  this  time  the  sides  of  the  canal  are  closed  by  mus- 
cular action,  so  that  the  food  cannot  pass  back  into  the  paunch  ;  and 
as  the  tube  thus  formed  leads  directly  into  the  third  cavity,  the  pre- 
pared aliment  is  necessarily  conducted  there.  In  this  it  undergoes 
a  further  change,  previous  to  its  admission  into  the  fourth  or  true 
stomach,  where  the  actual  process  of  digestion  is  carried  on.  In 
the  young  Ruminants,  this  structure  of  the  stomach  is  not  distinctly 
visible,  the  first  three  cavities  being  very  small,  and  the  milk  passes 
directly  into  the  fourth  or  true  stomach  ;  and  in  the  Camelidcs  it  has 
been  recently  found  that  ihe^saltcriicm,  or  third  stomach,  is  entirely 
deficient.  This  is  also  the  case  in  the  Javanese  Musk  Deer.  In  the 
Camels,  however,  the  walls  of  the  second  stomach  {reticulujn)  are 
excavated  into  large  deep  cells,  which  can  be  closed  by  muscular 
action  ;  in  these,  those  extraordinary  quadrupeds  are  said  to  store 
up  a  considerable  supply  of  water,  serving  them  for  days  when 
travelling  over  the  parched  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Africa. 

In  their  form  the  Ruminants  are  generally  light  and  elegant,  and 
supported  upon  long  and  rather  slender  limbs.  Their  skin  is  covered 
with  hair  or  wool ;  their  eyes  are  large,  full,  and  often  exceedingly 
beautiful ;  and  their  external  ears  are  elongated,  erect,  and  usually 
more  or  less  pointed.  The  tail  varies  greatly  in  length  and  clothing, 
and  the  mammary  organs  are  always  placed  between  the  posterior 
limbs. 

In  reference  to  the '  dentition  of  the  Ruminants,  Professor  Owen 
remarks,  that  the  even-toed  or  artiodactyle  Ungulata,  superadd  the 
characters  of  simplified  form  and  diminished  size,  to  the  more  im- 
portant and  constant  one  of  vertical  succession,  in  their  premolar 
teeth.  These  teeth,  in  the  Ruminants,  represent  only  the  moiety  of 
the  true  molars,  or  one  of  the  two  semi-cylindrical  lobes  of  which 
those  teeth  consist,  with,  at  most,  a  rudiment  of  the  second  lobe.  An 
analogous  morphological  character  of  the  premolars  will  be  found  to 
distinguish  them  in  the  dentition  of  the  genus  Sus  in  the  Hippopo- 


tamus, and  in  the  Phacochcvrm:,  or  Wart-Hog,  where  the  premolar 
series  is  greatly  reduced  in  number  :  yet  this  instance  of  a  natural 
affinity,  manifested  in  so  many  other  parts  of  the  organisation  of  the 
artiodactyle  genera,  has  been  overlooked  in  F.  Cuvicr's  work, 
although  it  is  expressly  designed  to  show  how  such  zoological  rela- 
tions are  illustrated  by  the  teeth. 

Most  of  the  deciduous  teeth  of  the  Rumin.ants  resemble  in  form  the 
true  molars  ;  the  last,  e.g.,  has  three  lobes  in  the  lower  jaw,  like  the 
last  true  molar.  When,  therefore,  the  third  grinder  of  the  lower  jaw 
of  any  new  or  rare  Ruminant  shows  three  lobes,  the  crowns  of  the 
premolars  should  be  sought  for  in  the  substance  of  the  jaw  below 
these,  and  above  their  opponents  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  and  thus  the 
true  characters  of  the  permanent  dentition  may  be  ascertained. 

The  deciduous  molars  are  three  in  number  on  each  side,  and,  being 
succeeded  by  as  many  premolars,  the  ordinary  permanent  molar 

formula  is,  ;p  3J^,  in  ?^  :  but  there  is  a  rudiment  of  an  anterior 
3-3      i-Z 

milk-molar  in  the  embryo  Fallow-Deer ;  and  in  one  of  the  most 
ancient  of  the  extinct  Ruminants  {Dorcatherium,  Kaup),  the  normal 
number  of  premolars  was  fully  developed. 

The  molar  series  of  all  the  Diphyodonts  is  naturally  divisible  into 
only  two  groups,  premolars  and  molars  ;  the  typical  number  of  these 


,4-4^   3.-13 
4-4'   3-3 


;  and  each  individual  tooth  may  be  determined  and 


symbolised  throughout  the  series. 

In  regard  to  the  skeleton.  Professor  Owen  observes,  that  the  Ox, 
the  Hog,  and  the  Hippopotamus  are  examples  of  even-toed  hoofed 
quadrupeds.  In  the  Ox,  besides  the  two  large  and  normally  deve- 
loped hoofs,  two  small  supplementary  hoofs  dangle  behind  in  each 
foot ;  in  the  Hog  these  are  brought  down  to  the  level  of  the  mid- 
pair,  but  are  smaller;  in  the  Hippopotamus,  the  four  digits  and 
hoofs  are  sub-equal  on  each  foot.  From  this  type  of  extremity  to 
that  of  the  Giraffe,  or  Camel,  where  the  digits  are  absolutely  re- 
stricted to  two  on  each  foot,  there  is  a  close  series  of  gradational 
short-comings  affecting  the  outer  and  the  inner  toes,  until  they 
wholly  disappear.     The  Giraffe  (Fig.  585)  is  a  Ruminant,  dwelling 


Fig.  585.— Skeleton  of  the  Giraffe  (Camilafardalis giraffa). 

in  climes  where  herbage  disappears  from  the  parched  soil  soon  after 
the  rainy  season  has  terminated,  and  where  sustenance  for  a  herbi- 
vore of  its  bulk  could  hardly  be  afforded,  except  by  trees  ;  it  .-s 
therefore  modified  to  browse  on  the  tender  branches,  and  chiefly  on 
the  light  and  lofty  acacias.  Its  trunk  is  accordingly  short,  and 
raised  high  upon  long  and  slender  limbs,  especially  at  the  fore-part ; 
a  small  and  delicate  head  is  supported  on  an  unusually  long  neck. 
The  number  of  vertebra;  here,  however,  accords  with  that  character- 
istic of  the  Mammalian  class,  viz.,  seven.  They  are  peculiar  for  the 
length  of  their  bodies.  There  are  fourteen  dorsal  vertebra  with  very 
°  2  F 


2l8 


THE  CAMELS. 


long-  spinous  processes,  and  supporting^  long-  and  slender  ribs, 
especially  the  anterior  ones,  seven  pairs  of  which  join  the  sternum, 
which  consists  of  six  bones  ;  the  lumbar  vertebra?  are  five  in  number, 
the  sacral  four,  and  the  caudal  twenty ;  this  series  is  terminated  in 
the  living  animal  by  a  tuft  of  long,  wavy,  stiff  black  hair,  forming  an 
admirable  whisk  to  drive  off  insect  tormentors  The  blade-bone,  51, 
is  remarkably  long  and  slender ;  its  spine  or  ridge  forms  a  very  low 
angle,  and  gradually  subsides  as  it  approaches  the  neck  of  the 
scapula  ;  the  coalesced  coracoid  is  a  large  tuberosity.  The  hume- 
rus, 53,  forms  the  shortest  of  the  three  segments  of  the  limb  ;  it  is 
remarkable  for  the  strength  of  the  proximal  processes  ;  the  second 
segment  is  chiefly  constituted,  as  in  all  Ruminants,  by  the  radius,  55  ; 
the  slender  shaft  of  the  ulna,  56,  which  supports  a  long  olecranon, 
becomes  blended  with  the  radius,  and  lost  at  its  lower  third,  but  its 
distal  end  reappears  as  a  distinct  part.  The  metacarpals  of  the 
retained  digits,  answering-  to  the  third  and  fourth  in  the  human  and 
other  five-fingered  (pentadactyle)  hands,  are  blended  together  to 
form  a  single  "cannon-bone"  of  the  veterinarians ;  but  the  nature 
of  this  is  different  from  that  in  the  Horse  ;  it  divides  at  its  distal  end 
into  two  well-formed  trochlea;,  or  pulley-joints,  and  to  these  are 
articulated  the  digits  Hi  and  ii\  each  of  which  consists  of  three  joints 
or  phalanges.  Thus  the  main  extent  of  this  singularly  elongated 
limb  is  gained  by  the  excessive  development  of  the  hand-segment, 
restricted,  however,  to  those  elements  that  answer  to  the  middle  and 
ring-fingers  of  the  human  hand.     (See  Fig.  585.) 

The  pelvis,  of  which  the  sacral,  S,  iliac,  62,  and  ischial,  64, 
elements  are  shown  in  Fig.  585,  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  animal's 
bulk.  The  femur,  65,  is  short  like  the  humerus,  and  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  great  expanse  of  its  distal  end.  The  tibia,  66,  forms  the 
main  basis  of  the  leg,  as  its  homotype,  the  radius,  does  in  the  fore- 
arm, but  the  fibula  is  more  reduced  than  in  the  ulna  ;  rarely  in  any 
Ruminant  is  more  of  it  visible  than  its  distal  end,  67,  wedged  in 
between  the  tibia  and  the  calcaneum.  The  series  of  tarsal  bones, 
68,  is  peculiar  in  all  Ruminants  for  a  coalescence  of  the  two  bones 
answering  to  the  "  scaphoid  and  cuboid  "  in  the  human  tarsus.  In 
all  Ruminants  the  astragalus  is  unusually  symmetrical  in  shape,  with 
a  deep  trochlear  articular  surface  for  the  tibia,  and  two  equal  convex 
surfaces  for|succeeding  tarsal  bones  ;  the  calcaneum  is  produced  into 
a  long  "hock."  The  rest  of  the  bones  of  the  hind-feet  conform 
closely  with  those  of  the  fore-foot. 

A  few  remarks,  although  interesting  chiefly  to  the  professed 
anatomist,  appear  called  for  in  reference  to  the  bony  structure  of  the 
head  of  the  Giraffe. 

The  e.xoccipitals  form  a  marked  protuberance  above  the  foramen 
magnum,  and  below  a  deep  fossa,  for  the  implantation  of  the  liga- 
mentum  nuchse — the  length  of  the  dorsal  spines  being  related,  in  all 
Ruminants,  to  a  due  surface  for  the  attachment  of  this  strong  elastic 
support  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  parietals  are  chiefly  situated  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  skull ;  the  osseous  horn-cores,  which  are 
originally  distinct,  become  anchylosed  in  old  Giraffes,  across  the 
coronal  suture,  equally  to  the  parietals  and  frontals  :  if  one  of  these 
be  divided  longitudinally,  it  will  show  the  extension  of  the  frontal 
and  pariental  sinuses  into  its  lower  fourth,  the  rest  of  the  horn-core 
being  a  solid  and  dense  bone.  The  protuberance  upon  the  frontal 
and  contiguous  parts  of  the  nasal  bones  is  entirely  due  to  an  enlarge- 
ment of  these  bones,  and  not  to  any  distinct  osseous  part :  its  sur- 
face is  roughened  by  vascular  impressions.  The  lachrymal  is 
separated  from  the  nasal  by  a  large  vacuity  intervening  between 
those  bones,  the  frontal  and  the  maxillary.  The  premaxillaries, 
which  are  of  unusual  length,  articulate  with  the  nasals.  The 
petrotympanic  is  a  separate  bone,  as  in  all  Ruminants.  The  sym- 
physis of  the  lower  jaw  is  unusually  long  and  slender  in  the  Giraffe. 

In  the_  skeleton  of  the  Camel  {Camclus  bactriatiiis)  the  vertebral 
formula  is — seven  cervical,  twelve  dorsal,  seven  lumbar,  four  sacral, 
eighteen  caudal.  Seven  pairs  of  ribs  articulate  directly  with  the 
sternum,  which  consists  of  six  bones,  the  last  being  greatly  expanded 
and  protuberant  below,  where  it  supports  the  pectoral  callosity  in  the 
living  animal  The  cervical  region,  though  less  remarkable  for  its 
length  than  in  the  Giraffe,  is  longer  than  in  ordinary  Ruminants,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  flexuosity ;  the  vertebra?  are  peculiar  for  the  absence 
of  the  perforation  for  the  vertebral  artery  in  the  transverse  process, 
with  the  exception  of  the  atlas  ;  that  artery,  in  the  succeeding  cervicals, 
enters  the  back  part  of  the  neural  canal,  and  perforates  obliquely  the 
fore  part  of  the  base  of  the  neurapophysis.  The  costal  part  of  the 
transverse  process  is  large  and  lamelliform  in  the  fourth  to  the  sixth 
cervical  vertebrse,  inclusive :  in  the  seventh  it  is  a  short  protube- 
rance. The  spinous  process  of  the  first  dorsal  suddenly  exceeds  in 
length  that  of  the  last  cervical,  and  increases  in  length  to  the  third 
dorsal ;  from  this  to  the  twelfth  dorsal  the  summits  of  the  spines  are 
on  almost  the  same  horizontal  line,  and  are  expanded  and  obtuse 
above,  sustaining  the  substance  of  the  two  humps  of  this  species ; 
they  afford,  however,  no  other  indication  of  those  risings,  which  are 
as  independent  of  the  osseous  system  as  in  the  dorsal  fin  in  the 
Grampus  or  Porpoise.  The  spines  of  the  lumbar  vertebra:"  progres- 
sively decrease  in  length.  The  spine  of  the  scapular  is  produced 
into  a  short-pointed  acromion  :  the  coracoid  tubercle  is  large,  and 
grooved  below.    The  ridge  upon  the  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus 


is  much  less  marked  than  in  the  normal  Ruminants.  The  ulna  has 
coalesced  more  completely  with  the  radius,  and  appears  to  be  repre- 
sented only  by  its  proximal  and  distal  extremities.  The  carpal 
bones  have  the  same  number  and  arrangement  as  in  ordinary  Rumi- 
nants, but  the  pisiforme  is  proportionally  large.  There  is  no  trace  of 
the  digits  answering  to  the  first,  second,  and  fifth  in  the  pentadactyle 
foot :  the  metacarpals  of  those  answering  to  the  third  and  fourth  have 
coalesced  to  near  their  distal  extremities,  which  diverge  more  than 
in  the  ordinary  Ruminants,  giving  a  greater  spread  to  the  foot,  which 
is  supported  by  the  ordinary  three  phalanges  of  each  of  those  digits. 
The  last  phalanx  deviates  most  from  the  form  of  that  in  the  ordinary 
Ruminants  by  its  smaller  proportional  size,  rougher  surface,  and  less 
regular  form  :  it  supports,  in  fact,  a  modified  claw  rather  than  a 
hoof.  In  the  femur  the  chief  deviation  from  the  ordinary  Ruminant 
type  is  seen  in  the  position  of  the  orifice  of  the  canal  for  the 
medullary  artery,  which,  as  in  the  human  skeleton,  enters  the  back 
part  of  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  and  inclines  obliquely  upwards. 
The  fibula  is  represented  by  the  irregularly-shaped  ossicle  inter- 
locked between  the  outer  side  of  the  distal  end  of  the  tibia  and  the 
calcaneum.  The  scaphoid  is  not  confluent  with  the  cuboid,  as  in  the 
normal  Ruminant :  the  rest  of  the  hind-foot  deviates  in  the  same 
manner  and  degree  from  the  ordinary  Ruminant  type,  as  does  the 
fore-foot. 

The  Camelid^,  or  Camels. 

The  Camels,  as  already  stated,  differ  remarkably  in  many  respects 
from  the  other  members  of  this  order.  In  some  of  their  characters 
they  present  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  Horses,  and  they  accord- 
ingly form  the  types  of  the  first  family  of  the  Ruminants — that  of 
the  CajiiclidcB — which  includes  the  Camels  of  the  eastern,  and  the 
Llamas  of  the  western  hemisphere.  In  their  dentition  these  animals 
differ  greatly  from  the  rest  of  the  order.  They  have  two  canine 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  the  upper  jaw  contains  two  small  incisor 
teeth,  which,  however,  are  placed  close  to  the  canines,  so  as  to  leave 
a  considerable  vacant  space  in  the  front  of  the  mouth.  The  number 
of  molar  teeth  varies,  but  there  is  usually  one  more  on  each  side  in 
the  upper  than  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  in  the  true  Camels  the  foremost 
molar  is  placed  considerably  in  advance  of  its  fellows,  and  is  of  a 
conical  form,  closely  resembling  the  true  canine.    (See  Fig.  586.) 


Fig.  586.— Teeth  of  Camel. 

The  Camel  {Camclus  dromedariiis ;  Gamal  of  the  Hebrews, 
Djemel  of  the  Arabs).— Of  these  there  are  two  species— namely,  the 
Arabian  and  the  Bactrian.  The  Arabian  Camel  is  distmguished 
from  the  Bactrian  by  having  only  one  large  fatty  hump  upon  the 
back,  and  in  being  of  a  somewhat  slighter  make.  (See  Fig.  587.) 
It  is  not  known  in  a  wild  condition,  but  most  probably  was  mdi- 
genous  in  Arabia  and  the  adjacent  regions,  the  whole  of  its  structure 
proclaiming  the  desert  as  its  destined  abode.  Reclaimed  from  the 
earliest  state,  its  history  is  interwoven  with  that  of  the  patriarchs  of 
old  :  time  immemorial  it  has  been  the  bond-slave  of  man  ;  and  under 
his  mastership  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  as  far  as 
Nubia,  and  from  Syria,  throughout  Arabia,  Persia,  and  India,  being 
valued  in  all  these  regions  as  a  beast  of  burden.     In  Central  Asia  the 


THE  CAMELS. 


219 


Bactrian  Camel  takes  its  place,  but  it  is  inferior  in  those  qualities 
which  render  the  Arabian  species  so  eminently  adapted  to  the  arid 
buminn-  desert,  over  which  it  moves  silently  alonjj,  heavily  loaded, 
patient  of  thirst  and  hunger,  thus  maintaining  an  intercoarse  between 
districts  separated  by  vast  plains  of  sands,  a  barrier  more  effectual 
than  that  of  the  rolling  ocean.     It  is  the  unwearied  patience,  the 


Fig.  5S7. — Arabian  Camel. 

strength,  the  docility,  the  power  of  maintaining  long  journeys  on 
scanty  fare,  that  render  the  Camel  in  its  own  country  of  intrinsic 
importance.  By  its  means  the  merchant  transports  his  merchandise 
from  Aleppo  or  Bagdad  to  Mecca  or  El-Basrah.  Long  strings  of 
Camels,  or  caravans,  as  they  are  called,  venture  across  the  desert, 
each  animal  bearing  a  load  of  500  or  even  600  pounds  weight,  and 
the  procession  moves  at  the  rate  of  nearly  three  miles  an  hour, 
regular  as  clock-work,  day  after  day  for  eight  hours  daily.  A 
caravan  of  Camels  thus  wending  their  way  over  the  plain,  their 
footsteps  falling  noiselessly,  so  that  the  ear  cannot  catch  the  sound 
of  their  approach,  whether  on  hard  ground  or  sand,  strongly 
impresses  those  who  for  the  first  time  witness  this  truly  Eastern 
spectacle,  which  indeed  calls  to  mind 
the  days  when  "  a  company  of  Ishmael- 
ites  came  from  Gileadwith  their  Camels, 
bearing  spicery,  and  balm,  and  myrrh, 
going  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt." 

The  more  prominent  of  the  structural 
peculiarities  of  the  Camels  may  here  be 
briefly  noticed.  The  Camel  treads  flat 
on  his  toes,  and  not,  as  the  Ox,  on  a  thick- 
hoofed  termination.  We  have  already 
stated  that  they  are  cushioned  beneath 
with  large  spreading  callous  elastic  pads, 
connecting  them  together,  and  e.xtend- 
ing  laterally  beyond  them,  the  horn- 
covered  tips  being  alone  free  and  sepa- 
rate (see  Fig.  588 — the  Camel's  Foot 
with  the  skin  removed).  This  cushion 
expands  by  pressure  at  each  step,  a  pro- 
vision of  evident  advantage  to  the  ani- 
mal in  passing  over  a  sandy,  yielding 
surface,  while  on  hard  or  stony  ground 
the  elasticity  of  the  pad  gives  ease  to  its  movements.  The  Camel 
kneels  down  to  be  loaded,  and  kneeling  is  its  natural  state  of  repose, 
and  hence  it  is  provided  with  certain  callosities  upon  which  to  throw 
the  weight  of  the  body,  both  in  kneeling  down  and  rising  up.  The 
largest  of  these  callosities  occupies  the  chest,  which  is  always 
brought  to  the  ground ;  one  is  placed  on  each  elbow  and  knee  of 
the  fore-limbs,  one  on  the  front  of  each  knee  of  the  hind-limb,  and 
a  very  small  one  on  the  outer  side  of  each  hock.  The  natural 
cushions  are  not  produced  by  the  habit  of  kneeling,  as  some  have 
been  ready  to  suspect,  for  the  young  Camel  is  born  with  them 
already  formed  ;  and  it  may  be  observed  that  a  similar  callous  pad 
is  spread  on  the  breast  of  the  Ostrich,  which  dwells  in  the  desert, 
and  reclines  upon  its  chest.  The  Camel  is  essentially  the  inhabitant 
of  a  flat  expanse  of  country,  beneath  a  burning  sky.  Elevated  as 
it  carries  its  head,  it  can  discern  the  green  oasis  in  the  sea  of  sand, 
at  a  vast  distance  ;  and  so  acute  is  "its  sense  of  smell,  that  it  can 
scent  the  far-distant  water.  To  shield  the  large  eyeball  from  the 
glare  of  light,  a  beetling  brow  overarches  it,  and  long  lashes  fringe 
the  upper  lid.     Incessantly  exposed  to  clouds  of  suffocating  dust, 


Fig.  5SS.— Camel's  Foot. 


the  Camel  has  its  nostrils  so  constructed  as  to  exclude,  as  much  as 
possible,  the  particles  of  sand  driven  by  the  wind  ;  they  are  in  the 
form  of  slits,  converging  towards  each  other,  with  elevated  margins, 
the  upper  of  which  is  capable  of  being  shut  down  like  the  lid  of  a 
box,  so  as  to  close  the  aperture,  or  keep  it  open  to  any  degree,  at 
pleasure. 

Hard  and  scanty  is  the  desert  fare  upon  which  this  anim.al  subsists ; 
but  the  fertile  meads  and  flowery  vales  of  our  climate  would  afford  it 
no  temptation.  Thorny  shrubs,  date-leaves,  and  the  leaves  and 
branches  of  the  tamarisk,  are  its  staple  diet ;  and  dates,  beans,  the 
hard  kernels  of  which  it  crushes  to  powder,  with  cakes  of  barley,  pro- 
vided by  its  master,  sufiice  to  refresh  it  on  its  wearisome  pilgrimage. 
Hence  we  see  the  necessity  of  its  strong  incisors,  canine  teeth,  and 
canine-like  molars,  which  enable  it  to  browse  on  the  coarsest  shrubs 
with  ease,  and  sever  branches  of  considerable  thickness.  With  its 
powerful,  cleft,  prehensile  lip  it  draws  the  twigs  or  leaves  to  its  mouth, 
or  even  nips  off  the  tender  shoots,  or  holds  the  tuft  of  herbage  as  it  is 
gradually  undergoing  mastication.  Hard  and  scanty,  we  have  said, 
is  the  desert  fare  of  the  Camel,  but  oftentimes  the  supply  fails  for 
days,  or  is  to  be  obtained  only  in  small  quantities,  and  the  travel-worn 
beast  is  put  upon  short  allowance  ;  then  it  is  that  we  recognise  the 
utility  of  that  hump,  w'hich  seemed  at  first  a  deformity.  The  fatty 
mass  is  gradually  absorbed  into  the  system,  which  thus  receives 
nutriment ;  for  the  hump  is  a  magazine  against  a  time  of  want,  to 
which  the  system  has  recourse  when  other  supplies  are  inadequate. 

It  is  a  saying  of  the  Arabs  that  the  Camel  feeds  on  its  own  hump ; 
and  in  a  certain  sense  they  are  correct.  After  the  wasting  of  this 
fatty  mass,  as  described,  three  or  four  months  of  repose  and  copious 
nourishment  are  required  to  restore  it  to  its  usual  condition,  and 
this  does  not  take  place  till  the  other  parts  are  well  replenished. 
When  an  Arab  is  about  to  commence  a  journey,  the  first  thing  about 
which  he  is  solicitous  is  the  state  of  his  Camel's  hump. 

In  the  Camel,  besides  the  almost  total  absence  of  the  third  stomach, 
or  omasus,  there  is  another  peculiarity  to  be  noticed,  viz. ,  an  arrange- 
ment of  deep  cells  in  the  paunch  for  the  reception  and  preservation  of 
water,  and  the  enlargement  of  the  cells  of  the  reticulum  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  paunch  is  divided  into  two  portions,  a  right  and  a 
left,  by  a  longitudinal  ridge  of  muscular  fibres  :  in  the  left  "is  a  series 
of  deep  cells  capable  altogether  of  containing  from  four  to  five  quarts 
of  water;  in  the  right  is  a  smaller  series  capable  of  containing 
about  a  quart.  When  these  cells  are  filled,  the  fluid  is  kept  free 
from  mixture  with  the  food  by  the  contraction  of  the  orifice  of 
each  cell,  and  it  can  be  forced  out  at  pleasure  by  the  action  of  a 
muscular  expansion  covering  the  bottom  of  this  cellular  apparatus. 
The  deep  cells  of  the  reticulum  are  arranged  in  twelve  rows,  and 
are  formed  by  muscular  bands,  intersecting  each  other  transversely. 
This  compartment  in  the  Camel  appears  to  be  destined  exclusively 
as  a  reservoir  for  water,  never  receiving  solid  food,  as  in  the  Ox  or 
Sheep ;  and  it  would  seem  that  the  re-masticated  food  passes  into 
the  third  small  cavity,  being  conducted  along  the  upper  margin  of 
the  second,  through  a  canal  formed  by  a  muscular  ridge,  which  con- 
tracts with  so  much  force  as  not  only  to  open  the  orifice  of  the 
second  cavity,  but  so  as  to  bring  forward  the  mouth  of  the  third  into 
the  second,  by  which  action  the  muscular  ridges  that  separate  the 
rows  of  cells  are  brought  close  together,  so  as  to  exclude  these 
cavities  from  the  canal  through  which  the  water  passes.  Sir  E. 
Home  observes,  that  "while  the  Camel  is  drinking,  the  action  of 
the  muscular  band  opens  the  orifice  of  the  second  cavity ;  at  the 
same  time  it  directs  the  water  into  it :  and  when  the  cells  of  that 
cavity  are  full,  the  rest  runs  off  into  the  cellular  structure  of  the  first 
cavity.  It  would  appear  that  Camels,  when  accustomed  to  journeys 
in  which  they  are  kept  for  an  unusual  number  of  days  without  water, 

acquire  the  power  of  dilating  the  cells, 
so /as  to  make  them  contain  a  more 
than  ordinary  supply  for  their  journey  ; 
at  least  such  is  the  account  given  by 
those  who  have  been  in  Egypt."  The 
Llama  resembles  the  Camel  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  cellular  apparatus 
in  the  stomach.  Fig.  589  represents  a 
portion  of  the  cellular  apparatus  of 
the  Camel's  stomach,  one-ninth  of  the 
natural  size. 

From  the  data  collected  by  Burck- 
hardt  there  is  great  difference  among 
different  breeds  of  Camels  as  respects 
the  power  of  enduring  thirst,  accord- 
ing to  the  mode  of  life  to  which  they 
have  been  inured.  Thus  the  Camels 
of  Anatolia  require  water  every  second 
day  during  a  summer's  journey;  but  the  Camels  of  Arabia  can  dis- 
pense with  it  until  the  fourth,  or  even  the  fifth.  In  spring,  when  the 
young  herbage  is  succulent,  the  Camel  scarcely  requires  to  drink, 
and  the  journey  across  the  great  Syrian  desert,  from  Damascus  to 
Bagdad,  twenty-five  days,  may  be  then  performed  without  any 
water  being  needed  by  or  given  to  the  Camels. 

The  senses  of  sight,  hearing,  and  smell  are  exquisitely  acute  in 


Fig.  5S9. — Camel's  Stomach. 


220 


THE  CAMELS. 


the  Camel :  it  is  said  to  delight  in  the  jingle  of  the  bells  hung  about 
its  neck,  for  it  is  often  thus  ornamented,  as  in  ancient  days,  and  as 
pack-horses  formerly  were  in  England,  perhaps  in  order  that  strag- 
glers may  be  enabled  to  rejoin  the  caravan.  (See  Fig.  590.)  Shells 
called  cowries,  and  even  ornaments  of  silver,  are  also  added :  the 


Fig.  590. — Head  of  Camel. 

shells  are  strung  in  a  semicircular  form  ;   hence  the  phrase,  "orna- 
ments like  the  moon." 

During  a  journey  it  is  customary  to  halt  about  four  o'clock,  to 
remove  the  loads,  and  permit  the  Camels  to  feed.  If  the  Arabs  are 
desirous  of  preventing  them  from  straying  too  far,  they  tie  their 
fore-legs  together,  or  bind  the  fetlock  to  the  upper  joint  by  a  cord. 
Towards  evening  they  are  called  in  for  their  evening  meal,  and 
placed  in  a  kneeling  posture  round  the  baggage.  They  do  not 
browse  after  dark,  and  seldom  attempt  to  rise,  but  continue  the 
process  of  rumination  for  the  greater  portion  of  the  night.  Amongst 
themselves  they  are  sometimes  very  quarrelsome ;  and  after  the 
hardest  day's  journey,  no  sooner  is  the  baggage  removed  than  they 
begin  to  fight,  and  are  prone  to  give  each  other  the  most  savage 
bites,  and  are  not  to  be  separated  without  danger.    (Fig.  591.)    One 


Fig-  591- — Camels  Fighting. 

of  the  favourite  amusements  of  the  Turks  of  Asia  Minor  is  Camel- 
fighting  :  each  being  previously  muzzled,  they  strike  each  other's 
heads,  twist  their  neck,  wrestle  with  their  fore-legs,  each  endeavour- 
ing to  throw  the  other  to  the  ground.  Crowds  attend  to  witness  the 
spectacle,  and,  as  at  the  disgraceful  Dog-fights  of  our  country,  the 
Turks  will  clap  their  hands,  encourage  their  respective  favourites, 
and  bet  upon  their  success.  The  Pasha  of  Smyrna  used  frequently 
to  regale  the  people  with  these  games  in  an  enclosed  square  before 
his  palace.  It  is,  however,  only  at  particular  seasons  that  the 
temper  of  the  animal  is  thus  excited,  and  that  these  combats  take 
place. 

The  Camel  is  often  excessively  loaded,  and  sometimes,  inhumanly, 
the  load  is  laid  on  sores  or  wounds  ;  yet  even  then  the  animal 
neither  refuses  to  rise  nor  attempts  to  cast  it  off :  when  suffering  and 
irritated,  however,  he  cries  out,  but  his  complaint  is  only  of  in- 
justice, and  then  it  must  be  extreme  for  him  to  complain  at  all. 
Fig.  592  is  a  delineation  of  the  head  of  an  ill-used  Camel  uttering 


its  cry  of  distress.  When  a  Camel,  loaded  or  unloaded,  fails,  from 
hunger  and  excessive  fatigue,  and  sinks  down,  it  seldom  gets  on  its 
legs  again,  and  is  left  to  perish.  Wellsted  tells  us  that  he  often 
passed  them  when  thus  abandoned,  and  remarked  the  mournful  looks 
with  which  they  gazed  on  the  receding  caravan.     When  the  Arab  is 

upbraided  with  inhumanity, 
because  he  does  not  at  once 
put  a  period  to  the  animal's 
sufferings,  he  answers,  that 
the  law  forbids  the  taking 
away  of  life  save  for  food, 
and  even  then  pardon  is  to 
be  asked  for  the  necessity 
which  compels  the  act. 
When  death  approaches  the 
poor  solitary  beast,  Vultures 
collect  around,  and,  eager 
Fig.  592.  for    food,    commence    their 

repast  even  before  life  is 
extinct.  The  traveller  continually  sees  remains  of  this  faithful  ser- 
vant of  man,  exhibiting  sometimes  the  perfect  skeleton  covered 
with  a  shrunk,  shrivelled  hide  ;  sometimes  the  bones  only,  deprived 
of  flesh,  and  bleached  to  dazzling  whiteness  by  the  scorching  rays 
of  a  desert  sun. 

The  Arabian  or  one-humped  Camel  (Fig.  587)  is  called,  by  way  of 
distinction,  the  Dromedary,  but  erroneously.  The  Dromedary  is  a 
light  variety^of  this  species,  and  is  termed  Maherry  or  El  Heirie  in 
the  Arabian  desert,  and  Sabayee  in  the  North  of  Africa.  It  is  used 
principally  for  journeys  of  dispatch,  carrying  a  single  rider,  or  but  a 
very  light  burden;  and  it  will  perform  very  long  journeys  in  almost 
an  incredible  space  of  time.  "  When  thou  shalt  meet  a  heirie,  and  say 
to  the  rider, 'Peace  be  between  us,'  ere  he  sliall  have  answered,  '  There 
is  peace  between  us,'  he  will  be  far  oif,  for  his  swiftness  is  like  the 
wind,"  is  an  Arabian  figure  to  illustrate  the  fleetncss  of  this  Saddle- 
Dromedary.  This  fleetness  is,  however,  much  overrated,  and  it  is 
less  by  positive  speed  than  by  extraordinary  powers  of  sustained 
exertion,  day  after  day,  through  a  time  and  space  which  would  ruin 
any  other  quadruped,  that  it  accomplishes  such  surprising  journeys. 
Urged  to  a  gallop,  it  cannot  maintain  its  pace  for  half  an  hour,  and 
is  easily  distanced  by  the  Horse  :  but  it  can  sustain  a  forced  trot  for 
several  hours  together ;  Wellsted  says  for  twenty-four  consecutive 
hours,  at  the  rate  of  from  six  to  eight  miles  an  hour.  A  gentle  and 
easy  amble  of  five  or  five  miles  and  a-half  an  hour,  is,  however,  the 
favourite  quick  pace  of  the  Dromedary,  and  if  allowed  to  persevere 
in  it,  the  animal  will  carry  its  rider  an  uninterrupted  journey  of 
several  days  and  nights.  A  common  caravan  journey  of  twenty-five 
days  is  sometimes  performed  in  five  days  at  this  rate.  This  swift 
breed  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  referred  to  in  several  places  in  the 
Scriptures.  The  Camels  of  Oman  are  the  fleetest,  the  most  beauti- 
ful, and  the  most  highly  prized.  It  would  appear  that  there  is  also  a 
swift  breed  of  the  Bactrian  or  two-humped  Camel,  which  is  in  re- 
quest in  China. 

The  rate  of  travelling  long  journeys  performed  by  the  heavy  cara- 
van, each  Camel  carrying  from  500  to  800  pounds  weight,  does  not 
exceed  two  miles  and  a-half  or  two  miles  and  three-quarters  an  hour. 
This,  however,  can  be  maintained  for  fifty  days  in  succession,  and 
for  eight  hours  each  day  ;  but  a  more  lightly  loaded  caravan  (see  Fig. 
593)  will  not  only  travel  quicker,  but  continue  the  march  for  nine  or 
ten  hours  daily. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  Camel's  foot  is  a  dry  and  hard,  but 
fine  and  gravelly  plain  ;  where  the  sand  is  deep  and  soft,  the  loaded 
animal  sinks  at  every  step,  and  becomes  rapidly  exhausted.  It  can 
also  ascend  steep  and  rugged  mountain-paths  with  considerable 
ease,  but,  as  Belzoni  once  experienced  to  his  cost,  sometimes  slips 
and  rolls  down. 

Besides  the  commercial  caravans  which  traverse  the  desert,  there 
are  also  caravans  of  pilgrims  to  Mecca,  enjoined  by  the  Mohammedan 
religion.  AtMeccameettheMohammedans  fromAbyssinia  andlndia. 
To  have  visited  the  tomb  of  Mohammed,  which  entitles  the  pilgrim 
to  the  proud  distinction  of  being  a  hadji,  is  an  honour  to  which  the 
meanest  devotee  aspires  ;  and  thus  it  is  that  within  the  walls  of  Mecca 
are  annually  assembled  vast  bodies  of  Asiatics  and  Africans,  who 
have  toiled  thither,  sustaining  every  privation  and  misery,  and  of 
whom  many,  worn  out  with  fatigue,  never  return  to  claim  the  rewards 
of  their  enthusiasm.  In  these  extraordinary  journeys  the  Camel 
sustains  an  important  part ;  and,  indeed,  without  the  services  of 
these  animals — some  bearing  water  in  skins,  some  the  merchandise 
of  distant  lands,  some  the  food  and  necessaries  of  the  pilgrims,  and 
their  own  provender,  and  others  the  devotees — the  pilgrimage  could 
not  be  accomplished. 

Mr.  Parsons,  who  saw  the  pilgrim  caravan  set  out  from  Cairo  about 
forty  years  ago,  has  given  a  programme  of  the  procession,  drawn 
up  with  all  the  precision  of  a  herald,  and  which  occupies  ten  pages 
of  his  quarto  work.  The  cavalcade  was  six  hours  in  passing  him. 
The  most  striking  appearance  to  a  European  must  have  been  the 
Camels,  in  every  variety  of  splendid  trappings,  laden  with  provisions, 
clothes,   and  cooking  apparatus,   and  water-skins,  and  tents,  and 


THE  CAMELS. 


321 


artillery,   and  holy  sheiks,  and  Mamelukes, 
"with    two    brass    field-pieces    each" — othe 


There  were  Camels 
-others  "with  bells  and 
streamers" — others-  "with  men  beatinpf  kettle-drums" — others 
"  covered  with  purple  velvet" — others  "  with  men  walking  by  their 
sides,  playing  on    flutes    and    flageolets" — others    "  handsomely 


Fig,  593. — Mounted  Camels. 

ornamented  about  their  necks,  their  bridles  being  studded  with  silver, 
intermixed  with  glass  beads  of  all  colours,  and  ostrich  feathers  on 
their  foreheads"- — and,  last  of  all,  "the  sacred  Camel,  an  extra- 
ordinary large  Camel,  with  a  fine  bridle  studded  with  jewels  and 
gold,  and  led  by  two  holy  sheiks,  in  green,  a  square  house  or  chapel 
on  his  back."  In  addition  to  these  Camel  splendours  there  were 
Horses  with  every  variety  of  caparison  ;  Mamelukes,  and  pikemen, 
and  janissaries,  and  agas,  and  the  Emir  Hadji  (commander  of  the 


Fig.  594. — Loaded  Camels. 


pilgrimage)  in  robes  of  satin— to  say  nothing  of  numberless  "buf- 
foons playing  many  pranks."  Mr.  Parsons  sums  up  the  splendour 
of  this  pilgrim  caravan  by  declaring,  that  "  it  is  by  much  the  grander 
exhibition  than  the  spectacle  of  the  Lord  M.iyor  and  Aldermen 
going  in  procession  through  the  City  of  London  ;"  but  this  m.iy 
be  doubted  by  some  as  the  exaggeration  of  a  traveller, 
while  others  may  deem  it  impossible. 

Differing  from  the  usual  practice  of  commercial  cara- 
vans, the  pilgrimage  is  performed  chiefly  by  night. 
The  caravan  generally  moves  about  four  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  and  travels  without  stopping  till  an  hour 
or  two  after  sunrise.  A  large  supply  of  torches  is 
carried  from  Cairo,  to  be  lighted  during  the  hours  of 
darkness.  The  Bedouins,  who  convey  provisions  for 
the  troops,  travel  by  day  only,  and  in  advance  of  the 
caravan.  The  watering-places  on  the  route  arc  regu- 
larly established.  Each  is  supplied  with  a  large  tank, 
and  protected  by  soldiers,  who  reside  in  a  castle  by 
the  well  throughout  the  year.  On  parts  of  the  route 
the  wells  are  frequent  and  the  water  good  ;  but  on 
others,  three  days  of  the  journey  frequently  intervene 
between  one  watering-place  and  another— and  the 
fountain  is  often  brackish.  When  the  Cairo  caravan 
is  completely  assembled,  and  the  formalities  which  we 
have  just  described  are  gone  through,  the  great  body 
^,  of  travellers  begin  to  move,  the  stations  of  the  different 

y^*^'-'-        partiesofhadjis,  according  to  their  provinces  and  towns, 
U'j-"  •         being  appointed,  and  rigidly  observed  throughout  the 
march.     This  order  is  determined  by  the  geographical 
proximity  of  the  place  from  which  each  party  comes. 
At  Ajeroud,  where  the  Egyptian  caravan  halts  on  the 
second  day's  march,    it   is   supplied  with   water  from 
Suez ;   and  here  it  reposes  a  day  and  a  night,  to  pre- 
pare for  a  forced  march  of  three  days  and  two  nights, 
through  a  region  where  there  is  no  water,  the  desert  of  El 
Tyh,  which  nearly  extends  from  the  head  of  one  gulf 
of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  other— that  is,  from  Suez  to  Akaba.     The 
Hadj    route   is   circuitous.     It  is  here  that   the   privations   both  of 
men  and  quadrupeds  commence.     The  splendid   trappings  of  the 
Camels,  their  velvet  and  their  bells,  have  lost  their  attraction  ;  but 
their  power  of  endurance  becomes  the  safety  of  the  pilgrims— while 
the   richly-caparisoned  Horse,  impatient  of  thirst,  and  more  easily 
subdued  by  fatigue,  is  more  frequently  a  burthen  to  the  caravan  than 
an  advantage.     The  route  of  the  Egyptian  caravan,  after  it  passes 
the  Akaba,  lies  by  the  shores  of  the  Red 
Sea  for  nearly  six  hundred  miles  ;  and, 
therefore,  it  cannot  properly  be  said  at 
any  time  after  the  first  ten  days'  march 
to   be  upon   the   desert,   as  the   Syrian 
caravan  is  for  thirty  days.     But  its  diffi- 
culties are  more  numerous  ;  and  it  has 
to  pass  regions  quite  as  arid  and  inhos- 
pitable.   Every  part  of  Arabia  is  covered 
with  sandy  plains  ;  and  when  the  moun- 
tain  steeps  are   crossed,    the   long  ex- 
tended valleys  rarely  offer  water.     The 
Arabic   language   is  rich   in  words  ex- 
pressing every  variety  of  desert,  differing 
from  each   other  by  very  slight  shades 
of  meaning:  thus,  they  have  terms  de- 
scriptive of  a  plain — a  plain  in  the  moun- 
tain— a    plain    covered    with    herbs — a 
naked  sandy  desert — a  stony  desert — a 
desert  with  little  spots  of  pasturage — 
a  desert  without  water.     Although  the 
caravan  route  from  Cairo  to  Mecca  pre- 
sents, with  the  exception  of  the  desert 
El  Tyh,  none  of  those  enormous  wastes, 
like  the  great  Southern  Desert  of  Arabia, 
"where  the  Arabs  have   only   the   sun 
and  the  stars  to  direct  their  way;"  nor 
is,  like  the  Libyan  desert,  "a  sea  with- 
out waters,   an   earth  without   solidity, 
disdaining    to   hold   a   foot-print   as    a 
testimony  of  subjection,  there  are  many 
tracts,  as  well  as  the  desert  from  Suez 
to  Akaba,   in   the   forty   days'  journey, 
which  offer  to  the  pilgrim  abundance  of 
fatigue  and  suffering.    ,If  water  fail,  as 
it  sometimes  does,  even  at  the  wells  at 
a  particularly  dry  season — if  the  water- 
skins  evaporate  more  quickly  than  they 
ordinarily  do — the  Camel's  power  of  en- 
durance is  severely  tried — for  his  wants 
are  the  last  attended  to.     Happy  are  the 
pilgrims   if  the  rain   of  the  mountains 
have   filled    the    banks   of   some    little 


222 


THE  CAMELS. 


river.     Even  the  much-enduring  Camels,  at  the  sight  of  water,  after 
many  days'  abstinence,   break  the  halters  by  which   they  are  led, 
and  in  rushing  or  stumbling  down  the  banks  throw  off  their  loads, 
and  occasion  infinite  disorder."     Mr.  Buckingham  has,  however,  de- 
scribed a  scene  in  which  the  patience  of  the  Camels  is  contrasted 
in  a  remarkable  way  with  the  eagerness  of  the  Horse: — "  It  was 
near  midnight   when  we   reached   a   marshy  ground,   in  which   a 
clear  stream  was  flowing   along,   through  beds  of  tall  and  thick 
rushes,  but  so  hidden  by  these,  that  the  noise  of  its  flow  was  heard 
long  before  the  stream  itself  could  be  seen.     From  the  length  of  the 
march,  and  the  exhausting  heat  of  the  atmosphere,  even  at  night, 
the  Horses  were  exceedingly  thirsty :  their  impatient  restlessness, 
evinced  by  their  tramping,  neighing,  and  eager  impatience  to  rush 
all  to  one  particular  point,  gave  us,  indeed,  the  first  indications  of 
our  approach  to  water,   which  was   perceptible   to  their    stronger 
scent  long  before  it  was  even  heard  by  us.     On  reaching  the  brink 
of  this  stream,  for  w-hich  purpose  we  had  been  forcibly  turned  aside, 
by  the  ungovernable  fury  of  the  animals,  to  the  southward  of  our 
route,  the  banks  were  found  to  be  so  high  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,    that    Horses    could  not   reach   it  to    drink.     Some,   more 
impatient  than  the  rest,  plunged  themselves  and  their  riders  at  once 
into  the  current  ;  and,  after  being  led  swimming  to  a  less  elevated 
part  of  the  bank  over  which  they  could  mount,  were  extricated  with 
considerable  difficulty  ;  while  two  of  the  Horses  of  the  caravan,  who 
were  more  heavily  laden  than  the  others,  by  carrying  the  baggage 
as  well  as  the  persons  of  their  riders  were  drowned.     The  stream 
was  narrow,   but  deep,   and  had  a  soft  muddy  bottom,  in  which 
another  of  the  Horses  became  so  fastly  stuck,  that  he  was  suffocated 
in  a  few  minutes.     The  Camels  marched  patiently  along  the  edge  of 
the  bank,  as  well  as  those  persons  of  the  caravan  who  were  provided 
with  skins  and  other  vessels  containing  small  supplies  of  water ;  but 
the  Horses  could  not,  by  all  the  power  of  their  riders,  be  kept  from 
the  stream,  any  more  than  the  crowd  of  thirsty  pilgrims,  who,  many 
of  them  having  no  small  vessels  to  dip  up  the  water  from  the  brook, 
followed  the  example  of  the  impatient  Horses,  and  plunged  at  once 
into  the  current.  .  .  .  This  scene — which,  amidst  the  obscurity  of  the 
night,   the  cries  of  animals,   the   shouting   and  quarrelling  of  the 
people,  and  the  indistinct,  and  perhaps  exaggerated,  apprehensions 
of  danger,  from  a  totally  unexpected  cause,  had  assumed  an  almost 
awful  character — lasted  for  upwards  of  an  hour." 

The  Camel  is  not  only  valuable  as  a  beast  of  burden,  its  milk  is 
in  requisition  :  it  is  the  milk  used  for  ordinary  purposes  by  the  Arabs, 
that  of  Goats  and  Sheep  being  generally  made  into  butter.  The 
Arab  feeds  his  colt  with  it,  and  even  gives  it  to  his  mare.  Flour 
made  into  a  paste  with  sour  Camel's  milk  is  a  common  dish  among 
the  Bedouins  ;  it  is  called  ayesh.  Rice  or  flour  boiled  with  sweet 
Camel's  milk  is  another  :  it  is  called  behatta. 

Though  the  flesh  of  the  Camel  was  among  the  meats  prohibited  to 
the  Jews,  it  is  not  only  eaten,  but  relished  by  the  Arabs  :  it  is  not 
often,  however,  that  the  Arab  kills  a  Camel  in  order  to  enjoy  this 
luxury.  When  this  does  happen,  the  flesh  is  cut  into  large  pieces  : 
some  part  is  boiled,  and  its  grease  mixed  with  borgoul  (wheat  boiled 
^yith  some  leaven  and  then  dried  in  the  sun)  ;  part  is  roasted,  and, 
like  the  boiled,  put  upon  the  dish  of  borgoul.  The  whole  tribe  then 
partake  of  the  delicious  feast.  The  grease  of  the  Camel  is  kept  in 
Goat-skins,  and  used  like  butter.  The  woolly  hair  of  the  Camel, 
which  towards  the  close  of  spring  is  loose  and  easily  pulled  away 
from  the  skin,  is  applied  to  various  purposes,  and  woven  into  coarse 
cloth,  used  as  tent-coverings.  Even  the  dung  of  the  Camel  is  not 
neglected :  it  forms  the  chief  material  for  fuel  in  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  Persia,  and  from  the  smoke,  or  rather  soot,  of  this  fuel  is 
obtained  sal-ammoniac,  which  was  formeriy  procured  almost 
exclusively  from  this  source,  and  for  the  manufacturing  of  which 
there  were,  in  the  last  century,  laboratories  at  Cairo  and  other  towns 
in  Egypt. 

At  San  Rossora  the  Tuscan  government  established  a  stud  of 
Camels  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  faggots,  hay,  straw,  &c.  from  the 
domain  of  San  Rossora  to  Pisa  and  other  towns.  It  would  appear 
that  this  estaljlishment  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  in  the  reign  of  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  de'  Medici  II. 
The  Moors  introduced  the  Camel  into  Spain  ;  and  after  the  con- 
quest of  Granada,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moorish  inhabitants, 
many  of  these  animals  remained  in  the  southern  districts ;  but 
the  race  was  not  kept  up,  and  therefore  Spain,  where  in  various 
localities  the  Camel  would  be  peculiarly  serviceable,  no  longer  pos- 
sesses this  useful  animal. 

The  colour  of  this  animal,  as  of  most  domestic  animals,  is  subject 
to  variety.  The  brown  colour  appears  not  to  be  esteemed ;  reddish 
or  light  grey  is  preferred.  Occasionally  black  Camels  are  seen. 
In  Egypt  the  average  price  of  one  of  these  beasts  of  burden  is  from 
30  to  50  dollars :  but  the  swift  Oman  Camels,  which  are  much 
valued,  sell  at  a  higher  rate,  and  Burckhardt  mentions  an  instance 
in  which  300  dollars  were  given  for  one.  When  travelling  in  Nubia, 
Burckhardt  saw  the  Camel  almost  in  a  wild  state,  whole  herds  being 
left  to  pasture  unattended  by  men  :  they  were  kept  for  the  sake  of 
their  flesh  and  milk,  few  being  employed  as  beasts  of  burden  ;  they 
even  appeared  frightened  at  the  approach  of  men  and  loaded  Camels 


The 


—a  circumstance  this  traveller  had  never  before  witnessed. 
Nubian  Camels  are  generally  white. 

Fig:-  595  represents  a  Camel  carrying  a  bride.  "One  of  the 
greatest  solemnities  of  these  simple  Arab  tribes  is  that  of  conducting- 
a  bride  to  her  husband.  The  lady  is  placed  in  a  frame  on  the  back 
of  a  Camel,  and  is  housed  over  with  carpets,  shawls,  and  Ostrich 


F'S-  595- — Camel  canying  a  Bride. 

feathers.  The  Camel  is  led  by  a  relation  of  the  bride,  preceded  by 
dancing-people,  music,  mounted  and  dismounted  Arabs,  who  shout 
and  fire  their  guns,  running  backward  and  forward  in  the  procession. 
Captain  Lyon  made  a  drawing  of  the  bridal  Camel  and  his  trap- 
pings." Fig.  596  shows  the  Swift  Camel,  mounted.  "  The  wandering 
Arab  and  his  Maherry  have  an  extraordinary  appearance,  which 
Captain  Lyon  has  described.  The  saddle  is  placed  on  the  withers, 
and  confined  by  a  band  under  the  belly.     It   is   very  small   and 


Fig.  596. — Swift  Camel  mounted. 

difiicult  to  set,  which  is  done  by  balancing  the  feet  against  the  neck 
of  the  animal,  and  holding  a  tight  rein  to  steady  the  hand."  The 
following  is  a  description  of  a  Bedouin  encampment : — "  Those  who 
are,  from  reading  or  travelled  observation,  conversant  with  the 
existing  manners  of  the  Asiatic  pastoral  tribes,  as  the  Arabians  and 
the  Tartars,  can  easily  form  in  their  minds  a  picture  of  this  great 
migrating  party.  Under  the  conduct  of  their  venerable  emir,  and 
the  active  direction  and  control  of  his  principal  servants,  we  behold, 
from  the  distance,  a  lengthened  dark  line  stretching  across  the  plain, 
or  winding  among  the  valleys,  or  creeping  down  the  narrow  path- 
way on  the  mountain  side.  That  in  this  line  there  'are  hosts  of 
Camels  we  know  afar  off,  by  the  grotesque  outline  which  the  figures 
of  these  animals  make,  their  tall  shapes,  and  their  length  of  neck  ; 
and  that  the  less  distinguishable  mass  which  appears  in  motion  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  composed  of  flocks  of  Sheep,  and 
perhaps  Goats,  we  can  only  infer  from  circumstances.  On  approach- 
ing nearer  we  find  that  all  this  is  true,  and  that,  moreover,  many 
of  the  Camels  are  laden  with  the  tents,  and  with  a  few  utensils  and 
needments  which  the  dwellers  in  tents  require ;  and  if  the  natural 
condition  of  the  traversed  country  be  such  as  to  render  the  precaution 
necessary,  some  of  the  animals  may  be  seen  bearing  provisions  and 
skins  of  water.  The  baggage  Camels  follow  each  other  with  steady 
and  heavy  tread,  in  files,  the  halter  of  those  that  follow  being  tied 


THE   LLAMAS. 


223 


to  the  harness  of  those  that  precede,  so  that  the  foremost  only  needs 
a  rider  to  direct  his  course;  but  nevertheless  women,  children,  and 
old  men  are  seen  mounted  on  the  other  burdens  which  some  of  them 
bear.  These  are  slaves,  retainers,  and  other  persons  not  actively 
engaged  in  the  conduct  of  the  party,  and  not  of  sufficient  conse- 
quence to  ride  on  saddled  Dromedaries.  Such  are  reserved  for  the 
chiefs  of  the  party,  their  women,  children,  relatives,  and  friends; 
and  are  not,  unless  it  happen  for  convenience,  strung  together  like 
the  drudging  animals  which  bear  the  heavier  burdens." 

The  Bactri.\n  Ca.mel  {Camchcs  bac/ria?nisj. — This  species  is 
at  once  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Arabian  by  the  presence  of 
two  humps  on  the  back ;  it  is  comparatively  rare,  and  limited  in  the 


Fig.  597. — Bactrian  Camd. 

extent  of  geographic  range  :  it  is  spread,  however,  through  Central 
Asia,  Thibet,  and  China,  and  is  reported  to  exist  in  a  wild  state  in 
Turkestan,  anciently  Bactriana.  Pallas  states  that  very  large 
Camels,  with  two  haunches,  occur  wild  in  the  deserts  of  Shamo, 
towards  the  frontiers  of  China ;  but  as  the  Calmucks  liberate  all 
animals  upon  a  principle  of  religion,  we  may  conclude  that  these 
Camels  are  descendants  of  the  domestic  stock.  Occasionally  the 
Bactrian  Camel  is  seen  in  Egypt  and  Arabia :  during  his  travels 
through  the  latter  country  Niebuhr  saw  three,  and  only  three,  speci- 
mens ;  and  Mr.  Macfarlane  met  with  only  one  in  Asia  Minor,  which 
came  from  some  remote  province.  A  Bactrian  Camel  foaled  in  a 
menagerie  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in  January,  1864,  a  circum- 
stance somewhat  extraordinary  in  this  country.     (See  Fig.  597.) 

The  manners  of  the  Bactrian  Camel  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Arabian,  and  its  utility  is  as  great  as  that  of  the  latter.  It  is  the 
patient,  laborious,  and  willing  slave  of  man,  travelling  over  sandy 
deserts,  and  administering  to  the  wants  of  a  wandering  people. 
The  height  of  this  species  is  about  eight  feet  between  the  two 
humps. 

Here  we  conclude  our  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  Camel — an 
animal,  in  the  countries  for  which  it  is  specially  organised,  the  most 
important  and  valuable  to  man,  and  one  of  the  earliest  which  he 
reclaimed  to  his  service.  It  is  true  that  it  has  not  spread,  like  the 
Horse  and  the  Ox,  over  the  whole  globe  ;  but  the  reason  is  evident : 
out  of  its  own  regions  its  value  and  importance  are  diminished ; 
within  them  no  other  beast  of  burden  can  compete  with  it,  and  for 
ever  will  it  remain,  as  it  is  and  has  been,  "  the  ship  of  the  desert." 

The  Auchenia,  or  Llamas. 

Under  the  general  term  Llama  are  comprehended  four,  if  not  more 
species,  which  belong  to  the  same  section  of  the  Ruminants  as  the 
Camel.  Indeed,  the  Llama  was  referred  by  Linnjeus,  and  other 
naturalists  of  the  last  century,  to  the  genus  Camclus  ;  from  which 
Illiger  separated  it,  and  assigned  it  to  a  genus  which  he  established 
under  the  title  of  Aicchcuia,  in  allusion  to  the  length  and  slender- 
ness  of  the  neck,  for  which  the  Llamas  are  remarkable. 

The  Llamas  may  be  regarded  as  the  analogues  of  the  Camel ; 
and,  in  the  Cordilleras  of  Peru  and  Chili,  are  the  mountain  represen- 
tatives of  that  desert-born  servant  of  man. 

In  outward  form,  excepting  that  there  is  no  hump  on  the  back — 
in  the  general  structure  and  cellular  apparatus  of  the  stomach,  with 
the  concomitant  power  of  enduring  thirst,  or  abstaining  for  a  long 
season  from  water — in  the  expression  of  the  large,  full,  overhung  eye — 
in  the  mobility  and  division  of  the  upper  lip,  the  fissured  nostrils,  the 


slender  neck,  and  meagre  limbs,  together  with  the  long,  woolly 
character  of  the  clothing,  the  Llama  and  the  Camel  exhibit  striking 
points  of  agreement.  The  foot  of  the  Camel,  however,  with  its 
broad  elastic  pad,  expressly  adapted  for  traversing  the  sands  of  the 
desert,  differs  in  its  modification  from  that  of  the  Llama,  destined  to 
inhabit  the  rough  and  rocky  Cordilleras,  along  the  craggy  sides  of 
which  the  Llama  proceeds  with  a  free  and  fearless  step. 
The  foot  of  the  Llama  (Fig.  598)  consists  of  two  springy  toes, 


Fig.  598. — Feet  of  Llama. 

completely  divided,  each  with  a  rough  cushion  beneath,  and  pro- 
vided at  the  end  with  a  strong  short  hoof.  These  hoofs  are  pointed 
at  the  tip,  and  hooked  down  somewhat  like  a  claw ;  they  are 
compressed  laterally,  and  the  upper  surface  represents  an  acute 
ridge  ;  the  under  surface  is  linearly  concave — a  form  well  fitted  for  a 
mountain  climber. 

When  the  Spaniards  first  invaded  Peru  and  Chili,  they  found  the 
Llama  domesticated,  and  used  as  a  beast  of  burden,  its  flesh  and 
wool  being  also  in  great  request.  It  was  their  only  beast  of  burden  : 
its  flesh  was  eaten,  its  skin  prepared  into  leather,  and  its  wool  spun 
and  manufactured  into  cloth.  One  of  the  labours  to  which  the 
Llama  was  subjected  was  that  of  bringing  down  ore  from  the  mines 
among  the  mountains  :  its  ordinary  load  was  80  or  100  pounds,  and 
its  average  rate  of  travelling  with  its  burden  12  to  15  miles  a  day, 
over  rugged  mountain-passes  ;  but,  like  the  Camel,  if  too  heavily 
laden  it  would  lie  down,  and  obstinately  refuse  to  proceed,  nor 
would  it  bear  to  be  urged  beyond  its  accustomed  pace.  Gregory 
de  Bolivar  estimated  that,  in  his  day,  300,000  were  employed  in  the 
transport  of  produce  of  the  mines  of  Potosi  alone,  and  four  millions 
annually  killed  for  food. 

Augustin  de  Zerate,  treasurer-general  of  Peru,  in  1544,  under  the 
Spanish  dominion,  thus  describes  the  Llama,  which  he  calls  a  Sheep ; 
though  it  is,  he  observes,  Camel-like  in  shape,  but  destitute  of  a 
hump : — "  In  places  where  there  is  no  snow,  the  natives  want  water, 
and  to  supply  this  they  fill  the  skins  of  Sheep  with  water  and  make 
other  living  Sheep  carry  them  ;  for  it  must  be  remarked,  these  Sheep 
of  Peru  are  large  enough  to  serve  as  beasts  of  burden.  They  can 
carry  about  100  pounds  or  more,  and  the  Spaniards  used  to  ride 
them,  and  they  would  go  four  or  five  leagues  a  day.  When  they 
are  weary  they  lie  down  upon  the  ground,  and  as  there  are  no  means 
of  making  them  get  up,  either  by  beating  or  assisting  them,  the 
load  must  of  necessity  be  takfo  off.  When  there  is  a  man  on  one 
of  them,  if  the  beast  is  tired,  and  urged  to  go  on,  he  turns  his  head 
round,  and  discharges  his  saliva,  which  has  an  unpleasant  odour, 
into  the  rider's  face.  These  animals  are  of  great  use  and  profit  to 
their  masters,  for  their  wool  is  very  good  and  fine,  particularly  that 
of  the  species  called  Pacas  (the  modern  Alpaca),  which  have  very 
long  fleeces  ;  and  the  expense  of  their  food  is  trifling,  as  a  handful 
of  maize  suffices  them,  and  they  can  go  four  or  five  days  without 
water.  Their  flesh  is  as  good  as  that  of  the  fat  Sheep  of  Castile. 
There  are  now  public  shambles  for  the  sale  of  their  flesh  in  all  parts 
of  Peru,  which  was  not  the  case  when  the  Spaniards  came  first ;  for 
when  one  Indian  had  killed  a  Sheep,  his  neighbours  came  and  took 
what  they  wanted,  and  then  another  Indian  killed  a  Sheep  in  his 
turn." 

D'Acosta  gives  nearly  a  similar  testimony ;  and  notices  two  kinds 
(species)— one  which  is  woolly,  and  called  Paco  by  the  natives  :  the 
other  covered  with  a  slight  fleece  {^jillis  levibtis)  only,  and  nearly 
naked,  whence  it  is  more  fitted  for  carrying  burthens.  It  is  called 
Guanaco. 

Captain  G.  Shelvocke,  an  Englishman,  who  sailed  round  the  world 
in  i7i9-'22,  gives  a  similar  account,  informing  us  that  the  Indians  of 
Peru  call  these  animals  Llamas  ;  the  Chilese,  Chilihueque ;  and  the 
Spaniards,  Carneros  de  la  tierra. 

With  respect  to  the  distinct  species  of  Llama,  we  learn  from  De 


224 


THE  LLAMAS. 


Lact  that,  besides  the  domestic  race,  there  are  in  Peru  and  Chili 
various  wild  animals,  of  which  some  are  called  Guanaco,  or 
Huanacu,  whence,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  tame  breed,  the  latter 
have  obtained  the  same  appellation  ;  their  flesh  is  good,  but  accord- 
ing to  Garcilaso,  inferior  to  that  of  the  domestic  or  Huanacu 
Llamas.  These  animals  inhabit  the  mountain-ranges,  where  the 
males  keep  watch  above  whilst  the  females  are  feeding  in  the  Alpine 
valleys.  When  the  males  observe  men  approaching  in  the  distance, 
they  utter  a  sort  of  neigh,  not  unlike  that  of  a  horse,  to  warn  the 
females ;  and  if  the  men  advance  nearer,  they  flee,  driving  the 
females  before  them.  The  wool  of  these  animals  is  short  and  rough, 
but  is,  notwithstanding,  used  by  the  natives  for  making  cloth.  These 
animals  are  taken  in  traps  and  snares,  Another  kind  are  termed 
"Vicunas ;  e.\cepting  that  they  have  no  horns,  they  are  not  much 
unlike  Goats,  but  are  larger,  and  of  a  tawny  or  Lion-like  colour  with 
a  rufous  tint :  these  live  in  the  highest  mountains,  giving  preference 
to  the  colder  regions,  and  especially  the  bleak  solitudes  which  the 
Peruvians  designate  by  the  common  name  of  Punas.  Frost  and 
snow,  so  far  from  annoying,  seem  rather  to  invigorate  them.  They 
associate  in  flocks,  and  run  with  great  swiftness.  Such  is  their 
timidity,  that  at  the  sight  of  men  or  wild  beasts,  they  instantly  betake 
themselves  into  hidden  and  inaccessible  fortresses.  Formerly  these 
animals  were  very  numerous,  but  they  are  now  become  much  more 
rare  in  consequence  of  the  promiscuous  licence  for  hunting.  Their 
wool  is  very  fine,  and  resembles  silk,  or  rather  the  fur  of  the  Beaver, 
and  the  natives  deservedly  estimate  it  highly  :  besides  other  proper- 
ties, it  is  said  to  resist  heat  and  impart  coolness,  and  consequently 
is  especially  used  in  the  manufacture  of  caps.  Besides  these  are 
the  Tarugas,  or  Tarucas,  which  are  larger  and  more  swift  than  the 
Vicunas,  and  of  a  more  burnt  colour,  with  pendulous  and  light  ears  ; 
they  rarely  associate  in  flocks,  but  wander  singly  about  the  precipices  : 
according  to  Garcilaso  they  are  a  species  of  Deer,  inferior  in  size  to 
those  of  Europe.  In  the  time  of  the  Incas  they  w^ere  innumerable, 
and  even  entered  the  precincts  of  the  towns,  nor  was  there  any 
deficiency  of  their  fawns  and  does.  All  these  animals,  he  adds,  pro- 
duce bezoar  stones. 

It  is  generally  believed  by  naturalists,  and  among  them  F.  Cuvier, 
that  there  are  really  only  three  species— viz.,  the  Llama,  called, 
when  wild,  Guanaco,  the  Paco  or  Alpaca,  and  the  Vicugna.  Mr. 
Bennett,  indeed,  and  Baron  Cuvier,  suspect  there  are  but  two 
species,  but  some  say  [four  or  more.  The  former  expressly  states  that 
he  should  have  little  hesitation  in  proceeding  still  farther  than  F. 
Cuvier,  being  strongly  inclined  to  agree  with  the  Baron  in  regarding 
the  Paco  as  a  mere  variety  of  the  Llama,  with  the  wool  more  amply 
developed,  and  in  considering  the  Vicugna  as  the  only  animal  of 
that  group  that  deserves  to  be  specifically  distinguished  from  that 
animal.  From  our  own  personal  observations  we  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  there  are  three  species  as  indicated  by  F.  Cuvier ;  but 
we  confess  that  we  have  our  doubts  as  to  whether  De  Laet's  Taruga, 
with  pendulous  ears,  may  not  prove  to  be  a  fourth  species. 

The  Guan.\CO  {Auchem'a  Guaiiaco),  is  supposed  to  be  the  wild 
stock  whence  the  Llamas  are  derived,  At  what  period  the  Guanaco 
became  domesticated,  whether  before  the  foundation  of  the  ancient 
Peruvian  empire,  while  the  natives  were  in  the  rudest  state  of  savage 
life,  or  after  Manco  Capac  had  established  over  the  Peruvians  the 
reigning  line  of  Incas,  it  is  useless  to  inquire.  All  we  know  is,  that 
the  Spaniards  on  their  invasion  found  the  Llama  trained  as  a  beast 
of  burden,  and  excepting  as  regards  its  milk,  to  them  what  the 
Camel  is  to  the  native  of  the  Arabian  desert. 

The  Guanaco,  or  wild  Llama,  is  more  slender,  and  has  an  aspect 
more  expressive  of  energy  and  spirit  than  its  domesticated  relative, 
but  it  soon  becomes  familiar  in  captivity.  In  its  native  regions,  the 
highlands  of  Peru  and  Chili,  it  lives  in  herds,  continuing  among  the 
mountains  during  the  summer,  but  descending  to  the  valleys  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  At  this  latter  season  the  Chilians  hunt  them 
with  Dogs,  but  it  is  only  the  young  and  the  feeble  that  can  be  thus 
taken  ;  the  old  ones  are  swift,  active,  and  vigorous,  and  easily 
escape.  During  the  chase  they  are  said  frequently  to  turn  on  their 
pursuers,  neigh  loudly,  and  then  take  to  their  heels  again.  Indeed, 
when  alarmed,  they  often  stop  in  their  flight  to  gaze  at  the  object  of 
their  fear,  and  again  gallop  off. 

The  Guanaco  feeds  upon  mountain  herbage,  and  especially  a 
species  of  rushy  grass  called  ycho  ;  and  when  there  is  sufBcient  of 
this  green  fodder  for  them,  they  are  never  known  to  drink.  The 
same  observation  applies  to  the  domestic  breed,  and  the  Alpaca 
and  the  Vicugna.  Mr.  Bennett  suggests  as  a  probability  that  they 
may  have  the  power  of  extracting  from  their  food  sufficient  liquid  to 
satiate  their  thirst.  It  cannot  have  escaped  notice  that  the  secretion 
of  saliva  in  these  animals  is  remarkably  abundant,  even,  as  we  have 
observed,  in  the  hottest  weather  in  England,  and  that  upon  the 
slightest  offence,  real  or  supposed,  they  discharge  a  copious  shower 
of  it  over  the  person  of  the  offender.  May  it  not  be  that  the  naturally 
abundant  flow  of  this  saliva  obviates  the  necessity  of  frequently 
drinking  ?  This  saliva  was  once  supposed  to  possess  acrid,  irritat- 
ing qualities,  which  certainly  is  not  the  case,  though  it  must  be 
confessed,  a  sprinkling  with  rose-water  would  be  more  pleasant. 

When  assaulted  and  pushed  to  defend  themselves,  these  animals 


strike  with  their  fore-feet,  and  that  with  great  energy,  giving  very 
severe  blows  :  we  have,  indeed,  seen  them  strike  upon  trifling  provo- 
cation, though  in  general  they  are  quiet  and  inoffensive. 

The  wool  of  the  Guanaco  is  in  request,  being  of  fine  texture  :  the 
general  colour  is  rich  rufous  brown,  the  head  and  ears  being  grey. 
The  neck  is  peculiarly  long  ;  the  tail  a  little  raised  and  curved 
down.  Height  at  the  top  of  the  shoulders  about  three  feet  and 
a-half. 

Mr.  Darwin  states,  the  Guanaco  "  abounds  over  the  whole  of  the 


Fig.  599. — Guanaco. 

temperate  part  of  South  America,  from  the  wooded  islands  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  through  Patagonia,  the  hilly  parts  of  La  Plata,  Chili,  even 
to  the  Cordillera  of  Peru.  Although  preferring  an  elevated  site,  it 
yields  in  this  respect  to  its  near  relative,  the  Vicugna  ;  on  the  plains 
of  Southern  Patagonia  we  saw  them  in  greater  numbers  than  in  any 
other  part.  Generally  they  go  in  small  herds,  from  half-a-dozen  to 
thirty  together,  but  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Cruz  we  saw  one  herd 
which  must  have  contained  at  least  500.  On  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Strait  of  Magellan  they  are  also  very  numerous.  Generally 
the  Guanacoes  are  wild  and  extremely  wary.  The  sportsman  fre- 
quently receives  the  first  intimation  of  their  presence  by  hearing 
from  a  distance  the  peculiar  shrill  neighing  note  of  alarm.  If  he 
then  look  attentively,  he  will  perhaps  see  the  herd  standing  in  a  line 
on  some  distant  hill.  On  approaching  them,  a  few  more  squeals  are 
given,  and  then  off  they  set  at  an  apparently  slow,  but  really  quick, 
canter  along  some  narrow  beaten  track  to  a  neighbouring  hill.  If, 
however,  by  chance  he  should  abruptly  meet  a  single  animal,  or 
several  together,  they  will  generally  stand  motionless  and  intently 
gaze  at  him  ;  then,  perhaps,  move  on  a  few  yards,  turn  round,  and 
look  again.  What  is  the  cause  of  this  difference  in  their  shyness  ? 
Do  they  mistake  a  man  in  the  distance  for  their  chief  enemy,  the 
Puma,  or  does  curiosity  overcome  their  timidity  ?  That  they  are 
curious  IS  certain  ;  for  if  a  person  lies  on  the  ground  and  plays 
strange  antics,  such  as  throwing  up  his  feet  in  the  air,  they  will 
almost  always  approach  by  degrees  to  leconnoitre  him.  It  was  an 
artifice  that  was  frequently  practised  by  our  sportsmen  with  success  ; 
and  it  had,  moreover,  the  advantage  of  allowing  several  shots  to  be 
fired,  which  were  all  taken  as  parts  of  the  performance.  On  the 
mountains  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  in  other  places,  I  have  more 
than  once  seen  a  Guanaco  on  being  approached,  not  only  neigh 
and  squeal,  but  prance  and  leap  about  in  the  most  ridiculous  man- 
ner, apparently  in  defiance,  as  a  challenge.  These  animals  are  very 
easily  domesticated,  and  I  have  seen  some  thus  kept  near  the 
houses,  although  at  large  on  their  native  plains.  They  are  in  this 
state  very  bold,  and  readily  attack  a  man  by  striking  him  from  be- 
hind with  both  knees.  The  wild  Guanacoes,  however,  have  no  idea 
of  defence  :  even  a  single  Dog  will  secure  one  of  these  large  animals 
till  the  huntsman  can  come  up.  In  many  of  their  habits  they  are 
like  Sheep  in  a  flock.  Thus  when  they  see  men  approaching  in 
different  directions  on  horseback,  they  soon  become  bewildered,  and 
know  not  which  way  to  run.  This  greatly  facilitates  the  Indian 
method  of  hunting,  for  they  are  thus  easily  driven  to  a  central  point 
and  encompassed.  The  Guanacoes  readily  take  to  water  ;  several 
times  at  Port  Valdes  they  were  seen  swimming  from  island  to  island. 


THE  LLAMAS. 


225 


tra' 

o 
o 

j 


> 


2  C 


22b 


THE  LLAMAS. 


Byron,  in  his  voyage,  says  he  saw  them  drinking  salt  water.  Some 
of  our  officers,  likewise,  saw  a  herd  drinking  the  briny  fluid  from 
Salina,  near  Cape  Blanca.  I  imagine,  in  several  parts  of  the  country, 
if  they  do  not  drink  salt  water,  they  drink  none  at  all.  In  the 
middle  of  the  day  they  fre- 
quently roll  in  the  dust  of 
saucer-shaped  hollows.  The 
males  fight  together;  two,  one 
day,  passed  cjuite  close  to  me, 
squealing,  and  trying  to  bite 
each  other;  and  several  weiu 
shot  with  their  hides  deeply 
scored.  Herds  sometimes  ap- 
pear to  set  out  on  exploring  par- 
ties. At  Bahia  Blanca,  where, 
within  thirty  miles  of  the  coast, 
these  animals  are  extremely 
unfrequent,  I  saw  one  day  the 
tracks  of  thirty  or  forty,  which 
had  come  in  a  direct  line  to  a 
muddy  salt-water  creek.  They 
must  then  have  perceived  that 
they  were  approaching  the  sea, 
for  they  had  wheeled  with  the 
regularity  of  cavalry,  and  had 
returned  back  in  as  straight  a 
line  as  they  had  advanced 
The  Guanacoes  have  one  singu 
lar  habit,  which  is  to  me  in 
explicable,  namely,  that  on  sue 
cessive  days  they  drop  their 
dung  in  the  same  defined  heap. 
I  saw  one  of  these  heaps  which 
was  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and 
necessarily  was  composed  of 
a  large  quantity.  D'Aubigny 
says  that  all  the  species  of  this 
genus  have  this  habit ;  and 
Frezier  remarks  that  it  is  very 
useful  to  the  Indians,  who  use 
the  dung  for  fuel,  and  are  thus 
saved  the  trouble  of  collecting 
it.  The  Guanacoes  appear  to 
have  favourite  spots  for  dying 
in.  On  the  banks  of  the  St 
Cruz  the  ground  was  actually 
white  with  bones  in  certain 
circumscribed  places,  which 
were  generally  bushy,  and  all 
near  the  river.  On  one  such 
spot  I  counted  between  ten 
and  twenty  heads.  I  particu- 
larly examined  the  bones  ;  they 


did  not  appear,  as  some  scattered  ones  which  I  have  seen,  gnawed 
and  broken,  as  if  dragged  together  by  some  beasts  of  prey.  The 
animals  must  have  crawled,  before  dying,  beneath  and  amongst 
the  bushes.     Mr.   Bynoe  informs    me  that  during  the  voyage  he 


■SBSl^qc. 


Fig.  6oi. — Tame  Llama  (white). 


Fig.  602. — The  Guanaco  and  the  Tame  White  Llama. 

observed  the  same  circumstance  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Gallegos. 
I  do  not  understand  the  reason  for  this,  but  I  may  observe  that  all  the 
wounded  Guanacoes  at  St.  Cruz  invariably  walked  towards  the  river. 
At  St.  Jago,  in  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  I  remember  having  seen, 
in  a  retired  ravine,  a  corner  under  a  cliff,  where  numerous  Goats' 
bones  were  collected :  we  at  the  time  exclaimed  that  it  was  the 
burial-ground  of  all  the  Goats  in  the  island.  I  mention  these  cir- 
cumstances because,  in  certain  cases,  they  might  explain  the  occur- 
rence of  a  number  of  uninjured  bones  in  a  cave,  or  buried  under 
alluvial  accumulations,  and  likewise  the  cause  why  certain  Mam- 
malia are  more  commonly  imbedded  than  others  in  sedimentary 
deposits.  Any  great  flood  of  the  St.  Cruz  would  wash  down  many 
bones  of  the  Guanaco,  but  probably  not  a  single  one  of  the  Puma, 
Rhea,  or  Fox."     ("  Voyage  of  the  Beagle.") 

Like  the  Elephant,  the  Horse,  the  Camel,  and  many  others,  the 
Guanaco  has  its  fossil  prototypes.  Mr.  Darwin  found,  at  Port  St. 
Julian  (Patagonia),  the  fossil  bones  of  a  Llama,  which  must  have 
fully  equalled  the  Camel  in  magnitude  ;  and  he  observes  that,  "  as 
the  Guanaco  is  the  characteristic  quadruped  of  Patagonia,  and  the 
Vicugna  of  the  snow-clad  summits  of  the  Cordilleras,  so  in  bygone 
days  this  gigantic  species  of  the  same  family  must  have  been  con- 
spicuous on  the  southern  plains." 

The  domestic  Llama  is  more  stoutly  built  than  the  Guanaco  ;  its 
limbs  are  thicker,  its  neck  shorter,  and  its  aspect  more  subdued.  The 
wool  is  longer  and  fuller,  but  of  a  coarser  quality.  We  have  seen  brown 
and  white  individuals,  but  the  white  seem  to  be  the  most  common. 

When  the  Spaniards  became  acquainted  with  Peru  and  Chili, 
these  animals  were  kept  by  the  natives  in  vast  numbers  ;  but  now 
the  Horse,  the  Ass,  and  especially  the  iVIule,  have  superseded  the 
Llama  as  a  beast  of  burthen  ;  while  the  introduction  of  the  Sheep, 
the  Goat,  and  the  Ox,  has  rendered  it  less  necessary,  either  as  con- 
tributing by  its  flesh  or  its  fleece,  to  the  benefit  of  man.  In  some 
places,  however,  it  still  is,  or  was  recently,  employed  as  a  beast  of 
Ijurthen. 


THE  ALPACA  AND   VICUGNA. 


The  preceding  cut  represents  the  wild  and  tame  Llama  (see  Fig. 
602) ;  the  latter  in  a  recumbent  position. 

The  Alp.aca,  or  Vaco  [Auchcnia  Paco ;  Auchevia  Alpaca, 
Dcsm.  ;  Camelus  Pacos,  Linn.),  is  as  large  as  the  Guanaco,  but 
proportionately  shorter  in  the  limbs  ;  its  forehead,  instead  of  being 
regularly  arched  to  the  nose,  rises  abruptly  prominent  above  the 
eyes  ;  the  wool  is  long,  delicately  fine,  and  silky,  excepting  on  the 
head  and  limbs,  and  of  a  deep  fawn  colour ;  it  is,  moreover,  dis- 
posed in  long  flakes  or  tassels.  Black  varieties  also  occur,  of  which 
a  most  beautiful  specimen,  some  years  ago,  existed  in  the  Gardens 
of  the  Zool.  Soc. ,  Lond. 

The  Paco  dwells  in  herds  among  the  mountains  of  Peru  and 
Chili ;  it  is  less  fleet  than  the  light-limbed  Guanaco,  but  its  general 
habits  are  the  same  ;  it  would  appear,  however,  to  frequent  a  higher 
and  colder  range  of  elevation,  as  it  is  said  to  be  frequently  seen 
with  herds  of  Vicugnas,  as  will  be  presently  mentioned  ;  its  wool  is 
largely  used  for  manufacturing  purposes,  as  a  material  midway  be- 
tween Sheeps'  wool  and  silk. 

The  full-paged  illustration,  at  p.  225,  ante,  represents  the  Alpaca 
of  South  America. 

The  VtcuGNA,  OR  Vicuna  [Auchcnia  Vicugna),  is  a  smaller 
animal  than  either  the  Gua- 
naco or  Paco,  and  more  slen- 
der in  its  proportions.  (See 
Fig.  603.)  Its  limbs  are  thin, 
its  neck  swan-like,  the  fore- 
head is  broad  and  also  pro- 
minent, but  not  abruptly  so, 
as  in  the  Alpaca  ;  the  muzzle 
is  very  narrow,  and  the  head 
short.  The  eyes  are  large,  and 
the  ears  long.  The  height  of 
the  animal  at  the  shoulder  is 
about  two  and  a-half  feet. 

The  wool  of  the  body  is 
extremely  delicate  and  soft, 
varying  from  an  inch  to  three 
inches  in  length  :  on  the 
breast  it  is  of  the  latter  mea- 
surement ;  on  the  head  and 
limbs  it  is  close.  The  colour 
is  pale  yellowish-brown,  pass- 
ing into  white  on  the  under 
parts. 

The  Vicugna  lives  in  herds 
on  the  bleak  and  elevated 
parts  of  the  mountain-range 
bordering  the  region  of  per- 
petual snow,  amidst  rocks 
and  precipices,  where  the 
chase  is  both  toilsome  and 
arduous.  The  Cordilleras  of 
Copiapo,  Coquimbo,  and  Peru 
are  the  principal  seats  of  its 
abode,  but  it  is  also  found  in 
Chili.  Its  manners  very  much 
resemble  those  of  the  Cha- 
mois of  the  European  Alps, 
and  it  is  as  active,  vigilant, 
wild,  and  timid.     Its  wool  is 

highly  valued ;    and  for  this  ^       _ 

alone  thousands  are  annually  "'"'■    ^    '      ^ 

killed,  various  means  being 
employed  in  their  wholesale 
destruction. 

Holding,  as  the  Llamas  do,  especially  the  Alpaca  and  Vicugna, 
so  conspicuous  a  place  among  wool-bearing  animals,  it  is  singular 
that,  after  Europeans  became  acquainted  with  them,  and  with  the 
beautiful  fabrics  manufactured  by  the  native  Peruvians,  three  cen- 
turies should  have  elapsed  before  any  attention  was  paid  in  Europe 
to  the  importation  of  their  produce  as  an  article  of  commerce,  or  any 
attempts  were  instituted  with  regard  to  the  naturalisation  of  the 
animals  in  localities  best  fitted  for  their  multiplication  ;  and  this 
more  especially  as  the  fineness  of  the  wool  had,  from  the  first,  at- 
tracted the  notice  both  of  the  Spaniards  and  other  Europeans. 
That  no  difficulty  existed  in  the  transportation  of  the  Llama  to 
Europe,  and  that  it  would  bear  our  climate  well,  was  abundantly 
proved  by  the  numerous  individuals  which  have  lived  both  in  the 
Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  and  in  other  places,  and  which, 
under  the  inevitable  disadvantages  of  confinement,  and,  perhaps, 
too  luxurious  a  diet,  continued  long  in  health  and  vigour — as  long, 
indeed,  as  animals  indigenous  to  Europe  under  the  same  circum- 
stances. 

At  the  ninth  meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  the  value  of  the  silk-wool  of  these  animals, 
and  the  benefits  which  would  result  from  their  naturalisation  in  our 
country,  formed  an  interesting  topic  of  discussion.     The  subject  was 


227 

'J^lf^^f  ^^  ^'-  7i\  °''"'°"'  ^'^°'  '"  illustration  of  his  views. 
cxh  b  ted  samp  es  of  Alpaca  wools,  and  manufactured  specimens  in 
imitation  of  si  k  (and  without  dye),  as  black  as  jet.  Mr.  Danson 
urged,  that  the  .animals  producing  it  ought  to  be  propagated  in 
uigland,  Ireland  Scotland,  and  Wales;  and  stated,  that  to  the  two 
Kattcr  places  the  Alpaca  is  weH-suitcd,  being  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Cordilleras,  or  mountain  district  in  Peru.  The  late  Fail  of  Derbv 
had  propagated  the  Alp.aca  in  his  private  menagerie  at  Knowslcy. 

In  i860  to  18&3  several  Llamas  were  imported  into  England  •  and 
eventually  sent  to  Australia,  where  they  became  completely  natural- 
ised. Of  recent  years,  however,  little  has  been  heard  of  the  result  of 
this  venture. 

The  Giraffe,  or  CA-i.iiL-LOV\v.T>—CamelopardidcB. 

The  Giraffe  [Cameiopardalis  girafa;  Zarapha,  Zerafct,  and 
Zurafel,  of  the  Arabs  ;  Surnapa,  Zlirnapa,  and  Ziirnepa,  of  the 
lurks)  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  curious  of  animals 
but  It  admirably  illustrates  the  adaptation  of  construction  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  existence.  The  genus  Camclopardalis  stands  in  a 
certain  sense  isolated  among  the  Ruminants,  and  is  the  represcnta- 


Fig.  603. — The  Vicugna. 

five  of  a  family  group,  intermediate,  as  Professor  Owen's  researches 
demonstrate,  between  the  Deer  and  the  Antelopes.  It  has  been 
observed  that  the  characters  of  the  Giraffe  offer  a  mixture  of  several 
genera,  among  which  the  followers  of  the  quinary  system  may  select 
whether  to  class  it,  with  Illiger,  among  the  Camels,  or,  with  other 
naturalists,  among  the  Cervine,  or  Antelopine  animals. 

This  extraordinary  creature,  of  which,  at  one  period,  the  very 
existence  was  almost  doubted,  has  become  now  familiar  to  us  ;  and 
though  we  gaze  with  wonder  upon  its  strange  proportions,  we  no 
longer  regard  it  as  one  of  the  monsters  of  a  land  which  credulity 
pictured  as  tenanted  by  creatures  which  exist  only  in  imagination. 
On  beholding  the  Giraffe,  we  are  at  once  struck  with  the  shortness 
of  its  body,  the  length  of  its  limbs,  the  elevation  of  its  withers,  and 
the  elongation  and  slenderness  of  its  neck,  supporting  a  small  and 
delicately  modelled  head.  Its  movements  are  no  less  strange  than 
its  figure  ;  for,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  body  and  the  length  of 
the  limbs,  the  hind-hoofs  are  brought  at  each  step  as  far  forward  as 
the  spot  the  previous  moment  occupied  by  the  fore-hoofs,  but  some- 
what to  the  outside  of  it,  for  the  hind-limbs  diverge  somewhat  out- 
ward from  the  hock-joint.  The  legs  of  each  side  are  in  action 
nearly  in  unison  together,  those  of  the  right  side  appearing  to  alter- 
nate  with  those  of  the  left,  and  vice  versa. 


228 


THE  GIRAFFE. 


The  Giraffe,  however,  is  not  really  awkward,  and  is  very  far  from 
being  slow  ;  indeed,  the  swiftest  coursers  of  the  desert  are  scarcely 
equal  to  the  chase,  and  among  rugged  and  broken  ground  utterly 
unable  to  take  it. 

When  walking  along,  the  Giraffe  does  not  ordinarily  carry  its 
beautiful  swan-like  neck  upright,  but  obliquely  forwards,  in  a  line 
continued  from  the  spine,  over  the  withers,  to  the  top  of  the  head — 
an  attitude  scarcely  consistent  with  grace  ;  the  animal,  however, 
often  wreaths  it  very  gracefully,  nor  can  anything  produce  a  more 
imposing  effect  than  the  Giraffe  when  its  neck  is  stretched  up  to  the 
full,  while  the  animal  gazes  round  with  its  large  beaming  eyes,  or 
plucks  the  foliage  from  the  branches  of  the  trees,  browsing  beneath 
their  shade. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  state  that  the  Giraffe  is  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  continent  of  Africa.  Its  characters  may  be  detailed 
as  follows  : — The  head  (Fig.  604)  is  small,  and  narrows  to  a  slender 


Fig.  604. — Head  of  Giraffe. 

elongated  muzzle,  entirely  covered  with  hair.  The  nostrils  are 
longitudinal  slits,  capable  of  being  closed  or  opened  at  pleasure ; 
the  upper  lip  is  endowed  with  great  flexibility  and  muscular  power, 
and  projects  beyond  the  lower  ;  it  is  used  as  an  organ  of  prehension 
in  the  acquisition  of  food.  The  tongue  is  an  extraordinary  instru- 
ment, and  requires  special  notice.  It  is  long,  slender,  pointed,  and 
endowed  with  a  surprising  share  of  mobility.  Nor  is  this  all ;  it  is 
capable  of  being  greatly  elongated,  and  in  this  state,  of  being  coiled 


Fig.  605. — Mode  of  procuring  Food. 

round  twigs  or  branches,  and  of  drawing  them  to  the  mouth  (Fig. 
605).  In  this  respect  it  is  analogous  to  the  proboscis  of  the 
.Elephant,  and  is  at  once  a  feeler,  a  grasper,  and  an  organ  of  taste. 
It  is  interesting  to  see  with  what  address  the  Giraffe  uses  this  m- 
strument,  and  how  dexterously  he  applies  it  as  a  hook  or  holder. 
It  is  smooth,  except  when  the  papilla:  are  raised— its  surface  then 
becomes   rough :    its   colour  is   black.     The   eyes   are   full,    dark. 


lustrous,  and  prominent ;  and  the  upper  eyelid  is  furnished  with  a 
fringe  of  long  lashes.  So  prominent  indeed  are  the  eyes,  that  they 
command,  without  the  animal  moving  its  head,  a  survey  of  the 
whole  horizon,  thus  enabling  it  to  see,  without  turning,  what  passes 
on  each  side  and  even  behind  it ;  and,  from  the  elevation  of  the 
head,  to  discern  its  enemies  at  a  great  distance.  Fig.  606  repre- 
sents a  back  view  of  the  Giraffe's 
head,  showing  this  advantageous 
position  of  the  eyes.  The  ears  are 
long,  pointed,  and  movable ;  and 
the  sense  of  hearing  is  very  acute. 
There  are  no  sub-orbital  sinuses. 
Both  sexes  have  horns,  if  they  can 
be  so  termed,  for  they  are  truly 
analogous  to  the  peduncles  of  the 
horns  in  the  Muntjac  Deer,  being, 
in  fact,  processes  of  bone  covered 
with  skin,  having  a  tuft  of  black 
hairs  at  the  top  ;  but  besides  these 
substitutes  for  horns,  a  similar  but 
shorter  process  projects  from  the 
forehead  between  the  eyes,  more 
developed  in  males  than  females, 
and  in  adults  than  in  the  young. 
According  to  Rijppell  and  Cuvier, 
this,  like  the  other  horns,  is  articu- 
lated by  suture  to  the  skull ;  but  Professor  Owen  has  demonstrated 
that  this  frontal  protuberance  is  not  a  true  horn  articulated  by  a 
suture,  but  results  from  a  singular  thickening  of  the  bone  of  the 
forehead.  (See  Fig.  607.)  The  osseous  peduncles,  or  horns,  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  continue  for  a  long  time  united  to  the  frontal 
bone  only  by  means  of  a  suture,  and  are  not  fairly  anchylosed  till 
at  an  advanced  period.  This,  indeed,  is  the  case  with  all  the  bones 
of  the  skull  of  the  Giraffe  :  it  would  appear  that  the  process  of  ossifi- 


Fig.  6o5. — Back  view  of 
Giraffe's  Head, 


Fig.  607. — Skull  of  Giraffe. 

cation  is  carried  on  but  slowly  in  this  part  of  the  frame-work,  and, 
as  it  respects  the  horns,  that  nature  having  completed  the  first  stage 
of  her  intentions,  having,  in  fact,  prepared  the  peduncles,  was 
arrested  in  her  operations,  and  forbidden  to  add  the  antlers. 

The  long  flexible  neck  of  the  Giraffe  is  provided  with  a  short 
mane,  extending  from  the  withers  to  the  top  of  the  head.     The  ele- 


Fig.  60S. — Giraffe  about  to  lie  down. 

vation  of  the  withers  is  remarkable,  and  from  this  part  to  the 
crupper  there  is  a  rapid  descent,  whence  has  arisen  the  idea  that 
the  fore-limbs  are  much  longer  than  the  hinder  pair,  which  is  not 
the  case.     The  fore-knees  are  large  :  and  when  about  to  lie  down. 


THE  GIRAFFE. 


229 


the  animal  sinks  upon  them,  and  assumes  an  attitude  by  no  means 
easy  or  graceful.     (Fig-.  608.) 

The  tail  is  rather  long,  slender,  and  tufted  at  the  extremity  with 
long,  coarse,  black  hairs.  The  skeleton  of  the  Giraffe  is  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  an  anatomist.  At  page  217,  Fig.  585,  a)ite, 
we  have  illustrated  the  skeleton,  and  given  Professor  Owen's 
remarks  thereon.  In  the  following  cut,  the  e.xterior  of  the  animal, 
corresponding  with  the  skeleton,  is  illustrated.     (See  Fig.  609.) 


Fig.  609. ^Skeleton  of  Giraffe. 

In  giving  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  Giraffe,  we  may  com- 
mence by  observing  that  some  naturalists  of  the  present  day  con- 
sider that  there  are  two  distinct  species,  one  peculiar  to  Nubia, 
Abyssinia,  and  the  adjacent  districts  ;  the  other  a  native  of  the 
regions  of  Southern  Africa.     We  regard  them  as  mere  varieties. 

It  is  with  the  North  African  variety  that  the  ancients  were  ac- 
quainted, and  of  which  there  are  several  delineations  preserved  to 
the  present  day.  Among  the  most  remarkable  is  one  on  the  Prze- 
nestine  pavement,  where  two  of  these  animals  are  pictured  :  one  in 
a  straddling  attitude  endeavouring  to  reach  the  ground  with  his 
mouth ;  the  other  in  the  act  of  browsing  on  the  trees.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  this  pavement,  which  was  executed  by  the  direction  of 
Sulla,  is  the  work  of  Egj'ptian  Greeks.  Belzoni  notices  the  Giraffe 
on  the  walls  of  the  Sekos  of  the  Memnonium,  and  on  the  back  of  the 
temple  of  Erments.  A  Giraffe  led  by  Nubians  is  given  in  Rosellini's 
work  on  Egypt. 

It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  word  Zemer,  translated 
Chamois  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  (ch.  xiv.,  ver.  5),  of  which 
animal  the  flesh  was  forbidden,  really  refers  to  the  Giraffe  ;  and 
there  is,  certainly,  some  affinity  between  the  Hebrew  Zemer  and 
the  Arabic  Zurafa,  or  Zurafet,  It  is  a  point,  however,  not  easily 
decided. 

Though  the  Praenestine  pavement  was  made  by  the  orders  of  Sulla 
(born  A. c.  138),  the  animal  itself  was  not  seen  in  Rome  before  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  exhibited  it  at  the  Circensian  games.  It 
is  described  by  Pliny  (book  viii.)  from  a  specimen,  as  is  conjectured. 


which  Varro  mentions  as  having  been  brought  from  Alexandria. 
Afterwards  the  Giraffe  became  not  unfrcquent  among  the  animals 
exhibited  in  the  Roman  games.  (Divcrsum  confusa  genus 
Panthcra  Caviclo,  Horace,  Epist.  ii.  195.)  Oppian,  who  lived  in 
the  2nd  century,  notices  this  animal  in  the  third  book  of  his 
treatise  on  hunting.  Gordian  III.,  Emperor  of  Rome  from  A.D.  239 
to  244,  is  stated  to  have  possessed  ten  of  those  animals.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Roman  empire  we  hear  nothing  of  the  Giraffe  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  The  first  instance,  after  the  darkness  of  the  middle 
ages  had  passed,  of  a  living  Giraffe  in  Europe,  is  that  of  one  pos- 
sessed by  Frederick  II.,  King  of  Germany  (crowned  12 15),  which  he 
received  from  the  Prince  of  Damas,  now  Damascus,  and  which  was 
described  by  Albortus  Magnus  under  the  name  of  Anabula,  with  the 
synonyms  Seraph,  Oraflus,  and  Orasius. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  the  Soldan  of  Egypt  pre- 
sented one  of  these  animals  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany  :  it  was  a  great  favourite  with  the  inhabitants  of  Florence, 
and  was  accustomed  to  walk  about  the  streets,  stretching  its  neck  to 
the  balconies  and  windows  for  fruits  and  other  articles  of  food.  Its 
picture  exists  in  the  frescoes  of  the  Poggio  Acajano,  one  of  the 
duke's  villas  near  Florence. 

From  this  time  no  living  Giraffe  was  seen  in  Europe  for  nearly 
three  centuries  and  a-half;  though  in  that  space  various  descrip- 
tions and  figures  were  published  by  writers  on  natural  history,  mixed 
up  with  abundant  errors.  Gesner,  however,  gives  a  tolerable  account 
and  figure  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  published  in  1551.  Thevet,  in 
his  "  Cosmographia "  (1575),  describes  and  figures  the  Giraffe; 
Bellonius,  in  his  "  Observations,"  1605,  also  figures  it;  Wolfgang, 
in  his  "  Historia  Animalium  Sacra,"  mentions  it.  Topsell,  in  his 
"  History  of  Four-footed  Beasts  "  (1607),  describes  it,  and  gives  two 
figures.  Leo  Africanus  and  Ludolph  both  describe  the  Giraffe,  as 
does  Johnston,  in  his  "Quadrupeds."  We  may  also  mention  Al- 
pinus  ("  Nat.  Hist.  Egypt  ") ;  and  Carteret,  whose  paper,  read  be- 
fore the  Royal  Society,  is  entitled  "  Observations  on  a  Camelopard- 
alis  found  about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope."  (See  "  Phil.  Trans."  Ix., 
p.  27.)  Buffon  describes  and  figures  the  Giraffe;  but  in  his  draw- 
ings, as  in  those  of  all  the  preceding  writers,  the  fore-legs  are  much 
too  long.  In  the  supplement  (Supp.,  vol.  vii.)  the  figure  is  improved, 
but  still  is  not  without  faults.  Vosmaer  published  in  1787,  at  Am- 
sterdam, a  quarto  tract  on  this  animal,  with  tolerable  figures.  It  may 
here  be  noticed,  that  when  the  supplement  to  Buffon's  great  work 
was  published  there  was  an  adult  female  specimen  in  the  museum 
of  Paris,  and  M.  AUemand  of  Amsterdam  had  also  a  young  speci- 
men. 

Le  Vaillant,  when  in  South  Africa,  hunted  the  Giraffe,  and  pro- 
cured some  specimens  ;  his  description  of  the  habits  of  the  animal, 
and  his  narrative  of  the  incidents  of  the  chase,  are  interesting  and 
graphic,  but  perhaps  a  little  over-coloured.  It  is  from  this  time  that 
we  may  date  our  correct  knowledge  of  this  animal,  of  which  several 
skins  found  their  way  from  time  to  time  into  our  island  ;  that  brought 
by  Mr.  Patterson,  and  ultimately  deposited  in  the  old  British 
ISIuseum  (then  Montague  House),  was  the  first. 

The  recent  history,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  of  the  Giraffe,  is  given  in 
the  following  quotation  from  the  "  Guide  to  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society  of  London,"  published  in  1879. 

The  first  living  Giraffe  which  appeared  m  England  was  trans- 
mitted to  his  Majesty  George  IV.,  in  the  year  1827,  by  H.H.  Mo- 
hammed AH,  then'Viceroy  of  Egypt.  It  lived,  however,  for  a  few 
months  only  in  the  menagerie  at  Windsor. 

About  seven  years  afterwards,  the  Council  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety entered  into  an  arrangement  with  M.  Thibaut,  to  obtain  for 
them  four  individuals  of  this  species  from  Kordofan  ;  his  account  of 
their  capture  is  as  follows  :  it  was  written  at  Malta,  where  the 
Giraffes  wintered,  on  the  8th  of  January,  1S36  : — 

"  Instructed  by  Colonel  Caiflpbell,  his  Majesty's  Consul-General 
in  the  Levant,  and  desirous  of  rendering  available,  for  the  purposes 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  the  knowledge  which  I  had  acquired  by 
twelve  years'  experience  in  travelling  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  I 
quitted  Cairo  on  the  15th  of  April,  1834.  After  sailing  up  the  Nile 
as  far  as  Wadi  Haifa  (the  second  cataract),  I  took  Camels,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Debbat,  a  province  of  Dongolah  ;  whence,  on  the  14th  of 
July,  I  started  for  the  desert  of  Kordofan. 

"Being  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  locality,  and  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Arabs  of  the  country,  I  attached  them  to  rne  still 
more  by  the  desire  of  profit.  All  were  desirous  of  accompanying  me 
in  my  pursuit  of  the  Giraffes,  which,  up  to  that  time,  they  had  hunted 
solely  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh,  which  they  eat,  and  of  the  skin,  from 
which  they  make  bucklers  and  sandals.  I  availed  myself  of  the 
emulation  which  prevailed  among  the  Arabs  ;  and,  as  the  season 
was  far  advanced  and  favourable,  I  proceeded  immediately  to  the 
south-west  of  Kerdofan.  ,~-    a- 

"  It  was  on  the  15th  of  August  that  I  saw  the  first  two  Giraffes. 
A  rapid  chase,  on  Horses  accustomed  to  the  fatigues  of  the  desert, 
put  us  in  possession,  at  the  end  of  three  hours,  of  the  largest  of  the 
two  :  the  mother  of  one  of  those  now  in  my  charge.  Unable  to  take 
her  alive,  the  Arabs  killed  her  with  blows  of  the  sabre,  and,  cutting 
her  to  pieces,  carried  the  meat  to  the  head-quarters  which  we  had 


230 


THE  GIRAFFE. 


established  in  a  wooded  situation  ;  an  arrangement  necessary  for 
our  own  comfort,  and  to  secure  pasturage  for  the  Camels  of  both 
sexes,  which  we  had  brought  with  us  in  aid  of  the  object  of  our  chase. 
We  deferred  until  the  morrow  the  pursuit  of  the  young  Giraffe,  which 
my  companions  assured  me  they  would  have  no  difficulty  in  again 
discovering.  The  Arabs  are  very  fond  of  the  flesh  of  this  animal. 
I  partook  of  their  repast.  The  live  embers  were  quickly  covered 
with  slices  of  the  meat,  which  I  found  to  be  excellent  eating 

"  On  the  following  day,  the  i6th  of  August,  the  Arabs  started  at 
daybreak  in  search  of  the  young  one,  of  which  we  had  lost  sight  not 


Fig.  6io.— Group  of  Giraffes. 

far  from  our  camp.  The  sandy  nature  of  the  soil  of  the  desert  is  well 
adapted  to  afford  indications  to  a  hunter  ;  and  in  a  very  short  time 
we  were  on  the  track  of  the  animal  which  was  the  object  of  our  pur- 
suit. We  followed  the  traces  with  rapidity  and  in  silence,  cautious 
to  avoid  alarming  the  creature  while  it  was  yet  at  a  distance  from 
us.  Unwearied  myself,  and  anxious  to  act  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Arabs,  I  followed  them  impatiently,  and  at  nine  o'clock  in  the 
morning  I  had  the  happiness  to  find  myself  in  possession  of  the 
Giraffe.    A  premium  was  given  to  the  hunter  whose  Horse  had  first 


come  up  with  the  animal ;  and  this  reward  is  the  more  merited,  as  the 
laborious  chase  is  pursued  in  the  midst  of  brambles  and  of  thorny 
trees. 

"  Possessed  of  this  Giraffe,  it  was  necessary  to  rest  for  three  or 
four  days,  in  order  to  render  it  sufficiently  tame.  During  this  period 
an  Arab  constantly  holds  it  at  the  end  of  a  long  cord.  By  degrees 
it  becomes  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  man,  and  takes  a  little 
nourishment.  To  furnish  milk  for  it  I  had  brought  with  me  female 
Camels.  _  It  became  gradually  reconciled  to  its  condition,  and  was 
soon  willing  to  follow,  in  short  stages,  the  route  of  our  caravan. 

"  The  first  run  of  the  Giraffe  is 
exceedingly  rapid.  The  swiftest 
Horse,  if  unaccustomed  to  the 
desert,  could  not  come  up  with  it 
unless  with  extreme  difficulty.  The 
Arabs  accustom  their  coursers  to 
hunger  and  to  fatigue ;  milk  gene- 
rally serves  them  for  food,  and 
gives  them  power  to  continue  their  . 
exertions  during  a  very  long  run. 
If  the  Giraffe  reaches  a  moun- 
tain, it  passes  the  heights  with 
rapidity ;  its  feet,  which  are  like 
those  of  a  Goat,  endow  it  with  the 
dexterity  of  that  animal ;  it  bounds 
over  ravines  with  incredible  power ; 
Horses  cannot,  in  such  situations, 
compete  with  it. 

"  I  was  so  fortunate  as  to  collect 
five  individuals  at  Kordofan  ;  but 
the  cold  weather  of  December, 
1834,  killed  four  of  them  in  the 
desert  on  the  route  to  Dongolah, 
my  point  of  departure  for  Bebbah. 
Only  one  was  preserved  ;  this  was 
the  first  specimen  that  I  obtained, 
and  the  one  of  which  I  have 
already  spoken.  After  twenty-two 
days  in  the  desert,  I  reached  Don- 
golah on  the  6th  of  January,  1835. 
"Unwilling  to  return  to  Cairo 
without  being  really  useful  to  the 
Society,  and  being  actually  at 
Dongolah,  I  determined  on  re- 
suming the  pursuit  of  Giraffes.  I 
remained  for  three  months  in  the 
desert,  crossing  it  in  all  directions. 
Arabs,  in  whom  I  could  confide, 
accompanied  me,  and  our  course 
was  through  districts  destitute  of 
everything.  We  had  to  dread  the 
Arabs  of  Darfour,  of  which  country 
I  saw  the  first  mountain.  We 
were  successful  in  our  researches. 
I  obtained  three  Giraffes,  smaller 
than  the  one  I  already  possessed. 
Experience  suggested  to  me  the 
means  of  preserving  them. 

"Another  trial  was  reserved  for 
me  ;  that  of  transporting  the  ani- 
mals, by  barque,  from  Wadi  Haifa 
to  Cairo,  Alexandria,  and  Malta. 
Providence  has  enabled  me  to  sur- 
mount all  difficulties.  The  most 
that  they  suffered  was  at  sea,  dur- 
ing their  passage,  which  lasted 
twenty-four  days,  with  the  weather 
very  tempestuous. 

"  I  arrived  at  Malta  on  the  21st 
of  November.  We  were  there  de- 
tained in  quarantine  for  twenty- 
five  days  ;  after  which,  through  the 
kind  care  of  Mr.  Bourchier,  these 
valuable  animals  were  placed  in  a 
good  situation,  where  nothing  is 
wanting  for  their  comfort.  With 
the  view  of  preparing  them  for 
the  temperature  of  the  country  to 
which  they  will  eventually  be  removed,  I  have  not  thought  it  advis- 
able that  they  should  be  clothed.  During  the  last  week  the  cold  has 
been  much  greater  than  they  have  hitherto  experienced  ;  but  they 
have,  thanks  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Bourchier,  everything  that  can 
be  desired." 

The  Giraffes  brought  over  by  M.  Thibaut  succeeded  in  the  most 
remarkable  manner,  and  the  female  gave  birth  to  no  less  than  seven 
fawns  before  her  death  in  October,  1852.  In  the  autumn  of  1866  an 
unfortunate  fire  occurred  in  this  house,  resulting  in  the  death  of  two 


MUSK-DEER. 


231 


of  the  animals.  Shortly  afterwards  the  old  male  died,  being  rather 
more  than  twenty  years  old.  The  Society's  stock  thus  became  re- 
duced to  a  female  (born  in  1853),  and  a  male  (born  March  17th, 
1867),  to  which  a  pair  was  added  by  purchase.  The  present  series 
(1879)  consists  of  two  males  and  three  females. 

The  preceding  cut  illustrates  the  Giraffe  in  the  various  attitudes, 
&c.,  already  mentioned.     (See  Fig.  610.) 

In  its  native  wilds,  man  e.xxepted,  the  Lion  is  the  only  enemy  to 
be  feared  by  the  Giraffe  ;  and  from  various  sources  we  learn  that  the 
Lion  often  surprises  the  latter  when  he  comes  to  drink  at  the  pools 
or  fountains,  and  springs  from  his  ambush  upon  the  tall  and  power- 
ful beast,  which,  mad  with  terror  and  pain,  rushes  over  the  desert, 
bearing th  '"great  destroyer,"  till,  strength  failing,  he  reels,  sinks, 
and  expires. 

According  to  M.  Thibaut,  the  Arabs  of  Nubia  are  very  fond  of  the 
flesh  of  the  Giraffe;  and  he  himself,  partaking  of  the  repast  (viz., 
broiled  slices),  found  it  to  be  excellent.  In  South  Africa  its  flesh  is 
equally  acceptable. 

The  height  of  the  male  Giraffe,  to  the  top  of  the  head,  is  from 
fifteen  to  sixteen  feet  ;  of  the  female,  from  thirteen  to  fourteen.  The 
general  colour  is  fawn-white,  marked  regularly  with  large  angular 
spots  of  chocolate-brown,  compacted  rather  closely  together  ;  the 
throat  and  legs  are  white  ;  the  tuft  at  the  end  of  the  tail  black  ;  the 
hair  is  close  and  glossy.  The  South  African  variety  is  generally 
darker  than  the  Nubian. 

In  a  state  of  confinement  the  Giraffe  eats  hay,  carrots,  and 
onions,  to  the  latter  of  which  it  is  very  partial.  We  have  never 
heard  these  animals  utter  any  noiso  or  cry,  nor  do  travellers  make 
any  mention  of  their  voice.  The  Giraffe  shot  by  Colonel  Gordon,  to 
which  w'e  have  already  alluded,  when  so  wounded  as  to  be  incapable 
of  rising  from  the  ground,  exhibited  no  signs  of  anger  or  resentment, 
nor  is  it  stated  to  have  made  any  moan.  Hence  we  conclude  that 
the  Giraffe  is  mute.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  sixteen  months. 

The  Moschid.'e,  or  Musk-Deer. 

Linnaeus  gave  the  title  Aloschus  to  a  group  of  Ruminants,  from 
the  circumstance  of  one  of  the  species  producing  that  well-known 
substance  called  musk,  the  secretion  of  a  peculiar  glandular  pouch 
in  the  abdomen  of  the  male,  for  the  sake  of  which  the  animal  is 
eagerly  hunted  in  the  regions  it  frequents — namely,  the  high  moun- 
tain-ranges in  China,  Thibet, .Tonquin,  Pegu,  Southern  Tartary,  and 
in  some  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Musk- 
Deer,  however,  is  the  only  known  species  of  this  group  in  which 
this  secretion  is  produced.  The  JSIoschidce  closely  resemble  the 
Deer  in  general  form  and  appearance  ;  but  they  resemble  them  in 
miniature ;  for,  with  the  exception  of  the  true  Musk  {fit.  moschife- 


Fig.  611. — Dentition  of  the  Musk-Deer, 


rus),  which  equals  a  Roebuck  in  size  and  stature,  the  rest  are  ex- 
tremely small,  some  not  exceeding  a  Hare  in  magnitude.  They  are 
extremely  beautiful :  the  eyes  are  large,  dark,  and  beaming  with  a 
mild  and  animated  expression  ;  the  head  is  small,  and  tapers  to  a 
slender  muzzle  ;  the  ears  are  moderate  and  open  ;  the  haunch  ele- 
vated and  round  ;  and  the  limbs  delicately  slender  and  tapering  to 
narrow-pointed  hoofs.  The  family  characters  consist  in  the  absence 
of  horns,  and  also  of  sub-orbital  sinuses  (pits  beneath  the  inner  angle 
of  the  eye),  so  conspicuous  in  many  of  the  Deer  and  Antelopes. 
The  muzzle  is  naked.  There  are  long  canines  in  the  upper  jaw  of 
the  males,  projecting  downwards,  and  coming  out  from  between  the 
lips.  These  canines  are  compressed,  pointed,  arched  backwards, 
and  have  a  sharp  posterior  cutting  edge.  In  the  true  Musk-Deer 
they  are  at  least  three  inches  in  length.  The  crowns  of  the  molars 
are  acutely  tuberculated.  Fig.  611,  A,  represents  the  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw  in  two  views  :  B,  those  of  the  lower ;  and  C,  a  lateral 
view  of  teeth  of  both  jaws  together.  Besides  the  two  toes  united  to 
a  single  canon-bone,  as  usual,  there  are  two  accessory  toes  011  each 
foot,  each  of  which  has  its  own  slender  metatarsal  or  mctarcarpal 


Fig.  612. — Skeleton  of  Musk-Deer. 


Fig.  613. — Skeleton  of  Meminna. 

bone.  Fig.  612  shows  the  skeleton  of  the  Moschus  moschifcrus,  and 
Fig.  613,  the  skeleton  of  the  Meminna,  which  are  excellent  illustra- 
tions of  their  osteqlogy.  There  are  no  horns  or  antlers,  nor  even 
their  rudiments. 

Mr.  Gray  divides  the  Mosc/u'dcs  into  three  genera — viz.,  Moschus, 
Menii7i7ia,  and  Traguius.  The  latter  title,  however,  is  applied  by 
Mr.  Ogilby  to  a  species  of  Antelope  {A.  -pigtHcsa).  Most  authors, 
moreover,  adopt  the  Linna;an  genus  Moschus ;  and  we  shall,  in  this 
instance,  follow  their  example.  Setting  aside  the  true  Musk,  the 
other  members  of  the  genus  are  termed  Chevrotains,  and,  till  very 
recently,  were  supposed  to  be  respectively  restricted  to  Java, 
Sumatra,  Ceylon,  and  perhaps  other  adjacent  islands :  recently, 
however,  to  the  surprise  of  naturalists,  a  species  has  been  discovered 
in  Sierra  Leone,  to  which,  from  its  aquatic  habits,  Mr.  Ogilby  has 
given  the  title  of  Moschus  aqicaticus. 

The    Musk-Deer  {Moschus  moschifcrus):—JhQ   Musk-Deer, 


232 


MUSK-DEER. 


unlike  its  relatives  which  tenant  the  forests  of  Ceylon  and  Java,  &c., 
inhabits  the  great  mountain-rang-e  ^s•hich  belts  the  north  of  India, 
and  branches  out  into  Siberia,  Thibet,  and  China,  through  a  vast 
extent  of  which  it  ranges,  preferring  the  bold  precipitous  crags  and 
wild  rocks,  on  the  borders  of  the  line  of  snow,  to  the  valleys  or  the 
lower  elevations.  It  is  common  in  Nepal,  Boutan,  Thibet,  and  the 
adjacent  districts  of  China.  It  also  abounds  in  the  Altaic  range 
near  Lake  Baikal,  where  it  was  obser\'ed  by  Tallas  on  the  moun- 


Fig.  614.— Musk-Dcer. 

tains  of  Kouznetzk,  near  the  Lake  Telet  Koi.  The  texture  and 
thickness  of  the  fur  of  the  Musk-Deer  sufBciently  demonstrate  the 
animal  to  be  the  native  of  a  cold  and  elevated  region.  The  fur  is 
not  only  full  and  long,  but  presents  that  peculiar  harsh  or  rigid  and 
inelastic  texture  which  we  observe  in  the  Chamois,  or  rather  in  the 
Klip-springer  of  the  mountains  of  South  Africa.  Instead  of  lying 
flat  on  the  skin,  it  grows  erect,  and  is  so  closely  set  as  to  form  a 
dense  substantial  covering.  (See  Fig.  614.)  Common  as  is  the 
Musk-Deer  in  the  great  Al- 
pine ranges  of  Asia,  never- 
theless it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  known  to  the  anci- 
ents, a  circumstance  doubt- 
less to  be  attributed  to  the 
almost  inaccessible  nature  ot 
the  regions  it  frequents. 
Neither  Aristotle  nor  Pliny 
mentions  either  the  animal 
or  its  celebrated  produce.  It 
is  from  the  male  only  that  the 
drug  and  perfume  termed 
musk  is  procured ;  it  is  the 
unctuous  secretion  of  a  cer- 
tain glandular  pouch,  and 
when  dry  it  becomes  dark 
brown  or  black,  and  some- 
what granular.  Its  peculiar 
odour  is  well  known.  For- 
merly it  was  in  high  repute 
for  its  medicinal  qualities,  and 
still  holds  a  place  as  an  anti- 
spasmodic m  the  Materia 
Medica.  It  was  first,  as  we 
learn,  introduced  into  the 
practice  of  medicine  among 
the  Arabians,  by  whose  wri- 
ters the  animal  producing  it 
is  first  distinctly  mentioned ; 
having,  as  Daubenton  states, 
been  described  by  Serapion, 
in  the  eighth  century  :  but  we 
know  not  the  time  when  this 
article  first  found  its  way  to 
Europe  ;  probably  after  the 
early  Crusades.  In  Boutan, 
Tonquin,  Thibet,  &c.,  it  ap- 
pears, from  time  immemorial, 
to  have  been  used  as  a  medi- 
cine and  perfume ;  and  to 
have  formed  an  article  of 
trade  amongst  the  inhabitants 
of  those  countries.  Abusseid 
Serafi    describes  the    Musk- 


Deer  as  an  animal  resembling  the  Roe,  but  erroneously  assigns  to  it 
horns,  in  which  error  he  is  followed  by  Aldrovandus.  Among  other 
Arabian  writers  who  notice  this  animal  is  Avicenna,  who  refers  to 
its  musk-pouch  and  large  bent  canines.  Kircher  ("La  Chine 
lUustrfie,"  Transl.  Franc;.,  1610)  gives  an  account  of  the  Musk-Deer 
which  is  found  in  the  provinces  of  Xensi  and  Chiamsi :  he  quotes 
several  details  respecting  it  from  the  Chinese  Atlas,  whence  we 
learn  that  the  Chinese  term  it  Xe,  which  means  odour ;  that  its 
flesh  is  accounted  delicate  ;  and  that  it  abounds  in  the  provinces  of 
Suchuen  and  Junnan.  In  some  districts  the  Musk-Deer  is  very 
common,  and  multitudes  are  slaughtered  for  the  sake  of  their  costly 
perfume  ;  which,  however,  is  always  greatly  adulterated.  To  the 
practice  of  adulterating  it  the  celebrated  merchant-traveller  Taver- 
nier  alludes,  adding  that  the  odour  of  the  substance  when  recent  is 
so  powerful  as  to  cause  the  blood  to  gush  from  the  nose.  Chardin 
says,  "  It  is  commonly  believed  that  when  the  musk-sac  is  cut  from 
the  animal,  so  powerful  is  the  odour  it  exhales,  that  the  hunter  is 
obliged  to  have  the  mouth  and  nose  stopped  with  folds  of  linen  ;  and 
that  often,  in  spite  of  this  precaution,  the  pungency  of  the  odour  is 
such  as  to  produce  so  violent  an  haemorrhage  as  to  end  in  death.  I 
have,"  he  adds,  "  gained  accurate  information  respecting  this  cir- 
cumstance ;  and  as  I  have  heard  the  same  thing  talked  of  by  some 
Armenians  who  had  been  to  Boutan,  I  think  that  it  is  true.  The 
odour  is  so  powerful  in  the  East  Indies,  that  I  could  never  support 
it ;  and,  when  I  trafficked  for  musk,  I  always  kept  in  the  open  air, 
with  a  handkerchief  over  my  face,  and  at  a  distance  from  those  who 
handled  the  sacs,  referring  them  to  my  broker  ;  and  hence  I  knew, 
by  experience,  that  this  musk  is  very  apt  to  give  headaches,  and  is 
altogether  insupportable  when  quite  recent.  I  add,  that  no  drug  is 
so  easily  adulterated,  or  more  apt  to  be  so." 

These  accounts  must  be  taken  with  some  allowance.  Certain  it 
is  that,  when  procured  in  Europe  in  the  ordinary  way  of  commerce, 
it  produces  no  such  violent  effects.  It  must  be  confessed,  however, 
that  before  arriving  in  Europe,  not  only  much  of  its  strength  is  lost, 
but  it  has  undergone  several  adulterations. 

Tavernier  states  that  the  Musk-Deer  is  very  numerous  in  the 
sixtieth  degree,  north  latitude,  among  the  wooded  mountains, 
whence,  in  February  and  March,  when  the  snows  have  deeply 
covered  the  earth,  hunger  drives  them  southward  into  the  lower 
lands,  to  the  forty-fourth  or  forty-fifth  degree,  in  search  of  herbage. 
At  this  season  the  peasants  wait  for  them  on  their  passages,  and 
catch  them  in  snares,  or  kill  them  with  clubs  and  arrows.     At  Pat- 


Fig.  615. — Musk-Deer;  Male  and  Female. 


'^>\  mr,ii 


CO 
1=3 


C3 
C3 


cj 


MUSK-DEER. 


ni 


ana  he  bought,  on  one  occasion,  1,673  rnusk-bags,  weighing  2,557^ 
ounces  ;  and  of  pure  musk,  452  ounces. 

In  size,  the  Musk-Dcer  is  about  equal  to  our  European  Roebuck, 
standing  two  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulders  ;  the  forehead  is 
arched,  the  eyes  large,  the  ears  rather  ample,  and  very  movable; 
the  tail  is  a  mere  rudiment,  concealed  by  the  long,  harsh,  and 
almost  spine-like  hair  with  which  the  animal  is  almost  universally 
covered.  The  general  contour  is  compact,  and  displays  great 
vigour,  the  limbs  being  robust,  and  well  adapted  for  climbing  and 
leaping  among  the  rocks  of  the  mountain  ranges.     The  hoofs  are 


since  the  former  animals  are  shy  and  timid  in  the  extreme  while 
m  a  state  of  natural  freedom,  but  soon  gain  confidence,  and  fre- 
quently breed  in  captivity  in  our  uncongenial  climate. 

The  Mkminna  {Moscluts  Mct)ii)nia).—'\\\\%  elegant  little  species 
IS  a  native  of  Ceylon  and  Java,  and  is  also  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  dense  woods  of  the  Western  Ghauts  ^but  never  on 


Fig.  616. — The  Meminna. 

strong,  broad,  and  expanded  ;  and  the  posterior  rudimentary  hoofs 
are  so  developed  as  to  touch  with  their  points  the  surface  on 
which  the  animal  treads,  so  as  to  add  to  the  security  of  its  footing. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Musk-Deer  is  brown,  washed  with  grey 
and  pale  yellow,  each  hair  being  tipped  and  ferruginous;  obscure 
grey  or  whitish  marks  often  occur  on  the  sides,  especially  in  imma- 
ture individuals;  the  shoulders  and  limbs  are  of  a  deeper  tint  than 
the  body.  The  female  is  less  than  the  male,  and  is  destitute  of 
tusks,  or  long  canine  teeth,  and 
of  a  musk-sac.  The  teats  are  two 
in  number.  In  its  manners  the 
Musk-Deer  resembles  the  Cha- 
mois :  its  favourite  haunts  are  the 
pine-forests  on  the  mountains, 
and  its  agility  is  very  great,  en- 
abling it  to  spring  from  rock  to 
rock  with  great  ease  and  address. 
It  is  extremely  wild  and  shy  ;  and 
is  said  to  be  cautious  and  watch- 
ful against  surprise,  taking  refuge, 
when  pursued,  among  the  crags 
and  precipices  of  the  more  elevated 
peaks  of  the  ranges  it  tenants ; 
yet,  in  despite  of  all  its  vigour 
and  shyness,  it  falls  a  sacrifice  to 
the  energy  and  the  contrivances 
of  man. 

In  1772,  a  male  of  this  species 
was  living  in  the  park  of  Mons. 
de  la  VriUiere,  at  Versailles,  in 
France;  and  Daubenton,  who 
published  a  description  of  it,  in- 
forms us  that  the  odour  it  exhaled, 
and  which  was  carried  with  the 
wind,  was  quite  sufficient  to  guide 
to  the  spot  where  the  animal  was 
kept  enclosed.  "  When  I  first  saw 
it,"  he  adds,  "I  recognised  much 
resemblance  in  its  figure  and  atti- 
tude to  those  of  the  Roe,  the  Ga- 
zelle, and  the  Chcvrotain.  No 
animal  of  this  (the  Deer)  tribe  has 
more  activity,  suppleness,  and 
vivacity  in  its  movements."  It 
was  extremely  timid  and  wild  ; 
but  like  all  the  species  of  the 
peculiar  group  to  which  it  belongs, 
it  is  gentle  and  inoffensive.  The 
Chevrotains,  as  we  well  know, 
may  be  rendered  very  tame  :  and 
it  is  probable,  that  if  the  Musk- 
Deer  were  taken  while  young,  it 
might    be     easily    domesticated, 


Fig.  617.— N.ipu. 

the  plains),  where  it  was  seen  by  Colonel  Sykcs,  who  observes,  that 
it  readily  reconciles  itself  to  confinement :  the  flesh  is  excellent  eat- 
ing. In  size  it  exceeds  a  large  Hare,  being  about  i  foot  5  inches 
long,  and  8  inches  high.  Its  colour  is  olive-grey,  spotted  and 
streaked  on  the  sides  and  .haunches  with  white  ;  tlie  ears  are  large 
and  open  ;  the  tail  is  very  short.  Fig.  6i6  represents  this  animal ; 
its  skeleton  has  been  illustrated  in  Fig.  613,  ante. 

The  Napu  i^Moschus  javanims).—T\vi  species  constituting  the 
little  section  of  which  the  Napu  is  a  representative,  are  character- 
ised by  having  the  hinder  edge  of  the  metatarsus  bald  and  slightly 
callous  :  the  throat  is  provided  with  a  somewhat  naked  concave'sub- 
glandular  callous  disc,  from  which  a  band  extends  to  the  fore-part 
of  the  chin  ;  and  most  of  them  have  three  diverging  bands  of  white 
on  the  chest.  The  animals  of  this  group  are  distinguished  by  their 
beauty  and  diminutive  size,  the  largest  not  equalling  a  Hare.  Their 
limbs  are  very  slender  and  delicate;  their  hoofs  are  long  and 
narrow;  the  muzzle  is  acute;  the  eyes  large  and  dark;  the  ears 
pointed.     (See  Fig.  617.) 


Fig;.  61S.— K.nndiil. 


234 


MUSK-DEER. 


The  species  are  enveloped  in  some  degree  of  confusion  ;  indeed, 
they  resemble  each  other  so  closely,  that  it  requires  some  attention 
to  discriminate  between  them.  Mr.  Bennett,  who  investig^ated  these 
animals  with  the  greatest  care,  considered  that  three  species  wore 
definable — vxz.,  the  Napu,  the  Kanchil,  and  the  Pelandok ;  the  two 
former  of  which  are  described  by  Sir  T.  S.  Raffles,  in  the  "  Linn. 
Trans."  vol.  xiii.  Mr.  Gray  considers  the  Pelandok  to  be  in  all 
probability  identical  with  a  species  described  by  him  under  the 
specific  title  of  Rufiventer,  and  adds  another  species  to  the  group 
under  the  designation  of  S/aitleyanus. 

The  Napu  is  a  native  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  and  is  the  largest  of 
this  section  ;  its  colour  is  ferruginous  brown  above  and  white  be- 
neath, the  chest  having  two  longitudinal  dusky  stripes,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  central  and  two  diverging  lateral  lines  of  white,  below  which 
passes  a  transverse  band  of  pale  yellowish  fawn.  The  muzzle,  which 
is  naked,  is  black,  with  a  tinge  of  flesh-colour,  as  are  the  ears,  which 
are  also  nearly  naked.  The  tail  is  rather  short,  and  white  at  the 
tip.  In  its  native  regions  the  Napu  gives  preference  to  thickets  and 
districts  overgrown  with  brushwood,  near  the  sea-shore,  and  feeds 
principally  on  the  berries  of  a  species  of  Ardisia.  It  is  said  to  be 
inferior  to  the  Kanchil  in  speed,  activity,  and  cunning,  and  is,  there- 
fore, more  exposed  to  danger  from  the  assaults  of  wild  beasts,  which 
abound  in  the  forest ;  and  hence  it  prefers  to  lurk  in  coverts  nearer 
the  vicinity  of  man,  from  whose  observation  it  can  more  easily  con- 
ceal itself  than  from  the  watchful  eyes  of  the  Feline  race. 

In  its  manners  the  Napu  is  mild  and  gentle,  and  soon  becomes  re- 
conciled to  captivity  :  it  bears  our  climate  well,  with  care.  Though 
destitute  of  marked  intelligence,  its  graceful  form,  agreeable  colour- 
ing, and  full  dark  eyes  render  it  an  interesting  object. 

The  KLiNXHlL  [Tragitlus,  or  Moschus  Kanchil,  Raffles).— The 
Kanchil  is  lighter  in  form  and  more  spirited  than  the  Napu,  and 
considerably  smaller.  Independent  of  the  difference  in  size,  it  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  darker  colour,  by  a  broad  stripe  of  dark 
chestnut  verging  upon  black,  which  runs  down  the  back  of  the  neck, 
and  by  the  width  of  the  band  across  its  chest.     fSee  Fig.  6i8.)    Of 


all  the  Chevrotains  this  is  the  most  active  and  elegant ;  indeed,  its 
address  and  resolution  are  the  common  theme  of  discourse  in  Java, 
its  native  country  ;  and  the  most  extraordinary  instances  are  related 
of  its  cunning.  Unlike  the  Napu,  it  resides  in  the  depths  of  the 
mighty  forests  which  cover  so  large  a  portion  of  the  island,  feeding 
chiefly  on  the  fruit  of  the  Kayo-briang^6^wc//«<7  villosa):  and  though 
it  will  live  in  confinement,  it  endures  captivity  with  great  impatience 
and  restlessness,  availing  itself  of  the  first  opportunity  of  escape  that 
offers,  when  it  bounds  away  for  the  forest,  the  deep  recesses  of  which 
afford  it  a  welcome  refuge.  Such  are  its  cunning  and  alertness,  and 
so  prompt  is  it  with  expedients  when  pressed  by  danger,  that,  as  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles  informs  us,  "  it  is  a  common  Malay  proverb,  to 
designate  a  great  rogue  to  be  as  cunning  as  a  Kanchil  ;  "  and  he 
adds,  of  this  cunning  many  instances  are  related  by  the  natives. 
"  If  taken  in  a  noose  laid  for  it,  the  Kanchil,  when  the  hunter 
arrives,  will  stretch  itself  out  motionless,  and  feign  to  be  dead  ;  and 
if,  deceived  by  this  manoeuvre,  he  disengage  the  animal,  it  seizes 
the  moment  to  start  on  its  legs,  and  disappears  in  an  instant.  A 
still  more  singular  expedient  is  mentioned — viz.,  that  when  closely 
pursued  by  Dogs,  the  Kanchil  will  sometimes  make  a  bound  up- 
wards, hook  itself  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  by  means  of  its  bent  tusks, 
and  there  remain  suspended  till  the  Dogs  have  passed  beneath." 
In  vigilance,  activity,  and  cunning,  if  these  statements  be  but  par- 
tially true,  the  Kanchil  surpasses  the  rest  of  the  group  ;  none  indeed, 
excepting  this,  have  gained  a  reputation  for  these  qualities,  though 
all  are  light-limbed,  free,  and  vigorous. 

The  African  Musk-Deer  [Moschus  aqiiaticus')  very  much  re- 
sembles the  Meminna,  but  is  larger,  being  about  midway  in  size 
between  that  species  and  the  Mosc/ius  moschifcrus.  Its  general 
colour  is  a  deep  rich  brown,  with  white  spots  and  markings,  nearly 
similar  to  those  of  the  Meminna,  but  with  the  throat-marks  as  in  the 
Napu  and  Kanchil.  This  interesting  species  is  a  native  of  Sierra 
Leone,  where  it  lives  on  the  borders  of  rivers,  and  takes  freely  to  the 
water.  In  the  British  Museum  may  be  seen  stuffed  specimens  of 
the  Musk-Deer  family,  placed  among  the  Ruminantia. 


THE  DEER  FAMILY. 


235 


CHAPTER     XVII. 

MAMMALIA.-ORDER,  RUMINANTIA-FAMILY,  CERVID/E;    INCLUDING  STAGS,  Etc. 


^^ 


H 


^i-3 


U 


^         "S<^^" 


'J^ 


"-^L^l^^y. 


n^ 


NCLUDED  among  the  Ricniinantia  is  the 

family  of  Ccrvidcs,  or  Stags,  &c.,  which  in 

some  countries  are  as  much  a  necessary  of 

"  civilisation  as  the  Ox  and  Sheep  are  witli  us. 

The  species  are  very  numerous,  and  distributed 

in  most  parts  of  the  world.     The   Rein- Deer, 

f|       one  of  tliis  family,  is  of  the  utmost  importance 

;         to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  where 

it  supplies  food,   conveyance,   dress,   and  many 

other    necessities    to    the    inhabitants   of    that 

|S\'      region. 

To  the  almost  universality  of  their  distribution 
there  are,  however,  certain  exceptions  ;  none  are 
found  in  Australia,  and  none  in  the  southern  and 
central  regions  of  Africa,  their  place  in  the  latter 
regions  being  supplied  by  the  Giraffe  and  hosts 
of  Antelopes.     Hills  of  moderate   elevation,  wide 
plains  and  forests,  are  the  localities  to  which  these 
fleet-limbed  creatures  give  preference  ;  none  tenant 
the  peaked  ridges  of  the  mountain-top,  where  the 
Chamois  and   IVIusk-Deer  find   a   congenial   abode. 
They  delight  in  a  wide  range  of  country,  and  trust 
;  ( \         to   their  swiftness   of  flight  for  safety.     Most   herd 
i^C         together  in  troops ;  some  few  live  singly.     It  may  be 
j  observed  that,  in  general,  their  body  is  round  and 

stout  ;  their  limbs  long,  sinewy,  and  powerful  ;  their 
neck  long,  and  very  muscular ;  their  head  small,  and  carried 
high  ;  their  eyes  large  and  full ;  their  ears  ample. 
Many  species  have  sub-orbital  sinuses  (or  lachrymal  sinu- 
.  ses),  but  not  all.  With  respect  to  these  sinuses,  or  fissures 
'  below  the  eyes,  in  so  many  both  of  the  Deer  and  the  Ante- 
lopes, we  may  here  remark  that  their  use  is  not  understood  : 
they  have  nothing  to  do  with  respiration,  being  mere  follicles  or 
pits  in  the  skin,  having  no  communication  with  the  interior  of  the 
nasal  passages.  They  secrete  a  peculiar  unctuous  fluid,  exuding 
more  abundantly  at  certain  seasons  than  at  others,  when  their 
edges  become  very  tumid,  and  are  incapable  of  being  closed 
together  as  at  other  times.  The  animals  often  apply  them  to  objects 
near  them,  widely  opening  them  at  the  same  moment,  which  they 
do  also  when  irritated  or  under  excitement.  In  several  species 
they  are  greatly  developed,  and  no  doubt  serve  some  important 
purpose  in  the  animal  economy.  In  most  species,  the  muzzle,  which 
is  small,  is  flat  and  naked  ;  in  some,  as  the  Elk  and  Rein-Deer,  it 
is  large  and  hairy,  and  the  upper  lip  is  prehensile.  The  females 
have  four  teats. 

Throughout  all  the  species  the  males  are  furnished  with  antlers, 
commonly  called  horns,  which  are  lost  and  renewed  yearly,  increas- 
ing in  the  size,  and  the  number  of  their  branches,  at  each  renewal 
until  a  certain  period.  They  are  seated  upon  an  osseous  peduncle, 
or  footstalk,  rising  from  each  frontal  bone,  at  its  central  point  of 
ssification :  these  peduncles  are  enveloped  in  skin.  It  is'  not  till 
the  spring,  or  beginning  of  the  second  year,  that  the  first  pair  of 
horns  begm  to  make  their  appearance.     At  this  epoch  a  new  pro- 


■x 


w 


^t\ 


cess  commences ;  the  skin  enveloping  the 
.peduncles  swells,  its  arteries  enlarge,  tides 
of  blood  rush  to  the  head,  and  the  whole 
system  experiences  a  fresh  stimulus.  The 
antlers  are  now  budding,  for  on  the  top  of 
these  footstalks  the  arteries  arc  depositing 
layers  of  osseous  matter,  particle  by  particle, 
with  great  rapidity ;  as  they  increase  the 
skin  increases  in  an  equal  ratio,  still  cover- 
ing the  budding  antlers,  and  continues  so 
to  do  until  they  have  acquired  their  due 
development  and  solidity.  This  skin  is  a 
tissue  of  blood-vessels,  and  the  courses  of 
the  large  arteries,  from  the  head  to  the  end 
of  the  antlers,  are  imprinted  on  the  latter  in 
long  furrows,  which  are  never  obliterated. 
In  ordinary  language,  the  .skin  investing  the 
antlers  is  termed  velvet,  being  covered  with 
a  fine  pile  of  close  short  hair.  Suppose, 
then,  the  antlers  of  the  young  Deer  now  duly 
grown,  and  still  invested  with  this  vascular 
tissue  ;  but  the  process  is  not  yet  complete. 
While  this  tender  velvet  remains,  the  Deer 
can  make  no  use  of  his  newly-acquired 
weapons,  which  are  destined  to  bear  the  brunt  of  many  a  con- 
flict with  his  compeers  :  it  must  therefore  be  removed,  but  without 
giving  a  sudden  check  to  the  current  of  blood  rolling  through 
this  extent  of  skin,  lest  by  directing  the  tide  to  the  brain,  or 
some  internal  organ,  death  be  the  result.  The  process  then  is 
this : — As  soon  as  the  antlers  are  complete  (according  to  the  age 
of  the  individual),  the  arteries  at  their  base,  where  they  join  the 
permanent  footstalk  (always  covered  with  skin),  begin  to  deposit 
around  it  a  burr,  or  rough  ring  of  bone,  with  notches,  through  which 
the  great  arteries  still  pass.  Gradually,  however,  the  diameter  of 
these  openings  is  contracted  by  the  deposition  of  additional  matter; 
till  at  length  the  great  arteries  are  compressed  as  by  a  ligature,  and 
the  circulation  is  effectually  stopped.  The  velvet  now  dies  for  want 
of  the  vital  fluid  ;  it  shrivels,  dries,  and  peels  off  in  shreds,  the  ani- 
mal assisting  in  getting  rid  of  it  by  rubbing  his  antlers  against  the 
trees.  They  are  now  firm,  hard,  and  white  ;  and  the  Stag  bears 
them  proudly,  and  brandishes  them  in  defiance  of  his  rivals.  From 
the  burr  upwards,  these  antlers  are  now  no  longer  part  and  parcel  of 
the  system  ;  they  are  extraneous,  and  held  only  by  their  mechanical 
continuity  with  the  footstalk  on  which  they  were  placed  ;  hence  tlieir 
deciduous  character,  for  it  is  a  vital  law  that  the  system  shall  throw 
off  all  parts  no  longer  intrinsically  entering  into  the  integrity  of  the 
whole.  An  absorptive  process  soon  begins  to  take  place  just  be- 
neath the  burr,  removing  particle  after  particle,  till  at  length  the 
antlers  are  separated  and  fall  by  their  own  weight,  or  by  the  slightest 
touch,  leaving  the  living  end  of  the  footstalk  exposed  and  slightly 
bleeding.  This  is  immediately  covered  with  a  pellicle  of  skin,  which 
soon  thickens,  and  all  is  well.  The  return  of  spring  brings  with  it  a 
renewal  of  the  whole  process  with  renewed  energy,  and  a  finer  pair 
of  antlers  branches  forth.       ' 

The  common  Stag  begins  to  acquire  his  antlers  in  the  spring,  and 
loses  them  early  in  the  spring  succeeding.  His  first  antlers  (second 
spring)  are  straight,  small,  and  simple :  he  is  now  termed  a 
Brocket.  The  next  pair  are  larger,  and  have  a  brow-antler  directed 
forwards  from  the  main  stem,  sometimes  with  one  or  two  small 
branches  above.  The  third  pair  of  antlers  has  two  forward  stem 
branches  besides  the  brow-antlers,  and  one  or  two  snags  at  the  top. 
The  fourth  pair  have  the  brow  and  stem  antlers  increased,  and  more 
snags ;  the  fifth  and  sixth  pairs  exhibit  still  greater  development, 
and  an  increase  in  the  number  of  snags.  Any  disturbance  in  the 
system  produces  a  corresponding  deterioration  in  the  form  and  pro- 
portions of  the  horn.  Our  figures  develop  the  progress  of  the  suc- 
cessive annual  horns  in  the  Stag  or  Red-Deer,  and  in  the  Fallow- 
Deer.     The  horns  are  from  the  left  side. 

Fig.  619  (Stag) : — i,  Horn  of  first  growth  ;  2,  3,  4,  ditto  of  second; 
5,  6,  of  third  and  fourth  ;  7,  of  fifth  ;  8,  9,  of  the  sixth  growth  ;  10, 
II,  12,  the  seventh  and  subsequent  growths;  the  horns  being  at 
their  maximum.  Fig.  621  represents  horns  of  the  Wapiti  :  a,  horn 
produced  in  unfavourable  circumstances,  in  confinement ;  b,  horn  of 
the  same  animal  the  year  afterwards,  and  finely  branched.  Fig. 
620  (Fallow-Deer)  : — I,  Horn  of  the  first  growth  ;  2,  3,  4,  horn  of  the 
second  ;  5,  6,  7,  horns  of  the  third  growth  ;  8,  9,  horns  of  the  fourth  ; 
10,  II,  12,  13,  horns  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  growth.     Fig.  6jo,  p.  240, 


23  b 


ELKS. 


shows  the  horns  of  a  Fallow-Deer  in  an  unnatural  state,  and  not 
shed  at  a  proper  time. 

The  species  of  the  CervidcB  are  very  numerous.  By  sorne  zoolo- 
gists they  are  considered  as  one  genus,  while  others  divide  them 
into  several  generic  groups,  characterised  principally  by  differences 
in  the  conformation  of  the  antlers.  They  are  divided  by  Colonel 
Hamilton  Smith  into  the  following  groups,  which  many  naturalists 
have  adopted,  and  which  seem  to  us  very  natural  :— i.  Alee,  or  the 
Elk  group;  2,  Rangifer,  or  the  Rein-Deer  group;  3,  Dama,  or 
the  Fallow-Decr  group  ;  4,  ElapliKS,  or  the  Stag  group;  5,  Rusa, 
or  the  Sambur-Deer  group  ;  6,  Axis,  or  the  Axis-Deer  group  ;  7, 
Ca;preolus,  or  the  Roebuck  group ;  8,  Mazama,  or  the  American 


eyes  small  and  dull ;  the  muzzle  elongated,  thick,  projectmg,  pen- 
dulous, and  flexible— it  is  covered  with  hair.  Two  small  pendulous 
dewlaps  of  loose  skin  hang  from  the  throat  ;  the  neck  is  short  and 
thick  the  body  strong  and  short  ;  the  limbs  are  long  and  awkward  ; 
the  toes  are  broad,  and  divided  so  high  that  they  diverge  as  the 
animal  presses  them  to  the  ground  ;  the  tail  is  extremely  short  ;  the 
hair  is  full,  harsh,  long,  and  produced  on  the  neck, and  shoulders 
into  a  mane.     (See  Fig.  622.) 

It  has  been  considered,  by  manv  naturalists,  that  the  American 
Elk  and  the  European  Elk  are  specifically  identical ;  it  is  probable, 
however,  that  they  are  distinct.  The  European  Elk  is  spread  but 
thinly  through  the  wild  forest-regions  of  Norway,  Sweden,  part  of 


Fig.  619. — Slag's  Herns. 


Fig.  621. — Ilovns  of  Wapiti. 


-^V^ 


Fig.  620. — Horns  of  Fallow-Decr. 


Fallow    group;    9,    Sahulo,   or  the   Guazu,   or   Brocket  group   of 
America  ;  lo,  Styloceros,  or  the  Muntjacs. 

Group  Alce,  or  Elks. 

The  American  Elk,  or  Moose-Deer  {Alces  Americamis ; 
A .  -palDidtiis  ;  Ccrvus  Alecs,  Linn.)— The  genus  Alee  includes  the 
Elks.  They  are  the  largest  of  the  Cervidce,  and  arc  distinguished 
by  the  broad  palmation  of  their  antlers,  furnished  with  numerous 
digitations  on  their  outer  edge  only  ;  a  large  isolated  branch  springs 
from  the  stem,  which  latter  is  thick  and  short,  and  begins  immedi- 
ately to  expand  ;  the  head  is  heavy,  the  ears  large  and  open,  the 


Fig.  &22.  —American  Elk, 


Prussia,  Lithuania,  and  Russia,  from  the  fifty-third  to  the  sixty- 
third  degree  of  latitude.  It  extends  also  through  Asiatic  Tartary 
to  the  north  of  China.  Buffon  supposes  that  the  Greeks  were  un- 
acquainted with  this  animal ;  and  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
noticed  by  Aristotle.  That  it  was  the  dXo;,  Alce,  or  Alces,  of  P.iu- 
sanias,  Caesar,  and  Pliny,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  word  Alce, 
or  Alchis,  is  merely  the  Celtic  Elch,  or  the  Scandinavian  vElg, 
modified.  In  book  viii.  ch.  xvi.,  Pliny  gives  an  account  of  the  Alce, 
which  he  distinguishes  from  the  Alchis,  regarding  them  at  the  same 
time  as  allied  animals  :  but  it  is  easy  to  see  through  his  error ;  his 
account  of  it  walking  backwards  while  feeding,  in  consequence  of  its 
overhanging  lip,  and  his  statement  that  there  is  no  joint  at  the 
hock,  we  need  scarcely  say  are  fabulous.  According  to  Mr.  Lloyd 
("  Field  Sports  of  the  North  of  Europe"),  the  Elk  is  far  less  common 
than  formerly,  and  restricted  only  to  certain  districts.  It  frequently 
attains  the  height  of  seven  and  even  eight  feet ;  but  does  not  attain 
to  full  growth  till  about  the  fourteenth  year.  A  young  Elk,  two 
years  old,  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Wise,  the  Swedish  consul- 
general,  measured  upwards  of  six  feet  at  the  shoulder.  "  By 
nature,"  says  Mr.  Lloyd,  "  the  Elk  is  timorous,  and  he  usually  flies 
at  the  sight  of  man.  At  certain  seasons,  however,  like  other 
animals  of  the  Deer  kind,  he  is  at  times  rather  dangerous.  His 
weapons  are  his  horns  and  hoofs  ;  he  strikes  so  forcibly  w-ith  the 
latter,  as  to  annihilate  a  Wolf  or  other  large  animal  at  a  single 
blow.  It  is  said  that  when  the  Elk  is  incensed,  the  hair  on  his  neck 
bristles  up  like  the  mane  of  a  Lion,  which  gives  him  a  wild  and 
frightful  appearance.  The  usual  pace  of  the  Elk  is  a  high  sham- 
bling trot,  and  his  strides  are  immense  ;  but  I  have  known  him,  when 
frightened,  to  go  at  a  tremendous  gallop.  In  passing  through 
thick  woods  he  carries  his  horns  horizontally,  to  prevent  them  from 
being  entangled  in  the  branches  ;  from  the  formation  of  his  hoofs, 
he  makes  great  clattering,  like  the  Rein-Deer  when  in  rapid 
motion.  In  the  summer  season  the  Elk  usually  resorts  to  morasses 
and  low  situations  ;  for,  like  other  animals  of  the  Deer  kind,  he  fre- 
quently takes  to  the  water  in  warm  weather ;  he  is  an  admirable 
swimmer.  In  the  winter  time  he  retires  to  the  more  sheltered  parts 
of  the  forest,  where  willow,  ash,  &c.,  are  to  be  found,  as  from  the 
small  boughs  of  these  trees  he  obtains  his  sustenance  during  that 
period  of  the  year.     In  the  summer  and  autumn  the  Elk  is  often  to 


THE  REIN-DEER. 


237 


be  met  with  in  small  herds,  but  in  the  winter  there  are  seldom 
more  than  two  or  three  in  company.  At  the  latter  season,  indeed, 
he  is  frequently  alone.  The  flesh  of  the  Elk,  whether  fresh  or 
smoked,  is  very  e.xcellent :  the  young-  are  particularly  delicious. 
The  tont,'ue  and  the  nose  are  thoujjht  to  be  great  delicacies  in 
Scandinavia  as  well  as  in  America.  Great  virtue  was  once  placed 
in  the  lioof  of  that  animal :  but  this  idle  notion  must  by  this  time, 
I  should  think,  be  nearly  exploded.  The  skin  is  convertible  to  many 
purposes,  and  is  very  valuable.  Mr.  Grieff  says,  '  It  is  not  long 
since  that  a  regiment  was  clothed  with  waistcoats  made  from  the 
hides  of  those  animals,  which  were  so  thick  that  a  ball  could 
scarcely  penetrate  them.'  The  Elk  is  easily  domesticated.  For- 
merly these  animals  were  made  use  of  in  Sweden  to  draw  sledges ; 
but  owing,  as  it  was  said,  to  their  speed  frequently  accelerating  the 
escape  of  people  who  had  been  guilty  of  murders  or  other  crimes, 
the  use  of  them  was  prohibited  under  great  penalties.  Though  I 
apprehend  these  ordinances,  if  not  abrogated,  are  obsolete,  I  am  not 
aware  that  the  Elk  is  ever  made  use  of  in  that  kingdom  at  the 
present  day,  either  to  draw  a  sledge,  or  for  other  domestic  pur- 
poses. In  Sweden,  it  is  contrary  to  law,  at  this  particular  time,  to 
kill  the  Elk  at  any  season  of  the  year.  This  is  not  the  case  in  Nor- 
way ;  for  in  that  country  these  animals  may  be  destroyed,  with  cer- 
tain limitations  as  to  numbers,  from  the  1st  of  July  to  the  ist  of 
November,  inclusive.  The  penalty,  however,  for  killing  an  Elk  out 
of  season  in  Norway,  is  very  much  heavier  than  in  Sweden  ;  it 
amounts  indeed,  including  legal  expenses,  &c.,  to  about  £20., 
which  is  no  inconsiderable  sum  in  that  kingdom."  (Lloyd, 
"Northern  Field  Sports,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  329,  etseg.) 

Immediately  following  the  passage  above  quoted  there  is  a  very 
interesting  account  of  the  mode  of  huntmg  the  Elk  in  Scandinavia, 
upon  "  skidor,"  or  snow-skates,  interspersed,  as  most  of  such 
narratives  are,  with  notices  of  the  habits  of  the  animal ;  but  as  our 
limits  will  not  permit  its  insertion,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  work, 
which  is  well  worthy  of  his  attention. 

The  American  Elk,  or  Moose-Deer  (Mousoa  of  the  Crees  :  Mong- 
soa  of  the  Algonquins  ;  Denyai  of  the  Chippewyans),  presents  the 
same  habits  and  manners  as  the  Elk  of  Scandinavia.  Formerly  its 
range  was  more  e.xtensive  than  at  present.  Dr.  Richardson,  in  his 
"  Fauna  Boreali-Americana,"  says,  "  Du  Pratz  informs  us,  that  in 
his  time  the  Moose-Deer  were  found  as  far  south  as  at  Ohio  ;  and 
Denys  says,  that  they  were  once  plentiful  in  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  though,  at  the  time  he  wrote  they  had  been  extirpated.  At 
present,  according  to  Dr.  Godman,  they  are  not  known  in  the  State 
of  Maine ;  but  they  exist  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  They  frequent  the  woody  tracts  in  the  fur  countries,  to 
their  most  northern  limit.  Several  were  seen  on  Captain  Franklin's 
last  expedition,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  feeding  on  the 
willows,  which,  owing  to  the  rich  alluvial  deposits  on  that  great 
river,  extend  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  lat.  69°.  Farther  to 
the  eastward,  towards  the  Coppermine  River,  they  are  not  found  m 
a  higher  latitude  than  65^,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  on  the  barren 
grounds  of  the  aspen  and  willow,  which  constitute  their  food.  Mac- 
kenzie saw  them  high  up  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  but  I  suspect  they  are  rarely,  if  ever,  found  to  the  west- 
ward of  the  mountains."  The  Moose-Deer  appears  to  be  a  solitary 
animal,  at  least  in  the  more  northern  latitudes  ;  the  older  writers 
speak  of  it  as  being  found  in  small  herds  ;  but  there  is  room  for  sus- 
picion that  the  Moose  and  Wapiti  are  confounded  together.  From 
its  exquisite  sense  of  hearing,  and  habitual  wariness,  the  chase  of 
the  Moose-Deer  is  very  difficult:  indeed,  as  Dr.  Richardson  states, 
"The  art  of  Moose-hunting  is  looked  upon  as  the  greatest  of  an 
Indian's  acquirements,  particularly  by  the  Crees,  who  take  to  them- 
selves the  credit  of  being  able  to  instruct  the  hunters  of  every  other 
tribe."  In  summer,  the  Moose  is  so  tormented  by  Mosquitoes,  that 
he  becomes,  to  a  certain  degree,  regardless  of  the  approach  of  man  ; 
but  in  winter,  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  in  which  the 
hunter  tracks  the  animal  by  his  foot-marks,  it  requires  the  greatest 
caution  to  get  within  gun-shot.  The  slightest  noise,  the  rustling  of 
a  leaf,  or  the  crackling  of  a  twig,  is  sufficient  to  give  the  alarm,  and 
disappoint  the  hopes  of  the  hunter.  Nor  is  the  chase  always  un- 
attended with  danger  ;  for  if  the  animal  be  an  old  male,  and  the  shot 
does  not  bring  him  down,  he  will  often  turn  infuriated  on  his  enemy, 
who  is  then  obliged  to  shelter  himself  behind  a  tree  ;  and  Dr. 
Richardson  observes,  that  he  has  heard  of  several  instances  in 
which  the  enraged  animal  has  completely  stripped  the  bark  from  the 
trunk  of  a  large  tree  by  striking  with  his  fore-feet.  On  firm  snow, 
owing  to  the  spread  of  its  hoofs,  which  make  a  loud  crackling  noise 
at  each  step,  the  Moose  can  sustain  a  lengthened  pursuit.  Captain 
Franklin  records  an  instance  of  a  chase  kept  up  by  three  hunters  for 
six  successive  days,  until  the  track  of  the  animal  was  marked  with 
blood.  On  the  fourth  day  the  chief  hunter  sprained  his  ankle,  and 
the  others  were  tired  out  ;  but  one  of  them,  after  a  rest  of  twelve 
hours,  followed  up  the  game,  which  after  a  chase  of  two  days  more 
be  succeeded  in  killing.  The  Moose  is  often  killed  by  the  Indians 
while  crossing  rivers  ;  and  the  young,  as  Heme  says,  are  so  simple 
as  to  allow  an  Indian  to  paddle  his  canoe  up  to  them  :  he  has  seen 
an  Indian  take  one  by  the  poll  without  experiencing  the  least  oppo- 


sition, "  the  poor  animal  swimming,  at  the  same  time,  alongside 
the  canoe  as  if  swimming  by  the  side  of  its  dam,  and  looking  up  in 
our  faces  with  the  same  fearless  innocence  that  a  house-lamb 
would,  making  use  of  its  fore-foot  almost  every  instant  to  clear  its 
eyes  of  Mosquitoes,  which  at  that  time  were  remarkably  numerous. 
The  Moose  is  the  easiest  to  tame  and  domesticate  of  any  of  the  Deer 
kind." 

From  the  length  of  its  limbs,  and  the  shortness  of  its  body,  the 
Moose  shuffles  or  ambles  along,  and  when  it  is  at  full  speed  the 
hind-feet  straddle  to  avoid  treading  on  the  fore-heels,  which  some- 
times happens  so  as  to  trip  it  up.  During  its  progress  it  raises  its 
head  horizontally  in  order  to'throw  the  horns  upon  the  withers.  The 
Moose  does  not  attempt  to  leap,  but  steps  easily  over  a  fallen  tree 
or  any  other  obstacle.  It  swims  with  ease  and  rapidity,  and  is  very 
fond  of  the  water,  in  which  it  often  remains  immersed  for  a  whole 
day  in  hot  weather,  in  order  to  escape  the  attacks  of  the  Mos- 
quitoes, and  leisurely  browses  upon  the  twigs  within  its  reach. 
The  shortness  of  the  neck,  the  length  of  the  limtjs,  and  the  formation 
of  the  upper  lip  combine  to  render  the  Moose  a  browsing  animal  : 
the  shoots  of  the  willow  and  birch  are  a  favourite  food ;  it  is  par- 
ticularly partial  to  the  red  willow  {Cornis  alba),  and  also,  accord- 
ing to  Lewis  and  Clark,  to  the  evergreen  leaves  of  the  Gualthcria 
shallon.  Its  skin,  when  dressed,  forms  a  soft  and  pliable  leather,  ex- 
cellently adapted  for  moccassins. 

Destitute  as  is  the  Elk  of  the  grace  and  compactness  of  form 
so  conspicuous  in  the  Stag,  it  is  nevertheless  a  noble  and  striking 
animal :  those  who  have  contemplated  it  amidst  the  wilds  of  its 
native  regions,  describe  the  effect  of  its  appearance  as  very  imposing. 

Group  Rangifer— Rein-Deer. 

The  Rein-Deer  {Ra7igifer  tarandus,  Cervus  tarandus,  Linn.  ; 
Cervics  rangifer,  Brissot). — The  Rein-Deer  presents  the  following' 
characteristics,  which  form  good  grounds  of  separation  from  the 
other  sections.  Both  sexes  possess  horns  and  canine  teeth  ;  the 
muzzle  is  covered  with  hair,  excepting  that  there  is  a  small  naked 
space  between  the  nostrils,  the  indication,  as  it  were,  of  the  naked 
muzzle  which  we  find  in  the  succeeding  groups.  The  nostrils  are 
oblique  and  oval.  The  head  is  somewhat  large  and  long ;  the  neck 
is  short  and  thick,  and  carried  horizontally.  The  horns,  especially 
in  old  males,  are  of  great  size,  but  present  considerable  variation  of 
figure.  They  may  be  described,  in  general  terms,  as  consisting 
each  of  a  long,  slender,  compressed  skin,  inclined  backwards,  with  an 
outer  and  upward  sweep  ;  a  brow-antler,  sometimes  found  only  on  one 
horn,  sometimes  on  both,  advances  forward,  assuming  a  vertical 
palmated  form,  and  hanging  over  the  muzzle  ;  this  plate  usually 
terminates  in  digitations  ;  sometimes,  however,  it  is  plain.  A  second 
antler  rises  at  some  distance  above  the  brow-antler,  and  ascends  up- 
wards, assuming  at  its  extremity  either  a  palmated  form,  or  dividing 
into  two  or  three  small  branches.  Besides  these,  one  or  two  snags 
rise  from  the  main  stem,  which  generally  terminates  palmated  with 
deep  digitations.     (See  Fig.  623.) 


,^^t  / '. 


\  Y^   kc    '^4. 


") 

Fig.  623. — The  Rein-Deer, 


£^ 


The  feet  are  deeply  fissured  ;  when  pressed  to  the  ground  they 
spread — when  raised  up  they  close  together,  and,  if  the  animal  be  in 
quick  motion,  with  a  smart  snap  (Fig.  624  represents  the  hoofs 
closed;  Fig.  625,  the  hoofs  expanded).  The  hoofs  are  round  and 
very  concave  beneath,  with  sharp  edges;  the  accessory  toes  are 
much  developed.  The  fur  consists  of  two  sorts— a  soft  close  under- 
wool,  and  an  outer  covering  of  close,  harsh,  brittle,  erect  hairs, 
which  are  elongated  beneath  the  neck  so  as  to  hang  down  like  a 
fringe.  The  limbs  are  short  and  muscular,  the  shoulders  and  neck 
very  powerful,  the  body  firmly  built,  and  the  whole  contour  of  the 
frame  is  such  as  eminently  quaVifies  the  animal  for  the  service  of  the 
Laplander. 

The  Rein-Deer  is  spread  throughout  the  Arctic  regions  of  Europe, 


238 


THE  REIN-DEER. 


Fig.  624. — Foot 
of  Rein-Deer. 


Fig.  625.— Foot 
of  Rein-Deer. 


Asia,  and  America,  the  wilds  of  the  Polar  Circle  being  its  congenial 
abode.  The  finest  animals  are  those  of  Finmark,  Lapland,  and 
especially  Spitzbergen  ;  those  of  Norway  and  Sweden  being  inferior 
in  strength  and  stature.  In  Asia  it  extends  farther  to  the  south 
than  in  Europe,  ranging  along  the  Ural  chain  to  the  foot  of  the 
Caucasian  mountains  ;  it  is  common  through  the  northern  latitudes 
of  Siberia,  and  abounds  in 
Kamtschatka.  In  America, 
where  it  is  termed  the  Caribou, 
it  is  most  numerous  between  the 
sixty-third  and  sixty-sixth  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  its  most 
southern  limit  being  about  50°. 

It  has  been  a  question  whe- 
ther the  Rein-Deer  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America  are  specifi- 
cally the  same,  or  distinct :  we 
are  inclined  to  regard  them  as 
varieties  of  one  species ;  but 
are  aware  that,  in  the  opinion 
of  some  zoologists,  there  are 
two  distinct  species,   as   indi- 

_cated  by  the  form  of  the  skull,  in  the  Old  World  ;  and  that  the 
American  Rein-Deer  is  again  distinct ;  indeed,  it  is  a  question 
whether  in  America  there  be  not  two  species  ;  certainly  there  are 
two  well-marked  varieties.  The  decision  of  points  like  these  is, 
however,  alien  to  our  present  object. 

The  Rein-Deer  (we  allude  more  expressly  to  the  European  ani- 
mal, though  the  remarks  apply  to  that  of  Asia  and  America)  is 
eminently  migratory  in  its  habits,  and  herds  in  troops,  which  travel 
from  the  woods  to  the  open  hills  and  back  again,  according  to  the 
season.  The  woods  are  their  winter  refuge  ;  here  they  subsist  on 
the  long  pendent  lichens  which  hang  in  festoons  from  the  trees,  on 
the  white  lichen  which  covers  the  ground  (Cenomyce  rangifcrina), 
and  on  the  twigs  of  the  birch  and  willow.  With  the  return  of  spring 
they  begin  their  migration  from  the  forest  to  the  mountain  ranges, 
partly  to  obtain  their  favourite  food,  but  chiefly  in  order  to  escape 
the  myriads  of  Mosquitoes ;  and  especially  from  the  Cad-Fly 
{QLstrtis  tarandi),  which  now  begins  to  appear :  the  latter  being 
greatly  dreaded  by  the  Rein-Deer,  the  Fly  not  only  tormenting  it 
with  its  sting  (ovipositor),  but  placing  its  e.^^  in  every  wound  it 
makes.      Fig.    626   represents   this   insect.      So   imperative   is  the 


Fig.  626. — Insects  which  attack  Rein-Deer. 

instinct  that  impels  the  Lapland  Rein-Deer  to  these  migratory 
movements,  that  it  cannot  be  modified  in  the  domestic  race  which 
constitutes  the  sole  wealth  of  the  Laplander,  and  on  which  he 
depends  for  existence  :  hence  he  is  obliged  to  lead  a  semi-nomadic 
life,  taking  periodical  journeys  of  no  ordinary  toil,  from  the  interior 
of  the  country  tc  the  mountains  which  overhang  the  Norway  and 
Lapland  coasts,_and  back  to  the  interior.    (See  Fig.  627.) 


Fig.  627. — Rein-Deer  and  Laplanders. 

Lapland,  says  Hoffberg,  is  divided  into  two  tracts,  called  the 
Alpine  and  Woodland  countiy.  Those  immense  mountains,  called 
in  Sweden  Fjellen,  divide  that  country  from  Norway,  extending  to- 
wards the  White  Sea  as  far  as  Russia,  and  are  frequently  more  than 


twelve  miles  in  breadth.  The  other,  called  the  Woodland  division, 
lies  to  the  east  of  this,  and  differs  from  the  neighbouring  provinces 
of  Norw.ay  by  its  soil,  which  is  exceedingly  stony  and  barren,  being 
covered  with  one  continued  tract  of  wood,  of  old  pine-trees.  This 
tract  has  a  very  singular  appearance.  The  trees  above  are  covered 
over  with  great  quantities  of  a  black  hanging  lichen,  growing  in 
filaments  resembling  locks  of  hair,  while  the  ground  beneath  ap- 
pears like  snow,  being  totally  covered  with  white  lichens.  Between 
this  wood  and  the  Alps  lies  a  region  called  the  Woodland,  or 
Desert  Lapmarc,  of  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  breadth,  of  the  most 
savage  and  horrid  appearance,  consisting  of  scattered  uncultivated 
woods,  and  continued  plains  of  dry  barren  sand,  mixed  with  vast 
lakes  and  mountains.  When  the  mosses  on  part  of  this  desert 
tract  have  boon  burnt,  either  by  lightning  or  any  accidental  fire, 
the  barren  soil  immediately  produces  the  white  lichen  which  covers 
the  lower  parts  of  the  Alps.  The  Rein-Deer  in  summer  seek  their 
highest  parts,  and  there  dwell  amidst  their  storms  and  snows, 
not  to  fly  from  the  heat  of  the  lower  regions,  but  to  avoid  the 
Gnat  and  Gad-Fly.  In  winter  these  intensely  cold  mountains, 
whose  tops  reach  high  into  the  atmosphere,  can  no  longer  sup- 
port them,  and  they  are  obliged  to  return  to  the  desert  and  sub- 
sist upon  the  lichens.  Of  these,  its  principal  food  is  the  Rein-Deer 
lichen.  There  are,  says  Hoffberg,  two  varieties  of  this  :  the  first  is 
called  sylvestri's,  which  is  extremely  common  in  the  barren  deserts 
of  Lapland,  and  more  particularly  in  its  sandy  and  gravelly  fields, 
v/hich  it  whitens  over  like  snow  ;  its  vast  marshes,  full  of  tussocks 
of  turf,  and  its  dry  rocks,  are  quite  grown  over  by  it.  The  second 
variety  of  this  plant,  which  is  less  frequent  than  the  former,  is  named 
the  Alpine  ;  this  grows  to  a  greater  height,  with  its  branches 
matted  together  :  it  has  this  name  because,  when  those  mountains 
are  cleared  of  their  wood,  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  is  covered 
with  it ;  yet  it  is  seldom  to  be  found  on  their  tops.  When  the 
woods  become  too  luxuriant,  the  Laplander  sets  fire  to  them,  as 
experience  has  taught  him,  that  when  the  vegetables  are  thus  de- 
stroyed, the  lichen  takes  root  in  the  barren  soil  and  multiplies  with 
facility  ;  though  it  requires  an  interval  of  eight  or  ten  years  before 
it  comes  to  a  proper  height.  The  Laplander  esteems  himself  opulent 
who  has  extensive  deserts  producing  this  plant  exuberantly ;  when 
it  whitens  over  his  fields,  he  is  under  no  necessity  of  gathermg  m  a 
crop  of  hay  against  the  approach  of  winter,  as  the  Rein-Deer  eats 
no  dried  vegetable,  unless  perhaps  the  river  horsetail  {Eqitisetiun 
fluviatile).  They  rout  for  this  lichen  under  the  snow  like  Swine  in 
a  pasture.  It  sometimes  happens  (but  very  rarely)  that  the  winter 
sets  in  with  great  rains,  which  the  frost  immediately  congeals  ;  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  then  covered  with  a  coating  of  ice  before  the 
snow  falls,  and  the  lichen  is  entirely  incrusted  and  buried  in  it. 
Thus  the  Rein-Deer  are  sometimes  starved,  and  famine  attacks  the 
Laplanders.  In  such  an  exigence  they  have  no  other  resource  but 
felling  old  fir-trees  overgrown  with  the  hairy  liverworts.  These 
afford  a  very  inadequate  supply,  even  for  a  small  herd ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  a  large  one,  in  such  a  case,  is  sure  to  perish  with  hunger. 

With  the  approach  of  winter  the  coat  of  the  Rein-Deer  begins  to 
thicken,  and,  like  that  of  most  polar  quadrupeds,  to  assume  a 
lighter  hue.  In  a  domesticated  state  the  animal  is  subject  to  a  great 
variety  of  colour  :  many  are  white,  and  mottled  individuals  are  by 
no  means  uncommon.  Sir  Arthur  Brooke  and  other  writers  notice 
the  strange  propensity  to  devour  the  Lemming  {Arvtcola  Norvcgi- 
ciis  ;  AJiis  Lem/ii/s,  Linn.)  which  this  animal  often  exhibits  :  and 
CaDtain  Franklin  observed,  that  the  American  Rein-Deer  "  are  ac- 
customed to  gnaw  their  fallen  antlers,  and  to  devour  Mice."  We 
cannot  account  for  such  an  anomaly  in  the  habits  of  a  ruminating 
animal,  otherwise  than  by  attributing  it  to  a  morbid  appetite.  To 
the  natives  of  Finmark,  Lapland,  and  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea, 
the  Rein-Deer  is,  in  every  sense,  important  :  not  only  is  it  a  beast  of 
burden,  but  its  flesh  and  milk  are  alike  in  requisition.  In  these 
countries 

"  Their  Rein-Deer  form  their  riches  :  these  their  tents, 
Their  robes,  their  beds,  and  all  their  homely  wealth 
Supply — their  wholesome  fare,  and  cheerful  cups ; 
Obsequious  to  their  call,  the  docile  tribe 
Yield  to  the  sled  their  necks,  and  whirl  them  swift 
O'er  hill  and  dale." 

M.  de  Broke  says,  "The  number  of  Deer  belonging  to  a  herd  is 
from  300  to  500  ;  with  these  a  Laplander  can  do  well,  and  live  in 
tolerable  comfort.  He  can  make  in  summer  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
cheese  for  the  year's  consumption,  and  during  the  winter  season  can 
afford  to  kill  Deer  enough  to  supply  him  and  his  family  pretty  con- 
stantly with  venison.  With  200  Deer,  a  man,  if  his  family  be  but 
small,  can  manage  to  get  on.  If  he  have  but  100,  his  subsistence  is 
very  precarious,  and  he  cannot  rely  entirely  upon  them  for  support. 
Should  he  have  but  fifty,  he  is  no  longer  independent  or  able  to  keep 
a  separate  establishment,  but  generally  joins  his  small  herd  with 
that  of  some  richer  Laplander,  being  then  considered  more  in  the 
light  of  a  menial,  undertaking  the  laborious  oiBce  of  attending  upon 
and  watching  the  herd,  bringing  them  home  to  be  milked,  and  other 
similar  oflices,  in  return  for  the  subsistence  aft'orded  him." 


THE  FALLOW-DEER. 


239 


Early  in  September,  the  herds  and  their  owners  commence  their 
return  from  the  coast  in  order  to  reach  their  winter  quarters  before 
the  fall  of  the  snows  ;  and  it  is  when  the  winter  is  fairly  set  in  that 
the  peculiar  value  of  the  Rein-Deer  is  felt  by  the  Laplander,  and  his 
powers  called  into  operation.  Without  him,  communication  would 
be  almost  utterly  suspended.  Harnessed  to  a  sledge,  the  Rein-Deer 
will  draw  about  300  lbs.;  but  the  Laplanders  generally  limit  the  bur- 
den to  240  lbs.  The  trot  of  the  Rein-Deer  is  about  ten  miles  an 
hour  ;  and  the  animal's  power  of  endurance  is  such,  that  journeys  of 
150  miles  in  nineteen  hours  are  not  uncommon.  There  is  a  portrait 
of  a  Rein-Deer  in  the  palace  of  Drotningholm  (Sweden),  which  is 
represented,  upon  an  occasion  of  emergency,  to  have  drawn  an 
officer  with  important  despatches,  the  incredible  distance  of  800 
English  miles  in  forty-eight  hours.  This  event  is  stated  to  have  hap- 
pened in  1699,  and  the  tradition  adds,  that  the  Deer  dropped  down 
lifeless  upon  his  arrival. 

In  America  the  Rein-Deer  appears  to  be  as  migratory  as  its  Old 
World  relative.  Dr.  Richardson  describes  two  varieties  of  this  ani- 
mal inhabiting  the  northern  regions  of  that  continent  ;  the  one  under 
the  name  of  the  Woodland  Caribou  i^Var.  sykcslris);  the  other 
under  that  of  the  Barren-ground  Caribou  (  Var.  Arcfica). 

The  Woodland  Caribou  (Caribou  of  Theodat,  La  Hontan,  Charle- 
voix, &c.  ;  Rein-Deer  of  Drage,  Dobbs,  &c. ;  Attekh  of  the  Cree 
Indians  ;  Tantseeah  of  the  Copper  Indians,  Richardson). — This 
variety  is  much  larger  than  the  Barren-ground  Caribou,  but  inferior 
as  an  article  of  food.  Its  proper  country  is  a  strip  of  low  primitive 
rocks,  well  clothed  with  wood,  about  100  miles  wide,  and  extending 
at  the  distance  of  So  or  100  miles  from  the  shores  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay,  from  Lake  Athapescow  to  Lake  Superior.  "  Contrary  to  the 
practice  of  the  Barren-ground  Caribou,  the  Woodland  variety  travels 
to  the  southward  in  the  spring.  They  cross  the  Nelson  and  Severn 
rivers  in  immense  herds  in  the  month  of  May,  pass  the  summer  on 
the  low  and  marshy  shores  of  James's  Bay,  and  return  to  the  north- 
ward, and  at  the  same  time  retire  more  inland  in  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember." The  weight  of  the  Woodland  Caribou  varies  from  200  to 
240  lbs. 

The  Barren-ground  Caribou  (Common  Deer  of  Hearne  ;  Bedsee- 
awseh  of  the  Copper  Indians  and  Dog-ribs  ;  Bedsee-choh  (male), 
Tsootai  (female),  Tampeh  (female  with  a  fawn),  of  the  same  ;  Took- 
too  of  the  Esquimaux,  Took-took  dual,  Took-toot  plural  (Richard- 
son) ;  Tukta  of  the  Greenlanders  (Pangnek,  male  ;  Kollowak,  female  ; 
Norak,  young,  Fabricius). — This  variety  is  of  small  stature,  the  buck 
weighing,  exclusive  of  the  offal,  from  90  to  130  lbs.,  according  to 
the  animal's  condition.  The  herds  of  the  Barren-ground  Caribou 
spend  the  summer  on  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  in  winter  re- 
tire to  the  woods  between  the  sixty-third  and  si.xty-sixth  degrees  of 
latitude,  where  they  feed  on  the  Usnecs,  Alectariiz,  and  other  arbo- 
real lichens,  as  well  as  on  the  long  grass  of  the  swamps.  About  the 
end  of  April  they  make  short  excursions  from  the  woods,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  terrestrial  lichens  {CctraricB,  CornicidaricB,  and  Ce>w- 
viyces),  which,  now  that  the  snows  are  partially  melted,  are  both 
soft  and  easily  to  be  collected.  "  In  May,  the  females  proceed  to 
the  sea-coast;  and  towards  the  end  of  June,  the  males  are  in  full 
march  in  the  same  direction.  At  this  period  the  sun  has  dried  up 
the  lichens  on  the  Barren-grounds,  and  the  Caribou  frequents  the 
moist  pastures  which  cover  the  bottoms  of  the  narrow  valleys  on  the 
coast  and  islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  where  they  graze  on  the  sprout- 
ing carices,  and  on  the  withered  grass  or  hay  of  the  preceding  year, 
which  at  that  period  is  still  standing  and  retaining  part  of  its  sap. 
The  spring  journey  is  performed  partly  on  the  snow,  and  partly,  after 
the  snow  has  disappeared,  on  the  ice  covering  the  rivers  and  lakes, 
which  have  in  general  a  northerly  direction."  Soon  after  their  arrival 
on  the  coast,  the  females  produce  their  young.  In  September  the 
herds  begin  their  return  southwards  to  the  forests,  which  they  reach 
towards  the  end  of  October  ;  and  are  then  joined  by  the  males.  This 
retrograde  journey  is  performed  after  the  snows  have  fallen,  but  be- 
fore the  heavy  frost  has  set  in,  so  that  they  are  able  to  procure  the 
lichens,  which  are  still  tender  and  pulpy,  by  scratching  up  the  snow 
with  their  feet,  which  are  well  adapted  by  the  concavity  of  their 
rounded  sharp-edged  hoofs  for  this  important  purpose.  Fig.  628 
illustrates  copies  of  drawings,  by  Captain  Back,  of  the  horns  of  two 
old  Buck  Caribous,  killed  on  the  Barren-grounds  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Fort  Enterprise.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  palma- 
tions.  Dr.  Richardson  states  that  he  can  confidently  assert,  after 
having  seen  many  thousands  of  the  Barren-ground  Caribou,  "that 
the  horns  of  the  old  males  are  as  much  if  not  more  palmated  than 
any  antlers  of  the  European  Rein- Deer  to  be  found  in  the  British 
museums  ;  "  which  is  contrary  to  Colonel  Smith's  opinion,  that  the 
horns  of  the  Caribou  are  shorter,  less  concave,  more  robust,  with  a 
narrower  palm,  and  fewer  processes  than  those  of  the  Lapland  Rein- 
Deer.  So  numerous,  however,  are  the  varieties  of  form  which  the 
horns  of  the  Rein-Deer  assume,  that  little  stress  can  be  laid  upon 
them  as  affording  distinguishing  characters. 

It  is  not  only  the  flesh  of  the  Caribou  that  is  sought  after  by  the 
Indians,  its  skin  is  of  great  value.  Dr.  Richardson  informs  us,  that 
the  skin  of  the  Caribou,  dressed  with  the  hair  on  it,  is  so  impervious 
to  cold,  that  if  clothed  in  a  suit  of  this  material,  and  wrapped  in  a 


mantle  of  the  same,  a  person  may  bivouac  all  night  in  the  snow  with 
safety  during  the  intensity  of  the  Arctic  winter.  So  closely  indeed 
are  the  hairs  set,  that  it  is  impossible,  by  separating  them,  to  dis- 
cern the  skin  from  which  they  arise.  To  the  tribes  of  the  Polar  Circle 
clothing  of  such  material  is  inestimable. 

The  ilesh,  when  in  high  condition,  has  several  inches  of  fat  on  the 


Fig.  628. — Horns  of  Carabous. 

haunches,  and  is  equal  to  the  best  Fallow- Deer  venison.  The  tongue 
is  highly  esteemed.  A  preparation  called  Pemmican  is  made  by 
pouring  one-third  of  melted  fat  over  the  pounded  meat,  and  incor- 
porating them  well  together.  The  Esquimaux  and  Greenlanders 
consider  the  paunch,  with  its  contents  of  lichen,  a  great  delicacy  ;  and 
in  Boothia,  as  Captain  James  Ross  affirms,  these  contents  form  the 
only  vegetable  food  which  the  natives  ever  taste. 

Group  D.\ma— Fallow-Deer. 

The  Fallow-Deer.— This  well-known  ornament  of  our  parks  is 
the  Hydd  (Buck),  Hyddes  (Doe),  Elain  (Fawn),  of  the  ancient 
British  ;  Le  Daim  (Buck),  La  Daime  (Doe),  Faon  (Fawn),  of  the 
French  ;  Daino  (Buck),  Damma  (Doe),  Cerbietto,  Cerbietta  (Pawn), 
of  the  Italians  ;  Gama,  Corza  (Buck),  Venadito  (Fawn),  of  the 
Spanish;  Corza  (Buck);  Veado  (Fawn),  of  the  Portuguese;  Damh- 
irsh  of  the  Germans  ;  Dof,  Dof  Hjort,  of  the  Swedes  ;  Daae,  Djjr,  of 
the  Danes  ;  Duma  vulgaris  of  Gesner ;  Cervus  palinatus  of  Klem  ; 
Cervus  j)latyceros  of  Ray  ;  Ccrvus  Dama  of  Linnffius  ;  and  Platy- 
«^oi- fl?awa  of  other  naturalists.  ,       „,    .  r 

Desmarest,  who  regards  the  Fallow-Deer  as  the  Platyceros  of 
Pliny,  and  the  'EXaiJoc  cu.oDnrpu.  of  Oppian  (as  did  also  Pennant),  ob- 
serves that  it  is  less  extensively  spread  in  Europe  than  the  Stag  :  it 
does  not  exist  in  Russia,  but  it  would  seem  that  it  inhabits  Lithu- 
ania Moldavia,  and  Greece,  the  north  of  Persia  and  China,  and  also 
Abyssinia ;  it  is  abundant  in  England,  but  of  rarer  occurrence  in 
France  and  Germany. 

Cuvier,  who  remarks  that  the  Fallow-Deer  has  become  common  in 
all  the  countries  of  Europe,  adds,  "  but  it  appears  to  be  originally  a 
native  of  Barbary."  And  he  subjoins  in  a  note,  that  _"  since  the 
publication  of  his  last  edition  of  the  '  Ossemens  tossilcs,   he  has  re- 


240 


THE  FALLOW-DEER. 


ceived  a  wild  Fallow-Deer,  killed  in  the  woods  to  the  south  of  Tunis." 
We  have  ourselves  examined  horns  of  the  Fallow-Deer  brout^ht  from 
the  same  territorj-.  In  Spain,  according  to  Pennant,  the  breed  is 
very  large  ;  and  he  goes  on  to  state  that,  "  in  every  country  except- 
ing our  own,  these  Deer  are  in  a  state  of  nature,  unconfined  by  man  ; 


The  Fallow-Deer  may  be  easily  rendered  tame  and  familiar,  as  we 
have  often  seen.  It  is  said,  when  thus  tamed  and  brought  up  in  the 
stable-yard,  to  delight  in  the  company  of  the  Horse  ;  and  in  proof 
thereof,  it  may  be  observed,  that  at  Newmarket  there  was  a  Deer 
which  was  accustomed  regularly  to  exercise  with   the  Racehorses, 


Vl^' 


Fig.  629. — Fallow-Deer. 

but  they  are,  and  have  been  for  some  time,  confined  in  the  parks  on 
the  Continent,  as  they  are  in  England."  We  may  observe,  that  in 
England,  at  one  period,  before  parks  were  enclosed  and  (as  is  neces- 
s.-iry  in  our  day)  the  herds  were  restricted  within  due  bounds,  the 
Fallow-Deer  wandered  in  freedom,  like  the  Stag  or  Roe  ;  they  ten- 
anted the  great  forest,  which  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  stretched 
northwards  from  London,  and  which,  as  Fitz-Stephens  says,  was 
the  covert  of  Stags,  Deer  (damarum), 
Boars,  and  Wild  Bulls.  Pennant  in- 
forms us  that,  in  the  old  Welsh  laws,  a 
Fallow-Deer  was  valued  at  the  price 
of  a  Cow,  or,  as  some  say,  a  He-Goat. 

The  Fallow-Deer  is  too  well-known 
to  need  describing  in  detail.  Its  veni- 
son is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  Stag 
or  Roe,  and  its  horns  and  skin  are 
valuable.  (See  Fig.  629.)  E.xcept 
during  the  pairing  season,  when  the 
Bucks  associate  with  the  Does,  and 
during  the  winter,  when  the  troops 
mingle  promiscuously  together,  the 
males  and  females  form  separate 
herds. 

The  female  goes  eight  months  with 
young,  and  produces  one,  sometimes 
two,  at  a  birth,  concealing  them  among 
the  tall  fern  or  dense  underwood  of  the 
park  ;  they  afterwards  associate  with 
the  herds  of  Does. 

The  Buck  acquires  a  different  name, 
in  the  language  of  "venerie,"  every 
year  to  the  sixth.  The  first  year  he 
is  3.  fawn — the  second,  when  the  simple 
horns  appear,  a  pricket — the  third,  a 
sorrel — the  fourth,  a  soare — the  fifth, 
a  buck  of  the  first  head — the  sixth, 
a  buck  coniplete.  In  Shakspeare's 
play  of  "  Love's  Labour's  Lost,"  the 
"  extemporal  epitaph  on  the  death  of 
the  Deer,"  in  which  Holofernes  "  some- 
thing affects  the  letter,"  and  in  which 
three  of  the  above  terms  are  employed, 
is  familiar  to  all.  During  the  pairing 
season,  which  takes  place  at  the  end 
of  summer  or  in  autumn,  the  males 
utter  a  deep  tremulous  cry,  and  engage 
vi-ith  each  other  in  obstinate  battles, 
which  are  continued  day  after  day,  till 
the  mastery  is  completely  established. 
We  do  not,  however,  believe  that  at 
this  season  they  are  dangerous  to  per- 
sons approaching  them  ;  the  Stag  has 
been  known  to  make  a  furious  attack, 
but  we  never  heard  of  similar  instances 
with  respect  to  Fallow-Deer. 


Fig.  630. — Horns  of  Fallow-Deer. 

and  the  creature  delighted  to  gallop  round  the  course  with  them  in 
their  morning  training.  Fig.  631  represents  a  group  of  Fallow- 
Deer. 

The  Fossil  Elk. — The  Fossil  Y-VtioWrAasiA^Cervus megaceros ; 
C.  giga?iteus,  Goldf.)  To  the  Platycerine  or  Dama  group  appears 
to  belong  that  noble  species  commonly  called  the  Fossil  Elk  of 
Ireland,  from  its  abundance  in  that  country,  where  its  remains  occur 


rtc 


Fig.  631. — Group  of  Fallow-Deer, 


THE  FOSSIL  ELK. 


in  bogs  and  marl-pits,  and  that  so  abundantly, 
that  they  have  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  objects 
of  curiosity.     The   huge    antlers,   indeed,    have 
been  used  as  gates,  as  stop-gaps  in  the  fields, 
and  for  similar  purposes.     Though  most  frequent 
in   Ireland,   the  bones   of  this  species  are   also 
found  in  similar  deposits  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  as 
well  as  in  England  ;    and  have  been  dug  up  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  where,  according  to 
Cuvier,  they  occur  in  the  same  strata  with  bones 
of  Elephants.      Ireland  was,    perhaps,  the    last 
stronghold  of  the  species,  which  appears  to  have 
once  thronged  that  island.     It  is  very  seldom, 
however,  that  an  entire  skeleton  has  been  dis- 
covered, the  remains  consisting  for  the  most  part 
of  skulls,  with  the  horns  attached,  and  various 
separate    bones     disposed    without     any    order. 
They  generally  occur  in  a  deposit  of  shell-marl, 
covered  by  a  layer  of  peat,  and  resting  on  clay. 
In  this  situation  one  of  the  few  entire  skeletons 
discovered  is  stated  to  have  occurred.     "  Most 
of  the  bones,"  says  Archdeacon  Maunsell,  "and 
heads,  eight  in  number,  were  found  in  the  marl ; 
many  of  them,  however,  appeared  to  rest  on  the 
clay,  and  to  be  merely  covered  with  the  marl." 
It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  fossil  remains 
of  no  other  animals  are  mingled  with  them.     Of 
the  skeleton  to  which  we  have  alluded,  and  which 
graces  the  museum  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society, 
Mr.  Hart  drew  up  a  memoir.     "  This  magnificent 
skeleton,"  he  observes,  "  is  perfect  in  every  single 
bone  of  the  framework  which  contributes  to  form 
a  part  of  its  general  outline  ;  the  spine,  the  chest, 
the  pelvis,  and  the  extremities  are  all  complete 
in   this  respect ;    and  when   surmounted   by  the 
head  and  beautifully  expanded  antlers,  which  ex- 
tend out  to  a  distance  of  nearly  six  feet  on  either 
side,   forms   a   splendid   display   of  the  reliques 
of  the  former  grandeur  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
and   carries   back   the  imagination  to  a   period 
when  whole  herds  of  this  noble  animal  wandered 
at   large   over  the   face   of   the   country."     The 
following    are  a  few  points   of    its   admeasure- 
ment : — 


Ft. 
I 
o 

II 

9 
5 

2 


In. 


Length  of  the  head         

Breadth  between  the  orbits 
Distance  between  the  tips  of  the 

horns,  measured  by  the  skull 
Ditto,  in  a  straight  line  across  ... 
Length  of  each  horn 
Greatest  breadth  of  palm 
Circumference  of  the  beam  at  the 

root  of  the  brow-antler  ...     I     o| 

Length  of  spine  ...         ...         ...   lo  lo 

Height  to  the  top  of  the  back  ...     6    6 
Ditto,  to  the  highest  point  of  the 

tip  of  the  horn  ...         ...   10    4 

None  of  the  Deer  tribe  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  excepting  the  Scandi- 
navian Elk,  can  at  all  be  compared 
for  magnitude  to  this  fossil  species  ; 
and,  until  Cuvier  pointed  out  the 
differences,  the  antlers  were  gene- 
rally regarded-  as  identical  with 
those  of  that  animal,  or  of  the  Moose 
of  North  America.  Independently 
of  size,  however,  they  differ  in  many 
essential  points :  for  example,  in 
the  Moose- Deer  the  horn  has  two 
palms,  a  lesser  one  growing  forward 
from  the  front  of  the  beam  where 
the  principal  palm  begins  to  ex- 
pand: the  palm  of  the  Moose-Deer's 
horn  is  directed  backwards,  and  is 
broadest  next  the  beam.  'In  the 
fossil  animal  the  palm  increases  in 
breadth  as  it  proceeds,  which  it 
does  in  a  lateral  direction  ;  nor  are 
there  fewer  differential  characters 
in  the  skull  and  general  skeleton. 
Altogether,  the  remains  of  this 
animal  form  one  of  the  most  inte- 
resting additions  to  British  fossil 
history. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  Cerviis  7ne- 
gaceros  we  can  only  form  a  conjee- 


Fig.  632,— Skeleton  of  Fossil  Elk. 


Fig.  633._SkuIl  and  Horns  of  Fossil  Elk  of  Iicland. 


2  1 


242 


THE  STAGS. 


ture.  The  size  and  lateral  direction  of  its  spreading  antlers  must 
have  prevented  its  inhabiting  the  dense  forest ;  it  must  have  dwelt 
on  the  heath-clad  hills  ;  there,  armed  with  the  most  powerful  wea- 
pons of  self-defence,  it  ranged  secure  from  the  assault  of  any  single 
aggressor,  capable  of  dashing  down  the  Wolf  or  Hyxna  with  a 
blow.  Did  man  exist  coeval  with  this  animal  in  its  native  land  ? 
Most  probably — yes.  A  head  of  the  Fossil  Elk,  together  with  several 
urns  and  stone  hatchets,  was  discovered  in  Germany  in  the  same 


Fig.  634.— Skull  and  Horns  of  Fossil  Elk. 


drain.  "  In  the  '  Archaiologia  Britannica  '  is  a  letter  of  the  Countess 
of  Moira,  giving  an  account  of  a  human  body  in  gravel  under  eleven 
feet  of  peat,  soaked  in  the  bog- water  :  it  was  in  good  preservation, 
and  completely  clothed  in  antique  garments  of  hair,"  conjectured  to 
be  that  of  the  Fossil  Elk.  But  what  is  still  more  conclusive,  there 
exists  a  rib  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  bearing  token 
of  having  been  wounded  by  some  sharp  instrument,  which  remained 
long  fixed  in  the  wound,  but  had  not  penetrated  so  deep  as  to  destroy 
the  creature's  life  :  it  was  such  a  wound  as  the  head  of  an  arrow 
would  produce. 

Of  the  causes  which  involved  the  Fossil  Elk  in  destruction — 
whether  one  general  catastrophe  universally  affected  the  whole  race 
wherever  existing — whether  local  causes,  operating  at  different 
epochs,  have  successively  extinguished  the  species,  which  might 
have  lingered  the  longest  in  Ireland — or  whether  its  extermination 
has  been  effected  by  the  hand  of  man,  whose  agency  upon  the 
animal  creation  is  everywhere  apparent,  no  decided  opinion  can  yet 
be  given.  We  know  it  existed,  and  that  is  all :  its  history  and  its 
fate  are  buried  beneath  the  shadow  of  years  gone  by. 

Fig.  632  represents  a  perfect  skeleton  of  this  extinct  species  ; 
Fig."63j,  a  figure  of  the  skull  and  horns— the  brow-antler  on  the  left 


Fig.  635. — Horns  of  Moose  Deer. 

horn  is  undeveloped ;  Fig.  634,  a,  a  direct  front  view  of  the  skull ; 
b,  a  palatal  view  of  the  skull ;  c,  profile  of  the  skull ;  d,  a  horn 
somewhat  differently  shaped  to  the  others  ;  (Fig  635),  horns  of  the 
Moose,  given  by  way  of  comparison. 


Group  Elaphus,  or  Cervus— -The  Stag. 

The  common  Stag  of  Europe,  with  its  allied  species  the  Barbary 
Stag  and  the  Persian  Stag,  the  Wapiti  of  America,  and  among 
others  the  Cervus  Elaphdidcs,  Hodgson,  and  Cervus  Wallichii, 
Cuvier,  both  natives  of  Nepil,  may  be  adduced  as  examples  of  this 
section.     The  characters  consist  in  the  form  of  the  horns,  which 

have  three  antlers  produced 
from  the  beam — viz.,  the  brow- 
antler,  the  bez-antler,  and  the 
antler-royal,  besides  the  snags, 
or  crown  {surroyal),  in  which 
the  beam  terminates ;  in  the 
nakedness  of  the  muzzle,  and 
in  the  possession  of  large  sub- 
orbital sinuses.  The  males 
have  canine  teeth,  and  in  old 
animals  the  brow-antler  is  often 
double.  A  fine  specimen  of 
the  horns  of  the  Wapiti,  in  the 
museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  ex- 
hibits this  luxuriance  of  growth. 
(Fig.  636.) 

The  Common  Stag,  or  Red- 
Deer  [Ccrv?is  elaphus).  — 
Carw(Stag),  Ewig(Hind),Elain 
(Young  or  Calf),  of  the  ancient 
British  ;  Le  Cerf  (Stag),  La 
Biche  (Hind),  Faon  (Young  or 
Calf),  of  the  French ;  Cervio, 
Cervia,  of  the  Italians  ;  Ciervo, 
Cierva,  of  the  Spanish  ;  Cervo, 
Ccrva,  of  the  Portuguese  ; 
Hirtz,  Hirsch,  (Stag),  Hind 
(Hind),  Hinde  Kalb  (Calf),  of 
the  Germans  ;  Hart  (Stag),  and 
Hinde,  of  the  Dutch  ;  Hjort, 
Kronhjort  (Stag),  and  Hind,  of 
the  Swedes  ;  Kronhjort,  Hind, 
Kid  or  Hind  Kalv,  of  the  Danes. 
(See  Fig.  637.) 

The  Red-Deer  is  a  native  of 
our  island  and  of  the  tempe- 
rate portions  of  Europe,  and 
considerably  exceeds  the  Fallow-Deer  in  size,  standing  about  four 
feet  in  height  at  the  shoulders.  The  hind  or  female  is  smaller ; 
the  young  is  spotted  with  white  on  the  back  and  sides.  (See 
Fig  638.)  During  the  pairing  season,  which  commences  in  August, 
the  Stags  fight  desperately  with  each  other,  and  are  even  danger- 
ous to  persons  venturing  near  their  haunts.     A  beautiful  illustration 


Fig.  636. — Horns  of  Wapiti. 


of  this  was  painted  by  the  late  Sir  E.  Landscer.  Formerly  the 
Stag  was  very  abundant  in  the  wild  hills  and  in  the  extensive 
forelits  of  our  island,  but  the  disforesting  of  vast  woodland  tracts, 
and  the  extension  of  agriculture,  have  limited  the  range  of  this 
noble  animal  to  the  larger  parks  and  chases  of  our  country,  to  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  and  to  "the  heath-covered  mountains  of  Scotland. 
Few  or  none  are  to  be  seen  in  the  New  Forest,  nor  in  Woolmer 
Forest,  in  Hampshire,  where  they  were  once  numerous  ;  nor  do  .any 
now  remain  in  Epping  Forest.  In  the  central  part  of  the  Grampians 
there  are  large  herds  of  Red-Deer :  they  frequent  the  sourthern  part 
of  the  bleak  and,  generally  speaking,  naked  ridge  of  Minigny,  which 
lies  between  the  Glen  of  Athol  on  the  south,  and  Badenoch  on  the 
north  ;  and  between  the  lofty  summits  of  Ben-y-glac  on  the  east, 
and  the  pass  of  Dalnavardoch  on  the  west.  The  greater  part  of 
this  ridge  is  the  property  of  the  Duke  of  Athol,  although  many  Deer 
are  found  on  the  lands  of  the  Duke  of  Gordon,  and  of  others  towards 

The  Deer  are  seldom  on  the  summits ;  but  generally  in  the  glens 
of  the  Tilt  and  Bruar.    These  Deer  are  often  seen  in  herds  of  up- 


THE  STAGS. 


243 


wards  of  a  thousand ;  aud  when,  in  a  track  where  there  is  no  human 
abode  for  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  a  long-  line  of  Bucks  appears  on  a 
heio-ht,  with  their  branching  horns  relieved  upon  a  clear  mountain 
skyt  the  sight  is  very  imposing  (see  Fig.  639),  representing  the  Red- 
Deer  and  Roebuck  in  their  native  haunts. 

The  forest  of  Athol,  consisting  of  a  hundred  thousand  acres,  is  de- 
voted to  Red-Deer  ;  they  exist  in  Mar  Forest  and  Glenartney,  and  in 
thewestdistrictsof  Ross  and  Sutherland.  The  chase  of  the  Red-Deer 
has  ever  been,  from  its  excitement,  a  favourite  diversion ;  and  formerly 


also  of  a  darker  colour :  his  form  is  more  heavy,  and  the  limbs  more 
robust ;  the  neck  is  of  vast  thickness  and  strength. 

The  Wapiti  docs  not  extend  its  range  higher  north  than  the  fifty- 
seventh  parallel  of  latitude,  nor  is  it  found  to  the  eastward  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  north  end  of  Lake  Winncpcg  in  long.  103°,  and 
from  thence  till  it  strikes  the  Elk  River  in  the  iiitli  degree.  It  is 
common  among  the  clumps  of  wood  tliat  skirt  the  plains  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  where  it  lives  in  small  herds  of  six  or  seven  indivi- 
duals.    They  feed,  says  Dr    Richardson,  on  grass,  on  the  young 


Fig-  637.— The  Stag,  or  Red-Deer. 

was  conducted  in  a  style  of  great  magnifi- 
cence, vast  herds  being  driven,  "with  hound 
and  horn,"  to  where  the  hunters  were 
stationed  witli  guns  (formerly  bows  and 
arrows),  and  who  dealt  havoc  among  their 
numbers.  The  Deer  moved  forwards  in  close 
array,  guided  by  a  leader,  and  often  in 
despair  broke  through  the  circle  of  their  foes, 
and  made  their  escape.  We  may  imagine 
the  danger  resulting  from  the  rush  of  per- 
haps a  thousand  Deer,  determined  to  break 
through  the  line  of  their  assailants. 

The  spirited  description  of  a  similar  scene 
in  Sir  W.  Scott's  novel  of  "  Waverley"  is 
familiar  to  all.  This  mode  of  driving  the 
Deer  is  now  never  practised,  at  least  on 
the  great  scale.  The  present  plan,  that 
of  Deer-stalking,  is  to  proceed  cautiously 
within  due  distance  of  the  herd,  and,  being 
concealed,  to  bring  them  down  with  the 
riile  :  when  wounded  and  brought  to  bay, 
the  Stag  often  rushes  on  his  assailant, 
whose  life  is  in  imminent  danger.  The 
Red-Deer  is  too  well  known  to  require  a 
detailed  description.  He  swims  vigorously, 
and  will  cross  lakes,  and  pass  from  islet  to 
islet  at  considerable  distances  apart. 

In  some  of  the  old  German  castles,  pairs 
of  the  horns  of  this  animal  are  preserved, 
which  far  exceed,  in  dimensions,  anything- 
we  ever  now  meet  with  in  this  country,  or 
even  in  the  forests  of  Central  Europe,  where 
the  head  still  attains  greater  dimensions 
than  in  Scotland. 

The  Wapiti  fCervus  Canadensis  ;  Cer- 
vus  Wapiti,  Mitchell;  C.  strongyloceros, 
Sehreber ;  American  Elk,  Bewick ;  Was- 
keesews  of  Hutchins  ;  Wawaskeesho,  Awas- 
kees,  and  Moostosh  of  the  Cree  Indians). — 
The  Wapiti  has  been  confounded  with  the 
Elk,  this  name  being  given  to  it  in  Lewis 
and  Clark's  voyages.  It  is  the  Red-Deer 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  traders. 

This  American  representative  of  our 
European  Stag  differs  from  the  latter  in 
being  much  larger  and  more  powerful,  and 


Fig.  639. — The  Red-Deer,  or  Stag  (a),  and  the  Roebuck  (/<). 


244 


THE  DEER  TRIBE. 


shoots  of  willows  and  poplars,  and  are  very  fond  of  the  hips  of  the 
Rosa  blarida,  which  forms  much  of  the  underwood  of  the  districts 
which  they  frequent.  Their  voice  is  a  shrill,  whistling,  quivering 
noise,  nothing  resembling  the  "  bell"  of  our  Stag.  Hearne  considers 
the  Wapiti  as  more  stupid  than  any  other  species  of  the  Deer  tribe. 
(See  Fig.  640.) 


5  K^-w^gS'CSs!^ 

Fig.  640. — The  Wapiti. 

The  horns  of  this  species  (see  Fig  636,  ajite)  attain  to  a  vast  size  and 
weight  (fifty-three  or  fifty-four  pounds  the  pair),  and  are  most  formid- 
able weapons  ;  nor  is  the  male,  thus  armed,  to  be  approached  with- 
out caution  ;  his  temper  being  vicious  and  irascible,  and  his  strength 
prodigious.  A  few  years  since,  one  of  the  male  Wapitis  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  London,  in  a  fit  of  rage,  drove  his 
brow-antlers  into  the  body  of  a  female  of  the  same  species,  lifted 
her  up,  and  threw  her  down  dead. 

The  male  Wapiti  stand  upwards  of  four  feet  and  a-half  at  the 
shoulders.  The  general  colour  is  yellowish-brown,  a  black  mark 
extending  from  the  angle  of  the  mouth  along  the  lower  jaw  ;  the 
tail  is  short  and  encircled  (as  in  the  Red-Deer  and  others  of  this 
section)  by  a  pale  yellowish  haunch-mark. 

This  magnificent  Deer  now  breeds  every  year  in  the  menagerie  of 
the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park,  London.  Horns  of  the  Wapiti 
have  been  there  shed,  weighing  thirty-two  pounds  the  pair,  notwith- 
standing all  the  disadvantages  of  confinement  and  artificial  food. 

Group  Rusa,  or  Asiatic  Deer. 

This  group  consists  of  Deer  peculiar  to  India,  several  species 
being  large  and  formidable.  The  horns  are  rugged  and  cylindrical, 
with  a  large  sharp  brow-antler,  but  no  bez-antter,  the  beam  bifur- 
cating at  the  top  into  a  sharp  anterior  and  posterior  snag  :  the 
muzzle  is  broad  and  naked ;  the  sub-orbital  sinuses  are  deep  and  large, 
and  the  males  possess  canine  teeth ;  a  mane  of  long  coarse  hairs 
runs  down  the  neck.  Of  six  or  seven  species  belonging  to  this 
section,  we  may  notice  the  Sambur. 

The  Sambur  {Cervus  Aristotelis  and  Hippelaphus).—Z&\&x2X 
specimens  of  this  Deer  are  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
London  ;  and  the  males,  when  armed  with  their  antlers,  are  noted 
for  their  vicious  temper.  In  size,  the  male  Sambur  exceeds  our 
common  Stag,  but  is  inferior  to  the  huge  and  heavy  Wapiti ;  and 
if  less  powerful,  is  more  active  and  alert.  The  hair  is  close,  harsh, 
and  of  a  dusky  or  greyish-brown ;  a  band  of  black  surrounds  the 
muzzle,  but  the  edges  of  the  upper  tip  and  the  tip  of  the  under  are 
white ;  the  hairs  of  the  throat  are  long  and  bristly,  forming  a  full 
fringe  ;  a  mane  of  similar  hair  runs  along  the  back  of  the  neck  :  the 
crupper-mark  round  the  tail  is  very  circumscribed,  and  yellowish. 
The  Sambur  is  found  in  the  Ghauts  of  Dukhun,  in  Kandeish,  and 
the  lower  hills  of  Nepal;  It  occurs  also  in  other  districts  of  India. 
In  common  with  the  rest  of  the  Rusa  tribe  it  is  fond  of  the  waterj 
and  resides  in  wooded  situations.  It  is  hardy,  and  consequently 
is  quite  capable  of  bearing  the  winter  of  our  climate. 

Of  the  other  species  to  be  referred  to  this  group,  and  described 
by  various  authors,  we  may  mention  the  Cervus  cquintis,  Cuvier, 
found  in  Sumatra  and  the  lower  hills  of  Nepal ;  the  C.  imi- 
color,    Smith,   a   native   of  the   dense   forests  of  Ceylon  ;    the  C. 

Pero7iii,  Cuvier,  and  the  C.  Mariannus,  Quoy  and  Gaim'ard the 

former  a  native  of  Timor,  the  latter  of  the  Marianne  Islands,  or 
Ladrones. 

Mr.  Hodgson  observes,  that  a  species  of  Deer,  to  which  he  has 
given  the  name  of  C.  Bahraiiija,  serves,  with   C.  IVallichii,  to 


connect  the  Elaphine  and  Rusan  groups.     Fig.  641   represents  the 
animal,  and  Fig.  642  the  skull  of  the  Sambur  Deer. 

Group  Axis,  or  Hog  Deer. 

The  characters  of  this  group  differ  but  little  from  those  oi  Rusa  ; 
the  horns  have  a  brow-antler,  and  bifurcate  at  the  top;  the  sub- 
orbital sinuses  are  moderate,  and  the  males  are  destitute  of  canines. 
It  is,  however,   in  size,  contour,  and  disposition  that  the  greatest 


Fig.  641. — Sambur  Deer. 


Fig.  642. — Skull  of  Sambur  Deer. 

contrast  exists  between  the  Axine  and  Rusan  groups.  In  the 
Axine  group  the  limbs  are  delicate,  the  general  form  is  more  grace- 
ful than  robust,  and  none,  in  size,  much  exceed  our  Fallow-Deer,  to 
which  the  common  Axis  especially  (excepting  as  respects  the 
antlers)  bears  a  near  resemblance ;  the  females,  indeed,  of  both 
species  being,  on  a  superficial  view,  scarcely  distinguishable.  The 
hair  is  short,  smooth,  and  close  ;  the  expression  of  the  physiognomy 
is  gentle,  yet  animated,  and  agrees  with  the  disposition.  In  cap- 
tivity these  Deer  are  quiet  and  inoffensive. 

The  Axis  Deer,  or  Cheetal  (Axis  Macu^afa,  Cervus  Axis, 
Erxl.) — The  Spotted  Axis  is,  perhaps,  the  best  known  of  all  the 
Indian  Deer  ;  it  thrives  well  not  only  in  our  menageries,  but  even  in 
parks,  and  breeds  in  our  climate.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges  and  in  Bengal,  as  well  as  in  the  larger  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  where  it  lives  in  he^-ds,  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
of  the  jungles  (its  favourite  localities)  affording  abundance  of  food. 
The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  fawn-yellow,  a  black  strips 
running  down  the  spine  of  the  back  ;  the  sides  are  beautifully  and 
regularly  spotted  with  white  ;  a  row,  forming  an  almost  continuous 
line,  passes  along  each  side  of  the  belly.     (See  Fig.  643.) 

The  Hog  Deer  (C  Porcinus)  is  another  species  belonging  to  this 
section :  it  is  lower  on  the  limbs,  and  stouter  in  the  body,  than  the 
Spotted  Axis  :  its  colour  is  yellowish-grey,  spotted  slightly  on  the 
back  and  flanks. 

A  species  from  the  Ganges  is  described  by  Mr.  Ogilby  in  the 
"  Zool.  Proceeds.,"  1831,  page  136,  under  the  title  of  C.  Nudi;pal- 
pebra. 

Group  Capreolus— The  Roes. 

The  Roes,  or  Roebucks,  are  distinguished  by  the  following  cha- 
racters : — The  horns  are  small,  cylindrical,  and  rugged  ;  and  when 
fully  developed  are  divided  above  into  three  snags,  of  which  the 


THE  ROES. 


245 


largest  is  seated  anteriorly.     The  muzzle  is  naked,  and  there  are 
neither  canines  nor  sub-orbital  sinuses.     The  tail  is  extremely  short, 
the  body  compact,  the  limbs  slender,  but  vigorous. 
The  Common  Ko'E.w:cvi{Capreolus  caprea,  Cervns  capreolus). 

Xhis  species  is  the  Caprea,  Caprcolus  dorcas,  of  Genser;  Capre- 

olus,  of   Ray   and   of   Sibbald  ;    Ccrvus  capreolus,  of    Linnaus  ; 


%4    •^$/VV\,  (jK 

Fig.  643. — Axis  Deer. 

Cerints  minimus,  of  Klein  ;  Iwrch  (male),  lyrcheli  (female),  of  the 
ancient  British  ;  Le  Chevreuil,  of  the  French  ;  Capriolo  of  the 
Italians  ;  Zorlito,  Cabronzillo  montes,  of  the  Spanish  ;  Cabra 
montes,  of  the  Portugnese  ;  Rehbock  (male),  Rehgees,  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Radiur,  Rabock,  of  the  Swedes  ;  Raaedijr,  Raaebuk,  of  the 
Danes. 

The  Roebuck  was  formerly  common  throughout  the  whole  of  our 
island,  but  is  now  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  wooded  hills  of 
Scotland,  north  of  the  Forth.  South  of  that  river  it  is  very  rare,  one 
or  two  wild  parks  only  possessing  a  few  ;  but  in  the  rugged  woods  of 
Westmoreland  and  Cumberland  it  is  tolerably  abundant.  It  is 
widely  spread  throughout  the  temperate  latitudes  of  continental 
Europe,  wherever  extensive  forests  and  wild  uncultivated  districts 
covered  with  brushwood,  afford  it  an  asylum. 

The  Roebuck  is  the  least,  and  one  of  the  most  active  and  beauti- 
ful, of  our  European  Deer ;  wild,  shy,  and  cautious,  it  does  not  herd 
in  troops,  but  lives  singly,  or  in  small  companies,  consisting  of  the 
male,  female,  and  young  ;  the  latter  being  generally  two,  sometimes 
three,  in  number.  These  remain  for  eight  or  nine  months  with  their 
parents,  which  continue  attached  for  lite.  The  Roe  is  more  cunning 
than  the  Stag,  and  when  hunted  will  endeavour,  by  various  subtle 


Fig.  644.— Roebuck. 

artifices,  to  elude  its  pursuers.  It  will  wind  and  double  on  its  track, 
then  take  bounds  of  surprising  extent,  and  lie  close  amongst  the 
herbage  of  its  covert  till  the  Dogs,  having  lost  the  scent,  pass  off 
to  a  distance.     The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  not  in  high  estimation. 

The  Roe  stands  about  2  feet  3  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder. 
In  the  wmter  the  hair  on  the  body  is  long,  the  lower  part  of  each 
hair  IS  ash-coloured  ;  there  is  a  narrow  bar  of  black  near  the  end 
and  the  tip  is  yellow.     On  the  face  the  hair  is  black,  tipped  with 


yellow.      The  ears  are  long,  of  a  pale  yellow  on  the  inside,  and 

covered  with  long  hair.  In  summer  the  coat  is  short  and  smooth, 
and  of  a  bright  reddish  colour.  The  chest,  belly,  legs,  and  inside 
of  the  thighs  are  yellowish-white  ;  the  rump  is  pure  white  ;  and  the 
tail  very  short.  On  the  outside  of  the  hind-leg,  below  the  joint,  is  a 
tuft  of  long  hair.     (See  Fig.  644.)  "■ 

A  specimen  of  the  Roe  of  Tartaty  (C  Pygargus,  Pallas),  the 
tailless  Roe  of  Pennant,  once  fell  under  our  notice.  In  size  it 
equals  the  Fallow-Deer  ;  it  inhabits  the  mountain  districts  of  Hyr- 
cania,  and  other  parts  of  Northern  Siberia,  and  also  the  snowy  range 
of  Central  Asia. 

Group  Mazam a— American  Fali.ow-Deer. 

The  elegant  Deer  composing  this  group  are  all  confined  to  the 
American  continent.  The  horns  are  rough,  with  a  cylindrical  stem, 
and  slightly  compressed  branches,  which  have  a  tendency  to  form 
arches  or  segments  of  a  circle.  Of  these  an  anterior  branch  projects 
somewhat  forwards  ;  the  stem  sweeps  outwards,  curving  inwards 
and  forwards  at  its  extremity,  which  divides  into  two  or  three 
branches.  There  are  no  canines.  The  sub-orbital  sinuses  are  small, 
and  appear  like  a  fold  of  the  skin.  The  ears  are  long  and  open  ; 
the  tail  is  long,  and  inclining  to  be  bushy;  the  muzzle  is  naked. 
The  species  belonging  to  this  section  are  numerous.  The  Virginian 
Deer  is  the  best  known.  This  beautiful  species  is  spread  very  ex- 
tensively, ranging  from  Canada  to  Cayenne  :  it  tenants  the  woods  in 
small  herds,  and  its  chase  is  everywhere  followed  with  ardour,  so 
that  in  a  few  years  the  rifle  will  exterminate  it  in  many  districts 
where  it  is  still  common.  The  three  modes  of  "  Still-hunting," 
"  Fire  light-hunting,"  and  "  Driving,"  are  amusingly  described  by 
Audubon  in  the  first  vol.  of  his  "Ornithological  Biography." 

In  the  museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  Lond.,  there  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
the  Black-tailed  Deer  {Cerviis  niacrotis.  Say),  which  inhabits  the 
plains  of  the  Missouri,  Saskatchewan,  and  Columbia  ;  it  is  numerous 
in  the  Quamash  Fiats  w'hich  border  the  Kooskookee  river.  It  is  re- 
markable for  the  size  of  its  ears,  and  the  length  and  fulness  of  the 
tail,  which  is  white,  with  a  tinge  of  brown,  and  largely  tipped  with 
black.  The  general  colour  is  brownish-grey.  It  exceeds  the  Vir- 
ginian Deer,  its  height  at  the  shoulders  being  2  feet  6  inches. 

The  Cervus  le?icuriis  is  another  allied  species,  which,  from  its 
size,  form,  and  habits,  has  obtained  the  name  of  Roebuck  from  the 
Scottish  Highlanders  employed  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and 
that  of  Chevreuil  from  the  French  Canadians.  It  is  common  in  the 
districts  adjoining  the  river  Columbia,  and  especially  the  fertile 
prairies  of  the  Cowalidske  and  Multnomah  rivers.  The  young  are 
spotted  until  the  middle  of  the  first  winter,  when  they  assume  the 
uniform  colour  of  the  adults. 

Azara  describes  two  species  belonging  to  this  section,  under  the 
terms  Gouazoupoucou  {Cervus  paludosiis,  Desm.)  and  Gouazouti 
{C.  campesfris,  F.  Cuv.),  both  natives  of  Paraguay. 

The  Gouazouti  (or  Guazuti,  Manama,  or  Cervus  campestris)  in- 
habits the  open  Pampas,  where   it   is  more    than   a   match   for  a 
Horse  in  speed.     It  stands  about  2  feet  6  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulder.     The  hair  is  rough,  close,  and  of  a  reddish-bay,  the  space 
round  the  eyes,  and  the  under  parts  of  the  head  and  body  being 
white  ;  the  hairs  of  the  back  are  of  a  leaden  grey  colour  at  the  base, 
the  tips  only  being  red.    The  Fawns  are  spotted  with  white.    A  most 
powerful  and  disgusting  odour  of  garlic  proceeds  from  the  males, 
especially  when  their  horns  are  in  perfection  :  this  odour  is  not  lost 
in  the  preserved  skin,  as  we  can  personally  testify.     "  Frequently," 
says  Mr.  Darwin,  "when  passing  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile   to 
the  leeward  of  a  herd,  I  have  perceived  the  whole  air  tainted  with 
the  effluvium."     "This  deer,"  says  the  same  talented  author,  "is 
exceedingly  abundant  throughout  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Plata.     It  is  found  in  northern 'T'atagonia  as  far  south  as  the    Rio 
Negro   (lat.   41°),    but  farther  southward  none   were   seen   by   the 
ofBcers  employed  in  surveying  the  coast.     It  appears  to  prefer  a 
hilly  country.     I   saw  many  small   herds,   containing   from  five  to 
seven  animals  each,  near  the  Sierra  Ventana,  and  among  the  hills 
north  of  Maldonado.     If  a  person  crawling  close  along  the  ground 
advances   towards   a   herd,  the   Deer,   frequently  out  of  curiosity, 
approach  to  reconnoitre  him.     I  have  by  this  means  killed  from  one 
spot  three  out  of  the  same  herd.     Though  so  tame  and  inquisitive, 
yet  when  approached  oh  horseback  they  are  exceedingly  wary.     In 
this  country  nobody  goes  on  foot,  and  the  Deer  knows  man  as  its 
enemy  only  when   he   is   mounted  and  armed  with  the  bolas.     At 
Bahia  Blanca,  a  recent  establishment  in  northern  Pat.agonia,  I  was 
surprised  to  find  how  little  the  Deer  cared  for  the  noise  of  a  gun  : 
one  day  I  fired  ten  times  from  within  eighty  yards  at  one  animal, 
and  it  was  much  more   startled  at  the  ball  cutting  up  the  ground 
than  at  the  report  of  my  rifle.     My  powder  being  exhausted,  I  was 
obliged  (to  my  shame  as  a  sportsman  be  it  spoken)  to  get  up  and 
hoUoo  till  the  Deer  ran  away." 

Genus  Coassus— Brocket  Deer. 

The  Guazus,  or  Brockets,  as  they  are  termed,  are  distinguished 
by  the  simplicity  of  their  horns,  which  consist  of  a  single  slender 


246 


THE  GUAZUS—THE  MUNTJACS. 


stem  without  snags  ;  the  sub-orbital  sinuses  are  small ;  the  nose  is 
pointed,  and  the  naked  muzzle  small,  extending'  at  the  side  of  the 
nostrils  into  a  glandular  spot.  The  species  of  this  section  are  small, 
and  delicately  formed ;  they  mhabit  the  swampy  woods  of  South 
America,  in  small  families  consisting  of  eight  or  ten  females,  in 
company  with  a  single  male  ;  from  which  circumstance  arose  the 
mistaken  idea  that  this  part  of  the  globe  possessed  Deer  entirely 
destitute  of  horns,  while  their  simple  form  in  the  few  males  seen  (for 
the  females  are  far  more  numerous)  led  to  the  supposition  that  these 
were  young  animals  w-ith  their  first  or  brocket  horns.  Hence  the 
term  Brocket,  adopted  as  the  descriptive  appellation  of  the  group. 
In  the  museum  of  the  Zool.  Society  is  a  specimen  of  the  female  of  a 
Deer  which  most  probably  belongs  to  the  present  section.  It  is  de- 
scribed in  the  "  Proceeds."  for  1831,  p.  27,  as  the  Cervus  huinilis, 
Bonn.  It  is  about  a  foot  and  a-half  in  height  at  the  shoulders,  and 
of  a  rufous  colour,  the  fore-parts  having  a  blackish  tinge.  The  body 
is  stout ;  the  limbs  short ;  the  face  broad.  Mr.  Bennett,  by  whom 
this  species  was  characterised,  "was  informed  by  Captain  P.  P. 
King,  R.  N.,  that  a  second  skin  of  the  same  species  had  been 
brought  to  England  by  him  ;  that  the  young  was  spotted  with 
yellow,  and  had  a  yellow  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  back  ;  and  that 
the  animal  was  plentiful  at  Concepcion,  and  found  even  as  far  south 
as  the  archipelago  of  Chiloe,  living,  he  believed,  in  small  herds." 
Until  the  horns  of  the  male  Ise  known,  this  species  stands  only  pro- 
visionally where  we  have  placed  it. 

The  other  known  species  of  this  section  are  the  Guazu-pita 
{Cervus  rufus,  F.  Cuv.),  the  Guazu-bira  [Cervjis  iieinorivagiis,  F. 
Cuv.),  and  the  Apara  Brocket  [Cervus  simplicicornis,  H.  Smith). 

The  Gu.\zu-pita  {Coassus  rufus ;  Cervus  rufus). — The  Guazu- 
pita  is  somewhat  larger  than  a  Roebuck  :  its  general  colour  is  rufous, 
with  a  dusky  tint  on  the  face  and  legs ;  the  lips  and  chin  being 
white.  Azara  states  that  the  proportion  of  males  to  females  in  this 
species  is  one  to  ten  ;  and  that  the  Fawns  are  spotted  with  white.  It 
frequents  dense  forests,  in  which  it  remains  concealed  during  the 
day ;  but  at  night,  or  during  the  dusk  of  the  evening,  it  ventures  into 
the  open  lands  bordering  the  woods,  and  often  invades  the  cultivated 
fields  or  gardens  of  the  natives,  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  French- 
beans,  which  are  a  favourite  food.  Although  not  destitute  of  acti- 
vity, it  is  soon  exhausted,  and  easily  taken  either  by  Dogs  or  by 
means  of  the  lasso.     (See  Fig.  645.) 


Fig.  645. — Guazu-pita. 

The  Guazu-Bira  {Coassus,  or  Cervus  nemorivagus)  is  smaller 
and  more  delicately  formed  than  the  preceding  species,  which,  how- 
ever, it  resembles  in  general  habits  and  manners,  inhabiting  also 
the  low  moist  woods  of  South  America.  The  colour  of  this  little 
Deer  is  dusky-grey,  passing  into  white  on  the  under  parts.  The 
Cervus  simpUcicornis  is  a  native  of  Brazil :  its  colour  is  rich 
fulvous,  with  a  dusky  ring  round  the  orbits,  and  a  spot  of  the  same 
tint  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth.     (See  Fig.  646.) 

Group  Stvloceros— The  Muntjacs. 

The  species  of  this  group  are  natives  of  India  and  the  Indian  Is- 
lands, and  there  is  something  so  peculiar  in  their  physiognomy  and 
appearance,  that  a  glance  serves  to  discriminate  between  them  and 
all  others  of  the  Deer  tribe.  Setting  aside  the  horns,  with  which 
the  males  only  are  furnished,  they  remind  one  strongly  of  the  Musk- 
Deer,  or  Chevrotains,  though  of  larger  stature.  The  body,  as  in  the 
Musk-Deer,  is  rounded  ;  the  head  triangular,  and  tapering  to  a  fine 
muzzle  ;  their  limbs  slender  and  delicately  turned,  and  their  tongue 
long  and  flexible.  The  males,  moreover,  have  long  canines  in  the 
upper  jaw,  which  protrude  beyond  the  lips.      In  manners  they  are 


timid  and  gentle,  but  are  easily  domesticated,  and   soon  become 
familiar. 

One  remarkable  character  in  the  Muntjacs  consists  in  the  form  of 
the  horns,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  rise  from  the  forehead, 
supported  on  long  slender  peduncles  covered  with  skin,  and  turned 
obliquely  outwards,  with  a  tuft  of  hair  along  their  anterior  aspect. 


Fig.  646. — Guazu-bira. 

becoming  very  full  round  the  burr  of  the  horn  ;  the  hair  on  the  back 
part  and  sides  of  these  peduncles  is  close.  These  supports  for  the 
small  horns  do  not  rise  abruptly,  but  are  continued  from  two  pro- 
minent ridges  beginning  below  the  angle  of  each  eye,  running  ob- 
liquely upwards,  diverging  as  they  proceed,  and  constituting  an 
abrupt  outline  to  the  flat  triangular  forehead.  (See  Fig.  647,  the 
Skull  of  the  Muntjac.)    These  ridges  are  covered  with  the  skin  of 


Fig.  647.— Skull  of  Muntjac. 

the  forehead,  which  for  the  space  of  nearly  an  inch  on  the  inner  side 
of  each  ridge,  parallel  to  the  eyes,  forms  a  narrow  naked  fold,  or 
kind  of  sinus,  capable  of  being  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure,  and 
evidently  of  a  glandular  nature.  When  closed  these  sinuses  are 
hidden  by  the  hair.  The  horns  scarcely,  if  at  all,  exceed  the  pe- 
duncles in  length  ;  they  are  pointed,  converge  at  their  points,  and 
have  a  small  rudimentary  snag  at  their  base  anteriorly.  The  sub- 
orbital sinuses  are  large  and  deep,  the  muzzle  is  small  and  naked, 
the  eyes  are  large  and  animated,  the  ears  large  and  open.  The  first 
horns  obtained  are  simple,  and  it  is  said  that  there  is  only  one  re- 
newal, the  second  pair  being  permanent  (a  doubtful  circumstance). 
As  the  females  want  horns,  the  peduncles  and  their  continuation  as 
ridges  down  the  forehead  are  absent,  but  a  tuft  of  hair  indicates 
their  situation. 

The  species  composing  the  present  section  are  but  imperfectly 
known.  The  most  familiar  example  of  the  group  is  the  Muntjac  of 
Java  and  Sumatra,  the  Kidang  of  Horsfield. 

The  Kidang,  or  Common  Muntjac  -{Munfjacus  vaginalis; 
Cervtis  Muntjac,  &c.) — This  most  elegant  and  beautiful  animal 
equals  a  Roebuck  in  size.  According  to  Dr.  Horsfield,  its  favourite 
haunts  in  Java  are  hills  covered  with  brushwood,  and  elevated 
grounds  adjacent  to  wild  forests,  or  shrubby  districts  between  the 
latter  and  the  cultivated  grounds.  Its  voice  is  so  like  the  barking  of 
a  Dog  as  to  deceive  the  ears  of  persons  not  familiar  to  the  sound. 
The  food  of  this  species  consists  principally  of  the  Saccliarutn  spi- 


HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS. 


247 


catum,  the  PhyUanthus  emblica,  and  other  malvaceous  plants 
abundant  in  the  hilly  districts.  The  Muntjac  is  eagerly  hunted 
both  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  excellent,  and  for  the  sport 
which  the  chase  affords.  Its  flight  is  very  rapid,  but  it  generally 
makes  a  circle,  returning  to  the  spot  whence  it  started.  When 
brought  to  bay,  the  male  defends  itself  against  the  Dogs  with  great 
coura.'-e,  using  its  horns  and  long  sharp  tusks  with  severe  effect. 
It  is  often  taken  in  snares,  and  sometimes  by  ridmg  it  down  on 
horseback,  and  striking  it  with  a  sword.  This  mode  is  highly 
dangerous,  but  is  followed,  nevertheless,  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm 


Fig.  648. — Muntjac. 


by  daring  hunters,  mounted  on  the  naked  back  of  Horses  trained  to 
the  chase,  which  is  conducted  with  frantic  impetuosity.  (See  Fig. 
648.) 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  bright  reddish-brown,  the 
under  parts  being  white. 

Colonel  Sykes  observed  a  species  of  Muntjac  in  the  Ghauts  of 
Dukhun,  which  he  states  to  be  never  seen  on  the  plains.  It  is 
termed  Baiker  by  the  Mahrattas.  Mr.  Hodgson  notices  a  species 
called  Katwa,  proper  to  the  central  region  of  Nepal,  but  occasion- 
ally occurring  in  the  lower  valleys  of  Kachar.  A  species  from  China 
is  described  by  Mr.  Ogilby  under  the  title  of  Cervus  Reevesii. 


In  concluding  our  remarks  on  the  CervidcB,  we  may  add,  that  up- 
wards of  twenty  species  of  Deer,  perfectly  capable  of  becoming  ac- 
climatised in  England,  have  at  various  times  been  exhibited  in  the 


collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  in  their  Gardens  at 
Regent's  Park.  The  species  usually  living  in  the  Vivarium  arc  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  Wapiti  {Cervus  canadensis).  North  America. 

2.  The  Persian  Deer  (C.  maral).  Western  Asia. 

3.  The  Cashmeerian  Deer  (C.  cashmecrianus),  Cashmere. 

4.  The  Red-Deer  {C.  elaphus),  Europe. 

5.  The  Barbarv  Deer  (C.  barbarus),  Algeria  and  Tunis. 

6.  The  Mantchurian  Deer  (C.  mantchurkus),  Mantchurix 

7.  The  Japanese  Deer  (C  sika),  Japan. 

8.  The  Formosan  Deer  (C  pseudaxis),  Formosa. 

9.  The  Barasingha  Deer  (C.  duvaticcllH)  Northern  India. 

10.  The  Sambur  Deer  (C  aristotelis),  India. 

11.  The  Molucca  Deer  {C.  ?noluccensis),  Moluccas. 

12.  The  Axis  Deer  [C.  axis),  India. 

13.  The  Prince  Alfred's  Deer  (C.  Alfredi),  Philippines. 

14.  The  Hog  Deer  (C/or«'«z«),  India. 

15.  The  Virginian  Deer  (C  wrg-Z^/awr^),  North  America. 

16.  The  Pampas  Deer  (C.  campcstris).  South  America. 

Among  the  more  recent  additions  of  the  Cervidcs  in  that  collection 
are  the  following  : — 

The  Barbary  Deer  {Cervus  barbarus)  is  the  representative  of 
our  Red-Deer  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Stag  possessed  by  the  Society,  in  1878,  was  presented  by  the  Vis- 
count Hill,  having  been  selected  from  the  fine  herd  of  this  Deer 
which  adorn  the  park  at  Hawkstone. 

The  Cashmeerian  Deer,  or  Hungul  {Cervus  cashmecrianus'). 
— The  only  representative  yet  received  by  the  Society  of  this  fine 
species  of  Deer,  is  a  Stag  presented  by  Captain  Lloyd,  of  the  89th 
Regiment,  in  November,  1865.  Colonel  Markham  speaks  of  this 
Deer  as  follows  : — 

"  The  Hungul  is  a  noble  animal,  called  by  the  natives  '  burra-sing 
wallah,'  or  the  '  twelve-horned-fellow,'  as  he  has  six  points  on  each 
horn.  •  •  •  They  inhabit  the  hills  which  form  the  valley  of  Cash- 
mere, and  are  but  rarely  found  in  the  valley  itself,  and  there  only  in 
winter.  During  the  summer  they  are  not  often  met  with,  from  the 
immense  extent  of  country  which  they  have  to  wander  over ;  but 
when  the  rutting  season  commences,  they  may  be  heard  bellow- 
ing in  the  forests  all  day  long,  and  are  then  easily  found  and  shot. 
*  *  *  The  antlers,  which  are  shed  early  in  spring,  are  picked  up 
in  the  forests  by  the  villagers,  and  form  an  article  of  export  traffic 
with  Ladak." 

The  Barasingha  f  Cervus  duvaiiceUii). — This  beautiful  Deer 
was  first  imported  by  the  late  Earl  of  Derby.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
swampy  valleys  of  Assam,  from  which  country  it  was  first  obtained 
for  the  Society  by  the  Babu  Rajendra  Mullick  in  1857.  It  occurs 
also  in  the  Sagur  and  Nerbudda  territories,  and  in  parts  of  the  Ben- 
gal Sonderbunds.  The  winter  coat  is  of  a  dullish  grey,  but  in 
summer  it  changes  to  a  brilliant  golden  hue,  which  would  make  the 
Barasingha  the  most  interesting  addition  which  could  possibly  be 
introduced  into  a  heavily  wooded  park.  The  adult  antlers  are  ex- 
tremely elegant,  and  quite  distinct  in  form  from  those  of  any  of  the 
other  species. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  RUMINANTIA— FAMILY,  BOVID^;   INCLUDING  ANTELOPES,  CATTLE,  AND  SHEEP, 

ALL  HOLLOW-HORNED  ANIMALS,  OR  CAVICORNIAs 


F  all  the   Ruminant  animals,  none   are   so 
useful  to  man  as  those  included  in  the  family 
BoviDTE,  a  term  derived  from  the  Latin  Bos, 
an  Ox.     They  alike  produce  food,  clothing, 
leather,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  neces- 
saries of  civilisation,  and  the  Ox  kind  are 
frequently  employed  as  beasts  of  draught, 
especially  by  agriculturists.    They  occur,  in 
some   variety,   in   almost   all   parts   of   the 
world.     They  live   together  in  flocks ;    are 
strictly  herbivorous,   or,   perhaps,   more    popularly, 
vegetarians,  their  dentition  being  admirably  adapted 
for  their  food.     In  natural  history  they  are  divisible 
into  the  ANTELOPE,  Cattle,  and  Sheep. 

Antelopes. 

The  word  Antelope  {Antilope),  now  so  generally 
used,  is  of  very  uncertain  origin.  It  appears  first  to 
have  been  adopted  as  the  designation  of  a  species, 
but  was  subsequently  given  by  Pallas  as  the  title  of  a 
genus.    The  first  occurrence  of  the  word  AvBoXo^  is 


in  the  "  Hexameron  "  of  Eustathius  (fourth  century),  as  the  name  of 
an  apparently  fabulous  animal.  Bochart  supposes  it  to  be  derived 
from  the  Coptic  Panthalops,  which  signifies  the  Unicorn  ;  but  it 
may  be  derived  from  the  Greek  AvBog,  a  flower,  and  ii\l/,  the  eye, 
or  oTrTofiai,  to  see,  in  allusion  to  the  brightness  and  beauty  of  the 
full  beaming  eyes,  which  are  so  remarkable  in  most  of  these  animals, 


Fig,  649.— Gazelle  caught  in  lasso  (Egyptian). 


248 


THE  ANTELOPES. 


and  which  have  often  rendered  the  Gazelle  the  theme  of  the  Persian 
and  Arabian  poets.  The  name  of  the  Gazelle,  dorcas,  from  (ftpicw, 
or  SepKoitai,  to  see,  was  a  common  name  for  women  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  acquaintance  which  the  ancients  had 
with  objects  of  natural  history,  as  demonstrated  by  their  drawings 
or  sculptured  representations  :  nor  is  the  examination  of  them  un- 
important ;  they  often  supply  us  with  a  hint  as  to  the  ancient  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animals,  or  as  to  facts  connected  with  their 


the  remark,  that  "  the  genus  Antelope  has  become  a  kind  of  zoolo- 
gical refuge  for  the  destitute,  and  forms  an  incongruous  assemblage 
of  all  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  which  the  mere  shape  of  the 
horns  excluded  from  the  genera  JBos,  Oin's,  and  Capra ;  thus  it  has 
come  to  contain  nearly  four  times  as  many  species  as  all  the  rest  of 
the  hollow-horned  Ruminants  together.  So  diversified  are  its  forms, 
and  so  incongruous  its  materials,  that  it  presents  not  a  single  cha- 
racter which  will  either  apply  to  all  its  species,  or  suffice  to  differen- 
tiate it  from  conterminous  genera." 


Fig.  650. — Animals  from  Egyptian  Sculptures. 

histori",  and  prove  that  many  hundred  years  ago  the  species  existed, 
with  the  same  forms  and  characters  as  at  the  present  time.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  out  of  place  to  draw  our  readers'  attention  to  some 
figures  in  outline  from  the  Egyptian  sculptures.  Fig.  649  represents 
a  Gazelle  caught  by  the  noose,  or  lasso,  an  instrument  used  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  by  the  modern  Gauchos  of  South  America. 
Fig.  650  :  a.  Ibex  ;  b,  Antelope  Icucoryx ;  c.  Gazelle  ;  d,  a  species 
of  Stag.     Fig.   651:  a,  Antelope  ;  5,  Goat ;  c,  Aoudad,  or   Kebsch 


Fig.  651. — Animals  from  Egyptian  Sculptures. 

In  analysing  and  re-arranging  the  Antelopes,  Mr.  Ogilby  draws 
his  characters  from  the  horns,  the  form  of  the  upper  lip,  whether 
modified  for  grazing  or  browsing,  the  existence  of  lachrymal  sinuses, 
inguinal  sacs,  and  interdigital  pores,  and  the  number  of  the  teats  in 
the  female.  With  respect  to  interdigital  pores,  he  observes  that 
their  existence  or  non-existence  is  an  important  point,  as  their  use 
appears  to  be  to  lubricate  the  hoofs  by  a  fluid  secretion  :  hence  are 
they  connected  with  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  species, 


Fig.  652. — Antelopes  with  depressed  Horns. 


{Ovis  TragelapiJms,  Desm.),  found  in  the  mountains  along  the  Nile, 
and  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 

The  section  or  family  to  which  the  title  of  Antelope  {Aniilopc)  is 
ordinarily  given,  embraces,  it  must  be  confessed,  a  somewhat  ill- 
assorted  assemblage,  requiring  to  be  distributed  into  several  distinct 
genera.  The  fact  is,  that  every  hollow-horned  Ruminant,  which  is 
neither  one  of  the  Sheep,  Goats,  nor  Oxen,  has  been  assigned  to  the 
Antelopes,  and  hence  the  diversities  of  form  and  habits  which  we 
see  among  the  members  of  this  e.xtensive  group.     Mr.  Ogilby  made 


confining  them  to  the  rich  savannah,  or  the  moist  forest,  or  enabling 
them  to  roam  over  the  arid  mountain,  the  parched  karroo,  and  the 
burning  desert.  Among  the  Antelopes,  then,  there  are,  on  the  one 
hand,  species  allied  to  the  Goats  and  Sheep  ;  on  the  other,  to  the 
Oxen  ;  and  as  widely  differing  in  form  and  appearance  from  the 
Gazelle  or  the  Indian  Antelope  as  does  the  Wild  Bull  or  the  Ibex. 

But  we  must  not  forget,  nor  do  we  forget,  that  our  object  is  not  to 
enter  into  the  minutise  of  scientific  disquisitions,  fit  only  for  the 
pages  of  works  devoted  to  the  more  abstruse  departments  of  ZoO' 


THE  ANTELOPES. 


249 


logy.  We  shall  therefore  forbear  ;  and,  allowing  the  family  termed 
Antelope  to  remain  as  it  docs,  we  shall  merely  divide  it  for  the  sake 
of  perspicuity  into  four  sub-divisions,  namely  : — True  Antelopes, 
Bush  Antelopes,  Capriform  Antelopes,  and  Boviform  Antelopes. 

The  Antelopes  differ  essentially  from  the  Deer  in  the  structure  of 
the  horns.  In  the  Deer,  the  horns,  or  more  properly  antlers,  are 
deciduous  ;  but  in  the  Antelopes  (and  the  same  obser\'ation  applies 
to  the  Goat  and  Ox),  these  organs  consist  of  a  horny  sheath,  invest- 
ing a  conical  support  of  bone ;  their  increase  is  gradual,  and  they 
are  not  yearly  shed  and  renewed.  The  bony  central  support,  or 
core,  is  a  process  from  the  frontal  bone  :  in  most  Antelopes  it  is 
solid,  or  nearly  so  ;  it  commences  small  at  first,  and  assumes  various 
directions  in  the  various  species.  One  Antelope  has  four  horns. 
The  homy  sheath  consists  of  fibres  analogous  to  those  of  whalebone, 
or  rather  hair,  running  longitudinally  or  spirally,  and  agglutinated 
into  one  uniform  mass.  If  this  sheath  be  stripped  from  its  bony 
core,  the  latter  will  be  found  covered  by  a  highly  vascular  perios- 
teum, from  which  the  fibres  in  question  are  secreted.  They  are 
formed  in  regular  succession  as  the  bone  grows,  so  that  the  horn 
which  covered  the  whole  process  or  core  in  the  young  animal  will  in 
due  time  be  thrown  to  its  summit.  The  outermost  layer  was  once  in 
contact  with  the  core,  but  was  gradually  pushed  outwards  and  up- 
wards. In  some  groups  of  Antelopes  both  sexes  are  furnished  with 
horns  ;  in  others  only  the  male  ;  and  it  is  difficult  in  many  cases  to 
discriminate  between  the  hornless  females  of  one  of  the  Antelope 
and  of  one  of  the  Deer  tribe.  It  is  chiefly  to  the  warmer  latitudes  that 
the  Antelopes  are  confined,  and  Africa  may  be  regarded  as  their 
great  nursery ;  many,  however,  are  Asiatic  ;  the  Saiga  and  the 
Chamois  are  natives  of  Europe  ;  the  Prongbuck  and  a  closely-allied 
species  (if  they  can  be  called  Antelopes)  are  natives  of  America. 
And  of  sixty-nine  species  of  Antelopes,  recorded  by  Wagner,  no  less 
than  fifty-four  are  inhabitants  of  Africa ;  and  of  these,  twenty-five 
occur,  most  of  them,  exclusively  in  the  southern  extremity  of  that 
continent.  In  all,  about  eighty  species  of  Antelope  are  known. 
Fig.  652  represents  the  Antilo^e  dejtiresstcornis. 

The  True  Antelopes. 

Genus  GazeUa.  Horns  in  both  sexes,  lachrymal  sinuses  distinct 
and  movable.  Interdigital  pits  and  inguinal  pores  large.  Female 
with  two  teats.     Horns  lyrate. 

The  Ariel  Gazelle  (Gazella  cora ;  Antilope  arabica). — This 


I^'g-  653.— Ariel  Gazelles. 


beautiful  species  inhabits  Arabia  and  Syria,  where  it  is  seen  in 
large  herds,  bounding  over  the  desert  with  amazing  fleetness.  Its 
eyes  are  peculiarly  large,  dark,  and  lustrous,  and  have  supplied  a 
simile  to  the  Oriental  poets  and  orators  ;  indeed,  to  say  of  a  woman 
"  she  has  the  eyes  of  a  Gazelle,"  is  a  most  flattering  commendation. 


The  Ariel  Antelope  is  an  object  of  the  chase  in  Arabia,  as  it  was 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  whose  delineations  of  it  are  abundant. 
Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  excellent,     So  swift  are  these  animals,  that  the 
Greyhound  unaided  cannot  overtake  them  ;  the  Falcon,  therefore,  is 
brought  into  service.     The  huntsman  advances  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  herd,  the  Dogs  are  then  slipped,  and  the  Falcon  thrown  off; 
the   individual  which   the   Dogs  have   singled   is  attacked   by  the 
Falcon,  which  is  trained  to  strike  at  the  head  and  eyes,  so  as  to 
confuse  the  game,  and  check  its  speed,  thereby  enabling  the  Dogs 
to  come  up  to  it.     It  is  a  common  practice  to  shoot  the  Gazelle. 
Burckhardt   informs   us   that  on  the   eastern   frontier  of  Syria  are 
several  places  allotted  for  the  hunting  of  this  animal,  or  rather  for  its 
entrapment  and  destruction.    An  open  space  on  the  plain,  about  one 
mile  and  a-half  square,  is  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  a  wall  of  loose 
stones,  too  high  for  the  Gazelle  to  leap  over.     Gaps  are  left  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  wall,  and  at  each  gap  a  deep  ditch  is  sunk  on  the 
outside.     The  inclosure  is  situated  near  some  rivulet  or  spring  to 
which  the  Gazelles  resort  in  summer.     When  the  sport  is  to  begin, 
many  peasants  assemble  and  watch  till  they  see  a  herd  of  Gazelles 
advancing  from  a  distance  towards  the  enclosure,  into  which  they 
drive  them.     The  Gazelles,  frightened  by  the  shouts  of  the  people 
and  the  discharge  of  the  fire-arms,  endeavour  to  leap  over  the  wall, 
but  can  only  effect  this  at  the  gaps,  where  they  fall  into  the  ditch 
outside,  and  are  easily  taken,  sometimes  by  hundreds.     The  chief  of 
the  herd  always  leaps  first,  and  the  others  follow  him  one  by  one. 
The  Gazelles  thus  captured  are  immediately  killed,  and  their  flesh 
sold  to  the  Arabs  and  neighbouring  Fellahs.     Of  tlie  skin  a  kind  of 
parchment  is  made,  and  used  to  cover  the  small  drum  with  which 
the    Syrians   accompany  some   musical   instruments   or  the  voice. 
When  taken  young,  wild  and  timid  as  the   Gazelle  is,  it  is  readily 
tamed,  and  becomes  familiar  and  quite  at  ease.     Tame  Gazelles  are 
frequently  seen  at  large  in  the  court -yards  of  houses  in  Syria,  and 
their  beauty,   exquisite   form,  and   playfulness   render   them   great 
favourites.     The  Ariel  Gazelle  is  about  i  foot  9  inches  high  at  the 
shoulder  ;    its  limbs  are  slender,  but  vigorous  ;  and  all  its  actions 
are  light  and  spirited.     In  full  flight  it  lays  the  horns  back,  almost 
on  the  shoulders,  and  seems  to  skim  over  the  level  plain,  almost  with- 
out touching  it.     (See  Fig.  653.) 

The  general  colour  above  is  dark  fawn  or  yellowish-brown ;  the 
under  parts  are  white,  divided  from  the  colour  of  the  upper  parts  by 
a  black  or  deep  brown  band  along  the  flanks ;  the  nose  has  a  broad 
mark  of  dark  brown,  and  on  each  side  of  the  face  a  broad  stripe 

of  white  passes  from  the  horns  over 
the  eyes  to  the  nose,  while  a  nar- 
row stripe  of  black,  from  the  inner 
angle  of  the  eye  to  the  nose,  separates 
the  white  streak  from  the  fawn-colour 
of  the  cheeks ;  the  knees  are  fur- 
nished with  dark  brushes  of  hair. 

A  closely  allied  species,  the  Ahu 
or  Tseyran  {A .  subguttiirosd)  is  com- 
mon in  Persia  and  the  country  round 
Lake  Baikal.  Whether  it  be  truly  a 
distinct  species,  or  only  a  mere  variety 
of  the  Ariel  Gazelle,  remains  to  be 
decided.  It  is  hunted  in  Persia  with 
Greyhounds  and  Falcons. 

The  Dorcas  Gazelle  {Gazella 
dorcas). — This  species  differs  from 
the  Ariel  Gazelle  chiefly  in  being  of 
a  much  lighter  colour,  presenting, 
however,  the  same  markings  and 
arrangement  of  tints.  It  is  a  native 
,  of  Northern  Africa,  and  lives  in  large 
herds  upon  the  borders  of  the  Tell, 
or  cultivated  country,  and  the  Sahara, 
or  desert.  When  a  troop  of  these 
Gazelles  are  pursued,  they  fly  to 
some  distance,  then  stop,  turn  round 
and  gaze  at  the  hunter,  and  again 
take  to  flight.  If  hard  pressed  they 
disperse  in  different  directions,  but 
soon  re-unite  ;  and  when  surrounded 
and  brought  to  bay,  they  defend 
themselves  with  spirit  and  obstinacy, 
uniting  in  a  close  circle,  with  the 
females  and  fawns  in  the  centre,  and 
presenting  their  horns  at  all  points 
to  their  enemies.  This  Gazelle  is  the 
common  prey  of  the  Lion  and  Panther. 
(See  Fig.  654.)  ,      , 

Another  Gazelle  (perhaps  a  va- 
riety), called  the  Kevel  {A.  Kevella,  Pallas),  resides  in  vast  flocks 
on  the  open  stony  plains  of  Senegal. 

The  Blessbok  {Damalis  albifrons  ;    Gazella  albi/rons)  :    the: 
Bontebok  [Damalispygarga:  Gazella  /^^ar^a).— Southern  Africa 
is  the  native  place  of  these  fine  Antelopes.     One  of  the   Blessboks 
'  2  K 


250 


THE  ANTELOPES. 


now  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  London,  arrived  in  1861. 
The  species  bred  (numerous  additions  having-  been  made  by  pur- 
chase) for  the  first  time  in  1866.  In  size  the  Blcssbok  is  superior  to 
the  Stag-  of  Europe,  exceeding,  when  adult,  three  and  a-half  feet  in 
height  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  arc  sixteen  inches  long,  large, 
and  regularly  lyrated. 


Fig,  654. — Doicas  Gazelle. 

The  Blessbok  was  once  very  common  within  the  districts  of  the 
Cape  Colony,  where  in  some  parts  it  still  exists,  but  not  in  such 
multitudes  as  formerly,  when  it  was  said  to  cover  the  plains  in  troops 
of  thousands.  In  the  country  beyond  the  Colonial  borders  it  is 
tolerably  abundant.  The  Blessbok  is  fleet  and  active ;  and  its 
markings  are  very  ornamental.  The  colours  of  the  head  and  body 
are  most  singularly  disposed  ;  the  whole  animal  appears  as  if  it  had 
been  artificially  painted  with  different  shades,  laid  in  separate 
masses.  The  head  and  neck  are  of  a  brillant  brownish-bay,  so  deep 
as  to  resemble  the  colour  of  arterial  blood  ;  this  is  particularly  visible 
upon  the  cheeks  and  about  the  root  of  the  horns,  from  the  central 
point  between  which  descends  a  narrow  stripe  of  the  purest  white 
as  far  as  the  orbits,  immediately  above  which  it  expands  and  covers 
the  whole  face  and  nose  down  to  the  muzzle,  forming  a  broad  mark, 
or,  as  it  is  called  in  Horses,  a  blaze,  and  giving  origin  to  the  name 
of  Blessbok,  or  Blazebuck,  by  which  this  species  is  known  among 
the  Cape  colonists.     The  back  is  of  a  brownish-bay,  thickly  overlaid. 


Fig.  655. — Blesbbok. 

or,  as  it  were  glazed  or  japanned  with  dull  purplish-white,  and  there 
is  a  very  broad  purplish-brown  band  on  the  flanks  passing  from  the 
fore-arm  backwards,  and  extending  obliquely  over  the  outer  face  of 
the  thighs.  The  breast,  belly,  and  interior  of  the  fore-arms  and 
thighs  are  white,  and  this  colour  also  shows  itself  on  the  posterior 
face  of  the  hips  and  thighs,  and  passes  in  a  small  crescent  over  the 
rear  of  the  croup,  forming  a  white  disc  around  the  tail,  and  giving 
origin  to  the  specific  name  of  ^ygarga,   which  has  been   rather 


arbitrarily  bestowed  upon  this  animal,  the  real  Pygarga  of  the 
ancients  being  certainly  a  different  species,  and  an  inhabitant  of 
Northern  Africa.  The  tail  is  long  and  switched,  nearly  naked  at 
the  root,  and  terminated  by  a  tuft  of  very  long  black  hair.  The 
knees  are  without  brushes.  The  young  are  at  first  of  a  brownish- 
red  colour  on  the  body,  partially  glazed,  as  in  the  adults  ;  but  what 
is  most  remarkable  of  all  is,  that  the  face,  instead  of  being  white  as 
in  the  grown  animal,  is  of  a  very  deep  brownish-black  colour,  slightly 
mixed  with  scattered  grey  hairs. 

It  was  from  a  young  animal  that  our  engraving  (Fig.  655)  was 
taken. 

Scemmering's  Antelope  {Gazella  Soemmeringii). — This  light 
and  graceful  Antelope,  which  exceeds  the  Ariel  Gazelle  in  size,  is  a 
native  of  Abyssinia,  where  it  was  discovered  by  Riippel  during  his 
journey  through  the  nortliern  provinces  of  that  country,  and  after- 
wards described  by  Cretzchraar  in  the  zoological  portion  of  Riippel's 
account  of  his  travels. 

It  frequents  hilly  districts,  but  is  not  gregarious  like  the  common 
Gazelle  :  it  lives  in  pairs,  and  is  fleet  and  vigorous.  Beyond  these 
points  we  know  nothing  of  its  history.  The  horns  of  this  elegant  Ante- 
lope are  regularly  lyrated,  bending  boldly  outwards  towards  the  points, 
and  then  suddenly  turning  inwards  towards  one  another,  with  a  very 
sharp  and  well-defined  curve  ;  they  are  annulated  with  fifteen  or  six- 
teen prominent  and  complete  rings,  which  reach  from  the  base  to  the 
inward  curvature  within  about  two  inches  and  a  quarter  of  the  points. 
The  general  colour  is  a  beautiful  clear  yellowish-dun,  the  hair  being 
extremely  short,  and  appearing  almost  as  if  it  had  been  clipped  or 
shorn.  It  does  not  lie  close  and  smooth  upon  the  hide,  nor  does  it 
all  follow  the  same  direction,  as  in  the  generality  of  animals,  but  is 
disposed  in  innumerable  small  waves,  pointing  in  dift'erent  directions, 
as  if  it  had  been  regularly  shaded  and  parted  on  each  side,  and  ap- 
pearing glossy  or  glazed  along  their  ridges  with  a  shining  dun 
shade,  more  or  less  intense  according  to  the  light  by  which  it  is  ob- 
served. All  the  under-parts  of  the  body  are  abruptly  of  the  most 
pure  and  brilliant  white,  and  a  large  disc  of  the  same  colour  sur- 
rounds the  tail  and  passes  over  the  rump  and  croup.     The  tail  is 


Fig.  656. — Sosmmering's  Antelope, 

small  and  slender,  nearly  naked  at  the  root,  and  furnished  at  the  ex- 
tremity with  a  tuft  of  mixed  brown  and  grey  hairs.  The  outsides  of 
the  legs  are  very  pale  fawn-colour,  the  insides  white,  and  the  knee- 
brushes  white  and  fawn  mixed.  The  ears  are  pretty  long,  and 
brown,  with  a  narrow  black  border  surrounding  their  outer  edge. 
The  face  is  dark  brown  in  some  specimens,  and  pure  black  in  others, 
curiously  mixed  with  wavy  red  on  the  forehead  ;  on  each  side  of  this 
a  broad  white  band  passes  from  the  root  of  the  horns  over  the  eyes 
to  the  nose,  and  there  is  an  indication  of  a  small  black  one  from 
the  anterior  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  separating 
this  white  band  from  the  cheeks  and  sides  of  the  lower  jaw, 
which  are  of  a  uniform  fawn-colour.  The  horns  of  the  female  have 
nearly  the  same  curvature  as  those  of  the  male,  and  are  felly  a? 
long,  but  they  are  much  more  slender,  and  have  not  such  prominenc 
annuli.     (See  Fig.  656.) 

The  M'horr  {Gazell  A.  Mhorr,  Bennett).— The  M'horr  is  a 
native  of  Wednoon,  twelve  days'  journey  inland  from  Mogadore, 
whence  some  years  since  two  living  specimens  were  sent  to  the  gar- 
dens of  the  Zool.  Soc,  Lond.  The  species  is  described  and  figured 
by  Mr.  Bennett  in  the  "  Zool.  Transactions."  Its  general  colour  is 
deep  fulvous  or  reddish-brown,  becoming  paler  on  the  sides  of  the 


THE  SPRINGBUCK. 


2SI 


face,  and  passing  into  white  about  the  eyes,  nose,  lips,  and  lower 
law  •  an  irresrular  black  mark  between  the  eyes  and  the  mouth.  A 
square  mark  midway  on  the  front  of  the  neck  ;  the  under-parts, 
croup  back  of  the  thii^hs,  tail,  and  inside  the  hmbs  are  abruptly 
white-  the  tail  has  a  fringe  of  black  hairs  at  its  termmation  ;  tlie 
horns  are  somewhat  lyrate,  and  strongly  annulated,  and  after  bend- 
ino-  back,  suddenly  curve  forwards,  the  pomts  bemg  hooked.  Height 
at^the  shoulder,  2  feet  6  inches.    (See  Fig.  657.) 


Fig.  657. — Jil'horr. 

The  Springbuck,  or  Springbok  {Gazella  et/chore).—kvaox\g 
the  true  Antelopes  this  species  is  one  of  the  most  graceful  and  beau- 
tiful ;  and  its  movements  are  light  and  rapid.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
wild  karroos  of  South  Africa,  where  it  lives  in  vast  troops,  which  are 
irregularly  migratory.  Its  name  Springbuck  (Springbok)  is  given  m 
allusion  to  its  singular  habit  of  leaping  perpendicularly  when 
alarmed,  or  as  it  scours  the  plain,  and  that  to  the  height  of  several  feet. 


Mr.  Burchell  well  describes  the  effect  produced  by  large  herds  of  these 
interesting  creatures  spread  over  an   extensive  plain,  intermingled 
with  troops  of  Gnus  and  Quaggas.    Two  thousand  Springbucks  seen 
at  one  view  must,  indeed,  have  been  a  noble  spectacle.     The  plain, 
he  says,  "  afforded  no  other  object  to  fix  the  attention  ;  and  even  if 
it  had  presented  many,  I  should  not  readily  have  ceased  admiring 
these  elegant  animals,  or  have  been  diverted  from  watching  their 
manners.     It  was  only  occasionally  that  they  took  those  remarkable 
leaps  which  have  been  the  origin  of  their  name  ;    but  when  grazing 
or  moving  at  leisure,  they  walked  and  trotted  like  other  Antelopes  or 
the   common   Deer.     When  pursued  or  hastening  their  pace,  they 
frequently  took    an   extraordinary  bound,    rising,   with   curved    or 
elevated  backs,  high  into  the  air,  generally  to  the  height  of  eight 
feet,  and  appearing  as  if  about  to  take  flight.     Some  of  the  herds 
moved  by  us  almost  within  musket-shot,  and  I  observed,  that  in  cross- 
ing the  beaten  road,  the  greater  number  cleared  it  by  one  of  those 
flying  leaps."     The  most  remarkable  point  in  the  history  of  the 
Soringbuck,  relates  to  its  habits  of  migration.     The  karroos,  or  vast 
w'ilds  in  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa,  where  this  animal  resides  in 
almost  incredible  multitudes,  are  subject  to  seasons  of  drought,  in 
which  the  pools  are  dried  up,  the  pasturage  burnt  by  excessive  heat, 
and  every  green  leaf  or  blade  withered.     Driven  by  necessity,  all  the 
animals  hu"rr)'  from  this  scene  of  barrenness  ;  and  of  these  the  Spring- 
bucks are  in  myriads.     They  literally  inundate  the  fertile  districts, 
over  which  swarm  after  swarm  passes  like  wave  after  wave,  destroy- 
ino-  the  hopes  of  the  colonists.     The  grazier  drives  his  flocks  and 
he'rds  to  a  distant  pasturage,  dispossessed  of  his  lands  till  the  heavy 
rains  set  in  :  the  corn-lands  are  ruined  for  the  season,  and  the  line 
of  their  march  is  one  broad  track  of  desolation.     It   is  nnt   with 
impunity,  however,  that  the  Springbucks  make  these  forced  incur- 
sions     The  gun  of  the  colonists  thins  their  numbers  ;  and   Lions, 
Hyenas,  and  Jackals  follow  in  their  train,  andprey  incessantly  upon 
them      When  the  rains  begin  to  fall,  the  horde,  thinned  by  man  and 
beast,  begins  to  return  to  the  interior,  and  in  a  fe\y  days  the  whole 
have  disappeared.     The  migratory  swarms  are  called  by  the  Dutch 
colonist   Trek-bok-ken.     Mr.    Pringle  once  passed  through  one  of 
them   near  the  Little  Fish  river ;  he  could  not  profess  to  estimate 
their  numbers  :  they  whitened,  or  rather  speckled,  the  country  as  far 
as  the  eve  could  reach  ;  there  could  not  have  been  less  in  view  than 
twenty-five  or  thirty  thousand,     The  Springbuck  is  shot   in  great 
numbers  by  the  Dutch  boors.     This  sport  is  usually  on  horseback 
and  in  the  heat  of  the  day.     The  animal  is  then  lying  in  its  habitual 
lair    and  on  being  disturbed  by  the  sportsman,  springs  aw^ay  with 


Fig.  658.— Hunting  the  Springbuck." 


a  succession  of  bounds,  than 
which  nothing  can  be  more 
beautiful  or  graceful.  The 
Dutch  boor  is  generally  an 
unerring  shot ;  but  in  case 
the  Antelope  should  be  only 
wounded,  the  Buck-Dog  (a 
species  of  large  Mongrel)  is 
always  at  the  heels  of  his 
master's  Horse,  and,  at  the 
report  of  his  gun,  darts  for- 
ward and  secures  the  animal. 
It  is  then  placed  behind  the 
saddle,  in  the  way  shown  in 
Fig.  658. 

The  general  colour  of  the 
Springbuck  is  light  cinna- 
mon-red, a  band  of  deep  red- 
dish-brown passing  along  the 
sides,  and  edging  the  pure 
white  of  the  under  surface. 
On  the  croup  is  a  large  patch 
of  long  white  hairs,  enclosed 
uy  a  fold  of  skin  on  each 
side,  the  edges  of  which  ap- 
proximate when  the  animal  is 
quiet,  so  as  to  reduce  the 
white  to  a  mere  line.  In  the 
act  of  leaping  these  folds  are 
widely  opened,  and  the  long 
white  hairs  spread  beauti- 
fully out,  so  as  to  cover  the 
whole  of  the  haunch,  produc- 
ing a  striking  effect.  When 
taken  young,  the  Springbuck 
is  easily  tamed,  and  becomes 
playful  and  familiar,  display- 
ing the  confidence  and  even 
petulance  of  the  Goat,  and 
using  its  horns  in  butting, 
either  sportively  or  in  earnest. 

The  Indian  Antelope 
(Gaze  I  la,  or  A?!  t  Hope  cervi- 
cap-aj.—l^e.  Saism,  or  com- 


252 


INDIAN  ANTELOPES. 


mon  Antelope  of  India,  is  spread  over  almost  every  part  of  that 
country,  residing  on  the  open  plains  in  large  herds  of  females 
and  young,  under  the  guidance  of  a  single  old  male.  They  arc 
extremely  wary  and  cautious,  and  when  feeding  or  lying  down  to 
ruminate  are  guarded  by  sentinels  (young  Bucks),  who  give  the 
alarm  on  the  slightest  appearance  of  danger.  Their  fleetness  and 
activity  are  such,  that  Greyhounds  are  useless  in  the  chase.  Captain 
Williamson  assures  us  that  he  has  seen  a  Buck  Antelope  lead  a 
herd  of  females  over  a  net  at  least  eleven  feet  high,  and  that  they 
frequently  vault  to  the  height  of  twelve  or  thirteen  feet,  and  pass 
over  ten  or  twelve  yards  at  a  single  bound.  The  flesh  of  this  species 
is  dry  and  unsavoury,  but  the  animal  is  often  hunted,  for  the  sake  of 
the  sport,  by  means  of  trained  Chetahs,  as  described  in  the  history 
of  the  latter,  under  the  head  of  Cariirjora,  in  this  work. 

The  Indian  Antelope  is  about  two  feet  and  a-half  in  height  at  the 
shoulder,  and  is  lightly  formed,  but  endowed  with  great  vigour. 
The  adult  males  are  of  a  blackish-brown  above,  and  white  beneath, 
the  nose,  lips,  and  a  large  circle  round  each  eye  being  likewise 
white  ;  the  hair  is  short  and  close  ;  the  knees  are  furnished  with 
tufts  or  brushes.     The  horns  have  two  or  more  spiral  turns,  and  are 


4\%>^. 


rig.  659. — Indian  Antelope. 


strongly  annulated  ;  the  Fakirs  and  Dervishes  polish  them,  and  form 
them  into  offensive  weapons  by  uniting  them  at  the  base,  so  that 
they  are  pointed  at  each  end ;  these  they  wear  in  their  girdles, 
instead  of  swords  and  daggers,  which  their  vows  and  religious 
character  prevent  them  from  using.  The  young  males,  and  also 
the  females,  are  of  a  tawny-brown,  with  a  streak  of  silvery  grey  along 
each  side.     (See  Fig.  659.) 

The  Pallah  {Antihpemelampiis). — This  magnificent  Antelope 
is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  where  it  was  discovered  by  Lichtenstein. 
It  inhabits  Caffraria  and  the  country  of  the  Bachapins,  never 
descending  farther  south  than  the  Koosges  valley  in  one  direction, 


Fig.  660.— The  PaUah. 


and  the  Kamhanni  mountains  in  the  other.     This  species  associates 

in  families  of  six  or  eight  individuals,  always  residing  on  the  open 
plains :  their  swiftness  is  astonishing,  and  they  leap  with  great 
vigour,  and  much  in  the  manner  of  the  Springbuck.  They  are  very 
numerous  on  the  elevated  plains  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lattakoo, 
where  the  natives  choose  them  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh,  which, 
though  deficient  in  fat,  is  much  esteemed.  The  Pallah  (as  it  is 
called  by  the  Bachapins)  stands  three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder. 
The  general  colour  is  deep  rufous  ;  the  lips,  eyebrows,  interior  of  the 
ears,  all  the  undcr-parts,  the  inside  of  the  limbs,  and  the  region 
below  the  tail  are  white  ;  a  black  crescentic  mark  on  the  croup 
separates  the  white  from  the  rufous  colour  on  the  back  ;  the  outside 
of  the  heel  and  knee  are  marked  by  black  spots  ;  the  horns  have  an 
irregular  lyrate  tendency,  bending  first  forwards  and  very  much  out- 
wards, then  with  a  large  circular  sweep  inwards,  and  finally  point- 
ing forward  again,  approaching  within  three  inches  of  one  another 
at  the  tips,  after  being  nearly  a  foot  distant  in  the  middle  ;  they  are 
about  twenty  inches  long  in  adult  anima.ls,  and  surrounded  for  two- 
thirds  of  their  length  with  irregular  rings,  often  splitting  into  two, 
and  forming  prominent  knobs  on  the  front  of  the  horn,  but  frequently 
obliterated,  and  always  less  strongly  marked  on  the  sides,  which  are 
slightly  compressed.     (See  Fig.  660.) 

The  Madoqua  Antelope  [lladoqtta saltia)ia).—'VMs  beautiful 
little  Antelope,  which  scarcely  equals  a  Hare  in  magnitude,  is  a 
native  of  Abyssinia,  where  it  was  first  discovered  by  Bruce  about 
the  sources  of  the  Abawi,  or  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile.  Of  its 
habits  little  is  known  :  it  is  said  to  live  in  pairs  in  mountainous  dis- 
tricts ;  and  Pearce  informs  us  that  many  of  the  Abyssinians  object  to 
eat  its  flesh,  from  superstitious  motives,  because,  as  they  assert,  it  is 
often  found  in  the  society  of  Monkeys  and  Baboons. 

The  height  of  this  species  at  the  shoulder  is  about  fourteen 
inches ;  the  horns  are  sharp,  and  slightly  bent  outwards  and  for- 
wards ;  the  face,  forehead,  and  legs,  as  well  as  the  tuft  of  long  hair 
between  the  horns,  are  of  a  bright  and  deep  red,  as  are  likewise  the 
backs  of  the  ears  ;  the  neck,  shoulders,  flanks,  rump,  and  outsides 
of  the  thighs  are  of  _a  clear  grey  colour,  like  that  of  the  American 


Fig.  661.— The  Madoqua. 

Grey  Squirrels,  each  hair  being  annulated  with  alternate  rings  of 
black  and  white ;  the  back,  from  the  shoulders  to  the  rump,  is  a 
deep  reddish-brown,  and  the  breast,  belly,  interior  of  the  fore-arms 
and  thighs,  and  hinder  surface  of  the  hips,  of  the  most  pure  un- 
mixed white,  forming  altogether  a  variety,  clearness,  and  brilliancy 
of  colouring  rarely  met  with  among  quadrupeds ;  the  tail  is  very 
short,  being  in  fact  little  more  than  a  mere  stump  ;  the  ears  are 
round  and  nearly  the  length  of  the  horns;  the  hoofs  small,  well- 
formed,  and,  like  the  horns,  of  a  deep  black  colour  ;  the  forehead  is 
perfectly  flat,  and  the  head  is  compressed  suddenly  below  the  eyes, 
and  tapers  to  a  small  and  attenuated  snout ;  the  legs  are  long  in 
proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  so  small  that  they  scarcely 
equal  the  little  finger  in  thickness.     (See  Fig.  661.) 

The  Reitbok,  or  Reedbuck  {GazeHa,  or  Antilope  elotragus). 

The  interior  of  South  Africa  is  the  abode  of  the  Reitbok,  where  it 

is  by  no  means  uncommon,  living  in  pairs  or  small  families,  and  fre- 
quenting the  reedy  banks  of  mountain-streams  which  are  dried  up 
during  the  heat  of  summer.  Sometimes  it  is  found  along  the  borders 
of  the  rivers  in  dense  woodland  solitudes  :  plants  growing  in  humid 
or  marshy  situations  are  its  food. 

The  Reitbok  is  about  2  feet  10  inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  The 
hair  over  the  neck  and  body  is  long  and  rough,  and  of  a  dull  ashy- 
grey,  sometimes  tinged  with  red  ;  the  under-parts  and  inside  of  the 
limbs  are  silvery  grey.     The  tail  is  long  and  bushy.     Beneath  the 


THE   CHAMOIS. 


25.1 


ears,  on  each  side  of  the  head,  is  a  naked  oval  space  of  a  shining 
blaclc  colour.  The  horns  curve  forwards  very  boldly,  and  are  annu- 
iated  at  the  base  with  prominent  rings.     (See  Fig.  662.) 

Bush  Antelopes. 

The  animals  so  termed  arc  of  a  compact  form  and  low  in  the 
limbs,  which  are  slender  but  vigorous.  The  hair  is  smooth  and 
usually  close  ;  the  neck  is  short,  and  held  almost  horizontally,  and 


Fig.  662.— The  Reitbok. 

the  back  is  arched.  The  horns  are  straight  and  short,  and  situated 
high  on  the  head,  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  eyes  ;  in  one 
sub-genus  they  are  possessed  by  females  as  well  as  males.  There 
is  no  sub-orbital  sinus;  but  its  absence  is  compensated  for  by  a  long 
maxillary  gland  running  down  each  side  of  the  face,  between  the 
angle  of  the  eye  and  the  muzzle,  indicated  by  a  naked  space  on  the 
skin,  of  a  black  colour,  and  moistened  by  a  peculiar  secretion. 
These  animals  live  singly,  or  in  pairs,  frequenting  jungles,  dense 
reed-beds,  and  the  underwoods  of  forests,  mostly  preferring  hills  or 
mountain-districts  of  moderate  elevation.  When  pursued,  they  dive 
through  the  thicket,  and  quickly  disappear. 

The  Bush  Antelope  [Cephaloloplms  sylvicuUrix,  Fig.  663)  is 
of  a  more  compact  form  than  the  generality  of  Antelopes.  Its  legs 
are  shorter  and  thicker,  and  it  is  far  less  active  than  its  fellows.     It 


Fig.  663. — The  Bu.sh  Antelope. 

lives  solitary  on  the  bushy  plateaux  of  the  mountains  of  Sierra 
Leone,  concealing  itself  in  the  thickets  during  the  day,  and  feeding 
only  in  the  dusk.  It  is  about  three  feet  high  at  the  shoulders,  and 
of  a  brown  colour,  with  a  streak  of  fawn-colour  on  the  hinder  part 
of  the  back.  Its  flesh  is  considered  good,  although  at  certain 
seasons  it  has  a  musky  odour.  The  hunters  watch  for  it  about 
dawn,  concealing  themselves  in  the  trees. 

The  Kleenbok  {Ccphalolophus  pyg/tiams ;  A7itilope  per- 
p2cs ilia). —This  little  Anielope  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  and  lives 
singly,  or  in  pairs,  among  the  bushes,  in  the  covert  of  which  it  hides 
itself  so  completely,  that  it  is  not  often  to  be  seen  even  where  it  is 
abundant.  It  is  very  active,  shy,  wary,  and  timid,  and  displays 
great  address  and  cunning  in  eluding  pursuit.  When  domesticated 
it  becomes  very  famiUar,  will  distinguish  persons  about  it,  and 
answer  to  its  name  when  called.  This  species  is  the  A.  pygmisa 
of  Desmarest,  who  confounds  it  with  the  Guevi  of  Senegal :  it  is  also 
the  A.  ccerulea  of  Col.  H.  Smith. 

The  height  of  the  Kleenbok  at  the  shoulder  is  about  a  foot  ;  the 
head  is  long  and  pointed.    The  general  colour  is  dark  slaty  brown, 


passing  in  the  under-parts  to  ashy-grey  ;  the  forehead  and  nose  are 
brown,  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  line  of  sandy  red  ;  the  legs  are 
reddish-brown  ;  the  horns  arc  small  and  straight,  not  more  than  an 
inch  and  a-half  long  in  the  male  ;  nearly  an  inch  in  the  female.  (Sec 
Fig.  664.) 


Fig.  664. — The  Kleenbok. 

A  still  smaller  species  is  the  Neotragus  spinigera.  a  native  of 
Guinea,  which  is  usually  about  eleven  inches  ia  height  at  the 
shoulder. 

Capriform  Antelopes. 

The  characters  of  the  Capriform  Antelopes  are  : — Head  heavy  ; 
neck  short ;  contour  robust ;  limbs  strong  ;  hoofs  adapted  for  rocky 
or  mountain  situations  ;  horns  small,  or  moderate  ;  hair  coarse  and 
deep,  or  harsh  and  wiry. 

Genus  Rupicapra.—B.oxns  common  to  both  sexes,  rising  imme- 
diately above  the  orbits,  at  first  vertically,  then  looking  abruptly 
backwards,  small  and  smooth,  with  sharp  points ;  lips  hairy  and  at- 
tenuated ;  sub-orbital  sinuses  wanting;  inguinal  pores  and  post- 
auditory  sinuses  ;  teats  of  females  two. 

The  Chamois  {Rupicapra  tragus:  Antilope  rupicapra).— 
This  celebrated  animal  is  found  in  all  the  Alpine  chains  of  Europe 
and  Western  Asia,  in  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Carpathian  and 
Grecian  mountains,  and  the  ranges  of  the  Caucasus  and  Taurus. 
Everywhere  it  tenants  the  loftiest  ridges,  displaying  the  most  as- 
tonishing activity.  During  the  summer  it  is  only  to  be  found  on  the 
mountain-tops,  or  in  sequestered  rock-girt  glens,  where  the  snow 
lies  unmelted  throughout  the  year ;  but  in  winter  it  descends  below 
the  line  of  perpetual  snows  to  the  grassy  slopes,  where  it  becomes 
doubly  cautious  and  wary.  Its  senses  of  hearing,  sight,  and  smell 
are  extremely  acute,  and  it  scents  the  approaching  hunter  at  the 
distance  of  half  a  league.  When  its  fears  are  once  excited,  it 
bounds  from  rock  to  rock,  as  if  to  gain  a  view  of  the  surrounding 
district,  uttering  at  the  same  time  a  singular  hissing  sound  ;  but  no 
sooner  has  it  caught  sight  of  its  enemy,  than  off  it  bounds,  scaling 
the  most  fearful  rocks,  clearing  chasms,  and  leaping  from  crag  to 
crag  with  amazing  rapidity.  Its  course  is  not  stopped  by  a  perpen- 
dicular precipice  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  depth  :  with  astonishing 
boldness  it  takes  the  leap,  striking  the  face  of  the  rock  repeatedly 
with  its  feet,  for  the  purpose  both  of  breaking  the  fall,  and  of  direct- 
ing itself  more  steadily  to  the  point  it  aims  at.  It  pitches  on  the 
smallest  ledge,  where  the  eye_^of  man  scarcely  discerns  room  for  its 
foot ;  and  it  "traverses  with  security  the  beetling  shelf  that  overhangs 
the  deepest  abyss.  The  perils  of  the  Chamois-hunter  have  been  too 
often  narrated  to  need  repetition ;  his  life  is  one  of  perpetual 
jeopardy  :  he  is  like  a  man  infatuated  by  a  spell ;  and  though  he 
knows  the  awful  risk  he  runs,  yet  to  the  chase  is  he  impelled  by  the 
same  feelings  which  urge  the  gamester  in  a  career  of  ruin.  (See 
Fig.  665.) 

The  food  of  the  Chamois  consists  of  mountain  herbs  and  flowers, 
and  the  tender  shoots  of  shrubs  ;  it  seldom  drinks,  but  is  extremely 
partial  to  salt ;  and  many  stones  are  met  with  in  the  Alps  hollowed 
out  by  the  continual  licking  of  the  Chamois,  on  account  «f  the  salt- 
petre with  which  they  abound. 

At  the  root  of  each  horn  on  the  back  of  the  head  there  is  a  sinus, 
or  opening  of  the  skin,  which  does  not  seem  to  be  connected  with 
any  gland,  nor  is  its  use  understood.  The  females  produce  one, 
rarely  two  kids  in  March  or  April.  The  Chamois  exceeds  two  feet 
in  height :  the  whole  body  is  covered  with  long  hair  of  a  deep  brown 
in  winter,  and  brownish  fawn-colour  in  summer;  the  chaffron, 
muzzle,  and  sides  of  the  lower  jaw  are  white  or  straw-coloured;  the 
tail  is  very  short. 

Genus  Mazama.  —  Yiom?.  in  the  male  only,  compressed  laterally 
at  the  base,  diverging  as  they  rise  upwards,  then  hookmg  backwards 
and  inwards,  rough  and  scabrous,  and  giving  off  above  their  base  a 
bold,  compressed,  pointed  prong,  directed  forwards;   lips  hairy; 


254 


THE  PRONGBUCK. 


neither  inguinal  pits  nor  lachrymal  sinuses  ;  interdigital  pits  dis- 
tinct ;  teats  in  the  female,  four  ;  knee-brushes  large ;  accessory  hoofs 
wanting. 

The  Prongbuck,  or  Cabrit  {Antilocapra  furcifera  ;  Amaiilo 
capra  amencana ;  Anti/opc  furcifer). —''^hc  Prongbuck  is  a 
native  of  the  western  parts  of  North  America,  from  the  53°  of  north 
latitude  to  the  plains  of  Mexico  and  California  ;  presuming  that  it  is 
identical  with  the  animal  described  by  Hernandez  as  the  Mazama 


Fig.  665. — Hunlins  the  Chamois. 

{Mazama  amcricajia).  It  is  gregarious  in  its  habits,  frequenting 
wide  open  plains,  or  hills  of  modemte  height,  but  is  never  found  to 
inhabit  forests  or  closely-wooded  districts.  It  migrates  from  north 
to  south,  according  to  the  season.  On  the  banks  of  the  southern 
branch  of  the  Saskatchewan,  and  on  the  upper  plains  of  the  Columbia 
river  it  is  very  numerous.  The  Prongbuck  is  compactly  formed, 
active,  and  vigorous  ;  and,  on  firm  ground,  will  outstrip  most  ani- 
mals; but  after  a  slight  fall  of  snow  a  good  Horse  will  easily  overtake 


Fig.  666.— The  Prongbuck. 


it.  These  animals,  like  many  other  Ruminants,  display  a  sort  of 
stupid  curiosity  at  the  sight  of  novel  objects,  which,  as  Dr.  Godman 
states,  the  Indians,  and  even  the  Wolves,  turn  to  their  own  advan- 
tage. If  they  crouch  down,  assume  strange  postures,  now  move 
forwards,  now  stop,  or  play  antics,  the  Prongbucks  wheel  round  and 
round  the  object  of  their  attention,  decreasing  their  distance  at  every 
turn,  till  at  last  they  approach  near  enough  to  be  killed  by  the  In- 
dian, or  sprung  upon  by  the  Wolf.     Their  flesh,  however,  is  not  in 

any    estimation,    and    it   is 
only  in  times  of  scarcity  that 
the    Indian    will    take    the 
trouble    of    hunting    them. 
The  females   produce    one, 
or  even  two  kids  early  in  the 
month  of  June.     The  Prong- 
buck   stands   three   feet    in 
height  at  the   shoulder :   its 
body  is  covered  with  closely 
compacted     hair,    standing 
out  from  the  skin,  and  of  a 
most  singular  te.xture  ;   it  is 
tubular,    or   hollow,  like    a 
quill,  but  so  brittle  and  de- 
void   of     elasticity   that    it 
snaps     with     the     smallest 
effort,     and    when    pressed 
between  the  thumb  and  fin- 
ger crushes  like  a  dry  reed, 
and  never  regains  its  origi- 
nal form  ;  on  the  head,  ears, 
and  legs   the   fur   is   close, 
and  of  the  ordinary  quality  ; 
that    on    the    body   is    two 
inches  long,   but  down  the 
back   of  the  neck  it  is   six 
inches  in  length,  and  forms 
a  mane.    The  general  colour 
is  pale  fawn,  the  hairs  being 
of  a  bluish  tint  at  the  roots ; 
the   under-parts    and   inner 
aspect    of   the     limbs     are 
white  ;  a  broad  disc  of  white 
surrounds     the      tail,      and 
passes  over  the  croup  ;  and 
the   throat    is   marked  also 
with    two    transverse   white 
bands.      This,   it    must   be 
observed,  is  the  winter  dress 
of  the  animal ;    in  summer, 
the  new  coat,  which  it  then 
acquires,  consists  of  hair  of  the  ordinary  quality,  which  as  the  winter 
comes  on  gives  place  to  the  covering  described.    (See  Fig.  666.) 

BoTiFORM  Antelopes. 

As  the  Antelopes  of  the  last  section  approximate  to  the  true 
Goats,  so,  on  the  other  hand,  do  the  animals  of  this  section  ap- 
proach the  Oxen.  They  do  not,  however,  all  display  an  equal  de- 
gree of  proximity  :  some,  indeed,  as  the  Nyl-Ghau,  are  closely  allied 
to  groups  among  the  true  Antelopes,  while  others  have  nothing  of 
the  Antelope  in  form  or  appearance.  In  general  they  are  distin- 
guished by  their  massive  contour,  large  size,  and  powerful  limbs, 
conjoined  with  a  heavy  head,  short  neck,  and  elevated  withers. 
The  horns  are  large,  often  very  thick  and  solid,  and  the  eyes 
small ;  they  are,  in  fact.  Bovine  in  their  contour  and  habits,  and 
gradually  approximate  to  the  genus  Bos.  In  those  which  approach 
the  nearest  to  this  genus  there  are  horns  in  both  sexes. 

The  Nyl-Ghau,  or  Nylgai  {Porfax  picta ;  Boselaphus 
pictiis). — This  magnificent  species,  which  stands  upwards  of  four 
feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  is  a  native  of  the  dense  forests  of 
India,  where  it  resides  alone,  or  in  pairs;  it  is  extremely  vicious, 
resolute,  and  powerful;  and  will  turn  upon  its  pursuers  with  great 
fury.  Even  in  confinement  it  is  not  to  be  approached  without  cau- 
tion. Previous  to  making  its  attack,  it  drops  upon  its  fore-knees, 
and,  in  that  attitude,  gradually  advances  till  within  a  certain  dis- 
tance of  its  foe,  when  it  darts  suddenly  forward  witli  amazing  force 
and  velocity.  Bold  and  spirited,  however,  as  it  is,  it  is  the  most 
common  prey  of  the  Tiger.  During  the  day  the  Nyl-Ghau  lurks  in 
the  covert  of  the  forest,  whence,  early  in  the  morning,  or  during  the 
night,  it  wanders  forth  to  feed,  invading  the  adjacent  corn-fields 
and  cultivated  lands. 

The  male  considerably  exceeds  the  female  in  size.  The  general 
colour  is  slaty-blue  ;  in  the  female,  tawny-red.  The  lips,  chin,  and 
under-parts  are  white ;  there  is  a  large  white  spot  on  the  throat, 
two  smaller  ones  on  the  cheeks,  and  one  in  the  front  and  two  in  the 
rear  of  each  pastern-joint.  The  young  males  resemble  the  females 
ia  their  colour,  which  is  exchanged  for  slaty-blue  on  arriving  at 


THE  NYL-GHAU. 


^I'i 


maturity.  A  bunch  of  long:  pendant  hair  hangs  from  the  fore-part 
of  the  neck,  and  a  similar  tuft  terminates  the  tail.     (See  Fig-.  667.) 

The  hmbs  of  the  Nyl-(jhau  are  well-formed,  but  when  the  animal 
is  standing,  are  gathered  close  under  the  body,  and  the  tail  is  drawn 
in  between  the  liind-legs,  Mr.  Ogilby  regards  this  animal  as  the 
Hippdaphus  of  Aristotle. 

The  female  Nyl-Ghau  breeds  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  yearly, 
producing  two  calves  at  a  birth.     The  Indian  name,  as  above  used, 


Fig.  667.— The  Nyl-Ghau,  or  Nylgai. 

signifies  "  Blue  Cow,"  and  indicates,  that  even  in  its  native  country 
the  strong  resemblance  which  it  presents  to  the  true  Cattle  has  not 
escaped  notice. 

The  Sing-Sing,  or  Koba  {Antilopc  koba,  Ogilby).— This 
species  is  the  "  grande  vache  brune  "  of  the  Frenclr  of  Senegal,  of 
which  country  it  is  a  native.  It  equals  the  common  Stag  in  stature, 
and  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  long  rough  hair  ;  a  rough  bristly  mane 
runs  down  the  back  of  the  neck.  The  general  colour  is  dark  sandy- 
red,  passing  into  grey  on  the  under-parts  ;  the  face  and  limbs  are 
dark  brown,  or  black  ;  the  lips,  chin,  and  a  stripe  over  each  eye,  are 
white.  Of  the  native  habits  of  the  Koba  little  is  known  ;  in  cap- 
tivity, judging  from  the  specimens  we  have  seen,  it  is  a  gentle  and 
quiet  animal.     When  at  rest,  its  attitude  resembles  that  of  the  Nyl- 


Fig.  668.— The  Koba. 

Ghau.  An  allied,  but  smaller  species,  the  Kob,  or  "  petite  vache 
brune"  of  the  French,  inhabits  Western  Africa.  The  figure  (668)  of 
the  Ivoba  represents  the  female. 

Genus  Oryx. — Horns,  in  both  sexes,  long,  erect,  annulated  ; 
muzzle,  nearly  naked,  or  quite  ;  inlerdigital  pits  large  ;  neither  sub- 
orbital sinuses  nor  inguinal  pores  ;  teats  of  female,  four. 

The  Addax  {Oryx  naso-maculata  ;  Addax  naso-tnaculaius  ; 
Antilope  addax,  Licht.)— This  animal  is  the  Strepsiceros  of  Pliny, 
which  he  states  is  termed  by  the  Africans  Addax,  or  Addas  ;  and 
according  to  Riippel  and  Hemprich,  and  Ehrenberg,  who  may  be 


said  to  have  re-discovered  this  species  in  Dongola,  it  is  denomi- 
nated Akasch,  or  Akas,  or  Addas,  by  the  Arabs,  with  the  additional 
prefix  of  Abu,  "  father  "—thus,  Abu-Addas— a  title  they  bestow  on 
many  other  animals,  as,  for  example,  the  sacred  Ibis,  which  they 
call  Abu  Ilanncs,  or  Father  John.  The  Addax  appears  to  be  widely 
spread  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa,  tenanting  the  deserts  in 
pairs,  or,  perhaps,  small  groups.  It  is  met  with  sparingly  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  Algerian  Sahara,  as  well  as  in  Nubia  and'Soudan.  It 
stands  three  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  is  heavily  made  ; 
the  head  is  large,  the  neck  thick,  and  the  legs  robust.  The  horns 
are  long  and  round,  rather  slender  in  proportion  to  their  length, 
twisted  outwards,  and  describing  two  turns  of  a  wide  spiral,  annu- 
lated to  w'ithin  five  or  six  inches  of  the  points,  which  are  smooth  and 
sharp  ;  the  form  of  the  horns  of  the  female  docs  not  differ  from  that 
of  the  male  ;  but  in  the  young  they  are  almost  straight.  The  ears 
are  pretty  long,  and  proportionably  broader  than  in  most  of  the 
smaller  Antelopes,  and  the  tail  reaches  almost  to  the  hough,  and  is 
terminated  by  a  switch  of  long,  coarse,  grey  hair.  The  whole  head 
and  neck,   both  above  and   below,   are   of  a   deep   reddish-brown 


Fig.  669.— The  Addax. 

colour,  except  a  transverse  mark  of  pure  white  across  the  lower  part 
of  the  forehead,  between  the  orbits,  which  expands  on  the  cheeks 
and  half  surrounds  the  eyes  ;  a  patch  of  black  curly  hair  surrounds 
the  root  of  the  horns,  and  there  is  a  scanty  beard  of  the  same  colour 
on  the  larynx  ;  all  the  rest  of  the  animal,  including  the  entire  body, 
from  the  neck  backwards,  as  well  as  the  legs  and  tail,  is  greyish- 
white  ;  the  hoofs  are  black,  and  remarkably  broad,  to  enable  the 
animal  to  pass  more  easily  over  the  fine  and  loose  sand  of  the 
desert  in  which  it  lives.     (See  Fig.  669.) 

The  Blauwbok  {Antilope  leiicophcca). — This  Antelope  is  a 
native  of  South  Africa,  and  was  formerly  common  within  the  boun- 
daries of  the  Cape  Colony,  where  it  is  now  never  seen.  It  occurs  in 
the  extensive  open  plains  north  of  the  Gariep,  living  in  pairs,  or 


Fig.  670.— The  Blauwbok. 


£S6 


THE  ELAND. 


small  families  of  five  or  six.  It  is  a  bold  and  fierce  animal,  and, 
when  wounded,  will  turn  upon  the  hunter  with  g'reat  resolution. 
At  certain  seasons  it  is  reported  to  attack,  indiscriminately,  every 
animal  that  approaches  near  it.  The  Blauwbok  stands  3  feet  7 
inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder :  the  horns  exceed  two  feet  in 
length,  and  are  formidable  weapons  ;  they  are  round,  uniformly 
curved  backwards,  and  marked  with  from  twenty  to  thirty  prominent 
rings  ;  the  points,  for  the  extent  of  six  inches,  are  smooth,  and  ter- 
minate very  acute.  The  term  Blauwbok,  or  Blue-Buck,  has  been 
given  to  this  animal  by  the  Dutch  colonists  from  its  peculiar  hue, 
resulting  from  the  colour  of  the  hide,  which  is  deep  black,  being  re- 
flected through  the  ashy-grey  hair  that  covers  it,  giving  it  a  general 
dark-blue  tone.     (See  Fig.  670.) 

The  Abu-Harb  {Oryx  leucoryx ;  Antilope  leucoryx). — This 
species  is  the  Oryx  of  the  ancients,  a  term  now  given  to  an  allied 
South  African  species,  but  which  of  right  belongs  to  the  Abu-Harb, 
which  lives  in  large  herds  in  Sennaar  and  Kordofan,  feeding  princi- 
pally on  the  leaves  of  various  species  of  acacia.  It  is  represented 
in  abundance  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Nubia,  and  in  par- 
ticular in  the  inner  chamber  of  the  great  pyramid  at  I\Iemphis, 
where  a  whole  group  of  these  Antelopes  are  represented,  some 
driven  forward,  others  dragged  along  by  the  horns,  or  by  a  cord 
around  their  neck,  apparently  as  trophies  brought  from  a  con- 
quered country,  or  a  tribute  or  present  from  some  subjugated  na- 
tion.    (See  Fig.  671.) 

This  animal  nearly  equals  the  Addax  in  size.  The  horns  are  long 
and  slender,  arched  gently  backwards,  annulated  at  the  base,  and 
very  sharp  at  the  points.     The  tail  is  long,  and  tufted  at  the  ex- 


Fig.  671.— The  Abu-IIarb. 

tremity  with  black  and  grey  hairs  mixed  together.  The  hair  on  the 
head,  body,  and  extremities  is  universally  short,  and  lies  smoothly 
along  the  hide,  except  upon  the  ridge  of  the  back,  where  it  is 
rather  longer  and  reversed,  or  turned  towards  the  head  in  a  direc- 
tion contrary  to  that  on  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  forming  a 
short,  reversed  mane,  from  the  middle  of  the  back  to  the  occiput. 
The  head  is  white,  with  a  brown  mark  descending  perpendicularly 
from  each  orbit,  and  expanding  over  the  cheek,  and  a  similar  stripe 
passing  down  the  centre  of  the  face,  from  the  horns  to  the  muzzle  ; 
the  whole  neck  also,  on  the  throat  as  well  as  on  the  upper  part,  is  of 
a  uniform  rusty-brown  colour  ;  but,  with  these  exceptions,  all  the 
rest  of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  legs  and  tail,  is  milk-white. 

The  Oryx  {Antilope  Oryx). — The  Oryx  is  a  native  of  South 
Africa,  and  differs  from  the  Abu-Harb  in  having  the  horns  straight : 
there  is  a  large  black  mark  on  the  forehead,  united  with  a  broad 
stripe  across  each  cheek. 

This  powerful  Antelope  is  found  in  the  karroo,  south  of  the 
Orange  River,  and  is  resolute  and  dangerous  when  hard  pressed, 
using  its  long  sharp  horns  with  amazing  energy  and  address,  often 
transfixing  several  of  the  hunter's  dogs  before  he  can  get  within 
shot.      Tl'ie  horns  measure  three  feet  in  length.     (See  Fig.  672.) 

The  Eland,  or  Canna  {Oreas  can7ia;  Boselaphus  areas). — 
Among  the  numerous  species  of  Antelopes,  there  is  none  more  im- 
posing from  its  size,  or  more  interesting  in  an  economic  point  of 
view,  than  this  animal. 

"  In  shape  and  general  aspect,"  says  Sir  Comwallis  Harris,  "he 
resembles  a  Guzerat  Ox,  not  unfrequently  attaining  the  height  of 
nineteen  hands  at  the  withers,  and  absolutely  weighing  from  1,500 
to  2,000  pounds  !  By  all  classes  in  Africa  the  flesh  of  the  Eland  is 
deservedly  esteemed  over  that  of  any  other  animal.     Both  in  grain 


and  colour  it  resembles  beef,  but  is  far  better  tasted  and  more  deli- 
cate, possessing  a  pure  game  flavour,  and  exhibiting  the  most 
tempting-looking  layers  of  fat  and  lean,  the  surprising  quantity  of 
the  former  ingredient,  witli  which  it  is  interlarded,  exceeding  that  of 
any  other  game  quadruped  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  The  veni- 
son fairly  melts  in  the  mouth  ;  and  as  for  the  brisket,  that  is  abso- 
lutely a  cut  for  a  monarch  1  *  •  •  During  the  greater  part  of  our 
journey  it  was  to  the  flesh  of  this  goodly  boast  that  we  principally 


Fig.  672. — The  Oiyx. 

looked  for  our  daily  rations,  both  on  account  of  its  vast  superiority 
over  all  other  wild  flesh,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being 
obtainable  in  larger  quantities  with  comparatively  less  labour." 

The  Eland  breeds  readily  in  confinement,  and  has  been  proved,  by 
actual  experiment,  to  be  perfectly  capable  of  enduring  all  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  English  climate,  with  very  little  more  protection 
than  is  usually  bestowed  upon  valuable  cattle.     (See  Fig.  673.) 

"  In  its  natural  condition,"  continues  Sir  Cornwallis  Harris,  "the 
Eland  frequents  the  open  prairies  and  the  low  rocky  hills,  inter- 
spersed with  clumps  of  wood,  but  is  never  to  be  met  with  in  a  con- 
tinuously wooded  country.  Rejoicing  especially  in  low  belts  of 
shaded  hillocks,  and  in  the  isolated  groves  of  acacia  capensis, 
which,  like  islands  in  the  ocean,  are  scattered  over  many  of  the 


Fig.  673.— The  Eland. 

stony  and  gravelly  plains  of  the  interior,  large  herds  of  them  are 
also  to  be  seen  grazing  like  droves  of  Oxen  on  the  more  verdant 
meadows,  through  which  some  silver  rivulet  winds  in  rainbow 
brightness,  betwixt  fringes  of  sighing  bulrushes." 

Elands  were  first  imported  into  England  by  the  late  Earl  of 
Derby,  in  the  year  1840.  Accidental  circumstances  prevented  that 
herd  from  multiplying  to  any  extent,  and  a  second  importation  was 
made  in  1850,  which,  upon  the  earl's  death,  was  bequeathed  to  the 
Zoological  'Society  of  London,  and  became  the  foundation  of  the 
present  stock  at  their  Gardens  in  Regent's  Park. 

The  Koodoo  {Streps iceros  koodoo;  Antilope  strepsiceros).— 
This  magnificent  Antelope  is  about  four  feet  in  height  at_  the  shoul- 
der, and  is  heavily  and  robustly  made,  more  resembling  in  external 
appearance  an  Ox  than  an  Antelope.  The  muzzle  is  broad  and 
naked  ;  the  ears  large  and  slouching  ;  the  limbs  thick  and  muscular. 


THE  ARABIAN  WILD   OX. 


257 


The  horns  of  the  male  are  about  four  feet  in  leng-th,  very  thick  at 
the  base,  and  beautifully  twisted  into  a  wide  sweeping  spiral  of  two 
turns  and  a-half,  surrounded  by  a  prominent  wreath,  or  rather  keel, 
which  follows  their  flexure  ;  they  spread  boldly  outwards,  and  the 
animal  generally  carries  them  thrown  back  on  the  shoulders,  partly 
for  the  sake  of  keeping  them  from  striking  against  branches  or  be- 
coming entangled  in  brushwood,  and  partly  on  account  of  their 
great  weight.     (See  Fig.  674.)    According  to  Sir  W.  C.  Harris,  the 


Fig.  674. — The  Koodoo. 

twisting  of  the  horns  is  so  true,  that  a  spear  might  be  thrust  down 
the  centre  of  them  into  the  temple  of  the  animal. 

The  Koodoo  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  and  is  found  along  the 
wooded  borders  of  the  rivers  of  Caffraria,  living  in  small  families  of 
five  or  six  individuals,  and  feeding  on  the  shoots  and  leaves  of  trees 
and  bushes.  Desmarest  says  it  leads  a  solitary  life  in  mountain 
districts  ;  but  in  these  respects  he  is  in  error  ;  it  dwells  neither  on  the 
hills  nor  the  open  plains,  but  in  the  wooded  tracts  following  the 
.course  of  rivers  ;  nor  is  it  solitary.  When  chased  it  takes  to  the 
water,  and  swims  vigorously  ;  and  though  heavy,  it  leaps  with  won- 
derful agility.  Desmarest  says  it  takes  bounds  of  surprising  extent, 
and  it  has  been  seen  to  clear  the  bars  of  a  gate  of  the  height  of  ten 
feet,  though  it  had  but  a  very  limited  space  for  gaining  the  impetus 
necessary  for  the  leap.  When  hard  pressed,  the  males  are  formid- 
able, from  their  immense  strength  and  determination,  and  from 
their  formidable  horns,  which  they  wield  with  great  address.  The 
Koodoo,  however,  when  taken  young,  is  easily  tamed,  and  becomes 
quiet  and  gentle. 

The  general  ground-colour  of  the  Koodoo  on  the  back  and  sides 
is  a  light  fallow-brown,  with  a  narrow  white  ribbon  along  the  spine, 
and  eight  or  ten  similar  bands  descending  from  the  back,  and 
passing  obliquely  down  the  sides  and  hips ;  the  belly  and  under- 
parts  are  pale  silvery-brown.  On  the  neck  and  withers  is  a  thin 
spare  mane  of  a  brown  colour,  and  the  chin,  throat,  and  breast  are 
furnished  with  similar  long  hairs,  forming  a  species  of  beard.  The 
cheeks  are  marked  with  two  or  three  round  white  spots,  and  a  nar- 
row grey  line  passes  from  the  anterior  angle  of  the  eye  down  towards 
the  muzzle.  The  tail  is  moderately  long,  and  equally  covered  with 
short  hair.  A  species,  supposed  to  be  nearly  allied  to  the  Koodoo, 
is  found  in  Sierra  Leone.  It  is  remarkable  from  its  bright  reddish- 
tawny  colour,  adorned  with  broad  transverse  stripes,  a  colouration 
very  unlike  that  of  any  other  Antelope.  It  has  received  the  name 
of  A  ntilope  doria. 

The  Bekr-el-Wash,  or  Wild  Ox  of  the  Arabs  {Antilo;pe 
bubalus). — This  animal  is  the  Bubalus  of  the  ancients ;  the 
"  animal  Africa  proprium,  vituli  cervive  quadam  similitudine  "  of 
Pliny.  Its  representation  occurs  among  the  figures  on  the  monu- 
ments of  Upper  Egypt.  This  animal  is  spread  throughout  a  great 
e.xtent  of  Northern  Africa,  living  in  numerous  herds  on  the  confines 
of  the  Tell,  or  cultivated  district,  and  the  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert. 
Accoraing  to  Captain  Lyon,  it  is  found  on  the  mountains  south  of 
Tripoli.  Though  Barbary  may  be  regarded  as  its  real  habitat,  yet 
it  is  not  altogether  limited  to  that  extent  of  country,  for  it  sometimes 
crosses  the  Libyan  desert,  and  gains  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ;  and  was 
once  probably  common  in  Upper  Egypt. 

The  Bubalus,  or  Bekr-el-Wash,  is  as  large  as  a  Heifer,  and  very 
bovine  in  appearance  ;  the  head  is  singularly  long  and  narrow,  with 
a  straight  flat  chaffron  ;  hence  the  eyes  appear  as  if  placed  high  in 
the  head.     The  shoulders  are  elevated,  and  the  neck  resembles  that 


of  the  Ox ;  the  general  colour  is  red-brown,  a  black  tuft  of  long 
hair  terminating  the  tail.     fSee  Fig.  675.) 

The  Bubalus  is  easily  tamed,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Shaw,  of  so 
familiar  a  disposition,  that  the  young  Calves  frequently  mix  with 
domestic  cattle,  and  soon  learn  to  attach  themselves  to  the  licrd 
without  attempting  to  escape  afterwards.  The  male  Bubalus,  in  its 
mode  of  combat,  resembles  the  Bull ;  he  lowers  his  muzzle  to  the 
ground,  and  striking  upwards,  or  from  side  to  side,  endeavours  to 


Fig.  675.— Wild  Ox  of  the  Arabs. 

gore  and  toss  his  antagonist  with  his  horns,  which  are  very  formid- 
able weapons. 

There  is  in  South  Africa  a  species  very  nearly  allied  to  the  Bekr- 
el-Wash  of  Barbary,  termed  by  the  Dutch  the  Hartebeest  {A. 
Caama,  F.  Cuvier).  It  resides  in  large  herds,  and  is  an  object  of 
the  chase,  its  fl"sh  being  very  finely  flavoured,  and  more  nearly  re- 
sembling the  beef  of  the  Ox  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  except 
the  Eland.  It  is  moderately  fleet,  its  pace  when  at  full  speed  re- 
sembling a  heavp  gallop  ;  but  when  at  some  distance  from  its  pur- 
suer, it  will  stop  and  turn  to  gaze,  as  if  to  ascertain  whether  he  be 
followed  or  not — a  habit  which  operates  to  its  disadvantage.  It  is 
mild  and  tractable  ;  but  when  hard  pressed,  and  infuriated  by 
wounds,  it  uses  its  powerful  horns  with  great  effect,  dropping  on  its 
fore-knees,  and  in  this  position  advancing  towards  its  enemy,  and 
then  suddenly  darting  forwards  with  great  force  and  rapidity.  The 
Hartebeest  has  rather  an  extensive  range,  being  found  in  the  Cape 
Colony,  as  well  as  almost  everj'where  between  it  and  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn.  In  the  former  locality,  however,  it  is  now  only  found  on 
the  extensive  flats  bordering  upon  the  Caffre  frontier.  Another 
allied  species  is  the  Sassaby,  or  Bastard  Hartebeest  {A.  luita/a). 
Though  this  species  (as  it  is  stated  in  the  catalogue  of  the  South 
African  Museum)  is  not  known  to  occur  so  far  south  as  the  Colony, 
yet  it  is  tolerably  abundant  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lattakoo,  and 
very  much  more  so  between  26°  and  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  In  the 
latter  locality  especially  it  is  found,  like  the  Hartebeest,  in  herds  of 
from  six  to  ten,  or  even  more  individuals,  and  chiefly  frequents  flat 
and  wooded  districts.  Where  fire-arms  are  used,  or  where  the 
necessities  of  natives  have  madfe  them  indefatigable  in  the  chase, 
this  animal  is  vigilant  and  shy ;  but  in  situations  where  it  has  been 
left  in  comparative  peace,  it  regards  the  approach  of  man  with 
curiosity,  almost  unmixed  with  fear  ;  just  discontinuing  to  feed,  and 
raising  its  head  to  gaze,  but  never  attempting  to  fly  unless  he  ap- 
proach very  close.  Its  flesh  is  fully  as  valuable  as  that  of  the 
Hartebeest. 

Genus  Catoblepas. — Horns  in  both  sexes  commencing  in  a  dense 
mass,  covering  the  top  of  the  forehead,  whence  they  sweep  down- 
wards over  the  eyes,  and  then  turn  boldly  upwards,  terminating  in 
sharp  round  points.  Head  heavy  and  Ox-like  ;  muzzle  very  broad 
and  muscular  ;  and  the  nostrils  covered  by  a  large  movable  lid, 
continued  from  the  skin  of  the  muzzle,  and  capable  of  being  opened 
or  shut  at  pleasure.  Sub-orbital  sinus  reduced  to  a  small  gland  in 
the  skin,  concealed  in  a  tuft  of  hair.  No  inguinal  pores.  Females 
with  two  teats.  A  full  mane  runs  down  the  neck.  Tail  furnished 
with  long  hairs  and  bushy. 

The  animals  belonging  to  this  generic  group  are  remarkable  for 
the  singularity  of  their  form,  which  partakes  of  that  of  the  Horse 
and  Buffalo.  The  head  and  horns  are  those  of  a  Buffalo  ;  the  eyes 
are  large,  wild,  and  expressive  of  a  savage  and  vindictive  disposi- 
tion. The  neck,  with  its  mane,  the  tail,  and  the  general  contour  of 
the  body  are  those  of  the  Horse  ;  the  legs  are  well  turned  and 
vigorous,  resembling  those  of  the  Stag.     The  action  and  gallop  of 

2  L 


THE  GNU. 


these  animals  (the  Gnus)  are  so  much  like  those  of  a  Horse,  that  a 
troop  of  them  seen  scouring  the  plain  at  a  distance  might  easily  be 
mistaken  for  Zebras  or  Quaggas,  were  it  not  for  the  "difference  of 
colour.  Besides  the  mane  down  the  back  of  the  neck,  the  chaffron 
above  the  muzzle  is  furnished  with  a  tuft  of  long,  diverging,  bristly 
hairs,  and  the  chin  and  throat  are  also  covered  with  hairs  of  a  simi- 
lar character,  forming  a  shaggy  beard,  while  a  full  mane  flows 
down  from  the  chest  between  the  fore-limbs. 

The  Gnu  {Aiiti/ope  gnu),  T'Gnu  of  the  Hottentots.— The  Gnu 
equals  a  well-grown  Ass  in  size,  exceeding  four  feet  in  height,  and 
is  a  native  of  the  wild  karroos  of  South  Africa  and  the  hilly  districts, 


Fig.  676. — Herd  of  Gnus. 

where  it  roams  mostly  in  large  herds,  which  migrate  according  to 
the  season.  The  extent  of  its  range  in  the  interior  regions  is  not 
known ;  as  far,  however,  as  travellers  have  penetrated,  herds  have 
been  met  and  chased,  for  its  flesh  is  prized  as  food,  both  by  the 
natives  and  the  colonists.  They  are,  however,  extremely  wild,  and 
not  to  be  approached  without  difficulty. 

Mr.  Pringle  assures  us  that  the  Gnu  taken  young  will  become  as 
domesticated  as  the  cattle  of  the  farm,  with  which  it  associates 
harmlessly,  going  and  returning  to  pasture  ;  it  appears,  however, 
that  few  farmers  like  to  domesticate  it,  as  it 
is  liable  to  a  cutaneous  eruption,  which  it 
communicates  to  the  cattle,  and  which  is 
invariably  fatal.  In  confinement  the  Gnu 
often  becomes  ferocious,  and  is  not  to  be 
approached  without  caution  ;  the  females  are 
less  dangerous  than  the  males,  and  more 
easily  manageable. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Gnu  is  deep 
umber-brown,  verging  upon  black  ;  the  tail 
and  mane  are  grey  ;  the  latter,  indeed,  is 
nearly  white.  Fig.  676  represents  a  herd  of 
Gnus  on  the  karroo ;  Fig.  677,  a  front  view 
of  the  head  of  the  animal,  which  may  be 
compared  with  the  characters  we  have  de- 
tailed. Besides  the  common  Gnu,  other  Fig.  677.— Head  of  Gnu. 
species  of  this  genus  are  known. 

The  following  is  a  vivid  description  of  the  habits  of  a  species  of 
Gnu  in  its  state  of  nature  : — 

"  Instantly  after  crossing  the  Orange  River,  the  Kokoon,  or 
Brindled  Gnu,  usurps  the  place  of  the  white-tailed  species  {Caioble- 
^as  gnu) ;  and,  although  herds  of  the  former  may  actually  be  seen 


grazing  on  the  northern  bank,  not  a  single  individual  has  ever  been 
known  to  pass  the  barrier.  *  *  *  By  the  Dutch  boors  the 
present  species  is  termed  the  Bastaard,  or  Blauw  Wilde  Beest : 
throughout  the  country  of  the  Bechuana,  as  far  as  the  Tropic,  it  is 
recognised  as  the  Kokoon,  and  the  Hottentot  tribes  designate  it  the 
Kaop,  or  Baas,  both  of  which  terms,  signifying  master,  vehi  in  all 
probability  to  its  bold  and  terrific  bearing.  When  excited  by  the 
appearance  of  any  suspicious  object,  or  aroused  by  any  unusual 
noise,  the  Kokoon  is  wont  to  appear  much  more  grim  and  ferocious 
than  it  actually  proves— not  unfrequently  approaching  with  an  air 
of  defiance,  as  if  resolved  to  do  battle  with  the  hunter,  but  decamp- 
ing on  the  first  exhibition  of 
hostility  on  his  part.  On  be- 
ing pursued,  the  herd  bring 
their  aquiline  noses  low  be- 
tween their  knees,  and  flourish- 
ing their  streaming  black  tails 
(see  Fig.  678),  tear  away  in 
long  regular  files  at  a  furi- 
ous gallop,  wheeling  curiously 
about  at  the  distance  of  two 
or  three  hundred  yards,  ad- 
vancing boldly  towards  the 
danger,  tossing  their  shaggy 
heads  in  a  threatening  manner 
— presently  making  a  sudden 
stop,  presenting  an  impenetra- 
ble front  of  horns,  and  staring 
■wildly  at  the  object  of  their 
mistrust.  •  *  •  When  en- 
gaged in  grazing  they  have  an 
extremely  dull  and  clumsy  ap- 
pearance, and  at  a  little  dis- 
tance might  often  be  mistaken 
for  wild  Buffaloes ;  but  their 
manner  is  sportive — atone  mo- 
ment standing  to  gaze  at  no- 
thing, and  at  the  next  scamper- 
ing over  tlie  plain  without  any 
apparent  object  in  view,  making 
grotesque  curvets  and  plunges, 
with  their  preposterous  Bonas- 
sus-looking  heads  held  down 
between  the  fore -legs."  — 
"Harris's  Portraits,"  ch.  4. 

The  Sable  Antelope  {ffi'ip- 
^otragus  nigcr). — This  splen- 
did Antelope  is  excessively  rare 
in  captivity,  and  is  one  of  the 
finest  and  largest  of  the  whole 
group.     The  adult  male  attains 
horns  of  enormous  dimensions 
— the   treasured   prizes  of  the 
African  sportsman      The  Sable 
Antelope  was  one  of  the  dis- 
coveries   of  the   late    Sir  W. 
Harris,  the  author  of  a  well-known  work  on  the  game-animals  of  the 
Cape.     It  is  found  in  Natal  and  throughout  Eastern  Africa  up  to 
the  Lake-region,  where  examples  were  obtained  by  Speke  and  Grant. 
The  male  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoolc»gical  Society,  London,  in  1878, 
was  received  in  July,  1873.     Only  one  other  individual  had  been  pre- 


Fig.  678.— The  Gnu. 

viously  in  that  collection.    A  stuffed  specimen  may  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum. 

So  far  have  we  endeavoured  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  Antelopes,  a 
family  which,  as  it  usually  stands  in  systematic  works,  consists  of  a 


THE  GOATS. 


259 


number  of  distinct  forms  of  g-enera,  ill-assorted  under  one  head,  and 
exhibiting-  very  different  degrees  of  relationship  to  eacli  other. 
When  we  compare  the  Eland  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Pronghorn  on 
the  other,  with  the  Gazelle  of  the  desert,  we  see  few  points  of 
affinity,  and  are  forced  to  the  conviction  that  the  division-line  be- 
tween the  family  "Antelope"  of  most  writers,  and  that  of  the  Ox 
and  the  Goat,  is  purely  arbitrary.  Our  object  has  been,  without 
departing  from  our  plan  of  clothing  science  in  a  popular  dress,  to 
convey  some  idea  of  the  principal  groups,  as  illustrated  by  our  pic- 
torial specimens,  into  which  the  Antelopes  are  resolvable,  and  to 
delineate  succinctly  the  habits  and  manners  pervading  each  group, 
or  displayed  by  the  more  remarkable  species,  which,  in  all,  amount 
to  over  eighty  in  number.  Though  we  have  given  generic  titles  and 
definitions,  yet  w^e  have  used  the  term  "Antelope,"  as  being  more 
familiar  to  general  readers  than  such  words  as  Catoblepas,  &c.  In 
the  British  Museum  a  very  large  collection  of  the  Antelope  and 
Stag  families  may  be  seen,  the  study  of  which  may  be  left  to  those 
who  desire  a  deeper  acquaintance  with  these  branches  of  the 
Ruminants.  As  already  stated,  the  collection  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London,  at  Regent's  Park,  generally  contains  abundant 
illustrations  of  both  Stags  and  Antelopes  alive. 


The  Goats— Genus  CaJ>ra. 

Next  in  order  of  the  order  Ruminantia  to  which  we  have  to  direct 
attention  is  the  genus  Capra,  or  Goats,  with  which  the  Sheep  g-enus 
Ovis  is  usually  included  ;  but,  for  distinction's  sake,  we  shall  keep 
them,  as  far  as  possible,  separate.  The  Goats  and  Sheep  have  the 
horns  compressed,  usually  angulated,  rugose,  and  turned  more  or 
less  backward.  Except  in  some  of  the  domesticated  varieties,  both 
sexes  are  furnished  with  horns ;  thus  making  an  exception  with 
other  members  of  the  Ruminant  order  already  referred  to  in  the 
case  of  the  Ccrvidcc,  at  page  237,  ante,  in  w'hich  family  horns  are 
possessed  by  the  males  only,  with  the  exception  of  the  Rein-Deer. 
In  the  Goats  and  Sheep,  however,  the  horns  of  the  female  are  con- 
siderably smaller  than  those  of  the  male.  The  habits  of  the  Goats 
differ  greatly  from  those  of  the  Sheep.  The  latter  chiefly  occupy 
the  pastures  of  the  plain,  while  the  Goats  prefer  rocky  places. 
Illustrations  of  this  may  be  noticed  in  our  country,  where  splendid 
pasture  for  Sheep  is  found  in  the  midland  counties,  where  the  finest 
wool  and  mutton  are  produced  ;  while  the  Goat  is  more  at  home  in 
such  countries  as  Switzerland,  on  the  Continent,  &c.,  and  Wales, 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  this  we  see  another  and  striking  evi- 
dence of  the  circumstances  of  existence  being  adapted  to  the  re- 
quirements of  animal  life  in  different  countries. 

Though  the  domestic  races  of  Goats  and  Sheep,  as  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  see  them  in  Europe,  exhibit  marked  distinctive  features, 
yet  the  diagnostics  fail  us  in  a  great  measure  when  w'e  turn  to  the 
breeds  of  Sheep  in  other  countries,  which  exhibit  a  greater  length  of 
limb,  or  more  Goat-like  form  of  body,  and  a  clothing  of  hair ;  and 
it  is  from  paying  attention  to  domestic  breeds,  rather  than  to  truly 
w'ild  species,  that  naturalists  have  been  inclined  to  consider  both 
Goats  and  Sheep  as  generically  the  same,  seeing  that  it  is  for  the 
most  part  in  countries  where  the  domestic  Sheep  is  woolly  that  its 
difference  from  the  Goat  is  at  once  palpable. 

The  Coil.MON  Goat  {Capra  hirctcs,  Linn.) — aV?  (o  koX  i/,  but 
generally  used  for  the  female),  7-payoc,  x^apoQ  (the  male),  tpi^oe 
(yoimg  male  Kid  of  three  or  four  months),  x'ltatpa  (young  female, 
before  its  first  winter),  of  the  Greeks  ;    Caper  and  Hircus  (male). 


Fig.  679. — The  Common  Goat. 

Capra  (female),  Hcedus,  or  Ha;dus  (a  young  male  Kid^,  Hoedulus, 
or  Hcedillus  (a  very  young  male  Kid,  or  Kidling,  ipiqioq),  Capella 
(female  Kid),  of  the  ancient  Italians  ;  Becco  (male),  Capra  (female), 
Capretto,  and  Caprettino  (Kid  and  Kidling),  of  the  modern  Italians  ; 
Bouc  (male),  Chevre  (female),  Chevreau  (Kid),  of  the  French ; 
Cabron  (male),  Cabra  (female),  Cabrito  (Kid),  of  the  Spanish  ;  Cab- 


ram  (male),  Cabra  (female),  Cabrito  (Kid),  of  the  Portusruese  ;  Bock 
mae,  Geisz  (female),  Bocklein  (Kid),  of  the  Germans;  Bok 
i"^  „  ^',T?'^'  (female),  of  the  Dutch  ;  Bock  (male),  Geet  (female), 
Kudh  (Kid),  of  the  Swedes ;  Buk,  Geedebuk  (male),  Gecd  (female). 
Kid  (Kid),  of  the  Danes  ;  Bwch  (male),  Gafr  (female),  Mynn  (Kid), 
of  the  ancient  Britons.     (See  Fig.  679.)  1       j        \       n 

As  is  the  case  with  almost  every  domesticated  quadruped,  great 
uncertainty  hangs  over  the  origin  of  the  Goat.  Some  n.aturalists 
refer  it  to  the  Ibex  of  the  European  mountain-ranges,  others  regard 
it  as  descended  from  the  Paseng  of  Persia  (Capra  a-gatrrusj— 
which  IS  also  called  the  Bezoar  Goat,  from  the  peculiar  concretion 
called  bezoar,  found  in  its  intestines— or  from  the  Caucasian  Ibex 
{Capra  caucasica),  Giildenst.)  Cuvier  says  that  the  Ibex  of  the 
European  Alps,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Caucasus,  breeds  freely  with 
the  common  Goat,  producing  a  fertile  progeny ;  and  there  were,  in 
the  Garden  of  Plants,  at  Paris,  Goats  of  very  large  stature,  taken 
wild  on  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  produce,  as  asserted,  of  the  Ibex 
with  the  common  Goat.  After  all,  however,  nothing  positive  can 
be  ascertained  on  the  point  in  question  ;  it  is  one  of  those  which 
must  beleft  in  abeyance.  The  subjugation  of  the  Goat,  whatever 
may  be  its  primitive  stock,  took  place  at  a  very  early  epoch,  and  it 
is  evident  that  the  flesh  of  the  Kid  was  accounted  a  delicacy. 
There  was,  formerly,  in  Syria,  as  there  is  at  the  present  day,  a 
breed  of  Goats  with  long  pendent  ears,  and  fine  long  hair,  fit  for  the 
manufacture  of  some  kinds  of  stuffs.  In  this  respect  they  perhaps 
resemble  the  Angora  Goat  (Angora  is  in  Anatolia,  Asiatic  Turkey). 
We  read  that  the  Israelites  made  curtains  of  Goats'  hair  as  a 
covering  for  the  Tabernacle ;  and  the  modern  Arabs  manufacture 
the  cloth  of  their  tents  from  the  hair  of  the  long-eared  breed,  which 
is  generally  of  a  black  colour,  and  which  they  prefer  to  the  'hair  of 
the  Camel.  The  females  of  this  breed  yield  excellent  milk  in  pro- 
fuse quantity,  and  are,  therefore,  much  esteemed.  Burckhardt 
notices  a  very  fine  breed  of  Goats  of  this  race  in  the  valley  of 
Baalbec,  which,  he  says,  are  not  common  in  other  parts  of  Syria  ; 
they  have  very  long  ears,  large  horns,  and  long  hair  ;  but  not  silky 
like  that  of  the  Goats  of  Anatolia.  The  hair  of  the  Goats  of  Italy, 
in  the  time  of  Virgil,  was  long,  but  of  coarse  quality.  In  the 
"  Georgics  "  (lib.  iii.)  the  shepherds  are  directed  to  shear  the  beards 
and  long  hair  of  the  Cinyphian  Goats  for  the  service  of  the  camp, 
and  for  garments  for  the  mariner.  Varro  also  observes  that  Goats 
were  shorn  for  the  use  of  sailors,  for  coverings  to  engines  of  war, 
and  to  workmen's  instruments.  From  the  earliest  "antiquity  the 
milk  of  the  Goat  has  been  in  requisition,  and  in  the  present  day  the 
Goat  and  Sheep  in  Syria  take  the  place  of  the  Cow,  if  not  exclusively, 
to  a  great  extent. 

From  the  beginning  of  April  to  the  beginning  of  September,  the 
towns  are  supplied  with  milk  by  large  herds  of  Goats,  which  pass 
through  the  streets  every  morning,  and  are  milked  before  the  houses 
of  the  customers.  The  products  of  the  milk  are  furnished  in  abun- 
dance at  the  same  season.  In  Switzerland,  flocks  of  Goats  are 
kept  for  the  sake  of  their  milk,  and  our  classical  read  will  remember 
the  lines  in  Virgil  ("  Georgics,"  lib.  iii.)  which  are  still  applicable, 
"  Pascuntur  vero  sylvas,"  &c.  Besides  the  long-eared  and  long- 
haired race  of  Syria,  of  which  Fig.  680  is  a  representation,  there  is 
also  a  breed  closely  resembling  that  common  in  Europe  :  among 
other  races,  we  may  here  notice  the  Dwarf  African,  with  close  hair, 
almost  beardless,  and  with  a  little  pendulous  tassel-like  excrescence 
of  skin  hanging  from  each  side  of  the  throat. 

The  most  celebrated  variety  of  the  domestic  race  is  the  Goat  of 
Cashmir  (Fig.  681),  which  produces  a  wool  of  exquisite  fineness, 
from  which  are  manufactured  the  costly  Cashmir  shawls,  not  to  be 
purchased,  even  in  the  country  where  they  are  wrought,  but  at  a 
great  price.  This  Goat  is  spread  through  Thibet,  and  in  the 
country  of  the  Kirghiz,  at  the  bend  of  the  Ural,  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea ;  it  is  covered  with  silky  hair :  long,  fine,  flat,  and 
falling,  and  with  an  under-vest  in  winter,  of  delicate  greyish  wool ; 
and  it  is  this  wool  which  constitutes  the  fabric  of  the  shawls.  The 
average  weight  of  wool  produced  by  a  single  Goat  is  about  three 
ounces,  and  it  sells  in  Thibet  for  about  five  shillings  a  pound ;  ten 
Goats  are  required  to  furnish  sufficient  wool  for  a  shawl  a  yard  and 
a-half  square.  It  appears  that  in  Thibet  the  wool  is  first  combed 
from  the  Goats  in  the  mountains,  and  sent  to  Cashmir,  where  it 
pays  a  duty  on  entry.  It  is  there  bleached  with  rice-flour,  spun  into 
thread,  and  taken  to  the  bazaar,  where  another  tax  is  paid  upon 
it ;  the  thread  is  then  dyed,  and  the  shawl  is  woven,  and  the  border 
sewed  on  ;  but  the  weaver  has  now  to  carry  it  to  the  custom-house, 
where  a  collector  puts  on  it  any  tax  he  pleases,  and  in  this  he  is  only 
limited  by  the  fear  of  ruining  the  weaver,  and  consequently  losing 
future  profit.  All  the  shawls  intended  for  Europe  are  packed  up 
and  sent  to  Peshawur,  across  the  Indus :  this  part  of  the  journey  is 
generally  performed  upon  men's  backs,  for  the  road  is,  in  many 
parts,  impassable  even  by  Mules,  being  across  deep  precipices, 
which  must  be  traversed  by  swinging  bridges  of  ropes,  and  perpen- 
dicular rocks,  which  are  climbed  by  wooden  ladders.  At  each 
station  of  this  toilsome  journey,  which  lasts  twenty  days,  a  tax  is 
paid,  amounting  to  about  £,2,  sterling  for  the  whole  journey.  From 
this  point,  till  they  come  near  the  confines  of  Europe,  in  addition  to 


26o 


THE  GOATS. 


the  many  custom-houses  at  which  they  must  pay  tribute,  these  valued 
articles  of  merchandise  are  exposed  to  the  marauders  of  Afghanis- 
tan and  Persia,  and  to  the  Turkoraanic  hordes,  whose  forbearance 
must  be  purchased  at  a  high  price.  After  leaving  Persia,  many 
shawls  get  to  Europe  over  the  Caucasus,  and  through  Russia ; 
but  the  largest  number  reach  Constantinople,  through  the  Turkish 
provinces. 

In  April,  1819,  M.  Jaubert,  under  the  French  government,  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  a  flock  of  Thibet  Goats,  with  great  loss  and 
difficulty,  from  the  Kirghiz  territory  to  France ;  but  the  small  pro- 
duce of  wool  obtained  from    each   animal  precluded  all  hope    of 


">"T=»"^r7r'^ 


Fig.  680. — Long-eared  Syrian  Goat 


Fig.  681.— Casbmir  Goats. 


making  a  profit  by  rearing  these  animals  ;  and  the  scheme  would 
have  failed,  had  it  not  occurred  to  M.  Polonceau  that  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Thibet  and  Angora  Goat,  remarkable  for  the  length  and 
silkiness  of  its  hair,  might  be  an  improvement  on  both.  The  experi- 
ment was  tried,  and  succeeded ;  and,  instead  of  three  ounces, 
several  of  the  mixed  races  produced  thirty  ounces  of  down  in  one 
season,  and  of  a  superior  quality,  being  of  finer  and  longer  staple, 
while  the  animals  themselves  were  more  hardy  and  docile. 

In  1824,  some  of  the  pure  Thibet  Goats  were  imported  from  France 
into  England  by  Mr.  Tower,  and  located  at  Weald  Hall,  Essex  ; 
but  their  limited  produce  militated  against    the  extension   of   the 

breed  with  advantage.  In  1831,  Mr. 
Riley,  an  enterprising  proprietor  of 
New  South  Wales,  purchased,  from 
M.  Polonceau,  ten  females  and  three 
males,  which  he  conveyed  safely  to 
London,  and  thence  to  New  South 
Wales.  Other  attempts  have  been 
made  to  acclimatise  these  animals. 

To   describe    the   common  Goat  is 
superfluous  ;    its  habits,   its   boldness, 
and  its  activity   are   well   known.     It 
climbs  rocks   and   rugged   mountains 
with    great    agility,    "and    will    stand 
secure  wherever  it  can  manage  to  get 
the  most   limited   footing.     In   Egypt 
and  Syria  Goats  are  often  taught  vari- 
ous feats  of  dexterity,  for  the  perform- 
ance of  which   their   natural   address 
and   activity   peculiarly  qualify  them, 
but    to    execute   which,   nevertheless, 
requires    considerable    practice.      Dr. 
Clarke,  in    his    "Travels"    (vol.    ii.), 
notices  an  instance  of  this  kind,  which 
he  describes  as  follows  : — "  Upon  our 
road   we  met  an   Arab  with  a  Goat, 
which  he  led  about  the  country  for  ex- 
hibition, in  order  to  gain  a  livelihood 
for  itself  and  owner.     He  had  taught 
this  animal,  while  he  accompanied  its 
movements  with  a  song,  to  mount  upon 
little  cylindrical  blocks  of  wood,  placed 
successively  one  above  the  other,  and, 
in   shape,    resembling   the  dice-boxes 
belonging    to    a     backgammon-table. 
In  this   manner  the  Goat  stood,  first, 
upon   the   top   of    one   cylinder,    then 
upon  the  top  of  two,  and  afterwards  of 
three,  four,  five,  and  six,  until  it  re- 
mained balanced  upon  the   top 
of  them  all,  elevated  several  feet 
from  the  ground,    and   with  its 
four  feet  collected  upon  a  single 
point,  without  throwing  down  the 
disjointed  fabric  upon  which  it 
stood.      The    practice    is    very 
ancient.     It   is   also   noticed  by 
Sandys.    Nothing  can  show  more 
strikingly  the  tenacious  footing 
possessed     by    this     quadruped 
upon  the  jutty  points  and  crags 
of  rocks  ;  and  the  circumstance 
of  its    ability    to    remain    thus 
poised,  may  render  its  appear- 
ance   less    surprising,    as    it   is 
sometimes  seen  in  the  Alps,  and 
in    all    mountainous    countries, 
with   hardly   any   place    for    its 
feet,  upon  the  sides,  and  by  the 
brink   of  most  tremendous  pre- 
cipices.     The   diameter   of  the 
upper    cylinder,    on    which     its 
feet   ultimately    remained    until 
the   Arab  had  ended  his   ditty, 
was    only  two  inches,   and  the 
length  of  each  cylinder  was  six 
inches." 

During  the  rutting  season  the 
males  have  most  violent  con- 
tests with  each  other,  butting 
furiously  with  their  horns.  To 
give  full  effect  to  their  strike, 
the  animal  rises  on  his  hind-legs 
when  close  to  his  adversary,  and 
then  descends  with  his  "whole 
force  and  weight.  The  period 
of  gestation  with  the  Goat  is  five 


THE  IBEX— THE   PA  SENG. 


261 


months,   and  the   female  usually  produces  two,  sometimes  three 
young  at  a  birth. 

The  use  of  the  Goat  "n  England,  compared  with  other  countries, 
is  very  limited;  the  demand  for  its  milk  is  only  occasional,  and  the 
flesh,  even  of  the  Kid,  is  not  in  much  request.  Few  stable-yards, 
however,  are  without  a  Goat  or  two,  the  peculiar  odour  of  the  animal 
(especially  stronsj  in  th'i  male)  bcmg  supposed  to  be  both  salutary 
and  grateful  to  Horses.  While  doubting  this,  we  can  well  imagine 
that  the  presence  of  the  active,  familiar,  and  playful  Goat  may  not 
be  unproductive  of  benefit  to  the  Horse  confined  in  his  stall,  as  the 
latter,  like  most  animals,  delights  in  society,  and  instances  of 
attachment  between  Goats  and  Horses  are  far  from  being  uncom- 
mon. 

From  the  domestic  Goat  we  must  pass  to  consider  the  specimens 
of  some  of  its  wild  representatives. 

The  Ibex,  Bouquetin,  or  Steinbok  {Capra  Z(5ff.r).— This  bold 
and  powerful  animal, 'armed  with  huge  sweeping  horns,  inhabits  the 
Alpine  heights  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia.  It  associates  in  small 
troops,  consisting  of  a  male  and  a  few  females.  The  horns  of  the 
male  curve  boldly  over  the  back,  their  anterior  surface  presenting  a 
series  of  regular  protuberances  or  partial  rings  :  their  length  is  often 
three  feet.  In  the  female  they  are  smaller.  The  hair  of  the  Ibex  in 
summer  is  short  and  close,  in  winter  long  and  thick  ;  its  colour  is 
yellowish-grey,  a  black  streak  extending  along  the  spine  ;  the  croup 
is  white,  as  are  also  the  undcr-parts  of  the  body,  a  dark  tint  ab- 
ruptly dividing  the  white  from  the  general  colour  above.  The  chin 
is  bearded.  The  Ibex  stands  2  feet  6  or  8  inches  in  height,  and  is 
extremely  active  and  vigorous.  The  chase  of  the  Ibex  is  as  arduous 
as  that  of  the  Chamois,  the  animal  leading  its  pursuer,  unless  he 
can  steal  upon  it  unawares  with  his  rifle,  a  dangerous  track  over 
steep  and  rugged  mountain  pinnacles,  along  the  brink  of  preci- 
pices, and  over  fearful  chasms  ;  when  at  last  hard  pressed,  the 
Ibex  will  often  turn  upon  its  foe  with  impetuous  rapidity,  and  hurl 
him  headlong  down  the  steep  rocks  or  abrupt  precipice. 

The  Ibex  is  vigilant  and  wary  ;  and  it  is  only  during  the  night 
that  it  descends  to  pasture  in  the  woods,  but  at  sunrise  again  re- 
pairs to  the  bleak  mountain  summits.  Like  the  Chamois,  it  is 
satisfied  with  a  frugal  fare  and  a  scanty  supply  of  water.  It  is  said 
that  the  old  males  seek  more  elevated  spots  than  the  females  and 
younger  males,  which  are  more  easily  to  be  obtained.  The  only 
sound  which  the  animal  makes  is  a  short  whistle,  and  when  irri- 
tated, a  snorting  noise.  In  Europe  its  favourite  haunts  are  the 
Alps,  the   Apennines,  the    Pyrenees,  where    is  found   the   Ca^ra 


fyrciiaicus,  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  mountains,  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Tyrol.  In  Asia  it  is  found  in  the  mountain-chain  of  the 
Taurus.     (See  Fig.  682.) 

The  Paseng  \Capra  agagrus). — The  Pascng  is  found  in  the 
mountains  which  traverse  the  north  of  Persia  and  India,  as  far  as 


Fig.  682.— The  Ibex. 


Fig.  6S3.— The  Faseng. 

China,  and  especially  the  Caucasian  chain,  and  that  of  Taurus.  It 
is  known  to  the  Turkomans,  Kirghiz,  and  other  nomadic  people  to 
the  north  of  Persia,  and  also  to  the  natives  of  the  Persian  provinces  at 
the  southern  base  of  the  mountains.  The  Paseng  exceeds  the 
largest  domestic  Goat  in  size,  and  is  very 
strong  and  active,  precisely  resembling  the 
Ibex  in  habits  and  manners.  The  general 
colour  is  grey,  shaded  with  rusty  brown : 
the  forehead  is  blackish-brown,  whence  a 
line  of  the  same  colour  extends  down  the 
spine,  crossed  by  a  similar  band  over  the 
withers  ;  the  beard  is  long  and  of  a  dark 
brown,  which  is  the  colour  of  the  limbs  ;  a 
white  patch  occupies  the  crupper.  The 
horns  of  the  male  are  very  large,  com- 
pressed, and  diverging  as  they  arch  back- 
wards ;  their  anterior  edge  is  narrow,  and 
marked  by  a  series  of  protuberances,  with 
deep  notches  between.     (See  Fig.  683.) 

A  species  of  Ibex,  distinct,  it  is  believed, 
from  the  European,  inhabits  the  Caucasian 
range,  and  especially  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  sources  of  the  rivers  Terek  and  Ca- 
ban.  It  is  the  Capra  caucasica  of  Giil- 
deifstet.     (See  Fig.  684.) 

Riippell,  in  his  "  Zoological  Atlas,"  de- 
scribes and  figures  an  Ibex  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Abyssinia,  under  the  native  name 
of  Walie  {Capra  Walie,  Riipp.)  It  is  of  a 
dark-yellowish  umber,  the  under-surface 
and  inside  of  the  limbs  being  white. 

The  Jemlah  Goat  (Capra  Jem  la  hica). 
— Another  distinct  species  is  the  Jemlah 
Ibex,  or  Goat,  described  by  Col.  H.  Smith, 
with  horns  peculiarly  massive  at  the  base. 
It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  range  of  the 
Himal.aya  mountains.  This  species  would 
appear  to  be  the  Jh.aral  {Capra  jharal) 
of  Mr.  Hodgson.  Its  height  is  thirty-three 
inches  :  the  head  is  finely  formed,  full  of 
beauty  and  expression,  clad  in  close  short 
hair,  and  without  the  least  vestige  of  a 
beard.  This  animal  is  of  compact  and 
powerful  make,  with  a  spare,  short,  and 
bowed  neck  ;  deep  barrel  and  chest ;  long- 
ish,  very  strong  and  rigid  limbs,  supported 
on  perpendicular  pasterns  and  high  com- 
pact hoofs.    The  fur  is  of  two  sorts,  an  outer 


262 


THE  AOUDAD—THE  SHEEP  TRIBE. 


coat  of  straisrht  and  somewhat  harsh  hair,  and  an  inner  vest  of  soft 
fine  wool.  The  fore-quarters  are  superb,  and  wholly  invested  in  a 
long,  flowing-,  straight,  Lion-like  mane,  feathered  vertically  from  the 
top  of  the  withers,  and  sweeping  down  below  the  knees.  {See  Fig. 
685.)  The  horns  are  nine  inches  long,  sub-triangular,  wrinkled 
across,  and  gently  recurved.  The  colour  is  deep  brown  superficially, 
but  under  the  outer  coat  hoary  blue,  which  is  the  prevailing  tint  of 
the  mane ;  chin  and  lips  hoary,  with  a  blackish  mark  below  the  angle 


Fig.  6S4. — The  Caucasian  Ibex. 


Fig.  6S5.— The  Jomlah  Goat. 

of  the  mouth.  This  fine  species  is  found  in  the  Kachar  region  of 
Nepal,  solitary  or  in  small  herds  :  it  is  bold,  capricious,  active,  and 
pugnacious,  but  easily  tamed,  and  breeds,  as  does  the  Ibex,  with 
the  common  Goat. 

An  Ibex  from  Nubia  and  Arabia  is  described  by  Fred.  Cuvier, 
under  the  title  of  Capra  mibiana.  It  is  more  slightly  built  than 
the  common  Ibex,  with  slender  elongated  horns  two  and  a-half  feet 
in  length.  A  specimen  is  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc, 
Lend.  How  far  the  species  of  Ibex  we  have  noticed  arc  truly  dis- 
tinct from  each  other,  or  mere  varieties  resulting  from  climate  and 
other  causes,  we  will  not  attempt  to  decide.  It  is  perhaps  the  Cau- 
casian Ibex  that  exists  in  Palestine,  Edom,  and  Sinai,  and  which  is 
stated  closely  to  resemble  the  Ibex,  or  the  Bouquetin,  of  the  Alps. 
It  is  called  in  Arabic,  Beden  and  Taytal.  The  former  appellation  is 
exclusively  applied  to  the  male,  which  is  readily  distinguished  by  a 
beard  and  large  knotted  horns  curving  backwards  over  the  body. 
The  horns  of  the  female  are  very  much  smaller,  scarcely  exceeding 
in  size  those  of  the  Gazelle. 

The  AOUDAD  {Capra  tragelapJms ;  Ovis  iragdnp/niStVaWdLs; 
Ammotragiis  tragelaphtis,  Blyth).— This  species  is  in  some  re- 
spects intermediate  between  the  Goat  and  Sheep,  with  which  latter 
it  is  associated  in  most  systematic  works.  It  differs  from  the  Sheep 
in  having  a  concave  chaffron,  and  in  the  absence  of  sub-orbital 
sinuses,  but  in  the  form  of  its  horns  it  resembles  them  more  than  it 
does  the  Ibex  or  Wild  Goat.  These  horns  are  stout,  sub-quadran- 
gular, and  ringed ;  they  diverge  more  laterally  than  those  of  Goats 
in  general,  and  curl  as  in  the  Sheep.  There  is  no  beard,  but  a 
pendent  mane  of  long  coarse  hairs  begins  under  the  lower  jaw,  and 
runs  along  the  under-side  of  the  neck  and  chest.  The  fore-legs 
above  the  knee  are  also  covered  with  long  hair,  which  hangs  round 
the  leg  below  the  knee  like  a  ruffle,  whence  the  French  term  this 
species  "  mouflon  d  manchettes."  The  rest  of  the  body  is  clothed 
with  short  hair  ;  the  general  colour  is  dull  yellowish-brown.  The 
male  attains  a  large  size,  exceeding  a  Fallow-Deer,  and  measuring- 
more  tlian  three  feet  at  the  shoulder.     The  horns  are  sometimes 


two  feet  in  length,  following  the  curve.    The  female  is  a  third 
smaller  than  the  male. 

The  Aoudad,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary,  is  found  in 
Sinai,  and  in  the  mountains  which  border  the  Nile  to  Ethiopia  and 
Abyssinia.  In  Egypt  it  is  termed  Kebsch  by  the  modern  Arabians. 
It  is  also  spread  throughout  the  whole  of  North  Africa,  about  18°, 
frequenting  in  small  families  the  steepest  and  most  inaccessible 
crags.     It  is  abundant  in  the  range  of  the  Atlas,  tenanting  the 


Fig.  6S6. — The  Aoudad,  or  Kebsch. 

woods  at  a  high  elevation,  and  the  precipitous  rugged  heights 
usually  clothed  with  forests  at  their  base.  The  Aoudad  is  wonder- 
fully agile,  and  leaps  with  amazing  precision  to  great  distances, 
from  ledge  to  ledge,  and  from  point  to  point,  over  the  most  elevated 
ridges.  The  old  ones  are  not  unfrequently  shot  by  the  Moors  of 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  other  places,  and  the  young  are  occasionally 
captured  alive.  It  is,  however,  very  rarely  seen  in  European 
menageries.  Fine  preserved  specimens  are  both  in  the  British 
Museum  and  that  of  the  Zool.  Soc.  This  species  is  clearly  de- 
lineated on  the  monuments  of  ancient  Egypt.     (See  Fig.  686.) 

The  Markhore  {Capra  megaceros). — A  male  of  this  scarce 
species  of  Wild  Goat,  which  inhabits  the  Sulimani  range  of  Afghan- 
istan, was  in  the  Society's  menagerie  some  years  since,  and  is  cor- 
rectly figured  in  the  second  series  of  "  Zoological  Sketches."  The 
pair  at  present  (1878)  belonging  to  the  collection  were  presented  in 
the  autumn  of  1866,  by  Sir  R.  Pollock,  Commissioner  at  Pcshawur. 
They  have  bred  several  times  in  the  Society's  gardens,  and  may  be 
frequently  seen,  accompanied  by  their  Kids. 

The  Sheep— Genus  Ovis. 

Of  all  our  domestic  animals,  the  Sheep  is  that  of  which  we  have 
the  earliest  notice:  "Abel  was  a  keeper  of  Sheep."  It  was  re- 
claimed in  the  primordial  era  of  man's  existence  on  the  globe,  and 
we  must  look  to  Western  Asia  as  its  original  habitat.  From  this 
centre  it  has  more  or  less  gradually  spread  by  the  agency  of  man, 
and,  influenced  by  climate,  food,  and  treatment,  has  ramified  into 
numerous  varieties.  Naturalists  have  amused  themselves  with  con- 
jectures as  to  the  wild  stock  whence  the  domestic  Sheep  has  de- 
scended ;  some  asserting  the  Mouflon  of  Crete,  Corsica,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago  to  be  its  origin  ;  others  the 
Argali  of  Siberia  :  others,  again,  that  the  European  Sheep  are  the 
descendants  of  the  Mouflon,  the  Asiatic  of  the  Argali.  Mr.  Blyth 
considers  it  likely  "that  more  than  one  wild  species  have  com- 
mingled to  form  the  numerous  domestic  races,  though,"  as  he  adds, 
"  certainly  none  as  yet  described  ;  "  and  though  so  many  decidedly 
distinct  wild  species  have  been  added  to  the  genus,  we  are  far  from 
having  ascertained  the  complete  number  existing,  several  more  yet 
remaining  to  be  discovered,  upon  the  lofty  table-lands  and  snowy 
mountains  of  Middle  Asia,  from  the  Caucasus  and  Taurus  to  the 
Altai  ;  and  among  them  it  is  probable  there  may  be  some  much 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  domestic  races  than  any  at  present  known. 
He  believes  that  a  Wild  Sheep,  or  Argali,  in  Central  Persia,  noticed 
by  Sir  John  MacNeill,  will  prove,  upon  further  investigation,  to  be  the 
wild  stock,  or  one  at  least  of  the  wild  stocks  of  the  domestic  Sheep. 
When  we  consider  that  for  several  thousand  years  the  domestic 
Sheep  has  been  subject  to  man,  and  undergone  many  modifications, 
we  cannot  help  doubting  as  to  the  recognition  of  its  primitive  type  ; 


THE  SHEEP  TRIBE. 


263 


nav  we  even  doubt  whether  that  tj-pe  be  extant.  Hector  Boethius 
describes  a  wild  breed  of  Sheep  in  the  Island  of  St.  Kilda  exceeding 
the  larjrest  Goat  in  size,  with  heavy  massive  horns,  longer  than 
those  of  the  Ox,  and  as  bulky,  and  with  a  tail  hanging  to  the 
crround.  Skulls  of  Sheep,  perhaps  belonging  to  this  race,  occur  in 
peat-bo"-s  ;  two  of  these  crania,  one  probably  that  of  a  male,  the 
other  ofa  female,  which  were  obtained  in  Ireland  from  the  peat, 
were  some  time  ago  exhibited  to  the  Geological  Society.  Pennant 
remarks  that  such  an  animal  as  Boethius  has  described  is  figured 
on  a  bas-relief  taken  out  of  the  wall  of  Antoninus,  near  Glasgow. 
These  animals,  whether  they  ever  existed  or  not,  were  distinct  not 
only  from  the  Mouflon  of  Corsica,  but  from  any  other  of  the  wild 
species  as  far  as  we  know  them. 

In  the  "  Zool.  Proceeds.,"  1840,  is  a  paper  by  Mr.  BIyth,  entitled, 
"  An  amended  list  of  the  genus  Ovis,"  which  is  too  full  of  informa- 
tion to  be  altogether  passed  over     We  may  premise  by  observing 


Fig.  6S7. — Head  of  Armenian  Argali. 


Fig.  688.— The  Mouflon  of  Corsica. 

that  Fig.  687  is  a  sketch  of  the  head  of  the  Armenian  Argali  {Ovis 
gmelinii,  Blyth) ;  Fig.  688  is  a  drawing  of  the  Mouflon  of  Corsica 
XOvi's  imisimon). 

The  species  (granting  that  they  are  all  distinct  from  each  other) 
enumerated  by  Mr.  Blyth  are  the  following: — 

The  Pamir  Sheep,  or  Rass  {Ovis  ;polii,  Blyth).  "  In  the  narra- 
tive of  the  celebrated  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo,  we  read  that 
upon  the  elevated  plain  of  Pamir,  eastward  of  Bokhara,  and  16,000 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  wild  animals  are  met  with  in  great  num- 
bers, particularly  Sheep,  of  a  large  size,  having  horns  three,  four, 
and  even  six  palms  in  length.  The  shepherds  form  ladles  and  ves- 
sels from  them  for  holding  their  victuals.  They  also  construct 
fences  for  enclosing  their  cattle,  and  securing  them  against  the 
Wolves,  and  which  likewise  destroy  many  of  the  Wild  Sheep. 
More  recently  an  animal  called  the  Rass  was  indicated,  from  re- 
port, in  Sir  A.  Burnes's  'Travels  in  Bokhara,'  and  its  horns  have 
been  since  transmitted  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  by  Lieut.  Wood, 
of  Sir  A.  Burnes's  party,  through  the  medium  of  G.  I.  Vigne,  Esq."' 
This  pair  of  horns  was  labelled  Rass,  or  Roosh.  Sir  A..Burnes 
writes  :  "  I  have  heard  of  an  animal  called  Ross  by  the  Kirghises, 
and  Kooshgar  by  the  natives  of  the  low  countries  ;  but  Lieut.  Wood, 
in  the  narrative  of  his  recent  journey  to  the  source  of  the  Oxus,  dis- 


tinguishes between  the  Ross  and  the  Kutchgar,  the  former  having 
straight  spiral  horns,  and  its  dun-colour  being  of  a  reddish  tinge. 
Both  are  said  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Pamir.  The  same  writer,  speak- 
ing of  the  Kutchgar,  says  it  was  a  noble  animal,  standing  as  high 
as  a  two-year-old  colt,  with  a  venerable  beard,  and  two  splendid 
curling  horns,  which,  with  the  head,  were  so  heavy  as  to  require 
considerable  exertion  to  lift  them.  Though  poor  in  condition,  the 
carcass  divested  of  its  offal  was  a  load  for  a  baggage  pony.  The 
Kutchgar  is  gregarious,  congregating  in  herds  of  several  hundreds  : 
they  are  of  a  dun-colour."  This  traveller  confirms  Marco  Polo's 
narrative:  "  We  saw,"  he  writes,  "numbers  of  the  horns  strewed 
about  in  every  direction,  the  spoils  of  the  Kirghise  hunter."  "  The 
ends  of  the  horns  projecting  over  the  snow  often  indicated  the 
direction  of  the  road,  and  wherever  they  were  heaped  in  large  quan- 
tities, there  our  escort  recognised  the  site  of  a  Kirghise  encamp- 
ment." The  flesh  is  much  prized  by  these  people,  who  shoot  the 
animal  with  arrows.  "  The  Rass  is  said  to  delight  in  the  coldest 
districts  ;  a  common-sized  individual  will  require  two  Horses  to  bear 
its  flesh  from  the  field."  The  horns,  following  their  curvature,  are 
nearly  five  feet  in  length. 

The  Siberian  Argali  {Oms  ammon).— This  noble  Sheep  is  de- 
scribed by  Pallas. 

The  Kamtschatkan  Argali  (Ovis  nivicola). — M.  Eschscholtz,  who 
describes  this  species,  states  it  to  be  very  numerous  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Kamtschatka ;  in  summer  it  resides  upon  the  snow-clad 
heights,  but  in  winter  it  descends  to  the  lower  regions.  Kotzebue 
notices  its  agility. 

America  presents  us  with  two  species,  vety  closely  allied  to  the 
Siberian  Argali — The  Rocky-Mountain  Argali  (Ow  montatia),  and 
the  Californian  Argali  (O.  californiana,  Douglas). 

The  Nahoor,  or  Sna,  of  Thibet  {Ovis  Nahoor,  Hodgson),  a  native 
of  the  Kachar  region  of  Nepal  and  the  glaciers  of  the  Himalaya. 

The  Burrhel  {Ovis  hurrhel,  Blyth),  a  species  allied  to  the  latter, 
and  inhabiting  the  highest  ridges  of  the  Himalayan  chain,  where  it 
"bounds  lightly  over  the  encrusted  snows,  at  an  altitude  where  its 
human  pursuers  find  it  difficult  to  breathe.  It  has  the  bleat  of  the 
domestic  species,  as  indeed  they  all  have,  and  is  very  shy  and  diffi- 
cult of  approach.  Flocks  of  ten  or  twenty  have  been  observed  con- 
ducted by  an  old  male,  which  make  for  the  snowy  peaks  upon 
alarm,  while  their  leader  scrambles  up  some  crag  to  reconnoitre, 
and,  if  shot  at,  bounds  off  a  few  paces,  and  again  stops  to  gaze. 
They  pasture  in  deep  and  hollow  grassy  glens."  A  specimen,  in 
the  Museum  of  the  Zoological  Society,  was  shot  near  the  Boorendo 
Pass,  at  an  altitude  of  about  17,000  feet. 

The  Caucasian  Argali  (Ovis  cylitidricornis,  Blyth),  hitherto  con- 
founded with  the  Siberian  Argali. 

The  Armenian  Argali  {Ovis  gmelinii,  BI)rth). — Specimens  of  this 
Sheep,  from  Erzeroum,  have  lived  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society.  "  According  to  Gmelin,  this  species  is  found  only  in  the 
highest  mountains  in  Persia.  The  males,  he  informs  us,  are  very 
quarrelsome  amongst  each  other,  insomuch  that  he  had  been  at  one 
place  where  the  ground  had  been  strewed  with  horns  that  had  been 
knocked  off  in  their  contests."  It  is  allied  to  the  Corsican  Mouflon. 
(See  ante,  Fig.  688.)  "Sir  John  MacNeill  informed  me  that  '  it  ap- 
pears to  be  the  common  species  of  the  mountains  of  Armenia  ;  oc- 
curring likewise  on  the  north-west  of  Persia  ; '  but  the  Wild  Sheep  of 
the  central  parts  of  Persia  is  evidently  distinct,  '  having  horns  much 
more  resembling  those  of  the  domestic  Ram,  being  spiral,  and  com- 
pleting more  than  one  spiral  circle.  I  think  I  am  not  mistaken  in 
supposing,'  continues  Sir  John,  'that  I  have  also  had  females  of 
this  species  brought  to  me  by  the  huntsman  with  small  horns,  re- 
sembling those  of  the  Ewes  of  some  of  our  domestic  Sheep  ;  but,  on 
reflection,  I  find  that  I  cannot  assert  this  positively,  though  I  retain 
the  general  impression.'  IHs  highly  probable  that  a  vyild  type  of 
O.  aries  is  here  adverted  to,  which  would  thus  inhabit  the  same 
ranges  of  mountains  as  the  wild  common  Goat  {€.  JEgagrus ;  see 
ante,  Fig.  683) ;  and  with  respect  to  the  circumstance  of  horns  in 
the  female  sex,  I  may  here  remark  that  this  character  is  very  apt 
to  be  inconstant  throughout  the  present  group." 

The  Sha  {Ovis  vignei,  Blyth),  a  Mouflon  inhabiting  the  moun- 
tains of  Little  Thibet  and  the  Sulimani  range,  between  India  and 
Khorassan.  "  Vast  numbers  of  this  species  are  driven  down  by  the 
snow  in  winter  to  the  branches  of  the  Indus,  where  the  river  breaks 
through  the  chain  of  the  Himalaya."  The  Wild  Sheep  of  the  Hin- 
doo Koosh  mountains,  described  in  the  "Journal  Asiatic  Soc, 
Beng.,"  for  1840,  is  either  this  or  a  closely  allied  species.  Its 
climbing  powers  are  extraordinary. 

The  Corsican  Mouflon  {Ovis  musimon;  see  ante.  Fig.  688),  a 
native  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  Speaking  of  this  Sheep,  Mr.  Blyth 
remarks—"  It  has  always  appeared  to  me',  however,  that  the  speci- 
fical  distinctness  of  the  Mouilon  is  very  obvious,  and  I  doubt 
whether  it  has  contributed  at  all  to  the  origin  of  any  tame  race. 
That  it  interbreeds  freely  with  the  latter,  under  circumstances  of 
restraint,  is  well  known  ;  but  we  have  no  information  ol  hybrids,  or 
Umbri,  as  they  are  caUed,  being  ever  raised  from  Wild  Mouflons, 
though  the  flocks  of  the  latter  will  occasionally  graze  in  the  same 
pasture  with  domestic  Sheep ;  and  all  but  mingle  among  them.  The 


2()4 


THE  SHEEP  TRIBE. 


male  of  this  animal  is  denominated  in  Corsica  Mufro,  and  the  female 
Mufra,  from  which  Buffon,  as  is  well  known,  formed  the  word 
Mouflon ;  and  in  Sardinia  the  male  is  called  Murvoni,  and  the 
female  Murva,  thoug-h  it  is  not  unusual  to  hear  the  peasants  style 
both  indiscriminateiy  Mufion,  which  (as  Mr.  Smyth  remarks,  in  his 
description  of  that  island)  is  a  palpable  corruption  of  the  Greek 
Ophion.  It  is  sometimes  stated,  but  I  do  not  know  upon  what 
authority,  that  a  few  of  these  animals  are  still  found  upon  the 
mountains  of  Murcia."  Living  specimens  of  this  species  maybe 
seen  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

The  Cyprian  Mouflon,  probably  different  from  the  preceding,  and 
termed  by  Mr.  Blyth  O.  aphwn. 

In  this  review  of  Mr.  Blyth's  paper  we  have  omitted  the  Ixalas 
Probation,  Ogilby  (of  which  a  unique  specimen  exists  in  the  museum 
of  the  Zool.  Soc,  London,  the  history  of  which  is  obscure),  and  the 
Aoudad  {Ovis  tragelaphus),  which  we  have  included  with  the  Goats. 

From  none  of  the  species  here  enumerated  can  we  confidently 
select  the  type  of  the  domestic  Sheep  {Ovis  aries,  Linn.),  nor  from 
any  other  known  species  exclusively. 

The  Mouflons  and  Argalis— that  is,  the  wild  species  of  the  genus 
Ovis — are  covered  with  "a  harsh  kind  of  hair,  having  beneath  it  at  its 
roots  a  short  spiral  wool,  which  in  winter  becomes  longer  and  fuller. 
Mr.  Bell,  indeed,  considers  the  harsh  hair  as  essentially  wool  in  its 
structure,  presenting  the  imbrications  which  the  microscope  shows 
to  be  the  characteristic  of  wool,  and  on  which  its  felting  property 
depends  ;  and  he  regards  the  short  under-coat  as  composed  of  hair, 
and  not  of  wool.  Mr.  Youatt  makes  the  contrary  statement,  and 
notwithstanding  the  appearances  noticed  by  Mr.  Bell,  we  incline  to 
Mr.  Youatt's  opinion  ;  for,  be  it  observed,  in  the  Cashmir  and  the 
Angora  Goats  the  long  outer  garment  is  hair  ;  the  short  under-coat 
exquisitely  fine  wool.     In  other  wool-bearing  animals,  as  the  Beaver 


The  causes  which  have  rendered  the  fleece  of  the  European  Sheep 
what  we  now  find  it,  arc  involved  in  obscurity.  We  attribute  mucli 
in  the  first  instance,  to  the  effects  of  temperature  ;  for  though  the 
merino  Sheep  of  Spain  (a  race  originally  imported  from  England), 


Fig.  689.— Cretan,  or  Wallachian  Sheep. 

and  Otter,  the  same  arrangement  prevails  ;  and  we  know,  moreover, 
that  in  some  neglected  breeds  of  common  Sheep  the  wool  becomes 
mixed  with  long  hairs  (not  short  and  fine),  which  more  or  less  ob- 
scure the  wool.,  The  Sheep's  wool  of  India,  now  largely  imported 
into  England  for  various  purposes,  presents  similar  characters.  We 
have  also  seen  specimens  of  like  character  in  the  fleece  of  some 
brown  Spanish  Sheep. 


Fig.  690. — Guinea  Sheep. 

and  the  flocks  of  Australia  and  Southern  Africa,  are  pre-eminent  as 
wool-bearers,  yet  it  would  seem  that  the  predisposition  to  develop 
wool  at  the  expense  of  hair  is  acquired  only  in  temperate,  elevated, 
or  even  cold  climates.     For  instance,  we  learn  from   Mr.  Hodgson 

that  the  wool  of  the  Bhotean 
domesticated^  'Sheep,  called 
Huniah,  is  superb,  and,  he 
adds,  the  animal  is  suited  only 
to  the  northern  district  of  Ne- 
p41,  suffering  much  from  the 
heat  of  the  central  district. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear 
that,  in  the  early  ages  of  man's 
history,  the  shepherds  must 
have  selected,  for  breeding, 
those  individuals  on  which  the 
wool  predominated,  and  that, 
by  following  up  this  system, 
the  Sheep  gradually  attained 
its  present  condition,  so  that 
a  wool-bearing  breed  became 
at  length  permanently  estab- 
lished. Originally,  perhaps, 
the  Sheep,  then  a  wonl-bcarer, 
and  long  domesticated,  was  of 
a  brown  or  rusty-black  colour, 
a  hue  still  lingering  on  the 
faces  and  limbs  of  many  of  our 
breeds,  and  sometimes  appear- 
ing as  the  general  tint  of  in- 
dividuals, thus  conspicuous  in 
the  midst  of  their  white-fleeced 
companions. 

As  the  primitive  fleece  of  the 
Sheep  was   a   mixture  of  hair 
and  wool,  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised to  find   races  domesti- 
cated in  which  the  hair   pre- 
dominates over  the  wool,  and 
that  so  greatly,  that  they  may 
with  propriety  be  termed  hairy. 
Sometimes  the  hair  is  like  that 
of  a  Spaniel,  long  and   silky, 
and  many  of  the  flocks  of  the 
Buchanan    Tartars    are    thus 
clothed.    To  this  breed  may  be 
referred  the  Cretan  or  Walla- 
chian    Sheep      (Ovis     aries, 
var.  Strepsiceros'),  common  in 
Crete,    Wallachia,     Hungary, 
and     the    western     parts     of 
Asia.     (Fig.  689.)     Of  this  va- 
riety   a    splendid    Ram   from 
Mount  Parnassus  was  presented  by  Dr.  Bowring  to  the  Zool.  Soc. , 
Lond.     It  was  vicious,  unruly,  and  of  amazing  strength.     Its  horns 
were  very  large,  and  spirally  contorted,  adding  greatly  to  its  striking 
and  picturesque  appearance.     Its  fleece  consisted  of  hair  and  wool, 
the  former  being  of  great  length,  perfectly  straight,  close-set,  and 
beautifully  fine,  falling  from  the  middle  of  the  back  on  each  side  of 
the  animal,  almost  to  the  ground.     On  the  face  the  hair  was  short, 


CHEVIOT   RAM,    AND    HEATH    RAM, 


N 


266 


THE  SHEEP  TRIBE. 


the  control  of  man.  They  are  sometimes  caught  by  Dogs,  but  can 
seldom  be  obtained  except  by  being  shot,  or  intercepted  in  a  narrow 
space,  and  driven  over  the  cliffs. 

Among  the  breeds  of  Europe  which  h.ive  attained  to  the  highest 
celebrity,  and  by  means  of  wliich,  through  judicious  crossing,  the 
Sheep  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  England,  have  been  greatly 
improved,  as  respects  the  quality  of  the  fleece,  is  the  far-famed 
Merino,  of  Spain  (Fig.  693).  The  term  "Merino"  alludes  to  the 
over-sea  origin  of  the  race  ;  and  there  are  good  grounds  for  believing 
that  these  Spanish  Sheep  were  originally  of  British  extraction,  being 
of  the  old  Ryland  or  Cotswold  stock.  Stowe  and  Baker,  in  their 
Chronicles,  say,  "This  yere  (1464)  King  Edward  IV.  gave  a  licence 
to  pass  over  certain  Cotteswolde  Sheep  into  Spain."  Baker  adds, 
"  King  Edward  IV.  enters  into  a  league  with  King  John  of  Arra- 
Sfon,  to  whom  he  sent  a  score  of  Costal  Ewes  and  four  Lambs." 


Fig.  694.— British  Middle-woolled  Sheep. 

There  are  other  breeds  of  Sheep  in  Spain  besides  the  Merinos, 
more  or  less  intermixed  with  them  ;  but  of  the  pure  race  it  is  cal- 
culated that  there  are  several  millions,  which,  excepting,  perhaps, 
the  flocks  of  Leon  and  Estremadura,  are  migratory,  and  termed 
Transhumantes,  being  periodically  conducted  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another,  and  back  again. 

These  Transhumantes  are  divided  into  flocks,  which,  under  the 
care  of  the  mayoral,  or  chief  shepherd,  and  assistants,  migrate  from 
the  mountains  of  the  north  to  the  plains  of  the  south  in  the  winter, 
and  return  back  to  the  mountains  in  summer.  The  flocks  follow 
the  shepherds,  who  lead  the  way,  and  direct  the  length  and  speed 
of  the  journey :  a  few  Wethers,  perfectly  tamed,  tread  in  the  foot- 


steps of  the  conductor,  and  the  rest  follow  in  due  order ;  a  power- 
ful breed  of  Dogs  accompany  the  shepherds  in  order  to  defend  the 
flock  from  Wolves  ;  and  a  few  Mules  carry  their  provision,  and 
other  necessaries,  as  well  as  materials  for  making  up  the  fold  at 
night. 

This  migratory  system  is  regulated  by  a  tribunal   termed  Mesta, 
which  has  been  of  old  standing  ;    it    can  be  traced   back  to  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century,  at  which  period,  definite  laws,  with  res- 
pect to  it,  were  enacted,  by  which  persons  were  prohibited  from 
travelling  along  the  course  of  the  route  pursued  by  the  flocks  while 
the  Sheep  were  in  motion  ;  it  also  established  a  rig^ht  to  graze  on  all 
the  open  and  common  land  that  lay  in  the  way  ;  and,  moreover,  it 
claimed  a  path,  ninety  yards  wide,  through  all    the   enclosed  and 
cultivated  country.     The  journey  taken  by  the  Merino  flocks  is  up- 
wards of  400  miles,  which  they  accomplish  in  six  or  seven  weeks, 
and  the  same  time  is  spent  in  retracing 
the  route,    so   that   in   every   year   about 
fourteen  weeks  (or  nearly  a  quarter)  are 
spent  in  these  toilsome  journeys.     Popu- 
lar prejudice  in  Spain  attributes  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Merino  wool  to  this  practice 
— a  practice   injurious   to  the   agricultu- 
rist, through  whose  corn-lands  and  vine- 
yards the  flocks  pass,  and  injurious  to  the 
keepers  of  stationary  Sheep  ;  inasmuch  as 
the  common  and  pasture  lands  are  com- 
pletely eaten  bare  by  the  multitudes  that 
slowly  pass  over  them,  while  wilfully,  or 
through  carelessness,   serious  damage  is 
done   to    farms,    plantations,   fields,   and 
vineyards,  for  which  no  redress   can  be 
obtained. 

It  is,  however,  much  to  be  doubted  that 
the  Merino  wool  owes  its  superiority,  as 
is  asserted  by  the  Spaniards,  to  this 
system.  The  stationary  Merinos  in  Leon 
and  Estremadura  produce  wool  equal  in 
quality  to  that  of  the  migratory  flocks ; 
and  these  are  again  exceeded  by  some  of 
the  German  Merinos,  which  never  travel ; 
so  that,  at  least,  the  advantages  of  the 
Mesta  system  have  been  over-rated,  while 
the  evils  resulting  to  the  flocks  from 
fatigue,  and  the  injury  done  to  the  lands 
in  their  course,  have  been  treated  with 
indifference. 

In  Spain,  as  in  the  East,  from  the 
earliest  times,  the  shepherd  leads  his 
flock.  In  Italy,  in  Greece,  and  some 
parts  of  France,  it  is  still  the  custom  ; 
and  the  reed-pipe  of  the  shepherd  may  be 
heard  calling  the  flock  together,  or  the 
troop  seen  following  him  as  he  leads  them 
to  their  evening  folding-place. 

In  Greece  it  is  usual,  as  formerly,  to  give 
names  to  the  Sheep,  which  they  know, 
and  will  answer,  coming  to  the  shepherd 
when  called.  The  same  practice  is  com- 
mon in  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scot- 
land. 

Reverting  from  foreign  Sheep  to  those 
of  our  own  island,  we  may  remind  the 
reader  that  we  possess  several  different 
breeds,  distinguished  by  different  quali- 
ties, both  as  regards  form  and  size,  and 
the  characters  of  the  wool.  These  breeds, 
or  varieties,  are  the  result  of  skilful  treat- 
ment, of  pasturage,  and  judicious  cross- 
ings. 

We  may  divide  them  into  three  groups  : 
the  short-wooUed,  the  middle-woolled, 
and  the  long-woolled  breeds. 

The  short-woolled  breed  formerly  in- 
cluded many  varieties,  now,  from  the  im- 
provement of  their  fleece,  to  be  ranked 
under  the  second  division,  as  the  South-Down,  Norfolk,  and  Cheviot 
Sheep.  It  is  at  present,  however,  represented  by  the  Anglo-Merino 
race,  to  which  the  Sheep  of  Australia,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  the 
Cape,  &c.,  also  belong.  The  average  length  of  the  wool  is  about 
two  inches  and  a-half,  and  its  texture  is  peculiarly  fine,  soft,  and 
even  silky.  Short  wool  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  delicate  and 
beautiful  fabrics  ;  it  is,  however,  generally  mixed  with  wool  of  a 
longer  staple.  The  Saxony  wool,  so  valued  for  its  fineness,  comes 
under  the  present  division  :  it  is  shorter  and  finer  than  the  Australian 
wool,  but  less  silky,  the  serrations  of  the  fibre  being  more  numerous, 
and  disposing  it  to  felt  more  closely.  Hence  Saxony  wool  is  the 
most  valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  broad-cloth. 


THE  SHEEP  TRIBE. 


267 


The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  of  the  Australian  short-woolled 
Sheep  is  from  three  pounds  to  three  and  a-half ;  sometimes  it 
amounts  to  five. 

It  has  been  the  object  of  the  British  wool-grower  to  convert  the 
short-woolled  breeds  into  a  race  with  wool  which,  while  its  length  is 
increased,  preserves  its  original  fineness  and  delicacy  Thus  we 
have  now,  in  place  of  the  old  short-woolled  breeds,  a  middlc-wooUed 
race  of  great  value,  and  of  which  the  fleece  is  in  the  higliest  re- 
quest. Fig.  694  represents  several  examples  of  breeds  of  this  race  : 
a,  the  Welsh  Sheep ;  b,  the  South-Down  Sheep  ;  c,  the  Dorset 
Sheep ;  d,  the  Black-faced  Cheviot  Sheep  ;  c,  the  Norfolk  Sheep  ; 
f,  the  Ryland  Sheep. 

The  middle-woollcd  Sheep  include  the  South-Down,  the  Dorset, 
the  Norfolk,  the  Suffolk,  and  the  Cheviot  breeds,  together  with 
several  others,  and  w^hich  were  formerly  short-woolled.  The  length 
of  the  staple  is,  on  the  average,  three  and  a-half  to  four  inches. 

That  the  improvement  of  the  old  short-woolled  Sheep  in  a  middle- 
woolled  race  is  an  advantage  in  every  sense,  especially  as  the  short 
wool,  used  exclusively  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  cloths,  is  abun- 
dantly supplied  from  foreign  "  growers  "  (as  the  term  is),  no  one 
can  doubt.  Of  this  race,  one  of  the  first  is  the  improved  South- 
Down  breed,  depasturing  on  the  long  range  of  chalky  hills,  extend- 
ing from  the  sea-coast  of  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  and  the  cliffs  of  Dover, 
through  Kent  and  Sussex.  Formerly,  this  breed  was  a  small  size, 
far  from  possessing  a  good  shape,  and  late  before  they  were  capable 
of  being  fattened  ;  now,  however,  they  are  greatly  improved,  both 
in  shape  and  constitution.  "They  are' 
smaller    in   bone,    equally  hard,   with   a 

greater  disposition  to  fatten,   and  much  -:.•«.•,.:;;, ^_V.:J_,     _ 

heavier  in  carcass  when  fat.  They  used 
seldom  to  fatten  till  they  were  four  years 
old ;  but  it  would  be  a  rare  sight  to  see 
a  pen  of  South-Down  Wethers  at  market 
more  than  two  years  old,  and  many  are 
killed  before  they  reach  that  age."  The 
South-Down  Sheep  is,  in  fact,  the  model 
of  what  a  hill  Sheep  ought  to  be  ;  and  the 
flesh,  in  fineness,  of  grain  and  flavour,  is 
peculiarly  excellent.  The  wool  is  of  a 
very  useful  quality  ;  but  is  both  larger  in 
fibre  and  less  numerously  serrated  than 
the  short  Saxony,  and  does  not,  therefore, 
possess  such  a  felting  power  ;  hence  it 
is  rarely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fine 
broad-cloths.  Still,  from  its  fineness  and 
felting  powers,  compared  with  the  wool  of 
many  other  middle-woolled  breeds,  it  is 
highly  esteemed ;  and,  for  flannels  and 
worsted  goods  in  general,  it  is  extensively 
emploj'ed.  In  Surrey,  Hampshire,  and 
Berkshire,  the  South-Downs  have  either 
superseded  or  been  blended  with  the  old 
short-woolled  Sheep. 

Dorsetshire  possesses  its  own  breed, 
encroached  upon,  however,  by  the  South- 
Downs.  The  males  have  large,  spirally- 
twisted  horns,  and  the  females  have  also 
horns,  but  much  smaller  than  those  of  the 
male.  Neither  the  wool  nor  the  flesh 
equals  that  of  the  South-Down  breed. 
The  old  Norfolk  breed  of  middle-woolled 

Sheep  is  very  valuable ;  but  it  is  rapidly  giving  way  to  the  South- 
Down.  The  Rams  are  distinguished  by  long  spiral  horns,  those  of 
the  Ewes  and  Wethers  being  smaller  ;  the  flesh  is  remarkably  fine, 
and  the  wool  delicate,  and  felts  well.  The  figure  of  these  Sheep  is 
tall  and  slender ;  the  legs  are  long,  and  the  face  and  limbs  black  or 
mottled.  The  general  aspect  is  wild  and  animated.  This  breed 
thrives  on  the  coarsest  pasturage.  The  wool  is  not  used  in  fine 
broad-cloths,  but  is  used  in  such  as  are  of  inferior  quality,  and  in 
woollen  stuffs  generally. 

In  Suffolk,  the  South-Down  breed  prevails.  The  black-faced  and 
liorncd  Sheep  of  Westmoreland,  Cumberland,  and  various  parts  of 
Scotland,  as  Lanarkshire,  belong  to  the  middle-woolled  section. 
With  respect  to  their  wool,  these  Sheep  do  not  rank  high  ;  it  ex- 
ceeds in  length  that  of  the  middle-woolled  breeds  generally,  but  is 
harsh  and  coarse  ;  to  compensate  for  this  these  Sheep  are  very 
hardy,  have  an  admirable  contour,  and  the  flesh,  in  fineness  of  grain 
and  delicacy  of  flavour,  equals  either  the  South-Down  or  the  Welsh 
mutton. 

The  Cheviot  breed  is  very  distinct  from  the  common  mountain  or 
black-faced  race,  with  which  it  is,  on  all  sides,  immediately  sur- 
rounded, these  two  races  dividing  the  north  between  them. 

The  Cheviot  breed  is  hornless  ;  and  the  general  contour  is  ex- 
cellent ;  the  shoulders  are  full,  the  body  round  and  long,  and  the 
limbs  small-boned.  The  mutton  is  in  great  esteem  ;  and  the 
Wethers  average  sixteen,  eighteen,  or  even  twenty  pounds  weight 
per  quarter.     It  appears  from  the  testimony  of  practical  farmers. 


that  the  attention  paid  to  the  improvement  of  this  breed,  in  reference 

to  the  condition  of  the  carcass,  has  been  followed  by  a  deterioration 
m  the  quality  of  the  wool,  which  is  said  to  have  been  formerly 
capable  of  entcrmg  into  the  manufacture  of  fine  cloths.  Still,  how- 
ever, the  wool  is  good,  thougli  inferior  to  that  of  the  South-Downs. 
It  far  surpasses  that  of  the  black-faced  breed  ;  and  as  the  Cheviot 
race  is  equally  hardy,  and  as  capable  of  sustaining  cold  as  the 
former,  and  is  content  with  the  Alpine  plants  of  the  bleak  hills  and 
mountains,  it  will  soon  supersede  the  black-faced  breed,  as  it  has 
already  done  in  the  forest  of  Ettrick,  and  the  whole  of  Selkirkshire, 
and  even  Sutherland.  The  foreknowledge  which  these  Sheep 
possess  of  approaching  storms,  and  the  assiduity  with  which,  while 
the  shepherd  dreams  of  no  impending  evil,  they  will  seek  a  place  of 
shelter  and  security,  are  curious  traits  in  their  history.  It  is  thus 
that  they  often  warn  the  shepherd,  by  the  display  of  this  instinct, 
wisely  implanted  within  them,  and  lead  him  to  add  his  precautions 
to  those  which  they  have  themselves  adopted.  In  spite,  however, 
of  the  vigilance  of  the  shepherd,  and  the  instinct  of  the  Sheep, 
many  often  perish,  buried  beneath  towering  snow-drifts,  and  some- 
times whole  flocks  are  lost.  It  often  happens  that  sufficient  shelter 
cannot  be  obtained ;  the  flock  crowd  together  for  the  purpose  of 
mutual  warmth,  and  are  soon  covered  beneath  the  snow.  If  this 
docs  not  occur,  the  Lambs,  unable  to  endure  the  severity  of  the 
storm,  perish,  and  the  mothers,  bewildered,  wander  about  seeking 
their  oftspring,  till  they  themselves  sink  exhausted  with  their  efforts 
and  distress.     With  but  little  food  Sheep  can  remain  for  many  days 


_  j.^g^^^kMs^^mMm 


Fig.  695. — British  Long-woolled  Sheep. 


buried  beneath  the  snow ;  but  where  this  cannot  be  obtained,  the 
period  of  endurance  is  proportioned  to  the  strength  of  the  animal's 
constitution,  and  the  intensity  of  the  cold.  In  the  winter  of  1800,  a 
Sheep,  near  Kendal,  was  buried  in  the  snow  for  thirty-three  days 
and  nights,  without  the  possibility  of  moving,  and  yet  survived  ;  and 
a  Sheep  in  Cumberland  was  buried  for  thirty-eight  days.  When 
extricated,  it  was  found  to  have  eaten  the  wool  off  both  its  shoulders, 
and  its  frame  was  reduced  almost  to  a  skeleton.  By  due  attention, 
however,  it  gradually  recovered. 

Having  thus  specified  some  of  the  more  important  of  the  middle- 
woolled  breeds  of  Sheep  in  our  island,  most  of  them,  or  all, 
derived  from  the  old  short-woolled  breeds  by  a  system  of  judicious 
management,  we  shall  now  take  a  hasty  survey  of  the  long-woolled 
breeds.     (Fig.  695.)  .       . 

As  we  have  already  stated,  the  middle-wool  vanes  in  different 
breeds,  in  fineness,  and  in  its  power  of  felting.  Long  wool  is  much 
more  uniform,  and  for  this  reason,  that  it  is  the  produce  of  the 
Leicester  race,  and  of  races  with  which  the  Leicester  race  has  be- 
come completely  intermingled.  '•  All  long-woolled  Sheep,  says 
Mr.  Youatt,  "  both  in  appearance  and  in  fleece,  are  becoming  one 
family."  Long  wool,  which  has  lately  very  much  improved--it 
beino-  the  aim  of  the  breeder  to  render  it  finer  (at  the  expense  of  its 
lenn-di,  which  it  will  bear)— is  characterised  by  strength  and  trans- 
parency, but  it  is  deficient  in  the  power  of  felting.  Its  average 
I  lenn-th  is  about  eight  inches.  This  applies  more  particularly  to  that 
i   sort  called  the  long-combing  wool ;  there  is,  however,  a  variety  of 


268 


THE  SHEEP  TRIBE. 


long  wool  which  approximates  to  the  middle  wool,  and  termed  the 
short-combing  wool,  which  is  somewhat  shorter  than  the  other,  finer, 
and  more  disposed  to  felt.  The  long-combing  wool  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  hard  yarn,  and  for  purposes  in  which  length  and 
firmness  are  essential  ;  the  other  for  stuffs  of  a  softer  texture,  and 
for  hosiery  goods.  We  have  alluded  to  the  Leicester  breed  as  the 
typical  example  of  the  long-fleeced  races  ;  but  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  this  breed  is  an  improvement  upon  the  heaxy,  ill-made,  and 
coarse-woolled  race,  formerly  spread  over  all  our  midland  counties. 
Lincolnshire,  also,  had  a  breed  of  Sheep  celebrated  for  their  fine 
long  wool  ;  but  this  breed,  defective  in  form,  and  yielding  mutton  of 
inferior  quality,  is  now  greatly  improved,  and,  in  fact,  is  blended 
with  the  new  Leicester  Sheep. 

It  is  not  within  our  province  to  follow  out  the  changes  which 
have  already  taken  and  are  still  taking  place  among  the  long- 
woolled  breeds  of  Sheep,  for  which  our  island  is  expressly  cele- 
brated, and  in  which  neither  France  nor  Belgium  can  at  all  corn- 
pete  with  the  English  Sheep-graziers.  To  those  who  wish  to  gain 
an  acquaintance  with  this  part  of  the  subject,  we  recommend  Mr. 


Fig.  696. — Sheep-washing. 

Youatt's  valuable  work  on  Sheep,  where  they  will  find  much  in- 
formation, and  abundant  reference  to  various  writers  on  agricultural 
topics. 

There  is,  however,  one  question  which  suggests  itself,  and  which 
we  cannot  omit  to  notice.  As  far  as  records  serve  us,  it  would  seem 
that  a  long-woolled  and  a  short-woolled  (now  middle-woolled)  race 
of  Sheep  have  tenanted  our  island  from  the  earhest  times.  Now. 
to  what  are  we  to  attribute  this  original  diilerence  ?  Are  the  two 
races  descended  from  different  primitive  sources,  or  have  food  and 
soil  gradually  produced  the  differences  which  have  been  so  long 
maintained  ?  No  one,  we  think,  will  hesitate  to  say  the  latter  ;  im- 
possible as  it  may  be  to  follow,  step  by  step,  the  progress  of  the 
change,  or  to  determine^  the  fnodus  operandi  of  the  causes  con- 
tributing to  effect  it.  It  is,  however,  very  remarkable,  that  it  is  only 
in  animals  which  have  been  so  long  domesticated  that  we  cannot 
tell  their  primeval  origin,  and  which,  there  is  reason  to  think,  are 
factitious  beings  (that  is,  the  produce  of  different,  but  still  closely- 
allied  species  commingling  together),  that  these  extreme  variations 
as  to  size,  figure,  and  length  and  quaHty  of  fur  are  most  decidedly 


observable.  We  see  these  varieties  in  the  Dog — from  the  silky 
long-haired  Spaniel  of  Spanish  race,  to  the  close-haired  old  Setter 
of  the  same  country  ;  from  the  woolly  French  Poodle  to  the  Matin  ; 
from  the  rough  English  Water-Dog  to  the  Mastiff:  so  in  the  Sheep 
we  find  a  short-fleeced  breed,  with  the  filaments  of  the  wool  pecu- 
liarly fine  and  numerously  serrated  ;  a  still  longer-fleeced  breed, 
again  sub-divided  into  many  minor  varieties,  and  having  the  wool 
fine,  and  more  or  less  capable  of  felting,  or,  in  other  words,  more  or 
less  numerously  serrated  ;  and  a  long-woolled  race  of  old  standing, 
in  which  the  wool,  but  thinly  serrated,  is  inferior  in  felting  proper- 
ties, but  of  great  value  to  the  wool-comber.  But  further,  as  the 
mixture  of  a  long  and  silky-haired  breed  of  Dogs  with  one  of  close 
hair  does  not  improve  the  coat,  the  young  resembling  some  the  male 
some  the  female,  but  not  equalling  them  in  their  excellences  ;  so 
the  crossing  of  long-woolled  and  short-woolled  Sheep  leads  to  no 
good  results  ;  and,  as  with  Dogs,  the  improvement  of  each  breed 
depends  on  a  judicious  and  careful  selection  of  the  best  and  purest 
of  that  breed,  by  which  the  properties  distinguishing  it  may  be  de- 
veloped to  their  maximum  in  their  progeny. 

In  England  the  Sheep  is 
now  only  valuable  for  the 
sake  of  its  wool  and  flesh  ; 
but  in  various  parts  of  both 
Europe  and  Asia  the  milk 
of  the  Ewe  has  been  used 
from  the  earliest  times, 
either  pure  or  curdled,  as 
an  article  of  diet.  Formerly, 
in  many  parts  of  England, 
cheese  was  made  from  the 
milk  of  the  Ewe,  and  the 
Ewes,  to  the  injury  of  the 
Lambs,  were  milked  regu- 
larly, as  described  in  the 
"Odyssey,"  and,  at  a  later 
era,  by  Virgil. 

To  the  process  of  shear- 
ing we  need  scarcely  allude  ; 
all    are    familiar    with    the 
manner  in  which  the  removal 
of  the  fleece  is  effected,  and 
it  would  seem  that   in   the 
earliest    patriarchal     ages 
the    same    process   was    in 
use.     Among  the  Romans, 
however   (and   the   practice 
has    been    but    lately    dis- 
continued   in    the     Orkney 
Islands,    and    is,    perhaps, 
still  prevalent   in   Iceland), 
the  wool   was   torn   off  the 
animals,     and,      as      Pliny 
states,   they  were  kept  for 
three  days  previously  with- 
out food,  in  order  that  the 
wool  might  be  more  easily 
detached,    their  bodies  be- 
ing exhausted.     In  his  time, 
however,    the    practice     of 
shearing    had      begun     to 
supersede    this    cruel     and 
unjustifiable     method.       It 
gave,    however,     origin    to 
the  word  vellus  (fleece),  from 
vello  (to    pull    away),    and 
the  hill  termed  Velleia  was 
the  ancient  spot  on  which 
this  cruelty  was  perpetrated. 
With  us  the  season  of  Sheep-shearing  is  a  season  of  rejoicing; 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  important  work  is  conducted,  and  the 
dexterity  of  the  shearers,  are,  to  those  not  accustomed  to  rural  life, 
replete  with   interest  and    amusement.      It  is,   indeed,   a  pleasing 
spectacle  to  see  a  large  flock  of  snow-white  Sheep  collected  to- 
gether, and,  in  turn,  losing  their  soft  fleece,  rolled  into  an  unbroken 
and  well-arranged  whole,  beneath  the  shears  of  the  shearer  :  the 
picture  is  full  of  poetry,  and  he  must  be  destitute  alike   of  taste 
and  patriotism  that  can  look  coldly  upon  it.     Our  sketch  (Fig.  696) 
IS  a  spirited  representation  of  Sheep-washing  for  the  purpose  of 
cleansing  the  fleece  preparatory  to  shearing. 

To  enter  into  a  disquisition  on  the  commercial  importance  of  the 
Sheep,  its  connection  with  national  prosperity  and  international  re- 
lationships, is  not  our  place.  We  leave  this  to  the  political  econo- 
mist. We  may,  however,  here  state,  as  showing  the  great  extent 
to  which  the  wool  of  Sheep,  Lambs,  Alpaca,  or  the  Llama  tribes, 
influence  our  manufactures,  that  the  total  weight  of  all  these  im- 
ported into  England  in  l877-'78  was  about  400,000,000  lbs.,  of  an 
estimated  value  of  ;^24,ooo,ooo. 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


269 


The  Ox  Tribe— Genus  Bos. 


The  Ox  tribe,  perhaps,  holds  the  highest  place  among  the  ani- 
als  reared  for  the  purpose  of  civilised  life.     There  is  not  a  part  of 
from  the  hoof  to  the  horn,  which  is  not  utilised  by  man. 

mill<.  butter,  and 


mals  reare 
the  anima-. 

The  flesh  affords  food.  From  the  female  we  get 
cheese.  The  skin  affords  the  best  leather  when  tanned  ;  and  even 
the  offal  is  devoted  to  some  useful  purpose.  During  life,  the  Bovine 
tribe  are  frequently  used  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  generally  for 
agricultural  labour ;  so  that,  living  or  dead,  the  0.x  claims  our  re- 
gard. 

The  following  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  Ox  tribe,  or 
genus  Bns  .-—Horns  in  both  sexes.  Neither  sub-orbital  sinus,  inter- 
diijital  foss;e,  nor  inguinal  pores.  Teats  in  females  four.  The 
ammals  of  this  genus  are,  with  some  few  exceptions,  the  largest  and 


osseous  structure  of  the  fore-foot  («)  and  of  the  hind-foot  (i)  of  the 
Ox.  All  the  Ox  group  are  gregarious  in  their  habits,  and  no 
portion  of  the  globe  is  destitute  of  its  indigenous  species,  existing 
in  a  state  of  freedom,  tenanting  the  deep  glades  of  the  forest,  or 
roaming  over  hills  and  plains,  excepting  Australia. 

The  bx  {Bos  2'aiiriis)  is  now  only  known  as  a  domesticated  ani- 
mal, spread  far  and  wide  through  almost  every  region  of  the  globe, 
contributing,  by  its  services  and  products,  to  the  well-being  of  man. 
Although  referred  to  as  a  domestic  animal  in  the  earliest  ages  by 
the  author  of  the  Mosaic  record, 
impenetrable  darkness  hangs  over 
its  primeval  history,  nor  know  we 
what  is  its  wild  origin,  nor  whether 
that  origin  is  in  existence.  '  . 

Temperature,  soil,  food,  a  thou-      f  / 

"^    -       J 


sand      circumstances      operating 


Fig.  697. — Dentition  of  the  Ox. 

most  massive  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants  ;  their  limbs  are  low 
and  strong,  their  body  heavy,  with  wide  haunches,  and  thick  and 
often  elevated  shoulders  ;  the  head  is  large,  and  furnished  with 
horns  common  to  both  sexes  ;  their  progressive  increase  being 
marked  by  annuli  at  the  base.  They  sheathe  a  hollow  or  cancel- 
lous bony  core,  continued  from  the  sides  of  a  bold  frontal  ridge. 
The  forehead,  or  chaffron,  is  expanded ;  the  muzzle,  except  in  the 
sub-genus  Ovibos,  is  broad,  naked,  and  moist  ;    the  neck  is  thick, 


Fig.  698. — Skeleton  of  the  Cow. 

deep,  compressed  laterally,  carried  horizontally,  and  furnished  with  a 
pendent  dewlap.  The  spinous  processes  of  the  anterior  dorsal  verte- 
bra:, at  the  withers,  are  very  long  and  stout.  Fig.  697  represents  the 
dentition  of  the  Ox,  in  two  views,  of  the  upper  and  under  jaw  ;  Fig. 
698  is  a  very  characteristic  delineation  of  the  skeleton  of  the  Eng- 
lish  short-homed   Cow  ;    and   Fig.  699  is  a  representative  of  the 


Fig.  699. — Feet  of  the  O.'C. 

through  the  revolutions  of  years,  have  combined  to  effect  a  series  of 
modifications  in  the  Ox.    Every  country  possesses  its  peculiar  races, 
and  these  races,  by  their  intermixture,  are  perpetually  producing 
others,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  to  what  extent  these  changes 
may  be  carried,  and  how  far  the  original  type  has  become  already 
modified.     Certain  it  is  that  we  are  acquainted  with  no  animal,  in  a 
state  of  original  independence,  to  which  we  can  refer  as  the  primi- 
tive type  of  the  Ox.     It  is  true,   however,   that  within  the  period 
of  authentic  history,   certain  wild   Oxen   existed  in 
Europe  ;  but  it  is  not  to  Europe  that  we  jnust  look 
as  the  cradle  of  the  domestic  Ox  ;  nor,  indeed,  are 
the    accounts    left  us  of   these    Oxen    reconcilable 
with  any  of  them,  being  specifically  identical  with 
our  domestic  race,  which,  indeed,  when  we  look  at 
the  Zebu   breeds,    seems  to   claim   more   than   one 
source.     One  of  these  wild  animals  was  termed  by 
the   ancients   Urus   {laiis  corinbiis),  and   another, 
Bison  (jttb^tus,  or  villosus) ;  we  have  also  an  ani- 
mal described  under  the  name  of  Bonasus  (BwacTtrof 
or  Boi<aiTof,   Aristotle).     A  few  observations  on  these 
animals    may    not    be    uninteresting.      The    Urus, 
which  existed  in  the  Hercynian  forest,  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Ca:sar: — "  These  Uri  are  little  inferior  to 
Elephants  in   size,   but   are  Bulls   in   their  nature, 
colour,   and  figure.     Great   is   their   strength,   and 
great   their  swiftness ;    nor  do   they  spare  man  or 
beast  when  they  have  caught  sight  of  them.     These, 
when  trapped   in   pitfalls,  the  hunters   unsparingly 
kill.     The  youths,  exercising  themselves  by  this  sort 
of  hunting,    are   hardened  by   the   toil,   and   those 
among  them  who  have  killed  most,   bringing  with 
them  the  horns  as  testimonials,  acquire  great  praise. 
But  these  Uri  cannot  be  habituated  to  man,  or  made 
tractable,  not  even  when  young.     The  great  size  of 
the  horns,  as  well  as  the  form  and  quality  of  them, 
differs  much  from  the  horns  of  our  Oxen.     These,  when  carefully 
selected,  they  ring  round  the  edge  with  silver,   and  use  them  for 
drinking  at  their  ample  feasts."    Perhaps  the  Wild  Bulls  with  horns 
of  extraordinary  size,  which  Herodotus  assures  us   mhabited  Ma- 
cedonia, as  well  as  did  the  Lion,  were  Uri. 

Fossil  bones  have  been  found  in  different  places  in  this  country, 


270 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


which  asrree  so  closely  with  those  of  our  domestic  breeds,  as  to 
leave  little  or  no  doubt  of  tlieir  identity. 

The  Bisoji  juhatiis  of  Pliny  has  been  rcjj'arded  by  Cuvier  and 
most  naturalists  as  identical  with  the  Bonasus  of  Aristotle,  and  con- 
sidered, perhaps  with  reason,  as  referable  to  the  Aurochs,  or  Zubr 
{Bos  urns  of  modern  naturalists,  not  Urns  of  C.xsar),  still  existing 
in  the  wild  forests  of  Lithuania.  In  Europe  and  Siberia  the  fossil 
crania  of  an  Aurochs  arc  not  uncommon  ;  and  these  skulls,  though 
they  scarcely  differ  in  anything  from  the  Lithuanian  animal,  Cuvier 
inclines  to  believe  may  be  of  a  different,  though  closely-allied  species. 
He  gives  the  figures  of  a  skull  in  the   Pans  museum,  here  copied 


Fig.  700. — Skull  of  the  Aurochs  :  a,  front ;  i5,  lateral  view. 

(Fig.  700,  a,  front  view;  b,  lateral  view),  so  like,  as  he  observes, 
to  the  living  Aurochs,  that  the  most  practised  eye  can  scarcely  dis- 
tinguish it ;  and  also  so  fresh,  that  he  is  in  doubt  whether  it  be 
really  a  fossil  relic,  or,  on  the  contrary,  recent,  owing  its  fossil  ap- 
pearance to  having  been  much  weathered.  Lyell  stated,  that  the 
bones  of  the  Aurochs  (or  Bison)  have  been  found  in  the  North  Cliff 
in  the  county  of  York,  in  a  lacustrine  formation,  in  wliich  all  the 
land  and  fresh-water  shells,  thirteen  in  number,  can  be  identified 
with  species  and  varieties  now  existing  in  that  county.  To  return 
to  the  Urus  of  Cajsar  and  the  ancients.  We  have  stated  this  animal 
to  be  characterised  by  the  immensity  of  its  horns,  and  its  vast 
stature,  in  which  former  particular  it  differs  materially  from  the 
ancient  full-maned  Bison,  or  Lithuanian  Aurochs.  This  Urus  no 
longer,  as  it  would  appear,  exists  ;  but  fossil  skulls  of  a  species  far 


Fig.  701. 

exceeding  the  largest  domestic  Ox  in  magnitude,  with  the  core  of 
massive  horns,  are  abundant  in  the  superficial  strata  of  Europe. 
This  species  is  termed  by  Cuvier  Bos  primigenius  (primeval  Ox) ; 
and  he  carefully  distinguishes  the  skull  from  that  of  the  fossil 
Aurochs.  In  a  specimen  found  at  Melksham,  and  described  by  Mr. 
Woods,  the  cores  of  the  horns  measured,  at  their  widest  expansion, 
upwards  of  four  feet ;  we  may  easily  conceive  what  must  have  been 
the  expansion  of  the  horns  themselves :  the  skull,  destitute  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  not  perfect  otherwise,  weighed  sixty-three  pounds. 
Larger  specimens,  however,  have  been  discovered.  Fig  701  repre- 
sents a  front  view  of  the  skull  oi  Bos  priniigenhis  ;  Fig.  702,  a  pala- 
tal view  ;  Fig.  703,  a  back  view ;  Fig.  704,  a  profile. 

This  extinct  species  Cuvier  regards  as  the  type  of  the  domestic 
Ox,  in  which  opinion  Mr.  Bell  and  most  naturalists  coincide,  at  the 


same  time  that  they  consider  the  "  celebrated  White  Wild  Oxen  of 
Craven,  of  Chillingham  Park,  and  Scotland,  as  specifically  the  same 
with  the  Common  Ox  ;  on  the  contrary,  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  and 
Mr.  Swainson  regard  the  White  Ox  of  Chillingham  Park  (Bos  Sco- 
tictis  of  some  authors)  as  distinct  from  the  Common  Ox.  The  former 
regards  the  Chillingham  Ox  as  a  white  variety  of  the  fossil  species 
Bos prii)i!gc7iius ;  while  Mr.  Swainson  believes  it  to  be  the  descen- 
dant of  a  smaller  species,  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the  Bos 
j>rimigc7iius,  or  ancient  Urus,  of  which  "  the  skulls  exhibit  the  type 
of  a  form  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  domestic  Ox." 
All  these  skulls  are  nearly  one-third  larger  than  those  of  the  Bos 


Fig.  702 


Fig.  703- 


Fig.  704. 

Taurus ;  they  are  square  from  the  orbits  to  the  occipital  crest,  and 
somewhat  hollow  at  the  forehead.  The  horns,  placed  at  the  side  of 
the  above  crest,  show  a  peculiar  rise  from  their  roots  upwards  ;  then 
bending  outwards,  and  then  forwards  and  inwards.  No  domestic 
races  show  this  turn  ;  but  numerous  specimens  of  inferior  sizes,  found 
fossil  in  the  Cornish  mines,  have  this  shape  ;  and  the  Wild  Bull  of 
Scotland,  the  only  example  of  this  type  now  known  to  exist,  retains 
it.  The  domestic  Oxen,  on  the  contrary,  of  whatsoever  country  or 
breed  they  may  be,  have  the  square  concave  forehead,  with  the  horns 
rising  from  the  ends  of  the  frontal  ridge.  It  appears  then  that  the  an- 
cient Urus,  or  Wild  Bull,  was  a  perfectly  wild,  savage,  anduntame- 
able  animal :  not  only  does  every  account  handed  down  from  remote 
antiquity  assure  us  of  this,  but  it  is  even  verified  by  the  only  living 
example  of  this  form  we  possess,  the  Bos  Scoticus,  still  preserved  in 


272 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


cultivated,  were  gradually  thinned,  till,  at  length,  their  remnant 
found  in  the  chase  or  park  of  the  nobleman  that  safety  which  as  old 
denizens  of  the  soil  they  might  well  claim,  and  but  for  wliich  the 
breed  would  long  since  have  been  utterly  extirpated  ?  Again,  was 
the  wild  breed  which  roamed  the  Caledonian  forest,  and  the  great 
forest  north  of  London,  so  late  as  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century, 
and  mentioned  by  Fitzstephen,  identical  with  the  white  Cambrian 
breed  ?  These  are  questions  more  easily  asked  than  solved.  One 
thing  is  certain  :  the  Wild  Cattle  of  Chillingham  will  breed  with  the 
domestic  race,  but  the  progeny  has  never  been  preserved,  the  Calves 
having  been  always  killed  at  an  early  age,  from  a  pardonable  desire 
to  keep  this  ancient  race  in  all  its  purity  ;  we  firmly  believe,  how- 
ever, that  the  cross-breed  would  be  as  fertile  as  any  of  our  domestic 
varieties. 

Another  authority  is  of  opinion  that  the  white  Cattle  in  question 
are  domesticated  Oxen,  which  have  run  wild ;  and,  moreover,  that 
they  are  not  descended  from  an  aboriginal  stock,  but  that  the  race 
was  originally  imported  by  the  ecclesiastics  from  Italy,  where  herds 
of  wild  Cattle,  much  resembling  them,  still  exist.  In  this,  as  in  all 
other  theories,  authenticated  facts  as  our  basis  are  wanting. 

The  Chillingham  Wild  Cattle  are  invariably  of  a  creamy-white 
colour,  with  a  black  muzzle ;  the  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  ears, 
and  the  tip  externally,  are  red ;  the  horns  are  white,  with  black  tips, 
very  fine,  and  bent  upwards.     Some  of  the  Bulls  have  a  thin  up- 


706.— Head  of  a  Bull. 


right  mane,  an  inch  and  a-half  or  two  inches  long.  The  weight  of 
the  Oxen  is  from  35  to  45  stone  the  four  quarters  (14  lbs.  to  the 
stone) ;  that  of  the  Cows,  from  25  to  35  stone.  The  beef  is  finely 
marbled,  and  of  excellent  flavour. 

These  Cattle  are  fleet  and  active.  At  the  first  appearance  of  any 
person,  they  set  off  in  full  gallop  ;  and,  at  the  distance  of  about  200 
yards,  make  a  wheel  round  and  come  boldly  up  again,  tossing  their 
heads  in  a  menacing  manner ;  on  a  sudden  they  make  a  full  stop 
at  the  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  yards,  looking  wildly  at  the  object  of 
their  surprise ;  but,  upon  the  least  motion  being  made,  they  all 
again  turn  round  and  fly  off  with  equal  speed,  but  not  to  the  same 
distance,  forming  a  shorter  circle ;  and,  again  returning,  with  a 
bolder  and  more  threatening  aspect  than  before,  they  approach 
much  nearer,  probably  within  thirty  yards,  when  they  again  make 
another  stand,  and  then  fly  off ;  this  thej'  do  several  times,  shorten- 
ing their  distance,  and  advancing  nearer  and  nearer  till  they  come 
within  such  a  short  distance  that  most  people  think  it  proper  to  leave 
them,  not  choosing  to  provoke  them  further. 

The  females  hide  their  Calves  for  a  week  or  ten  days  after  1  rth 
in  some  sequestered  situation,  and  visit  them  two  or  three  tnnes 
a-day.  If  any  person  approach  the  Calves,  they  crouch  close,  like 
a  Hare  in  form,  and  endeavour  to  hide  themselves,  bur,  w';en 
roused,  exhibit  great  fury,  pawing,  bellowing,  and  butting  at  t^e  jur 


trader  ;  the  females  are  resolute  in  the  defence  of  their  young,  and 

attack  persons  discovered  near  their  lair  with  impetuous  ferocity. 
Formerly,  the  hunting  of  these  animals  was  conducted  with  great 
parade,  many  scores  assembling  on  horseback,  and  hundreds  on 
foot,  to  witness  the  sport ;  but  from  the  number  of  accidents  that 
happened,  and  perhaps  from  the  disturbance  created  among  the 
game,  this  practice  has  been  long  discontinued.  The  keeper  now 
uses  a  rifle,  and  steals  upon  the  animal  selected  until  within  range, 
and  drops  it  at  a  single  shot. 

British  Domestic  Cattle  {Bos  Taiirus).—l.o  describe  the 
form,  contour,  and  colour  of  the  domestic  Ox  is  superfluous  ;  and 
all  know  that,  within  the  precincts  of  our  fertile  island,  affording 
unequalled  pasturage,  the  animal  has  ramified  into  many  breeds, 
which  it  has  been  the  care  of  the  farmer  to  improve  and  modify  to 
his  own  advantage.  Excepting  in  a  few  districts,  the  Ox  is  not  em- 
ployed in  our  country  as  a  beast  of  draught,  or  for  the  labour  of 
the  plough,  which  it  was  in  ancient  times  on  the  continent,  and  still 
is  in  many  countries  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  for  its  flesh  on  the  one 
hand,  and  its  milk  on  the  other,  that  this  animal  is  so  valuable  ; 
indeed,  everywhere  the  true  importance  of  the  Ox  is  in  itself,  and 
not  its  labour,  though  in  many  parts  of  the  world  it  is  used  both  as 
a  beast  of  burden  and  draught.  Restricting  our  present  observa- 
tions to  British  Cattle,  we  may  observe  that  there  are  two  parties 
immediately,  and  we  may  say  professional!}',  interested  in  the 
culture  of  Cattle — the  grazier  and  the  dairy-farmer  ; 
and  both  require  different,  and,  to  a  certain  degree, 
incompatible  excellences.  With  the  grazier,  round- 
ness of  form,  a  moderate  smallness  of  bone,  depth  of 
chest,  and  aptitude  to  acquire  external  fat  upon  a 
small  consumption  of  food,  are  among  the  points  of 
excellence  aimed  at  and  expected.  On  the  contrary, 
the  supply  of  a  large  quantity  of  rich  milk  is  the 
desideratum  of  the  dairy-farmer ;  and  it  very  seldom 
happens  that  the  qualities  prized  by  the  one  party  are 
combined  with  those  required  by  the  other :  both, 
therefore,  attend  to  their  exclusive  interests,  agree- 
ing only  in  the  care  bestowed  upon  the  animals  sub- 
servient to  their  respective  purposes.  To  note  every 
variety  and  enter  into  minutia; — the  part  rather  of  the 
farmer  than  the  naturalist — is  far  from  being  our 
object  ;  a  sketch,  however,  with  illustrations  of  some 
of  the  principal  breeds,  will  not  be  uninteresting. 

Among  the  older  breeds  was  a  long-horned  race, 
now  greatly  modified,  of  which  Lancashire,  and  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  might  be  considered  as 
the  central  district ;  whence  it  extended,  not  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  other  races,  through  the  midland  counties, 
and  even  into  Ireland.  This  breed  was  termed  the 
Craven,  from  a  district  of  that  name  in  Yorkshire, 
bordering  on  Lancashire,  where  it  is  said  to  have 
originally  appeared.  This  breed  was  large,  coarse- 
boned,  and  apt  to  be  long  in  the  body,  wliich,  besides, 
was  destitute  of  roundness.  The  milk,  if  not  abun- 
dant in  quantity,  was  extremely  rich,  and  suited  the 
purpose  of  the  dairy-farmer.  The  horns  were  of 
enormous  length  ;  sometimes  they  projected  horizon- 
tally on  each  Side  of  the  head  ;  generally,  however, 
they  swept  downwards,  with  an  inward  flexure,  often 
reaching  below  the  level  of  the  muzzle,  or  even  meet- 
ing before  it,  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  facility  of 
grazing :  we  have,  indeed,  often  seen  the  points 
press  against  the  sides  of  the  muzzle,  rendering  it 
necessary  to  shorten  them.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
1 8th  century  various  agriculturists  commenced  a  series 
of  attempts  towards  the  improvement  of  this  old  breed,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of  the  Dishley,  or  new  Leicester  long- 
horn.  To  the  grazier,  the  improvement  was  most  immediately  bene- 
ficial, but  the  dairyman  preferred  the  old  stock.  In  process  of  time, 
however,  the  new  breed  extended,  improving  the  Cattle  of  the 
middle  and  northern  counties,  and  especially  of  Ireland. 

In  its  turn,  however,  this  breed  has  almost  everywhere  yielded  to 
a  middle,  or  short-horned  race,  and,  even  in  Leicestershire,  the 
stronghold  of  the  Dishley  breed,  few  are  now  to  be  seen.  In 
Cheshire  also — which,  till  recently,  retained  a  long-horned  breed, 
derived  chiefly  from  the  old  Lancashire  and  new  Dishley  stocks — 
the  Durham,  or  short-horned  race,  has  made  decided  inroads,  but 
with  doubtful  advantage  as  respects  the  quality  of  the  cheese  for 
which  that  county  is  celebrated. 

Among  the  long-horned  race  must  be  reckoned  the  old  Shrop- 
shire breed,  a  large-boned  and  hardy  race,  well  fitted  to  serve  the  ' 
dairy.  It  would  appear  that  this  breed  is  seldom  to  be  seen  pure, 
having  been  crossed  with  advantage  by  the  short-horned  Holder- 
ness.  In  Staffordshire  the  old  long-horned  breed  has  been  in  most 
parts  superseded  by  short-horned  Cattle  ;  it  still,  however,  maintains 
its  ground  in  the  north  of  that  county,  more  particularly  along  the 
banks  of  the  Trent  and  the  Dove,  close  to  the  borders  of  Derby- 
shire.    Between  the  long-horned  and  the  short-horned  races  of  our 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


'7i 


Cattle  intervenes  a  race  termed  "  middle-homs,"  represented  by  the 
North  Devonshire,  Somersetshire,  Herefordshire,  Gloucestershire, 
and  Sussex  Cattle. 

The  Devonshire  breed  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  has  lonpf  been 
celebrated  for  beauty ;  like  most  of  our  other  breeds  it  has  become 
improved  during  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years,  and  has,  perhaps,  now 
attained  to  its  perfection.  The  head  of  the  Devon  Ox  is  small,  but 
broad  across  the  forehead,  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle  ;  the  horns 
curve  gracefully  upwards,  the  chest  is  deep,  and  the  back  straight. 
The  Cow  is  small  compared  with  the  Bull. 

The  system  of  ploughing  with  Oxen  is  very  generally  practised  in 
Devonshire  ;  and  where  the  land  is  not  too  heavy,  no  teams  of  Oxen 
are  superior,  if  equal,  to  these  in  this  kind  of  work.  It  is,  however, 
to  the  grazier  that  this  breed  is  more  especially  valuable,  few  Oxen 
rivalling  the  Devonshire  in  disposition 
to  fatten,  and  in  the  quality  of  the  flesh. 
Generally  speaking,  this  breed  is  in- 
ferior to  many  others  for  the  dairy,  not, 
indeed,  as  respects  the  quality  of  the 
milk — for  it  yields  a  more  than  average 
proportion  of  cream  and  butter — but  the 
quantity.  Some  farmers,  however,  have 
found  the  North  Devons  to  vield  even 
a  large  produce  of  milk,  so  that  in  this 
particular  much  may  depend  on  choice 
of  pasturage. 

In  Somersetshire  the  Devon  breed  pre- 
vails, or,  at  least,  the  original  breed  has 
been  greatly  crossed  by  the  Devon,  of 
which  it  presents  most  of  the  excellences. 
The  Somersetshire  Cattle  are  alike  valu- 
able for  "  the  pail,  the  plough,  and  graz- 
ing." The  tract  of  country  between 
Bridgewater  and  Cross  produces  cheese 
of  well-known  excellence ;  the  best 
Cheddar  cheese  is  made  either  in  that 
tract  or  the  marshes  round  Glaston- 
bury. 

The  Hereford  improved  breed,  with 
white  faces,  is  valuable  as  fattening 
rapidly,  and  that  on  inferior  fare  ;  the 
flesh  is  fine-grained,  and  highly  prized 
in  the  market :  the  Cows,  however, 
yield  but  a  scanty  portion  of  milk.  In 
Gloucestershire  the  Herefords  are  pre- 
ferred for  the  team,  and  by  graziers  for 
fattening ;  but  the  old  Gloucester  breed 
for  milk.  This  old  breed  is  of  mixed 
origin,  consisting  of  a  race  of  Welsh 
descent,  as  is  supposed,  crossed  by  vari- 
ous others,  and  among  them  the  Alder- 
ney.  The  rich  Vale  of  Berkeley  pro- 
duces the  finest  Gloucester  cheese. 

The  breed  of  Cattle  in  Sussex  closely 
resembles  that  of  Devonshire :  accord- 
ing to  judges,  it  is  intermediate  between 
the  Devon  and  Hereford,  "having  the 
activity  of  the  first,  the  strength  of  the 
second,  and  the  propensity  to  fatten 
and  the  beautiful  fine-grained  flesh  of 
both."  Its  colour  is  deep  chestnut-red, 
or  blood-bay,  and  a  deviation  from  these 
colours  indicates  a  cross.  In  the  Weald 
of  Sussex,  Oxen  of  this  valuable  stock 
are  generally  used  for  team-work ;  and 
so  great  is  their  strength  and  quick- 
ness, that  many  teams  have  been  known 
to  travel,  with  heavy  loads,  fifteen  miles 
a-day  for  several  successive  weeks,  and 
that  without  distress.  The  Sussex  Cow, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  Devon  and  Here- 
ford, is  very  inferior  in  size  to  the  Bull  , 
and  though  the  milk  yielded  is  good,  it 
is  of  trifling  quantity. 

A  valuable  breed  of  middle-homed  Cattle  extends  through  South 
Wales,  and  of  this  the  Glamorganshire  variety  is  highly  celebrated. 
The  Oxen  are  readily  fattened,  and  the  Cows  yield  a  fair  quantity 
of  milk. 

Fig.  707  presents  specimens  of  the  following  breeds  : — a,  the  old 
Craven  Bull ;  b,  the  Shropshire  Ox  ;  c,  the  new  Leicester  Bull  ;  d, 
the  Devon  Cow  ;  e,  the  Hereford  Bull ,  /,  the  Hereford  Cow  ;  g,  the 
Sussex  Cow. 

The  most  extensively  diffused  breed  of  Cattle  on  our  island,  and 
by  far  the  most  valuable,  is  that  termed,  by  way  of  distinction,  the 
short-homed,  they  presenting  every  point  in  the  highest  excellency. 
Of  this  breed  England  may  justly  be  proud  ;  in  it  is  united,  as  far  as 
possible,  every  good  quality      The  form  is  admirable  ;    the  Oxen 


fatten  quickly,  and  often  attain  to  an  enormous  weight,  and  the  Cows 
are  excellent  as  milkers. 

It  would  appear  that  Durham  and  some  parts  of  Yorkshire  had 
long  possessed  a  breed  of  short-horned  Cattle  of  Kirge  size,  and 
celibratcd  for  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  bv  the  Cows;  but  this 
breed,  not  only  m  figure,  but  in  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  in  the  quality 
of  the  flesh,  required  great  improvement,  other  races  far  excelling  it 
m  these  points,  so  important  to  the  grazier.  This  stock  still 
lingers,  and  is  certainly  valuable  to  the  dain'-farmcr,  who  might, 
however,  substitute  the  improved  breed  for  it  with  advantage.  It  is 
about  100  years  since  the  improved  stock  of  this  old  but  really  fine 
breed  began  to  be  established  on  the  banks  of  the  Tees,  owing  to 
the  judgment  and  care  of  the  intelligent  breeders  of  that  district. 
It  differs  from  the  old  short-homs  in  possessing  a  well-developed 


Fig.  707.  — English  Doiucslic  CaUle. 

figure,  and  in  aptitude  to  acquire  fat.  The  first  step  of  improve- 
m'cnt,  resulting  from  the  practical  knowledge  of  Mr.  Milbank  and 
other  coadjutors,  opened  the  way  for  the  successful  exertions  of  sub- 
sequent spirited  breeders,  who,  by  pursuing  a  judicious  plan  in 
crossing,  have  brought  the  breed  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfec- 
tion. Among  these  crosses  it  is  supposed  that  the  white  wild 
breed  has  contributed  a  share,  and  to  this  circumstance  is  at- 
tributed the  prevalence  of  white  as  characteristic  of  the  stock. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  every  breed  of  short-horned  Cattle  is 
endowed  with  the  qualities  characteristic  of  the  improved  stock, 
which  render  it  so  valuable.  There  is.  for  example,  a  breed  of 
short-horned  Cattle  in  Lincolnshire,  with  which  the  London  market 
is  abundantly  supplied;    but  the  Cattle  of  this  stock  are    by  no 

2  N 


274 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


means  first-rate  animals  ;  the  head  is  not  finely  modelled,  the  bone 
is  comparatively  larse,  the  limbs  and  the  hips  wide.  In  many  in- 
stances the  stock  has  been  improved  by  admixture  with  more  highly- 
bred  animals,  and  rendered  valuable,  but  the  tlesh  is  not  fine- 
grained. On  the  whole,  these  Cattle  are  better  adapted  for  the 
dairj'-farmer  than  the  grazier,  as  the  Cows  yield  a  fair  quantity  of 
milk. 

Among  the  short-horned  race  must  be  enumerated  that  singular 
breed  of  Cattle  called  Alderneys,  which  has  gained,  and  deserves, 
a  degree  of  celebrity,  from  the  peculiar  richness  of  the  milk  afforded 
bv  the  Cows.  These  Cattle  were  originally  from  Normandy  and  the 
islands  on  the  French  coast,  from  one  of  which  (Alderney)  they  take 
their  name.      They  are  small  in   size,  awkwardly  shaped,  with  a 


Fig.  708. — English  Short-horned  Cattle. 

peculiar  bend  in  the  back,  and  in  every  point  more  or  less  defective. 
The  milk  yielded  is  not  great  in  quantity,  but  abounds  with  butter ; 
and  it  is  from  its  richness  that  these  animals  are  favourites.  Ira- 
probable  as  it  might  seem  from  the  appearance  of  the  Alderney,  its 
aptitude  to  fatten  is  remarkable  ;  even  the  Cows,  when  dried,  soon 
gain  flesh,  and  even  acquire  considerable  weight.  It  is  chiefly  in 
pleasure-grounds,  and  the  paddocks  attached  to  the  houses  of  per- 
sons not  engaged  in  farming  for  profit,  that  Cows  of  this  breed  are 
to  be  seen.  In  Hampshire  alone  the  Alderney  breed  is  general, 
constituting  the  stock  of  the  farmer.  It  would  appear  that  it  is  more 
suited  to  the  pasturage  of  that  county  than  others  which  require 
richer  grazing-grounds,  consume  a  large  quantity  of  food,  and  return 
a  disproportionate  supply  of  milk. 


Fig.  708  represents  the  following :— a,  Cow  of  the  Alderney 
breed  ;  b.  Bull  of  the  same  breed  ;  c,  a  Cow  of  the  Alloy  breed, 
formerly  belonging  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Berry ;  d,  a  celebrated  short- 
horned  Bull,  Firby,  once  belonging  to  Lord  Althorp  ;  c,  a  Cow  of 
the  same  stock  ;  f,  a  polled,  or  hornless  Cow  ;  g,  a  short-horned 
Cow,  of  the  West  Highland  breed  ;  h,  a  Glamorganshire  Cow  ;  i, 
improved  Lincolnshire  0.x  ;  j.  Bull  of  the  Alloy  breed  ;  k.  Yorkshire 
Cow.  With  respect  to  other  breeds  of  which  we  have  as  yet  said 
nothing,  we  may  observe,  that  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  a  race 
of  small  black  Cattle  prevails,  of  which  large  herds  are  driven 
southwards,  and  depastured  in  the  grazing-lands  of  England.  Of 
these,  numbers  are  brought  to  the  London  market.  Of  this  race 
many  varieties   exist.    We    may   particularise   the    Kyloes  of  the 

Western  Islands  and  the  Hebrides  : 
they  are  small,  but  hardy  and  well- 
formed,  thriving  on  coarse  fare,  and 
producing  fine-grained  and  high- 
flavoured  meat. 

In  the  north  of  Argyleshire  the  Cattle 
are  larger  than  those  of  the  Hebrides, 
and  are  bred  to  the  full  size  which 
the  pasturage  will  admit  and  the  good 
qualities  of  the  animal  bear  without 
deterioration.  It  is  in  this  district  that 
the  most  perfect  Highland  Cattle  are 
oftenest  seen.  The  animals  are  com- 
pactly built,  short,  and  rather  strong 
in  the  shank  ;  straight  in  the  back, 
with  a  fine  muzzle,  and  small  sharp 
horns.  As  they  wander  over  a  wild 
country,  they  are  wild,  and  often  fierce, 
and  their  e)'e  expresses  energy  and 
spirit.  It  is  solely  for  their  flesh  that 
herds  of  these  Cattle  are  reared ; 
"every  effort,"  says  Mr.  Youatt,  "to 
qualify  them  for  the  dairy  will  not  only 
lessen  their  hardiness  of  constitution 
and  propensity  to  fatten,  but  will  fail 
in  rendering  them  valuable  for  the 
purpose  at  which  the  farmer  foolishly 
aims."  In  the  stewartry  of  Kirkcud- 
bright, together  with  part  of  Ayrshire 
and  Dumfries,  forming  the  old  pro- 
vince of  Galloway,  a  beautiful  polled, 
or  hornless  breed  of  Cattle  exists, 
highly  esteemed  for  their  many  excel- 
lences. In  figure  they  are  admirable, 
excepting  that  the  neck  of  the  Bull  is 
almost  too  thick  ;  but  the  chest  is  deep, 
the  limbs  clean  and  short,  the  back 
straight,  and  the  body  round.  Black 
is  the  prevailing  colour.  These  Cattle 
exceed  the  Argyle  breed  in  size  ;  they 
fatten  well  and  quickly,  and  their  flesh 
is  excellent.  "  Few  Cattle  sell  so  high 
in  the  London  market,  and  it  is  no 
uncommon  thing  to  see  one  of  these 
little  Bullocks  outsell  a  coarse  Lincoln- 
shire Bullock,  although  the  latter  is 
heavier  by  several  stones." 

The  Galloway  Cattle  are  remarkable 
for  gentleness  ;  and  robust  and   mus- 
cular as  the   Bulls   are,   one   of   mis- 
chievous habits  and  bad  temper  is  sel- 
dom met  with.     Ayrshire,    Aberdeen- 
shire,  Perthshire,    and  other   districts 
have  their  peculiar  breeds.     In  Wales, 
several  breeds  of  Cattle  are  found  ;  in 
the   Isle  of  Anglesey  there   is   a  fine 
race   of  middle-horned   Black   Cattle, 
with   a  deep   chest,   heavy  shoulders, 
enormous    dewlap,    and   round    body. 
The  appearance  of  the   Bulls   of  this 
breed  is  very  noble  and  imposing;  the 
expression  of  the  head  is  animated,  bold,  and  even  fierce  ;  and  this 
character  is  not  lost  altogether  in  the  Oxen  and  Cows.     The  flesh 
of  these    Cattle   is   of   first-rate   quality.      The   numerous   inferior 
crosses,  or  mongrel  breeds  of  doubtful  origin,  into  which  the  Cattle 
of  our  island  have  ramified,  need  no  especial  notice. 

The  annual  exhibition,  by  the  Smithfield  Cattle  Club,  at  the  Agri- 
cultural Hall,  Islington,  in  the  north  of  London,  in  the  first  week  of 
December,  is  interesting,  not  only  to  those  immediately  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  but  to  every  one  who  reflects  upon  the  import- 
ance of  the  Ox  in  a  commercial  sense,  independently  of  every  other 
consideration.  Here  are  to  be  seen  the  results  of  exertions  princi- 
pally carried  on  during  the  last  eighty  years,  to  unite  and  bring  to 
perfection  the  most  desirable  points  in  the  various  breeds  of  domestic 


CO 
CZ3 

cc 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


preventing  united  action  :  for  what  line  was  sufficcnt  to  resist  the 
simultaneous  rush  of  these  powerful  animals  ?  The  continued  ex- 
ertion had  knocked  up  many  of  the  Horses  which  had  started  in 
the  morning,  and  the  circle  became  smaller  and  smaller  as  the  day 
advanced  ;  several  persons,  indeed,  had  been  carried  off  severely 
wounded  by  the  horns  and  feet  of  the  Bulls.  Redoubling  our  efforts, 
however,  we  at  length,  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  them  into  an  inclosure,  where  a  number  of  Oxen 
(all  at  one  time  \vild)  were  quietly  grazing.  Here  they  were  kept 
till  required  for  the  next  day's  sport." 

The  Bull-fights,  as  conducted  in  the  amphitheatres  of  Spain,  the 
lingering  relics  of  those  contests  in  which  Rome  so  much  delighted, 
and  which  prevailed,  more  or  less,  throughout  the  Roman  empire, 
have  been  often  described.  These  sanguinary  spectacles  are  the 
delight  of  the  Spanish  people,  and  are  not  only  tolerated,  but  en- 
couraged by  the  higher  classes  of  both  sexes,  who  find  great  satis- 
faction in  the  torme'nts  which  the  Bull  endures  from  the  lance  of  the 
cavalier,  or  the  Horse  from  the  horns  of  the  Bull. 

One  of  the  most  imposing  sights  of  the  kind,  during  the  present 
century,  was  that  presented  at  the  Bull-fights  given  in  honour  of  the 
marriage  of  the  King  of  Spain,  in  January,  1878,  when  several  Bulls 
were  slain  at  Madrid.  We  give  the  following  account  as  afforded 
by  an  eye-witness  : — 

"  Every  part  of  the  ring  was  full,  when  the  band  struck  up  the 
royal  anthem,  and  King  Alfonso  appeared  with  his  queen.  The 
young  queen    looked  round  the    amphitheatre,   and   the  Alcalde 


Fig.  711.— Wild  Eull-hunting  in  the  Alemtejo. 

Marquis  of  Tomeros  gave  the  signal.  As  soon  as  the  people  caught  | 
sight  of  the  trumpeters  and  alguazils  heading  the  splendid  cortege  a 
cheer  rose,  clear  and  enthusiastic,  such  as  no  other  festivity  had  yet 
called  forth.  On  came  the  servants  in  magnificent  liveries  ;  out-  ' 
riders  preceding  four  coaches,  in  which  rode  the  noble  patrons  of 
the  caballeros  in  plaza,  the  amateur  horsemen  destined  to  take  the 
place  of  the  picadores.  The  cortege  closed  with  the  largest  array 
of  Bull-fighters  yet  seen  in  the  Madrid  ring.  Ten  toreros,  includ- 
ing several  famous  espadas,  who  had  retired  from  active  life  ;  forty- 
eight  picadores,  with  their  yellow  leggings,  and  covered  with 
armour  under  their  gilt  and  silk  jackets,  their  heads  covered  with 
the  broad  beaver  of  which  Goya  can  give  us  the  best  idea.  Behind, 
some  seventeen  fellows  on  foot,  dressed  in  every  imaginable  hue, 
from  pale  blue  to  deep  scarlet,  are  the  banderilleros,  who  fix  the 
sharp  dart  behind  the  shoulder  to  infuriate  the  Bull.  Lastly,  the 
Mules,  gaily  caparisoned,  who  drag  away  the  slaughtered  animal, 
when  the  band  plays  to  herald  in  another  doomed  victim  of  national 
sport. 

_"  When  all  these  worthies  had  formed  in  the  ring  to  salute  the 
king  and  queen,  it  was  a  very  fine  scene,  and  they  left  by  another 
gate,  leaving  only,  in  the  circus,  two  of  the  amateur  picadores,  and 


the  toreros  who  accompanied  them.  These  young  horsemen  were 
attired  in  the  costume  ot  the  days  of  Philip  II.,  and  a  cloak  of 
bright  scarlet  and  deep  violet  hung  on  their  shoulders  gracefully. 
The  plurhed  cap  was  that  of  courtiers  in  the  pictures  of  Velasquez  ; 
the  lance,  a  long  weapon  with  sharp  steel  point,  which  remained 
fixed  in  the  Bull's  back.  These  caballeros  in  plaza  pranced  about 
very  nicely  on  spirited  steeds,  and  their  object  was  to  hit  the  Bull 
just  as  they  passed  him  from  left  to  right.  Most  of  them  did  so 
without  much  harm,  and  only  four,  indeed,  lost  their  steeds, 
besides  getting  a  severe  tumble  in  one  case.  When  the  poor 
animal  had  been  enough  worried,  a  torero  would  advance  to  the  line 
of  halberdiers,  below  the  royal  box,  and  make  a  little  speech  to  his 
majesty,  who  stood  uncovered  to  hear  it.  Then,  after  many 
manoeuvres  witli  caj>a  and  Toledo  blade,  a  Frascuelo,  or  a  Currito, 
would  despatch  the  Bull  with  a  stroke  behind  the  shoulder.  This 
might  be  the  time-honoured  ceremonial  of  royal  Bull-fights,  but  it 
only  seemed  child's  play  to  the  real  public,  who  cheered  loudly  when 
the  picadores  replaced  the  caballeros  in  plaza.  Real  work  begins. 
A  peal  of  music,  and  the  thick  door  is  opened,  ushering  in  a  large 
brown  Bull  of  Miura.  The  noble  beast  stops  short,  dazzled  with 
light,  and  surprised  to  see  this  scene,  when  he  expected  from  his 
dark  den  to  dash  forth  on  to  the  green  sward  of  his  Andalusian 
pasture-ground.  He  espies  the  picadores,  and  away  he  goes  at 
them,  tumbling  over  four,  in  rapid  succession,  with  a  single  blow 
right  in  the  breast  of  the  Horse,  whose  life-blood  pours  forth.  The 
chulos  and  toreros  barely  have  time  on  each  occasion  to  save  the 
rider,  and  the  people  raise  deafening 
roars  for  more  Horses.  Others  are 
brought  in  as  the  Miura  Bull  is  chasing 
the  fleet  toreros  with  red  capas.  At 
the  four  Horses  goes  the  Bull  again, 
and  in  a  minute  they  lie  lifeless  on 
the  ground,  with  their  riders  sprawling 
away  in  mortal  fright.  '  Bravo,  Toro,' 
yells  the  audience  ;  and  it  is  a  curious 
sight  to  turn  round  and  look  at  them. 
Some  are  standing  and  gesticulating 
with  animation.  Others  swear  and  curse 
the  cowardly  toreros,  who  leap  over  the 
barrier  to  save  their  lives.  Many  ap- 
plaud, and  on  every  face  you  can  read 
intense  excitement.  It  is  sad  to  say, 
but  a  glance  up  above  will  show  you 
that  the  lovely  occupants  of  the  boxes 
have  flashing  eyes,  and  flushed  counte- 
nances, which  denote  that  the  Castilian 
blood  does  not  curdle  at  the  sight  of 
cruel  and  useless  bloodshed.  We  need 
not  mince  the  matter.  They  love  the 
sport  and  the  excitement,  which  are  not 
to  be  found  in  the  tameness  of  social 
amusements.  They  forget,  in  the  Bull- 
ring, the  prejudices  of  society  and  the 
barriers  of  station,  so  far,  that  proud 
nobles  display  as  much  enthusiasm  as 
the  humble  workman,  whose  week's 
salary  purchased  his  seat. 

"  To  return  to  our  Miura  Bull,  he  has 
got   weary   of    Horses,    and   he   wants 
better  opponents,  so  he  charges  straight 
at  the  halberdiers.      They  lower  their 
pikes   to   receive    him,   and   he   breaks 
through,   putting  them   to   a   sad  rout. 
Three-cornered  hats,  broken   halberds, 
and  swords  strew  the  ground  ;  and,  but 
for   the    toreros,    his    majesty's    body- 
guard would  have  fared  badly.     The  Miura,  not  content  with  this 
little  performance,  which  caused  intense  excitement,  jumped  over 
the  barrier,  and  charged  at  the  motley  crowd  of  guards,  servants, 
police,  and  toreros  who  assembled  there.     It  was  a  ludicrous  rout, 
helter-skelter,  until  Senor  Bull  returned  to  the  ring.     There  he  met 
his  fate  at  the  hands  of  Frascuelo.     The  pet  of  Madrid  amateurs 
never  looked  better  than   in  his  red   satin   breeches   and  jacket, 
embroidered  with  gold  and  silver.     His  graceful  figure  and  small 
head  denote  much  vigour  and  energy,  whilst  the   feet  are  small, 
like  a  Creole's.     He   advances  coolly  to  the  Bull,  shaking  a  red 
cloth,  whilst  in  his  right  hand  flashes  the  blade.     The  Bull  charges 
several  times,  and  Frascuelo  glides  lightly  away.     The  whole  ring 
is  in  feverish  expectation  ;  and  a  shudder  runs  through  many  at 
the  recollection  that   Frascuelo  was   so   terribly  wounded  there  a 
few  months  ago.     Suddenly  he  pauses,  and  poises  the  cloth  in  his 
left   hand.     He   looks   at  the   Bull   fixedly,   and  raises   the   blade 
rather  high,  advancing  slowly.     The  animal  charges  madly  at  him, 
and  the  audience  cry  out  instinctively.     But  Frascuelo,   with  won- 
derful intrepidity,  has  awaited  the  charge,  planting  his  sword  be- 
hind the  head,  full  in  the  deadly  spot.     The  Bull  reels  and  falls, 
whilst  a  deafening  cheer  rings  through  every  part  of  the  circus. 


RUM TN A  NT  ANIMALS. 


:R9 


ZOOLOGICAL     GARDENS-LIVE     SPECIMENS. 


East  African  Buffalo 

Hybrid  Gayal 

Cape  Buffalo 

Gayal 

Zebu 


Bless  Bok  . . 
Indian  Antelope 
Anoa 
Addax 

Bubaline  Antelope 
Tora  Antelope 
Sing-Sing  . . 
Nyigliai 

White-tailed  Gnu 
Beisa  Antelope 
Leucoryx    . . 
Sable  Antelope 
Bohor  Antelope 
Eland 
Rein-deer  . . 


Wapiti 
Fallow  Deer 
Axis  Deer  . . 
Molucca  Deer 
Philippine  Deer 
Red  Deer  . . 
Barbary  Deer 
Sambur  Deer 
Schomburg-k's  Deer 
Mesopotamian  Fallow 
Moose 


Oxen. 

Bichalus  aquinoctiaUs. 
(  Between   Bos  indicus  atid  bos- 
\     fro)!  fall's. 

Biibalis  caffer. 

Bos  frniitalis. 

Z.  indicus. 

Antelopes. 

Damalis  albifrons. 
Antelope  cervicapra. 
Anoa  deprcssicornis. 
Addax  7iasomaculatus. 
Alcelaphtis  bubal  us. 
Alcclaphus  tora. 
Kobiis  sing-sing (Ben)i.) 
Portax  picta. 
Catoblepas  gnu. 
Oryx  beisa. 
Oryx  leucoryx. 
Hippotragus  nigir. 
Ccr-jicapra  bolior. 
Oreas  canna. 
Rangifer  tara}idus. 


Deer — Continued. 


Deer. 


Cervus  caitadcnsis. 
Dama  vulgaris. 
Cervus  axis. 
Cervus  moluccensis. 
Cervus  philippinus. 
Cervus  elephas. 
Cervus  barbarus.^ 
Cervus  aristotelis. 
Cervus  scho?nbcrgki- 
Dama  niesopotamicus. 
A  Ices  machiis. 


Rusa  Doer 

Cervus  rusa. 

Mexican  Deer 

Cervus  mexicalius. 

Virginian  Deer     . . 

Cervus  virgianus. 

Large-eyed  Deer  . . 

Cervus  enopis. 

Formosan  Deer    .  . 

Cc7~vus  pscudaxis. 

Mantchurian  Deer 

Cervus  mantchuricus. 

Japanese  Deer     . . 

Cervus  sika. 

Axis  Deer  . . 

Cervus  axis. 

Spotted  Porcine  Deer     . 

Cervus  -minor. 

Hog  Deer  . . 

Cervus  porci?tus. 

Prince  Alfred's  Deer 

Cervus  alfredi. 

Naked-eared  Deer 

Cervus  gyrnnotis. 

Sheep. 

Mouflon .  •  Ovis  musimon. 

Grecian  Ibex         Capra  cegragrus. 

Barbary  Wild  Sheep       . .          . .       Ovis  barbarus. 

Aden  Sheep           Ovisarics. 

Gazelles. 

Philantomba  Antelope    . . 

Ceplialopltus  maxzvcllii. 

Bay  Antelope    .  . 

Ceplialopltus  dorsalis. 

Duyker  Boc 

Cephalophus  mergens. 

Brown  Indian  Antelope  . 

Tetracerus  subquadricornutus 

Gazelle 

Gazella  dorcas. 

Chinese  Water  Deer 

Hydrypotes  iiiermis. 

Wood  Brocket      . . 

Cervus  nemioragm. 

Egyptian  Gazelle.  . 

Gazella  dorcas. 

Bennett's  Gazelle 

Gazella  bctinetti. 

Persian  Gazella    . . 

Gazella  subgutturosa. 

Arabian  Gazelle   . . 

Gazella  arabica. 

Spring  Bok 

Gazella  euchore. 

Sclater's  Muntjac 

Cervulus  sclateri. 

Reeve's  Muntjac  .  . 

Cervulus  reevesii. 

Indian  Muntjac    . . 

Cervulus  fnuntjac. 

2  P 


ago 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


CHAPTER     XIX. 


MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  SOLIDUNGULA— THE  HORSE,  Etc. 


!?i^  ERHAPS  it  IS  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 

Horse  tribe,  including  the   Horse,  Ass,  and 

Mule,  are  the  most  necessary  of  all  animals  to 

man.     They  are  generally  employed  as  beasts 

of  burden  ;  but,  recently,  societies  have  been 

formed  in  Paris,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of 

converting  the  Horse  into  use  as  food  for 

,  t  man  ;    while  the   hide,  hoofs,  bones,  and 

J  fat  are  variously  used  in  manufactures.  It 

I  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  Horse, 

especially,  has  had  great  attention  paid  to 

its   breed,   whether  for    the   purpose   of  securing 

speed  for  traffic,    or  strength  for   drawing   loads. 

The  Ass  has,  in  this  country,  lately  become  much 

improved  through   careful   culture,    and   in   many 

parts  the  breeding  of  Mules   has  been   similarly 

attended  to. 

Mr.   Dallas  remarks   that  the  order   Solidun 
GULA  has  been  established  for  the  reception  of  th 
Horse  and  its  allies,  forming  the  single  family 
the  Equidm.     Their  most  striking  character  con- 
sists in  the  structure  of  the  feet,  which  are  com- 
posed only  of  a  single  toe,  inclosed  at  its  extremity 
in  an  entire  hoof.     The  structure  of  the  leg  bones 
is  much  the  same  as  in  the  generality  of  the  Mafn- 
mah'a,   except   that    the   humerus    and    femur  are    compara- 
tively short  ;  and  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  and  shank,  which 
are  much  longer,  are  partially  anchylosed  together,  so  that  no 
rotatory  motion  of  these  bones  can  take  place.     The  bones  of 
the  carpus  and  tarsus  are  large  and  solid,  and  resemble  those  of 
the  other  Mammalia  in  their  general  arrangement.     Beyond 
these  we  find  a  single  elongated  metatarsal  bone,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  middle  toe  ;   the  remainder  of  the  metatarsal 
bones  are  either  entirely  deficient,  or  represented  by  slender 
bones,  called  splint  bones  ;  but  the  whole  weight  of  the  animal  is 
supported  by  the  middle  toe.     This  is  completed  by  three  phalanges, 
of  which  the  last  bears  the  single  horny  hoof. 

The  skull  (Fig.  745)  is  of  an  elongated  form,  the  jaws  being  much 
produced,  and  the  lower  one  especially  of  great  size  and  power. 
Both  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  six  well-developed  incisor  teeth  ; 
small  canines  are  also  present  in  both  jaws  in  the  males  ;  but  in  the 
females  these  teeth  are  usually  quite  deficient,  or  rudimentary.  The 
molars  are  six  on  each  side  in  each  jaw  ;  their  worn  surface  is  flat, 
and  exhibits  a  complicated  pattern  of  enamel,  generally  in  lunate 


ensiform  cartilage.  The  neural  arches  of  the  last  five  cervical  ver- 
tebrae expand  above  into  flattened,  sub-quadrate,  horizontal  plates  of 
bone,  wnh  a  rough  tubercle  in  place  of  a  spine  :  the  zygapophyses, 
z,  are  unusually  large.  The  perforated  transverse  process  sends  a 
plcurapophysis,  //,  downwards  and  forwards,  and  a  diapophysis,  d, 


Fig.  745. — Skull  of  the  Horse  ;  oc,  occipital  bone  ;  /,  temporal ; 
y,  frontal;  «,  nasal;  m,  superior  maxillary;  im,  intermax- 
illary ;  >/ii,  inferior  maxillary ;  0,  orbit ;  i,  incisor  teeth ; 
c,  canines  ;  j/ia,  molars. 

forms.  Between  the  molars  and  the  canines  there  is  always  a  great 
interval  ;  and  it  is  this  space  that  receives  the  bit,  by  which  that 
powerful  and  valuable  animal,  the  Horse,  is  subjected  to  the  will  of 
his  human  master. 

The  skin  is  clothed  with  hair,  which  is  short  on  the  general  sur- 
face of  the  body,  but  usually  attains  a  considerable  length  on  the 
ridge  of  the  neck,  forming  the  flowing  mane,  which  adds  so  much 
to  the  beauty  of  the  Horse  ;  the  tail  also,  which  is  rather  short,  is 
furnished  with  a  tuft  of  long  hairs.  The  eye  is  rather  large  and  full, 
and  the  external  ears  elongated,  upright,  and  pointed. 

The  following  remarks  in  respect  to  the  skeleton,  teeth,  &c.,  of 
the  Horse  are  quoted  from  Professor  Owen.     (See  Fig.  746.) 

The  vertebral  formula  of  the  Horse  is — 7  cervical,  c  ;  19  dorsal, 
D;  5  lumbar,  L;  5  sacral,  S;  and  17  caudal.  Eigh't  pairs  of  ribs 
directly  join  the  sternum,  60;  which  consists  of  seven  bones,  and  an 


Fig.  746. — Skeleton  of  the  Horse. 

backwards  and  outwards,  in  the  third  to  the  sixth  cervicals,  in- 
clusive :  in  the  seventh  the  diapophysial  part  alone  is  developed,  and 
is  imperforate.  The  spinous  processes  suddenly  and  considerably 
increase  in  length  in  the  first  three  dorsals,  and  attain  the  greatest 
length  in  the  fifth  and  sixth,  after  which  they  gradually  shorten  to 
the  thirteenth,  and  continue  of  the  same  length  to  the  last  lumbar. 
The  lumbar  diapophyses  are  long,  broad,  and  in  close  juxtaposition  ; 
the  last  presents  an  articular  concavity  adapted  to  a  corresponding 
convexity  on  the  fore-part  of  the  diapophysis  of  the  first  sacral.  The 
scapula,  51,  is  long  and  narrow,  and  according  to  its  length  and 
obliquity  of  position  the  muscles  attached  to  it,  which  act  upon  the 
humerus,  operate  with  more  vigour,  and  to  this  bone  the  attention 
of  the  buyer  should  be  directed,  as  indicative  of  one  of  the  good 
points  in  a  Horse.  The  coracoid  is  reduced  to  a  mere  confluent 
knob.  The  spine  of  the  scapula,  51,  has  no  acromion.  The  hume- 
rus, 53,  is  remarkable  for  the  size  and  strength  of  the  proximal 
tuberosities,  in  which  the  scapular  muscles  are  implanted.  The 
joint  between  it  and  the  scapula  is  not  fettered  by  any  bony  bar  con- 
necting the  blade-bone  with  the  breast-bone  ;  in  other  words,  there 
is  no  clavicle.  The  ulna,  represented  by  its  olecranal  extremity,  54, 
is  confiuent  with  the  radius,  55.  The  os  magnum,  in  the  second 
series  of  carpal  bones,  56,  is  remarkable  for  its  great  breadth,  cor- 
responding to  the  enormous  development  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of 
the  middle  toe,  which  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  foot.  Splint- 
shaped  rudiments  of  the  metacarpals,  answering  to  the  second,  it, 
and  fourth,  iv,  of  the  pentadactyle  foot,  are  articulated  respectively 
to  the  trapezoides  and  the  reduced  homologue  of  the  unciforme. 
The  mid-digit.  Hi,  consists  of  the  metacarpal,  called  "  cannon- 
bone,"  and  of  the  three  phalanges,  which  have  likewise  received 
special  names  in  veterinary  anatomy,  for  the  same  reason  as  other 
bones  have  received  them  in  human  anatomy.  "  Phalanges  "  is  the 
"  general  "  term  of  these  bones,  as  being  indicative  of  the  class  to 
which  they  belong,  and  "  ha;mapophyses  "  is  the  "general"  term 
of  parts  of  the  inferior  arches  of  the  head-segments.  Just  as,  from 
the  modifications  of  these  hzemapophyses,  they  have  come  to  be 
called  "maxilla,"  "mandibula,"  "  ceratohyal,"  &c.,so  the  pha- 
langes of  the  Horse's  foot  are  called — the  first,  "  great  pastern 
bone,"  the  second,  "  small  pastern  bone,"  and  the  third,  which  sup- 
ports the  hoof,  the  "  coffin  bone  ;  "  a  sesamoid  ossicle  between  this 
and  the  second  is  called  the  "  coronary."  The  ilium,  62,  is  long, 
oblique,  and  narrow,  like  its  homotype,  the  scapula  ;  the  ischium, 
63,  is  unusually  produced  backwards.  The  extreme  points  of  these 
two  bones  show  the  extent  to  which  the  bending  muscles  and  ex- 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


291 


tending  muscles  of  the  log  arc  attached  ;  and  according  to  the  dis- 
tance of  these  points  from  the  thigh-bone,  the  angle,  at  which  they 
are  therein  inserted,  becomes  more  favourable  for  their  force;  the 
longer,  therefore,  and  the  more  horizontal  the  pelvis,  the  better  the 
hind-quarter  of  the  Horse.  Its  qualities  for  swiftness  and  mainte- 
nance of  speed  depend  much  on  the  "  good  point"  due  to  the  de- 
velopment of  this  part  of  the  skeleton.  The  femur,  65,  is  charac- 
terised by  a  third  trochanter  springing  from  the  outer  part  of  the 
shaft  before  the  great  trochanter.  There  is  a  splint-shaped  rudi- 
ment of  the  proximal  eni  of  the  fibula,  67,  but  not  any  rudiment  of 
the  distal  end.  The  tibia,  66,  is  the  chief  bone  of  the  leg.  The 
heel-bone,  "  calcaneuni,"  is  much  jjroduced,  and  forms  what  is 
called  the  "  hock."  The  astragalus  is  characterised  by  the  depth 
and  obliquity  of  the  superior  trochlea,  and  by  the  extensive  and  un- 
divided anterior  surface,  which  is  almost  entirely  appropriated  by 
the  naviculare.  The  external  cuneiform  is  the  largest  of  the  second 
scries  of  tarsals,  being  in  proportion  to  the  metatarsal  of  the  large 
middle  digit.  Hi,  which  it  mainly  supports.  The  diminished 
cuboides  articulates  partly  with  this,  and  partly  with  the  rudiment 
of  the  metatarsal  corresponding  with  that  of  the  fourth  toe,  iv.  A 
similar  rudiment  of  the  metatarsal  of  the  toe,  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  second,  zV,  articulates  with  a  cuneiforme  medium — here, 
however,  the  innermost  of  the  second  series  of  tarsal  bones. 

In  respect  to  dentition.  Professor  Owen  remarks  that  no  food  is 
more  remote  or  distinct  from  flesh  than  grass.  Extremities  en- 
veloped in  hoofs  are  incapacitated  from  seizing  and  retaining  a 
living  prey,  therefore  all  hoofed  INIammals  are  necessarily  herbivo- 
rous :  hence  the  complexity  of  their  grinding  teeth,  the  concomitant 
strength  of  their  grinding  muscles,  and  weakness  of  the  biting 
muscles  ;  the  length  of  the  neck,  to  enable  the  head  to  reach  the 
verdant  earth,  and  the  length  and  slenderness  of  the  jaws.  The 
absence  of  a  clavicle,  and  of  any  power  of  rotating  the  bones  of 
the  fore-leg  and  fore-foot,  are  also  constant  characteristics  of  both 
great  divisions  of  the  Urigulata,  or  hoofed  quadrupeds. 

The  Horse  is  an  example  of  such  herbivorous  dentition.  The 
grinding  teeth  are  six  in  number,  on  each  side  of  both  upper  and 
lower  jaws,  with  thick  square  crowns  of  great  length,  and  deeply 
implanted  in  the  sockets,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  being  slightly 
curved.  When  the  summits  or  exposed  ends  of  these  teeth  begin 
to  be  worn  down  by  mastication,  the  interblended  enamel,  dentine, 
and  cement  afford  the  pattern  shown  in  Fig.  747  ;   it  is  penetrated 


Fig.  747- — Grinding  surfaces  of  the  upper  and  lower  Molars  of  a  Horse. 

from  within  by  a  valley,  entering  obliquely  from  behind,  forwards, 
and  dividing  into  or  crossed  by  the  two  cresentic  valleys,  which  soon 
become  insulated.  There  is  a  large  lobe  at  the  end  of  the  valley. 
The  outer  surface  of  the  crown  is  impressed  by  two  deep  longitudinal 
channels.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  teeth  are  narrower,  transversely, 
than  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  are  divided  externally  into  two  convex 
lobes,  by  a  median  longitudinal  fissure;  internally  they  present 
three  principal  unequal  convex  ridges,  and  an  anterior  and  posterior 
narrower  ridge.  All  the  valleys,  fissures,  and  folds  in  both  upper 
and  lower  grinders  are  lined  by  enamel,  which  also  coats  the  whole 
exterior  surface  of  the  crown.  Of  the  series  of  six  teeth  in  each 
jaw,  the  first  three, ^  2,  3,  4,  are  premolars  ;  the  rest,  7n  i,  2,  3,  are 
true  molars. 

The  canines  are  small  in  the  Horse,  and  are  rudimental  in  the 
mare ;  the  unworn  crown  is  remarkable  for  the  folding-in  of  the  an- 
terior and  posterior  margins  of  enamel.  The  upper  canine  is 
situated  in  the  middle  of  the  long  interspace  between  the  incisors 
and  molars;  the  lower  canine  is  close  to  the  outer  incisor,  but  is 
distinguished  by  its  more  pointed  form.  The  incisors  are  six  in 
number  in  both  jaws  ;  they  are  arranged  close  together  in  a  curve, 
at  the  end  of  the  jaw  ;  the  crown  is  broad,  and  the  contour  of  the 
biting  surface,  before  it  is  much  worn,  approaches  an  ellipse.  The 
incisors  of  the  Horse  are  distinguished  from  those  of  Ruminants  by 
their  greater  length  and  curvature,  and  from  those  of  all  other 
animals  by  the  fold  of  enamel  (Fig.  748),  e,  which  penetrates  the 
crown  from  its  flat  summit,  like  the  inverted  finger  of  a  tjlove. 
When  the  tooth  begins  to  be  worn,  the  fold  becomes  an  island  of 


enamel,  inclosing  a  cavity  partly  filled  by  cement,  and  partly  by  the 
substances  of  the  food,  and  is  called  the  "mark."  In  aged  Horses 
the  incisors  are  worn  down  below  the  extent  of  the  fold,  and  the 
"  mark''  disappears.  This  cavity  is  usually  obliterated  in  the  first 
or  mid  incisors  at  the  sixth  year,  in  the  second  incisors  at  the 
seventh  year,  and  in  the  third  or  outer  incisors 
at  the  eighth  year,  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  mark 
remains  somewhat  longer  in  the  incisors  of  the 
upper  jaw. 

Fig.  748  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  in- 
cisor of  a  Horse  ;  d  is  tlie  dentine,  c  the  enamel, 
and  c  the  cement,  a  layer  of  which  is  reflected 
into  the  deep  central  depression  of  the  crown  ; 
s  indicates  the  coloured  mass  of  tartar  and 
particles  of  food  which  fill  up  the  cavity,  form- 
ing the  "  mark  "  of  the  Horse-dealer. 

The  following  is  the  average  course  of  de- 
velopment and  succession  of  the  teeth  in  the 
Horse  : — -The  summits  of  the  first  functional  de- 
ciduous molar,  (^  2,  "first  grinder"  of  veteri- 
nary authors,  are  usually  apparent  at  birth ; 
the  succeeding  grinder,  d  3,  sometimes  arises 
a  day  or  two  later,  sometimes  together  with  the 
first.  Their  appearance  is  speedily  followed  by 
that  of  the  first  deciduous  incisor — "centre 
nipper  "  of  veterinarians — which  usually  cuts 
the  gum  between  the  third  and  sixth  days. 
Fig-  74s. — Section  of  The  second  deciduous  incisor  appears  between 
Horse's  Incisor.  the  twentieth  and  fortieth  days  ;  and  about  this 
time  the  rudimental  grinder,  p  i,  comes  into 
place,  and  the  last  deciduous  molar,  d  4,  begins  to  cut  the  gum  ; 
about  the  sixth  month  the  inferior  lateral,  or  third  incisors,  with 
the  deciduous  canine,  make  their  appearance.  The  minute  canine 
is  shed  about  the  time  that  the  contiguous  incisor  is  in  place, 
and  is  not  retained  beyond  the  first  year.  The  upper  deciduous 
canine  is  shed  in  the  course  of  the  second  year.  The  first  true 
molar,  711  i,  appears  between  the  eleventh  and  thirteenth  months. 
The  second  molar  follows  before  the  twentieth  month.  The  first 
functional  premolar,  -p  2,  displaces  the  deciduous  molar,  d  2,  at 
from  two  years  to  two  years  and  a-half  old.  The  first  permanent 
incisor  protrudes  from  the  gum  at  between  two  years  and  a-half 
and  three.  At  the  same  period,  the  penultimate  premolar, 
/  3,  pushes  out  the  penultimate  milk  molar,  d  3,  and  the 
penultimate  true  molar  comes  into  place.  The  last  premolar  dis- 
places the  last  deciduous  molar  at  between  three  years  and  a-half 
and  four  years  ;  the  appearance  above  the  gum,  of  the  last  true 
molar,  m  3,  is  usually  somewhat  earlier.  The  second  incisor 
pushes  out  its  deciduous  predecessor  about  the  same  period.  The 
permanent  canine,  or  "tusk,"  next  follows;  its  appearance  indi- 
cates the  age  of  four  years,  but  it  sometimes  comes  earlier.  The 
third,  or  outer  incisor,  pushes  out  the  deciduous  incisor  about  the 
fifth  year,  but  is  seldom  in  full  place  before  the  Horse  is  five-and-a- 
half  years  old.  Upon  the  rising  of  the  third  permanent  incisor,  or 
"corner  nipper"  of  the  veterinarians,  the  "Colt"  becomes  a 
"Horse,"  and  the  "Filly,"  a  "Mare,"  in  the  language  of  the 
Horse-dealer.  After  the  disappearance  of  the  "mark"  in  the  in- 
cisors, at  the  eighth  or  ninth  year,  the  Horse  becomes  "  aged." 
The  following  is  the  dental  formula  of  the  Horse  : — 

Incisors  — ,  canines  in  male  -^^,  premolars  5jll3,  molars  1^3^.  .q 

In  the  Horse  there  are  warty  callosities  on  the  inner  aspect  of  the 
fore  and  hind  legs  ;  in  the  other  species  on  the  fore-legs  only.  The 
lips  are  muscular  and  prehensile,  and  the  muzzle  hairy.  We  next 
refer  to  the  species  and  varieties  of  the  Eqiiida:,  or  Horse  family. 

Genus  Equus — The  Horse. 

The  Horse  {Equus  caballiis). — We  present  at  one  view  a  group 
of  British  Horses,  which  cannot  fail  to  interest  those  who  admire 
this  noble  animal,  and  are  aware  (and  who  is  not?)  of  the  excellence 
of  our  breeds.  Fig.  749 ;  a  represents  the  Welsh  Pony ;  b,  the 
Shetland  Pony ;  c,  the  Cart  Horse  ;  d,  the  Hunter ;  c,  the  Racer. 
Fig.  750  is  the  copy  of  a  Horse's  head,  from  a  fragment  in  the  Elgin 
marbles,  British  Museum,  which  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
characters  of  the  War-Horse  of  .ancient  Greece,  and  which  forcibly 
calls  to  mind  the  splendid  description  in  the  Book  of  Job — "  Thou 
hast  given  the  Horse  strength,  thou  hast  clothed  his  neck  with 
thunder"  (Job  xxxix.  19 — 25);  or  that  of  Virgil — "Turn  siqua  sonum 
procul  arma  dedere,"  &c.  ("Georg."  lib.  iii.,  line  83,  ctseq.) 

A  natural  question  at  the  outset  of  our  description  of  the  Horse 
suggests  itself;  it  is  one,  however,  which  has  been  often  asked,  but 
which  is  not  easy  of  solution.  What  is  the  origin  cf  our  domestic 
Horse;  and  at  what  period,  and  by  what  people,  was  it  first  re- 
claimed ?  We  may  at  once  state  that  the  origin  of  the  domestic 
Horse  is  unknown,  and  probably  does  not  exist.  The  troops  of  wild 
Horses  which  scour  the  deserts  of  Tartary  are  regarded  by  natural- 


292 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


ists,  and  with  justice,  as  the  descendants  of  a  domesticated  stock  ; 
and  the  herds  of  Horses  which  roam  over  the  plains  of  South  America 
are  confessedly  derived  from  Horses  introduced  by  the  Spaniards, 
according  to  Azara,  in  1535.  It  is  a  hazardous  opinion,  but  some 
have  been  disposed  to  entertain  it,  that  the  Horse  as  now  existing  is 
not  the  pure  descendant  of  a  single  species,  but  a  factitious  being, 
the  result  of  a  mixture  of  closely-allied  primitive  species,  whose 
hybrid  offsprings,  possessing  prolific  powers,  have  again  and  again 
blended  together,  till,  by  care,  climate,  and  soil,  the  distinct  breeds 
have  been  formed  which  are  now  spread  over  different  parts  of  the 
globe.  How  far  the  hypothesis,  which  was  entertained  by  Pallas 
and  others,  approximates  to  the  truth  it  is  impossible  to  say  ;  certain 
it  is  that  no  primitive  species  of  Horse,  no  wild  descendant  of  the 
original  stock,  is  now  existing.     Whatever  it  once  was,  it  exists  no 


.    .  Fig.  749. — Group  of  Horses. 

longer ;  nor  know  we  when  or  under  what  circumstances  it  vanished 
from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Of  what  country  is  the  Horse  originally 
a  native  ?  According  to  Mr.  Bell,  who  considers  it  "at  least  highly 
probable  that  the  Egyptians  first  reduced  the  Horse  under  human 
subjugation,  it  is  to  the  same  country,  or  at  least  to  those  parts  of 
Africa  which  were  in  close  relationship  to  it,  that  we  may  reasonably 
look  for  its  native  locality  before  that  event."  It  may  be  so  ;  but  we 
cannot  help  thinking  that  the  wild  Horse  (if  specifically  the  same)  was 
spread  over  many  countries  :  nor  is  it  perhaps  too  much  to  suspect 
that  the  bones  found  so  abundantly  in  superficial  gravels,  sands,  and 
clays,  &c.,  may  be,  some  of  them  at  least,  the  relics  of  the  primitive 
race,  from  which  the  modern  stock  has  descended  ;  but  which  has, 
after  giving  to  man  a  reclaimed  progeny,  passed  utterly  away.  With 
respect  to  the  Ox,  Cuvier  maintains  a  similar  theory,  and  ^Ir.  Bell 


leans  to  the  same  opinion.  "  In  this  country,"  he  observes,  "  and 
in  many  parts  of  the  continent,  have  occurred  numerous  fossil  bones 
of  Oxen,  with  large  horns,"  &c.  ;  and  he  adds,  "  I  cannot  but  con- 
sider it  as  extremely  probable  that  these  fossil  remains  belonged  to 
the  original  wild  condition  of  our  domestic  Ox— an  opinion  which 
Cuvier  appears  to  have  entertained,  who  calls  the  skulls  'crA)ics 
scmblablcs  d  ccux  d'u?t  bcEuf  domcstique.'  They  are  found  only  in 
very  recent  deposits,  mingled  with  the  remains  of  various  other 
animals." 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Egyptians  were  the  first  who  re- 
claimed the  Horse  ;  and  this  opinion  is  founded  on  the  circumstance 
that  in  Scripture  the  first  notice  of  the  Horse  is  in  connection  with 
Etrypt,  when  Joseph  attained  to  power  and  dignity,  and  that  at  a 
subsequent  period  Egypt  supplied  Solomon  with  Horses.  Certainly 
the  Horse  was  at  an  early  period  domesti- 
cated in  Egypt,  and  used  as  an  arm  of 
war,  and  on  state  occasions  :  "  And  he 
(Pharaoh)  made  him  (Joseph)  ride  in  the 
second  chariot  which  he  had"  (Gen.  xli. 
43) ;  and  during  the  seven  years'  famine 
Joseph  not  only  sold  corn  out  of  the  royal 
granaries  for  money,  but  "  gave  them  bread 
in  exchange  for  Horses"  (Gen.  xlvii.  17); 
and  no  doubt  Egypt  had  a  noble  breed. 
In  their  contests,  however,  for  the  Promised 
Land,  we  find  the  Israelites  brought  in  col- 
lision with  the  Canaanites,  Amorites,  and 
others,  in  whose  armies  were  "  Horses  and 
chariots  very  many"  (Joshua  xi.  4);  and 
we  read  that  "  he  houghed  their  Horses, 
and  burned  their  chariots  with  fire" — so 
that  other  nations  of  that  period,  besides  the 
Egyptians,  employed  this  animal,  and  in 
the  same  manner.  As  far  back  as  the  re- 
cords of  history  conduct  us,  we  find  the 
Scythians  possessed  of  Horses,  and  cele- 
brated as  horsemen.  Was  the  Scythian 
breed  anciently  obtained  from  Egypt  ?  The 
Babylonians  possessed  vast  numbers  of 
Horses  :  Tritantoechmes,  a  Satrap  of  Baby- 
lonia, possessed,  in  addition  to  his  War- 
Horscs,  800  for  private  use,  and  16,000 
brood  mares.  India  possessed  Horses,  and 
assisted  Xerxes  with  cavalry  and  chariots 
of  war :  some  drawn  by  Horses,  others  by 
wild  Asses.  The  Bactrians  and  Caspians 
also  brought  cavalry  and  infantry:  (Hero- 
dotus.) The  same  author,  speaking  of  the 
products  of  India,  viz.,  quadrupeds  and 
birds,  which  are  larger  than  those  of  any 
other  country,  excepts  the  Horse,  which  is 
surpassed  in  size  by  the  NisoL;an  Horse  of 
the  Medes,  of  which  ten  gorgeously  capari- 
soned added  to  the  splendour  of  Xerxes' 
array ;  and  Strabo  expressly  asserts  that 
there  was  a  dispute  as  to  whether  the 
Nisoean  Horse  was  a  native  of  Media  or 
Armenia,  as  specimens  of  the  breed  were 
to  be  found  in  both  countries.  Leaving 
undecided,  as  it  ever  must  be,  the  origin 
and  original  country  of  the  Horse,  we  may 
observe,  that  at  an  early  period  the  Horse 
was  used  in  our  island.  When  Julius  Caesar 
invaded  our  shores,  he  was  opposed  not 
only  by  infantry,  but  by  horsemen  and 
charioteers  ;  and  the  skill  with  which  the 
Horses  and  chariots  were  managed  excited 
the  great  warrior's  admiration — a  circum- 
stance sufficient  to  prove  a  long  acquaint- 
~~^  ance  with  the  animal,  as  well  as  that  the 

Britons  in  Cssar's  time  were  more  advanced 
in  social  refinement  than  some  historians 
have  admitted.  We  do  not  know  with  cer- 
tainty the  characters  of  the  ancient  British  Horse  ;  yet,  from  the 
rapid  movements  of  the  cavalry,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
charioteers  dashed  along,  we  may  readily  infer  that  the  Horses 
were  light,  strong,  docile,  and  spirited  ;  probably  they  much  re- 
sembled those  used  by  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don  and  Volga  at  the 
present  day.  They  were,  at  all  events,  highly  valued,  and  were 
exported,  together  with  British  Mastiffs,  to  Rome. 

We  know  that  the  Romans  possessed  an  excellent  breed  of 
Horses,  and  paid  great  attention  to  them.  In  modern  Italy  the 
breed  is  crossed  with  the  Barb,  from  the  north  of  Africa  ;  at  least, 
the  Horses  used  for  light  work,  the  saddle,  and  trials  of  speed,  are 
of  this  mixture,  and  the  term  Barbari  is  given  to  them.  These  Bar- 
bari  are  small,  generally  rather  under  than  over  fourteen  hands, 
clean  limbed,  well  formed,  compact,  and  spirited,  giving  evidence  of 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


293 


good  blood.  The  Barb  is  an  offset  of  the  Arab  race,  and  is  greatly 
mixed  with  the  best  Andalusian  stock  in  Spain. 

The  Persian  Horse  closely  resembles  the  Arab,  but  is  generally 
taller.  M.  Huzard  states  that  in  the  north  of  P^sia  a  race  of 
Horses  e.xists  stronger  than  the  Normandy  Horse,  and  which  are 
fed  on  the  vast  plains  of  Chirvan  and  Mazenderan.  He  adds  that 
these  Horses  are  in  great  request  for  the  Persian  cavalry. 

The  best  Horses  in  India  are  of  Arabic  or  Persian  descent.  In 
Moore's  "  Notices  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  we  are  assured  that 
in  every  country  lying  east  of  the  Burrampooter  and  south  of  the 
tropic,  the  Horse,  however  diversified,  is  little  better  than  a  Pony. 

This  fact,  after  quitting  Bengal,  is  first  noticed  in  the  countries  of 
Cassay,  Ava,  and  Pegu.  Here  the  Horse  seldom  equals  thirteen 
hands  high,  but  is  active,  spirited,  and  well  formed.  As  we  pro- 
ceed to  the  south  and  east,  the  Horse  becomes  more  diminutive,  and 
those  of  Lao,  Siam,  and  the  southern  provinces  of  China  are  in- 
ferior in  size  and  beauty  to  those  of  Ava  and  Pegu.  The  Siamese 
and  Cochin-Chinese  have  no  cavalry,  and  make  no  use  of  their 
Ponies,  except  for  riding  on  ordinary  occasions.  Even  for  this  last 
purpose  they  are  not  esteemed,  the  Elephant  being  always  pre- 
ferred as  a  more  respectable  and  dignified  mode  of  conveyance.  In 
the  Malayan  Peninsula  there  are  no  plains  or  roads,  and  the  inha- 
bitants, living  almost  exclusively  on  the  low  and  woody  banks  of  the 
rivers,  naturally  substitute  their  canoes  and  boats  for  beasts  of  car- 
riage and  burden,  and  hence  the  Horse  has  not  yet  been  naturalised 
amongst  them.  Proceeding  eastward 
in  the  Malayan  Islands,  the  Horse  first 
occurs  in  the  interior  of  Sumatra ;  and 
here  we  have  tw-o  of  the  best  breeds 
known  in  those  countries,  the  Achin  and 
Batta,  both  very  spirited,  but  small,  and 
better  suited  for  draught  than  the  saddle. 
Of  all  the  countries  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, the  Horse  is  most  frequent  in 
the  island  of  Java.  The  Javanese  Pony 
is  generally  larger  than  that  of  Sumatra, 
and  has  more  the  form  of  a  Horse,  is 
more  temperate,  but  less  gay  and  hand- 
some. Two  distinct  races  may  be  de- 
scribed— that  of  the  plains,  and  that  of 
the  mountains.  The  first  of  these  is 
somewhat  coarse,  somewhat  sluggish  in 
disposition,  and  so  large  as  occasionally 
to  reach  the  height  of  thirteen  hands 
and  an  inch.  The  second  is  small  and 
hardy,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Kunin- 
gan,  a  breed  in  the  interior  of  Cheri- 
bon,  sometimes  very  handsome.  The 
Horse  is  used  in  Java  for  the  saddle, 
and  as  a  beast  of  burden,  but  never  by 
the  natives  in  agricultural  labour  or 
any  species  of  draught.  Europeans  use 
them  extensively  in  their  carriages  ;  and 
on  the  level  and  w-ell-constructed  roads 
of  Java,  the  traveller  is  conveyed  at  the 
rate  of  twelve,  and  even  fifteen  miles 
an  hour  in  a  carriage  drawn  by  four  of 
these  little  animals.  We  must  take  this 
opportunity,  however,  to  remark  that 
there  is  no  advantage  whatever  in  the 
employment  of  this  diminutive  breed  of 

Horses.  A  pair  of  good  English  Post-Horses  will  go  a  stage  of 
fifteen  miles  on  such  roads  as  those  of  Java  without  difficulty.  To 
perform  the  same  distance  in  a  carriage  of  the  same  weight  re- 
quires twelve  Java  Ponies.  One  Horse,  therefore,  is  equal  to  six 
Ponies;  and  as,  at  the  utmost,  a  full-grown  Horse  will  not  consume 
above  double  the  food  of  a  Pony,  the  charge  of  maintaining  him,  in 
proportion  to  the  work  he  is  capable  of  performing,  is  no  more  than 
one-third. 

The  Horse,  but  of  a  very  inferior  breed,  is  found  on  the  islands  of 
Bali  and  Lombok.  Passing  over  these,  we  come  to  the  island  of 
Sambawa,  which  produces  two  different  races — those  of  Tamboro 
and  Bima.  The  last,  especially  those  of  Gunong  Api,  are  by  far 
the  handsomest  breed  of  the  Archipelago,  and  are  extensively  ex- 
ported. The  Bima  Ponies  possess  strength,  symmetry,  and  beauty  ; 
and  at  first  appearance  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  Arab.  Upon 
a  closer  examination,  however,  it  does  not  appear  that  they  are  en- 
titled to  be  considered  as  possessed  of  the  qualities  designated 
blood  in  the  language  of  the  turf,  and  which  is  only  to  be  found  in 
the  Arab,  and  his  descendant— the  English  Race-Horse.  The 
limbs  indeed  exhibit  this  character,  but  it  is  wanting  in  the  skin  and 
coat,  which  are  thick  and  harsh,  and  it  is  not  even  present  in  the 
shape  and  expression  of  the  head,  although  very  pretty. 

After  passing  Sambawa,  the  Horse  is  traced  to  Flores,  Sandal- 
wood Island,  and  Timor  ;  but  nowhere  farther  to  the  east,  being  un- 
known in  the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea,  and  the  neighbouring  islands. 
Next  to  Java,  the  Horse  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  on  the 


island  of  Celebes.  Upon  the  whole,  we  consider  this  to  be  the  best 
breed  of  the  Archipelago.  In  the  great  island  of  Borneo  the  Horse 
is  found  only  in  its  north-eastern  extremity,  opposite  to  the  Suluk 
cluster,  where,  also,  as  well  as  in  the  group  of  the  Philippine  islands, 
it  is  frequent.  The  Philippine  Pony  bears  some  resemblance  to  that 
of  Celebes  ;  but,  judging  from  the  specimens  we  have  seen,  is  some- 
what larger  than  this,  and  in  figure  and  beauty  inferior  to  the  breeds 
of  Sambawa,  Java,  and  Sumatra.  We  do  not  imagine  that  it  con- 
tains any  admixture  of  the  Spanish  blood,  although  this  has  been 
suspected. 

Within  the  Archipelago,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  colour 
of  the  Horse  is  singularly  connected  with  quality,  temper,  and 
locality.  The  prevailing  colour  of  the  Achin  Ponies  is  piebald, 
which  becomes  rarer  and  rarer  as  we  proceed  eastward.  A  Bima 
Pony  of  this  colour  is  as  rarely  seen  as  a  black  Arab.  The  prevail- 
ing colour  of  the  Batta  Pony  is  bay  and  mouse-colour.  In  Java  the 
best  Horses  are  those  of  the  most  prevalent  colours — viz.,  bays  and 
greys  ;  the  roan  and  mouse-coloured  Horses  are  very  generally  good. 
The  worst  colours  are  black  and  chestnut.  The  Javanese  have 
such  a  dislike  to  the  latter  colour,  that  chestnut  Horses  are  not  per- 
mitted to  appear  at  their  public  tournaments.  Bays,  greys,  and 
duns  are  the  best  and  most  frequent  colours  in  the  Bima  Ponies. 
Blacks  and  chestnuts  are  not  frequent,  but  they  are  not  considered 
inferior.  Greys  and  bays  prevail  amongst  the  Ponies  of  Celebes 
and  the  Philippines,  nearly  to  the  e.xclusion  of  all  others. 


Fig.  750. — Horse's  Head. 

In  the  plains  of  Celebes  wild  herds  of  Horses  exist,  doubtless  the 
descendants  of  a  domesticated  stock. 

During  the  dominion  ofthe  Romans  in  Britain,  it  is  very  probable 
that  some  modification  in  the  characters  of  the  British  Horse  would 
result  from  its  admixture  with  other  breeds  imported  by  the  con- 
querors from  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain  ;  but  to  what  extent  this  took 
place  we  have  no  means. of  ascertaining.  At  a  subsequent  pcrio  1, 
during  the  Saxon  sway,  it  would  appear  that  a  fine  breed  existed  in 
our  island  :  for  we  find  that  Athelstan  (A.D.  930)  forbade  the  ex- 
portation of  Horses  under  any  circumstances,  except  as  presents  to 
monarchs,  whence  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  English  Horse  was 
then  valued  on  the  continent.  Besides  endeavouring  to  preserve 
the  native  breed,  Athelstan  endeavoured  to  improve  it,  and  received 
several  German  Running- Horses— that  is,  Horses  formed  for  speed 
—from  Hugh  Capet,  of  France.  . 

The  Norman  Conquest  was  productive  of  changes  m  the  bnglisH 
breed  resulting  from  the  introduction  of  the  Spanish  Horse  by  some 
of  the  barons  on  the  estates  they  had  acquired  by  the  right  of  the 
sword.  The  Crusades  brought  the  English  into  contact  with  the 
spirited  Horses  of  Arabia  and  Syria  ;  and  there  is  httle  doubt  that 
some  were  brought  to  our  country.  Two  Horses  of  Eastern  origin, 
and  purchased  at  Cyprus,  were  possessed  by  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion, 
and  are  celebrated  as  unequalled  for  speed  :  most  probably  they 
were  not  adapted  for  the  tournament,  or  the  shock  of  battle,  or  the 
wciti-ht  of  a  knight  cased  in  a  heavy  mail. 

In  the  reign  01  John,  who,  as  Rapin  observes,  scarcely  possessed 


2(54 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


one  valuable  qualification,  chosen  Horses  were  introduced  by  his 
direction  from  Flanders,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  breed  of 
draught  Horses  ;  and  that  monarch  himself  accumulated  a  stud  of 
the  most  superb  Horses  to  be  found. 

During  subsequent  reigns,  Spanish  Barbs,  Lombardy  War-Horses, 
and  heavy  Flanders  Horses,  were  obtained  ;  and  thus  gradually  three 
sets  or  breeds  of  Horses  became  established,  exclusive  of  the  Pen)', 
■which,  time  immemorial,  has  inhabited  the  mountains  of  Wales  and 
Scotland,  and  the  Shetland  Islands. 

Of  these  breeds,  one  was  the  War-Horse,  fitted  to  bear  a  warrior 
clad  in  heavy  armour,  oppressive  to  the  wearer,  but  more  to  the 
Horse,  which  was  also,  to  a  great  degree,  protected  in  the  same  man- 
ner. Its  principal  requisite  was  strength  and  endurance,  not,  how- 
ever, to  the  exclusion  of  a  certain  degree  of  fleetness  :  it  probably 
resembled  the  Coach-Horse  of  this  century,  and  w-as  a  powerful 
animal,  of  high  action  and  great  spirit.  Besides  this  stalwart 
breed,  there  was  evidently  a  lighter  race,  fitted  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, of  moderate  stature,  fleet,  yet  strong,  and  capable  of  under- 
going fatigue.  Horses  of  this  kind  were  termed  Running-Horses  : 
they  were  used  as  hackneys,  for  travelling,  and  also  for  running 
races,  a  sport  practised  at  Smithfield  as  early  as  the  time  of  Henry 
II.,  though  racing  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  then  in  its  palmy 
days.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  Henry  "VIII.,  and  especially  of  Eliza- 
beth, that  regular  race-meetings  were  established  at  Chester,  Stam- 
ford, and  elsewhere  ;  gradually  a  passion  for  the  sport  increased, 
and  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  who  encouraged  racing  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  it  assumed  a  more  definite  character,  and  be- 
came conducted  according  to  fi.xed  regulations.  The  breed  appro- 
priated to  this  sport,  originally  selected  for  speed,  now  became  im- 
proved by  Arab,  Turkish,  and  Barbary  admixture.  James  I.  intro- 
duced the  Arab,  and  purchased  one  of  great  celebrity  for  the  then 
enormous  sum  of  ;^5oo.  In  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  Turkish  and 
Barbary  Horses  were  obtained,  and  also  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
It  was  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  that  the  celebrated  Darley 
A.rabian,  bred  in  the  deserts  of  Palmyra,  was  introduced,  and  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  progenitor  of  the  most  celebrated  of  our 
modem  racing  stock.     (See  Fig.  751.)     He  was  the  sire  of  Flying 


rig.  751. — An  Anglo-Arab  Horse. 

Childers.  At  a  subsequent  period.  Lord  Godolphin's  Barb,  gene- 
rally called  the  Godolphin  Arabian,  contributed  to  the  celebrity  of 
the  English  racer.  From  these  and  from  other  Eastern  Horses, 
which  might  also  be  enumerated,  have  descended  a  stock  unequalled 
by  any  in  the  world  for  spirit  and  fleetness.  Such,  then,  is  the 
more  than  half  Oriental  oriqin  of  our  racer  ;  but  while  this  stock  was 
thus  rising  out  of  the  old  English  Running-Horse,  that  breed  itself 
partook  of  the  improvement,  and  we  have  now  the  half-blood 
Saddle-Horse  and  the  three-parts-blood  Hunter. 

The  third  breed  of  the  olden  days  was  heavier  and  slower  than 
the  War-Horse,  and  used  for  the  purposes  of  draught.  This  breed, 
overlooked  by  the  nobles,  would  necessarily  vary  in  qualities  as  cir- 
cumstances might  influence  it  ;  but  in  proportion  as  the  War-Horse 
and  hackney  improved,  so,  indirectly,  would  the  old  Cart-Horse  be- 
come elevated  into  the  Cleveland  bay,  the  Suffolk  punch,  and  the 
huge  Lincolnshire  black. 

The  Suffolk  punch  is  now  seldom  seen  pure,  being  much  crossed 
■with  other  breeds.  The  Cleveland  bay  is  confined  principally  to 
Durham  and  Yorkshire.  The  Lincolnshire  black  exceeds  all  in  size, 
and  is  a  noble  and  massive  animal.  Its  perfection  is  to  be  attributed 
to  the  Flanders  Horse  ;  and  it  is  of  this  admirable  mixed  breed  that 
the  teams  in  the  brewers'  and  distillers'  carts  in  London  are  chiefly 
composed.    No  one  can  behold  them  without  being  struck  with  their 


appearance.  Their  strength  is  prodigious,  and  many  stand  seven- 
teen hands  in  height. 

From  the  varied  stocks  of  Horses  which  we  now  possess  within 
the  limits  of  our  own  island,  by  selection  and  judicious  admixture, 
may  be  acquired  breeds  modified  to  suit  every  purpose  of  use  or 
luxury,  from  the  racer  to  the  serviceable  roadster,  from  the  splendid 
Carriage-Horse  to  the  farmer's  hard-working  servant. 

When  we  look  at  the  elephantine  Dray-Horse,  and  the  Welsh 
and  Shetland  Ponies,  the  transition  with  respect  to  size  is  so  great, 
that  we  are  almost  startled  by  the  comparison,  and  wonder  that 
such  a  difference  can  exist  between  two  individuals  of  the  same 
species. 

Wales  and  the  Shetland  Isles  have  been  ever  celebrated  for  minia- 
ture Horses  of  great  beauty,  spirit,  strength,  and  hardiness.  The 
Welsh  Pony  is  often  a  model  :  a  small  head,  high  withers,  a  deep 
yet  round  body,  short  joints,  flat  legs,  and  small'round  hoofs,  cha- 
racterise him  ;  his  ears  are  small,  his  eyes  full  and  animated,  and 
his  actions  are  free  and  vigorous.     (See  Fig.  752.) 


Fig.  752.— The  Welsh  Pony. 

The  Shetland  Pony  is  still  less  in  size  than  the  Welsh,  and  is 
often  very  handsome,  but  the  shoulders  are  usually  low  and  thick  ; 
the  limbs,  however,  are  well  knit,  and  the  strength  of  the  animal  in 
proportion  to  its  size  is  astonishing.  Some  years  ago  w'e  measured 
a  Pony  of  the  Shetland  breed  of  very  small  dimensions,  but  of 
great  beauty.  Its  height  at  the  withers  was  only  thirty-four 
inches  ;  its  length,  from  between  the  ears  to  the  insertion  of  the 
tail,  following  the  curve  of  the  neck  and  back,  4  feet  2  inches. 

Ponies  of  different  degrees  of  value  range  the  New  Forest,  Ex- 
moor,  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  but  much  attention  is  not  paid 
to  their  breeding. 

We  have  already  stated  that,  at  a  very  early  period,  the  Horse  was 
employed  in  Egypt,  both  for  the  saddle  and  in  dra^v\'ing  chariots. 
Among  the  very  interesting  series  of  Egyptian  paintings  in  the 
British  Museum,  is  one  (see  Fig.  753)  representing  in  the  upper 
compartment  a  pair  of  Horses  yoked  to  a  light  chariot,  of  ■n-hich  one 
(the  foreground  Horse)  is  black  ;  the  other,  of  which  the  head, 
limbs,  and  tail  are  partially  shown,  is  red.  In  the  lower  compart- 
ment are  also  a  pair  of  Horses,  as  most  suppose,  of  a  pale  milk 
colour,  attached  to  a  chariot :  one  is  about  to  eat  or  drink  from  a 
vessel  before  it.  This  chariot  or  car  is  perhaps  intended  to  carry 
the  sheaves  of  corn  which  a  reaper  is  cutting.  It  has  been  observed 
that  the  tails  of  these  Horses  appear  as  if  shaved,  with  a  tuft  left 
at  the  end  ;  but  we  are  inclined  to  think  the  animals  are  intended  as 
Mules,  not  Horses,  both  from  this  appearance  of  the  tail,  and  from 
the  marked  difference  in  the  contour  between  them  and  the  Horses 
of  the  upper  compartment,  which  cannot  be  mistaken.  The  chariot 
they  are  yoked  to  is  a  war-chariot,  the  form  of  •which  is  more  defi- 
nitely given  at  Fig.  754,  and  which  will  convey  a  clear  idea  of  the 
chariots  with  which  Pharaoh  pursued  the  Israelites,  or  of  that  to 
which  Achilles  lashed  the  body  of  Hector  before  the  walls  of  Troy. 
It  is  remarkable  that  though  there  was  a  mounted  cavalry  in  Egj'pt, 
and  that  Solomon's  horsemen  were  mounted  on  trained  Egyptian 
Horses,  there  is  but  one  representation  of  a  man  on  horseback  in 
the  whole  range  of  the  sculptured  and  painted  antiquities  of  that 
country. 

At  what  period  the  Arabs  began  to  employ  the  Horse  is  not  very 
clear ;  certainly  not  till  a  comparatively  late  era  ;  nor,  as  far  as  we 
are  aware,  is  it  known  whence  they  obtained  their  breed.  May  it 
not  be  descended  from  the  stock  of  Egj'pt,  with  which  Solomon  re- 
plenished his  stables  ?  According  to  Burckhardt,  there  are  three 
breeds  of  Horses  at  the  present  day  in  Syria — the  true  Arab  breed, 
the  Turkman,  and  the  Kourdy,  which  last  is  a  mixture  of  the  two 
former.  The  Turkman  Horses,  from  their  superior  size  and  more 
martial  appearance,  displaying  when  dressed  the  Turkish  trappings 
to  the  greatest  advantage,  are  preferred  by  the  Osnianlis  to  tlie 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


295 


Arab  Horses.  They  are  trained  to  walk  gracefully,  to  set  off  sud- 
denly at  full  speed,  to  turn  with  the  gentlest  touch,  and  to  stop 
short  instantaneously. 

The  Arabian  Horses  are  of  more  slender  make,  and  less  showy  in 
appearance  than  the  Turkman,  but  they  are  beautifully  limbed, 
more  hardy,  and  much  fleeter.  The  esteem  in  which  the  Arabs  hold 
them,  the  scrupulous  care  taken  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  breeds, 
and  the  reluctance  with  which  the  Arabs  part  with  their  mares,  are 
circumstances  frequently  noticed  by  travellers.     The  Rev.  V.  Monro, 


■-.nillilW' 


// 


» 


F'S-  753- — Egyptian  Painting,  in  the  British  Museum. 


in  his  "  Summer's  Ramble  in  Syria,"  relates  that  on  the  visit  to  the 
river  Jordan,  one  of  the  Arab  escort,  "  a  great  ruffian,  was  mounted 
on  a  white  mare  of  great  beauty  ;  her  large  fiery  eye  gleamed  from 
the  edge  of  an  open  forehead,  and  her  exquisite  little  head  was 
finished  with  a  pouting  lip  and  expanded  nostrils  ;  her  ribs,  thighs, 
and  shoulders  were  models  of  make,  with  more  bone  than  commonly 
belongs  to  the  Syrian  Arab,  and  her  stately  step  received  additional 
dignity  from  that  aristocratic  set  on,  and  carriage  of  the  tail,  which 
is  the  infallible   indication  of  good  family.     Having  inquired  her 


^'g-  754- — Egyptian  War-chariot. 

price,  I  offered  the  sum,  whereon  the  dragoon  asked  one-third  more. 
After  much  abating  and  debating,  I  acceded,  and  he  immediately 
stepped  back  in  the  same  proportion  as  before.  This  is  invariably 
the  practice  with  the  Arabs.  I  therefore  discontinued  my  attempts 
to  deal.  The  Arab  said  he  loved  his  mare  better  than  his  own  life  ; 
that  money  was  of  no  use  to  him,  and  that  when  mounted  upon  her 
he  felt  rich  as  a  pasha.  Shoes  and  stockings  he  had  none,  and  the 
net  value  of  his  dress  and  accoutrements  might  be  calculated  at 
something  under  seventeen-pence  sterling." 


The  fondness  for  their  Horses  which  the  Ar.ibs  manifest  partakes 
of  the  extravagance  of  Oriental  feelings  :  they  rear  them  up  in  their 
tents,  among  their  children  and  family :  they  caress  them  and  apply 
to  them  the  most  endearing  epithets  ;  witness  the  lamentations  of  an 
Arab,  Ibrahim  Abou  Vouasses,  over  a  favourite  mare  of  noble  race, 
which  he  had  parted  with  ;  but  which  he  frequently  went  to  Rama 
to  see:  "He  would  embrace  her,"  says  D'Arvicux,  "and  wipe 
her  eyes  with  his  handkerchief,  and  rub  her  with  his  shirt- 
sleeves, and  would  give  her  a  thousand  blessings  during  whole 
hours  that  he  would  be  talking  to  her.  '  My 
eyes,  my  heart,  my  soul,'  would  he  exclaim  ; 
'  must  I  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  thee 
sold  to  many  masters,  and  not  be  able  to 
keep  thee  myself  ?  I  am  poor,  my  gazelle. 
You  know  well  enough,  my  sweet,  that  I 
have  brought  thee  up  like  a  child  ;  I  never 
boat  thee,  never  chid  thee,  but  did  cherish 
thee  as  the  apple  of  mine  eye ;  God  pre- 
serve thee,  my  dearest  ;  thou  art  beautiful, 
thou  art  sweet,  thou  art  lovely  ;  God  defend 
thee  from  the  evil  eye  : '  and  so  he  would 
go  on  saying  a  thousand  things  like  these ; 
he  then  embraced  her,  kissed  her  eyes, 
and  went  backwards,  bidding  her  the  most 
tender  adieus." 

The  Arab  Horses  seldom  exceed  fourteen 
hands  in  height,  but  have  all  certain  cha- 
racteristic beauties  which  distinguish  their 
breed  from  any  other.  Five  noble  breeds 
are  counted,  each,  as  is  said,  deduced  from 
one  of  the  five  favourite  mares  of  Mo- 
hammed. But  these  five  races  diverge  into 
infinite  ramifications ;  and  any  mare  of 
superlative  excellence  may  give  origin  to  a 
new  breed,  the  descendants  of  which  are 
called  after  her.  "  On  the  birth  of  a  Colt 
of  noble  breed,  it  is  usual  to  assemble  wit- 
nesses to  write  an  account  of  its  distinctive  marks,  with  the  name  of 
its  sire  and  dam.  These  genealogical  tables  never  ascend  to  the 
grand-dam,  because  it  is  presumed  that  every  Arab  of  his  tribe 
knows  by  tradition  the  purity  of  the  whole  breed.  Nor  is  it  always 
necessary  to  have  such  certificates  ;  for  many  Horses  and  mares 
are  of  such  illustrious  descent  that  thousands  might  attest  the  purity 
of  their  blood.  The  pedigree  is  often  put  into  a  small  piece  of 
leather,  covered  with  a  waxed  cloth,  and  hung  by  a  leather  thong 
round  the  Horse's  neck." 

In  Syria  and  elsewhere  in  Western  Asia  the  Horse  is 
fed  upon  chopped  straw  and  barley,  and  of  this  proven- 
der a  certain  quantity  is  given  morning  and  evening, 
none  being  supplied  in  the  interim.  In  the  spring  season 
the  Horses  are  fed  from  forty  to  fifty  days  on  green  barley, 
cut  as  soon  as  the  corn  begins  to  ear.  This  is  termed 
tying  down  to  grass,  during  which  time  the  animals  re- 
main constantly  exposed  in  the  open  air,  and  for  the  first 
eight  or  ten  days  are  neither  curried,  mounted,  nor  led 
about.  After  this  they  are  dressed  as  usual  and  rode  out 
gently,  but  are  never  much  worked  during  the  grass 
season.  Some  feed  the  Horses  with  cut  barley  in  the 
stable-yards,  but  the  general  practice  is  to  confine  them 
to  a  certain  circuit,  by  means  of  a  long  tether  in  the 
barley-field.  This  grazing  is  considered  of  great  service 
to  the  health  of  the  Horses,  and  gives  a  beautiful  gloss 
to  their  skin.  Fig.  755  is  an  illustration  of  the  Arabian 
War-Horse.  ' 

Some   Arab   tribes. 


however,  do  not  thus  give  their 
Horses  green  barley,  but  allow  them  to  feed  on  the  herbs 
of  the  desert,  and  give  them  a  paste  made  of  dates  and 
water,  and  Camel's  milk  to  drink.  "  Even  flesh,  raw  as 
well  as  boiled,  is  given  to  the  Horses  in  some  quarters, 
together  with  the  fragments  of  their  owner's  meals."  An 
inhabitant  of  Hamah  assured  Burckhardt  that  he  had 
often  given  his  Horses  roasted  meat  before  the  com- 
mencement of  a  fatiguing  journey,  that  they  might  be 
better  able  to  endure  it ;  and  the  same  person,  fearing 
lest  the  governor  should  take  him  from  his  favourite 
Horse,  fed  him  for  a  fortnight  exclusively  on  roasted 
pork,  which  so  excited  its  spirit  and  mettle,  that  it 
became  unmanageable,  and  no  longer  an  object  of  desire 
to  the  governor.  That  the  Horse  should,  under  any  circumstances, 
be  brought  to  eat  animal  food  is  very  startling ;  but  Burckhardt's 
authority  induces  us  to  believe  it.  It  serves  to  show  how  domesti- 
cation may  modify  animal  instincts  ;  nor  is  it  perhaps  more  strange 
than  that  the  carnivorous  Dog  and  Cat  should  be  brought  to  eat 
bread,  biscuits,  and  even  boiled  greens,  to  which  latter  we  have 
known  Cats  apparently  partial,  feedmg  upon  them  when  even  meat 
was  at  hand.  Horses  will  drink  ale  with  great  relish  ;  and  the 
taste  in  this  instance  is  apparently  an  acquired  one. 


296 


THE  HORSE  TRIBE. 


With  respect  to  the  wild  Horses  in  the  countries  bordering  the 
Volga  and  the  Oural,  little  is  accurately  established.  They  are 
said  to  associate  in  troops,  headed  by  a  leader  ;  but  from  all  accounts 
to  be  depended  upon,  they  are  by  no  means  remarkable  for  beauty, 
though  they  appear  to  be  fleet  and  hardy.  In  the  museum  at  Paris 
is  the  specimen  of  a  wild  Horse  from  the  country  of  the  Bashkirs  : 
it  has  a  heavy,  clumsy  head,  and  short  limbs  ;  and  the  hair,  of  a 
dirty  greyish-white,  is  long  and  shaggy,  and  hangs  in  a  beard-like 


Fig.  755. — Ar.abian  War-IIorse. 

manner  under  the  lower  jaw.  Pallas  describes  a  young  mare, 
caught  in  the  country  between  the  Jaik  and  the  Volga,  which  be- 
came very  docile  :  its  limbs  were  strong,  the  head  large,  the  ears 
long  and  lying  back  upon  the  occiput  ;  the  hoofs  small  and  some- 
what pointed  ;  the  colour  light  bay,  with  a  black  mane  and  tail.  In 
South  America,  the  rich  plains  extending  from  La  Plata  to  Paraguay 
are  tenanted  by  herds  of  Horses  in  a  wild  condition,  the  descend- 
ants of  those  originally  introduced  by  the  Spaniards.  These 
Horses  are  caught  and  broke  in,  and  the  singular  mode  in  which 
their  subjugation  is  effected  is  thus  described  by  Captain  Head  : — 
"A  man,  mounted  on  a  strong  steady  Horse,  threw  his  lasso  over 
the  neck  of  a  young  Horse,  and  dragged  him  to  the  gate.  For 
some  time  he  was  very  unwilling  to  leave  his  comrades,  but  the 
moment  he  was  forced  from  them,  his  first  idea  was  to  gallop  away ; 
however,  the  jerk  of  the  lasso  checked  him  in  the  most  effectual 
manner.  The  Peons  now  ran  after  him  on  foot  and  threw  the  lasso 
over  his  four  legs,  just  above  the  fetlocks,  and,  twitching  it,  they 
pulled  his  legs  from  under  him  so  suddenly  that  I  really  thought  the 
fall  he  had  got  had  killed  him.  In  an  instant  a  Gaucho  was  seated 
on  his  head,  and,  with  his  long  knife,  in  a  few  seconds  cut  off  the 
■whole  of  the  Horse's  mane,  while  another  cut  the  hair  from  the  end 
of  the  tail.  This  they  told  me  is  a  mark  that  the  animal  has  been 
once  mounted.  They  then  put  a  piece  of  hide  into  his  mouth  to 
serve  as  a  bit,  and  a  strong  hide-halter  on  his  head.  The  Gaucho 
who  was  to  mount  arranged  his  spurs,  w-hich  were  unusually  lono- 
and  sharp  ;  and  while  two  men  held  the  animal  by  his  ears  he  put 
on  the  saddle,  which  he  girthed  extremely  tight ;  he  then  caught 
hold  of  the  Horse's  ears,  and  in  an  instant  vaulted  into  the  saddle  ; 
upon  which  the  man  who  was  holding  the  Horse  by  the  halter  threw 
the  end  of  it  to  the  rider,  and  from  that  moment  no  one  seemed  to 
take  any  further  notice  of  him.  The  Horse  instantly  began  to 
jump  in  a  manner  which  made  it  very  difficult  for  the  rider  to  keep 
his  seat,  and  quite  different  from  the  kick  or  plunge  of  an  English 
Horse  ;  however,  the  Gaucho's  spurs  soon  set  him  going,  and  off  he 
galloped,  doing  everything  in  his  power  to  throw  his  rider.  Another 
Horse  was  immediately  seized ;  and  so  quick  was  the  operation  that 
twelve  Gauchos  were  mounted  in  a  space  which  I  think  hardly  ex- 
ceeded an  hour." 

The  following  original  anecdotes,  given  some  years  ago,  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  well-known  sagacity  of  the  Horse.  They 
refer  to  Horses  bred  and  reared  in  North  America  : — 

"  A  short  distance  below  Fort  Erie,  and  about  a  mile  from  where 
the  river  Niagara  escapes  over  a  barrier  of  rock  from  the  depths  of 
Lake  Erie,  a  ferry  has  long  been  established  across  that  broad  and 


there  exceedingly  rapid  river,  the  distance  from  shore  to  shore  being 
a  little  over  one-third  of  a  mile.  On  the  Canada  side  of  the  river  is 
the  village  of  Waterloo,  and  opposite  thereto,  on  the  United  States 
side,  is  the  large  village  of  Blackrock— distant  from  the  flourishing 
city  of  Buffalo  two  miles.  In  completing  the  Erie  Canal,  a  pier  or 
dam  was  erected — up  and  down  the  river,  and  opposite  to  Black- 
rock,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  shore,  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
the  waters  of  the  Niagara  to  such  a  height  that  they  might  be  made 
to  supply  an  adjoining  section  of  the  Erie  canal.  This  pier  was  a 
great  obstruction  to  the  ferry-boats ;  for  previous  to  its  erection  pas- 
sengers embarked  from  ierra  firina  on  one  side  of  the  river,  and 
were  landed  without  any  difficulty  on  the  other  :  but  after  this  dam 
was  constructed  it  became  necessary  to  employ  two  sets  of  boats — 
one  to  navigate  the  river  and  the  other  the  basin  ;  so  that  all  pas- 
sengers, as  well  as  goods  or  luggage,  had  to  be  landed  upon  this 
narrow  wall,  and  re-shipped.  Shortly  after  the  erection  of  the  pier- 
dam,  a  boat  propelled  by  Horses  was  established  between  this  pier 
and  the  Canada  shore.  The  Horses  moved  upon  a  circular  plat- 
form, which  consequently  was  put  in  motion,  to  which  other  ma- 
chinery was  connected,  that  acted  upon  paddle-wheels  attached  to 
the  sides  of  the  boat.  The  boat  belonged  to  persons  connected 
with  the  ferry  on  the  American  side  of  the  river  ;  but  owing  to  the 
barrier  formed  by  the  pier,  the  Horses  employed  on  the  boat  were 
stabled  at  night  in  the  village  of  Waterloo.  I  well  recollect  the  first 
day  this  boat  began  to  ply, — for  the  introduction  of  a  boat  of  that 
description,  in  those  days,  and  in  such  a  situation,  was  considered 
an  event  of  some  magnitude.  The  two  Horses  (for  the  boat  had  but 
two)  worked  admirably,  considering  the  very  few  lessons  they  had 
had  previous  to  their  introduction  upon  the  main  river.  One  of 
the  Horses  employed  on  the  new  ferry-boat  had  once  been  a  dapple- 
grey,  but  at  the  period  I  am  speaking  of  he  had  become  white.  He 
was  still  hale  and  hearty,  for  he  had  a  kind  and  indulgent  master. 
The  first  evening  after  the  Horses  had  been  a  short  time  in  the 
stable,  to  which  they  were  strangers,  they  were  brought  out  for  the 
purpose  of  being  watered  at  the  river,  the  common  custom  at  this 
place.  The  attendant  was  mounted  upon  the  bay  Horse — the  white 
one  was  known  to  be  so  gentle  and  docile  that  he  was  allowed  to 
drink  where  he  pleased.     I  happened  to  be  standing  close  by,  in 

company  with  my  friend  ^V n,  the  ferry  contractor  on  the  Canada 

side,  and  thus  had  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  whole  proceed- 
ings of  Old  Grizzle,  the  name  that  the  white  Horse  still  went  by. 
The  moment  he  got  round  the  corner  of  the  building,  so  as  to  have 
a  view  of  his  home  on  the  opposite  side,  he  stopped  and  gazed  in- 
tently. He  then  advanced  to  the  brink  of  the  river,  when  he  again 
stopped  and  looked  earnestly  across  for  a  short  time — then  waded 
into  the  water  until  it  had  reached  hi.';  chest,  drank  a  little,  lifted 
his  head,  and,  with  his  lips  closed  and  his  eyes  fixed  upon  some 
object  upon  the  further  shore,  remained  for  a  short  time  perfectly 
motionless.  Apparently  having  made  up  his  mind  to  the  task,  he 
then  waded  farther  into  the  river  until  the  water  reached  his  ribs, 
when  off  he  shot  into  the  deep  water  without  hesitation.  The  cur- 
rent being  so  strong  and  rapid,  the  river  boiling  and  turmoiling  over 
a  rocky  bed  at  the  rate  of  six  miles  the  hour,  it  was  impossible  for 
the  courageous  and  attached  animal  to  keep  a  direct  course  across, 
although  he  breasted  the  waves  heroically,  and  swam  with  remark- 
able vigour.  Had  he  been  able  to  steer  his  way  directly  across,  the 
pier-wall  would  have  proved  an  insurmountable  barrier.  As  it  was, 
the  strength  of  the  current  forced  him  down  to  below  where  the 
lower  extremity  of  this  long  pier  abuts  upon  an  island,  the  shore  of 
which  being  low  and  shelving,  he  was  enabled  to  effect  a  landing 
with  comparative  ease.  Having  regained  tcr>-a  _fi?-?iia,  he  shook 
the  water  from  his  dripping  flanks,  but  he  did  not  halt  over  a  few 
minutes,  when  he  plunged  into  the  basin,  and  soon  regained  his 
native  shore.  The  distance  from  where  Grizzle  took  the  water  to 
where  he  effected  a  landing  on  the  island  was  about  700  yards  ;  but 
the  effotts  made  to  swim  directly  across,  against  the  powerful  cur- 
rent, must  have  rendered  the  undertaking  a  much  more  laborious 
one.  At  the  commencement  of  his  voyage  his  arched  neck  and 
withers  were  above  the  surface,  but  before  he  reached  the  island  his 
head  only  was  visible.  He  reached  his  own  stable-door,  that  home 
for  which  he  had  risked  so  much,  to  the  no  small  astonishment  of 
his  owner.  This  unexpected  visit  evidently  made  a  favourable  im- 
pression upon  his  master,  for  he  was  heard  to  vow,  that  if  Old  Grizzle 
performed  the  same  feat  a  second  time,  for  the  future  he  should  re- 
main on  his  own  side  of  the  river,  and  never  be  sent  to  the  mill 
again.  Grizzle  was  sent  back  to  work  the  boat  on  the  following 
day,  but  he  embraced  the  very  first  opportunity  that  occurred  of  es- 
caping, swam  back  in  the  way  he  had  done  before,  and  his  owner, 
not  being  a  person  to  break  the  promise  he  had  once  made,  never 
afterwards  dispossessed  him  of  the  stall  he  had  long  been  accus- 
tomed to,  but  treated  him  with  marked  kindness  and  attention." 

"  During  my  residence  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Susquehanna,  I 
owned  a  small  American  Horse,  of  the  name  of  Charlie,  that  was 
very  remarkable  lor  his  attachment  to  my  own  person,  as  well  as  for 
his  general  good  qualities.  He  was  a  great  favourite  with  all  the 
family  ;  and  being  a  favourite,  he  was  frequently  indulged  with  less 
work  and  more  to  eat  than  any  of  the  other  Horses  on  the  farm.     At 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


277 


Even  royalty  applauds.  All  sorts  of  complimentary  presents  are 
thrown  at  Frascuelo's  feet.  He  bows  in  every  direction,  amidst 
thundering-  applause  ;  and  the  jinglins;-  of  bells  announces  the  Mules 
canteringin  to  drag  away  the  poor  Bull. 

"  In  succession,  every  Bull  gave  more  or  less  sport.  That  word 
is  synonymous  of  ferocity  and  Horse-slaughter,  varying  from  ten  to 
forty  animals  killed  by  the  Bulls  on  the  two  days.  Eighteen  Bulls 
were  despatched,  and  several  toreros  displayed  as  much  agility  and 
daring  as  Frascuelo  or  Currito.  It  was  nearly  five  when  the  king 
rose  to  return  to  Madrid  ;  and  it  so  happened  that,  after  the  fight 
on  the  second  day,  his  majesty  and  the  queen,  princesses,  and  court 
went  to  Atocha,  to  hear  the  ordinary  Salve  of  every  Saturday  The 
crowd  on  the  route  back  was  as  great  as  on  the  first  occasion,  and 
it  is  a  marvel  that  no  accidents  happened  as  the  innumerable 
vehicles  raced  home.  The  talk  of  every  class  of  society,  the  same 
evening,  was  nothing  else  than  the  Bull-fight.  The  papers  related 
its  inciiients  and  its  glory  in  several  columns.  The  only  person 
saddened  by  this  bold  vindication  of  the  national  sport  must  have 
been  the  gallant  Marquis  of  San  Carlos,  who  proposed,  last  year,  a 
bill  for  the  suppression  of  the  fights  in  the  Cortes.  '  'Tis  a  far  cry 
to  Loch  Awe,'  might  his  opponents  say  after  the  scene  of  these  two 
days.  It  was  not  even  marred  by  the  weather,  as  a  splendid  sun- 
shine, on  the  second  occasion,  added  to  the  striking  features  of 
national  customs  that  unrivalled  beauty  of  light  and  blue  sky  which 
the  south  alone  can  give  in  January." 

Within  the  Arctic  circle  the  Ox  gives  place  to  the  Rein-Deer  (see 
p.  237,  ante)  ;  but  in  Iceland  Cattle  are 
i^red  in  great  numbers,  and  are  valu- 
able. In  size  and  appearance,  except- 
ing that  they  are  seldom  horned,  they 
resemble  the  breeds  of  the  Scotti'^h 
Islands.  It  would  appear  that  the  Ice- 
landish  farmers  conduct  the  breeding 
of  their  stock  on  no  principles  ;  conse- 
quently there  is  great  room  for  im- 
provement ;  nevertheless,  the  Cattle  on 
the  whole  are  handsome,  and  the  Cows 
yield  a  considerable  quantity  of  milk.  In 
Norway  and  Sweden  Cattle  are  numer- 
ous, and  also  in  Russia;  as  is  well 
known,  some  of  the  chief  exports  from 
Russia  to  England  are  tallow  and  hides. 
In  that  extensive  empire  vast  numbers 
are  reared,  principally  in  the  southern 
provinces ;  and  the  markets  of  St. 
Petersburg  and  other  towns  are  sup- 
plied by  Cattle  sent  from  distant  parts 
of  the  country.  The  herdsmen  live  in 
a  state  of  barbaric  simplicity,  and  are 
nomadic  in  their  habits  ;  they  travel 
with  their  herds  to  Moscow,  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  other  places,  which  depend 
more  upon  them  for  a  supply  than  upon 
the  farmers  of  the  adjacent  districts. 

In  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  Cattle 
are  abundant ;  in  the  latter  district,  in- 
deed, the  people  continue,  in  a  great 
measure,  their  ancient  nomadic  habits, 
making  use  of  the  services  of  the  Ox  as 
a  beast  of  draught  or  burden  :  united  in 
immense  caravans,  they  roam  over  an 
immense  extent  of  territory,  transport- 
ing, in  tall  vehicles  of  singular  construction,  various  articles  of  pro- 
duce, provisions,  and  other  things,  to  the  towns  scattered  at  wide 
distances  about  the  vast  plains  of  Moldavia.  Day  by  day  they  move 
cheerfully  on,  to  the  slow  and  measured  sound  of  the  footsteps  of 
their  Oxen,  and  are  often  an  entire  month  without  seeing  a  single 
human  habitation.  At  the  approach  of  evening  the  caravan  halts, 
the  numerous  waggons  are  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and 
fne  Oxen  are  turned  out  to  graze  at  large,  under  the  watchful  care 
of  intrepid  Dogs,  who  accompany  the  caravan.  In  the  middle  of  the 
square  a  fire  is  now  lighted,  at  which  the  conductor  prepares  his 
simple  repast,  and  afterwards  disposes  himself  for  sleep,  sheltered 
by  a  warm  and  heavy  coverlid,  that  completely  enwraps  him. 
These  indefatigable  walkers  are  no  less  excellent  riders ;  they 
possess  a  fine  race  of  Horses,  which  are  employed  for  drawing 
lighter  vehicles,  while  the  heavier  waggons  are  drawn  by  the  slow 
Oxen.  There  are  few  high-roads  in  Moldavia;  the  plain  is  open, 
and  each  traveller  chooses  his  own  track,  and  it  is  often  with  diffi- 
culty that  the  Oxen  can  drag  their  way  through  heavy  ground ; 
storms  of  wind,  rain,  or  snow,  make  the  matter  worse,  so  that  a 
passage  can  only  be  achieved  by  great  patience,  labour,  and  re- 
solution. The  sketch  (Fig.  712)  represents  a  Bullock-caravan,  of  Mol- 
davia, wending  its  weary  way  over  the  vast  plains  of  Moldavia,  while 
lighter  vehicles,  drawn  by  swift  Horses,  are  seen  in  the  distance. 

In  Switzerland  there  is  an  excellent  breed  of  Cattle,  and  in  no 
country  are  these  animals  more  carefully  attended  to,  or  held  in 


greater  esteem  for  their  utility,  as  far  as  the  dairy  is  concerned 
Travellers  have  frequently  noticed  their  docility  and  intelligence, 
which  they  have,  at  the  same  time,  not  a  little  exaggerated.  It  is 
customary  to  hang  bells  round  the  necks  of  the  Cattle,  Sheep,  and 
Goats,  m  order  that  if  they  stray  among  the  hills  and  mountains, 
the  herdsman  may  be  directed  by  the  sound  in  his  pursuit  of  them, 
the  slightest  tinkle  being  heard  at  a  great  distance  in  those  lofty 
and  still  regions.  The  Cows  selected  to  bear  the  bell  become  ac- 
customed to  it  from  habit,  and  often,  we  doubt  not,  betray  signs  of 
uneasiness  when  deprived  of  it ;  but  the  account  given  by  some 
writers  respecting  their  feelings  borders  on  the  ludicrous. 

The  pastoral  economy  of  Switzerland,  which  is  common  to  Savoy 
and  other  Alpine  countries,  and  the  annual  progress  of  the  shep- 
herds and  cowherds  with  their  flocks  and  cattle  to  and  from  the 
mountains,  are  interesting.  The  richer  proprietors  and  breeders  in 
the  Alps  possess  tracks  of  pasturages,  and  sometimes  houses,  at 
different  heights.  In  winter  they  live  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain, in  some  sheltered  valley  ;  but  this  they  quit  in  the  spring,  and 
ascend  gradually,  as  the  heat  brings  out  vegetation,  on  the  higher 
lands.  In  autumn  they  descend,  by  the  same  gradations,  to  the 
valley.  Those  who  are  less  rich,  have  a  resource  in  certain  com- 
mon pastures,  to  which  they  send  a  number  of  Cows,  proportionate 
to  their  means  of  keeping  them  during  the  winter.  Eight  days  after 
the  Cows  have  been  driven  up  to  these  common  pastures,  all  their 
owners  assemble,  and  the  quantity  of  milk  each  Cow  produces  is 
accurately  weighed.     This  operation  of  weighing  is  repeated  one 


Fig.  712. — Bullock  Caravan  in  Moldavia. 

day  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  again  at  the  end  of  the  season. 
The  milk  of  all  the  Cow^has,  in  the  meanwhile,  been  put  together 
and  made  into  butter  and  cheese,  and  this  common  product  is 
divided  into  shares,  according  to  the  quantity  of  milk  each  owner's 
Cows  yielded  on  the  days  of  trial. 

In  some  parts  of  Switzerland,  and  more  particularly  in  the  retired 
parts  of  the  forest  cantons,  the  peasants  make  use  of  the  Alp-horn 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  their  herds.  This  primitive  instru- 
ment is  a  tube  of  wood,  about  five  feet  in  length,  of  very  simple  con- 
struction ;  it  produces  a  deep,  mellow,  and  prolonged  note,  resound- 
ing to  a  great  distance,  floating  over  the  upland  pastures,  and 
echoing  from  crag  to  crag  and  from  rock  to  rock.  On  hearing  the 
well-known  summons,  which  is  regularly  given  at  sunset,  the  Cattle 
bestir  themselves,  and  wend  their  way  to  the  chilet,  where  the 
peasants  are  waiting  their  arrival.  The  deep  note  of  the  Alp-horn 
heard  among  the  mountains,  and  multiplied  by  echoes  till  the  last 
tone  dies  away,  produces  a  pleasing  impression  on  the  traveller, 
which  he  long  remembers. 

Fig.  713  represents  a  scene  on  the  banks  of  the  Vial  river,  South 
Africa,  illustrative  of  the  uses  of  the  Ox  in  that  country',  where  its 
services  as  a  beast  of  draught  and  burden  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. Waggons  drawn  by  Oxen,  often  cruelly  overtasked,  are 
the  ordinary  travelling  vehicles  of  South  Africa,  and  are  admirably 
adapted  for  the  country,  which  is  rugged  and  mountainous,  and 
generally  destitute  of  any  other  roads   than  the  rude  tracks  origi- 


278 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


nally  struck  across  the  wilderness  by  the  first  European  adventurers. 
Each  wag:gon  is  provided  with  a  canvas  tilt,  to  protect  the  traveller 
from  sun  and  rain,  and  is  drawn  by  a  team  of  six,  eight,  or  even 
twelve  Oxen,  fastened  with  wooden  frames  to  a  strong  central  trace, 
or  trek-tow,  formed  of  twisted  thongs  of  Bullock's  hide.  The 
driver,  who  sits  in  front,  has  a  whip  of  enormous  length,  which  he 
uses  with  unsparing  severity.  Livingstone,  Stanley,  and  other 
African  explorers  of  the  present  day,  adopted  this  plan  of  travelling 
in  Central  Africa. 

When  the  Dutch  took  possession  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  they 
found  the  Hottentots  a  pastoral  people,  possessed  of  flocks  and 
herds  ;  the  Oxen  were  of  large  size,  with  the  horns  long,  and  sweep- 
ing forwards  and  upwards ;  and  they  were  not  only  trained  for 
riding,  but  even  as  guardians  of  the  flocks  and  Cattle,  and  as  in- 
struments of  destruction  in  battle.  "The  Hottentots,"  says  Kol- 
ben,  who  visited  them  while  they  yet  retained  their  name  and  inde- 
pendence as  a  nation,  "  have  Oxen,  which  they  use  with  success  in 
battle  ;  they  call  them  Bake-leys  :  every  army  is  provided  with  a 
large  troop  of  these  War-Oxen,  which  permit  themselves  to  be 
governed  without  trouble,  and  which  their  leader  lets  loose  at  the 
appointed  moment.  The  instant  they  are  set  free,  they  throw 
themselves,  with  impetuosity,  on  the  opposing  army ;  they  strike 
with  their  horns,  they  kick  w'ith  their  heels,  they  overthrow,  they  rip 


F'S-  713.— Bullock  Waggon  of  South  Africa. 


up,  and  trample  beneath  their  feet,  with  frightful  ferocity,  all  that 
opposes  them  ;  they  plunge  with  fury  into  the  midst  of  the  ranks, 
and  thus  prepare  for  their  masters  an  easy  victory.  The  manner  in 
which  these  Oxen  are  trained  and  disciplined  certainly  does  great 
honour  to  the  talent  of  these  people." 

The  Ox  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  domestic  animals  carried  over 
to  America  by  the  early  Spanish  settlers  ;  there  it  has  multiplied  and 
spread,  and,  indeed,  in  some  degree,  has  recovered  its  original  inde- 
pendence. Herds  of  Wild  Oxen  roam  the  Pampas,  where  they  are 
hunted  and  slain  fur  their  hides,  which  form  an  important  article  of 
commerce.  These  wild  herds  are,  in  some  districts,  exceedingly 
numerous ;  they  differ  in  no  respect  from  their  domestic  relatives, 
and  are  themselves  rendered  tame  without  much  difficulty.  Accord- 
ing to  Azara,  "  Captain  John  de  Salazar,  born  in  the  city  of  Pomar 
in  Arragon,  transported  from  Andalusia  seven  Cows  and  a  Bull  to 
the  coist  of  Brazil ;  from  thence  he  conducted  them  overland  to  the 
rivir  Parana,  at  the  place  opposite  to  where  it  receives  the  river 
Mondai.  He  there  constructed  a  raft,  placed  the  Cattle  on  it,  and 
gave  them  in  charge  to  a  certain  GaSte,  whilst  he  himself  went  by 
land  to  Paraguay.  Gaete  descended  the  Parana  to  its  union  with 
the  river  of  Paraguay,  and  steering  up  this,  he  safely  arrived  at  the 
city  of  Assumption  in  1546.     He  spent  many  months  in  this  voyage  ; 


and  as  he  had  only  one  Cow  given  him  for  payment,  the  saying  has 
hence  arisen  in  allusion  to  the  great  value  of  anything,  '  It  is  dearer 
than  Gaete's  Cow.'  The  second  founders  of  Buenos  Ayres  took,  in 
1580,  some  Cows  from  Paraguay,  which  multiplied  in  the  neighbour- 
hood ;  and,  from  want  of  due  care,  many  of  them  became  wild,  and 
bent  their  course  towards  Rio  Negro.  The  Indians  of  the  Cordillera, 
of  Chili,  became  acquainted  with  these  animals,  which  had  already 
attained  their  boundaries,  and  they  commenced  to  carry  from  them 
herds  of  tamed  Cattle  to  Chili,  where  the  presidents  of  this  settle- 
ment purchased  them  from  these  Indians.  Those  Indians,  who 
could  not  live  in  their  country  without  some  resource,  established 
themselves  in  the  plains  which  were  occupied  by  these  Cattle,  and 
some  even  mixed  with  the  Pampas  Indians.  In  the  meantime,  the 
Indians,  who  were  unsubdued,  destroyed  the  Cattle  to  the  south  of 
Buenos  Ayres  ;  the  Spaniards  of  those  parts,  however,  did  not  neg- 
lect to  take  a  portion,  which  they  conducted  to  Cordova  and  Men- 
doza,  whilst  the  Spaniards  of  Buenos  Ayres  made  up  entire  cargoes 
of  the  hides  of  Bulls  and  Cows;  for  at  that  time  the  animal  itself 
was  not  considered  of  value,  its  skin  being  all  that  was  sought  afler. 
The  result  of  all  this  here  at  Monte  Video,  &c.,  was,  that  towards 
the  middle  of  the  century.  Wild  Cattle  no  longer  existed  in  the 
Pampas  ;  and  the  unsubdued  Indians  saw  themselves  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  stealing  the   domestic  animals,  or  of  making  incursions 

into  the  estancias  of  the  Pampas. 
This  was  the  commerfcement 
and  cause  of  the  bloody  war 
which  the  Spaniards  had  with 
the  Indians.  The  herds  of  these 
revolted  or  Wild  Cattle,  which 
are  also  called  Oreillards  in  the 
plains  of  Monte  Video,  do  not 
pass  to  the  north  of  the  southern 
establishments  of  the  Guaranis 
Missions.  The  following  is  the 
account  which  I  have  collected 
of  their  origin  : — The  city  au- 
thorities of  Buenos  Ayres,  in  the 
name  of  certain  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, as  is  proved  by  its  archives, 
made,  at  the  commencement  of 
the  century,  contracts,  on  the 
one  part,  with  the  English,  for 
the  acquisition  of  negroes,  and, 
on  the  other  part,  with  certain 
Spaniards,  who  were  thus  au- 
thorised to  procure  the  hides  of 
the  animals  on  the  plains  situate 
to  the  north  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  on  payment  to  the  city  of 
a  certain  tax,  of  which  the  sum 
total  was  shared  between  these 
Spanish  inhabitants,  who,  from 
this  circumstance,  were  called 
Actionnaires.  The  primitive 
source  of  this  right  or  this  pro- 
ceeding is  not  known  ;  but,  cer- 
tain it  is,  that  all  the  inhabitants 
did  not  participate  in  it,  and 
that  its  produce  was  the  exclu- 
sive share  of  these  Actionnaires, 
who  were  the  descendants  of  the 
earliest  of  the  original  settlers. 
Such  is  the  origin  of  the  horned 
Cattle  of  these  countries,  where 
they  prodigiously  multiplied." 
It  is  a  singular  feature  in  the  history  of  the  New  World,  that  so 
many  of  our  domestic  animals  there  imported  should  have  returned 
to  their  primitive  independence :  the  Ox,  the  Horse,  the  Hog,  the 
Ass,  the  Rabbit,  the  Cat,  and  the  Dog,  have  thus  estranged  them- 
selves from  the  control  of  man.  Individuals  have,  at  different  times, 
escaped  from  confinement  or  been  neglected  ;  a  vast  region  lay 
before  them,  presenting  abundance  of  food  ;  they  multiplied,  and 
their  offspring  in  turn  ;  and  thus,  within  a  brief  period,  have  the 
plains  of  the  New  World  been  peopled  by  alien  races  of  animals, 
which  claim  Asia  or  Europe  as  their  starting-point. 

America  is  not  the  only  portion  of  the  globe  to  which,  by  the 
agency  of  man,  in  modern  times,  the  Ox  has  been  introduced.  We 
allude  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  from  which  we  now  obtain 
immense  supplies  of  wool,  tallow,  hides,  preserved  meat,  &c.,  and 
the  groups  of  islands  which  sprinkle  the  Pacific  Ocean.  "  With  the 
appearance  of  Vancouver,"  says  Otho  von  Kotzebue,  speaking  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  "arose  the  fortunate  star  of  these  islands. 
Among  the  innumerable  benefits  he  conferred  upon  them,  they  are 
indebted  to  him  for  the  possession  of  Sheep  and  Cattle  ;  Tameamea 
(the  native  king)  declared  these  animals  under  a  tabu  for  ten  years, 
which  allovi'ed  time  for  so  large  an  increase,  that  they  now  run  wild 
in  the  forests."     Of  the  benefits  resulting  from  the  introduction  of 


-M 

:  pro- 

■,  cei- 

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there 

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lined 

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-vea'Si 


THE   OX  TRIBE. 


279 


the  Ox  into  a  country  naturally  destitute  of  it,  nothing  need  be  said  ; 
but  the  p-ift  of  Cattle  to  a  people  who,  though  yot  uncivilised,  are 
capable  of  appreciating  their  value,  is  to  commence  a  revolution 
in  their  state  and  condition  immeasurably  for  the  better  :  for  the 
possession  of  nroperty  is  one  of  the  bonds  of  society,  and  tlie  desire 
of  acquirinjr  ft  the  great  stimulus  to  industry.  With  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Ox,  the  condition  of  the  people  of  these  islands  was  gra- 
dually improved.  Not  only  so,  but  the  moral  character  of  the  people 
has  become  entirely  changed.  In  the  case  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  for 
example,  where,  forty  years  ago,  the  inhabitants  were  cannibals,  they 
are  now  in  a  state  of  civilisation  equal  to  Europe  ;  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  most  of  the  other  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean — a  change 
that  had  never  previously  been  seen  in  the  history  of  man,  whether 
in  respect  to  rapidity  or  perfection  of  result. 

To  Asia,  and  its  border-lands,  let  us  turn  our  attention — regions 
in  which  the  Ox,  from  the  earliest  epoch,  has  been  in  a  state  of 
domestication,  and  where  this  animal,  with  Sheep  and  Goats,  con- 
stituted the  riches  of  patriarchs,  and  chiefs  or  princes,  who  deemed 
it  not  beneath  them  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the  management  of 
their  flocks  and  herds.  In  that  age  of  patriarchal  simplicity,  such 
scenes  as  that  (Fig.  714)  delineated  by  the  pencil  of  Berghem  were 
not  imaginary ;  and  the  pastoral  poetry  of  classical  antiquity  has 
not  only  rendered  them  familiar,  but 
thrown  an  air  of  grace  and  even 
dignity  over  them. 

In  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  Book 
of  Genesis  (ver.  20),  we  read  of  Jabal, 
that  "he  was  the  father  of  such  as 
dwell  in  tents,  and  of  such  as  have 
Cattle."  In  the  thirteenth  chapter 
of  the  same  book.  Cattle  are  enume- 
rated as  forming  part  of  the  riches 
of  Abraham,  and  also  of  Lot ;  and  in 
the  previous  chapter  we  read  that 
Oxen  were  presented  by  the  Pharaoh 
of  Egypt,  together  with  Sheep,  Asses, 
and  Camels,  to  Abram,  during  his 
sojourn  in  that  land.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth chapter,  veal,  or  the  flesh  of 
the  Calf,  and  butter  and  milk,  are 
mentioned  as  articles  of  food.  Subse- 
quently, abundant  mention  is  made 
of  all  these  domestic  animals,  while 
at  the  same  time  we  glean  that  a 
wild  race  of  Oxen  long  continued  to 
exist  in  Syria  and  the  adjacent  re- 
gions ;  for  instance,  in  the  Mosaic 
injunctions  regarding  animals  to  be 
used  as  food(Deut.  xiv.  5),  the  Wild 
Ox  is  expressly  noticed  ;  and  Isaiah 
alludes  also  to  the  Wild  Bull  ("  as 
a  Wild  Bull  in  a  net.")  Hence  it 
would  appear,  that  though  a  domes- 
tic breed,  established  at  a  period  an- 
tecedent to  historic  record,  the 
Scripture  outline  excepted,  formed 
part  of  the  wealth  of  man  in  the 
primeval  ages  of  his  history,  that  a 
wild  race  still  tenanted  their  aborigi- 
nal pasture-lands.  Wild  Oxen  are 
exhibited  in  the  Egyptian  sculptures, 
and  the  chase  of  them  is  often 
represented :  they  were  sometimes 
hunted    with    Dogs,    the    huntsmen 

bearing  bows  and  arrows,  and  sometimes  they  were  caught  with  the 
noose  or  lasso,  as  is  now  done  in  South  America. 

The  utility  of  the  Ox  was  well  appreciated  in  ancient  times,  inso- 
much that  it  became  an  emblematic  object  of  worship  among  most 
of  the  nations  of  antiquity.  The  traditions  of  every  Celtic  nation 
enrol  the  Cow  among  the  earliest  productions,  and  represent  it  as  a 
kind  of  divinity.  Among  the  Egyptians,  the  god  Apis  was  wor- 
shipped in  the  form  of  a  Bull,  and  Herodotus  describes  the  ceremo- 
nies attendant  upon  the  choice  of  this  Bovine  deity,  to  whose  honour 
other  Bulls  chosen  by  the  priests  were  sacrificed.  The  goddess  Isis 
was  represented  by  the  same  people  under  the  figure  of  a  woman 
with  the  horns  of  a  Cow,  as  the  Grecians  represented  lo  ;  and  the 
sacrificial  offering  was  a  Bullock  ;  the  Cow  was  never  sacrificed, 
being  sacred  to  Isis.  The  veneration  of  the  Cow  was  equally  preva- 
lent in  Lybia.  The  Lybians,  says  Herodotus,  from  Egypt  to  the 
Lake  Tritonis,  are  breeders  of  Cattle,  eat  flesh,  and  drink  milk,  but 
abstain  from  the  flesh  of  Cows,  as  do  also  the  Egyptians,  and  will 
not  keep  Swine.  Nay,  among  the  women  of  Syrene,  to  strike  a  Cow 
is  accounted  a  crime,  because  they  celebrate  the  feasts  and  festivals 
of  the  Egyptian  Isis.  Neither  will  the  Barca;an  women  taste  the 
flesh  either  of  a  Hog  or  of  a  Cow. 

In  India,  where  in  many  points  the  practice  and  worship  of  the 
ancient  nations  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Ox 


was  held  sacred,  and  still  is  so  by  the  Brahmins.  The  religions 
writings  of  India  say  that  the  Cow  was  the  first  animal  created  by 
the  three  gods,  who  were  directed  by  the  supreme  lord  to  furnish  the 
earth  with  animated  beings.  In  the  sculptures  of  the  cave-temples 
of  Ellora.  the  sacred  Bull  is  represented  with  great  truth  and  spirit. 
Colonel  Tod  ("Trans.  Royal  Asiatic  Soc.,"  vol.  ii.  p.  560)  says, 
"  In  Hindu  mythology  the  Bull  Nanda  is  at  once  the  guardian  of 
one  of  the  two  gates  of  heaven,  of  Iswaro  or  Bal-Siva,  and  his 
steed.  The  astronomic  allusion  thus  blended  with  mythology  is  evi- 
dent—viz.,  the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  the  sign  Taurus,  liie  equi- 
noctial festival  of  remote  antiquity,  and  regarded  as  a  jubilee  by  the 
Indo-Scythic  nations  hemming  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Indian  Ocean."  We  need  not  say  how  the  idolatry  of  the  Egyp- 
tians affected  the  Israelites,  and  mingled  itself  with  the  reli'Mous 
ceremonies  of  other  nations,  whose  worship  required  the  Ox  as  a 
sacrifice  to  imaginary  deities. 

The  estimation  in  which  the  Ox  was  held,  and  which  led  to  its 
consecration,  did  not  arise  from  the  circumstance  alone  of  the  Cow 
yielding  milk,  nor  from  the  value  of  the  flesh  of  the  animal  as  food, 
but  from  its  services  in  agricultural  labour.  It  was  employed  as  a 
beast  of  burden,  for  the  cart,  for  the  plough,  and  for  treading  out 
the  grain  from  the  ear. 


Fig.  714. — Oriental  Landscape  and  Cattle. 

The  Mosaic  ritual  lays  down  several  rules  respecting  the  treatment 
of  the  Ox  :  one  forbids  the  yoking  together  of  the  Ass  and  the  Ox  in 
the  same  plough  (Fig.  715),  perhaps  from  the  inequality  of  their  size 
and  strength,  which  would  render  the  draught  irregular,  and  oppress 
both  animals.  Another  injunction  is,  "Thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the 
Ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  corn."  The  first  idea  suggested  by 
this  passage  is,  that  the  operation  of  threshing  was  effected  simply 
by  the  feet  of  the  Cattle  passing  over  the  sheaves  ;  and  such,  indeed, 
was  the  case  in  the  times  of  patriarchal  simplicity.  Afterwards,  as 
other  passages  show,  rollers  and  wheels  of  wood,  and  threshing  in- 
struments with  teeth,  were  used  :  these  were  drawn  over  the  sheaves 
by  Oxen,  and  greatly  facilitated  the  process.  With  respect  to  the 
primitive  mode  of  threshing  by  means  of  the  feet  of  Oxen,  there  is 
express  allusion  to  it  by  Homer,  which  proves  that  the  practice  was 
common  in  his  time  and  country  : — 

"  As  with  autumnal  harvests  covered  o'er. 
And  thick  bestrewn,  lies  Ceres'  sacred  floor, 
Where  round  and  round  with  never-wearied  p.iin. 
The  trampling  steers  breik  out  th'  unnumber'd  grain." 

Pope's  Tr.  IliaJ,  xx.,  lines  of  Grig.  495—498. 

The  ancient  Arabs,  Egyptians,  and  Romans,  as  well  as  the  ancient 
Greeks,  threshed   their  corn   in   this  manner:    Virgil   ("Georg.," 


28o 


THE   OX  TRIBE. 


lib.  i.)  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  threshing-floor  is  to  be  laid 
down,  showing-  that  nothing  like  our  modern  mode  of  threshing 
could  have  been  practised.  In  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Nubia,  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  t||e  grain  is,  as  formerly,  either  trodden  out  by  the  feet  of 
Oxen  qr  Mules,  or  partly  trodden  out,  and  partly  crushed  out  by 


Fig.  715. — Ploughing  'OTth  Ox  and  Ass. 

means  of  a  roller,  or  other  machine,  which  the  Oxen  drag  after  them, 
and  which  more  or  less  destroys  the  straw,  and  even  injures  the 
grain.  Figs.  716  and  717  represent  two  modes  of  threshing — viz.,  by 
the  drag,  and  by  the  sledge  upon  rollers,  still  practised  in  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Western  Asia. 

In  respect  to  the  employment  of  Oxen  in  Egypt,  Fig.  718  illus- 
trates the  use  of  them  in  ploughing;  and  Fig.  719  illustrates  the 
modern  Syrian  cart  drawn  by  Oxen. 

Figs.  720  and  721,  are  illustrations  of  the  Zebu  {Bos  indicus) 
breed  of  Oxen,  which  claims  a  few  observations.  Whether  the 
Zebu  breed  of  Oxen  be  derived,  as  some  contend,  from  a  distinct 
origin  from  that  of  the  ordinary  Ox,  we  will   not  attempt  to   de- 


termine :  suffice  it  to  sajf,  that  it  presents  marked  peculiarities 
which  clearly  characterise  it.  Narrow  high  withers,  surmounted  by 
a  large  fatty  hump,  an  arched  back  rising  at  the  haunches,  and 
suddenly  falling  to  the  tail,  slender  limbs,  a  large  pendulous  dewlap 
falling  in  folds,  long  pendent  ears,  and  a  peculiarly  mild  expression 
of  the  eye,  proclaim  the  Zebu  race — a 
race  varj'ing  in  size  from  that  of  our 
largest  Cattle  to  that  of  a  young  Calf. 
This  breed  is  spread  over  India,  China, 
and  the  Indian  Islands  ;  it  is  also  found 
in  Madagascar  and  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa,  in  the  interior  regions,  and 
parts  of  the  western  coast,  and  is  used 
for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  draught  and 
burden.  India  appears  to  be  its  parent 
country;  and  we  may  readily  believe  that 
in  remote  ages,  when  an  extensive  com- 
merce existed  between  that  country  and 
Egypt,  it  was  introduced  into  the  land 
of  the  Pharaohs.  In  Upper  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  and  Ethiopia,  it  is  now  almost 
exclusively  prevalent ;  but  in  Lower 
Egypt,  as  we  learn  from  Burckhardt, 
the  Zebu  or  humped  race  is  unknown. 
In  the  ancient  Egyptian  representations 
of  animals,  both  the  humped  race  and 
the  ordinary  Ox,  with  long  horns,  are 
clearly  depicted.  It  is  the  Zebu  Ox 
which  is  sculptured  in  the  cave-temples 
of  EUora,  and  the  seven  pagodas,  as 
they  are  commonly  called,  at'Mahama- 
laipur  on  the  Coromandel  coast.  We  have  thus  proofs  of  the  ex- 
treme antiquity  of  this  breed,  and  of  its  distinctness  at  a  remote  era 
from  the  ordinary  Ox,  and  that  its  peculiar  characters  were  what  we 
now  see 

With  respect  to  the  Ox  represented  on  the  Greek  and  Roman 
sculptures,  which  is  not  of  the  true  Zebu  race,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  in  many  points,  and  more  particularly  in  the  pendulous  folded 
dewlap,  it  resembled  the  Zebu,  and  may  probably  have  been  the 


Fig.  716. — Oriental  Threshing  with  the  Drag. 


Fig.  7  iS.  — Modem  Egyptian  Ploughing. 


fig.  7 1 7. —Oriental  Threshing  with  the  Sledge. 


Fig.  719. — Modem  Splan  Cart. 


THE   OX  TRIBE. 


281 


ultimate  product  of  a  mixture  of  the  Zebu  race,  introduced  at  an 
early  date  from  India,  with  the  ordinary  Cattle  of  Greece  and  Italy. 
This,  however,  is  a  mere  sugsjestion.  In  the  Greek  sculptures  the 
Ox  is  represented  without  any  hump,  but  ihe  withers  are  high  and 
the  crupper  rounded.  "  To  the  classical  antiquary,"  says  a  talented 
writer  "  we  beg  to  suggest  that  the  dewlap  of  the  Brahmin  Bull 
offers  an  object  of  much  attention  and  interest,  by  reason  of  its 
sharp  and  decided  outline,  and  perpendicular  creases,  or  folds, 
wonderfully  verifying  the  correctness  of  those  Greek  sculptures  on 
bronze  and  marble,  in  medals  and  statuary,  in  which  we  see  repre- 
sentations of  Victory  sacrificing  a  Bull,  of  the  Oxen  of  Ceres    ^"- 


the  heavy  rains  and  the  splashy  cultivation  of  rice  than  the  Bullock. 
The  female  is  also  infinitely  more  valuable  than  the  Cow,  from  the 
very  much  greater  quantity  of  milk  she  yields."  In  point  of  beauty 
and  docility  there  is  no  comparison  between  the  heavy,  savage 
Buffalo  and  the  "Sacred  Bull  of  Bram.ah."  Nor  is  the  former 
ever  devoted  to  Bal-Siva  as  a  meritorious  offering.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  common  to  meet  with  Brahmin  Bulls  thus  devoted,  which 
wander  at  their  pleasure,  exempt  from  the  servitude  of  the  yoke,  and 


cr:^^ 


Fig.  720. — The  Indi.in  Zebu. 

These  representations  will  no  longer  be  considered  out  of  drawing 
by  those  who  may  have  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  Sacred 
Bull  of  India,  nor  exaggerated  in  their  fore-quarters,  although 
critics  of  the  last  century  (less  fortunate  in  this  respect  than  the 
visitors  of  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens)  have  determined  them, 
without  hesitation,  to  be  altogether  incorrect."  Several  beautiful 
specimens  of  the  Zebu  Ox,  both  of  the  large-sized  variety,  and  also 
of  the  dwarf  caste,  have  lived  in  the  Zoological  Gardens.  They 
were  remarkable  for  their  docility  and  quiet  temper. 

Of  the  extensive  use,  and  consequent  value  of  the  Brahmin,  or 
large  Zebu  breed  in  their  native  climate,  we  can  scarcely  form  an 
adequate  idea.     In  some  parts  of  India  the  dwarf  races  are  un- 


Im! 


-Zebu  and  Lion  fighting. 


Fig.  721.— The  Brahmin  Zebu  Bull. 

known,  and  this  is  bred  exclusively.  According  to  an  obsprvation 
of  Colonel  Sykes,  in  the  "  Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc,"  the  Brinjarees,  a 
singular  erratic  people,  possess  vast  herds,  and  breed  the  Brahmin 
tattle  on  an  extensive  scale ;  "and  an  army  rarely  moves  in  the 
teld  without  15,000  or  20,000  Bullocks  to  carry  its  grain.  Dwarf 
Cattle  are  not  met  in  Dukhun."  The  Buffalo,  however,  divides 
the  palm  of  usefulness  with  the  Zebu  in  the  agricultural  labours  of 
India,  and  is  preferred  for  many  purposes,  on  'account  of  his  more 
robust  constitution.  In  the  Mawals,  or  hilly  tracts  amorig  the 
Uhauts  this  animal  supersedes  the  Zebu.  "  In  those  tracts,'''  says 
t-olonel  Sykes,  "  much  rice  is  planted,  and  the  male  Buffalo,  from 
nis  superior  hardihood,  is  much  better  suited  to  resist  the  effects  of 


which  are  regarded  as  endowed  with  a  sacred  character.  The 
beautiful  form  and  sleek  appearance  of  these  fortunate  creatures 
particularly  engaged  the  notice  of  Bishop  Heber.  The  first  which 
the  bishop  met  in  his  journey  was  grazing  in  a  green  paddy-field, 
and  was  branded  on  the  haunches  with  the  emblem  of  Siva.  He 
crossed  their  path  tame  and  fearless,  and  seeing  some  grass  in  one  of 
the  European's  hands,  coolly  walked  up  and  smelt  it.  These  privi- 
leged Bulls  are  turned  out  when  Calves,  on  certain  solemn  occa- 
sions, by  wealthy  Hindoos,  as  acceptable  offerings  to  the  divinity 
Siva.  To  strike,  or  any  way  injure  or  molest  one  of  them  is  held  as 
a  mortal  sin.  "  They  feed,"  he  observes,  "  where  they  choose,  and 
devout  persons  take  great  delight  in  pampering  them.  They  are 
exceeding  pests  in  the  villages  near  Cal- 
cutta, breaking  into  gardens,  thrusting 
_,_,_-_^-._'  their  noses  intothe  stalls  of  fruiterers'  and 

i-Wfi^W®-  pastrycooks'    shops,    and    helping    them- 

selves without  ceremony.  Like  other  petted 
animals  they  are  sometimes  mischievous, 
and  are  said  to  resent,  with  a  push  of 
their  horns,  any  delay  in  gratifying  their 
wishes." 

Between  this  absurd  reverence  for  con- 
secrated Bulls,  and  the  ordinary  treatment 
of  the  working  Ox,  there  is  a  vast  dis- 
tinction ;  the  latter  is  harshly  and  often 
severely  treated.  The  Cow,  however,  has 
more  forbearance  exercised  towards  her 
than  from  the  treatment  of  the  Ox  might  be 
Expected. 

Recedin*  westward  from  India  to  Persia 
we  gradually  lose  the  Zebu  race,  or,  at 
least,  find  it  intermingled  with  that  of 
another  type.  Chardin  (vol.  ii.)  observes  : 
— "  The  Oxen  of  Persia  are  like  ours, 
excepting  towards  the  frontiers  of  India, 
where  they  have  the  hunch  on  the  back. 
Throughout  the  whole  country  the  Ox  is 
seldom  eaten  as  food ;  it  is  only  reared  as 
a  beast  of  burden,  or  for  tillage.  Such  as 
are  used  for  burdens  are  shod  with  iron, 
in  consequence  of  the  stony  mountains  over  which  they  have  to 
travel."  The  shoeing  of  Oxen,  where  the  country  is  rugged  and 
the  roads  hard  or  stony,  is  also  practised  in  India,  as  Thevenot 
relates,  but  is  not  a  general  custom.  The  shoes  are  light,  and  two 
are  placed  on  each  foot,  as  the  cloven  character  of  the  hoof  neces- 
sarily requires,  so  that  the  natural  freedom  of  each  part  is  not 
impeded.  In  Persia  the  Bull  is  often  made  to  fight  with  the  Lion, 
and  sometimes  comes  oif  victorious,  though  dreadfully  lacerated. 
(Fig.  722.)  ,      ,  ,. 

Thus  much  respecting  the  distinction  between  the  Zebu  race  of 
Cattle  and  the  ordinary  breeds  of  Europe,  and  their  apparently 
natural  distribution.     Whichever  breed  or  race  wo  contemplate,  we 

2  o 


j8s 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


shall  find  it  adapted  to  the  service  and  necessities  of  man,  its  value 
being  in  proportion.  It  will  readily  be  admitted,  however,  that  the 
interest  which  attaches  to  the  Ox  docs  not  arise  from  its  intelli- 
gence, but  from  its  absolute  utility.  The  pleasure  which  the  mind 
experiences  when  we  gaze  on  peaceful  herds,  feeding  in  tranquil 
security,  is  of  a  complex  origin,  the  result  of  an  association  of  ideas 
more  or  less  remotely  connected  with  the  presence  of  these 
creatures,  which,  time  immemorial,  have  formed  the  wealth  of  man, 
and  which  have,  therefore,  engaged  alike  the  attention  of  the  states- 
man, the  poet,  and  the  philosopher. 

The  Gayal  (Bos  Gavcsi/s,  or  Bos  frontalis). — Gavaya,  Sansc. ; 
Gavai,  or  Gaydl,  Hind.  ;  Gobaygoru,  Bang.  ;  Gaujangalf,  Pers.  ; 
Methana,  Mountaineers  (Ciicfs,  &c.)  east  of  Silhet ;  Shial,  Moun- 
taineers (Cuci's)  east  of  Chatgaon  ;  J'hongnua,  Mugs  ;  Nunec,  Bur- 
mas  ;  Gauvera,  Ceylon. 

India  presents  us  with  several  species  of  Wild  Oxen,  independent  of 
such  as  belong  to  the  Buffalo  tribe,  some  of  which  are  domesticated 
in  certain  districts,  beyond  which  they  are  not  dispersed  ;  such  is 
the  Gaydl.  According  to  Mr.  Macrae,  the  Gayal  is  found  wild  in 
the  range  of  mountains  that  form  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
province's  of  Arracan,  Chittagong  (Chatgaon),  Tipura,  and  Silhet. 
The  Cuci's,  or  Lunetas,  a  people  inhabiting  the  hills  immediately  to 
the  eastward  of  Chatgaon,  have  herds  of  them  in  a  domesticated 
state.  This  animal  is  called  Gabay  in  the  Hindu  Sastra,  but,  as  it 
would  appear,  is  little  known  beyond  the  limits  of  its  native  moun- 
tains, except  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  provinces  above  mentioned. 
We  learn  from  the  same  author  that  the  Gayal  is  of  a  dull  heavy 
appearance,  but  that  its  form,  at  the  same  time,  indicates  great 
strength  and  activity,  like  that  of  the  Wild  Buffalo.  Its  disposition 
is  gentle  ;  and  in  a  wild  state,  on  its  native  hills,  it  is  not  considered 
dangerous,  never  standing  the  approach  of  man,  much  less  sustain- 
ing his  attack.  The  Ciicfs  hunt  the  wild  animals  for  the  sake  of 
their  flesh.  The  Gayal  is  a  tenant  of  the  forest,  and  prefers  the 
tender  shoots  and  leaves  of  shrubs  to  grass  :  it  never  wallows  in  the 
mud  like  the  Buffalo.  In  a  state  of  domestication  among  the  Cucis, 
it  does  not  undergo  any  labour,  nor  is  the  milk  of  the  female,  which, 
though  small  in  quantity,  is  extremely  rich,  held  in  any  request ;  the 
animals  are  bred  and  reared  solely  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  and 
hides,  of  which  latter  the  Cucfs  form  strong  shields.  These  domes- 
ticated herds  roam  at  large  in  their  forests  during  the  day,  and  re- 
turn home  to  their  villages  in  the  evening,  being  taught  to  do  this 
very  early  by  being  fed,  when  young,  every  night  with  salt,  of  which 
these  animals  are  very  fond.  Though  the  Cucis  slaughter  the  do- 
mestic Gayal,  the  Hindus  in  the  province  of  Chatgaon  will  not  kill 
this  animal  (their  Gabay),  which  they  hold  in  equal  veneration  with 
the  Cow  ;  but  they  hunt  and  kill  another  Gayal  (as  Tgaval,  or  Seloi), 
as  they  do  the  Wild  Buffalo. 

A  specimen,  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  1878,  was 
one  of  several  pairs  obtained  from  the  forests  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  rest  having  died  on  the  voyage  to  this 
country.     A  hybrid  Gayal  was  born  in  these  Gardens  in  1869. 

The  cry  of  the  Gayal  is  a  kind  of  lowing,  shriller,  but  not  so  loud 
as  that  of  the  European  Ox,  without  any  resemblance  to  the  grunt 
of  the  Buffalo. 

The  Gayal  is  nearly  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  English  Bull ;  it 
has  short  horns,  which  are  distant  at  their  bases,  and  rise  in  a  gentle 
curve  upwards  and  outwards,  their  transverse  section  near  the  base 


Fig.  723. — The  Gayul. 

ovate;  the  forehead  is  broad,  and  crowned  with  a  tuft  of  lighter- 
coloured,  long-curved  hair ;  the  dewlap  is  deep  and  pendent ;  there 
is  no  mane  or  hump  as  in  the  Zebu  ;  but  the  withers  rise  to  a  con- 
siderable elevation.  The  tail  is  short,  the  body  covered  with  a 
tolerable  coat  of  straight  dark-brown  hair  ;  on  the  belly  it  is  lighter 
coloured,  and  the  legs  and  face  are  sometimes  white.  The  form  of 
the  animal,  and  the  way  in  which  it  carries  its  head,  will  be  under- 
stood from  the  cut  (Fig.  723),  which  is  reduced  from  that  by  a  native 
artist,  prefixed  to  Mr.  Colebrnoke's  paper  on  this  species  in  the 
"Asiatic  Researches"  (vol.  viii.) 


From  various  experiments  it  is  proved  that  the  domestic  Gayal  will 
breed  with  the  ordinary  Zebu  Cattle  of  India  ;  but  whether  the  off. 
spring  will  interbreed  with  each  other  is  yet  to  be  ascertained. 

Fig.  724  is  the  head  of  the  true  Wild  Gayal,  or,  as  the  natives 
term  it,  Asecl  Gayal,  from  a  drawing  by  General  Hardwicke  :  the 
specimen  was  a  female  from  the  south-east  frontier  of  Bengal. 


Fig.  724. — Head  of  Wild  Gayal. 

The  Gyall  {Bos frontalis,  Lambert). — In  the  seventh  volume  of 
the  "  Linnsan  Transactions,"  will  be  found  the  figure  and  descrip- 
tion of  a  Gyall  (which  died  in  London  in  1842),  by  A.  B.  Lambert, 
Esq.     Fig.  725  represents  its  head. 

Some  authorities  seem  to  regard  the  Gayal  and  the  Gyall  as  dis- 
tinct;  from  the  descriptions,  however,  which  are  given,  it  is  quite 
evident  that  they  relate  to  one  and  the  same  species,  as  F"ischer,  in 
his  "  Synopsis  Mammalium,"  considers  them  to  be.  The  title 
frontalis,  therefore,  must  be  retained  by  right  of  priority  over 
Gavaus.  Among  the  synonyms,  given  by  Fischer,  are,  "  Bos  Bu- 
balus  Gauvera,  Pennant,  '  Quadr.  :'  Gauvera,  Knox,  Ceylon  :  Ban- 
tinger  favatt,  a.x\ABos  Sylhetanus,  F.  Cuvier."  The  Bos  Syllieta- 
nus,  the  Jungly  Ghau,  and  the  Aseel  Gayal,  are  then  identical. 


F'g-  725.— IleaJ  of  Gyall. 


Fig.  726. — Jungly  Ghau. 


THE  OX   TRIBE. 


283 


Fig-.  726  is  a  representation  of  the  male  Jungly  Ghau,  or  Aseel 
Gayal  {Bos  frontalis,  Lambert ;  Bos  Gavcciis,  Colebrooke ;  Bos 
Sylhctamis,  F.  Cuv.) 

Duvaucel,  who  hunted  this  animal  at  the  foot  of  the  Silhet  Moun- 
tains, describes  it  as  very  wild,  but  easily  domesticated  :  he  states, 
that  until  he  had  opportunities  of  seeing  it  in  a  state  of  nature,  he 
entertained  the  opinion  that  it  did  not  differ  essentially  frorn  our 
domestic  Ox,  his  impression  being  received  from  an  inspection  of 
specimens  living  tame  in  the  menagerie  at  Barracpore  :  subse- 
quently, he  regarded  it  as  distinct. 

The  Gour  {Bos  Gour,  Traill,  in  "  Edinb.  Phil.  Journ.,"  Oct. 
Ig2^). — Of  this  noble  species  of  Wild  O.x,  we  are  able  only  to  give 
a  figure  of  the  liorns  from  a  drawing  by  General  Hardwicke.  (See 
i.-jg,  727.)    The  Gour  to  which  they  belonged  was  killed,  as  General 


Fig.  727. — Hoins  ofGour. 

Hardwicke  believed,  by  the  same  hunting-party  described  by  Cap- 
tain Rogers,  and  the  horns  were  presented  to  the  general  by  the 
princip.-il  member  of  that  party,  the  late  Major  Roughsedge.  These 
liorns  were  fifteen  inches  between  the  tips  :  their  colour  horn-grey, 
with  black  and  solid  tips,  which  are  extremely  sharp.  A  fine  pair 
are  in  the  museum  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  Lend. 

According  to  Captain  Rogers,  the  Gour  occurs  in  several  of  the 
mountain  districts  of  Central  India ;  but  is  chiefly  found  in  Myn 
Pat,  or  Mine-Paut,  a  high  insulated  mountain,  with  a  tabular  sum- 
mit, in  the  province  of  Sergojah,  in  South  Bahar. 

The  Gour  attains  to  a  very  large  size.  Dr.  Traill  gives  the  dimen- 
sions of  one  not  fully  grown,  which  measured,  from  the  nose  to  the 
end  of  the  tail,  nearly  twelve  feet,  and  stood  nearly  six  feet  high  at 
the  withers ;  the  limbs  vigorous,  clean-made,  and  more  Deer-like 
than  Bovine  ;  the  back  strongly  arched  ;  and  when  the  animal  stands 
still,  the  line  from  the  nose  to  the  base  of  the  tail,  along  the  spine, 
presents  a  nearly  uniform  curve.  This  appearance  is  partly  owing 
to  the  curved  form  of  the  chaffron,  and  still  more  to  a  remarkable 
ridge,  of  no  great  thickness,  which  rises  six  or  seven  inches  above 
the  general  line  of  the  back,  from  the  last  of  the  cervical  to  the 
middle  of  the  dorsal  vertebra;,  where  it  gradually  declines,  and 
becomes  lost.  This  elevation  is  very  conspicuous  in  Gours  of  all 
ages,  although  they  were  loaded  with  fat,  and  has  no  resemblance 
to  the  hunch  found  on  the  withers  of  the  Zebu  breed  of  Cattle. 
There  is  not  a  trace  of  the  dewlap,  which  is  well-marked  in  the 
Gayal.  The  hair  of  the  skin  generally  is  short  and  sleek,  having 
somewhat  the  oily  appearance  of  a  fresh  Seal  skin.  The  colour  is 
deep  brownish-black,  almost  approaching  to  bluish-black  ;  between 
the  horns  is  a  tuft  of  curling,  dirty-white  hair,  and  over  each  hoof  is 
a  ring  of  the  same  colour. 

The  Yak  {PoVphagus,  or  Bos  gncnn!ens).—\<fe  may  here  briefly 
notice  a  species  of  the  Bovine  race,  the  Yak  of  Tartary  and  Thibet, 
too  remarkable  to  be  altogether  omitted  in  our  sketch  of  the  Ox 
tribe.  Whether  the  Yak  belongs  to  the  restricted  genus  Bos  is  very 
doubtful  ;  in  some  points  it  certainly  is  related  to  the  Musk  Ox 
{Ovibos  Moschatiis),  which  will  be  subsequently  described — at  least, 
if  we  are  tojudge  from  the  skins,  more  or  less  imperfect,  which  we 
have  had  opportunities  of  examining. 

The  animal  has  the  nostrils  narrow,  converging  below,  with  a 
small  naked  space  between  them,  and  a  narrow  naked  border  round 
them,  so  that  there  is  no  true  broad  naked  muzzle,  as  in  the  common 
Ox  ;  the  ears  are  small  and  pointed  ;  the  forehead  is  covered  with 
black,  curling  locks;  but  its  degree  of  convexity  cannot  be  accu- 
rately determined,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  skull.  The  back 
IS  covered  with  smooth  hair,  of  a  deep  chocolate-brown,  a  w^hite 
stripe  occupying  the  ridge  of  the  withers,  and  another  the  centre 
of  the  croup,  trom  the  shoulders,  sides,  and  under-surface  of  the 
body,  and  also  from  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  hangs  a  pendent 
mane  of  long  hair,  falling  in  huge  masses,  so  as  to  cover  the 
hmbs,  and  almost  touch  the  ground.  This  mane  is  grizzled  black, 
except  a  central  line  along  the  belly  of  pure  white.  The  tail  is 
tufted,  with  a  huge  mass  of  glossy  white,  and  rather  coarse 
hairs,  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  length.  In  size,  the  animal 
is  about  that  of  the  small  Scotch  breed  of  Cattle.  (See  ante, 
p.  274.) 

On  the  authority  of  Gmelin  and  Turner,  the  horns  are  round, 
small,  pointed,  and  bent  in  a  semicircle  forwards.     The  withers  are 


elevated,  and  the  colour  is  said  to  vary.    We  have  seen  an  example 
in  which  the  tail  was  black. 

The  Yak  is  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  Thibet,  and  when  wild, 
is  said  to  be  savage  and  dangerous  ;  it  is,  however,  reclaimed,  and 
a  domestic  breed  is  kept  by  the  natives  of  the  range  tenanted  by  the 
animal  in  its  wild  condition.  The  Yak  is  most  likely  the  Poi'-pliagus 
described  by  yElian  :  from  an  early  period  its  tail  was  used  as  a 
standard  by  the  Mongols  and  Tartars,  being  one  of  the  distinguish- 
ing insignia  of  superior  officers.  In  India  these  tails  are  mounted 
on  ivory  or  silver  handles,  and,  under  the  name  of  chowries,  are 
used  to  brush  away  the  flies.  Elephants  of  state  are  taught  to  carry 
a  splendidly  mounted  chowrie  in  their  proboscis,  and  wave  it  back- 
wards and  forwards. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  Yak  in  a  state  of  freedom  little  is  known. 
As  regards  the  domestic  Yak,  Turner,  in  his  "Account  of  an  Em- 
bassy to  China,"  after  giving  a  description  of  it,  obser\'es  that  "  these 
Cattle,  though  not  large-boned,  seem,  from  the  profuse  quantity  of 
hair  with  which  they  are  provided,  to  be  of  great  bulk  ;  they  have  a 
downcast  heavy  look,  and  appear,  what  indeed  they  are,  sullen  and 
suspicious,  discovering  much  impatience  at  the  near  approach  of 
strangers.  They  do  not  lozv  loud,  like  the  Cattle  of  England,  any 
more  than  those  of  Hindostan  ;  but  make  a  low  grunting  noise, 
scarcely  audible,  and  that  but  seldom,  when  under  some  impression 
of  uneasiness.  These  Cattle  are  pastured  in  the  coldest  parts  of 
Thibet  upon  the  short  herbage  peculiar  to  the  mountains  and  bleak 
plains.  The  chain  of  mountains,  situated  between  the  latitudes  27" 
and  28°,  which  divides  Thibet  from  Bootan,  and  whose  summits  are 
mostly  clothed  with  snow,  is  their  favourite  haunt.  In  this  vicinity 
the  southern  glens  afford  them  food  and  shelter  during  the  severity 
of  winter  ;  in  milder  seasons  the  northern  aspect  is  more  congenial 
to  their  nature,  and  admits  a  wider  range.  They  are  a  very  valu- 
able property  to  the  tribes  of  itinerant  Tartars  called  Duckba,  who 
live  in  tents,  and  tend  them  from  place  to  place  ;  they  at  the  same 
time  afford  their  herdsmen  an  easy  mode  of  conveyance,  a  good 
covering,  and  wholesome  subsistence.  They  are  never  employed  in 
agriculture,  but  are  extremely  useful  as  beasts  of  burden,  for  they 
are  strong,  sure-footed,  and  carry  a  great  weight.  Tents  and  ropes 
are  manufactured  of  their  hair,  and  amongst  the  humbler  ranks  of 
herdsmen  I  have  seen  caps  and  jackets  made  of  their  skins.  The 
best  requital  with  which  the  care  of  their  keepers  is  at  length  re- 
warded for  selecting  them  good  pastures,  is  in  the  abundant  quan- 
tity of  rich  milk  which  th.ey  give,  and  in  the  butter  produced  from  it, 
which  is  most  excellent.  It  is  their  custom  to  preserve  this  in  skins 
or  bladders,  and  the  air  being  thus  excluded  from  it,  it  will  keep  in 
this  cold  climate  throughout  the  year ;  so  that  after  some  time  tend- 
ing their  herds,  when  a  sufficient  store  is  accumulated,  it  remains 
only  to  load  their  Cattle  and  drive  them  to  a  proper  market  with 
their  own  produce,  which  constitutes,  to  the  utmost  verge  of  Tartary, 
a  most  material  article  of  commerce." 

The  Anoa  {Anoa  deprcssicorm's). — Our  figure  represents  the 
horns  of  this  rare  animal,  which  has  been  considered  by  some  natu- 
ralists as  belonging  to  the  Antelopes,  by  others  to  the  Ox  tribe. 
(See  Fig.  728  ) 


Fig.  72S. — Iloins  of  Anoa. 

The  horns  are  erect,  perfectly  straight,  and  in  the  plane  of  the 
forehead  :  they  are  about  the  same  length  as  the  head  ;  that  is,  about 
nine  or  ten  inches,  strongly  depressed  or  flattened  in  front,  of  nearly 
the  same  breadth  till  within  three  inches  of  the  extremities,  whence 
they  are  rather  attenuated  to  the  tips,  which  are  bluntly  pointed,  and 
irregularly  wrinkled,  or  rather  crumbled  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  their  length.  The  head  is  long  and  narrow,  terminating  in  a 
broad  muzzle.  .        ,     ,  . 

Mr.  Pennant  was  the  first  naturalist  who  has  mentioned  this 
animal;  but  he  has  given  no  account  of  its  characters,  and  merely 
relates,  that  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  middling  Sheep,  is  wild  and 
fierce,  and  resides  in  large  herds  among  the  rocky  mountains  °[^]]'\ 
island  of  Celebes.  He  considers  it  as  a  small  species  of  Wild 
Buffalo,  and  adds,  that  it  is  captured  only  with  great  difficulty,  and 
is  so  fierce  in  confinement,  that  some  of  these  animals,  belonging  to 
Governor  Loten,  in  one  night  ripped  up  the  bellies  of  fourteen  stags 
which  were  kept  in  the  same  paddock  with  them.  The  next  author, 
who  mentions  the  Anoa  from  original  documents  or  personal  obser- 


284 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


vation,  is  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith,  who,  in  the  fourth  volume  of 
Griffith's  translation  of  the  "  Regne  Animal,"  describes  the  head 
and  horns,  and  considers  the  animal  as  a  species  of  Antelope. 
Colonel  Smith's  fras^ment  was  broujjht  from  Celebes  by  Dr.  Clarke 
Abel,  who  obtained  it  on  his  return  from  China  in  the  suite  of  Lord 
Amherst ;  but  since  that  period  various  other  heads  have  been 
brought  to  Europe,  some  of  which  are  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum,  where  there  is  a  stuffed  specimen,  and  in  the  collection  of 
the  London  Zoological  Society,  where  also  a  living  animal  may  be 
seen.     (See  also  Fig.  652,  p,  248,  anfe.) 

The  Arnee,  or  Urna  [Bos  Ar>iz  of  Shaw  and  others). — The 
Arnee  is,  by  some  naturalists,  regarded  as  nothing  more  than  the 
ordinary  Wild  Buffalo  ;  but  we  are  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  it  is 
a  distinct  species,  as  we  think  is  clearly  evidenced  by  the  characters 


deed,  renders  it  difficult  to  tame,  and  difficult  to  manage,  while  its 
prodigious  strength  and  adaptation  for  certain  localities  render  it  a 
valuable  acquisition.  Tlie  hot  morass,  teeming  with  pestilence,  is 
the  genial  abode  of  the  Buffalo,  and  its  delight  is  to  wallow  in  the 
stagnant  water,  where  it  will  luxuriate  for  hours  during  the  heat  of 
the  day,  with  its  black  muzzle  just  elevated  above  the  surface.  Its 
flesh  is  hard  and  unsavoury,  but  the  milk  of  the  Buffalo-Cow  is  of 
peculiar  richness,  and  in  the  East  a  considerable  quantity  of  butter 


Fig.  729. — Horns  of  Arnee. 

of  the  horns,  which  are  not  uncommon  in  museums.     It  tenants  the 
high  lands  of  Hindostan,  and  is  known  in  Bengal   and  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces  by  the  name  of  Arna.     It  is  described  as  a  large 
and  formidable  beast,  conspicuous  for  strength,  courage,  and  fero- 
city.    The  horns  of  this  animal,  which  we  have  figured  (Fig.  729), 
are  remarkable  for  their  enormous  size,  often  measuring   from  four 
to  six  feet  in  length.     They  rise  upwards,  first   inclining  outwards 
and  backwards,  and  then,  arching  gradually  towards  each  other  as 
they  proceed  to  the  points,  form  together 
a  bold  crescent  :   they  are  compressed  on 
their  anterior  and  posterior  surfaces,   and 
rough   with    numerous    transverse   furrows 

and  ridges.     The    chaffron  is  narrow  and  _^_= 

convex.  -=^~ 

The  Common  Buffalo  {Bos  bubalus).  — _  -_  ^_ 

— The  Buffalo  has  been  long  domesticated  —=^^  _  z»=, 

in  India,  where  its  services,  as  a  beast  of 
draught  and  burden,  render  it  extremely 
valuable.  From  India  it  has  spread  into 
Egypt,  Greece,  Italy,  Spain,  &c. 

The  Buffalo  differs  materially  in  its  form 
and  general  aspect  from  the  Ox,  being  a 
heavier  and  more  clumsy  animal,  as  well 
as  more  powerful.  Though  lower  in  stature 
than  the  Bull,  it  is  more  massive  in  the 
body,  which  is  supported  on  short,  thick, 
solid  limbs  ;  the  hide  is  coarse  and  dense, 
covered  rather  sparingly  with  black  wiry 
hair.  The  head  is  large,  and  carried  with 
the  muzzle  projecting ;  the  forehead  is 
convex,  the  muzzle  large;  the  horns  are 
compressed,  and  lie  back,  turning  up  late- 
rally, and  often  attaining  to  a  large  size; 
but  the  direction  seldom  allows  the  points 
to  be  used  for  goring  ;  the  ears  are  large 
and  pendulous;   the  dewlap  is  small;  the 

eyes  are  wild,  savage,  and  malicious  in  e.xpression  ;  the  tail  is  long 
and  slender.     (See  Fig.  730.) 

In  its  native  regions  the  Buffalo  is  a  formidable  animal,  and 
capable  of  contending  with  the  Tiger,  which  is  often  foiled  in  the 
deadly  strife.  When  excited,  the  beast  rushes  desperately  on  its 
foe,  strikes  him  down  with  the  horns  or  forehead,  kneels  upon  him, 
crushing  in  his  chest,  and  then  tramples  on  the  lifeless  body,  as  if  to 
satiate  its  vindictive  fuiy.     (See  Fig.  731.)     Its  natural  temper,  in- 


Fig.  730. — The  Common  Buffalo. 

is  procured  from  it.  The  hide  is  greatly  esteemed  for  its  solidity 
and  toughness.  Colonel  Sykes  states  that  the  long-horned  variety 
of  the  Buffalo  is  bred  in  great  numbers  in  the  Mawals,  or  hilly  tracts 
along  the  Ghauts :  "in  those  tracts  much  rice  is  planted,  and  the 
male  Buffalo,  from  his  superior  hardihood,  is  much  better  suited  to 
resist  the  effects  of  the  heavy  rains  and  the  splashy  cultivation  of 
the  rice  than  the  Bullock.  The  female  is  also  infinitely  more  valu- 
able than  the  Cow,  from  the  very  much  greater  quantity  of  milk  she 
yields."     (See  also  p.  281.) 

From  India  the  Buffalo  is  distributed  throughout  Siam,  Cochin- 
China,  Malacca,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  as  Sumatra,  Java, 
Borneo,  &c.,  together  with  the  Philippines;  it  is  also  common  in 
China,  where  it  is  used  in  the  various  labours  of  agriculture. 

In  Africa  it  is  abundant  along  the  Nile,  and  in  other  districts, 
existing  in  a  wild  or  emancipated  state,  as  well  as  in  a  state  of  do- 
mestication. In  Abyssinia,  more  particularly  in  the  forests  of  Ras 
el  Fil,  the  Buffalo  is  very  common  ;  its  skin  is  chiefly  employed  in 
that  country  for  the  making  of  shields,  in  which  considerable  art  is 
displayed. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  Buffalo  was  introduced  into  Spain  and 
Italy,  where,  in  course  of  time,  the  animal  became  naturalised, 
and  in  some  districts  may  be  regarded  as  in  a  state  of  nature. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  Maremma  of  Italy.  In  the  worst 
parts  of  that  pestilential  tract  of  country,  there  the  savage  Buffalo 


Fig'  73 1  .—Tiger  and  Buflalo  Fight. 

may  be  seen,  roaming  at  will,  under  the  care  of  wild  keepers, 
Buffalari,  whose  lives  are  passed  in  this  dangerous  employment. 
Wherever  large  herds  of  Buffaloes  occur,  they  may  be  taken  as  the 
sure  index  of  malaria.  In  the  wild  provinces  of  the  Calabrias,  where 
most  of  the  plains  and  valleys  are  always  partially  swamped  by  the 
Laino,  the  Chratis,  the  Amato,  and  numerous  other  rivers  and  tor- 
rents, they  are  very  common  ;  they  range,  almost  the  only  occupants, 
over  the  plains  of  Piestum,  and  the   still  wilder  and  more  extensive 


I 


-  r  111 

f'.'  I 

■'I 


« 


286 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


rivers  are  the  favourite  resorts  of  the  Aurochs  ;  but  in  summer,  and 
during  the  warmer  portion  of  autumn,  according-  to  Dr.  Wcissen- 
born,  the  herds  select  sandy  spots  :  in  winter  thev  keep  quiet  by  day 
in  the  thickest  part  of  the  fir-wood,  only  browsing  at  night,  and 
finding  sustenance  in  the  bark 
of  young  trees  :  in  spring  they 
visit  spots  where  the  herbace- 
ous plants  they  relish  begin  to 
sprout.  They  are  fond  of  tree- 
lichens.  The  voice  of  the 
Aurochs  is  a  deep,  short  grunt, 
which  may  be  heard  at  a  con- 
siderable distance. 

"  The  strength,"  says  Dr. 
Weissenborn,  "  of  the  Zubr  is 
enormous,  and  trees  of  five  or 
six  inches  in  diameter,  cannot 
withstand  the  thrusts  of  old 
bulls.  It  is  neither  afraid  of 
the  Wolf  nor  Bear,  and  assails 
its  enemies  both  with  its  horns 
and  hoofs.  An  old  Zubr  is  a 
match  for  four  Wolves  ;  packs 
of  the  latter  animal,  however, 
sometimes  hunt  down  even 
old  bulls  when  alone  ;  but  a 
herd  of  Zubrs  has  nothing  to 
fear  from  any  rapacious  ani- 
mal. 

"Notwithstanding the  great 
bulk  of  its  body,  the  Zubr  can 
run  very  swiftly.  In  gallop- 
ing its  hoofs  are  raised  above 
its  head,  which  it  carries  very 
low.  The  animal  has,  how- 
ever, but  little  bottom,  and 
seldom  runs  farther  than  one 
or  two  English  miles.  It 
swims  with  great  agility,  and 
is  very  fond  of  bathing. 

"  The  Zubr  is  generally  ex- 
ceedingly shy,  and  avoids  the 


approach  of  man.  They  can  only  be  approached  from  the  leeward,  as 
their  smell  is  extremely  acute.  But  when  accidentally  and  suddenly 
fallen-in  with,  they  will  passionately  assail  the  intruder.  In  such  fits 
of  passion  the  animal  thrusts  out  its  tongue  repeatedly,  lashes  its  sides 


Fig-  735-— Skull  ofthe 
Young  Aurochs. 


rig.  736.— Skull  ofthe 
Young  Aurochs. 


Fie 


737. — Skull  of  an  old 
Male  Aurochs. 


l'"'g-  73S.— Skull  of  an  old 
Male  Aurochs. 


Fig.  739. — The  American  Eison, 

with  its  tail,  and  the  reddened  and  sparkling  eyes  project  from  their 
sockets,  and  roll  furiously.  Such  is  ihoir  innate  wildness,  that  none 
of  them  have  ever  been  completely  tamed.  When  taken  young  they 
become,  it  is  true,  accustomed  to  their  keepers ;  but  the  approach 
of  other  persons  renders  them  furious,  and  even  their  keepers  must 
be  careful  always  to  wear  the  same  sort  of  dress  when  going  near 
them.  Their  great  antipathy  to  the  Bos  taurus,  which  they  cither 
avoid  or  kill,  would  render  their  domestication,  if  it  were  practicable, 
but  little  desirable.  The  experiments  made  with  a  view  of  obtaining 
a  mixed  breed  from  the  Zubr  and  Bos  taurus  have  all  failed,  and 
are  now  strictly  prohibited." 

F'gs.  735,  736,  represent  the  skull,  in  front  and  profile,  of  a  young 
Aurochs  ;  Figs.  737  and  738,  of  an  old  male. 

The  American  Bison  {Bonasus  or  Bison  amcrkanus ;  Bos 
amcricaiitts). — The  American  Bison,  formerly  spread  more  exten- 
sively than  at  present,  still  exists  in  vast  numbers  in  Louisiana, 
roaming  in  countless  herds  over  the  prairies  that  arc  watered  by  the 
Arkansas,  Platte,  Missouri,  and  upper  branches  of  the  Saskatchewan 
and  Peace  rivers.  Like  its  congener  the  Aurochs,  the  American 
Bison  is  of  powerful  frame,  and  exceeds  in  bulk  the  ordinary  race  of 
Cattle,  its  height  at  the  fore-quarters  being  upwards  of  six  feet,  and 
its  weight  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundredweight,  and  sometimes 
much  more.  The  head  is  huge,  ponderous,  and  carried  low  ;  the 
withers  are  massive  and  elevated  ;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  their 
expression  is  ferocious  ;  the  horns  are  small  and  black.  The  neck, 
withers,  and  chest  are  covered  with  a  profusion  of  long,  shaggy 
hair,  contributing  to  render  the  appearance  of  the  animal  wild  and 
terrific  ;  the  hinder  quarters  are  clothed  with  shorter  wool.  The 
general  colour  is  umber  brown,  acquiring  a  rusty  tint  in  winter. 
Endowed  with  the  sense  of  smell  in  great  perfection,  wary,  and 
fierce,  the  Bison  associates  in  large  herds  conducted  by  one  or  two 
old  bulls,  whose  motions  the  rest  appear  to  follow ;  but  herds  of 
bulls  also  live  separately.  Their  food  consists  of  grass  and  rank 
herbage,  to  obtain  which  in  winter  they  scrape  away'the  snow  with 
their  feet.  On  the  approach  of  an  enemy  the  herd  immediately 
takes  to  flight;  but  if  one  be  wounded,  the  life  of  the  hunter  is 
placed  in  great  jeopardy,  for  turning  in  a  moment,  it  rushes  on  its 
assailant  with  headlong  impetuosity,  and  with  determined  resolution. 
Several  fatal  instances  might  be  cited  in  which  the  hunter  has 
perished  from  want  of  caution  in  attacking  this  formidable  beast, 
and  many  hair-breadth  escapes  are  on  record. 

In  defending  itself  from  a  Dog  the  Bison  strikes  violently  with 
its  fore-feet,  and  easily  keeps  its  annoying  foe  at  bay. 


THE  OX  TRIBE. 


287 


The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  accounted  excellent,  the  tongue  and 
hump,  or  flesh  on  the  top  of  the  withers,  being  especial  delicacies. 
The  chase  of  tlie  Bison  is,  therefore,  assiduously  carried  on,  both  by 
the  natives  and  the  Europeans. 

The  Bison  swims  well,  and  during  the  heats  of  summer  vast  herds 
make  their  way  to  shady  rivulets,  streams,  and  pools,  in  which  they 
delight  to  plunge  and  bathe.  Herds  of  20,000,  crossing  rivers  up- 
wards of  a  mile  in  breadth,  have  been  seen,  or  darkening  the  plains 
on  their  passage  to  fresh  feeding-grounds. 


Fig.  740. — SkuU  of  the  young 
Female  Bison. 


Fig.  741. — Skull  of  the  j'oung 
Female  Bison. 


Salt-springs,  or  saline  morasses,  or  salt-licks,  are  great  attractions 
to  this  animal,  and  at  all  seasons  are  visited  by  numerous  herds. 
These,  however,  are  incessantly  thinned  by  the  hunters  ;  and  the  time 
is  probably  not  far  distant  when  the  American  Bison  will  be  as  rare 
and  as  limited  in  its  extent  of  range  as  the  Aurochs  of  Lithuania. 

At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the  bulls  engage  in  terrible  con- 
flicts, and  rush  furiously  upon  man,  or  any  other  animal  which  ven- 
tures near  them.     With  the  exception  of  man,  the  most  formidable 


enemy  against  which  the  Bison  has  to  contend,  is  the  huge  grisly 
Bear,  and  before  this  dreaded  monster  the  strongest  bull  goes 
down. 

It  appears  that  the  Bison  will  breed  with  the  ordinary  race  of 
domestic  Cattle,  against  which  the  Aurochs  displays  the  greatest 
antipathy,  though,  in  one  respect,  the  latter  approaches  nearer  to 
the  common  Ox  than  does  the  Bison;  we  allude  to  the  number  of 
ribs,  which  are  thirteen  in  the  Ox  on  each  side,  fourteen  in  the 
Aurochs,  and  fifteen  in  the  Bi^on. 


Fig.  742. — Skull  of  an  old 
Male  Bison. 


Fig.  743. — Skull  of  an  old 
Male  Bison, 


Figs.  740,  741,  represent  the  skull,  front  view  and  in  profile,  of  a 
young  female  Bison  ;   Figs.  742,  743,  of  an  old  male  Bison. 

The  IVIuskOx  {Ovibos  moschatus). — The  characters  of  the  genus 
Ovibos,  as  exhibited  by  the  only  known  species,  are  as  follows : — 
The  horns  are  expanded  at  their  base,  forming  a  helmet-like  mass, 
covering  the  forehead,  where  their  hedges  are  in  contact  with  each 


!■  ig.  744.  —  Musk  (.)xeu. 


288 


RUMINANT  ANIMALS. 


other  ;  from  this  mass  they  emerge  roand  and  tapering,  first  bending 
down  between  the  eye  and  ear,  and  then  sweeping  suddenly  up- 
wards. The  ears  and  tail  arc  short ;  the  eyes  moderate  ;  the  nos- 
trils oblong,  and  inclined  to  each  other  from  above  downwards  ; 
there  is  no  true  naked  muzzle,  but  a  very  narrow  naked  line  sur- 
rounds each  nostril,  the  rest  being  covered  with  hair;  there  is  no 
iurrow  in  the  upper  lip. 

The  Musk-O.K  is  a  native  of  the  high  latitudes  of  North  America, 
from  the  sixty-first  to  the  seventy-fifth  degree  of  latitude.  In  size  it 
scarcely  equals  the  smallest  of  the  Highland  breed  of  Cattle,  already 
described ;  but  appears  larger  than  it  really  is  from  the  profusion 
of  long-matted  woolly  hair  with  which  it  is  covered,  and  \vhich 
hangs  on  each  side  almost  to  the  ground,  almost  concealing  the 
limbs  to  the  pasterns;  the  tail  is  entirely  hidden.  Beneath  the 
lower  jaw,  throat,  and  chest  the  hair  flows  full,  long,  and  mane-like. 
The  general  colour  is  dull,  grizzled  umber  brown,  darker  on  the 
sides  and  under-surface  :  on  the  centre  of  the  back  is  a  brownish- 
white  mark  or  saddle. 

The  districts  inhabited  by  the  ISIusk-Ox,  says  Dr.  Richardson, 
are  the  proper  lands  of  the  Esquimaux,  and  their  name  for  it  is 
Oomingmak.  It  frequents  wild  and  rocky  situations,  mostly  desti- 
tute of  wood,  feeding  on  grass  during  one  season  of  the  year,  and 
on  lichens  during  the  other.  When  fat,  its  flesh  is  tolerable  ;  but  at 
certain  times  both  that  of  the  bulls  and  cows  smell  strongly  of  musk. 
Though  the  limbs  of  the  Musk-Ox  are  short,  they  are  very  vigorous, 
and  the  animal  is  fleet  and  active.     Dr.  Richardson  mentions  one 


pursued  on  the  banks  of  the  Coppermine,  which  scaled  a  lofty  sand- 
cliff  so  steep  that  the  party  were  obliged  to  crawl  up  it  on  their 
hands  and  knees. 

In  September  these  animals  assemble  in  herds,  and  arc  then  much 
harassed  by  the  hunters.  The  sport,  however,  is  not  free  from 
danger,  for  the  bulls  are  very  irascible,  and,  when  wounded,  will 
dart  furiously  upon  the  hunter,  who  requires  both  practice  and  pre- 
sence of  mind  in  order  to  escape.  If,  however,  the  hunters  re- 
mained concealed  when  they  fire  upon  a  herd  of  Musk-Oxen,  the 
poor  animals  mistake  the  noise  for  thunder,  and  forming  themselves 
into  a  group,  crowd  nearer  and  nearer  together  as  their  companions 
fall  around  them  ;  but  should  they  discover  their  enemies  by  sight, 
or  by  their  sense  of  smell,  which  is  very  acute,  the  whole  herd  seek 
for  safety  by  instant  flight. 

The  wool  of  this  animal  is  fine,  and  some  stockings  which  were 
made  from  it  in  France,  are  said  to  have  been  equal  to  those  made 
from  silk.  If  it  could  be  obtained  in  suf&cient  quantity,  it  might 
doubtless  be  employed  advantageously  as  an  article  for  manufacture. 
From  the  appearance  of  the  hair,  resembling  that  of  a  Goat,  the 
name  of  the  genus,  Ovis-bos,  or  Ovibos,  is  derived.     (See  Fig.  774. J 


The  importance  of  the  Iiutnt7ia!itia  to  man,  in  relation  to  food, 
clothing,  trade,  &c.,  has  been  already  alluded  to.  In  the  following 
tables  some  of  the  most  interesting  specimens  of  the  tribe  are  named 
as  they  may  be  seen  stuffed  in  the  British  Museum  or  alive  in  the. 
Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  at  Regent's  Park,  London. 


Wapiti       

Rein-deer  . . 
Chinese  Munfjac  . . 
Kijang  or  Muntjac 
Roebuck     .  . 
Sclater's  JVIuntjac 
Venada 
Long-tailed  Deer 

Ahu 

Guamel  or  Peruvian  Roebuck 
Guazuti 

FormosanAxis  .. 
White  Hart 
Mantchurian  Deer 
Woodland  Deer  . . 
Fallow  Deer 
Swinhoe's  Deer  . . 
Venados. . 

iapanese  Deer 
Irocket  Deer 
Cuguacu,  etc. 
Kuhl's  Stag 
Eyebrowed  Brocket 
Axis  or  Cheetul     . . 
Lugna,  Parr,  or  Shgariah 
Brazilian  Brocket 
Sing-Sing 
Hodgson's  Rusa  . . 
Rusa 

Stag  or  Red  Deer 
Barbary  Deer 
Bara  Singa  or  Mori 
Bahrainga . . 

Elk 

Rusa  Deer. . 

Licaraa  or  Hartebeest 

Carcajou     . 

Cabrit  or  Pronghorn 

Mazama  or  Spring  Buck 

Capricornis 

Goral 

Thaar  or  Thar 

Ariel 

Colus  or  Saiga 

Jairou 

Senegal  Gazelle  . . 

Gazella 

Red-fronted  Gazelle 

Chiru 

Gutturoso  Antelope 

Dr.  Scemmering's  Antelope 

Spring  Buck  or  Tsebe     . . 

Red  Antelope  or  Nagor  . . 

Madoqua    . . 

Isabella  Gazelle  . . 


BRITISH    MUSEUM. 
CER'FID^E,  &c.;  Stuffed    Specimens. 


Cervus  canadensis. 
Rangifcr  tarandus. 
Ccrvuhis  reevesii. 
Mil nfjacus  vagin all's. 
Capreolus  caprcsa. 
Cerviilus  sclfiteri. 
Pudu  hiimilis. 
Cariacus  liicurtis. 
Capreolus  pygargus. 
Xcnelaphiis  chilensis. 
Mazama  ca?iipestris. 
Pseudaxis  taivafius. 
Cervus  elaphas. 
Cervus  nianfchuriciis. 
Cariacus  neiitoralis. 
Dama  vulgaris. 
Rusa  sivinhoii. 
Coassus  peruviatius. 
Pseudaxis  si  lea. 
Coassus  rufinus. 
Coassus  rufus. 
Rusa  kuhlii. 
Coassus  sitperciliaris. 
Axis  jnaculata. 
Hyelaphus  porcinus. 
Coassus  simplicicornis. 
Kobus  sing-sing. 
Rusa  dcmorpha. 
Rusa  hippclaphus. 
Cervus  elaphas. 
Cervus  barbarus. 
Cervus  wallichii. 
Cervus  duvaucelli. 
A  Ices  pahnatus. 
Cervus  equinus. 
Acronotus  caama. 
Cariacus  virginiis. 
Antilocapra  america?ta. 
Mazatna  americatia. 
C.  caiidata. 
Nemorrhedus  goral. 
Capricornis  bubalina. 
Gazella  cor  a. 
Saiga  tartarica. 
Gazella  subgutturosa. 
Gazella  rufifrons. 
G.  cuvierii. 
Gazella  rufifro7is. 
Keinas  hodgso?iii. 
Gazella  gutturosa . 
Gazella  sammeringii 
Gazella  euchore. 
Eleotragus  reduncas. 
Madoqua  salliana. 
Gazella  Isabella. 


Indian  Gazelle  or  Chikara 

Grys  Boo    . . 

Nasotragus 

Steinboc 

Nasotragus 

Bay  Bush   .  . 

Abyssinian  Bush  Goat    . . 

Bay  Bush  Buck     .  . 

Jungle  Burka 

Roode  Bock 

Coquetoon  , . 

Duyker  Bock 

White-backed  Bush  Buck 

Black-striped  Bush  Buck 

Black  Antelope     . . 

Cephalophus 

Ourebi 

Chouka  or  Chousinga     . . 

Whitfield's  Cephalophus 

Blanco  Bockje 

Cephalophus 


Gazella  bennetlii. 
Calotragus  melanosis. 
N.  nioschafus. 
Calotragus  tragulus. 
N.  nigricaudatus. 
Cephalophus  dorsalis. 
Cephalophus  madoqua. 
Cephalophus  dorsalis. 
Tetracerus  subquadricornis . 
Cephalophus  natalensis. 
Cephalophus  rufilafus. 
Cephalophus  tnergens. 
Cephalophus  sylvicultris. 
Cephalophus  ogilbyii. 
Cephalophus  jiiger. 
C.  nigri/rons. 
Oreostragus  scoparius. 
Tretracerus  quadricornts. 
Cephalophus  whitfieldii. 
Cephalophus  cceruleus. 
C.  bicolur. 


B0VID.5:. 


Sable  Antelope     . . 

Oryx  .  

Gorgon  or  Brindled  Gnu 
Gour  or  Kokoon   . . 

Kob 

Sassayby    .  . 
Taye  or  Big  Horn 
Aoudad 
Argali 

Moufflon 

Wild  Sheep  of  the  Thian  Shan 

Yac  

Aurochs  or  Lithuanian  Bison 

American  Bison    . . 

Anoa 

The  Decula  Antelope 

Bosch- Bock 

Takin 

Musk  Ox    . . 

Speke's  Bosh-Boch 

Guib  or  Bontebock 

Gour 

Javan  Ox   . . 

Buffalo    ..  

Gayal 

Nunni  or  Bonte  Bock 

Straight-horned  Oryx 

White  Scotch  Bull 

Addax 

Wild  Buffalo  of  Central  .^.frica. . 


Hippofragus  7iiger. 
Ory.v  leucuryx. 
Con  nochetes  gorgon . 
Connochctes  gnu. 
Adenota  kob. 
Dama  lis  lutiatus. 
Caprovis  canadetisis. 
A  nmotragus  fragclaphus. 
Caprovis  argali. 
Caprovis,  or  ovis  musimon. 
Ovis  rarelitii. 
Poephagus  grunniens. 
Bison  urus. 
Bison  americanus. 
A  noa  depressicornis. 
Tragelaphus  decula. 
Tragelaphus  sylvaticus, 
Budorcas  taxicola. 
Ovibos  nioschatus. 
Tragelaphus  spekii. 
Tragelaphus  script  us. 
Bibos  gaurus. 
Bibos  bantiger. 
Bubalus  buffelus. 
Bibos  frontalis. 
Damalis  pygarga. 
Oryx  beatrix. 
Bos  taunts. 
Oryx  ?zasomaculata. 
Bubalis  centralis. 


THE  ASS. 


2n'/ 


a  short  distance  from  the  dwelling-house  was  a  small  but  luxuriant 
pasture,  where,  during  the  summer,  Charlie  was  often  permitted  to 
graze.  When  this  pasture  had  been  originally  reclaimed  from  its 
wild  forest  state,  about  ten  years  previous  to  the  period  of  which  I 
am  speaking,  four  or  five  large  trees  of  the  sugar-maple  species  had 
been  left  standing  when  the  rest  were  cut  down,  and  means  had 
afterwards  been  found  to  prevent  their  being  scorched  by  the  fire  at 
the  time  the  rest  of  the  timber  had  been  consumed.  Though  re- 
markably fine  trees  of  their  kind,  they 
were,  however,  no  great  ornament,  their 
stems  being  long  and  bare,  their  heads 
small,  and  by  no  means  full  of  leaves — 
the  case  generally  with  trees  that  have 
grown  up  in  close  contact  with  each  other 
in  the  American  forests.  But  if  they  were 
no  ornament,  they  might  serve  as  shade- 
trees.  Beneath  one  of  these  trees  Charlie 
used  to  seek  shelter,  as  well  from  the 
heat  of  the  meridian  sun,  as  from  the 
severe  thunder-gusts  that  occasionally 
ravage  that  part  of  the  country.  On  an 
occasion  of  this  son  Charlie  had  taken 
his  stand  close  to  his  favourite  tree,  his 
tail  actually  pressing  against  it,  his  head 
and  body  in  an  exact  line  with  the  course 
of  the  wind  ;  apparently  understanding 
the  most  advantageous  position  to  escape 
the  violence  of  the  storm,  and  quite  at 
home,  as  it  were,  for  he  had  stood  in  the 
same  place  some  scores  of  times.  The 
storm  came  on,  and  raged  with  such 
violence  that  the  tree  under  which  the 
Horse  had  sought  shelter  was  literally 
torn  up  by  the  roots.  I  happened  to  be 
standing  at  a  window,  from  whence  I 
witnessed  the  whole  scene.  The  moment 
Charlie  heard  the  roots  giving  way  be- 
hind him,  that  is,  on  the  contrary  side  of 
the  tree  from  where  he  stood,  and  pro- 
bably feeling  the  uprooted  tree  pressing 
against  his  tail,  he  sprang  forward,  and 
barely  cleared  the  ground  upon  which,  at 
the  next  moment,  the   top   of  the   huge 

forest-tree  fell  with  such  a  force  that  the  crash  was  tremendous,  for 
ever)'  limb  and  branch  were  actually  riven  asunder.  I  have  many  a 
time  seen  Horses  alarmed,  nay,  exceedingly  frightened  ;  but  never  in 
ni}'  life  did  I  witness  anything  of  the  sort  that  bore  the  slightest  com- 
parison to  Charlie's  extreme  terror;  and  yet  Charlie,  on  ordinary 
occasions,  was  by  no  means  a  coward.  He  galloped,  he  reared  his 
mane  and  tossed  his  head,  he  stopped  short,  and  snorted  wildly, 
and  then  darted  off  at  the  top  of  his  speed  in  a  contrary  direction, 
and  then  as  suddenly  stopped  and  set  off  in  another,  until  long 
after  the  storm  had  considerably  abated,  and  it  was  not  until  after 
the  lapse  of  some  hours  that  he  ventured  to  reconnoitre — but  that  at 
a  considerable  distance — the  scene  of  his  narrow  escape.  For  that\ 
day,  at  least,  his  appetite  had  been  completely  spoiled,  for  he  never 
offered  to  stoop  his  head  to  the  ground  while  daylight  continued. 
The  next  day  his  apprehensions  seemed  somewhat  abated,  but  his 
curiosity  had  been  excited  to  such  a  pitch  that  he  kept  pacing  from 
place  to  place,  never  failing  to  halt  as  he  passed  within  a  moderate 
distance  of  the  prostrate  tree,  gazing  thereat  in  utter  bewilderment, 
as  if  wholly  unable  to  comprehend  the  scene  he  had  witnessed  the 
preceding  day.  After  this  occurrence  took  place  I  kept  this  favour- 
ite Horse  several  years,  and  during  the  summer  months  he  usually 
enjoyed  the  benefit  of  his  old  pasture.  But  it  was  quite  clear  that 
he  never  forgot,  on  any  occasion,  the  narrow  escape  he  had  had; 
for  neither  the  burning  rays  of  the  noontide  summer  sun,  nor  the 
furious  raging  of  the  thunder-storm,  could  compel  Charlie  to  seek 
shelter  under  one  of  the  trees  that  still  remained  standing  in  his 
small  pasture." 

At  the  end  of  this  chapter  will  be  found  some  remarks  in  regard 
to  the  fossil  remains  of  the  Horse  tribe,  from  which  it  will  appear 
that  the  era  of  the  Horse  seems  coeval  with  that  of  man. 

The  Ass  {Equiis  asimts,  Linn.) — It  would  appear,  from  various 
evidence,  that  the  Ass  was  domesticated  at  an  earlier  period  than 
the  Horse  :  it  was  the  beast  of  civil  life,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Horse,  which  was  used  almost  exclusively  for  war.  In  the  East  the 
Ass  is  treated  with  care  and  attention,  and  there  its  appearance  is 
very  different  from  that  of  the  serviceable  but  neglected  and  under- 
valued beast  of  Western  Europe.  According  to  Chardin,  "  the  Asses 
of  Arabia  are  among  the  finest  in  the  world ;  their  coat  is  smooth 
and  clean  ;  they  carry  their  head  elevated,  and  have  fine  well- 
formed  legs,  which  they  throw  out  gracefully  in  walking  or  gallop- 
ing. They  are  used  only  for  the  saddle,  and  are  imported  m  vast 
numbers  into  Persia,  where  they  are  frequently  sold  for  400  livres, 
and  being  taught  a  kind  of  easy  ambling  pace,  are  richly  capari- 
soned, and  used  only  by  the.  rich  and  luxurious  nobles." 


White  Asses  are  not  uncommon,  and  appear  anciently  to  have 

been  selected  for  the  use  of  persons  of  distinction,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  756.  In  Syria  there  are  several  distinct  breeds  of  Asses,  of 
which  the  most  valued  is  that  of  Arabia. 

Domesticated  as  the  Ass  has  been  from  the  remotest  antiquity, 
and  valued  as  it  has  ever  been  in  Western  Asia,  it  was  long  before 
the  animal  became  introduced  into  Western  Europe.  Aristotle 
states,  that  in  his  time  there  were  no  Asses  in   Pontus,  Scyihia,  or 


Fig.  756. — Asiatic  Asses. 

in  the  country  of  the  Celts  (modem  Germany  and  France)  :  and  we 
know  that  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the  Ass  was 
extremely  rare  in  our  country.  During  the  last  few  years  the  con- 
dition of  the  domestic  Ass  has  been  greatly  improved'through  better 
treatment,  food,  &c.  In  18-7  an  Ass  Show  was  held  in  London,  and 
one  animal  was  exhibited  capable  of  drawing  a  ton  weight.  Fit'. 
757  represents  the  domestic  Ass. 


Fig.  757. — The  Ass, 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  in  every  part  of  the  East  the  Ass  is 
large  ;  there  is  a  small  but  spirited  breed  in  Syria,  upon  which  the 
Syrian  ladies  are  accustomed  to  ride,  and  in  Western  India  we  are 
assured  that  the  Asses  are  not  much  larger  than  good-sized  New- 
foundland Dogs.  They  are  used  in  droves  to  carry  small  loads  of 
salt  or  grain  ;  they  are  also  used  by  the  potmakers  to  carry  their 
clay,  and  are  always  seen,  as  in  Europe,  associated  with  gipsies. 
It  is,  in  fact,  principally  in  Western  Asia,  the  genial  climate  of  the 
Ass,  that  it  is  held  in  esteem,  and  carefully  bred  and  reared. 

From  the  accounts  of  travellers  there  would  appear  to  be  several 
species  of  Wild  Ass,  or  Onager  {Equus  oaai^cr)  of  the  ancients. 
Bruce  talks  of  Wild  Asses,  which  he  saw  in  Abyssinia  ;  but  he  is  of 
little  authority  on  matters  of  natural  histor)'.  Bell,  in  his  "  Travels 
in  Tartary,"  notices  a  species  of  Wild  Ass  resembling  the  ordinary 
kind,  excepting  that  their  hair  is  waved  white  and  brown,  like  that 
of  a  Tiger — an  indefinite  description,  and  if  applicable  to  a  species 

2  Q 


2grt 


THE   WILD  ASS. 


in  the  deserts  of  Tartar}',  naturalists  are  unacquainted  with  it. 
There  is  the  Wild  Ass,  or  Koulan,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Tartars, 
which  is  said  to  be  of  a  uniform  silvery-grey,  with  a  broad  coffee- 
coloured  stripe  extending  down  the  spine,  and  crossed  on  the  shoul- 
ders by  a  transverse  band,  as  in  the  domestic  variety.  (See  Fig. 
758.)  This  species  is  req-arded  as  the  oriijin  of  the  ordinary  Ass. 
There  is  next  the  Ghur  (Ghurkhud,  or  Gourkood)  of  Persia,  of  which 
a  detailed  account  occurs  in   Sir   R,  Ker  Porter's  Travels  (vol.  i.), 


V/yVmil^ 


-  >A>'lk 


Fig.  75S.— The  Wild  Ass. 

and  which  he  describes  as  being  ten  or  twelve  hands  high,  with  a 
sleek  coat,  of  a  reddish  colour,  passing  on  the  belly  and  hinder-parts 
into  silver)'-grey  :  the  limbs  were  beautifully  slender,  "  the  mane 
'was  short  and  black,  as  was  also  a  tuft  which  terminated  his  tail, 
but  no  line  whatever  ran  along  his  back,  or  crossed  his  shoulders." 
Moorcroft,  in  his  "  Travels  in  the  Hunalayan  Provinces,"  describes 
another  species  under  the  name  of  the  Kiang  (Equus  /ei'angj, 
with  shorter  ears  than  the  Wild  Ass,  and  which  he  says  is  certainly 
not  the  Gurkhor  (Khur  ?),  or  Wild  Ass  of  Sindh.  (See  subsequent  re- 
marks at  the  end  of  the  article.)  From  this  the  Dzigguetai,  or 
Dzigtai  {Eguus  hanionus,  Pallas),  is  again  distinct  ;  and  which 
is  a  native  of  Mongolia  and  the  borders  of  Thibet  and  China.  Its 
general  colour  is  yellow,  passing  into  white  on  the  under-parts ;  a 
dark  chocolate  line  runs  along  the  spine. 

In  South  Africa  Le  Vaillant  observed,  as  he  states,  a  Wild  Ass, 
in  large  herds,  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  which  is  called  by  the 
.  Greater  Namaquas  the  White  Zebra.  If  Le  Vaillant  be  correct,  this 
animal  is  unknown  indeed ;  no  traveller  in  Africa  has  seen  it  but 
himself,  and  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  suggests  that  he  may  have 
mistaken  for  this  Wild  Ass  the  female  of  the  Isabelline  Antelope. 

In  the  Cutch  and  Northern  Goojrat  there  is  a  Wild  Ass,  which 
Colonel  Sykes  identifies  with  the  Dzigguetai  of  Southern  Siberia  and 
the  Ghur  of  Persia,  considering  them  as  one  species,  and  observing 
that  all  the  "  discrepancies  of  descriptions  may  be  easily  remedied 
by  the  supposition  that  animals  examined  by  different  individuals, 
at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  did  really  sMghtly  differ,  owing  to 
the  difference  of  seasons."  "  The  Wild  Ass  of  Cutch  and  the  north 
of  Goojrat  is  not  found  farther  south  in  India  than  Deesa,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Bunnas  river,  in  lat.  about  30"^  30',  nor  have  I  heard  of 
it  to  the  eastward  of  the  75°  of  longitude  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains.  In  Cutch  and  Northern  Goojrat  it  frequents 
the  salt  deserts  and  the  open  plains  of  Thoodpoor,  Jaysulmer.  and 
Bickaneor.  By  swimming  the  Indus  it  may  communicate  through 
Sindh  and  Baloochestand  with  Persia ;  and  in  Persia  it  evidently 
exists,  from  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter's  descriptions  :  to  the  north  and 
east  Persia  abuts  upon  the  peculiar  localities  of  the  Dzigguetai, 
through  Bucharia  to  the  Deserts  of  Gobi,  where  it  delights  in  the 
salt  marshes,  as  it  does  in  India,  and  thence  to  Tartary,  Thibet  and 
South  Siberia."     ("  Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc.;"  1837,  p.  94.) 

The  Wild  Ass  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Central  Asia  ;  herds 
in  summer  are  found  about  the  lake  Aral,  whence  they  migrate 
southwards  in  winter,  returning  northwards  in  the  spring.  The 
Persians  and  Tartars  hold  its  flesh  in  high  esteem,  and  hunt  it  in 
preference  to  all  other  descriptions  of  game.  It  is  found  west  of  the 
Euphrates;  "  indeed  we  are  informed  by  Colonel  Smith,"  says  the 
author  of  the  "  Physical  History  of  Palestine,"  "that  not  only  is  the 
Syrian  Ass  larger  and  more  handsome  than  the  Ghurkhud  of  Persia, 
but  that  the  species  improves  west  of  the  Euphrates,  and  is  very  fine 
in  the  Bahar  el  Abaid,  Africa."     "  Burckhardt  declares  that  Wild 


Asses  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  Arabia  Petraa,  near  the  Gulf 
of  Akaba.  The  Sherarat  Arabs  hunt  them,  and  eat  their  flesh,  but 
not  before  strangers.  They  sell  their  skins  and  hoofs  to  the  ped- 
lars of  Damascus  and  the  people  of  the  Haouran.  The  hoofs  fur- 
nish materials  for  rings,  which  are  worn  by  the  peasants  on  their  . 
thumbs,  or  fastened  under  their  armpits,  as  amulets  against 
rheumatism."     (Notes  on  "  Bedouins.") 

The  Tartars,  Arabs,  and  Persians  are  not  singular  in  their  parti- 
ality for  the  flesh  of  the  Wild  Ass.  The  epicures  of  Rome  held  it  in 
tire  same  estimation  as  wo  do  venison  ;  and  from  a  passage  in  Pliny 
it  would  appear  that  the  species  inhabited  North  Africa,  and  that 
the  most  delicate  and  best  flavoured  fat  foals  {/a/iswaes)  were 
brought  from  that  continent  to  the  Roman  market.  Leo  Africanus 
also  gives  North  Africa  as  the  locality  of  the  Wild  Ass.  We  have 
quoted  before  our  authority  for  stating  that  it  exists  in  Arabia  and  in 
the  Bahar  el  Abaid. 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  there  were,  in 
1879,  the  following  living  specimens  of  Wild  Asses  at  the  Gardens 
m  Regent's  Park:  viz. — The  KiANG  {Equiis  hemwi/'is).  The 
Onager  {E.  onager).     The  Hemippe  {E.  hemippc). 

For  the  fine  female  Kia7ig,  or  Wild  Ass  of  Tibet,  the  only  example 
of  this  animal  in  Europe,  the  Society  is  indebted  to  the  energy  and 
perseverance  of  Major  W.  S.  Hay,  F.Z.S.,  who  brought  it  with  him  ' 
on  his  return  from  India  in  1859.  The  Kiang,  which  is  in  all  pro- 
bability the  true  Eqi/iis  hemioiius  of  Pallas,  is  found  in  herds  in  the 
high  plateau  of  the  Tibet,  at  an  altitude  of  from  15,000  to  16,500  feet 
above  the  sea. 

The  Onager,  or  Wild  Ass  of  the  Asiatic  deserts,  is  represented 
by  several  specimens  from  different  localities,  which  are  known  by 
different  native  names.  The  Giirkhoor,  or  variety  whi'-h  inhabits 
Cutch,  was  first  obtained  for  the  Society  by  Sir  Thomas  Erskine 
Perry.  The  differences  between  it  and  the  Kiang  will  be  obvious  at 
first  sight  on  comparison,  though,  before  the  two  were  brought  into 
juxtaposition,  their  distinctness  was  a  matter  of  much  discussion 
among  naturalists.  This  Ass  inhabits  the  sandy  deserts  of  Cutch  and 
Scinde,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  in  herds,  and  is  noted  for 
swiftness  and  difficulty  of  approach. 

The  Hemippe,  or  Wild  Ass  of  Assyria,  was  considered  as  speci- 
fically distinct  from  that  of  Cutch  by  the  late  M.  Isidore  Geoffroy 
St..  Hilaire,  and  named  Equits  hemippus ;  but,  judging  from  the 
Society's  specimens,  the  two  forms  seem  to  be  very  nearly  akin. 

The  Djiggetai,  or  Dzigguetai  {Equus  hcmionus). — Suppos- 
ing that  this  species  be  identical  with  the  Wild  Ass  of  Cutch  and 
Goojrat,  and  with  the  Khur  (or  Ghurkhud)  of  Persia,  as  we  have 
stated  is  the  opinion  of  Col.  Sykes,  its  range  will  be  very  extensive. 
(See  also  remarks  at  the  end  of  the  preceding  article.)  Its  fleetness 
is  extreme.  Col.  Sykes  states  that  "  Major  Wilkins,  of  the  cavalry 
of  the  Bombay  army,  who  was  stationed  with  his  regiment  for  years 
at  Deesa,  on  the  borders  of  the  Runn,  or  salt  marshes  east  of  Cutch, 
in  his  morning  rides  used  to  start  a  particular  Wild  Ass  so  fre- 
quently, that  it  became  familiar  to  him,  and  he  always  gave  chase 
to  it  ;  and  though  he  piqued  himself  on  being  mounted  on  an 
exceedingly  fleet  Arabian  Horse,  he  never  could  come  up  with  the 
animal."  A  similar  statement  is  given  by  Sir  R.  Ker  Porter  of  the 
Khur,  one  of  which  he  chased  in  vain.  "The  sun  was  just  rising 
over  the  summits  of  the  eastern  mountain  when  my  Greyhound 
suddenly  darted  off  in  pursuit  of  an  animal,  which  my  Persians  said, 
from  the  glimpse  they  had  of  it,  was  an  Antelope.  I  instantly  put 
spurs  to  my  Horse,  and,  with  my  attendants,  gave  chase.  After  an 
unrelaxed  gallop  of  three  miles,  we  came  up  with  the  Dog,  who  was 
then  within  a  short  stretch  of  the  creature  he  pursued,  and,  to  my 
surprise,  and  at  first,  vexation,  I  saw  it  to  be  an  Ass.  Upon  a  mo- 
ment's reflection,  however,  judging  from  its  fleetness  that  it  must 
be  a  wild  one,  a  creature  little  known  in  Europe,  but  which  the 
Persians  prize  above  all  other  animals  as  an  object  of  chase,  I  de- 
termined to  approach  as  near  to  it  as  the  very  swift  Arab  I  was  on 
would  carry  me.  But  the  single  instant  of  checking  my  Horse  to 
consider,  had  given  our  game  such  a  lead  of  us,  that,  notwithstand- 
ing all  our  speed,  we  could  not  recover  our  ground  on  him.  I,  how- 
ever, happened  to  be  considerably  before  my  companions,  when,  at 
a  certain  distance,  the  animal,  in  its  turn,  made  a  pause,  and 
allowed  me  to  approach  within  pistol-shot  of  him  :jhe  then  darted  off 
again  with  the  quickness  of  thought,  capering,  kicking,  and  sport- 
ino-  in  his  flight,  as  if  he  was  not  blown  in  the  least,  and  the  chase 
was  his  pastime.  When  my  followers  of  the  country  came  up,  they 
regretted  that  I  had  not  shot  the  creature  when  he  was  within  my 
aim,  telling  me  that  his  flesh  is  one  of  the  greatest  delicacies  in 
Persia.  The  prodigious  swiftness  and  peculiar  manner  in  which  he 
fled  across  the  plain  coincided  exactly  with  the  description  that 
Xenophon  gives  of  the  same  animal  in  Arabia.  But,  above  all,  it 
reminded  me  of  the  striking  portrait  drawn  by  the  author  of  the 
Book  of  Job.  I  was  informed  by  the  Mehmendar,  who  had  been  in 
the  desert  when  making  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  Ali,  that  the 
Wild  Ass  of  Irak  Arabi  differs  in  nothing  from  the  one  I  had  just 
seen.  He  had  observed  them  often,  for  a  short  time,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Arabs,  who  told  him  the  creature  was  perfectly  untame- 
able.     A  few  days  after  this   discussion,  we  saw  another  of  these 


THE  MULE. 


209 


animals,  and,  pursuing  it  determinedly,  had  the  good  fortune  to  kill 
it." 

The  Djiggetai  lives  in  troops,  under  the  conduct  of  a  leader, 
whose  motions  the  rest  follow.  Ever  quick  and  watchful,  they  take 
the  alarm  on  the  least  appearance  of  danger,  and,  on  the  approach 
of  the  enemy,  skim  the  desert,  clear  hills  and  rocks,  and  bid   dcfi- 


Fig.  759. — Group  of  Djiggetai. 

ance  to  pursuit.  It  is  easy  to  conceive  the  difficulties  attending  the 
chase  of  this  fleet  and  wary  animal  ;  indeed,  without  the  aid  of  fire- 
arms, pursuit  would  be  in  vain.  Fig.  759  represents  a  group  of  these 
animals. 

With  all  its  attractions,  this  spirited,  beautiful  creature  has  never 
been  brought  into  the  service  of  man.  It  is,  indeed,  extremely 
vicious,  and  uses  its  heels  on  the  most  trifling  occasion,  kicking 
violently,  and  for  a  considerable  time  together,  rendering  it  danger- 
ous for  a  person  to  venture  near  it.     Yet  it  appears  that  in  India  it 


has  occasionally  been  tamed ;  and  M.  Dussumicr  states,  "  a  Euro- 
pean resident  at  Ciitch  had  a  Djiggetai  which  was  accustomed  to 
follow  hmi  m  his  rides.  One  day,  having  ended  his  ride  at  a  larce 
sheet  of  water,  he  went  on  board  a  boat ;  the  animal  remained  for 
sorne  time,  at  first  quiet,  on  the  shore,  but  becoming  impatient  on 
findmg  that  tlie  boat  did  not  soon  return,  he  took  to  the  water,  and 
swimming,  came  up  with  it,  and  followed 
it  to  the  end  of  the  excursion." 

The  Mule.— The  Mule  is  the  offspring 
of  the  male  Ass  and  Mare ;  the  offspring 
of  the  Horse  and  female  Ass  is  termed  the 
liinny,  and  is  a  small,  inferior  animal,  of 
little  value.  The  Mule  in  general  has  the 
form  of  the  Ass,  in  some  respects  modi- 
fied, and  on  a  larger  scale  ;  but  the  head 
and  tail  approach  nearer  to  those  of  the 
Horse.  We  learn  that  the  Mule  was  bred 
in  ancient  times  ;  it  is  noticed  in  the  reign 
of  David,  when  it  appears  to  have  been 
in  common  use  for  the  saddle,  and  conse- 
quently must  have  been  known  much 
earlier.  The  first  mention  of  Mules  is  in 
Genesis  xxxiv.  24  ;  but  the  true  meaning 
of  the  word  thus  rendered  is  doubtful. 
Bochart  is  of  opinion  that  the  word  (yemin) 
really  denotes  a  gigantic  people,  and  this 
opinion  has  the  sanction  ot  the  Samari- 
tan text  and  version ;  while  the  Syriac 
renders  the  word  as  "waters,"  in  which 
meaning  St.  Jerome,  Gesenius,  and  others 
concur. 

At  the  present   day  there    are  various 
breeds  of  ^Iules  in  Syria,  and  very  beauti- 
ful animals  are  produced  between   high- 
blood  Arab  Mares  and  well  selected  male 
Asses.     (See   Fig.   761.)     In   Europe,  the 
Spanish  Mule  is  deservedly  celebrated,  as 
is  also  the  Spanish  Ass. 
In  Spain,  the  muleteer  is  the  general  medium  of  traffic,  and  the 
legitimate  traverser  of  the  land,  crossing  the   Peninsula  from   the 
Pyrenees   and   the    Asturias  to    the  Alpuxarras,   the    Serrania   de 
Ronda,  and  even  to  the  gates  of  Gibraltar.     He  lives  frugally  and 
hardily :  his  alforjas  of  coarse  cloth  hold  his  scanty  stock  of  pro- 
visions ;  a  leathern  bottle,  hanging  at  his  saddle-bow,  contains  wine 
or  water,  for  a  supply  across  barren   mountains  and  thirsty  plains. 
A  Mule-cloth  spread  upon  the  ground  is  his  bed  at  night,  and  his 
packsaddle   is  his  pillow.     His    low  but  clean-limbed  and  sinewy 
form  betokens  strength  ;  his  complexion  is  dark  and  sunburnt ;  his 
eye  resolute,  but  quiet  in  its  expression,  except  when  kindled  by 
sudden  emotion  ;  his  demeanour  is  frank,  manly,  and  courteous,  and 
he  never  passes  you  without  a  grave  salutation — "  Dies  guarde  a 
usted  !  "     "  Va  usted  con  Dios,   Caballero  !  "     "God   guard  you! 
God  be  with  you,  Cavalier  !  " 

In  all  mountain  countries,  the  Mule,  from  its  sureness  of  foot,  its 
instinctive  caution  in  choosing  the  path,  and  the  management  of  its 
proceeding  in  descending  a  perilous  and  steep  track,  is  eminently 
serviceable.  It  is  employed  in  the  Andes,  where  it  has  superseded 
the  Llama.     (See  Fig.  762.) 


Fig.  760.- -The  Mule. 


Fig.  761. — The  Domestic.-iteil  Mule. 

The  Mule  does  not  breed  with  the  Mule,  but  has  occasionally 
been  known  to  breed  with  the  Mare  ;  and  an  instance  occurred 
in  the  gardens  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  of  a  Mare  producing  a  Foal,  of 
which  the  male  parent  was  a  hybrid  between  the  Zebra  and  the 

The  use  of  the  Mule  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  also  in  the 
countries  of  the  East,  is  too  well  known,  and  has  been  too  often 


300 


THE  MULE— THE  ZEBRA. 


described  by  travellers,  to  need  our  enlarging  upon  it.  Next  to  the 
Horse,  it  is  our  most  valuable  beast  of  burden,  and  in  some  situa- 
tions far  preferable.  In  England,  however,  it  is  not  in  request,  nor 
is  any  care  taken  in  the  acquisition  of  a  fine  race  ;  yet  its  hardiness, 
strength,  and  power  of  enduring  fatigue  are  great  recommendations 
in  its  favour. 


He 


Fig.  762, — The  Mule  in  Mountainous  Regions, 

"The  word  MULE,"  observes  Mr.  Bell,  "is  doubtless  derived 
from  /iiSXoe,  labour ;  from  whence  the  Latin  mithis,  which  affords 
the  Italian  mulo,  the  French  ?nulei,  and  our  mule.  It  was  formerly 
called  Moyle  and  Moil ;  and  this  word  is  still  employed,  both  in  the 


Fig.  763.-  -The  Zebra, 


southern  counties  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  to  signify  labour. 
Thus  Burns,  in  his  exquisite  '  Cotter's  Saturday-night' — 

"  The  toil-worn  cotter  frae  his  labour  goes; 
This  night  his  weekly  n:ail  is  at  an  end." 

adds — "Mr.  Yarrell  informs  me  that  in  Cornwall  the  word 
moyle  signifies  barren  :  this  is  a  very  re- 
markable coincidence;  and,  after  all,  may 
probably  be  the  etymology  of  the  last-men- 
tioned name  of  our  animal."  A  Mule  may 
be  produced  between  the  Zebra  and  the 
Mare,  or  the  Quagga  and  the  Mare. 

"  Some  years  since,  the  Earl  of  Moreton, 
being  desirous  of  obtaining  a  breed  between 
the  Horse  and  the  Quagga  (Burchell's 
Zebra  ?),  selected  a  young  Mare  of  seven- 
eighths  Arabian  blood,  and  a  fine  male 
of  the  latter  species  ;  the  produce  was  a 
female  hybrid.  The  same  Mare  had  after- 
wards, first  a  Filly,  and  next  a  Colt,  by  a 
fine  black  Arabian  Horse.  They  both, 
strange  to  say,  resembled  the  Quagga  in 
the  dark  line  along  the  back,  the  stripes 
across  the  forehead,  and  the  bars  across 
the  legs.  In  the  Filly  the  mane  was  short, 
stiff,  and  upright,  like  that  of  the  Quagga. 
In  the  Colt  it  was  long,  but  so  stiff  as  to 
arch  upwards,  and  hang  clear  of  the  sides  of 
the  neck  ;  in  other  respects  they  were  nearly 
Arabian,  as  might  have  been  expected  from 
fifteen-sixteenths  Arabian  blood." 

To  the  physiologist  this  circumstance 
opens  an  interesting  subject  for  investiga- 
tion, nor  is  the  fact  unimportant  to  the 
breeders  of  animals,  inasmuch  as  it  incon- 
testably  proves  that  the  characters  of  the 
male  parent  of  the  mother's  first  progeny 
exert  a  marked  influence  on  her  subsequent 
offspring,  whatever  may  be  the  peculiarities 
of  the  father  of  the  latter. 

The  Zebra  {Equus  zebra ;  Equtts  man- 
tanus,    Burchell). — This    beautiful    animal 
is   a  native  of   the    mountain    districts   of 
southern  Africa,  and  is  found,  according  to  various  writers,  in  Congo, 
Guinea,  and  even  Abyssinia,  according  to  Ludolphe.     Bruce,  how- 
ever, states  that  "  the  Zebra  is  found  nowhere  in  Abyssinia,  except 
in  the   south-west  extremity   of  Kuora,    amid   the    Shangalia   and 
Galla,  in  Narea  and  Caff,  and  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Dyre  and  Tegla,  and  thence  to  the 
southward."     It  is  called,  in  South  Africa, 
^  Wilde  Paarde  by  the  Cape  colonists. 

The  Zebra  is  regularly  striped,  even  down 
to  the  hoofs,  with  glossy  brownish-black  on 
a  white  or  yellowish-white  ground.  The 
ears  are  long,  the  neck  short  and  deep, 
with  a  sort  of  dewlap  under  the  throat,  pro- 
duced by  a  loose  fold  of  the  skin  ;  the  mane 
is  short,  and  the  tail  sparely  clad  with  long 
hair.     (See  Fig.  763.) 

Wild  and  swift,  this  species  lives  in 
troops  in  the  bold  ranges  of  craggy  moun- 
tains, remote  from  the  abodes  of  man.  Its 
disposition  is  savage  and  intractable,  and 
it  is  by  no  means  easily  obtained,  not  only 
from  its  fleetness,  but  from  the  nature  of 
the  locality  it  frequents,  where,  like  the 
Wild  Ass  of  Tartary,  "  the  wilderness 
and  the  barren  land  is  his  dwelling;  he 
scorneth  the  multitude  of  the  city." 

The  Zoological  Society  of  London  has 
some  fine  specimens  of  the  Zebra  in  their 
Gardens  at  Regent's  Park. 

There  are  three  species  of  Zebra — the 
Black  and  White,  or  true  Zebra,  which  in- 
habits the  mountains  already  described ; 
Burchell's  Zebra,  or  the  Black  and  Yellow 
Zebra,  which  inhabits  the  plains  ;  and  the 
Quagga.  Burchell's  Zebra  {Equus  bur- 
chellii)  is  found  in  great  numbers  north  of 
the  Orange  River,  according  to  Sir  Corn- 
wallis  Harris : — 

"  Seldom  congregating  in  herds  of  fewer 
than  eighty  or  a  hundred,  it  abounds,  to  a 
great  extent,  in  all  the  districts  included 
between  that  noble  stream  and  the  southern 
tropic.  Occupying  the  same  regions,  and 
delighting   in   the   same  pastures,   as  the 


THE  ZEBRA— THE  QUAGGA. 


^o\ 


Brindled  Gnu,  rarely  is  it  to  be  seen  unless  in  the  companionship  of 
that  fantastic  animal,  whose  presence  would  seem  to  be  almost 
indispensable  to  its  happiness.  It  is  singular  enough,  that  the 
members  of  two  families,  so  perfectly  foreign  to  each  other,  should 
display  so  great  a  predilection  for  each  other's  society,  uniformly 
intermixing  as  they  do,  and  herding  in  bonds  of  the  closest  friend- 
ship. Fierce,  strong,  and  fleet,  and  surpassingly  beautiful,  there 
is,  perhaps,  no  quadruped  in  the  creation,  not  even  excepting  the 
Mountain  Zebra,  more  splendidly  attired,  or  presenting  a  picture 
of  more  singularly  attractive 
beauty  than  the  free-born  son 
of  the  desert." 

Burchell's  Zebra  is  strong 
and  muscular,  with  sinewy 
limbs,  and  might,  perhaps,  be 
made  serviceable  to  man.  It 
is  an  animal  that  admits  of 
being  tamed,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, with  facility ;  and  occa- 
sionally a  half-domesticated 
specimen  is  exposed  for  sale 
at  Cape  Town,  with  a  rider  on 
its  back.  The  persons,  how- 
ever, who  have  had  most  op- 
portunities of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  its  character, 
regard  it,  tractable  as  it  may 
sometimes  appear,  as  treacher- 
ous, fickle,  vicious,  and  obsti 
nate.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact 
that  this  species,  and  tho 
Quagga  also,  are  often  seen  in 
company  with  the  Ostrich ; 
several  of  the  latter  feeding 
tranquilly  in  the  midst  of  a 
herd,  without  experiencing  any 
molestation. 

This  species  may  be  distin- 
guished from  its  mountain  re- 
lative by  the  shortness  of  its 
ears,  by  the  absence  of  stripes 
on  the  limbs  and  under-surface 
of  the  body,  and  by  the  stripes 
of  the  upper  parts  being  brown. 

These  animals  present  a 
brilliant  appearance  when  fly- 
ing in  troops  before  the  hunter. 
Their  flesh  (with  that  of  the 
Zebra  and  Quagga)  is  relished 
by  the  natives,  but   INIr.    Bur- 

chell  thought  it  not  much  superior  to  horseflesh,  and  lie  would, 
with  most  Europeans,  think  the  same  respecting  the  flesh  of  the 
Wild  Ass,  which  in  Persia  is  in  the  highest  estimation,  and  served 
at  royal  banquets.  The  drawing  (Fig.  764)  represents  the  spearing 
of  one  of  these  animals  by  a  mounted  Caffre. 

The  Quagga  {Equus  q2/agga). — Like  the  preceding  species, 
the  Quagga  is  a  native  of  the  plain,  and  occurs  south  of  the  Orange 
river"  within   the  limits  of  the  Cape    Colony.      It  roams  in  large 


distinctly  on  the  sides  of  the  body  ;  the  haunches  are  greyish  ;  the 
under-parts,  tail,  and  legs,  white.  In  its  temper  the  Quagga  is  wild 
and  vicious  ;  nevertheless,  it  is  said  to  be  sometimes  employed  by 
the  natives  for  the  purposes  of  draught.     (See  Fig.  765.) 

Fossils  of  the  Horse  TRinE. 

We  have  already  stated  that  fossil  relics  of  animals  of  the  genus 
Equus  are  abundant,  and  very  widely  dispersed.    They  occur  in  the 


/ 


T':'m, 


'ffi^/(^^ 


Fig.  765.— The  Quagga. 

herds,  as  does  Burchell's  Zebra  ;  but  tho  herds  of  the  two  animals 
never  mingle  together,  nor  are  the  two  species  known  to  produce  a 
mixed  progeny. 

The  Quagga  is  far  inferior  to  Burchell's  Zebra,  both  in  size  and 
beauty ;  its  ground  colour  is  a  dull,  brownish-white,  clouded  and 
Striped  with  a  darker  colour  on  the  head,  neck,  and  withers,  and  less 


Fig.  764. — Burchell's  Zebra. 

third  period  of  the  Tertiary  series  (Pliocene  of  Lyell),  in  the  fresh- 
water deposits  in  what  is  called  diluvial  detritus,  in  superfacial 
gravels,  sands,  and  clays,  in  the  ossiferous  caverns,  in  the  osseous 
breccia,  and  in  the  Eppelsheim  sand,  &c.  Sir  P.  Cautley  found 
bones  of  the  Horse  (but  not  in  abundance)  among  other  fossil  re- 
mains, lying  on  the  slopes,  among  the  ruins  of  the  fallen  cliffs,  and 
also  ?■«  situ  in  the  sandstone  of  the  Sewalik  Mountains,  at  the 
southern  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  between  the  Sutlej  and  the  Ganges. 

Several  species  of  Equus  have  been  recorded,  as  Equus  fossilis 
(E.  adamiticus,  Schlotheim),  Equus  [caballus)  p-unigenius: 
Equus  (mulus)  p-imigenius  ;  Equus  [asuius)  prumgcmus.  It 
is  very  probable  that  these  recorded  species  may  be  really  distinct 
from  each  other;  yet  it  is  by  no  means  certain,  for  it  would  appear 
that  it  is  rather  upon  size- than  any  definite  and  persistent  charac- 
ters that  the  distinctions  are  founded.  Indeed,  the  bones  of  the 
living  species  do  not  afford  any  certain  data  by  which  to  discrimi- 
nate  one  from  another.  Cuvier  informs  us  that  he  had  carefully 
compared  the  skeletons  of  many  varieties  of  Horses,  those  ot  the 
Mule,  of  the  Ass,  the  Zebra,  and  the  Quagga,  and  that  he  could 
never  find  a  character  sufficiently  fixed  to  enable  him  to  pronounce 
on  a  species  from  an  isolated  bone.  Size,  he  obscr\-es,  furnishes 
but  incomplete  marks  of  distinction.  Horses  and  Asses  vary  much 
in  this  respect,  from  their  states  of  domestication  ;  and  he  adds, 
that  though  he  had  not  yet  procured  the  skeleton  of  a  Djiggetai,  he 
doubted  not  its  resemblance  to  the  other  species  as  much  as  they 
resemble  each  other  in  the  same  particular..  To  distinguish  tii,_ 
skeleton,  or  a  few  bones  of  the  skeleton,  of  the  Zebra  from  those  of 
Burchell's  Zebra,  or  the  Quagga,  or  the  Djigsetai,  is  indeed  diffi- 
cult ;  but  still,  where  the  relics  indicate  great  d.fterence  of  siz^  to 
have  existed,  taking  into  account  the  circumstance  that  the  extinct 
Enui^se'ca  wild,  there  is  a  chance  of  making  distinctions.^ 

Some  interesling  details,  in  regard  to  the  fo^^■  -XonfoloU  " 
Horse  tribe,  will  be  lound  in  Protestor  Owen  s  '  Palaeontology 
and  Morris's  "  Catalogue  of  British  Fossils."  We  have  discovered 
teeth  0°  the  HoVse  in  a  fossihsed  state,  frequently  m  the  London 
day^  in  the  north  of  the  metropolis  between  Crouch  End,  Highgatc. 
and  approaching  Hampstead. 


302 


FACHYDERMATA,   OR  THICK-SKINNED  MAMMALIA. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  PACHYDERMATA— ELEPHANTS,  Etc. 


HE  PACHYDERMATA,  a  term  derived  from 

two    Greek    words — pachus,    thick,    and 

dc?->!ia,  skin — as  the  name  implies,  includes 

those  animals  whose  outer  skin  is  of  a  thick 

character.    The  Elephant,  Rhinoceros, 

Hippopotamus,   Pig,  &c.,   arc,  therefore, 

embraced  in  it.     They  belong  to  the  Ungti- 

lated,  or  Hoofed  animals,  in  which  are  also 

included    the    Horse    and    the    Ruminants 

that  have  been  described  in  the  preceding 

chapters.     But  the    Pachydcrmata    differ  in   that 

none  of  the  kind  ruminate,  yet  they  have   several 

affinities   with    the    Ruminant   animals,   and    the 

Equidaj,  or  Horse  tribe. 

On  this  subject  Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  of 
all  existing  hoofed  quadrupeds,  it  would  hardly  be 
anticipated  that  the  Rhinoceros  presented  the 
nearest  affinity  to  the  Horse ;  one  might  rather 
look  to  the  light  Camel  or  Dromedary ;  but  a 
f  "7  different  modification  of  the  entire  skeleton  may  be 
traced  in  the  animals  with  toes  in  even  number,  as 
compared  with  the  Horse  and  other  odd-toed 
hoofed  quadrupeds.  In  an  extinct  kind  of  Horse 
{Hippopothcrium),  the  two  splint-bones  are  more 
developed,  and  each  supports  three  phalanges,  the 
last  being  provided  with  a  diminutive  hoof.  In  the  e.xtinct 
Palaotheria  the  outer  and  inner  digits  acquired  stronger  propor- 
tions, and  the  entire  foot  was  shortened.  The  transition  from  the 
PalcBotheria,  by  the  extinct  hornless  Rhinoceros  [Acefoikerium), 
to  the  existing  forms  of  Rhinoceros  is  completed.  In  the  skeleton 
of  the  Rhinoceros,  we  find  resemblance  to  the  Horse  in  the  number 
of  the  dorsal  vertebra,  in  the  third  trochanter  of  the  femur,  and  in 
the  number  of  digits  on  each  foot,  albeit  the  two  that  are  hidden  and 
rudimental  in  the  swifter  quadruped,  are  here  made  manifest  in 
their  full  development  :  the  concomitant  shortening  of  the  whole 
foot,  and  strengthening  of  the  entire  limbs,  accord  with  the  greater 
weight  of  the  body  to  be  supported,  clad  as  it  is  with  a  coat  armour 
of  thickened  tuberculated  hide  :  the  broader  feet,  terminated  each 
by  three  hoofs,  afford  a  better  basis  of  support  in  the  swampy 
localities  affected  by  the  Rhinoceros.  Both  scapulas  and  iliac  bones 
are  of  greater  breadth  and  less  length.  The  ulna  is  fully  developed 
in  thefore-limb,  and  the  fibula  in  the  hind-leg;  but  there  is  no 
power  of  rotation  of  the  fore-limb  in  any  hoofed  quadruped.  The 
upper  surface  of  the  skull  is  roughened  for  the  attachment  of 
the  horn,  and  in  two  distinct  places  where  the  species  has  two 
horns. 

If  the  equine  skull  be  compared  with  that  of  the  Rhinoceros,  the 
basioccipital  will  be  seen  to  be  narrower  and  more  convex.  The 
true  mastoid  intervenes,  as  a  tuberous  process,  between  the  post- 
tympanic  and  paroccipital  processes,  clearly  indicating  the  true  nature 
of  the  post-tympanic  in  the  Rhinoceros  ;  the  Tapir  shows  an  inter- 
mediate condition  of  the  mastoid  between  the  Rhinoceros  and 
Horse.  The  latter  differs  from  both  the  Tapir  and  Rhinoce- 
ros in  the  outward  production  of  the  sharp  roof  of  the  orbit, 
and  the  completion  of  the  bony  frame  of  that  cavity  behind 
by  the  junction  of  the  postorbital  process  with  the  zygoma. 
The  temporal  fossa,  so  defined,  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  skull ;  the  base  of  the  postorbital  process  is 
perforated  by  a  superorbital  foramen  ;  the  lachrymal  canal 
begins  by  a  single  foramen.  The  premaxillaries  extend  to 
the  nasals,  and  shut  out  the  maxillaries  from  the  anterior 
aperture  of  the  nostrils.  The  chief  marks  of  afSnity  to  other 
odd-toed  hoofed  beasts  [Pcrissodactylcs]  are  seen  in  the 
shape,  size,  and  formation  of  the  posterior  aperture  of  the 
nostrils,  the  major  part  of  which  is  bounded  by  the  palatine 
bones,  of  which  only  a  small  portion  enters  into  the  forma- 
tion of  the  bony  palate,  which  terminates  behind,  opposite 
the  interspace  between  the  penultimate  and  last  molars.  A 
narrow  groove  divides  the  palatopterygoid  process  from  the 
socket  of  the  last  molar,  as  in  the  Tapir  and  Rhinoceros. 
The  pterygoid  process  has  but  little  antero-posterior  extent : 
its  base  is  perforated  by  the  ectocarotid  canal.  The  entoptery- 
goids  are  thin  plates  applied  like  splints  over  the  inner  side  of_ the 
squamous  suture,  between  the  pterygoid  processes  of  the  palatines 
and  the  alisphenoids.  The  postglenoid  process  in  the  Horse  is  less 
developed  than  in  the  Tapir.  The  eustachian  process  is  long  and 
styliform.  There  is  an  anterior  condyloid  foramen,  and  a  wide 
"fissura  lascera."  The  broad  and  convex  bases  of  the  nasals 
articulate  with  the  frontals  a  little  behind  the  anterior  boundary  of 


the  orbits.  The  space  between  the  incisors  and  molars  is  of  greater 
extent  than  in  the  Tapir;  a  long  diastema  is  not,  however,  peculiar 
to  the  Horse;  and,  although  it  allows  the  application  of  the  bit, 
that  application  depends  rather  upon  the  general  nature  of  the 
Horse,  and  its  consequent  susceptibility  to  be  broken  in,  than  upon 
a  particular  structure  which  it  possesses  in  common  with  the  Rumi- 
nants and  some  other  Herbivora. 

The  Tapir  and  the  Rock  Cony  have  four  digits  on  each  fore-foot, 
and  three  digits  on  each  hind-foot  ;  but  they  resemble  more  the 
Horse  and  Rhinoceros  than  any  other  Vngulata.  If  the  osteo- 
logical  characters  of  the  hoofed  animals  with  the  hind  digits  in  un- 
even number  be  compared  together,  they  will  be  found  to  present, 
notwithstanding  the  differences  of  form,  proportion,  and  size  pre- 
sented by  the  Rhinoceros,  Hyrax,  Tapir,  and  Horse,  the  following 
points  of  agreement,  which  are  the  more  significative  of  natural 
affinity  when  contrasted  with  the  skeletons  of  the  hoofed  animals 
with  digits  in  even  number.  Thus,  in  the  odd-toed,  or  "  perisso- 
dactyle"  ungulates,  the  dorso-lumbar  vertebras  differ  in  different 
species,  but  are  never  fewer  than  twenty-two  ;  the  femur  has  a  third 
trochanter,  and  the  medullary  artery  does  not  penetrate  the  fore 
part  of  its  shaft.  The  fore  part  of  the  astragalus  is  divided  into  two 
very  unequal  facets.  The  os  magnum,  and  the  digitus  medius 
which  it  supports  is  large,  in  some  disproportionately,  and  the  digit 
is  symmetrical ;  the  same  applies  to  the  ectocunciform,  and  the 
digit  it  supports  in  the  hind-foot.  If  the  species  be  horned,  the 
horn  is  single ;  or  if  there  be  two,  they  are  placed  on  the  median 
line  of  the  head,  one  behind  the  other,  each  being  thus  a  single  or 
odd  horn.  There  is  a  well-developed  post-tympanic  process,  which 
is  separated  by  the  true  mastoid  from  the  paroccipital  in  the 
Horse,  but  unites  with  the  lower  part  of  the  paroccipital  in  the  Tapir, 
and  seems  to  take  the  place  of  the  mastoid  in  the  Rhinoceros  and 
Hyrax.  The  hinder  half,  or  a  larger  proportion  of  the  palatines 
enters  into  the  formation  of  the  posterior  nares,  the  oblique  aperture 
of  which  commences  in  advance  of  the  last  molar,  and,  in  most,  of 
the  penultimate  one.  The  pterygoid  process  has  a  broad  and  thick 
base,  and  is  perforated  lengthwise  by  the  ectocarotid.  The  crowns 
of  the  antepenultimate,  as  well  as  the  penultimate  and  last  pre- 
molars, are  as  complex  as  those  of  the  molars  ;  that  of  the  last 
lower  milk-molar  is  bilobed.  To  these  osteological  and  dental 
characters  may  be  added  some  important  modifications  of  internal 
structure,  as,  e.g.,  the  simple  form  of  the  stomach,  and  the  capa- 
cious ancl  sacculated  caecum,  equally  indicating  the  mutual  affinities 
of  the  odd-toed  or  perissodactyle  hoofed  quadrupeds,  and  their 
claims  to  be  regarded  as  a  natural  group  of  the  Ungulata.  Many 
extinct  genera,  e.g.,  Lophiodoti,  Tapirothertum,  Palcsotheri'nm, 
Hippotherittm,  Ace7-otheriuin,  ]SIacratiche7iia,  Elasmoiherium, 
Coryphodo7i,  have  been  discovered,  which  once  linked  together  the 
now  broken  series  of  Perissodactyla,  represented  by  the  existing 
genera.  Rhinoceros,  Hyrax,  Tapyrus,  and  Equus. 

In  respect  to  the  osteology  of  the  Pachydermata  generally,  Pro- 
fessor Owen  remarks  that  it  may  be  illustrated  in  the  Hippopotamus 
(Fig.  766).     The  skeleton,  in  its  strength  and  massiveness,  presents 


Fig.  766. — Skeleton  of  the  Hippopotamus. 

a  greater  contrast  with  that  of  the  Giraffe,  than  the  Rhinoceros's 
skeleton  does  with  that  of  the  Horse  ;  there  are,  nevertheless,  more 
essential  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Giraffe's  skeleton  than  to 
that  of  the  Rhinoceros.  In  points  of  minor  importance  we  find  the 
Hippopotamus  resembling  the  Rhinoceros  ;  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  short- 
ness and  strength  of  its  neck  ;  but  it  has  only  fifteen  dorsal,  d,  and 
four  lumbar,  /,  vertebra;      The  spines  of  these  vertcbr:c  arc  shorter 


DENTITION  OF  THE  PACHYDERMATA. 


303 


and  less  unequal  than  in  the  Ruminants  ;  and  they  have  an  almost 
uniform  direction,  as  in  all  quadrupeds  that  do  not  move  by  leaps  or 
bounds.  The  tail  is  short,  and,  in  the  living  animal,  compressed, 
acting  like  a  rudder.  The  bones  of  the  limbs  are  short  and  thick. 
In  the  scapula,  51,  the  acromion  is  slightly  produced,  and  the 
coracoid  recurved.  The  great  tuberosity  of  the  humerus,  53,  is 
divided  into  two  sub-equal  processes.  The  ulna  and  radius  have 
coalesced  at  their  extrumities,  and  at  the  middle  of  their  shaft,  the 
interosseous  space  being  indicated  by  a  deep  groove  and  two  holes. 
In  the  carpal  series  of  bones,  the  trapezium  is  present,  but  docs  not 
support  any  digit ;  the  innermost,  answering  to  the  thumb  or  pollex, 
therefore,  is  the  one  which  is  absent  ;  of  the  remaining  four  digits, 
the  two  middle,  answering  to  the  third  and  fourth,  are  most  de- 
veloped. The  femur  has  no  third  trochanter.  The  fibula  is  distinct 
from  the  radius,  and  extends  from  its  proximal  end  to  the  calcaneum. 
The  entocuneiform  bone  is  present  in  the  tarsus,  but  there  is  no  rudi- 
ment of  the  innermost  toe  or  hallux  ;  the  proportions  of  the  other 
four  toes  resemble  those  on  the  fore-foot. 

The  skull  is  remarkable  for  the  prominence  and  high  position  of 
the  orbits,  which  allow  the  eye  to  be  projected  above  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  a  survey  to  be  made,  by  the  suspicious  animal,  with- 
out the  exposure  of  any  other  part  of  the  head.  The  upper  jaw  is 
peculiar  for  the  development  of  the  sockets  of  the  great  canine 
teeth,  and  the  lower  jaw  combines,  with  the  like  character,  an  un- 
usual production  and  curvature  of  the  angle. 

In  regard  to  the  teeth  of  the  Pachydcj-fiiafa,  Professor  Owen 
remarks  that  the  most  complex  condition  of  teeth  adapted  to  a 
vegetable  diet  is  that  pre- 
sented by  the  Elephant. 
The  dentition  of  the  genus 
Ele;plias  includes  two  long 
tusks  (Fig.  767),  one  in  each 
of  the  intermaxillary  bones, 
and  large  and  complex  mo- 
lars (zii),  711  3,  4,  and  5,  in 
both  jaws ;  of  the  latter 
there  is  never  more  than 
one  wholly,  or  two  partially, 
in  place  and  use  on  each 
side  at  any  given  time,  for 
the  scries  is  continually  in 
progress  of  formation  and 
destruction,  of  shedding 
and  replacement ;  and  all 
the  grinders  succeed  one 
another,  like  true  molars, 
horizontally,  from  behind 
forward.  The  total  number 
of  teeth  developed  in  the 
Elephant    appears     to     be 

2—2         7—7 

»;r^'  ''^^  =  32.  the 
0—0     1 —^ 

two  large  permanent  inci- 
sors being  preceded  by  two 
small  deciduous  teeth,  and 
the  number  of  molar  teeth 
which    follow    one    another 

on  each  side  of  both  jaws  being  seven,  or  at  least  six,  of  which  the 
last  three  may,  by  analogy,  be  regarded  as  answering  to  the  true 
molars  of  other  Pachyderms. 

The  incisors  not  only  surpass  other  teeth  in  size,  as  belonging  to 
a  quadruped  so  enormous,  but  they  are  the  largest  of  all  teeth  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body,  representing,  in  a  natural  state, 
those  monstrous  tusks  of  the  Rodents,  which  are  the  result  of  acci- 
dental suppression  of  the  wearing  force  of  the  opposite  teeth. 

The  tusks  of  the  Elephant  consist  chiefly  of  that  modification  of 
dentine  that  is  called  "  ivory,"  and  which  shows,  on  transverse  frac- 
tures or  sections,  stria;  proceeding  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  from  the 
centre  to  the  circumference,  in  opposite  directions,  and'forming,  by 
their  decussations,  curvilinear  lozenges.  This  character  is  peculiar 
to  the  tusks  of  the  Proboscidian  Pachyderms. 

In  the  Indian  Elephant,  the  tusks  are  always  short  and  straight  in 
the  female,  and  less  deeply  implanted  than  in  the  male  ;  she  thus 
retaining,  as  usual,  more  of  the  characters  of  the  immature  state. 
In  the  male  they  have  been  known  to  acquire  a  length  of  nine  feet, 
with  a  basal  diameter  of  eight  inches,  and  to  weigh  150  lbs.  ;  but 
these  dimensions  are  rare  in  the  Asiatic  species. 

A  Mammoth's  tusk  has  been  dredged  up  off  Dungeness,  which 
measured  eleven  feet  in  length.  (See  Owen's  "  History  of  British 
Fossil  Mammalia,"  8vo,  1844,  p.  244.)  In  several  of  the  instances  of 
Mammoth's  tusks  from  British  strata,  the  ivory  has  been  so  little 
altered  as  to  be  fit  for  the  purposes  of  manufacture  ;  and  the  tusks  of 
the  Mammoth,  which  are  still  better  preserved  in  the  frozen  drift  of 
Siberia,  have  long  been  collected  in  great  numbers  as  articles  of 
commerce.  In  the  account  of  the  Mammoth's  bones  and  teeth  of 
Siberia,  published  in  the  "Philosophical   Transactions  "   for   1737, 


Fig.  767.— Section  of  the  Skull  and  Teeth 
of  Elephant. 


No.  446,  tusks  are  cited  which  weighed  200  lbs.  each,  and  "  are 
used  as  ivory,  to  make  combs,  boxes',  and  such  other  thincjs,  being 
but  little  more  brittle,  and  easily  turning  yellow  by  weather  and 
heat."  From  that  time  to  the  present  there  has  been  no  intermission 
in  the  supply  of  ivory,  furnished  by  the  tusks  of  the  extinct  Elephants 
of  a  former  world. 

The  musket-balls  and  other  foreign  bodies  which  arc  occasionally 
found  in  ivory,  are  immediately  surrounded  by  osteo-dentinc  in 
greater  or  less  quantity.  It  has  often  been  a  matter  of  wonder  how 
such  bodies  should  become  completely  imbedded  in  the  substance 
of  the  tusk,  sometimes  without  any  visible  aperture,  or  how  leaden 
bullets  may  have  become  lodged  in  the  solid  centre  of  a  very  large 
tusk  without  having  been  flattened.  The  explanation  is  as  follows  : 
—a  musket-ball,  aimed  at  the  head  of  an  Elephant,  may  penetrate 
the  thin  bony  socket  and  the  thinner  ivory  parietes  of  the  wide 
conical  pulp-cavity  occupying  the  inserted  base  of  the  tusk  ;  if  the 
projectile  force  be  there  spent,  the  ball  will  gravitate  to  the  opposite 
and  lower  side  of  the  pulp-cavity.  The  presence  of  the  foreign  body 
exciting  inflammation  of  the  pulp,  an  irregular  course  of  calcification 
ensues,  which  results  in  the  deposition,  around  the  ball,  of  a  certain 
thickness  of  osteo-dentine.  The  pulp  then  resuming  its  healthy 
state  and  functions,  coats  the  surface  of  the  osteo-dentine  inclosing 
the  ball,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  conical  cavity  into  which  that 
mass  projects,  with  layers  of  normal  ivory. 

The  portions  of  the  cement-forming  capsule  surrounding  the  base 
of  the  tusk,  and  the  part  of  the  pulp,  which  were  perforated  by  the 
ball  in  its  passage,  are  soon  replaced  by  the  reparative  power  of 
these  highly  vascular  bodies.  The  hole  formed  by  the  ball  in  the 
base  of  the  tusk  is  then  more  or  less  completely  filled  up  by  a  thick 
coat  of  cement  from  without,  and  of  osteo-dentine  from  within. 

By  the  continued  progress  of  growth,  the  ball  so  inclosed  is 
carried  forwards  to  the  middle  of  the  solidified  exserted  part  of  the 
tusk.  Should  the  ball  have  penetrated  the  base  of  the  tusk  of  a 
young  Elephant,  it  may  be  carried  forwards  by  the  uninterrupted 
growth  and  wear  of  the  tusk,  until  that  base  has  become  the  apex, 
and  be  finally  exposed  and  discharged  by  the  continual  abrasion  to 
which  the  apex  of  the  tusk  is  subjected. 

The  tusk  and  pulp  of  a  great  Elephant  at  the  Zoological  Gardens 
was  longitudinally  divided  soon  after  its  death  in  the  summer  of 
1847.  Although  the  pulp  could  be  easily  detached  from  the  inner 
surface  of  the  pulp-cavity,  it  was  not  without  a  certain  resistance  ; 
and  when  the  edges  of  the  co-adapted  pulp  and  tooth  were 
examined  by  a  strong  lens,  the  filamentary  processes  from  the  outer 
surface  of  the  pulp,  could  be  seen  stretching  as  they  were  with- 
drawn from  the  dentinal  tubes  before  they  broke.  They  are  so 
minute  that,  to  the  naked  e3'e,  the  detached  surface  of  the  pulp 
seems  to  be  entire,  and  Cuvier  was  thus  deceived  in  concluding  that 
there  was  no  organic  connection  between  the  pulp  and  the  ivory. 

_  The  molar  teeth  of  the  Elephant  are  remarkable  for  their  great 
size,  even  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  for  the  extreme 
complexity  of  their  structure.  The  crown,  of  which  a  great  propor- 
tion is  buried  in  the  socket,  and  very  little  more  than  the  grinding 


Fig.  76S.— Molar  Teeth  of  Elephants  and  the  Siberian  Mammoth. 
A,  African  ;  B,  Asiatic ;  C,  Elephas  Piimigenius. 

surface  appears  above  the  gum,  is  deeply  divided  into  a  number  of 
transverse  perpendicular  plates,  consisting  each  of  a  body  of 
dentine,  coated  by  a  layer  of  enamel,  e.  Fig.  76S,  A,  V.  ^YiCi.c,  and 
this  attain  by  the  less  dense  bone-like  substance,  c,  which  falls  the 
interspaces  of  the  enamelled  plates,  and  here  more  especially  inerits 
the  name  of  "cement,"  since  it  binds  together  the  several  divisions 
of  the  crown  before  they  are  fully  formed  anil  united  by  the  con- 


304 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


fluence  of  their  bases  into  a  common  body  of  dentine.  As  the 
growth  of  each  plate  begins  at  the  summit,  they  remain  detached, 
and  like  so  many  separate  teeth  or  denticules,  until  their  base  is 
completed,  when  it  becomes  blended  v.-ith  the  bases  of  contiguous 
plates  to  form  the  common  body  of  tlie  crown  of  the  complex  tooth, 
from  which  the  roots  are  next  developed. 

The  plates  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  Siberian  Mammoth  {Elephas 
frimigenius.  Fig.  768,  C),  are  thinner  in  proportion  to  their 
breadth,  and  are  generally  a  little  expanded  at  the  middle  :  and 
they  are  more  numerous,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  crown,  than 
in  the  existing  species  of  Asiatic  Elephant  (Fig.  772,  11).  In  the  African 
Elephant  (Fig.  774,  A),  on  the  other  hand,  the  lamellar  divisions  of 
the  crown  are  fewer  and  thicker,  and  they  expand  more  uniformly 
from  the  margins  to  the  centre,  yielding  a  lozenge-form  when  cut  or 
worn  transversely,  as  in  mastication. 

The  formation  of  each  grinder  begins  with  the  summits  of  the 
anterior  plate,  and  the  rest  are  completed  in  succession  ;  the  tooth 
is  gradually  advanced  in  position  as  its  growth  proceeds  ;  and  in 
the  existing  Indian  Elephant,  the  anterior  plates  are  brought  into 
use  before  the  posterior  ones  are  formed.  When  the  complex  molar 
cuts  the  gum,  the  cement  is  first  rubbed  off  the  digital  summits; 
then  their  enamel  cap  is  worn  away,  and  the  central  dentine  comes 
into  play  with  a  prominent  enamel  ring ;  the  digital  processes  are 
next  ground  down  to  their  common  uniting  base,  and  a  transverse 
tract  of  dentine,  with  its  wavy  border  of  enamel,  is  exposed;  finally, 
the  transverse  plates  themselves  are  abraded  to  their  common  base 
of  dentine,  and  a  .smooth  and  polished  tract  of  that  substance  is 
produced.  From  this  basis  the  roots  of  the  molar  are  developed, 
and  increase  in  length  to  keep  the  worn  crown  on  the  grinding 
level  until  the  reproductive  force  is  exhausted.  When  the  whole 
extent  of  a  grinder  has  successively  come  into  play,  its  last  part  is 
reduced  to  a  long  fang  supporting  a  smooth  and  polished  field  of 
dentine,  with  perhaps  a  few  remnants  of  the  bottom  of  the  enamel 
folds  at  its  hinder  part.  When  the  complex  molar  has  been  thus 
worn  down  to  an  uniform  surface,  it  becomes  useless  as  an  instrument 


Fig.  769. — Asiatic  Eleph.int. 


for  grinding  the  coarse  vegetable  substances  on  which  the  Elephant 
subsists;  it  is  attacked  by  the  absorbent  action,  and  the  wasted 
portion  of  the  molar  is  finally  shed. 

The  grinding  teeth  of  the  Elephant  progressively  increase  in  size, 
and  in  the  number  of  lamellar  divisions  from  the  first  to  the  last : 
they  succeed  each  other  from  behind  forwards,  moving,  not  iri  a 
right  line,  but  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  shown  by  the  curved  line  in  Fig. 
767.  The  position  of  the  growing  tooth  in  the  closed  alveolus,  m,  5, 
is  almost  at  right  angles  with  that  in  use,  the  grinding  surface 
being  at  first  directed  backwards  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  forwards  in 
the  lower  jaw,  and  brought  by  the  revolving  course  into  a  horizontal 
line  in  both  jaws,  so  that  they  oppose  each  other  when  developed  for 
use.  The  imaginary  pivot,  on  which  the  grinders  revolve,  is  next 
their  root  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  is  next  the  grinding  surface  in  the 

lower  jaw:  in  both  towards 
the  frontal  surface  of  the 
skull.  Viewing  both  upper 
and  lower  molars  as  one 
complex  whole,  subject  to 
the  same  revolving  move- 
ment, the  section  dividing 
such  whole  into  upper  and 
lower  portions,  runs  parallel 
to  the  curve  described  by 
the  movement  —  the  upper 
being  the  central  portion, 
or  that  nearest  the  pivot ; 
the  lower  the  peripheral 
portion.  The  grinding  sur- 
face of  the  upper  molars 
is  consequently  convex  from 
behind  forwards,  and  that 
of  the  lower  molars  con- 
cave ;  the  upper  molars 
are  always  broader  than  the 
lower  ones. 

The  bony  plate  forming 
the  sockets  of  the  growing 
teeth  is  more  than  usually 
distinct  from  the  body  of  the 
maxillary,  and  participates 
in  this  revolving  course,  ad- 
vancing forwards  with  the 
teeth. 

In  dealing  with  the  Pachyderinata,  we  shall  first  describe  the 
Elephants,  which  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  groups  of  the 
order. 

The  Elephant. 

Two  species  of  Elephant  are,  at  the  present  day,  in  existence — 
viz.,  the  Indian  Elephant  {^Elephas  indicus.  Fig.  769),  and  the 
African  Elephant  [Elephas  africanus,  Fig.  770). 


Fig.  771. — Skull  of  Indian  Elephant. 


F;^.  770. — AUican  Elephant, 


Fig.  772. — Teeth  of  Asiatic  Elephant. 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


30s 


The  Indian  Elephant  is  characterised  by  the  elongation  or  pyra- 
midal elevation  of  the  skull  (Fij;;-.  771),  the  concavity  of  the  fore- 
head, the  moderate  size  of  tlie  ears,  and  the  parallel  narrow  trans- 
verse ribands  or  lines  of  enamel,  with  indented  edges,  which  traverse 
the  crown  of  the  grinders.  This  character  is  well  displayed  in  Fig. 
772,  of  which  a  represents  the  upper  molar  tooth,  and  b  the  lower 
molar  tooth  of  that  species.  The  number  of  toes  on  each  foot  is 
really  five,  but  of  the  hind-toes  four  only  are  indicated  by  hoofs,  the 
filth  being  buried  within 
the  dense  skin.  The  tusks 
of  the  female  never  ac- 
quire the  size  of  those  of 
the  male.  The  male  at- 
tains to  the  height  of  eight, 
nine,  or  ten  feet  at  the 
shoulder.  This  animal  is 
a  native  of  India,  Cochin- 
China,  Siam,  Pegu,  Ava, 
the  island  of  Ceylon,  and 
other  large  islands,  as 
Borneo  and  Sumatra. 

The  African  Elephant 
is  distinguished  by  the 
rounded  figure  of  the  skull 
(Fig-.  773).  by  the  magni- 
tude of  the  ears,  which 
spread  over  the  shoulders, 
and  by  the  lozenge-shape 
assumed  by  the  lines  of 
enamel  traversing  the 
grinders.      The    figure   of 

these  lines  is  well  represented  by  Fig.  77.[,  of  which  a  represents 
the  surface  of  the  upper  grinder ;  b,  the  lower  grinder ;  c,  the 
original  state  of  the  grinders,  when  the  laminae  of  which  they 
consist  are  free,  that  is,  as  yet  uncemented  together ;  and  d,  the 
laminas  as  they  are  attached  in  parallels  one  to  the  other  by  cortical 


Fig-  773- — Skull  of  African  Elephant. 


The  tusks  of  the  African  Elephant  are  often  of  huge  size,  and 
almost  as  large  in  the  female  as  in  the  male.  The  toes  are  really 
five  ;  but  four  only  on  each  anterior  foot,  and  three  on  each  hinder 
foot,  are  indicated  externally  by  hoofs.  In  the  present  day  this 
species  is  confined  to  the  remoter  regions  of  the  African  continent. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  a  few  general  remarks  on  the  structure 
and  organisation  of  the  Elephant,  applicable  to  both  species. 

There  is  something,  it  must  be  confessed,  noble  and  imposing  in 
the  appearance  of  the  Elephant ;  and  especially  when  viewed  in 
front  (see  Fig.  775).  Its  colossal  bulk,  its  vast  powers,  and  the 
peculiarity  of  its  form  and  proportions,  render  it  conspicuous  among 
the  crowd  of  terrestrial  animals.     Its  dignity,  however,  is  the  dignity 

of  strength  and  stature  ;  there 
is  no  grace  in  its  contour,  but 
every  part  is  heavy  and  mas- 
sive. The  huge  body  is  sup- 
ported on  four  pillars,  for  such 
the  limbs  appear,  the  bones  of 
which  bear  perpendicularly  on 
each  other  (see  skeleton,  Fig. 
776),  while  a  towering  head,  of 
vast  size,  seems  to  rise  at  once 
from  the  shoulders,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  neck.  The 
vertebra;  of  the  neck  (Fig.  776) 
are  indeed  seven,  as  is  the 
general  rule  in  the  class  Mam- 
malia ;  but  instead  of  being 
elongated,  as  in  the  O.i,  Deer, 
or  Antelope,  they  arc  com- 
pressed into  a  short  space— 
for  strength  and  firmness  are 
required.  How,  indeed,  could 
the  ponderous  head  of  this 
animal  be  supported,  were  the 
neck  to  be  modelled  upon  a 
plan  of  slender  elegance  ?  Independent  of  the  ivory  tusks,  the  weight 
of  the  skull  itself  is  very  great :  we  have  seen  four  strong  men  labour 
in  carrying  one  of  moderate  size  ;  but  the  tusks  make  a  consider- 
able addition.  Those  of  some  of  the  Indian  Elephants  vary  from 
70  to  100  lbs.  each  ;  but  those  of  the  African  species  are  far  heavier. 
Hartenfels,  in  his  "  Elephantographia,"  gives  a  table  of  the  weight 


Fig.  775. — Head  of  Elephant. 


Fig.  774.— Teeth  of  African  Elephant. 

substance  in  a  more  developed  state  of  dentition,  but  before  the 
crown  of  the  tooth  has  been  worn  by  mastication,  and  when  it  only 
presents  on  its  surface  blunt  tubercles.  To  the  structure  of  these 
teeth  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  again. 


Fig.  776. — Skeleton  of  Elephant. 

and  length  of  the  most  remarkable  upon  record,  with  his  authori- 
ties ;  among  others,  one  is  stated  to  have  weighed  325  lbs.  Cam- 
per, who  possessed  one  weighing  105  lbs.,  notices  one  sold  at  Am- 
sterdam, the  weight  of  which  was  350  lbs.  Well,  then,  m.ay  the 
head  appear  as  if  destitute  of  a  neck,  when  we  consider  the  load  to 
be  sustained.  The  shortness,  however,  of  the  neck  (setting  aside 
the  projecting  tusks,  which  of  themselves  would  form  an  insuperable 
obstacle),  prevents  the  Elephant  from  applying  his  mouth  to  the 
ground  ;  neither  can  he  browse  on  the  foliage  of  the  trees  like  the 

2  R 


304 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


fluence  of  their  bases  into  a  common  body  of  dentine.  As  the 
growth  of  eacli  plate  begins  at  the  summit,  they  remain  detached, 
and  like  so  many  separate  teeth  or  denticules,  until  their  base  is 
completed,  when  it  becomes  blended  with  the  ba^cs  of  contiguous 
plates  to  form  the  common  body  of  the  crown  of  the  complex  tooth, 
from  which  the  roots  are  next  developed. 

The  plates  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  Siberian  Mammoth  {Elephas 
^riinigeniiis.  Fig.  768,  c),  are  thinner  in  proportion  to  their 
breadth,  and  are  generally  a  little  expanded  at  the  middle  :  and 
they  are  more  numerous,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  crown,  than 
in  the  e.xisting  species  of  Asiatic  Elephant  (Fig.  772,  n).  In  the  African 
Elephant  (Fig.  774,  A),  on  the  other  hand,  the  lamellar  divisions  of 
the  crown  are  fewer  and  thicker,  and  they  expand  more  uniformly 
from  the  margins  to  the  centre,  yielding  a  lozenge-form  when  cut  or 
worn  transversely,  as  in  mastication. 

The  formation  of  each  grinder  begins  with  the  summits  of  the 
anterior  plate,  and  the  rest  are  completed  in  succession  ;  the  tooth 
is  gradually  advanced  in  position  as  its  growth  proceeds  ;  and  in 
the  existing  Indian  Elephant,  the  anterior  plates  are  brought  into 
use  before  the  posterior  ones  are  formed.  When  the  complex  molar 
cuts  the  gum,  the  cement  is  first  rubbed  off  the  digital  summits  ; 
then  their  enamel  cap  is  worn  away,  and  the  central  dentine  comes 
into  play  with  a  prominent  enam.el  ring ;  the  digital  processes  are 
next  ground  down  to  their  common  uniting  base,  and  a  transverse 
tract  of  dentine,  with  its  wavy  border  of  enamel,  is  exposed  ;  finally, 
the  transverse  plates  themselves  are  abraded  to  their  common  base 
of  dentine,  and  a  smooth  and  polished  tract  of  that  substance  is 
produced.  From  this  basis  the  roots  of  the  molar  are  developed, 
and  increase  in  length  to  keep  the  worn  crown  on  the  grinding 
level  until  the  reproductive  force  is  exhausted.  When  the  whole 
extent  of  a  grinder  has  successively  come  into  play,  its  last  part  is 
reduced  to  a  long  fang  supporting  a  smooth  and  polished  field  of 
dentine,  with  perhaps  "a  few  remnants  of  the  bottom  of  the  enamel 
folds  at  its  hinder  part.  When  the  complex  molar  has  been  thus 
worn  down  to  an  uniform  surface,  it  becomes  useless  as  an  instrument 


Fig.  769. — Asiatic  Elephant. 


Fij.  770. — Alrican  Elephant, 


for  grinding  the  coarse  vegetable  substances  on  which  the  Elephant 
subsists  ;  it  is  attacked  by  the  absorbent  action,  and  the  wasted 
portion  of  the  molar  is  finally  shed. 

The  grinding  teeth  of  the  Elephant  progressively  increase  in  size, 
and  in  the  number  of  lamellar  divisions  from  the  first  to  the  last ; 
they  succeed  each  other  from  behind  forwards,  moving,  not  in  a 
right  line,  but  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  shown  by  the  curved  line  in  Fig. 
767.  The  position  of  the  growing  tooth  in  the  closed  alveolus,  tu,  5, 
IS  almost  at  right  angles  with  that  in  use,  the  grinding  surface 
being  at  first  directed  backwards  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  forwards  in 
the  lower  jaw,  and  brought  by  the  revolving  course  into  a  horizontal 
line  in  both  jaws,  so  that  they  oppose  each  other  when  developed  for 
use.  The  imaginary  pivot,  on  which  the  grinders  revolve,  is  next 
their  root  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  is  next  the  grinding  surface  in  the 

lower  jaw:  in  both  towards 
the  frontal  surface  of  the 
skull.  Viewing  both  upper 
and  lower  molars  as  one 
complex  whole,  subject  to 
the  same  revolving  move- 
ment, the  section  dividing 
such  whole  into  upper  and 
lower  portions,  runs  parallel 
to  the  curve  described  by 
the  movement  —  the  upper 
being  the  central  portion, 
or  that  nearest  the  pivot ; 
the  lower  the  peripheral 
portion.  The  grinding  sur- 
face of  the  upper  molars 
is  consequently  convex  from 
behind  forwards,  and  that 
of  the  lower  molars  con- 
cave ;  the  upper  molars 
are  always  broader  than  the 
lower  ones. 

The  bony  plate  forming 
the  sockets  of  the  growing 
teeth  is  more  than  usually 
distinct  from  the  body  of  the 
maxillary,  and  participates 
in  this  revolving  course,  ad- 
vancing forwards  with  the 
teeth. 

In  dealing  with  the  Pachydermata,  we  shall  first  describe  the 
Elephants,  which  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  groups  of  the 
order. 

The  Elephant. 

Two  species  of  Elephant  are,  at  the  present  day,  in  existence — 
viz.,  the  Indian  Elephant  {Elephas  indicus.  Fig.  769),  and  the 
African  Elephant  {Elephas  africanus,  Fig.  770]. 


^'g.  77'. — Skull  of  Indian  Elephant. 


Fig.  772. — Teeth  of  Asiatic  Elephant. 


lie  In* 

a* 

\"\,.^  -J 

-SJ 

-  ■•> 

fikfesif^ 

tW 

a» 

ifl 

\t 

kniuititnuiil 


THE    ELEPHANT. 


3^7 


The  young  Elephnnt  takes  its  mother's  milk  in  tho  ordinary  manner ; 
but  in  order  to  drink,  tho  animal  dips  the  extremity  of  the  proboscis 
into  the  water,  and  sucks  up  tlie  fluid,  so  as  to  lill  the  two  canals  ; 
it  then  inserts  the  extremity  into  the  mouth,  and  discharges  the 
contents.  And  here  it  may  be  observed,  that  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  canal,  just  anterior  to  the  nasal  orifice  of  the  skull,  there  exists 
a  movable  cartilage  so  disposed  as  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
acts  as  a  valve  in  preventing  the  water  v/hen  sucked  up  from  pass- 


Fig.  7S3. — Proboscis  in  gather- 


Fig.  7S4. — Herbage  when 
qatheietl. 


l^-'S-  7SS-- 


-MoJe  of  holding  a 
Root. 


Fig,  7S6. — Curled  action  when 
much  force  is  required. 


ing  through  the  posterior  nares  into  the  throat,  which  would  be  the 
case  but  for  some  remedial  contrivance.  The  Elephant  can  retain 
the  water  taken  into  his  proboscis  as  long  as  he  pleases,  and  dis- 
charge it  either  gently  or  with  great  violence  :  he  does  the  latter, 
when  throwing  it  over  his  own  body  to  cool  himself,  or  when  in  play- 
fulness or  anger  he  discharges  it  against  any  bystander.  Through 
this  trunk,  the  shrill  trumpet-like  noise  which  the  Elephant  often 
utters,  and  which  is  an  expression  of  satisfaction,  is  produced. 

If  we  turn  to  the  skeleton  of  this  huge  beast,  its  solidity  will  not 
fail  to  strike  us.  We  shall  not  here  enter  into  minute  details  ;  we  may, 
however,  state  that  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  is  not  bound  to  the 
socket  by  the  ligainentum  teres  :  this  peculiarity  exists  only  in  the 
Orang,  the  Sloth,  the  Seal,  the  Enhydra,  the  Walrus,  and  the 
Ornithorhyncus,  and  in  the  present  animal.  The  skull  of  the  Ele- 
phant is  altogether  extraordinary,  and  presents  us  with  avast  frontal 
elevation,  which  gives  it  an  air  of  great  dignity  ;  but,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  appearance  is  deceptive.  Fig.  778,  p.  306,  whicji  represents  a 
vertical  section  of  the  skull,  may  be  here  consulted.  Before  and 
above  the  cranial  cavity,  c,  the  two  tables  of  the  skull  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  series  of  irregular  cells  (the  frontal  sinuses 
carried  to  an  extreme),  6  b:  whence  it  follows  that  the  anterior  and 
upper  portion  of  the  skull  is  more  advanced  and  elevated  than  the 
development  of  the  brain  itself  warrants.  We  read  of  instances  in 
which  many  balls  have  been  lodged  in  the  head  of  the  Elephant 
without  bringing  him  down,  and  the  reason  is  obvious  :  they  entered 
the  vast  region  of  cells,  and  did  not  touch  the  brain.  In  the  denti- 
tion of  the  Elephant  we  find  much  analogy  to  the  order  Rodentia, 
and  among  them  especially  to  the  Capybara.  The  teeth  of  the  Ele- 
phant consist  only  of  molars  and  of  incisors,  or,  as  they  are  com- 
monly called,  tusks,  which  occur  only  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  molars 
are  of  a  compound  structure,  consisting  of  transverse  folds  of  enamel, 
each  fold  enveloping  a  central  nodule  of  bone,  with  an  external  coat 
of  a  different  character,  called  cortical  substance,  or  crusta  petrosa, 
compacting  the  whole  together.  Thus  a  single  grinder  may  be  re- 
garded as  made  up  of  a  certain  number  of  distinct  teeth  bound  up 
into  one  mass.  Remarks  on  this  subject  will  be  found  at  page  303, 
ante,  in  regard  to  the  general  dentition  of  the  Pachyitermafa. 

The  molars  of  the  Elephant,  w-hen  perfected,  are  not  permanent, 
but  are  shed  in  due  succession  for  six  or  eight  times,  perhaps  oftener, 
and  this  not  from  the  rising  up  of  a  fresh  tooth  below  the  one  it 
is  to  succeed,  but  by  the  rising  up  of  a  new  one  behind  the  old 
one,  and  which,  gradually  becoming  developed,  advances  forwards  as 
the  old  one  wears  away,  till  its  last  remnant  is  pushed  out.  The 
position  of  the  new  tooth,  with  respect  to  the  old  one,  in  progress  of 
wearing,  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  section  of  the  skull.  Fig. 
778,  ante ;  the  characters  of  the  young  teeth  when  forming,  and 
before  worn  down,  are  delineated  in  Fig.  774,  c,  d,  ante.  In  the 
skull  (Fig.  778,  ante),  h  shows  the  anterior  tooth  reduced  almost  to 
nothing  by  detrition,  and  by  the  compression  of  the  succeeding 
tooth  ;    i  shows  a  full-formed  tooth   in   activity,  already  partially 


ground  down  on  Its  face,  /■,  but  with  the  posterior  lamina;  as  yet 
untouched  ;  /  is  the  germ  of  a  tooth  to  succeed  the  former  (/)-it  is 
enc  oscd  m  a  membranous  capsule,  and  lodged  in  a  cavity  at  the 
back  of  the  jaw  On  this  subject  we  might  enlarge,  but  our  limits 
forbid.  I  he  tusks  of  the  Klepliant  (upper  incisors)  are  destitute  of 
true  roots,  and  have  no  other  union  to  their  deep  sockets  than  that 
ot  close  contact ;  they  resemble  a  nail  driven  into  a  plank  ;  and  by 
gentle  and  continued   pressure  may  have   their   direction   altered 

rhey  consist  of  concentric  layers  of  ivory,  and  grow  by  the  con 
tmued  deposition  of  these  layers  added  internally,  for  the  pulp  or 
core  which  deposits  the  ivory  fills  the  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  tusk 
and  arises  from  the  bottom  of  the  socket ;  it  is  of  great  size,  and 
has  no  organic  union  with  the  tusk  it  secretes.  We  have 'seen 
several  instances  in  which  bullets  have,  on  cutting  the  tusks,  been 
found  embedded  in  the  ivory,  to  the  astonishment  of  those  who 
know  not  the  manner  in  which  the  tusks  are  produced.  In  these 
instances  the  bullet  has  entered  the  socket,  and  lodged  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hollow  base  of  the  tusk,  and  the  pulp  or  core  in  that 
hollow  has  kept  covering  it  with  layer  after  layer  of  ivory,  the  tusk 
gro^ying  all  the  time,  till  at  last,  from  being  in  the  hollow,  the  bullet 
attains  the  solid  centre  of  tho  full-grown  tusk,  being  moved  farther 
and  farther  forwards  by  each  deposit  of  ivory  from  within.  The 
tusks  are  not  shed,  as  are  the  molars,  but  a  permanent  pair  succeed 
a  deciduous  pair,  shed  between  the  first  and  second  year  of  its 
existence.  These  tusks  vary  in  size  and  curve.  We  learn  from  Mr. 
Corse  that  one  variety  of  Asiatic  Elephant  is  characterised  by 
straight  tusks  pointing  downwards  ;  it  is  termed  Mooknah  :  another 
variety  has  large  heavy  tusks  inclining  more  or  less  upwards,  and  is 
termed  Dauntelah.  Independently,  however,  of  the  shape  and  size 
of  the  tusks  in  the  male,  the  As'iatic  species  is  divided  into  two 
main  or  principal  castes,  between  which  there  are  many  degrees  of 
intermixture.  These  two  castes  are  called  respectivclyKoomareah 
and  Merghee.  The  Koomareah  is  a  deep-bodied,  strong,  compact 
Elephant,  with  a  large  trunk,  and  legs  short  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  animal.  The  Merghee,  when  fully  grown,  is  generally 
taller  than  the  former,  but  he  has  not  so  compact  a  form,  nor  is  he 
so  strong  or  so  capable  of  bearing  fatigue ;  his  legs  are  long ;  he 
travels  fast,  has  a  lighter  body,  and  his  trunk  is 'both  short  and 
slender,  in  proportion  to  his  height.  A  large  trunk  is  always 
esteemed  a  great  beauty  in  an  Elephant,  so  that  the  Koomareah  is 
preferred  not  only  for  this,  but  for  its  superior  strength,  by  which  it 
can  undergo  greater  fatigue,  and  carry  heavier  loads,  than  the 
Merghee. 

The  external  characters  of  the  Elephant,  which  we  have  not  as 
yet  noticed,  need  not  long  detain  us.  The  skin  is  dark-coloured, 
rough,  and  nearly  destitute  of  hair;  a  tuft  of  bristles,  laterally 
disposed,  terminates  the  tail :  the  eyes  are  very  small,  but  lively 


Fig.  7S7. — Young  Elephant  suckling. 

and  intelligent ;  the  tusks  project  on  each  side  of  the  proboscis. 
On  each  temple  are  situated  certain  glands  with  ducts  opening  on 
the  surface  of  the  skin,  whence  exudes  an  unctuous  secretion  :  but 
beyond  this  nothing  appears  to  be  ascertained.  The  udder  of  the 
female  is  placed  on'^the  chest  between  the  fore-legs,  and  the  young 
Elephant  sucks  with  the  side  of  its  mouth,  compressing  the  udder 
with  its  trunk,  to  increase  the  flow  of  milk.     (See  Fig.  787.) 

The  young  Elephant  at  its  birth  is  about  thirty-five  inches  in 
heit'ht,  and  it  arrives  at  maturity  when  between  eighteen  and  twenty- 
four  years  of  age.  The  average  ratio  of  growth,  as  ascertained  by 
Mr.  Corse  ("  Phil.  Trans.,"  vol.  xviii.),  is  eleven  inches  in  the  first 
year,  eight  inches  in  the  second,  six  the  third,  five  the  fourth,  five 
inches  in  the  fifth,  three  inches  and  a-half  in  the  sixth,   and  two 


r,oS 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


inches  and  a-half  in  the  seventh.  The  males  are  probably  longer  in 
attainincj  their  full  growth  than  the  females;  but  the  females  pro- 
duce young  before  they  have  ceased  to  grow.  Mr.  Corse  mentions 
one  instance  in  which  the  increase  of  growth  during  pregnancy 
amounted  to  five  inches.  The  period  of  gestation  is  twenty  months 
and  eighteen  days.  The  Elephant  possesses  the  senses  of  smell 
and  hearing  in  great  perfection,  and  musical  sounds  evidently  pro- 
duce pleasure. 

Heavy  and  clumsy  as  is  the  form  of  this  animal,  yet  its  pace  is 
tolerably  quick,  especially  over  level  ground  ;  indeed,  when  irritated, 
the  Elephant  rushes  on  with  great  rapidity  ;  and  many  are  the  in- 
stances on  record  in  which  the  hunter,  unsuccessful  in  his  shot, 
has  been  pursued,  overtaken,  and  trodden  to  death.  The  gait  of 
the  animal  is,  however,  peculiar,  and  destitute  of  elasticity  ;  and  on 
reference  to  the  skeleton  (Fig.  776,  ante),  the  reason  will  be  immedi- 
ately perceived.  In  the  first  place  the  bones  of  the  limbs  have  an 
almost  perpendicular  bearing  with  respect  to  each  other;  and  in  the 
next  place  there  is  no  canon-bone  (a  long  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bone),  as  in  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  of  the  Horse,  which  m.ay  thus  be 
said  to  have  three  bones  in  the  leg,  those  of  the  hinder-hmbs  in 
particular  being  all  oblique ;  whereas  the  Elephant  has  the  meta- 
carpal and  metatarsal  bones  five  in  number  in  each  foot,  short,  and 
restricted  to  the  foot  itself,  instead  of  adding  to  the  length  and 
elasticity  of  the  limbs.  In  the  Horse  the  thigh-bone  is  very  short, 
the  true  knee-joint  is  as  high  as  the  flanks,  and  the  whole  of  the 
limb  from  the  hock-joint  to  the  hoof,  which  really  constitutes  the 
foot,  consists  of  tarsal  or  instep  bones,  a  long  metatarsal  or  canon- 
bone,  and  three  phalangal  bones,  the  last  cased  in  horn  ;  these  are 
commonly  called  the  pastern  bones  and  coffin-bone.     The  arrange- 


Fig.  788.— Elephant  Kneeling. 

ment  of  these  bones  in  the  limb  of  the  Elephant  is  very  different ; 
and  the  knee,  from  the  length  of  the  thigh-bone,  is  lower  than  in 
the  Horse,  so  that  the  animal  kneels  in  the  same  way  as  man.  (See 
Fig.  788.) 

The  haunts  of  the  Elephant  in  his  native  regions  are  forests  along 
the  borders  of  rivers,  well-watered  and  fertile  plains,  where  vegeta- 
tion attains  its  utmost  lu.xuriance,  and  green  savannahs.  There  he 
reposes  in  the  shade  of  the  trees,  or  cools  himself  in  the  waters. 
Bathing,  indeed,  is  one  of  the  favourite  enjoyments  of  this  creature. 
Even  in  our  climate,  during  the  summer  months,  the  bath  is  a  lu.xury  : 
■we  have  often  seen  the  Elephant  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zool.  Soc. 
plunge  into  his  tank,  draw  the  water  up  into  his  trunk,  and  spout  it 
in  showers  around  ;  then  immerse  himself  completely,  the  end  of  the 
trunk  alone  appearing  above  the  surface,  and  there  flounder  about 
in  the  exuberance  of  health  and  spirits.  In  his  native  country  he 
crosses  the  broadest  rivers,  the  body,  while  swimming,  being  sub- 
merged, and  nothing  seen  but  the  extremity  of  the  upraised  pro- 
boscis. Nor  is  it  to  water  only  that  the  Elephant  displays  a  parti- 
ality :  he  luxuriates  in  the  ooze  and  mud  of  swamps  and  marshes, 
and  rolls  and  wallows  in  the  half-fluid  mire.  We  have  seen  him 
fill  his  proboscis  with  this  mixture,  and  discharge  it  over  every  part 
of  his  body  so  as  to  invest  himself  with  a  layer  of  mud.  In  the  hot 
regions  of  which  he  is  a  native,  he  may  find  this  a  means  of  protect- 
ing the  skin  from  the  scorching  of  the  solar  rays,  as  well  as  a  de- 
fence against  the  annoyance  of  insects,  for  the  skin,  thick  and 
coarse  as  it  is,  is  nevertheless  extremely  sensitive.  The  same  par- 
tiality for  the  mud-bath  is  also  displayed  by  the  Rhinoceros  and  the 
Hog. 

Bishop  Heber  has  described  the  bathing  of  wild  Elephants  which 
he  saw  upon  his  approach  to  Decca.  "  At  the  distance  of  about 
half  a  mile  from  these  desolate  palaces,  a  sound  struck  my  ear,  as 
if  from  the  water  itself  on  which  we  were  riding,  the  most  solemn 


and  singular  I  can  conceive.  It  was  long,  loud,  deep,  and  tremu- 
lous, something  between  the  bellowing  of  a  Bull  and  the  blowing  of 
a  Whale,  or  perhaps  most  like  those  roaring  buoys  which  are  placed 
at  the  mouths  of  some  English  harbours,  in  which  the  winds  make  a 
noise  to  warn  ships  off  them.  'Oh!'  said  Abdallah,  'there  arc 
Elephants  bathing.  Decca  much  place  for  Elephant.'  I  looked 
immediately,  and  saw  about  twenty  of  those  fine  animals  with  their 
heads  and  trunks  just  appearing  above  the  water.  Their  bellowing 
it  was  which  I  had  heard,  and  which  the  water  conveyed  to  us  with 
a  finer  effect  than  if  we  had  been  on  shore."  Besides  the  water  and 
mud-bath  for  cooling  the  skin  and  keeping  off  flies,  the  Elephant,  as 
is  often  seen  in  India,  will  fan  himself  with  a  large  bough,  and  use 
it  with  ease  and  dexterity.  The  beautiful  description  by  Southey  of 
this  habit  is  so  appropriate,  that  we  hesitate  not  to  introduce  it : — 

"  Trampling  his  path  through  wood  and  hrake. 
And  canes  which  crackling  fall  before  his  way. 
And  tassel  grass  whose  silvery  feathers  play, 
O'ertopping  the  young  trees. 
On  comes  the  elephant,  to  slake 
His  thirst,  at  noon,  in  yon  pellucid  springs. 
Lo !  from  his  trunk  upturn'd,  aloft  lie  flings 
The  grateful  shower  ;  and  now 
Plucking  the  broad-leafed  bough 
Of  yonder  plume,  with  waving  motion  slow, 
Fanning  the  languid  air, 
He  waves  it  to  and  fro." 

A  herd  of  Elephants,  headed  by  their  mighty  leaders,  feeding  in 
calm  security  in  the  secluded  depths  of  the  forest,  or  on  the  banks 
of  a  river  in  some  secluded  valley,  forms  one  of  the  most  imposing 
pictures  in  nature.  Such  a  scene  is  beautifully  described  by  Pringle  ; 
but  willingly  as  we  would  quote  it,  our  limits  forbid.  One  point, 
however,  we  may  notice — the  use,  as  observed  by  that  traveller,  to 
which  these  animals  apply  their  tusks  as  levers  in  uprooting  trees. 
It  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Koonap  River  that  the  narrator  came 
upon  the  track  of  a  herd  :  "  Foot-prints  of  all  dimensions,  from  eight 
to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  were  everywhere  visible,  and  in  the 
swampy  spots  on  the  banks  of  the  river  it  was  evident  that  some  of 
them  had  been  luxuriously  enjoying  'themselves  by  rolling  their  un- 
wieldy bulks  in  the  ooze  and  mud.  But  it  was  in  the  groves  and 
jungles  that  they  left  the  most  striking  proofs  of  their  recent  presence 
and  peculiar  habits.  In  many  places  paths  had  been  trodden 
through  the  midst  of  dense  thorny  forests  otherwise  impenetrable. 
Among  the  groves  of  mimosa-trees,  which  were  thinly  sprinkled 
over  the  grassy  meadows  along  the  river  margins,  the  traces  of  the 
Elephants  were  not  less  apparent.  Immense  numbers  of  these  trees 
had  been  torn  out  of  the  ground,  and  placed  in  an  inverted  position, 
in  order  to  enable  the  animals  to  browse  at  their  ease  on  the  soft 
and  juicy  roots,  which  form  a  favourite  part  of  their  food.  I 
observed  that,  in  numerous  instances,  when  the  trees  were  of  con- 
siderable size,  the  Elephant  had  employed  one  of  his  tusks  exactly 
as  we  should  use  a  crow-bar — thrusting  it  under  the  roots  to  loosen 
their  hold  of  the  earth,  before  he  could  tear  them  up  with  his 
proboscis."  j^ 

This  account  refers  to  the  African  species,  but  will  also  apply  to 
the  Indian.  The  noble  Elephant  in  the  Garden  of  the  Zool.  Soc. 
has  at  different  times  used  his  tusks  in  wrenching  down  the  boards 
which  lined  his  apartment,  and  that  with  such  effect  as  to  demolish 
no  small  portion  of  the  inner  woodwork,  which  was  of  great  strength 
and  thickness. 

The  African  Elephant  equals,  if  it  does  not  surpass,  its  Indian 
relative  in  size.  Major  Denham  saw  one  killed  which  measured  13 
feet  6  inches  in  height,  and  mentions  others  which  appeared  to  be 
considerably  larger.  Mr.  Pringle  saw  one  which  two  officers  of 
engineers  agreed  in  stating  at  fourteen  feet.  The  Indian  Elephant 
seldom  exceeds  ten  feet. 

From  the  earliest  times  this  noble  beast  has  been  employed  by  man  ; 
and  multitudes  have  been  drafted  from  their  native  forests,  and  with 
little  training  brought  to  implicit  obedience.  It  has  served  him  as 
a  beast  of  burden,  or  as  an  auxiliary  of  war,  and  has  added  by  its 
presence  to  swell  the  pomp  of  kings  and  conquerors.  Setting  aside 
the  rude  method  of  taking  these  animals  in  pits,  now  seldom  or 
never  practised,  it  is  remarkable  that  in  every  mode  man  avails 
himself  of  the  assistance  of  individuals  of  the  same  species  which 
he  has  already  subdued. 

It  is  well  known  that  large  male  Elephants,  from  some  cause  not 
ascertained,  occasionally  wander  about  alone  ;  they  are  of  large  size 
and  great  ferocity,  and  wherever  they  pass  do  much  mischief. 
Being  the  finest  Elephants,  and  best  adapted  for  sale,  great  as  the 
risk  may  be,  the  hunters  eagerly  endeavour  to  capture  them.  They 
follow  them  cautiously,  by  day  and  night,  with  two  or  four  trained 
females,  called  Koomkies.  If  it  be  dark,  they  can  hear  the  animal 
striking  his  food,  to  clean  it,  against  his  fore-legs,  and  then  they 
approach  tolerably  close :  if  it  be  light  they  advance  more 
cautiously.  The  females  gradually  move  towards  him,  apparently 
unconscious  of  his  presence,  gathering  herbage,  and  feeding  on  it 
with  great  complacency,  as  if  they  were,  like  him,  inhabitants  of 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


309 


the  wild  forest.  It  is  soon  seen  by  them  whether  he  is  likely  to  be 
entrapped  by  their  arts  ;  the  drivers  remain  concealed  at  a  little 
distance,  while  the  Koomkies  press  round  tlie  unfortunate  Goondah, 
or  Snun  (for  so  these  solitary  males  are  called).  If  he  abandon 
himself  to  the  caresses  of  his  new  companions,  his  capture  is  almost 
certain.  The  hunters  cautiously  creep  under  him,  and  during'  the 
time  that  his  attention  is  thus  absorbed,  they  fasten  his  fore-legs 
with  a  strong  rope.  It  is  said  that  the  wily  females  will  not  only 
divert  his  attention  from  their  Mohouts,  but  absolutely  assist  them 
in  fastening  the  cords.  (See  Fig.  789.)  The  hind-legs 
are  also  secured,  and,  if  the  situation  permits,  lashed 
to  a  large  tree.  The  hunters  then  leave  him,  and 
the  faithless  females  retire  :  he  tries  to  follow,  and 
discovers  his  condition.  If  fastened  to  a  tree  (Fig. 
7go),  he  exhausts  himself  with  rage  and  vain  efforts 
to  break  loose ;  but  if  not  secured,  still  he  moves 
with  difiBculty  in  his  shackles,  and  as  long  cables  are 
left  trailing  behind  him,  the  Mohouts  soon  seize  the 
opportunity  of  lashing  them  round  a  tree  of  sufficient 
strength.  Sometimes  he  breaks  his  bonds,  and  rushes 
madly  to  the  forest,  where  the  hunters  dare  not  follow 
him.  But  if  adequately  bound,  his  struggles  arouse- 
less  ;  and,  worn  out  by  the  violence  of  his  anger,  his 
exertions,  and  hunger,  he  submits  at  length,  and  is 
conducted,  under  the  escort  of  his  treacherous  friends, 
to  an  appointed  station,  and,  after  a  few  months'  disci- 
pline, becomes  reconciled  to  his  fate. 

In  the  "Asiatic  Trans.,"  vol.  iii.,  Mr.  Corse  gives 
an  animated  description  of  the  mode  of  conducting 
the  operation  of  Elephant-catching  on  a  great  scale, 
as  practised  at  Tipperah,  where  thousands  of  people 
assemble   to  drive   a   herd   of  these   superb   animals 
with  the  clang  of  drums  and  trumpets,  and  the  din  of 
fireworks  and  musketry.     The  outline  of  the  plan  is 
as  follows  : — The  herd,  when  discovered,  is  surrounded 
by  a  circle  of  men,  divided  into  small  parties,  at  the 
distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  yards  from  each   other; 
these,  by  noises  of  various  kinds,  and  by  fires  lighted 
at  different  posts,  drive  the  animals  into  a  body;  in 
the  morning  the  circle  opens,  and  the  herd  is  slowly 
driven  forwards  towards  a  spot  where  a  new  circle  is 
prepared  to  receive  it ;  the  people  closing  up,  taking 
their  proper  stations,   and  passing  the  remainder  of 
the  day  and  night  as  before.     In  this  manner,   day 
after  day,  it  is  conducted  towards  a  sort  of  concealed 
pound  or  inclosure,  called  a  keddah,  made  of  strong 
timbers,  and  divided  into  two  or  three  great  pens,  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  means  of  gates,  which 
are  shut  as  the  herd  is  forced  from  pen  to  pen.     The 
last  pen  has  a  narrow  outlet  passage,  with  a  doorway, 
sufficient  for  the  entrance  of  only  one  Elephant  at  a 
time ;    and  the  passage  itself  will  not  allow*  a  large 
Elephant  to  turn  round.     When,  by  dint  of  noise  and 
fires,  the  animals  have  entered  the  first  gate  of  the 
keddah,  and  they  find  themselves  ensnared,  their  rage 
is  extreme,  but  escape  is  now  impossible  ;  one  outlet 
only  offers,  but  it  leads  to  the   next  inclosure  :    the 
leader  enters,  the  rest  follow  ;   the  gate  is  instantly 
shut  by  people  who  are  stationed  on  a  small  scaffold 
immediately  above  it,  and  strongly  barricaded  ;  fires 
are  lighted,  and  the  same  discordant  din  made  and 
continued   till  the  herd  has  passed  through  another 
gateway  into  the  last  inclosure,  the  gate  of  which 
is  secured  in  the  same  manner  as  the  former  was. 
The  Elephants,  being  now  completely  surrounded 
on  all  sides,   and  perceiving   no   outlet  through 
which  they  can  escape,  appear  desperate,   and, 
in  their  fury,  advance  frequently  to  the  ditch,  in 
order  to  break  down  the  palisades,  inflating  their 
trunks,   screaming  louder   and  shriller  than  any 
trumpet,    sometimes   grumbling   like  the   hollow 
murmur  of  distant   thunder ;    but  wherever  they 
make  an  attack,  they  are  opposed  by  lighted  fires, 
and  by  the  noise  and  triumphant  shouts  of  the 
hunters.     As  they  must  remain  some  time  in  this         ^ 
inclosure,  care  is  always  taken  to  have  part  of  the 
ditch  filled  with  water,  which  is   supplied  by  a 
small  stream,  either  natural,  or  conducted  through 
an  artificial  channel  from  some  neighbouring  re- 
servoir     The    Elephants   have   recourse   to   this 
water  to  quench  their  thirst  after  their  fatigues, 
by  sucking  the  water  into  their  trunks,  and  then 
squirting  over  every  part  of  their  bodies.     While 
they  remain  in  this  inclosure  they  continue  sulky, 
and   seem   to    meditate    their   escape ;    but    the 
hunters   build   huts   around    them,    close   to   the 
palisades,  watchmen  are  placed,  and  every  pre- 
caution used  to  prevent  their  breaking  through. 


When  the  herd  has  continued  a  few  days  in  this  partition,  the 
door  of  the  outlet  passage  is  opened,  and  one  is  at  last  enticed  in 
with  food.  Having  entered,  the  door  is  closed  and  securely  barred : 
retreat  is  impossible,  and  the  captive  is  hemmed  completely  in. 
His  struggles  in  that  narrow  cage  are  useless.  He  is  then 
enveloped  in  a  labyrinth  of  cords,  and,  exhausted  with  fatigue  and 
fury,  he  is  led  out  between  two  powerful  trained  beasts,  to  whom  he 
is  bound  and  tied,  and  brought  by  them  to  a  spot  where  he  is  fastened 
to  strong  trees.  (See  Fig.  791.)  He  then  becomes  again  excited,  and 


UB-^ 


Fig.  7S9. — Wild  Elephant  captured  by  means  of  decoy  Female  Elephants, 


Fig.  790. — Wild  Elephant  left  after  having  been  bouncl. 


Fip.  79J.— Elephant  Hamcssed  in  a  KcJaah. 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


sometimes  falls  a  victim  to  his  paroxysm  of  fury  ;  but  commonly  the 
cravings  of  hunger  induce  him  to  eat,  and  he  gradually  yields  to  the 
power  of  gentle  discipline. 

It  is  not  an  unfrequent  occurrence  for  a  domesticated  Elephant  to 
escape  to  the  wild  herd,  and  resume  its  former  independence ;  and 
such  have  been  retaken,  and  submitted  immediately  to  their  former 
riders.  Mr.  Corse  mentions  a  female  which  twice  escaped,  and  who 
each  time  she  was  taken  obeyed  the  words  of  command,  attended  to 
her  name,  came  to  the  side  of  the  kcddah  when  called,  ate  from  the 


Fig.  792. — Warren  Hastii 


Elephant. 


hands  of  the  hunters,  and  knelt  down  when  ordered.  In  another 
case,  that  of  a  male,  which  had  escaped  about  eighteen  months,  the 
animal  was  furious  when  entrapped  in  the  keddah  ;  an  old  hunter, 
however,  recognised  him,  rode  boldly  up  to  him,  and  ordered  him  to 
lie  down,  pulling  him  by  the  ear.  The  animal  seemed  quite  taken  by 
surprise,  and  instantly  obeyed.  Warren  Hastings,  the  governor- 
genera!  of  India,  possessed  an  Elephant  which  had  been  ten  years 
absent  from  the  rule  of  man.     His  keeper  being  dismissed,  he  v,'as 


Fig.  793.— Elephants  conveying  Artillery  through  bad  roads, 


refractory  to  all  others  who  attempted  to  control  him  ;  and  at  length 
escaped  to  the  wild  herd.  After  the  long  interval  we  have  mentioned, 
his  old  keeper  recognised  him  in  a  keddah,  and  he  instantly  sub- 
mitted himself  to  him.  Mr.  Zoffany  painted  the  portrait  of  this 
animal,  and,  in  the  key  to  his  published  print  of  a  Tiger-hunt, 
vouches  for  the  authenticity  of  this  account.  Fig.  792  is  a  copy  of 
Mr.  Zoffany' s  print. 

The  Elephant  is  not  used  in  the  present  day  in  India  as  an  engine 
of  war,  but  as  a  beast  of  burden,  in  the  transport  of  baggage,  tents, 
and  various  stores  ;  and  there  are  peculiar  circumstances  in  the  march 
of  an  Indian  army  which  render  the  Elephant  extremely  serviceable. 
Where  dense  jungles  offer  impediments  which  the  pioneers  could 
not  obviate  without  great  labour  and  consequent  delay,  three  or 
four  Elephants  clear  the  way  at  once  ;  trampling  down  the  long 
grass  and  bushes,  and  breaking  down  the  slender  trees  ;  in  short, 
levelling  all  before  them:  again,  where  the  artillery  has  to  be  dragged 
through  heavy  roads  of  clay  and  mire,  and  deep  sloughs,  their 
strength  and  sagacity  are  in  great  requisition.  They  always  apply 
their  force  in  the  most  efficacious  manner,  and  assist  each  other 
with  wonderful  sagacity.  Capt.  Williamson  thus  notices  their 
services  in  this  particular: — "  Many  of  our  most  arduous  military 
operations  have  been  greatly  indebted  for  their  success  to  the 
sagacity,  patience,  and  exertion  of  Elephants.  Exclusive  of  their 
utility  in  carrj'ing  baggage  and  stores,  considerable  aid  is  frequently 
supplied  by  the  judgment  they  display,  bordering  very  closely  on 
reason.  When  cannon  require  to  be  extricated  from  sloughs,  the 
Elephant  placing  his  forehead  to  the  muzzle,  which  when  hmbered 
is  the  rear  of  the  piece,  with  an  energy  scarcely  to  be  conceived, 
will  urge  it  through  a  bog  from  which  hundreds  of  Oxen  or  Horses 
could  not  drag  it  :  at  other  times,  lapping  his  trunk  round  the 
cannon,  he  will  lift  while  the  cattle  and  men  pull  forward.  (Fiof. 
793.)  The  native  princes  attach  an  Elephant  to  each  cannon,  to  aid 
its  progress  in  emergencies.  For  this  purpose  the  animal  is  fur- 
nished with  a  thick  leather  pad  covering  the  forehead,  to  prevent  its 
being  injured.  It  has  sometimes  happened  that,  in  narrow  roads 
or  causeways,  or  on  banks,  the  soil  has  given  way  under  heavy 
cannon  ;  when  an  Elephant,  being  applied  to  the  falling  side,  has 
not  only  prevented  the  piece  from  upsetting,  but  even  aided  it  for- 
ward to  a  state  of  security."  Elephants  have  probably  been 
employed  in  this  manner  from  the  first  introduction  of  artillery  into 
Asia.  Bernier,  describing  the  army  of  Aurungzebe,  says — "  Many 
of  these  cannon  are  so  ponderous,  that  twenty  yoke  of  Oxen  is 
necessary  to  draw  them  along ;  and  some,  when  the  road  is  steep  or 
rugged,  require  the  aid  of  Elephants  in  addition  to  the  Oxen,  to  push 
the  carriage-wheels  with  their  heads  and  trunks."  Heavy  guns  are 
often  carried  on  Elephants'  backs,  both  in  the  native  and  the  Indian 
armies. 

In  dragging  cannon  up  mountain-passes,  where  the  road  is  steep 
and  rugged,  these  animals  have  often  performed  good  service, 
stimulated  by  the  praises  and  encouragement  of  their  drivers,  which 
have  great  effect  upon  them  ;  besides,  when  they  have  achieved  any 
difficiilt  operation,  it  is  usual  to  reward  them  with  sweetmeats  and 
arrack,  and  from  all  accounts  they  labour  expecting  the  customary 
reward.  In  former  times,  the  Elephant,  adorned  with  gorgeous 
trappings,  swelled  the  royal  state  of  princes  and  persons  of  distinc- 
tion, but  in  British  India  it  is  now  rarely  seen  upon  occasions  of 
ceremony,  excepting  at  the  courts  of  the  native  princes  who  still 
retain  some  degree  of  independent  authority.  A  line  of  Elephants 
richly  caparisoned  is,  however,  a  noble 
spectacle.  At  Vizier  All's  wedding  in 
1796,  there  was  a  grand  procession 
of  1,200  Elephants,  all  magnificently 
adorned;  of  these,  100  in  the  centre 
had  howdahs,  or  castles,  covered  with 
silver ;  and  in  the  midst  appeared  the 
Nabob,  mounted  on  an  uncommonly  large 
Elephant,  within  a  howdah  covered  with 
gold,  richly  set  with  precious  stones. 
Some  of  the  Elephants  of  Aurungzebe 
were,  according  to  Bernier,  most  splen- 
didly attired.  Sir  T.  Rowe  thus  describes 
the  state  Elephants  of  Jehanghir: — "His 
greatest  Elephants  were  brought  before 
him,  some  of  which,  being  lord  Elephants, 
had  their  chains,  bells,  and  furniture  of 
gold  and  silver,  attended  with  gilt  banners 
and  flags ;  and  eight  or  ten  Elephants 
waiting  on  him,  clothed  in  gold,  silk,  and 
silver.  Thus  passed  about  twelve  com- 
panies, most  richly  furnished  ;  the  first 
Elephant  having  all  the  plates  on  his 
head  and  breast  set  with  rubies  and 
emeralds,  being  a  beast  of  wonderful 
stature  and  beauty.  They  all  bowed  down 
before  the  king." 

By  Europeans  in  India,   the   Elephant 
is   used    for   travelling,   and   in   hunting 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


311 


the  Tiger.  The  Horse  cannot  be  brought  to  follow  the  track,  or 
stand  'firm  at  the  sight  of  the  ferocious  beast,  but  the  Elephant 
will  do  both  ;  and  besides  his  delicate  scent,  his  bodily  powers, 
which  enable  him  to  make  his  way  through  the  thickest  covers, 
and  his  great  stature,  which  places  the  hunters  seated  in  a  how- 
dah  on  his  back  in   comparative   safety,   are  peculiar  reconunen- 


It  is  said  that  the  Elephant  displays  great  fear  towards  the 
Rhinoceros.  Major  Lally  stated  to  the  author  of  the  "  Oriental  Field- 
sports,"  that  he  once  witnessed,  from  a  distant  hill,  a  most  des- 
perate engagement  between  a  large  male  Elephant  and  a  Rhinoceros, 
in  which  the  Elephant  was  worsted,  and  eventually  fkd.  Babcr,  how- 
ever, in  his  memoirs  observes,  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  Rhinoceros 


Fig.  794. — Hiinters  in  a  Howdah. 

dations.     (See  Fig.  794.)     After  all,  however,  the  sport  is  not  un- 
attended with  danger,  for  the  Elephant  fears  the   Tiger,  and  the 
latter,  when  wounded  or  hard   pressed,  bounds  upon   the  nearest 
Elephant,   and  mostly  tries  to  seize  the  creature's  trunk  ;    this  it 
throws  up  as  high  as  possible,  and  if  a  staunch  beast,  endeavours  to 
receive  the   foe  on  its  tusks.      Well-trained  Elephants   have  been 
known  to  succeed,  and,  instantly  kneeling,  transfix  the  Tiger  and 
pin  him  to  the  ground  (Fig.   795)  ;   but  it  often 
happens  that  the  Tiger  accomplishes  his  effort, 
in  which  case  the  Elephant  loses  all  self-posses- 
sion, and  sets  off  at  full  speed,  roaring  violently, 
and  throwing  all  into  confusion.     Sometimes,  in- 
deed, the  Elephant  will  not  stand  the  attack,  but 
precipitately   retreats  in  the  greatest  consterna- 
tion ;  in  which  case,  if  the  Tiger  springs  upon  the 
animal,  the  hunters  are  in  imminent  peril.     Mr. 
Williamson  ("  Oriental  Field-sports  ")  relates  an 
instance  in   which  a   gentleman   went   out   with 
others  in  pursuit  of  a  cunning  and  daring  Tiger, 
and  who  urged  his  Mohout  to  make  his  Elephant 
beat  among  the  tall  grass  where  the  scent  was 
strongest ;    this  being  done,  in  spite  of  the  tre- 
mendous tones  of  the  agitated  animal,  the  Tiger 
found  himself  compelled  either  to  resist  or  submit 
to  be  trodden  upon  ;  he  sprang  at  once  upon  the 
Elephant's  quarter,  fixed   his    fore-paws    in   the 
pad  on  the  animal's  back,  and  his  hind-claws  in 
the  flesh  of  the  thigh.     In  a  paroxysm  of  fear, 
occasioned  by  the  suddenness  of  the  attack,  and 
pain,  the  Elephant  dashed  through  the  cover,  the 
Tiger  still  clinging,  but  unable,  from  the  motion 
of  the  Elephant,  to  mount  higher.     It  was  with 
difficulty  that  the  gentleman  could  keep  his  seat, 
and  he  was  prevented  from   firing   at   the  grim 
beast,  both  from  his  unprecedented  situation,  and  from  the  danger 
of  wounding  some  of  the   numerous   followers  who  were  exerting 
the  utmost  speed  of  their  respective  Elephants  to  come  to  his  assist- 
ance.    The  pace  of  the  Elephant  was  wavy  and  irregular,  owing  to 
the  animal's  fear,  and  fortunately  gave  opportunity  for  some  of  those 
mounted  on  light  and  speedy  animals  to  overtake  it,  when  a  gentle- 
man of  the  party  despatched  it  with  a  shot. 


Fig.  795. — Elephant  pinning  a  Tiger, 

hunt,  one  of  the  Elephants  fell  right  in  with  the  Rhinoceros,  upon 
which  the  latter  immediately  ran  off  in  another  direction.  That  an 
enraged  male  of  each  species  may  meet,  and  fight,  is  not  perhaps 
improbable  ;  but  we  have  no  good  grounds  for  supposing  any  ani- 
mosity to  exist  between  the  two  species  :  certain  it  is  that  the  male 
Elephant  and  Rhinoceros,  in  adjoining  compartments,  manifest  to- 
wards each  other  neither  fear  nor  dislike. 

White  Elephants,  that  is,  albinos,  are  occasionally  found,  and 
are  highly  valued.  At  the  court  of  Ava  royalty  is  incomplete  with- 
out such  an  appendage,  and  both  the  nobles  and  people  would 
consider  it  inauspicious  to  want  a  White  Elephant.  In  Siam  also,  as 
well  as  in  the  Birman  empire,  the  White  Elephant  is  venerated. 
Mr.  Crawford  ("  Embassy  to  the  Court  of  Ava"),  who  saw  the  cele- 
brated White  Birman  Elephant  (see  Fig.  796),  as  well  as  six  belong- 
ing to  the  king  of  Siam,  states,  respecting  the  former,  that  his 
establishment   is  very  large.     White  Elephants  were  not  unknown 


■'-^Aic'A-Br'S'/: 


Ky^iuv^' 


Fig.  796.— White  Elephant  of  Ava. 

to  thfe  ancients,  and  were  occasionally  exhibited  to  the  admiration 
of  the  populace—"  Sive  elephas  albus  vulgi  converteret  ora" 
(Horace). 

Let  us  now  turn  from  the  Indian  to  the  African  species.  This 
animal  is  found  from  Senegal  and  Abyssinia  to  the  confines  of  the 
Cape  settlement,  wherever  rivers,  lakes,  and  extensive  forests  render 
the  rci^ion  suitable  for  its  residence.     In  the  plains  of  the  kingdom 


3'2 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


of  Conijo,  where  the  herbage  attains  a  wild  luxuriance,  amidst  in- 
numerable lakes,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  Senegal,  whose  waters 
How  through  extensive  forests,  herds  of  Elephants  still  wander,  and 
also  in  the  remoter  districts  of  Caffraria.  Cuvier  appears  to  have 
had  some  suspicion  that  the  Elephant  of  Abj-ssinia  and  the  eastern 
portions  of  Africa  might  possibly  be  identical  with  the  Indian  species, 
and  he  adduces  the  testimony  of  Ludolphe,  who,  in  his  "  History  of 
Abyssinia,"  states  that  the  female  Elephants  of  that  country  are 
destitute  of  tusks  :  he  acknowledges,  indeed,  that  the  authority  of 
Ludolphe  is  doubtful;  nevertheless,  ho  adds,  his  testimony  is  con- 
firmed by  Bruce,  at  least  in  one  particular  case,  for,  in  the  account 
of  an  Elephant-hunt  at  which  he  assisted,  the  tusks  of  a  female 
W'Cre  small,  whilst  the  male  had  them  of  great  magnitude.  We 
cannot  lay  much  stress  on  a  single  case  of  this  kind,  and  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  no  mention  is  made  of  the  size  of  the  cars  or  shape  of 
the  head;  nor  can  we  say  whether  or  not  the  individual  was  young 
or  adult.  It  is  not  improbable  that  breeds  or  races  may  differ  in 
Africa  as  they  do  in  India. 

In  ancient  times  the  Elephant  appears  to  have  ranged  along  the 
north  and  north-western  shores.  "  Elephantos  fert  Africa  ultra 
Syrticas  solitudines,  et  in  Mauritania,  says  Pliny,  and  .^lian 
asserts  that  they  dwell  in  the  forests  and  pasture-lands  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Atlas.  Though  none  are  found  in  those  localities  in  the 
present  day,  we  give  full  credit  to  the  assertion,  for  we  know  that 
the  Lion  once  abounded  in  regions  where  it  has  long  disappeared. 
Moreover,  the  Carthaginians,  who  used  the  African  Elephant  as  an 
engine  of  war,  as  Porus  and  the  Indian  kings  did  the  Asiatic,  collected, 
on  the  threatened  invasion  of  Scipio  (n.c.  205),  a  great  number  of 
these  animals,  so  quickly  as  to  prove  that  they  had  not  to  penetrate 
far  into  the  interior  to  procure  them.  The  Ptolemies,  it  would  seem, 
procured  their  Elephants  in  Abyssinia.  Herodotus  states  that  this 
animal  abounded,  with  Bears  and  Lions,  in  Libya.  Ethiopia  paid  a 
tribute  to  Darius,  which  consisted  in  part  of  Elephants'  tusks. 
Though  the  Romans  were  at  an  early  epoch  acquainted  with  ivory, 
the  Etruscan  attributes  of  royalty  being  sceptres  and  thrones  of  this 
material,  still  the  first  personal  acquaintance  of  the  Romans  with 
this  animal  was  when  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus  (B.C.  281),  invaded 
Italy,  bringing  Elephants  as  part  of  the  military  force.  These, 
however,  were  most  probably  Indian  ;  and  might,  indeed,  have  been 
some  of  the  numbers  which  were  left  by  Alexander  at  his  death, 
about  half  a  century  previously,  and  which  with  his  kingdom  and 
treasures  were  divided  between  his  successors,  and  employed  in  the 
sanguinary  wars  which  arose  out  of  their  individual  contests  for  em- 
pire. At  all  events,  as  India  was  open,  these  animals  might  easily  have 
been  procured.  Perdiccas  led  them  into  Egypt  against  Ptolemy, 
and  they  were  governed  by  Indian  Mohouts  ;  Ptolemy  opposed  them 
by  Ethiopian  Elephants,  which  were  not  considered  so  effective  as 
the  Indian  animals,  perhaps  from  not  being  so  well  trained.  The 
Romans  called  the  Elephant  the  Lucanian  Ox,  as  it  would  seem  from 
having  first  encountered  it  in  the  territory  of  Lucania  ;  and  this 
name  was  generally  adopted  afterwards.  In  the  Punic  N'.ar  the 
Romans  had  to  encounter  the  African  Elephant,  and  Regulus 
captured  eighteen  at  the  battle  of  Adis.  Afterwards,  at  the  battle  of 
Panormis  (Palermo),  upwards  of  100  were  taken,  and  the  consul 
Metullus  transported  them  to  Rome  to  gratify  the  wonder  of  the 
people,  and  die  in  the  circus  for  their  amusement.  Hannibal 
employed  them  in  Spain,  and,  as  is  well  known,  in  Italy,  and  when 
those  which  he  brought  with  him  had  all  perished,  he  received  large 
reinforcements  from  Carthage. 

After  the  close  of  the  Punic  war,  the  Romans  themselves  used  the 
African  Elephant  in  subduing  Macedonia ;  and  thirty  years  after- 
wards, Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Macedon,  whose  great  predecessor 
had  made  Europe  familiar  with  the  power  of  the  Elephant,  possessed 
none  in  his  own  army  to  oppose  those  brought  against  him  by 
Quintus  Martius  Philippus,  and,  after  four  years'  ineffectual  resist- 
ance, Macedonia  became  a  Roman  province.  At  the  battle  of 
Magnesia,  Scipio  brought  African  Elephants  against  Antiochus, 
who  opposed  them  with  Elephants  from  India,  and  thus  in  hostile 
array  were  brought  together  the  peaceful  tenants  of  the  plains  and 
forests  of  two  remote  regions  of  the  earth  separated  by  seas  and 
deserts.  Julius  Cajsar  employed,  on  various  occasions,  the  Ele- 
phant in  his  armies,  but  more  perhaps  as  a  beast  of  burden,  and 
for  the  sake  of  ostentation,  or  of  striking  terror  among  barbarous 
people,  than  for  actual  combat.  The  Romans  became  now  well 
acquainted  with  this  beast,  and  availed  themselves  of  it  for  the  pur- 
pose of  drawing  splendid  chariots  in  triumphal  processions,  but  sel- 
dom used  it  as  an  arm  of  war.  They,  however,  forced  it  into  the 
brutal,  demoralising  combats  of  the  amphitheatre,  or  amused  them- 
selves with  its  unwieldy  performances  in  theatrical  pageants — such 
as  we  have  seen  in  our  own  days.  For  more  than  500  years  did 
Africa  contribute  Elephants  to  the  Roman  circus,  and  incalculable 
numbers  perished  during  that  long  period  ;  thousands  were 
dragged  from  the  forests  of  Ethiopia  to  gratify  by  their  torments 
an  ignorant  and  debased  multitude,  and  thousands  were  slaughtered 
in  their  native  regions  for  the  sake  of  their  ivory,  of  which  both 
African  and  Indian  were  in  the  greatest  request.  Of  this  material 
were  fashioned  the  most  imposing  statues  ;  the  rooms  and  furniture 


Fig.  797. — Female  Elephant  and 
her  young  one. 


of  the  patricians  were  inlaid  with  gold  and  ivory;    and  it  orna- 
mented halls,  porticoes,  and  temples. 

With  respect  to  the  African  Elephant  it  was  most  probably  bred  . 
by  the  Romans  in  a   state  of  domestication.     Fig.  797  is   a  copy 
of  a  representation,  on  the  walls  of  Pompeii,  of  a  female  African 

Elephant  suckling  her  young  one. 
^^^^  The  picture  exhibits   a  perfect  ac- 

quaintance witli  the  mode  in  which 
the  little  Elephant  receives  suste- 
nance from  its  mother,  a  fact  of 
which  Buffon  and  the  naturalists  of 
the  last  century  were  ignorant. 

At  length  the  power  of  Rome 
declined,  the  butchery  of  the  circus 
w^as  suspended,  and  in  the  time  of 
Justinian  (A.D.  527)  an  Elephant 
was  esteemed  a  rare  spectacle  at 
Rome  and  Constantinople.  The 
intercourse  between  Europe  and 
Africa,  on  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  became  in  a  great  measure 
suspended  for  centuries  ;  a  wander- 
ing population  of  Arabs  spread 
over  the  northern  regions  of  Africa  ; 
and  the  Elephant,  no  longer  hunted  for  his  ivory,  or  captured  for 
the  circus,  wandered  unmolested  in  his  native  forests.  The  modes 
employed  by  the  Carthaginians  for  training  the  animal  were  for- 
gotten ;  nay,  that  it  had  ever  been  reclaimed  to  the  service  of  a  people 
whose  place  had  been  since  occupied  by  Roman,  Vandal,  and 
Arab  conquerors,  was  a  circumstance  buried  in  oblivion,  and  the 
African  Elephant  was  at  last  believed  to  be  incapable  of  the  dis- 
cipline w-hich  still  subjects  the  Indian  to  the  use  of  man.  In  recent 
times  the  demand  for  ivory  has  again  revived,  and  in  south  and 
western  Africa  the  herds  of  Elephants  are  thinned  by  the  gun  of  the 
hunter. 

Hitherto  we  have  confined  our  observations  to  the  two  species  of 
Elephant  at  present  existing  on  our  globe  ;  time  was,  however,  when 
a  species  differing  from  either  abounded  on  the  earth,  and  ranged 
over  a  great  extent  of  country,  tenanting  climates  not  only  within  the 
temperate  latitudes,  but  such  as  are  now  exposed  to  the  severities  of 
an  Arctic  winter,  where  their  tusks  are  found  in  great  abundance, 
and  collected  for  the  sake  of  the  ivory,  which  is  still  available. 
More  than  this,  however,  the  animal,  flesh  and  all,  has  been  found 
in  a  state  of  preservation  entombed  in  ice.  Age^had  rolled  by  since 
the  day  which  saw  it  inurned  in  its  strange  sarcophagus ;  nations 
and  tongues  and  empires  had  risen  and  passed  away ;  the  very 
region  it  inhabited  had  undergone  an  alteration  of  temperature  and 
productions — yet,  while  the  proudest  monuments  of  human  industry 
were  perishing,  while  nations  were  falling  or  rising,  had  this  body 
remained,  as  when  the  life  departed,  to  be  displayed  in  later  days  as 
a  relic  of  times  beyond  the  date  of  human  records.  We  allude  to 
the  Mammoth  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  in  Siberia. 

In  1799,  a  Tungusian,  who  went  along  the  coast  to  seek  for  Mam- 
moths' tusks,  first  perceived  the  carcass  on  a  vast  block  of  ice,  but 
without  being  able  to  make  out  its  true  character.  In  1801  it  be- 
came partially  exposed;  in  1803  it  became  disengaged  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  ice  ;  and  in  1804  the  Tungusian,  named  Schumachoff,  cut 
oft'  the  tusks  and  sold  them  to  a  merchant  for  the  value  of  fifty 
roubles.  Two  years  afterwards  Mr.  Adams  found  the  Mammoth  still 
on  the  shore,  but  greatly  mutilated.  The  Yakutski  had  fed  their 
Dogs  with  the  flesh.  Bears,  Wolves,  Wolverenes,  and  Foxes  had 
feasted  upon  it ;  but  though  all  the  flesh  and  the  proboscis  were  gone, 
the  skeleton  remained  with  the  exception  of  one  fore-leg.  The  skin 
was  also  to  a  certain  extent  perfect,  and  one  of  the  ears  was  well  pre- 
served with  its  tuft  of  hairs.  The  skin,  of  a  dark  tint,  was  covered 
with  reddish  wool  and  black  hairs  ;  but  much  of  the  fur  was  injured 
by  damp,  and  much  trodden  into  the  earth  by  the  Bears.  The 
skeleton  and  other  portions  of  value  were  carefully  collected ;  the 
tusks  were  repurchased,  and  the  whole  transported  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, 

The  skeleton  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Academy,  and  the  skin 
still  remains  attached  to  the  head  and  feet.  A  part  of  the  skin  and 
some  of  the  hair  of  this  animal  were  sent  by  Mr.  Adams  to  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  who  presented  them  to  the  Museum  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons.  The  hair  is  entirely  separated  from  the  skin, 
excepting  in  one  very  small  part  where  it  still  remains  attached.  It 
consists  of  two  sorts,  common  hair  and  bristles,  and  of  each  there 
are  several  varieties,  differing  in  length  and  thickness.  That  re- 
maining fixed  on  the  skin  is  of  the  colour  of  the  Camel,  an  inch  and 
a-half  long,  very  thick-set,  and  curled  in  locks.  It  is  interspersed 
with  a  few  bristles,  about  three  inches  long,  of  a  dark  reddish  colour. 
Among  the  separate  parcels  of  hair  are  some  rather  redder  than  the 
short  hair  just  mentioned,  about  four  inches  long  ;  and  some  bristles 
nearly  black,  much  thicker  than  horsehair,  and  from  twelve  to  eigh- 
teen inches  long.  The  skin  when  first  brought  to  the  museum  was 
offensive;  it  is  now  quite  dry  and  hard,  and  where   most  compact 


half  an  inch  thick.     Its  colour  is  dull  black.     Fig. 


represents 


THE  MAMMOTH— THE  MASTODON' 


i-^i 


this  fossil  Elephant  or  Mammoth  [Ehphas primigoiius).  Another 
and  prior  instance  of  the  discovery  of  an  ice-prcscrvcd  Elephant  is 
recorded  :  in  this  case  the  carcass  was  found  on  the  borders  of  the 
Al.iseia  river,  which  flows  into  the  Icy  Ocean  beyond  the  Indigirska  ; 
it  had  been  set  free  by  the  stream,  and  was  in  an  upright  position, 
almost  perfect,  and  covered  with  the  skin,  to  which  there  still  ad- 
hered in  many  places  hairs  and  fur,  as  in  the  Lena  specimen.  There 
are  not  wanting  other  instances  of  parts,  as  the  head  and  feet,  with 


Fig.  79S. — Skeleton  of  a  Mammoth  found  in  Siberia. 

the  flesh  on,  having  been  found  in  ice  :  nor  is  it  only  of  the  Elephant 
that  preserved  remains  e.xist ;  for  in  1771,  the  body  of  a  Rhinoceros, 
perfect,  or  nearly  so,  preserved  in  frozen  earth  or  gravel,  was  disin- 
terred near  the  Vilhoui.     The  head  and  feet  are  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Asiatic  Russia  and  Siberia  appear  to  have  been  the  stronghold  of 
the  Mammoth  ;  over  these  vast  regions,  indeed,  its  fossil  remains 
occur  in  incredible  numbers.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  river  from  the  Don 
to  Kamtschatka  where,  either  along  the  banks  or  on  the  beds,  these 
relics,  with  those  of  other  e.xtinct  species,  do  not  abound.  It  is  not, 
however,  only  in  that  extensive  tract  that  the  fossil  relics  of  Ele- 
phants occur.  They  are  common 
ill  Italy,  France,  Germany,  Bo- 
hemia, and  the  British  Isles. 
They  are  found  also  in  North 
America,  mixed  with  those  of 
the  Mastodon ;  and  have  been 
brought  by  Baron  Humboldt  from 
Mexico  and  Peru. 

Fig.  799  represents  the  skull 
of  the  Elcphas primigeniiis.  In 
form  it  approximates  the  most 
nearly  to  that  of  the  Indian 
Elephant,  but  has  several  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics.  The 
grinders,  for  instance,  have  the 
ribands  of  enamel  across  the 
worn  crown  thinner  and  less  fes- 
tooned at  their  edge,  and  in  a 
given  space  are  more  numerous, 
being  closer  together.  The  facial 
line  is  more  perpendicular,  and 
the  top  of  the  skull  more  peaked. 
The  alveoli  of  the  tusks  are  more 
developed.  The  lower  jaw  is 
shorter,  and  more  upright  at  its 
symphysis ;  while  the  grinder 
follows  a  nearly  level  line.  The 
tusks  are  generally  very  large,  arched,  and  directed  upwards  and 
outwards,  with  a  bold  and  somewhat  spiral  turn. 

^Ylth  respect  to  the  strata  in  which  these  fossil  relics  are  found,  it 
may  be  stated  that  it  is  only  in  alluvial  and  superficial  deposits — 
those  filling  the  bottoms  of  valleys,  or  forming  borders  of  rivers,  the 
mud  of  certain  caverns — the  crag  formation  and  other  Tertiary  fresh- 
water deposits,  that  they  as  a  rule  occur.  In  these  slightly  con- 
solidated strata  are  also  found  other  fossil  relics,  some  of  quadru- 
peds of  existing  genera,  and  some  of  which  there  are  no  living 
prototypes. 

In  some  regions  where  the  remains  of  the  Mammoth  and  Rhino- 


Fig.  799. — Skull  of  Mammoth. 


ceros  abound,  as  northern  Siberia,  a  decided  change  in  the  climate 
must  have  taken  place  since  the  era  of  the  existence  of  the  .nnimals; 
although,  as  the  clothing  with  which  they  were  invested  proves,  the 
climate  was  moderate,  and  often  cold  ;  not,  however,  as  it  is  now — 
for,  as  Mr.  Lyell  observes,  "it  would  bo  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
for  such  animals  to  obtain  subsistence  during  an  Arctic  winter." 
Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  "  so  many  skeletons  could  not  have  belonged 
to  herds  which  lived  at  one  time  in  the  district,  even  if  those  north- 
ern countries  had  once  been  clothed  with  vege- 
tation as  luxuriant  as  that  of  an  Indian  jungle. 
But   if  we    suppose  the  change   to   have   been 
extremely  slow,  and   to   have  consisted   not  so 
much  in  a  diminution  of  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature, as  in  an  alteration  from  what  has  been 
termed  an  'insular'  to  an  'excessive'  climate— 
from  one  in  which  the  temperature  of  winter  and 
summer  were  nearly  equalised,  to  one  wherein 
the  seasons  were  violently  contrasted — we  may, 
perhaps,  explain  the  phenomenon.     Siberia  and 
other  Arctic  regions,  after  having  possessed  for 
ages   a   more  uniform  temperature,   may,  after 
certain  changes  in  the  form  of  the  Arctic  land, 
have  become  occasionally  exposed  to  extremely 
severe  winters.     When   these   first  occurred  at 
distant  intervals,  the  drift  snow  would  fill  the 
valleys,    and   herds   of  herbivorous  quadrupeds 
would  be  surprised  and  buried  in  a  frozen  mass, 
as  often  happens  to  cattle  and  human  beings 
overwhelmed  in  the  Alpine  valleys  of  Switzerland 
by  avalanches.    When  valleys  have  become  filled 
with  ice,  as  those  of  Spitzbergen,  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  mass  causes  innumerable  deep  rents, 
such  as  are  seen  in  the  Mer-de-glace  on  Mont 
Blanc.   These  deep  crevices  usually  become  filled 
with  loose  snow,  but  sometimes  a  thin  covering 
is  drifted  across  the  mouth  of  the  chasm,  capable 
of  sustaining  a  certain  weight.     Such  treacher- 
ous bridges  are  liable  to  give  way  when  heavy 
animals  are  crossing,  which  are  then  precipi- 
tated at  once  into  the  body  of  a  glacier,  which  slowly  descends  to  the 
sea,  and  becomes  a  floating  iceberg.     As  Bears,  Foxes,  and  Deer 
now  abound  in  Spitzbergen,  we   may  confidently  assume  that  the 
imbedding  of  animal  remains  in  the  glaciers  of  that  island  must  be 
an  event  of  almost  annual  occurrence.     The  conversion  of  drift  snow 
into  permanent  glaciers  and  icebergs,  when  it  happens  to  become 
covered  over  with  alluvial  matter,  transported  by  torrents  and  floods, 
is  by  no  means  a  rare  phenomenon  in  the  Arctic  regions.     During  a 
series  of  milder  seasons  intervening  between  the  severe  winters,  the 
Mammoths  may  have  recovered  their  numbers,  and  the  Rhinoceroses 
may  have  multiplied  again,  so  that  the  repetition  of  such  catastro- 
phes may  have  been  indefinite.     The  increasing  cold,  and  greater 
frequency  of  inclement  winters,  would  at  last  thin  their  numbers, 
and  their  final   extirpation  would   be   consummated   by  the   rapid 
augmentation  of  other  herbivorous  quadrupeds  more  fitted  for  the 
new  climate."     Lyell's  "  GeoL,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  96—99. 

The  Mastodon. 

Co-existent  perhaps  with  the  Mammoth,  a  race  of  huge  animals, 
now  utterly  extinct,  once  tenanted  our  globe  :  their  remains,  which 
are  met  with  in  the  superficial  strata,  occur  in  some  localities  in 
great  abundance  ;  and,  from  the  differences  presented  by  the  teeth 
and  other  parts,  several  species  have  been  identified.  To  these 
animals  Cuvier  gave  the  title  of  MASTODON,  in  allusion  to  the 
principal  character  of  thq.  molars,  which,  instead  of  being  formed, 
as  in  the  Elephant,  of  transverse  lamina;,  have  the  crown  of  simple 
structure,  but  exhibiting  ranges  of  bold  conical  elevations,  divided 
from  each  other  by  deep  furrows.  (See  Fig.  800.)  As  the  points  of 
these  elevations  become  worn  down  by  use,  the  crown  presents  a 
series  of  lozenge-shaped  lines  of  thick  enamel  (Fig.  801)  ;  but  when 
these  are  quite  obliterated,  the  surface  becomes  uniform  and  concave. 

Of  the  molars  thus  characterised  there  were  two  above  and  be- 
low on  each  side ;  but  before  these  molars  it  w'ould  appear  that  in 
young  individuals  others  had  been  situated,  and  had  fallen  in  suc- 
cession, as  Cuvier  satisfactorily  ascertained  from  the  examination  of 
various  specimens.  With  regard  to  the  mode  of  succession  in  the 
grinders  of  the  Mastodon,  it  takes  place,  says  Cuvier,  by  a  move- 
ment from  behind  forwards.  When  the  back  tooth  is  in  the  act  of 
piercing  the  gum,  that  anterior  to  it  is  worn  and  ready  to  fall,  and 
they  thus  replace  themselves  one  after  the  other.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  it  is  possible  for  more  than  two  at  a  time  on  each  side  to 
be  in  full  operation,  and  ultimately,  as  in  the  Elephant,  there  is  only 
one.  That  the  Mastodon  had  tusks  like  the  Elephant  is  proved  by 
the  large  alveoli  for  their  reception.  As  no  perfect  skull  of  the 
Mastodon  is  known,  it  is  impossible  to  defijie  its  contour :  it  must, 
however,  have  had  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Elephant, 
inasmuch  as  the  tables  of  the  frontal  bone  are  separated  in  a  similar 
manner  by  extensive  cells. 

as 


314 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


The  neck  is  short,  and  the  skeleton  sfenerally  (Fisf.  802)  approxi- 
mates to  that  of  the  Elephant.  The  Mastodon  must  have  possessed 
a  proboscis,  as  is  evident  from  a  consideration  of  the  structure  of 
the  skull  and  skeleton  {a)  ;  and,  indeed,  it  would  appear. that  this 
proboscis  has  not  in  every  instance  been  completely  decomposed. 
The  relics  of  the  Mastodon  gigantcus,  or  "  Animal  of  the  Ohio," 


Fig.  Soo. — ^rohr  of  Mastodon,  not  worn. 


Fig.  Sol. — Molar  of  Mastodon,  much  worn. 

are  found  in  North  America,  especially  in  saline  morasses  ;  and  to 
this  circumstance  Barton  thinks  is  to  be  attributed  the  occurrence 
of  soft  parts  still  capable  of  being  made  out.  In  1762  (as  he  states), 
out  of  five  skeletons  which  were  seen  by  the  natives,  one  skull  still 
possessed  what  they  called  a  "long  nose,"  with  the  mouth  under  it. 
Kalm,  speaking  of  a  huge  skeleton  which,  in  accordance  with  the 
ideas  of*^his  time,  he  believed  to  be  that  of  an  Elephant,  and  which 
was  discovered  by  the  savages  in  the  country  of  the  Illinois,  says 
that  "  the  form  of  the  trunk  (bee)  was  still  apparent,  though  half  de- 
composed." Of  the  several  species  of  this  extinct  genus,  the  Great 
Mastodon,  or  Animal  of  the  Ohio,  is  the  most  remarkable.    Its  relics 


Fig.  S02. — Skeleton  of  Mastodon. 

appear  to  be  confined  to  the  American  contment :  they  are  dis- 
tributed very  generally,  and  are  accumulated  in  some  places  in 
considerable  abundance,  but  nowhere  so  much  so  as  in  that  saline 
morass  popularly  termed  the  Big-bone  Lick.  They  are  found  buried 
in  the  mud,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  morass,  at  the  depth  of 
four  feet  and  upwards,  together  with  the  bones  of  Buffaloes,  Stags, 


&c.  These  relics  have  no  appearance  of  having  been  rolled,  and,  in 
some  places,  as  for  example  along  the  Great  Osage  River,  they  are 
found  in  a  vertical  position,  as  if  the  anjmals  had  sunk  down  into  the 
mud,  which  had  closed  over  them.  The  ferruginous  matter  with 
which  the  bones  are  impregnated,  says  Cuvier,  is  the  main  proof  of 
their  long  repose  in  the  earth. 

The  traditions  which  were  rife  among  the  Red  Men  concerning 
this  gigantic  animal  and  its  destruction  must  not  be  passed  over  in 
silence.  M.  Fabri,  a  French  officer,  informed  Buffon  that  the  sava- 
ges regarded  these  bones  scattered  in  various  parts  of  Canada  and 
Louisiana  as  belonging  to  an  animal  which  they  named  Pere-aux- 
BcEufs.  The  Shawnee  Indians  believed  that  with  these  enormous 
animals  there  existed  men  of  proportionate  development,  and  that 
the  Great  Being  destroyed  both  with  thunderbolts.  Those  of  Vir- 
ginia state,  that  as  a  troop  of  these  terrible  quadrupeds  were  de- 
stroying the  Deer,  the  Bisons,  and  the  other  animals  created  for  the 
use  of  the  Indians,  the  Great  Man  slew  them  all  with  his  thunder, 
except  the  Big-Bull,  who,  nothing  daunted,  presented  his  enormous 
forehead  to  the  bolts,  and  shook  them  off  as  they  fell,  till,  being  at 
last  wounded  in  the  side,  he  fled  towards  the  Great  Lakes,  where  he 
is  to  this  day. 

Besides  the  Mastodon  gigantacs ,  the  following  species  are  dis- 
tinguished :  M.  angiistidcns  (Europe,  America?),  AI.  andhini 
(Andes),  M.  hu}?iboldtn{Cox\ce.-p<;\ox\ — Chili),  l\f.  minutics,  M.  tapir- 
oides,  ]\I.  turicensis,  M.  avernensis  (Epplesheim,  Puy-de-Dome), 
M.  dcpliantoides  (Irawaddi,  Sewalik  Mountains),  ]\I.  latidcns  (Ira- 
waddi,  Sewalik  Mountains),  and  M.  longirostis,  Katip.  Professor 
Owen  has  referred  the  teeth  from  the  Norfolk  crag  to  the  last-named 
species. 

The  Hippopotamus,  H.  amphibiiis — Family  HippopotamidcB. 

The  Hippopotamus  is  a  native  exclusively  of  Africa,  where,  though 
much  more  limited  than  formerly  in  the  range  of  its  habitat,  it  ten- 
ants the  banks  and  beds  of  the  largest  rivers,  and  of  the  inland 
lakes  from  the  Gariep  to  the  Upper  Nile  and  its  tributary  branches. 
It  is,  however,  not  restricted  to  these,  for  it  is  marine  as  well  as 
fiuviatile. 

Scarcely,  if  at   all,  inferior  to  the   Elephant  in  bulk,   but  much 
lower  in  stature  from  the  shortness  of  the  limbs,  this  massive  animal 
presents  us  with  the  "  ne  plus  ultra"  of  uncouth  clumsiness  and 
heavy  solidity.     Its  body,  like  an  enormous  barrel  supported  on  four 
thick  pillars,  almost  touches  the  ground  ;  the  head  is  ponderous  ; 
the  muzzle  is  swollen  ;  and  the  great  thick  lips,  studded  with  wire- 
like bristles,  entirely  conceal  the  projecting  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw, 
and  the  huge  curved  tusks  or  canines  ;  the  mouth  is  wide  ;  the  nos- 
trils open  on  the  top  of  the  swollen  muzzle  ;  and  the  eyes,  which  are 
very  small,   are  situated  high  on  the  head  ;    hence,  when  in  the 
water,  the  animal,  by  raising  merely  a  small  upper  section  of  the 
head  above  the  surface,  can  both  look  around  and 
breathe,  the  body  remaining  submerged.     The  ears 
are  small  and  pointed  :  the  tail  is  short,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  few  wiry  bristles.     The  toes,  four  on 
each  foot,  are  tipped  with  small  hoofs.     The  hide 
is  naked,  coarse,  and  of  great  thickness,  being  two 
inches  deep  or  more  on  the  back  and  sides.     It 
is  made   into  shields,  whips,  walking-sticks,   &c. 
Between  the  skin  and  the  flesh  is  a  layer  of  fat, 
which   is  salted   and  eaten   as  a  delicacy  by  the 
Dutch  colonists  of  Southern  Africa.     The  flesh  also 
is   excellent,   and  in  much   request.     The  general 
colour  of  the  Hippopotamus  is  dusky  brownish-red, 
passing  on  the  sides  and  limbs  into  a  light  purple- 
red  or  brown  ;  the  under-parts,   the  lips,  and  the 
eyelids  are  light  wood-brown,  with  a  tinge  of  flesh- 
colour  ;  the  hinder  quarters  and  the  under-surface 
are  freckled  with  spots  of  dusky  brown  ;  the  hairs 
of  the  tail  and  ears  are  black,  those  on  the  muzzle 
yellowish-brown.     The  male  far  exceeds  the  female 
in  size.     The  Flippopotamus  is  gregarious  in  its 
habits,  sagacious,  wary,  and  cautious.     It  has  been 
long  driven  away  from  the  rivers  within  the  limits 
of  the  Cape  Colony ;  but  in  remoter  districts,  where 
the  sound  of  the  musket  is  seldom  heard,  it  abounds 
in  very  lajge  rivers,  and  is  comparatively  fearless  of 
man.     "To  convey,"  says  Dr.  Smith,  "  some  idea 
of  the  numbers  in  which  they  were  found  in  several 
of  the  rivers  towards   the   tropic  of  Capricorn,   it 
may  sufBce  to  state  that,  in  the  course  of  an  hour 
and  a-half,  a  few  members  of  the  expedition  party 
killed  seven  within  gun-shot  of  their  encampment. 
Several  other   individuals  were  in  the  same  pool,  and  might  also 
have  been  killed,  had  it  been  desirable.     One  of  the  survivors  was 
observed  to  make  his  escape  to  an  adjoining  pool,  and  in  accom- 
plishing that  he  walked  with  considerable  rapidity  along  the  bottom 
of  the  river,  and  with  his  back  covered  with  about  a  foot  of  water." 
(See  Fig.  803.) 


CO 


3i6 


THE  RHINOCEROS. 


Guards  Blue,  are  now  dai)y  stationed.  These  interesting  relics  are, 
or  were,  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Milne,  C.E.  The  skull  of  a  Hippo- 
potamus has  been  discovered  in  a  peat-bog-  in  Lancaster,  and  is 
now,  I  believe,  in  the  Geological  Museum  at  O.xford.  Bones  and 
teeth  of  Hippopotami  have  also  been  discovered  in  Gloucestershire — 
if  I  mistake  not,  in  the  Hyaena  dens  of  Banwell,  in  the  Mendip  Hills  ; 
they  have  also  been  found  on  the  east  coast  of  Norfolk.  The  fact 
that  these  gigantic  animals  will  thrive  and  do  well  in  England  has 
now  been  proved  by  the  Zoological  Society.  It  remains,  therefore, 
only  for  those  gentlemen  who  own  lakes  and  ornamental  waters  on 
their  properties  to  breed  Hippopotami,  animals  most  sagacious  and 
interesting  in  their  habits,  and,  as  has  been  proved,  capable  of  do- 
mestication during  the  earlier  months  of  existence." 

Fig.  804  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  Hippopotamus,  which  is  a 


Fig.  S04. — Skeleton  of  Hippopotamus. 

ponderous  frame-work  in  unison  with  the  vast  weight  of  solid  flesh 
to  be  sustained,  and  the  enormous  strength  of  the  muscles.  The 
neck,  though  short,  is  longer  in  proportion  than  that  of  the  Elephant, 
and,  from  the  shortness  of  the  limbs,  gives  the  animal  the  power  of 
grazmg  the  herbage. 

Various  fossil  species  of  Hippopotamus  have  been  described  by 
Cuvier  and  others ;  ot  one  {H.  aniiquus)  the  relics  are  widely  dis- 
tributed, and  are  particularly  abundant  in  the  Val  d'Arno,  Italy,  in- 
termixed with  those  of  the  Elephant  and  Rhinoceros. 

The  Rhinoceros — Family  Rhinoceridce. 

This  genus  contains  seven  or  even  more  living  and  well-estab- 
lished species,  as  far  as  naturalists  are  at  present  able  to  determine, 
and  several  fossil  species,  of  which  the  relics  occur  in  the  same 
strata  as  those  of  the  fossil  Elephant. 


Fig.  805. — Skeleton  of  Rhinoceros. 

The  existing  species  are  confined  to  the  hotter  regions  of  the  Old 
World,  and  are  divided  between  Africa  and  India,  including  the 
islands  of  Java  and  Sumatra.    It  is  in  the  land  of  the  Elephant  and  the 


Hippopotamus  that  the  Rhinoceros  wanders  in  fearless  confidence, 
as  if  aware  of  his  enormous  powers,  and  the  advantage  of  his  weapons 
of  defence.      One  species   {R.    indicus)   is  peculiar  to  continental 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  Siam,  and  Cochin-China  ;  one  [R.jara- 
nits,  or  sondaiats)  is   a  native   of  Java  ;  and  one  with  two  horns 
{R.  sumafrensis),  of  Sumatra.     Three  two-horned  species  are  in- 
digenous  in   Africa — viz.,  the   common  two-horned  or  Black  Rhi- 
noceros {R.  bicornis,  Linn.  ;    africamis,   Cuv.) :    the  White  Rhi- 
noceros  {R.  simus),  and   the    Keitloa  {R.  kcitloa),  discovered  by 
Dr.  Smith  during  his  expedition  into  the  interior.     Accounts  of  a 
single-homed   Rhinoceros  were   received    by  Dr.    Smith   from   the 
natives  in  the  interior  of  South  Africa,  who  represented  it  as  living 
far  up  the  country ;  moreover,  Burckhardt  alludes  to  a  one-liorned 
species  in  the  territory  above  Sennaar,  and  states  that  the  inhabit- 
ants there  give  it  the  n.ime  of  the  "  mother 
of  the  one  horn."     According  to  this  tra- 
veller, its  northern  boundary,  like  that  of 
the   Elephant,  is  the  range  of  mountains 
to    the  north  of  Abou   Huaze,    two   days 
journey  from  Sennaar.     The  hide  of  this 
animal  is  manufactured  into  shields,  which 
have  an   extensive  sale;    the  material  of 
the  horn  is  also  sold,  and  at  a  high  price, 
Burckhardt  having  seen  four  or  five  Span- 
ish  dollars  paid  for   a   piece  four   inches 
long  and  one  inch  thick.      Was  the  one- 
horned    Rhinoceros    seen    by    Strabo    at 
Alexandria   this    species  or   the   common 
Indian  ? — and  the  same   question  appUes 
to    the    one-horned     Rhinoceros    whicli, 
with     a    Hippopotamus,    was    given    by 
Augustus,   in  the  celebration    of    his   tri- 
umph over  Cleopatra,  to  be  slain  in  the 
circus ;  which  animals,  Dion  Cassius  says, 
were  then  first  seen  and  killed  at  Rome — 
an  assertion  perfectly  erroneous,  as  it  re- 
spects the  Rhinoceros,  if  it  was  the  com- 
mon Indian  species;  for  Plinv,  in  his  eighth 
book,  alluding  to  the  games  of  Pompey,  mentions   the  one-horned 
Rhinoceros  (Indian,  it  is  presumed)  as  then  exhibited  ("  lisdem  lu(li>, 
et  Rhinoceros   unius   in  nare    cornu,    qualis,  sape  visus").     With 
respect   to  the  two-horned  African  species,  it  was  also  exhibited  in 
Rome  ;  and  had  learned  critics  known  anything  of  natural   history, 
the  line  in  Martial  ("  namque   gravem  gcinino   cornu  sic    extuiit 
ursum")  would   not  have  given  rise  to  so  many  futile  disquisitions 
and    attempted    corrections.      Pausanias    describes   a    two-horned 
Rhinoceros  under  the  name  of  the  .Ethiopian  Bull.    Two  individuals 
of  the  same  species  appeared  at  Rome  under  the  emperor  Domitian, 
on  some  of  whose  medals  was  impressed  their  figure  ;  othe  s  were 
exhibited  under  Antoninus,  Heliogabalus,  and  Gordian  III.    M.irtial 
lived  in  the  time  of  Domitian,  and  the  Rhinoceros  "  gemino  cornu" 
was  doubtless  seen  by  him. 

The  animals  of  the  present  genus  are  all  remarkable  for  the  mas- 
siveness  of  their  form  and  the  clumsiness  of  their  proportions  ;  they 
are,  however,  more  prompt  and  rapid  than 
might  be  at  first  supposed,  and  when  at- 
tacked they  rush  on  their  foes  with  head- 
long impetuosity.  The  body  is  of  great 
bulk,  and  protuberant  at  the  sides ;  the 
neck  is  short  and  deep  ;  the  shoulders  are 
heavy,  the  limbs  thick  ;  the  feet  are  divided 
into  three  toes  incased  in  hoofs.  The  skin 
is  thick  and  coarse,  with  a  knotty  or  tuber- 
culous surface,  and  destitute,  or  nearly  so, 
of  hairs.  In  the  common  Indian  species  it 
is  disposed  in  large  folds,  especially  on  the 
neck,  shoulders,  haunches,  and  thighs. 
The  eyes  are  small,  placed  nearer  the  nose 
than  in  other  quadrupeds,  and  high  towards 
the  upper  surface  of  the  skull ;  the  ears  are 
moderate  and  erect.  The  head  is  large 
and  ponderous :  it  is  elevated  between  the 
ears,  whence  it  sweeps  %vith  a  concave  line 
to  the  nasal  bones,  which  rise  in  the  form  of 
an  arch  to  support  the  horn.  (See  skeleton. 
Fig.  805.)  The  upper  lip  is  soft,  flexible, 
sensitive,  capable  of  being  protruded,  and 
used  to  a  certain  degree  as  an  organ  of 
prehension. 

But  that  which  gives  most  character  to 
the   head   of  the   Rhinoceros  is  its   horn, 
single  in  some  species,  double  in  others. 
This  organ  is  of  an  elongated,  recurvent, 
conical  figure,  arising  from  a  broad,  lim- 
pet-shaped base,  seated  on  the  nasal  bones,  which  are  of  a  thick- 
ness  and  solidity  not  to  be  found  in  other  races  of  quadrupeds. 
They  form  a  vaulted  roof,  elevated  in  a  remarkable  degree  above 


THE  RHINOCEROS. 


3'7 


the  intermaxillary  bones,  containing  the  incisor  teeth,  and  their 
upper  arched  surface  is  rough  with  numerous  irregularities  and 
depressions ;  and  here  we  may  pause,  to  reflect  on  the  advantages 
gained  bv  their  form  and  structure.  They  have  not  merely  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  horn,  no  trifle  in  itself,  but  to  resist  the  shock  oc- 
casioned by  the  violent  blows  which  the  animal  gives  with  the 
w  eapon  upon  various  occasions. 
Hence,  conjoined  with  their 
solidity,  that  form  is  given  to 
the  nasal  bones  which,  of  all 
others,  is  best  calculated  for 
sustaining  a  superincumbent 
weight  or  sudden  jars  ;  while 
the  rugosities  and  depressions 
tend  to  the  firmer  adhesion  of 
the  skin,  to  which  the  horn  is 
immediately  attached.  In  the 
two-horned  species  the  pos- 
terior horn  rests  on  the  os  fron- 
tis.  The  nasal  horn  of  the 
Rhinoceros  is  a  solid  mass, 
structurally  composed  of  ag- 
glutinated fibres  analogous  to 
hair,  and  much  resembling 
those  into  which  whalebone  is 
so  easily  separable. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  some 
travellers  that  the  horns  of  the 
African  species  are  movable, 
and  that  the  animal  rattles 
them  against  each  other  :  this, 
however,  is  a  mistake — they 
are  firmly  fixed.  The  nostrils 
are  on  each  side  of  the  upper 
lip ;  the  tongue  is  perfectly 
smooth,  contrary  to  what  is 
alleged  by  many  of  the  older 

writers,  who  describe  it  to  be  covered  with  spines,  and  capable  of 
lacerating  the  skin.  The  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  are  very 
acute. 

The  Indian  Rhinoceros  {Rhinoceros  utiicornis). — This  animal 
in  his  native  regions  leads  a  tranquil,  indolent  life :  like  the 
Elephant,  he  gives  preference  to  the  marshy  borders  of  lakes  and 
rivers,  or  swampy  woods  and  jungles,  delighting  to  roll  and  wallow 
in  the  oozy  soil,  and  plaster  his  skin  with  mud.  He  is  also  fond  of 
the  bath,  and  swims  with  ease  and  vigour.  The  splendid  animal  in 
the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  may  be  often  seen,  during 
the  hot  weather  of  summer,  enjoying  the  bath  in  the  paddock  ap- 
propriated for  his  e.\ercise,  or  rolling  and  wallowing  in  the  mud,  or 
basking  luxuriously,  half  in,  half  out,  of  the  water,  like  a  huge  hog, 
uttering  every  now  and  then  a  low  grunt  of  self-complacent  satis- 
faction. 

Sluggish  in  his  habitual  movements,  the  Rhinoceros  wanders 
through  his  native  plains  with  a  heavy  step,  carrying  his  huge  head 
so  low  that  his  nose  almost  touches  the  ground,  and  stopping  at 
intervals  to  crop  some  favourite  plant,  or,  in  playful  wantonness,  to 
plough  up  the  ground  with  his  horn,  throwing  the  mud  and  stones 
behind  him.  The  jungle  yields  before  his  weight  and  strength,  and 
his  track  is  said  to  be  often  marked  by  a  line  of  devastation.  When 
roused,  the  Rhinoceros  is  a  most  formidable  antagonist;  and  such  is 
the  keenness  of  his  senses  of  smell  and  of  hearing,  that,  unless  by 
very  cautiously  approaching  him  against  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  take  him  by  surprise.  On  the  appearance 
of  danger  the  Rhinoceros  generally  retreats  to  his  covert  in  the  tan- 
gled and  almost  impenetrable  jungle  ;  but  not  always  ;  and  instances 
are  on  record  in  which,  snuffing  up  the  air  and  throwing  his  head 
violently  about,  he  has  rushed  with  fury  to  the  attack,  without  waiting 
for  the  assault.  There  are,  in  fact,  seasons  in  which  the  Rhinoceros 
is  very  dangerous,  and  attacks  every  animal  with  impetuosity  that 
attracts  his  notice  or  ventures  near  his  haunts — even  the  Elephant 
himself. 

From  the  earliest  times  the  horn  of  the  Indian  Rhinoceros  (the 
observation  applies  to  other  species  also)  has  been  regarded  either 
as  an  antidote  against  poison,  or  as  efficacious  in  detecting  its  pre- 
sence, as  well  as  useful  in  curing  disease.  The  Indian  kings  made 
use  of  it  at  table,  because,  as  was  believed,  "  it  sweats  at  the  ap- 
proach of  any  kind  of  poison  whatever."  Goblets  made  of  it  are  in 
high  estimation  ;  these  are  often  set  with  gold  or  silver,  and  sell  for 
large  sums  :  when  poison  is  poured  into  them,  the  liquor,  it  is  said, 
betrays  its  noxious  qualities  by  effervescing  till  it  runs  over  the  brim  : 
water  drank  from  them,  or  from  the  cup-like  hollow  at  the  base  of 
the  horn,  is  regarded  as  medicinal.  In  the  latter  case  the  water  is 
to  be  stirred  in  the  hollow  with  the  point  of  an  iron  nail  till  it  becomes 
discoloured,  when  the  patient  must  drink  it. 

The  strong  deep  folds  into  which  the  coarse  skin  is  gathered  in 
the  cheeks,  neck,  shoulders,  haunches,  and  thighs,  are  distinguish- 
ing characters  of  the  Indian  Rhinoceros.     The  general  colour  of  the 


skin  is  dusky  black,  with  a  slight  tint  of  purple.  Mr.  Hodgson 
("  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society,"  1834)  states  that  the  female 
goes  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  months  with  young,  and  produces 
one  at  a  birth  :  he  adds  also,  "It  is  believed  that  the  animal  lives 
for  100  years  :  one  taken  mature  was  kept  at  Katmandoo  for  thirty- 
five  years  without  exliibiting  any  symptoms  of  approaching  decline. 


Fig.  S06. — The  Indian  Rhinoceros. 

The  young  continues  to  suck  for  nearly  two  years  :  it  has  for  a 
month  after  birth  a  pink  suffusion  over  the  dark  colour  proper  to 
the  mature  hide."  The  female  is  desperate  in  the  protection  of  her 
young.     (See  Fig.  806.) 

The  Javanese  Rhinoceros  {R.  javatius  or  so)idaicus].—.\s 
far  as  is  ascertained,  this  species  is  confined  to  the  island  of  Java, 
where  it  is  called  Warak.  In  the  character  of  the  incisor  teeth,  and 
the  horn  being  single,  it  agrees  with  the  Indian  species ;  but  it  is  a 
less  bulky  animal,  and,  in  proportion,  more  elevated  in  the  limbs  ; 
the  folds  of  the  skin  are  both  less  numerous,  less  deep,  and  also 
differently  arranged ;  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  divided  into  small 
polygonal  tubercles  with  a  slight  central  depression  in  each,  from 
which  arise  a  few  short  bristly  hairs.     (See  Fig.  807.)     In  its  habits 


Fig.  807. — The  Javanese  Rhinoceros. 

this  species  is  gregarious  ,  its  range  on  the  island  extends  from  the 
level  of  the  ocean  to  the  summits  of  mountains  of  considerable 
elevation— the  latter  situations  are  preferred  ;  its  retreats  in  these 
mountains  are  to  be  discovered  by  deeply-excavated  passages 
worked  out  on  their  declivities.  When  met  with,  or  otherwise  dis- 
turbed, it  quietly  retires,  being  very  mild  and  peaceable.  Night 
is  the  principal  season  of  its  activity,  and  it  often  commits  consider- 
able damage  in  the  plantations  of  cofl:'ee  and  pepper.  Tlie  horns 
and  skin  are  employed  for  medicinal  purposes  by  the  natives.  Dr. 
Horsfield  ("  Zoological  Researches  in  Java")  gives  a  detailed  account 
of  one  of  these  animals  which  was  kept  at  Surakarta,  and  which 
was  very  mild  and  tractable,  allowing  persons  even  to  mount  on  its 
back.  In  its  habit  of  wallowin-  in  the  mire  it  resembled  the  rest  of 
the  genus  The  Javanese  Rhinoceros  was  known  to  Bontius,  who 
wrot"  on  the  productions  of  that  island  in  1629.  Fig.  808  represents 
the  skull  of  this  species,  which  is  more  elongated  in  proportion, 
and  less  heavily  made  than  that  of  the  Indian  animal. 


3i8 


THE  RHINOCEROS. 


The  Sumatran  Rhinoceros  (R.  sumafranus,  or  R.  suma- 
trensis.  Raffles)  was  first  described  by  Mr.  Bell,  surgeon  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  i-ast  India  Company,  at  Bencoolen  ("  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions," 1793) ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  indicated  previously  by 
Mr.  C.  Bliller,  long  resident  in  Sumatra  (Pennant's  "History  of 
Quadrupeds,"  3rd  cd.,  vol.  i.)  The  head  is  more  elongated  than  in 
the  other  two  species,  and 
there  are  two  horns  on  the 
nose  :  the  neck  is  thick  and 
short,  the  limbs  massive ; 
the  skin  is  rough  and  black, 
and  covered  with  short  hair; 
the  folds  are  very  incon- 
siderable, but  are  most  dis- 
tinct on  the  neck,  shoulders, 
and  haunches.  The  female 
is  stated  to  have  a  heavier 
head  than  the  male.  The 
number  of  incisors  is  four  in 
each  jaw;  but  of  these  t'lc 
lateral  ones  are  very  sma.l, 
and  soon  fall  out :  hence 
Bell  and  others  supposed 
the  number  to  be  only  two. 

The  Sumatran  Rhinoceros  is  by  no  means  bold  or  savage  ;  one  ot 
the  largest  size  has  been  seen  to  run  away  from  a  smgle  Wild  Dog. 
Its  native  name  is  Badak,  whence  the  term  Abadia,  or  Abath,  aPPjied 
to  the  Indian  Rhinoceros  by  our  early  navigators.  Sir  S.  Raffles 
says  that,  besides  the  species,  there  is  another  animal  m  the  forests  of 
Sumatra,  never  noticed,  which  in  size  and  character  nearly  resembles 
this  Rhinoceros,  but  which  is  said  to  have  a  single  horn,  and  to  be  dis- 
tinguished by  a  narrow  white  belt  encircling  the  body.  The  natives 
of  the  interior  term  it  Tennu,  which,  at  Malacca,  is  the  name  of  the 
Tapir ;  but  in  Sumatra  the  name  of  the  Tapir  is  Gindol  and  Babialu. 


Fig.  S08.— Skull  of  Javanese  Rhinoceros. 


Fig.  S09. — The  Sumatran  Rhinoceros. 

In  the  interior,  however,  where  different  tribes  shut  out  from  general 
communication  speak  different  dialects,  it  is  probable  that  the  term 
Tennu  may  be  the  name  applied  by  some,  as  at  Malacca,  to  the 
Tapir,  and  hence  would  the  confusion  arise  ;  for,  from  the  descrip- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  assertion  that  it  possesses  a  horn,  we 
cannot  help  regarding  this  Tennu  of  the  forest  of  the  interior  as  the 
Tapir. 

Two  very  distinct  forms  of  Rhinoceros  are  found  in  Africa,  com- 
monly calkd  the  Black  Rhinoceros  and  the  White  Rhinoceros. 
The  White  Rhinoceros  is  known  by  its  pale  colour,  its  very  long 
anterior  horn,  and  its  square,  short-lipped  mouth,  which  induced 
Mr.  Burchell  to  name  it  Rhinoceros  simus.  In  the  Black  Rhino- 
ceros, which,  however,  is  not  really  black,  as  will  be  seen  by  exami- 
nation of  an  existing  specimen,  but  flesh-coloured,  the  upper  lip  is 
produced  and  slightly  prehensile.  The  White  Rhinoceros  is  a 
grass-eater,  and  inhabits  the  more  open  districts,  while  the  Black 
Rhinoceros  resorts  to  the  forests,  and  feeds  much  on  shrubs  and 
small  branches.  The  Zoological  Society's  African  Rhinoceros,  in 
their  Gardens  at  London,  which  was  the  first  specimen  of  this 
animal  brought  to  Europe  since  the  days  of  the  Romans,  was  captured 
in  Upper  Nubia,  near  Casala,  in  February,  1868. 

The  Black  or  Cojimon  African  Rhinoceros  [R.  bicornis, 
Linn.  ;  R.  africanus,  Cuv.) — This  huge  animal,  though  driven 
from  the  precincts  of  the  colony,  is  still  extensively  spread  through- 
out the  southern  regions  >)f  Africa.  When  the  Dutch  first  formed 
their  settlement  on  the  shores  of  Table  Bay,  this  Rhinoceros  v/as 
a  regular  inhabitant  of  the  thickets  which  clothed  the  lower  slopes 
of  the  mountain  ;  but  it  has  retired,  and  continues  to  retire,  before 
the  advance  of  colonisation  and  the  gun  of  the  hunter.  This  species 
differs  from  the  Indian,  not  only  in  the  possession  of  a  double  horn, 
but  in  the  absence  of  massive  folds  of  skin,  and  in  wanting  the 
incisor  teeth.  The  skin  is  thick,  coarse,  scabrous,  and  forms  a 
deep  furrow  round  the  short  thick  neck ;  the  head  is  heavy  ;  the 
eyes  are  small,  and  the  skin  round  them,  and  on  the  muzzle  and 
before  the  ears,  is  wrinkled  ;  the  upper  lip  is  slightly  produced,  and 


prehensile.  The  anterior  horn  is  long,  fibrous  at  the  base,  hard, 
and  finely  polished  at  the  point ;  the  posterior  horn  is  short  and 
conical.  General  colour  yellowish-brown,  with  tints  of  purple  upon 
the  sides  of  the  head  and  muzzle  ;  eyes  dark  brown.  Length  about 
eleven  feet.  A  few  black  hairs  fringe  the  edge  of  the  ears  and  the 
tip  of  the  tail.     (See  Fig.  810.)     This  animarfeeds  upon  brushwood, 


Fig.  Sio. — Black  Rhinoceros  and  Young. 

and  the  smaller  branches  of  dwarf  trees ;  "  from  which  circum- 
stance," says  Dr.  Smith,  "  it  is  invariably  found  frequenting  wooded 
districts,  and  in  those  situations  its  course  may  be  often  traced  by 
the  mutilations  of  the  bushes.  The  mass  of  vegetable  matter  con- 
sumed does  not  appear  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  animal : 
indeed,  as  it  feeds  but  slowly,  and  passes  much  of  its  time  in  idle- 
ness, it  must  be  regarded  as  a  very  moderate  eater  ;  and,  considering 
that  it  appears  to  be  fastidious  in  the  choice  of  its  food,  it  is  fortunate 
for  its  comfort  that  it  does  not  require  more  nourishment."  Of  the 
senses  of  the  Rhinoceros,  those  of  hearing  and  smell  are  very  acute, 
and  aid  the  animal  more  than  his  sight  in  the  discovery  of  danger, 
the  bulk  of  the  body  screening  objects  not  immediately  before  the 
eyes.  "As  these  animals  depend  much  upon  smell  for  their 
existence  and  safety,  it  is  necessary  to  advance  upon  them  from  the 
leeward  side,  if  the  aim  be  to  get  close  without  being  discovered. 
In  pursuit  they  also  trust  for  guidance  to  the  same  sense,  and  may 
be  heard  forcibly  inspiring  the  air  when  they  have  lost  the  scent  of 
the  object  they  are  following.  The  ticks  and  other  insects  with 
which  they  are  covered  furnish  for  them  another  source  of  in- 
telligence, inasmuch  as  they  attract  a  number  of  birds,  which  sit 
quietly  picking  them  off  when  nothing  strange  is  in  sight,  but  fly 
away  when  any  object  excites  their  fear.  So  well  does  the 
Rhinoceros  understand  this,  that  he  proceeds  feeding  with  the 
greatest  confidence  while  the  birds  continue  perched  upon  his  back  ; 
but  the  moment  they  fly,  the  huge  animal  raises  his  head  and  turns 
it  in  all  directions  to  catch  the  scent.  Whether  he  accomplishes 
this  or  not,  he  generally  feels  so  uncertain  of  his  position,  that  he 
moves  to  some  other  locality."  The  same  observations  apply  to  the 
other  African  species.  When  disturbed  or  attacked,  the  Rhinoceros 
becomes  furious,  and  especially  when  wounded  :  he  then  rushes 
towards  his  foe,  and  if  he  can  get  the  hunter  once  within  his  sight, 
the  escape  of  the  latter,  unless  he  exert  great  presence  of  mind,  or 
the  well-directed  shot  of  a  companion  stop  the  animal  in  his  career, 
is  very  doubtful.  The  best  plan  is  to  wait  till  the  enraged  beast  ap- 
proaches, and  then  step  aside  suddenly,  where  some  bush  or  in- 
equality of  the  ground  may  afford  a  shelter,  and  give  time  to  the 
hunter  for  reloading  his  gun  before  the  Rhinoceros  gets  sight  of  him 
again,  which  fortunately  it  does  slowly  and  with  difficulty.  Travel- 
lers in  the  regions  frequented  by  this  animal  are  not  safe  during  the 
night  from  its  attacks.  It  appears  to  be  excited  by  the  glow  of  a 
fire,  towards  which  it  rushes  with  fury,  overturning  every  obstacle. 
It  has,  indeed,  been  known  to  rush  with  such  rapidity  upon  a  mili- 
tary party  lodged  among  the  bush  covering  the  banks  of  the  Great 
Fish  River,  that  before  the  men  could  be  aroused  it  had  severely  in- 
jured two  of  them,  tossed  about  and  broken  several  guns,  and  com- 
pletely scattered  the  burning  wood.  Le  Vaillant,  in  an  animated 
account  of  a  Rhinoceros  hunt,  describes  the  enraged  and  wounded 
animals  as  ploughing  up  the  ground  with  their  horns,  and  throwing 
a  shower  of  pebbles  and  stones  around  them  :  and  Dr.  Smith  says 
that  they  are  sometimes  seen  to  plough  up  the  earth  for  several 
paces  with  the  front  horn  when  not  enraged,  but  for  what  object  he 
could  not  discover.  The  native  (Bechuana)  name  of  this  species  is 
Borili. 

The  Keitloa  [R.  kei/loa,  Smith). — In  general  figure  this 
savage  species  resembles  most  nearly  the  common  African  Rhinoce- 
ros. There  are,  however,  he  observes,  many  marked  differences 
between  them,  of  which  the  following  are  a  few  of  the  external  and 
more  palpable.  In  Rhnioccros  keitloa  the  two  horns  are  of  equal, 
or  nearly  equal  length ;  in  Rhinoceros  africaiius  the  posterior  in 


THE  RHINOCEROS. 


3'9 


neither  sex  is  ever  much  beyond  a  third  of  the  length  of  the  anterior 
horn  ;  the  length  of  the  head,  in  proportion  to  the  depth,  is  very  dif- 
ferent in  the  two.  The  neck  of  Rlutioccros  Iccitloa  is  much  longer 
than  that  of  the  other,  and  the  position  and  character  of  the  cuticu- 
lar  furrows  destined  to  facilitate  the  lateral  motions  of  the  head  arc 
very  different.  Besides  these,  Dr.  Smith  states  that  many  other 
diagnostic  characters  might  be  instanced  ;  such  as  the  black  mark 
on  the  inside  of  the  thigh  of  the  Keitloa,  the  distinctly  produced  tip 
of  the  upper  lip,  and  the 
comparatively  few  wrinkles 
on  the  snout  and  parts 
around  the  eyes.  (See  Fig. 
Sii.) 

The  first  example  of  this 
animal  which  Dr.  Smith  met 
with,  during  his  expedition, 
was  shot  about  i8o  miles 
N.E.  of  Lattakoo,  but  con- 
siderably south  of  the 
country  to  w^hich  the  species 
appears  directly  to  belong, 
and  from  which  it  might  be 
considered  as  a  wanderer. 
On  the  expedition  penetrat- 
ing to  the  northward  of 
Kurrichane,  every  one  was 
found  conversant  with  the 
name,  and  able  to  direct  to 
situations  where  the  animal 
was  found.  Few  mentioned 
the  Keitloa  without  alluding 
to  its  vindictive  temper  and 
ferocity ;  and  those,  says 
Dr.  Smith,  who  had  suffici- 
ent confidence  in  the  party, 
compared  to  it  a  chief,  then 
awfully  oppressing  that  part 
of  the  country,  and  spoke  of 
the  man  and  the  animal  as 
alike  to  be  feared.  As  the 
party  advanced,  the  Keit- 
loa became  more  common, 
though  it  never  occurred  in 
such  numbers  as  the  other 
two  species. 

"The  interest,"  says  Dr. 
Smith,  "which  the  discovery 
of  this  species  excited,  led 
to  the  making  of  minute 
inquiries  as  to  the  animals  of 
this  genus  ;  and  the  expedi- 
tion   had    sufficient   reason 

to  believe,  from  the  replies  to  constant  questions,  that  two  other  im- 
described  species  existed  farther  in  the  interior,  one  of  which  was 
described  as  being  something  like  the  Keitloa,  and  having  two 
horns — the  other  as  differing  in  many  respects,  and  having  only  one 
horn.  The  Keitloa  browses  on  shrubs  and  the  slender  branches  of 
brushwood,  using  the  upper  lip  as  an  organ  of  prehension." 

The  White,  or  Blunt-nosed  R.hinoceros  {R.  simus),  termed 
Mohoohoo  by  the  Bechuanas,  is  larger  than  the  two  former  species, 
being  upwards  of  twelve  feet  in  length,  and  nearly  six  feet  in  height. 
It  is  a  huge,  massive  animal,  with  the  neck  longer  than  in  the  other 
African  species,  having  three  deep  wrinkles  running  from  the  nape 
down  the  sides  ;  the  muzzle  is  truncate,  the  mouth  shaped  like  that 
of  an  Ox,  the  upper  lip  perfectly  square,  and  destitute  of  the  mobility 
and  power  of  protrusion  which  it  exhibits  in  the  other  species. 
Hence,  instead  of  browsing  upon  shrubs,  it  feeds  principally  upon 
grass,  and  therefore  frequents  open  plains  where  such  herbage 
abounds,  wandering  very  extensively  in  search  of  pasturage.  This 
animal  was  first  described  by  Mr.  Burchell,  who,  when  at  Lattakoo, 
found  it  in  abundance  there,  and  Mr.  Campbell  brought  the  head  of 
one  to  England.  In  the  Mohoohoo  the  horns  are  situated  close  to 
the  extremity  of  the  nose  :  the  first  is  very  long,  tapered  to  a  point, 
and  slightly  curved  back  ;  the  second  is  short,  conical,  and  obtuse. 
The  general  colour  is  pale  broccoli-brown  ;  the  buttocks,  shoulders, 
and  under-parts  shaded  with  brownish-purple ;  tail  clothed  with  stiff 
black  hair.  According  to  Dr.  Smith,  the  introduction  of  fire-arms 
among  the  Bechuanas  has  rendered  this  animal  rare  in  the  district 
where  Mr.  Burchell  found  it  numerous  :  higher  up  the  country,  how- 
ever, it  still  maintains  its  ground.  In  disposition  it  differs  from  the 
other  two  species,  being  much  more  gentle,  and  is  therefore  re- 
garded with  less  fear  than  either  the  Keitloa  or  the  Borili. 

The  flesh  of  all  three  species  is  esteemed  wholesome  food  by  the 
natives,  who  dig  pit-falls  for  them  in  situations  to  which  they  are 
known  to  resort ;  and  sometimes,  though  rarely  with  success,  attempt 
to  kill  them  with  the  assagai  or  spear.  In  style  of  motion  they  are 
all  alike,  and  so  awkward  that  their  swiftness  is  to  be  appreciated 


not  by  directly  watching  the  animal  itself,  but  by  fixing  the  eye  upon 
some  two  points  between  which  it  takes  its  course.  To  revert  to  the 
one-horned  Rhinoceros,  of  which  Dr.  Smith  heard  in  the  interior  of 
South  Africa,  and  of  which  Bruce  and  Hurckhardt  received  accounts 
as  existing  in  Adel  and  the  country  south  of  Sennaar.  it  may  be 
added  that  Dr.  Smith  adduces  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Freeman  re- 
specting an  animal  by  no  means  rare  in  Makooa,  north  of  the 
Mosambique  Channel,  which,  overlooking  the  absurdities  and  ex- 


Fig.  Sii. — The  Rhinoceros  Keitloa. 

aggeration  of  the  description,  he  suspects  to  be  a  one-horned 
Rhinoceros,  and  probably  that  of  which  he  heard,  and  which  may 
extend  to  the  countries  mentioned  by  Bruce  and  Burckhardt. 

The  Hairy-eared  Rhinoceros  (R.  hisiot!s).—0{  this  new 
Rhinoceros,  which  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Sumatran,  an  adult  female 
is  in  the  Zoological  Society's  collection.  "  Begum,"  as  she  is 
called,  was  captured  near  Chittagong,  in  British  Burmah,  by  some 
oflficers  employed  in  the  Khcddah  department  of  the  Indian  army — 
that  is,  on  the  capture  of  Elephants.  In  January,  1872,  she  was 
brought  to  England  by  M.  Jamrach,  and  purchased  by  the  Society 
for;^i,250. 

Among  the  fossil  relics  of  animals  which  at  some  former  period 
have  tenanted  this  globe,  and  after  a  quiet  possession,  generation 
succeeding  generation,  of  their  pasture-lands,  have  become  as  it 
were  blotted  out  of  the  book  of  creation,  those  of  the  Rhinoceros  are 
extremely  abundant,  little  less  so,  if  at  all,  than  those  of  the  fossil 
Elephant  or  Mammoth,  as  widely  distributed,  and  occurring  in  the 
same  strata  and  the  same  localities.  Several  species  have  been  dis- 
tinctly made  out,  among  which  the  most  remarkable  is  that  with  a 
bony  partition  between  the  nostrils,  and  supporting  the  nasal  bones  ; 
it  is  termed  by  Cuvier  Rh.  tichorhiuus.  Fig.  812  represents  the 
skull  in  two  views :  a,  profile  ;  d,  seen  from  below. 

It  was  of  this  species  that  Pallas,  in  1771,  discovered  an  entire 
frozen  carcass  buried  in  the  sand  on  the  banks  of  the  Wilouji,  or 
Viloui,  which  joins  the  Lena,  in  Siberia.  Happily,  therefore,  we 
know  the  form  and  true  proportions  of  the  living  animal.  The  skin 
was  smooth  and  destitute  of  folds,  and,  like  the  common  African 
Rhinoceros,  the  animal  had  two  horns.  The  feet  had  three  toes,  as 
in  all  extant  species,  but  the  hoofs  were  lost.  Like  the  Mammoth 
of  Siberia,  this  animal  was  originally  covered  with  hair :  in  many 
parts  of  the  skin  this  hair  still  remained,  especially  over  the  feet, 
where  it  was  very  abundant,  measuring  from  one  to  three  inches  in 
length,  of  a  stiff  quality,  and  of  a  dusky  grey.  The  head  was  in- 
vested  with  a  similar  clothing.  The  head  and  feet  are  preserved  in 
I  their  natural  state  in  the  museum  of  St.  Petersburg. 


320 


THE  HYRAX. 


The  skull  of  this  species  differs  from  that  of  tiie  two-horned  African 
Rhinoceros,  not  only  in  the  presence  of  the  osseous  nasal  partition, 
but  in  general  form  and  proportions.  The  length  and  narrowness  of 
the  skull  are  very  remarkable,  as  is  also  the  space  between  the 
orbits,  which  is  much  more  contracted  than  in  the  common  two- 
homed  species,  and  the  nasal  bones  are  far  more  elongated.     In  the 


Fig.  Si2.— Skull  of  Fossil  Rhinoceros. 

two-horned  Rhinoceros,  the  disc  which  bears  the  anterior  horn  is  a 
semi-sphere,  in  this  an  oblong  ellipse,  and  a  disc  of  similar  figure 
supports  the  second  horn,  whence  it  may  be  safely  concluded  that 
the  horns  of  this  fossil  species  were  strongly  compressed  at  the  sides. 
The  occipital  ridge  is  elevated  and  drawn  out  backwards,  so  that 
from  the  highest  point  the  occipital  bone  slopes  at  a  very  acute 
angle  inwards  to  the  condyles. 

Several  fossil  species  of  Rhinoceros  are  described.  Almost  every 
bone-cavern  in  England,  France,  and  Germany  has  afforded  them 
in  abundance ;  and  Dr.  Buckland  proves  that  there  must  have  been 
a  long  succession  of  j'ears  in  v,hich  the  Elephant,  Hippopotamus, 
and  Rhinoceros,  with  the  Hyana,  inhabited  our  island  ;  and  that 
the  former,  as  the  bones  testify,  became  the  prey  of  the  latter,  or 
were  devoured  after  natural  or  accidental  death. 

The  Hyrax— Family  Hyracidm. 

When  we  look  at  the  Rabbit-like  Hyrax,  it  does  not  surprise  us  to 
find  that  all  the  older  naturalists  regarded  it  as  a  Rodent,  and 
placed  It  in  that  order.  It  was  reserved  for  Cuvier  to  point  out  Us 
true  situation.  "There  is  no  quadruped,"  says  this  great  man, 
"which  proves  more  forcibly  than  the  Daman  the  necessity  of 
having  recourse  to  anatomy,  as  a  test  by  which  to  determine  the 
true  relationship  of  animals."     This  fur-covered  active  creature  is  a 


(Fig.  813)  and  the  skull  (Fig.  814),  which  to  many  will  be  of  interest. 
With  respect  to  the  latter,  the  singular  depth  of  the  lower  jaw  can- 
not but  strike  every  attentive  observer;  and  it  may  be  added,  that  in 
the  convexity  of  the  posterior  edge  of  the  ascending  portion  it  sur- 
passes that  even  of  the  Tapir,  which,  in  this  respect,  is  the  nearest 
among  all  animals  to  the  Hyrax.  In  other  particulars  the  skull  ap- 
proaches that  of  the  Rhinoceros  ;  the  molar  teeth,  in  fact,  are  those 
of  the  Rhinoceros  in  miniature,  both  as  to  form  and  number.  There 
are,  as  in  the  Rhinoceros,  no  canines.  The  upper  incisors,  two  in 
number,  are  long,  triangular,  pointed,  stout,"  and  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  small  interval.  The  lower  incisors  are  four  in  num- 
ber, set  in  close  array,  flat,  and  directed  forwards.     At  first  their 


Fig.  S13. — Skeleton  of  D:\man,  or  Ilyiax, 

true  Pach'  dermatous  animal,  and,  notwithstanding  the  smallness  of 
its  size,  is  to  be  regarded  as  "  intermediate  between  the  Rhinoceros 
and  Tapir."  The  resemblance  which  the  Hyrax  bears  to  the  former 
may  be  traced  in  its  osseous  system  and  internal  anatomy.  (See 
"  Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc,"  1832  and  1835.)  On  these  points  it  would 
here  be  out  of  place  to  dwell ;  we  have,  however,  figured  the  skeleton 


Fig.  814. — Skull  of  Daman,  or  Hyrax. 

edges  are  notched,  but  they  become  smooth  by  use.  The  molars 
are  seven  on  each  side,  above  and  below :  but  the  first,  which  is 
small,  falls  out,  being  worn  down  as  s  on  as  the  last  molar  on  each 
side  has  arisen  ;  and,  in  old  individuals,  the  next  is  frequently  want- 
ing also. 

With  respect  to  the  skeleton,  it  may  be  remarked  that  there  are 
twenty-one  ribs  on  each  side,  a  number  greater  than  in  any  other 
quadruped,  except  the  two-toed  Sloth,  which  has  twenty-three.  The 
Elephant  and  Tapir  follow  the  Hyrax.  The  fore-feet  are  divided 
into  four  toes,  tipped  with  hoof-like  nails  ;  the  hind-f'et  into  three, 
of  which  the  innermost  is  furnished  with  a  long  claw-like  nail.  The 
toes  are  all  buried  in  the  skin,  as  far  as  the  little  hoofs,  precisely  as 
in  the  Rhinoceros. 

The  Cape  Hyrax,  or  Dassie  [Hyrax  capensis),  is  common  in 
the  rockv  and  mountain  districts  of  South  Africa,  and  is  said  to  ex- 
tend as  far  as  Abyssinia.  It  takes  up  its  abode  in  the  fissures  of 
the  rugged  crags,  which  afford  it  an  asylum.  It  abounds  on  the 
sides  of  Table  Mountain  ;  but  it  is  so  wary,  quick,  and  active,  that  it 
is  not  to  be  approached  without  much  difficulty.     It  often,  however, 

falls  a  prey  to  the  Eagle  and  Fal- 
con, which  pounce  upon  it  while 
feeding  in  apparent  security.  The 
Vulturine  Eagle  [Aqiiita  vultu- 
rtna),  which  makes  the  mountain 
precipices  its  abode,  destroys  it  in 
great  number.  This  timid  little 
animal  is  gregarious  in  its  habits, 
like  the  Rabbit,  which  it  some- 
what exceeds  in  size.  The  fur  is 
soft  and  deep,  and  of  a  dark  grey- 
ish-brown, becoming  of  a  paler 
tint  beneath.  There  is  no  tail. 
(See  Fig.  815.)  The  following 
communication,  by  Mr.  W.  R. 
Read  (see  "  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society,"  1835,  p.  13), 
needs  no  apology  for  its  inser- 
tion : — 

"  The  Hyrax  capensis  is  found 
inhabiting  the  hollows  and  crevices 
of  rocks,  both  on  the  summits  and 
sides  of  hills,  as  well  as  near  the 
sea-shore,  even  a  little  above  high- 
water-mark.     It  appears  to  live  in 
families,    and   is   remarkably  shy 
in  its  wild  state.     In  winter  it  is 
fond  of  coming  out  of  its  hole,  and  sunning  itself  on  the  lee  side 
of  a  rock,  and,  in  summer,  of  enjoying  the  breeze  on  the  top;  but 
in  both   instances,  as  well  as  when  it  feeds,  a  sentinel  is  on  the 
look-out  (generally  an  old  male),  which  gives  notice,  usually  by  a 
shrill  prolonged  cry,  of  the  approach  of  danger,  or  even  the  least 
movement  of  any  suspicious  object.     It  lives  on  the  young  shoots  of 


THE  TAPIRS. 


321 


It   IS 


shrubs,  the  tops  of  flowers,  herbs  and  grass,  particularly  of  all  those 
which  are  aromatic."  It  is  called  the  Dassie  or  Badger,  by  he 
Dutch  boors  at  the  Cape.  Another  species  which  a  so  inhabits  he 
Cace  is  said  to  lodge  in  the  holes  of  trees  ;  hence  it  has  been  called 
Hyrkx  arhoreiis.  Another  species  has  been  described  as  living  on 
the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  under  the  name  of  Hyrax  dorsalis. 

The  Syrian  Hyr.\x  (//.  syriacics^—l^^x^  species,  accord-' 
in?  to  Bruce,  is  found  in  Abyssinia,  where  it  haunts  the  deep 
caverns  and  clefts  in  the  rocks.  By  the  natives  of  Amhara 
termed  Ashkoko,  or  Askoko.  It 
also  tenants  the  mountains  of  Syria 
and  Arabia  ;  and,  as  in  days  of  old, 
the  rocks  of  Horeb  and  of  Sinai  are 
still  "a  refuge  for  the  Coneys." 
By  the  Arabs,  according  to  Dr. 
Shaw,  it  is  called  Daman  Israel, 
that  is.  Lamb  of  Israel,  or  rather 
Ganam  or  Ganniin  Israel,  as  Bruce 
contends,  the  word  Daman  being 
mistaken  for  the  latter.  Most 
authorities  agree  that  it  is  the  Sha- 
phan  (translated  Coney)  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  Syrian  Hyrax  agrees  in 
habits  with  its  Cape  relative.  It 
tenants  the  acclivities  of  the  rocks, 
sheltering  itself  under  projecting 
ledges,  in  deep  fissures  and  caves : 
it  is  gregarious,  and  dozens  may 
be  often  seen  either  sitting  on  the 
great  stones  at  the  mouth  of  the 
caves,  to  warm  themselves  in  the 
sun,  or  playfully  skipping  about  in 
the  enjoyment  of  the  freshness  of 
the  evening.  When  captured,  they 
inflict  severe  wounds  with  their 
formidable  incisors,  but  are  soon 
rendered  tame  and  familiar.  Cuvier 
and  many  naturalists  have  hesitated 
as  to  the  distinctness  of  the  Syrian 
and  the  Cape  Hyrax.  They  are, 
as  we  think,  undoubtedly  different, 
and  the  Syrian  species  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  presence  of  long 
bristle-like,  but  slender,  black  hairs, 
dispersed  not  very  thinly  over  its 
body,  and  considerably  exceeding 
the  fur :  such  at  least  was  the  case 
with  the  specimen  which  we  ex- 
amined ;  while  in  the  numerous 
specimens  from  the  Cape,  of  all 
ages,  nothing  of  the  kind  is  to  be 
perceived.  Bruce,  indeed,  noticed  this  pecu- 
liarity, and  he  considered  the  Amharic  name, 
Ashkoko,  "as  derived  from  the  singularity  of 
those  long  herinaceous  hairs  which,  like  small 
thorns,  grow  about  his  back,  and  which  in 
Amhara  are  called  Ashok."     (See  Fig.  816.) 

This  Hyrax  feeds  upon  tender  shoots  of 
shrubs  and  herbage.  In  the  Jewish  law,  the 
Shaphan  is  said  to  chew  the  cud  ;  and  it  seems 
not  improbable,  from  the  complex  nature  of 
the  stomach,  that  it  may,  like  the  Kangaroo, 
possess  the  power  of  regurgitating  its  food  into 
the  mouth  to  undergo  a  second  mastication. 

A  fossil  form  closely  allied  to  the  Hyrax,  the 
skull  of  which  has  been  discovered  in  the  clay 
near  Heme  Bay,  has  been  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Owen. 

The  Tapirs — Family  Tapirida. 

The  genus  Tapirus  comprehends,  as  far  as 
known,  only  three  species,  of  which  two  are 
natives  of  South  America,  the  other  of  Sumatra 
and  Malacca. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  exist- 
ing species  of  Pachydermatous  animals  is  so 
partial,  that  we  are  surprised  to  find  the 
islands  of  Sumatra  and  the  peninsula  of  Ma- 
lacca dividing  with  South  America  this  limited 
genus  between  them.  America,  compared  with 
Asia  and  Africa,  is  deficient  in  living  forms  of 
the  Pachydermata :  two  only  are  indigenous 
to  that  vast  continent — viz.,  the  Peccary  and 
Tapir  ;  and,  reasoning  from  analogy,  we  should 
not  expect  to  find  either  of  these  forms  in  any 
portions  of  the   Old  World,   and  more  espe- 


cially in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelao.  The  great  mass  of  the 
Pachydermata  are  peculiar  to  the  warmer  regions  of  Asia  and  the  con- 
tinent of  Africa;  and  many  genera,  as  Elcplias,  Rhinoceros,  Sus, 
and  Equits,  give  species  to  each,  but  not  to  America  :  so  that  the 
existence  of  cognate  species  in  one  of  the  Indian  Islands  and  in 
South  America,  appears  as  if  it  were  an  exception  to  a  general  rule, 
at  least  if  we  limit  our  views  to  the  races  now  extant  on  the  earth. 
Once,  indeed,  America  was  replete  with  animals  of  this  order:  and 
why  so  few  should  now  appear  as  their  representatives  is  a  point 


Fig.  815.— The  Cape  Hyrax. 


Fig.  816.— The  Syrian  Hyrax, 


2  T 


THE  TAPIRS. 


not  easy  of  solution.  In  their  general  form  and  contour  the  Tapirs 
remind  us  of  the  Hog-;  but  the  snout  consists  of  a  flexible  proboscis, 
not,  indeed,  elongated  like  that  of  the  Elephant,  but  still  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  ser\'e  as  a  hook  by  which  the  animal  is  capable 
of  drawing  down  twigs  to  the  mouth,  or  grasping  fruit  or  bunches  of 
herbage.  The  nostrils  open  at  its  extremity  in  the  form  of  two 
transverse  fissures,  but  there  is  no  finger-like  appendage. 

The  Tapir  is  a  massive,  powerful  animal ;  the  limbs  are  thick  and 
moderately  long ;  the  head  is  large,  compressed,  and,  in  the  Ameri- 
can species,  elevated  at  the  occiput  (see  Fig.  S17),  whence  the  thick 
neck  rises  with  a  prominent  upper  crest  or  ridge,  along  which  runs 
a  mane  of  stiff  thinly-set  hairs.     The  eyes  are  small  and  deep  set,; 


Fig.  Si 7. — Skull  of  American  Tapir. 


Fig.  818.— Teeth  of  Sumatran  Tapir. 

the  ears  are  rather  short ;  the  tail  is  rudimentary.  The  anterior 
feet  are  divided  into  four  toes,  the  hinder  into  three,  the  tips  only 
being  cased  in  hoofs.  The  skin,  which  is  thick,  tough,  and  solid, 
is  sparely  covered,  excepting  in  one  species,  with  very  short,  close 
hair.  The  dentition  (see  Fig.  818)  consists  of  six  incisors  in  each 
jaw ;  the  canines  are  small,  especially  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  and 
are  separated  from   the   molars   by   a   considerable   interval;    the 


dillera  of  the  Andes,  and  is  covered  with  long,  thick,  black  hair. 
The  bones  of  the  nose  are  more  elongated  than  in  the  other  species, 
and  Cuvier  regards  it  as  approaching,  in  some  respects,  to  the  fossil 
genus  Palaoi/icriiun. 

The  Common  American  Tapir  {Tapiyus  tcrresiris ;  T.  ameri- 
camis). — This  species  is  very  extensively  spread  throughout  the 
warmer  regions  of  South  America,  but  especially  between  the 
tropics,  where  it  inhabits  the  deep  forests,  leading  a  solitary  life, 
and  seldom  stirring  from  its  retreat  during  the  day,  which  it  passes  in 
a  state  of  tranquil  slumber.  During  the  night,  it^  season  of  activity ,  it 
wanders  forth  in  quest  of  food,  which  consists  of  water-melons, 
gourds,  young  shoots  of  brushwood,  &c.  Its  choice  of  food  is  not 
very  limited ;  and,  indeed,  it  appears  to  be  as  omnivorous  as  the 
Hog.  Azara,  who  states  that  the  Guaranis  term  this  animal 
Mborebi,  and  the  Portuguese  of  Brazil,  Anta,  affirms  that  it  devours 
the  barrero,  or  nitrous  earth  of  Paraguay,  and  that  he  has  found  a 
quantity  of  this  substance  in  the  stomach.  Its  senses  of  smell  and 
hearing  are  extremely  acute,  and  serve  to  give  notice  of  the 
approach  of  enemies.  Its  voice,  which  it  seldom  utters,  is  a  shrill 
kind  of  whistle,  in  strange  contrast  with  the  massive  bulk  of  the 
animal.  Of  enormous  muscular  power,  and  defended  with  a  tough, 
thick  hide,  the  Tapir  is   capable  of  tearing  its  way  through  the 


Fig.  819. — Skeleton  of  American  Tapir. 

molars  are  seven  on  each  side  above,  and  six  below,  and,  until  worn 
down  by  attrition,  the  crowns  present  two  transverse  ridges.  Fig.  819 
represents  the  skeleton  of  the  ordinary  American  Tapir ;  in  general 
details  it  approaches  that  of  the  Rhinoceros.  Of  the  two  species  of 
Tapir  peculiar  to  America,  one  has  been  only  recently  discovered. 
It  was  found  by  Dr.  Roulin  in  the  most  elevated  regions  of  the  Cor- 


Fig.  820. — The  American  Tapir. 

underwood  in  whatsoever  direction  it  pleases :  when  thus  driving 
onwards,  it  carries  its  head  low,  and,  as  it  were,  ploughs  its  course. 
(See  Fig.  820.) 

Its  fondness  for  the  water  is  almost  as  strong  as  that  evinced  by 
the  Hippopotamus.  It  swims  and  dives  admirably,  and  will  remain, 
as  we  have  seen  while  observing  the  specimens  in  the  Gardens  of 
the  Zool.  Soc,  submerged  for  many  minutes,  rise  to  the  surface  for 
breath,  and  plunge  again.  When  hunted  or  wounded  it  always,  if 
possible,  makes  for  the  water,  and  in  its  nightly  wanderings  will 
traverse  rivers  and  lakes  in  search  of  food,  or  for  pleasure.  The 
female  is  very  attentive  to  her  young  one,  leading  it  about  on  the 

land,  and  accustoming  it  at  an  early 
period  to  enter  the  water,  where  it 
plunges  and  plays  before  its  parent, 
who  seems  to  act  as  its  instructress. 
The  male  takes  no  share  in  this  work, 
and  does  not  constantly  associate  with 
the  female. 

In  its  disposition  the  Tapir  is  peace- 
ful and  quiet,  and,  unless  hard  pressed, 
never  attempts  to  attack  either  man 
or  beast;  when,  however,  the  hunter's 
Dogs  surround  it,  it  defends  itself  very 
vigorously  with  its  teeth,  inflicting 
terrible  wounds.  We  have  witnessed 
those  in  confinement  in  the  Gardens  of 
the  Zool.  Soc.  occasionally  break  out 
into  fits  of  irritation,  plunging  about, 
lunging  violently  with  their  heads,  and 
snapping  with  their  teeth  like  a  Hog. 
The  most  formidable  enemy  of  this 
animal  (if  we  except  man)  is  the 
Jaguar ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  when 
that  Tiger  of  the  American  forest 
throws  itself  upon  the  Tapir,  the  latter 
rushes  through  the  most  dense  and 
tangled  underwood,  bruising  its  enemy, 
and  endeavouring  thus  to  dislodge 
him,  and  sometimes  succeeds  in  the 
attempt. 

In  Cayenne  the  Tapir  is  occasionally 
domesticated,  and  is  harmless  and  quiet :  it  becomes,  indeed, 
familiar,  and  often  proves  troublesome  to  those  who  caress  it,  as 
may  be  imagined  would  be  the  case  with  a  pet  Hog  under  similar 
circumstances.  The  adult  Tapir  measures  from  five  to  six  feet 
in  length,  and  between  three  and  four  feet  in  height ;  its  colour  is 
uniform  deep  blackish-brown ;  the  young  are  longitudinaUy  marked 


CO 


cm 


324 


THE  PALJEOTHERIUM. 


Figs.  823  and  826  represent  respectively  outlines  of  the  PalcBothe- 
rium  tnagnu7n  and  Palcsoiherium  mimis,  as  restored  by  Cuvier  ; 
Figs.  824  and  825  represent  the  skeletons  of  the  same  animals  ;  Fig. 
827  is  an  imperfect  skull  of  Palceotlierhim  7Hagnum ;  Fig.  828 
shows  the  characters  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  ;  Fig.  829, 
the  lower  jaw  and  molar  teeth,  imperfect. 


foundation  upon  which  he  can  rear  a  superstructure,  a  clue  to  the 
recomposition  of  the  fabric;  Speaking  of  the  accumulated  stores 
of  fossil  relics  at  his  command,  Cuvier  thus  writes  : — "I  at  length 
found  myself,  as  if  placed  in  a  charnel-house,  surrounded  by 
mutilated  fragments  of  many  hundred  skeletons  of  more  than  twenty 
kinds  of  animals  piled  confusedly  around  me  ;  the  task  assigned  to 


Fig.  S23. — Outline  oi  Palccotherium  magnum. 


Fig.  824. — Skeleton  of  Palaotherium  magnum. 


Fig.  828. — Molar  teeth  of  upper  jaw  of  the  P.  magnum. 


Fig.  829. — External  view  of  part  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  F. 


manittm. 


Fig.  825.— Skeleton  o{  Pahtothe- 
rium  minus. 


Fig.  826. — Outline  ol  Palsothe- 
rium  minus. 


Fig.  S27. — Skull  o{  Palaotherium  magnum. 

The  restoration  of  the  skeletons  of  these  extinct  forms  is  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  science  ;  and,  by  persons  unacquainted  with  the  law  of 
harmonious  dependence  which  reigns  throughout  the  structure  and 
organisation  of  animal  bodies,  might  be  deemed  an  improbability, 
or,  at  least,  an  uncertain  pro(  °ss  :  not  so — the  bones  of  the  feet,  the 
teeth,  the  spine,  or  of  the  limbs,  are  to  the  comparative  anatomist  a 


me  was  to  restore  them  all  to  their  original  position.  At  the  voice 
of  Comparative  Anatomy  every  bone  and  fragment  of  a  bone  re- 
sumed its  place.  I  cannot  find  words  to  express  the  pleasure  I  ex- 
perienced in  seeing,  when  I  discovered  one  character,  how  all  the 
consequences  which  I  predicted  from  it  were  successively  confirmed. 
The  feet  accorded  with  the  characters  announced  by  the  teeth  ;  the 
teeth  were  in  harmony  with  those  indicated  previously  by  the  feet. 
The  bones  of  the  legs  and  thighs,  and  every  connecting  portion  of 
the  extremities,  were  seen  joined  together  precisely  as  I  had  ar- 
ranged them,  before  my  conjectures  were  verified  by  the  discovery 
of  the  parts  entire.  Each  species  was,  in  short,  reconstructed  from 
a  single  unit  of  its  component  elements."  The  relics  of  the  Palcso- 
theria  are  found  mingled  with  those  of  many  other  extinct  forms  in 
a  stratum  of  Fresh-water  formation,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  shells  it 


Fig.  830. — Teeth  of  Lophiodon, 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


3^5 


contains  :  it  is  the  first  of  the  great  Fresh-water  formations  of  the 
Eocene  period  of  Lyell,  a  deposit  in  which  nearly  fifty  extinct  species 
were  discovered  by  Cuvier.  We  cannot  doubt  but  that,  like  the 
Tapir  and  Rhinoceros  of  the  present  day,  the  Palaothcria  fre- 
quented the  borders  of  lakes  and  large  rivers,  feeding  upon  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of  brushwood  :  there  they  lived  and  died ;  their 
dead  carcasses  drifted  to  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  swept  off  from  the 
shore  in  seasons  of  flood,  when  the  swollen  rivers  cleared  the  ad- 
jacent lowlands  of  hosts  of  dead,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  living, 
hurrj'ing  them  to  destruction,  and  depositing  their  relics,  to  be  in 
other  ages  brought  to  light,  the  "  reliquia  vetustioris  svi." 

Another  fossil  genus  allied  to  the  Tapirs  is  termed  by  Cuvier 
LoPHlODON :  not  less  than  fifteen  species  are  determined;  and 
they  are  found  in  the  same  Fresh-water  formation  as  the  Palcso- 
theria.  The  dentition  of  the  Lophiodon  differs  from  that  of  the  last- 
named  animals,  the  lower  jaw  having  only  six  molars.  The  teeth, 
in  character,  approach  those  of  the  Rhinoceros.  Fig.  830,  a,  repre- 
sents a  lower  back  molar  of  the  gigantic  Lophiodon  of  Argenton; 
b,  an  upper  back  molar  ;  c,  a  canine  tooth  ;  d,  two  incisor  teeth  :  all 
of  the  same  species.  With  many  essential  parts  of  the  osteology  of 
these  extinct  animals  naturalists  are  as  yet  unacquainted ;  the  bones 
of  the  nose,  for  example,  and  those  of  the  feet,  are  not  recovered. 
The  remains  of  the  Lophiodons  found  at  Issel,  Argenton,  Bucks- 
■weiler,  Montpellier,  Montabusard,  &c.,  occur  in  beds  of  Fresh-water 
formation,  but  below  those  superficial  strata  containing  the  bones  of 
the  Mammoth  and  Mastodon.  They  are  associated  with  the  relics 
of  forms  of  terrestrial  animals,  of  which  we  have  no  living  proto- 
types, and  with  those  of  Crocodiles  and  Fresh-water  Tortoises.  The 
antiquity  of  these  beds  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in  most 
places  they  are  covered  by  strata  of  decidedly  marine  formation,  so 
that  the  Lophiodon  existed  and  passed  away  not  only  before  the 
races  had  commenced  whose  remains  are  found  (and  found  only)  in 
the  alluvial  strata  of  the  earth,  but  before  the  extinction  of  still 
older  races  ;  they  belong,  in  fact,  to  strata  of  our  continent,  over 
which,  after  becoming  consolidated,  the  sea  has  rolled,  and  remained 
long  enough  to  cover  them  with  rocks  of  a  new  origin. 

The  Hog  Tribe— Family  Suidm. 

The  division  of  the  Zygodacfyla,  in  which  the  feet  are  formed  of 
two  hoofed  toes  available  for  walking,  and  two  others,  placed  at 
some  little  elevation  on  the  back  of  the  foot,  includes  only  a  single 
family,  that  of  the  Suidcs,  or  Swine,  of  which  the  common  Hog  may 
be  taken  as  an  example.  In  these  animals,  the  nose,  although  pos- 
sessing considerable  power  of  motion,  is  not  produced  into  a  pro- 
boscis, nor  is  it  swelled  up  into  a  blunt  rounded  mass  as  in  the  Hip- 
popotamus, but  runs  in  a  tapering  cylindrical  form  to  the  extremity, 
where  it  is  suddenly  truncated.  The  tip  is  of  a  firm  cartilaginous 
nature,  and  is  principally  employed  in  turning  up  the  earth  in  search 
of  roots  and  other  articles  of  food.  The  skull  is  of  a  pyramidal 
form,  and  the  nasal  bones  are  not  elevated  as  in  the  Tapirs  ;  but  the 
facial  bones  are  very  large  in  comparison  with  the  cranium.  The 
jaws  are  always  furnished  with  the  three  kinds  of  teeth  whilst  the 
animals  are  young ;  but  the  incisors  are  always  small,  and,  in  some 
cases,  fall  out  with  increase  of  age.  The  canines,  on  the  contrary, 
are  always  of  large  size,  especially  in  the  males,  in  which  they 
project  from  the  sides  of  the  mouth  ;  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  from 
constantly  rubbing  against  their  fellows  in  the  upper,  are  usually 
sharpened  to  a  most  acute  edge,  and  constitute  formidable  weapons, 
called  ti(sks.  The  molar  teeth  vary  from  three  to  seven  on  each  side 
in  both  jaws.  The  feet  consist  of  four  toes,  of  which  the  two  middle 
ones  are  considerably  longer  and  stouter  than  their  fellows,  forming 
a  cloven  hoof,  upon  which  the  animals  walk  ;  the  two  lateral  toes 
are  also  furnished  with  hoofs  ;  but  they  are  placed  at  the  back  of 
the  foot,  at  some  little  elevation  from  the  ground.  One  of  these 
hinder  toes  is  wanting  in  some  cases  ;  whilst  monstrosities  have  oc- 
curred with  five  toes,  and  others  with  a  single  hoof.  The  eyes  are 
small,  and  the  ears  of  moderate  size,  and  upright.  The  form  of  the 
body  resembles  that  of  our  ordinary  Swine,  but  is  lighter  and  less 
bulky  in  the  wild  species.  The  tail  is  rather  short  and  slender  ;  in 
most  cases  it  is  capable  of  being  twisted  up  into  a  sort  of  curl  upon 
the  rump.     The  skin  is  covered  with  bristles. 

Unlike  the  Pachydermata  of  the  preceding  families,  which  only 
produce  one,  or,  at  the  utmost,  two  young  at  a  birth,  the  Swine  are 
very  prolific,  bringing  forth  frequently  from  eight  to  twelve  young 
ones.  The  species  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  both  continents 
— only  one,  the  Common  Hog  {Stts  scrofa),  being  found  wild  in  the 
temperate  parts  of  the  Old  World.  They  live  in  the  woods  and 
forests,  generally  in  marshy  places,  and  feed  upon  roots  and 
herbage,  and  partly  upon  animal  substances,  such  as  insects  and 
their  larvae,  small  Mammalia,  and  even  carrion.  The  females  and 
young  males  live  together  in  flocks  ;  but  the  old  Boars  are  usually 
solitary,  except  during  the  rutting  season,  which  they  pass  in  com- 
pany with  the  females ;  and  at  this  period  they  have  trerriendous 
combats  amongst  themselves. 

The  best  known  species  is  the  Common  Hog  {Sus  scrofa),  which 
is  found  wild  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  all  over  Asia,  and  in  the 


north  of  Africa.  It  is  also  the  original  of  our  tame  breeds ;  and 
from  individuals  of  these,  which  have  escaped  from  captivity,  the 
American  forests  have  been  supplied  with  a  numerous  race  of  Wild 
Hogs.  They  feed  at  night,  and  often  do  immense  damage  to  the 
crops  cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  their  abodes,  rooting  up  all 
the  produce  in  search  of  food.  In  the  autumn  they  find  a  plentiful 
nourishment  in  the  acorns  and  beech  mast  which  fall  from  the  trees. 
They  are  pursued  with  powerful  Dogs  ;  and  hunting  the  Wild  Boar 
has  always  been  a  favourite  sport  in  the  countries  where  they  abound. 
The  flesh  is  superior  to  that  of  the  domestic  Swine. 

Domestication  has  produced  an  immense  number  of  varieties  in 
this  Hog;  but  in  all  cases  it  is  a  most  valuable  animal.  Its  flesh 
is  very  good,  and  bears  salting  and  drj'ing  remarkably  well  ;  it 
furnishes  an  abundance  of  fat ;  and  both  the  leather  made  from  its 
skin,  and  the  bristles  which  cover  it,  arc  applied  to  many  important 
purposes.  Add  to  this,  that  it  is  an  animal  easily  kept,  that  it 
thrives  upon  almost  any  description  of  food,  and  we  shall  easily  sec 
that  few  of  our  domestic  animals  are  superior  to  it  in  importance. 
In  this  country,  the  Hog  is  rarely  put  to  any  use  until  after  its  death  ; 
but  in  Minorca,  according  to  Pennant,  he  is  employed  as  a  beast  of 
draught,  and  is  often  seen  in  that  island  working  in  company  with 
the  Ass.  The  same  author  tells  us,  he  was  informed  by  a  Scotch 
minister,  that  on  his  first  going  to  his  parish  in  Morayshire,  he  had 
seen  a  Cow,  a  Sow,  and  two  young  Horses,  "yoked  together,  and 
drawing  a  plough  in  a  light  sandy  soil ;  and  that  the  Sow  was  the 
best  drawer  of  the  four." 

Several  other  species  of  the  genus  Sus  are  found  in  a  wild  state  in 
India  and  the  Indian  Islands.  Some  of  the  latter,  and  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca,  are  also  inhabited  by  a  singular  species  of  Hog,  called 
the  Babyrussa  {Babyrussa  alfurus),  in  which  the  upper  canines  arc 
of  great  length,  turned  completely  upwards,  and  curved  backwards 
in  a  semicircle.  The  object  of  this  peculiar  structure  of  the  tusks 
is  entirely  unknown.  Some  of  the  older  writers  tell  us  that  the  Baby- 
russa hangs  himself  to  the  bough  of  a  tree,  by  means  of  these 
organs,  when  he  wishes  to  take  a  quiet  nap  ;  but  the  absurdity  of 
this  statement  is  very  apparent.  The  Babyrussa  is  of  a  lighter 
form,  and  furnished  with  more  slender  limbs  than  the  other  Hogs ; 
it  is  of  a  mild  disposition,  and  its  flesh  is  very  good. 

Southern  Africa  possesses  several  large  species  of  Hogs  belonging 
to  the  genera  Phacochccriis  and  PotamoclKsrus.  The  former  are 
called  Wart  Hogs,  from  their  having  a  large  fleshy  protuberance  on 
each  cheek  ;  they  are  of  moderate  size,  but  furnished  with  most 
formidable  tusks.  The  Potamochceri,  instead  of  fleshy  warts  on  the 
cheeks,  are  disfigured  by  a  large  bony  ridge  on  each  side.  The 
head,  in  both  of  these  genera,  is  large,  and  the  animals  have  a  most 
unprepossessing  expression  of  countenance. 


Y\g.  S3 1, —Teeth  of  Collared  Peccary. 


^26 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


In  South  America,  this  family  is  represented  by  the  Peccaries 
{Dicotyles),  in  which  the  hind-feet  have  only  three  toes,  one  of  the 
hinder  ones  being  deficient,  and  the  tail  is  reduced  to  a  mere  rudi- 
ment. In  form,  these  animals  resemble  small  Pigs,  and  they  agree 
exactly  in  their  habits  with  the  Old  World  species.  .They  are,  how- 
ever, far  less  prolific,  only  producing  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth.  On 
the  back,  concealed  by  the  hair,  the  Peccaries  have  a  peculiar  gland 
which  secretes  a  strongly  odoriferous  fluid  ;  this  is  cut  away  by  the 
Indians  when  they  kill  a  Peccary,  as  otherwise  the  whole  of  the  flesh 
would  be  contaminated. 

Such  is  a  general  view  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Suida;,  or 
Hog  tribe.  The  following  is  a  description  of  some  of  the  best  known 
and  most  important  species. 

The  Collared  Peccary  {Dicotyles  tajassu;  D.  torquattis). — 
The  Peccaries  are  the  only  indigenous  representatives  of  the  Porcine 
group  in  America  ;  no  true  Swine  are  found  there  ;  the  Hog,  which  is 
row  common  there,  being  of  recent  introduction,  though  it  wanders 
in  wild  herds. 

The  Peccary,  closely  resembles  the  Hog  in  form  and  in  the  quality 
of  the  bristly  hair  which  covers  the  body.  It  differs,  however,  from 
the  Hog  in  dentition,  the  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  being  four 
instead  of  si.x,  and  the  molars  above  and  below  on  each  side  six ; 
while  the  tusks,  which  are  of  moderate  size  compared  with  those 
of  the  Hog,  instead  of  taking  a  curve  outwards,  meet  like  ordinary 
canines;  they  are,  however,  sharp  and  effective  weapons.  Fig.  831,  a, 
represents  a  lateral  view  of  the  teeth  of  both  jaws  ;  b,  those  of  the 
upper  jaw  in  two  views  ;  and  c,  those  of  the  under.     The  limbs  are 


Fig.  S32. — The  Collared  Peccary. 

.  more  slender  in  proportion  than  in  the  Hog,  and  there  are  only 
three  toes  on  the  hinder  feet,  the  small  outer  toe  being  wanting. 
The  tail  is  a  mere  tubercle  :  beneath  the  skin  on  the  top  of  the  loins 
is  a  large  glandular  apparatus,  which  pours  out  a  secretion  of  dis- 
gusting odour.  In  their  voice,  their  habits  of  rooting  in  the  earth, 
the  mode  in  which,  when  angry,  they  erect  the  bristles  of  the  mane, 
and  clash  their  teeth,  they  resemble  their  Porcine  relative  of  the  Old 
World.     (See  Fig.  832.) 


Fig.  S33. — The  Eabiroussa,  or  Babyrussa. 


The  Collared  Peccary  is  a  native  of  the  dense  forests  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  South  America,  and  is  usually  met  with  in  pairs 
or  small  families  ;  they  take  up  their  abode  in  hollow  trees  and  holes 
of  the  earth,  where  they  seek  a  refuge  from  the  pursuit  of  their 
enemies,  of  which,  man  excepted,  the  Jaguar  is  the  most  destruc- 
tive. Plantations  of  maize,  sugar-canes,  and  potatoes  often  suffer 
from  their  incursions.  It  is  only  when  hard  pressed  that  the 
Peccary  defends  itself:  indeed,  it  displays  nothing  of  the  sullen 
courage  of  the  Wild  Boar,  but  retreats  on  the  appearance  of  danger, 
and  precipitately  seeks  its  hiding-place. 

Azara  states  that  the  Guarinis  term  this  species  Tayt6tou,  and 
the  white-lipped  species  Tagnicati.  It  is,  he  adds,  domesticated 
with  more  facility  than  the  Wild  Hog,  and  becomes  troublesome 
from  its  familiarity.  "  It  is  said,  and  I  believe  it,  that  their  flesh  is 
good,  but  not  so  fat  as  that  of  the  Hog ;  when  killed,  however,  the 
glandular  orifice  between  the  haunches  must  be  removed,  since,  if 
this  be  not  done,  the  flesh  acquires  a  bad  odour  and  taste.  Never- 
theless, the  Indians  eat  it  without  this  precaution."  The  inferiority 
of  the  flesh  of  the  Peccary  to  that  of  the  Hog,  and  its  dorsal  gland, 
will  combine  to  exclude  it  from  the  European  farmyard.  The 
Collared  Peccary  is  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  is  distinguished 
by  a  stripe  of  white  or  yellowish-white  passing  from  the  withers 
down  each  shoulder,  and  meeting  on  the  throat.  Its  general  colour 
is  grizzled  blackish-grey ;  the  bristles  being  ringed  grey,  straw- 
colour,  and  black. 

The  White-lipped  Peccary  {Dicotyles  labiatus)  is  larger  than  the 
collared  species,  and  more  robust ;  it  associates  in  vast  troops 
directed  by  an  old  male  :  when  attacked  they  surround  either  man. 
Dog,  or  Jaguar ;  and  if  there  be  no  means  of  escape,  their  enemy  is 
soon  torn  to  pieces.  M.  Schomburgk  had  a  narrow  escape  from  an 
infuriated  herd,  the  leader  of  which  he  shot  in  the  act  of  rushing  at  him  : 
as  the  troop  approached  where  he  stood,  the  noise  was  like  that  of  a 
whirlwind  through  the  bushes ;  "  but  the  peculiar  growl  and  awful 
clapping  of  the  teeth,"  he  adds,  "  did  not  leave  me  long  in  doubt  as 
to  its  cause :  it  was  evident  the  herd  had  divided,  and  were  coming 
directly  towards  me.  I  know  not  yet  how  I  climbed  the  lower  part  of 
a  mora-tree,  when  by  they  rushed,  their  muzzles  almost  sweeping 
the  ground,  and  their  rough  bristles  on  the  back  standing  erect : 
they  might  have  numbered  fifty.  They  came  and  passed  like  a 
whirlwind ;  and  before  I  had  recovered  from  my  astonishment,  I 
heard  them  plunge  into  the  river  and  swim  to  the  opposite  bank." 
Both  species  delight  to  wallow  in  the  mire  and  muddy  pools,  and 
readily  take  to  the  water,  swimming  with  great  vigour. 

In  captivity  the  White-lipped  Peccary  has  appeared  to  be  more 
reserved  and  savage  than  the  Collared  species,  and  more  ready  to 
testify,  by  the  clashing  of  its  teeth,  its  feelings  of  displeasure.  The 
Collared  Peccary  thrives  in  captivity,  and  has  frequently  bred  in  the 
Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  London.  The  young  never 
exceeded  two  in  number. 

The  Babyrussa,  or  Babiroussa  {Stis  babyrussa,  Linn.  ; 
Babyrussa  alfurics,  F.  Cuv.) — The  term  Babiroussa,  or  Baby- 
russa, means  literally  Hog-Deer ;  and 
there  is  some  reason  to  think  that 
the  ancients  were  not  altogether  un- 
acquainted with  the  animal.  Pliny 
notices  a  Wild  Boar  with  horns  on  the 
forehead,  found  in  India  ;  and  Cosmes, 
a  writer  in  the  sixth  century,  uses  the 
term  Hog-Deer(j;otpeXa0oc)as  the  desig- 
nation of  an  Indian  animal.  However 
this  may  be,  it  is  only  recently  that 
naturalists  have  become  well  ac- 
quainted with  it  and  its  habits,  thougli 
its  skulls  have  been  brought  over  to 
Europe  in  abundance  by  vessels  trad- 
ing among  the  Moluccas. 

The  Babiroussa  differs  somewhat  in 
dentition  from  the  Hog,  the  incisors 
being  four  above,  instead  of  six,  and 
the  molars  five  on  each  side  in  either 
jaw.  The  upper  canines  or  tusks  of 
the  male  emerge  directly  upward  from 
their  apparently  distorted  sockets,  and 
sweep  with  a  bold  arch  backwards, 
attaining  to  a  very  great  length.  The 
skin  is  thick,  coarse,  granular,  of  a 
blackish  tint,  and  sparingly  beset  with 
very  short  bristly  hairs.  The  tusks  of 
the  lower  jaw  are  long,  strong,  and 
sharp,  emerging  like  those  of  the  Boar. 
The  tusks  of  the  upper  jaw  do  not 
pass  out  between  the  lips,  but  cut  their 
way  through  the  skin,  nearly  half-way 
between  the  end  of  the  snout  and  the 
eyes.  The  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
formidable  weapons.  The  male,  when 
adult,  equals   the    largest    Hog;   the 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


327 


female  is  of  much  inferior  size,  and  destitute  of  the  curled  upper 
tusks,  or  has  them  only  rudimentary.     (See  Fig.  833.) 

The  Babiroussa  is  found  in  the  marshy  forests  in  the  interior  of 
Bourou,  and  other  of  the  Molucca  islands,  as  Amboyna,  and  also 
Java,  where  it  associates  in  troops.  Its  habits  resemble  those  of  the 
Wild  Hog,  and  it  is  restless  and  ferocious.  According  to  Lesson  it 
feeds  chiefly  upon  maize,  giving  preference  to  that  grain  beyond 
other  articles  of  diet.  It  is  partial  to  the  water,  and  swims  with  the 
greatest  ease,  often  crossing  the  straits  between  adjacent  islands 
without  any  difficulty.  The  following  are  notes  which  we  made  from 
a  young  male  once  living  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zool.  Soc.  : — This 
animal  is  Hog-like  in  its  figure,  and  much  resembles  a  small  Pig  of 
the  Chinese  breed.  It  is  roundly  formed  like  a  young,  well-bred 
Hog,  and  the  skin  lies  close,  giving  a  compactness  to  its  appear- 
ance. The  head  is  small,  and  high  between  the  ears  ;  the  snout  is 
elongated ;  the  ears  are  very  small,  erect,  and  pointed ;  the  eyes, 
in  their  form  and  expression,  resemble  those  of  a  Stag;  the  iris  is 
brown  ;  the  skin,  which  is  thinly  clothed  with  short  black  bristly 
hairs,  is  everywhere  dotted  with  small  granulations,  which  spread 
and  become  rougher,  coarser,  and  more  decided  about  the  limbs 
and  feet,  and  especially  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  head  and  sides 
of  the  face  and  under-jaw.  Closely  as  the  skin  lies,  it  becomes 
thrown  into  a  series  of  regular  and  prettily  arranged  wrinkles  or 
furrows  with  the  dift'erent  movements  of  the  body,  and  varying  in 
direction  accordingly.  As  the  animal  turns  to  one  side,  these 
furrows  are  transverse  ;  in  other  attitudes  they  become  more  or  less 
oblique ;  but  none  are  to  be  seen  when  the  animal  stands  still  or  lies 
quietly  on  its  straw.  The  tail  is  rather  long,  slender,  and  tapering ; 
the  limbs  are  well  proportioned,  and  do  not  appear  to  be  longer,  in 
relation  to  the  size  of  the  body,  than  in  the  Hog;  the  tusks  of  the 
upper  jaw  (in  the  individual  here  alluded  to)  are  at  present  small, 
but  curved  back. 

In  its  state  of  captivity,  the  young  Babiroussa  seems  as  contented 
as  a  Pig  in  its  sty,  and  it  is  not  only  quiet,  but  disposed  to  familiarity, 
raising  itself  up  on  its  hind-legs,  and  putting  its  snout  to  the  bars  of 
the  enclosure,  evidently  soliciting  food.  It  turns  the  straw  over  and 
over  with  its  snout,  and  champs  in  eating,  but  utters,  as  far  as  we 
could  learn,  no  grunt,  as  does  the  Hog,  nor  has  it  the  unpleasant 
smell  of  the  latter.  That  the  Babiroussa  might  be  reclaimed,  not- 
withstanding Lesson's  account  of  its  savage  disposition  in  captivity, 
and  added  to  our  domestic  animals,  is  very  evident.  Its  flesh  is  re- 
ported to  be  held  in  high  estimation.  Fig.  834  represents  the  head 
of  the  male  Babiroussa  [a)  and  of  the  female  (3)  by  way  of  contrast. 
Fig.  835  is  an  admirable  delineation  of  the  skull  of  the  adult  male, 
in  which  the  form  of  the  tusks,  their  relative  proportions  and  direc- 
tion are  faithfully  given.  Fig.  836,  a,  a  lateral  view  of  the  dentition 
of  upper  and  lower  jaw  ;  b,  dentition  of  upper  jaw  in  two  views;  c, 
those  of  the  lower  jaw. 


Fig.  S34. — Head  of  Babiroussa,  seen  in  profile. 


Fig.  835.— Skull  of  Babiroussa. 

The  Wild  Hog  {Sus  a^er,  Briss. ;  Siis  scrofa,  Linn.)— The 
Wild  Hog  is,  as  all  naturalists  admit,  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
race  ;  but  at  what  period  it  was  reclaimed  is  very  uncertain.  The 
circumstances,  indeed,  connected  with  the  domestication  of  every 
Tu™  j^  ^"^ject  to  the  bondage  of  man  are  enveloped  in  obscurity, 
ihe  domestication,  however,  of  the  Wild  Hog  would  not  involve 
much  difficulty.  Young  individuals  taken  in  their  native  forest  soon 
become  reconciled  to  captivity,  and  display  the  same  contentment 


and  familiarity  which  are  so  conspicuous  in  the  ordinary  tame  beast. 
It  IS  this  disposition,  a  characteristic  of  the  Pachydermata,  which 
renders  the  Elephant,  the  Rhinocfros,  the  Tapir,  and  others,  so 
easily  subjugated  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  readiness  with  which 
they  submit  to  the  restraints  of  captivity  is  counterbalanced  by  an 
equal  readiness  to  assume  a  life  of  independence     The  Hog,  when 


Fig.  836. — Teeth  of  Babiroussa. 

left  to  itself,  resumes  its  original  habit,  as  is  the  case  in  America, 
where  wild  herds  roam  the  forest ;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Ele- 
phant often  escapes  its  trammels  and  joins  its  wild  brethren,  im- 
mediately submitting,  if  retaken,  to  the  voice  of  authority  which  it 
had  previously  learned  to  obey.  The  Horse  in  a  wild  state  scours 
the  plains  of  Tartary  and  South  America  ;  it  requires  but  a  struggle 
to  break-in  the  most  spirited.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom, 
that  the  animals  of  whose  services  man  stands  most  in  need  are, 
each  in  their  way,  those  whose  nature  most  readily  induces  them  to 
submit  to  his  dominion,  nay,  even  court  his  friendship.  Some  we 
can  tame,  and  only  tame  ;  others  we  can  educate. 

The  Wild  Hog  was  once  common  in  our  island ;  and  it  is  almost 
surprising,  considering  the  passion  for  the  chase,  which  seems  to  be 
part  and  parcel  of  our  English  temperament,  that  this  animal  is  not 
re-established  in  some  of  its  old  haunts,  the  parks  and  forests  of  the 
nobility.  In  India,  indeed,  the  chase  of  the  Wild  Boar  is  one  of  the 
field-sports  to  which  our  countrymen  are  enthusiastically  devoted  ; 
nor  is  there  any  reason  why  it  might  not  be  revived  in  England. 

The  Wild  Hog  is  still  common  in  the  forests  of  Germany,  France, 
and  other  portions  of  Europe,  and  extends  also  through  Asia  and 
Africa  ;  if,  indeed,  the  species  is  positively  identical — a  point  which 
there  is  some  reason  to  question.  At  all  events,  slight  differences 
are  observable  between  the  Indian  Wild  Boar  and  the  present  breed 
of  the  German  forests  ;  and  Sonnini  expresses  a  doubt  as  to  the 
identity  of  the  Egyptian  and  European  wild  race. 

In  no  essential  point  does  the  wild  race  of  Europe  differ  from  our 
domestic  breeds  ;  the  snout,  however,  is  more  elongated,  and,  as 
might  be  expected,  the  contour  of  the  frame  is  more  gaunt  and 
bony.  The  ears  are  short  and  erect,  the  tusks  large,  and  the 
bristles  long  and  coarse  ;  the  general  colour  is  rusty-black  or  black- 
ish-brown, more  or  less  brindled  in  patches.  (See  Fig.  837.)  After 
the  age  of  three  years,  the  Wild  Boar  leads  a  solitary  life  in  the 
forest,  fearless  of  every  foe  and  confident  in  his  weapons,  which, 
added  to  his  great  strength,  render  him  a  formidable  antagonist.  It 
is  not,  however,  until  the  age  of  five  or  six  years  that  he  attains  to 
his  full  dimensions,  and  the  duration  of  his  life  is  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty  years.  The  females,  with  their  young,  associate  in  herds 
for  the  sake  of  mutual  protection  :  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy  the 
young  are  placed  in  the  centre,  the  old  ones  forming  a  circle  round 
them  ;  and  should  he  be  hazardous  enough  to  venture  on  the  attack, 
he  meets  with  a  rough  reception.  It  is  thus  that  the  young  are  pre- 
served from  Wolves,  the  chief  foes  to  be  dreaded  by  them  ;  to  which 
in  some  districts  they  often  fall  a  prey,  notwithstanding  the  vigilance 
of  their  parent.     It  is  only  in  defence  of  their  young  that  the  iemales 


328 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


are  furious ;  but  the  old  males  are  not  to  be  approached  without 
caution,  and  often  rush  out  upon  those  who  venture  near  the  pre- 
cincts of  their  lair.  At  certain  seasons,  indeed,  the  Wild  Boar  is 
very  savage,  and  should  he  meet  a  rival,  the  most  sanguinary  com- 
bat ensues. 

In  the  month  of  December  or  January,  each  male  attaches  him- 
self to  the  society  of  a  chosen  female,  whom  he  accompanies  in  the 
deepest  glens  of  the  forest  for  about  thirty  days.  When  about  to 
produce  her  young,  the  female  seeks  some  undisturbed  retreat,  re- 


Fig.  837.— The  Wild  Boar. 


Fig.  S38.— Boar-hunt. 

mote  from  the  haunts  of  the  male,  who,  it  appears,  exhibits  a  pro- 
pensity to  devour  her  progeny  if  he  discover  the  litter.  To  her 
young  the  female  is  a  most  attentive  mother ;  she  suckles  them  for 
three  or  four  months,  and  they  remain  with  her  for  a  long  time  :  an 
aged  female  is  sometimes  seen  followed  by  several  families,  among 
which  are  some  of  the  age  of  two  or  three  years.  These  young 
rovers  the  French  hunters  call  hUtcs  de  coinpagnie.  The  Wild  Boar 
seldom  stirs  from  his  lair  during  the  day,  and  may  therefore  be  re- 


garded as  in  some  degree  nocturnal ;  on  the  approach  of  twilight  he 
rouses  from  his  indolent  slumbers,  and  sets  out  in  quest  of  food, 
which  consists  of  acorns,  beech-mast,  grain,  different  vegetables, 
and  roots  ;  in  search  of  the  latter  he  ploughs  up  the  ground  with  his 
snout :  corn-fields  in  the  vicinity  of  forests,  where  Wild  Hogs  exist, 
often  suffer  extensively  from  their  nightly  incursions.  The  Wild 
Boar,  though  not  truly  carnivorous,  does  not  refuse  animal  matters 
which  chance  may  throw  in  his  way:  he  does  not,  however,  ordi- 
narily attack  and  kill  others   for  tfie  sake  of  their  flesh,  but  only 

devours  what  he  may  meet  with 
in  his  rambles.     In  the  morn- 
ing  the  Wild  Boar  returns  to 
his  lair   in   the    thickest    and 
most  gloomy  parts  of  the  forest, 
under  a   rock,   in   a  cave,   or 
under  the   canopy  of  gnarled 
and      intertwined      branches. 
When   roused   by    the    hunter 
and   his    Dogs,    the    old  Boar 
retreats    sullenly    and   slowly, 
gnashing    his    teeth,    foaming 
with    anger,   and   often    stop- 
ping to  receive   his   pursuers, 
on  whom  he  often  rushes  with 
sudden     impetuosity,    striking 
with   his   tusks,    goring    Dogs 
and  men,  and  scattering  terror 
around.     When  the  Boar  turns 
upon    a    pack,    the    foremost 
Dogs  are  sure   to   suffer,   and 
several   will   fall   by   as    many 
strokes.     An  instance  is  on  re- 
cord  in  which  a  Boar  turned 
suddenly  upon  a  pack  of  fifty 
Dogs  which  pursued  him,  and 
instantly     despatched     six    or 
seven    of   them,  wounding  all 
the  rest  with  the  exception  of 
ten.     The  young   Boar  is  less 
resolute  than  the  old  animal, 
and  will  run  to  a  considerable 
distance  before  he  is  brought 
to  bay ;  nor  is  the  assault  at- 
tended with  any  great  degree 
of  danger.     In   all    ages,   the 
chase  of  the  Boar  has  been  a 
favourite  diversion  ;  the  classic 
writings  abound  with  allusions 
to  it,  and  to  the  risk  incurred. 
Ovid  (Fab.  iv.,  lib.  viii.)  gives 
a  spirited  account  of  the  chase, 
in  which  the  fury  and  strength  of  the  enraged 
beast   are   admirably  depicted.     It  would   seem 
that   the   ancients    endeavoured   to   enclose  the 
Boar  by  nets  so  as  to  prevent  his  escaping  into 
the  recesses  of  the  forest :   the  combat  was  close, 
and  therefore  dangerous  ;  driven  from  his  lair  by 
the  Dogs,  and  hemmed  in,  the  infuriated  animal 
turned  savagely  upon  his  assailants,   and  died, 
after  killing  and  wounding  Dogs  and  men,  trans- 
fixed by  spears  and  javelins.     Our  forefathers  in 
the  Middle  Ages  deemed  the  Wild  Boar  one  of 
the  noble  "  beastes  of  venery,"  and  kept  a  power- 
ful breed  of  Hounds  for  the  chase  :  the  weapons 
used  by  the  huntsmen  were  spears,  and  a  sort  of 
short  sword,   or  couteau  de  chasse ;  the  spears 
were  used  when  the  Boar  was  brought  to  bay,  and 
the   attack   gave   abundant  opportunities  to  the 
hunters  of  showing  their  skill  and  courage.     The 
loud  blast  of  the  horn,  mingled  with  the  shouts 
of  men,    and  the   baying   of    the    Hounds,   pro- 
claimed the  vigorous  home-thrust  that  struck  the 
savage  lifeless  to  the  ground.      Fig.  838  is  illus- 
trative of  the  Boar-hunt  as  conducted  in  Europe. 
Fig.  839  illustrates  Boar-hunting  as  practised  in 
India  at  the  present  day,  and  in  which  H.R.H. 
the  Prince  of  Wales  frequently  took  part  during 
his  visit  to  that  country  in  i875-'76.     The  Indian 
term  is  "  Pig-sticking  "  for  this  amusement.     The 
hunters  are  always  mounted  on  horseback,  and,  instead  of  meeting 
the  animal  with  spears,  attack  him  with  javelins,  or  lances,  launched 
at  him  as  he  flies,  or  as  he  rushes  to  the  charge,  which  is  often  so  de- 
termined that  the  Horses  cannot  be  brought  to  stand  the  shock,  or, 
if  they  do,  are  thrown  down  and  gored ;  serious  accidents  some- 
times occur.     Mr.  Johnson  relates  an  instance  in  which  a  large  and 
resolute  Boar,  after  being  driven  by  the  hunters  into  a  plain,  stood 
at  bay  and  challenged  the  whole  party :  he  charged  every  Horse 


-vtlMi^^HI 


flfffigll 


ktlt 


=J--«oiy 


■'-»:  IliWld 
^  matters 
■■?""«,  ott 

'=  tie  ffloni- 
^^  retuns  to 
<  thickest  aad 
^"-■t' tie  forest, 
-  3  J  cave,  ot 
'"'■'1  of  gnarled 


■  '•?  fc  liinter 
-':  «'J  Boar 
!  a:i  slowly, 
'•'■i.  foaniin? 


-  "J  piWrs, 
"^:  r-itciiitli 
-f.7-  wKng 

;;n:5  Dogs 

>^:-injteno[ 

:i;  Boa:  tuns 

'i  foiiniost 

tj  sier,  aid 

:!  ':■!  as  many 

->rii  is  OB  le- 

!  B:ar  timed 

i  -Ki  of  % 

-:-.J  In,  and 

.i:c:d  sii  ot 

-  V'-Ji'iiig  all 
-'^  'iception  of 
.•,-  3)3:  is  less 
••'  o':  asiinal, 


■•■ncttlie 

.  :;  llllS- 
,  .;  in 

ivH. 


THE  HOG   TRIBE. 


329 


that  advanced  within  fifty  yards  of  him,  with  great  ferocity,  causingj 
them  to  rear  and  plunge,  and  throw  off  their  riders,  whose  lives  were 
in  jeopardy:  though  many  of  the  Horses  were  accustomed  to  the 
sport,  none  would  stand  his  charges,  or  bring  the  rider  within  javelin 
distance  ;  and  at  last  he  fairly  drove  the  party  from  the  field  ;  and 
then,  gnashing  his  tusks  and  foaming,  he  made  his  way  to  the 
jungle,  where  it  was  useless  to  attempt  to  follow  him. 


its  introduction  into  the  armorial  bearings  of  many  distinguished 
families  of  every  division  of  the  kingdom." 

The  skull  of  the  Hog  (iMg.  840),  which  affords  an  index  of  the 
habits  of  the  animal,  is  of  a  conical  or  wedge-like  form  ;  the  base  or 
occipital  portion  forms  a  right  angle  with  the  oblique  upper  sur- 
face, and  a  bold  transverse  ridge  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  occi- 
pital and  parietal  bones.  The  nasal  bunes  are  prolonged  nearly  to 
the  end  of  the  snout,  which,  in  the  living  ani- 
mal, terminates  in  a  movable  cartilaginous 
disc,  pierced  by  the  nostrils.  The  lower  jaw 
is  of  great  strength.    The  dentition  (Fig.  841) 

is    as    follows  :  —  Incisors,    ?-  ;  canines, '~' ; 

6  i-i 


■  44.    The  canines  of  the  upper 


Fig.  S39. — Boar-hunting,  or  Pig-sticking,  in  India. 

In  our  own  country,  the  Boar,  reserved  for  the  sport  of  the 
privileged  classes,  was  protected  by  severe  laws.  By  one  of  the 
edicts  of  William  the  Conqueror  (a.d.  1087),  it  was  ordained  that 
any  who  were  found  guilty  of  killing  a  Stag,  Roebuck,  or  Wild  Boar, 
were  to  have  their  eyes  put  out :  sometimes,  indeed,  the  penalty 
appears  to  have  been  a  painful  death. 

At  what  precise  period  the  Wild  Boar  became  extinct  in  our 
island  cannot  be  precisely  determined  ;  it  is  evident,  however,  that 
as  population  increased,  and  the  vast  woods  which  spread  over 
many  parts  of  the  country  were  cut  down  and  the  land  cleared,  that 
the  range  of  the  Boar  would  become  more  and  more  limited,  and  its 
numbers  decreased,  till  at  length  its  extirpation  would  be  complete. 
We  look  in  vain  for  the  forest  which,  in  the  12th  century,  covered 
the  country  to  the  north  of  London,  and  of  which  Fitzstephen,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  writes,  observing  that  "on  the  north  are  corn- 
fields and  delightful  meadows,  intermixed  with  pleasant  streams,  on 
which  stands  many  a  mill,  whose  clack  is  so  grateful  to  the  ear  ; 
beyond  them  an  immense  forest  extends  itself,  beautified  with  woods 
and  groves,  and  full  of  the  lairs  and  coverts  of  beast  and  game. 
Stags,  Bucks,  Boars,  and  Wild  Bulls."  Banished,  however,  as  the 
Wild  Boar  is  from  among  our  native  Mammalia,  "  its  name  is  im.- 
mortalised,"  as  Mr.  Bell  observes,  "  by  having  given  origin  to  the 
appellation  of  many  places  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  by 


Fig.  840.— Skull  of  the  Hog. 


molars,  L — 7  ■. 

jaw  are  prismatic,  and  cun'c  downwMrds,  hav- 
ing their  anterior  surface  worn  by  the  action  of 
the  huge  canines  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  arc 
sharp,  sweep  out  from  the  sides  of  the  mouth, 
and  often  attain  to  the  length  of  eight  or  ten 
inches,  and  sometimes  even  more.  These  ca- 
nines or  tusks  are  terrible  weapons  :  rushing 
on  his  antagonist,  the  Boar  strikes  obliquely 
upwards,  right  and  left,  with  prodigious  vio- 
lence ;  a  mode  of  action  the  best  calculated  for 
bringing  these  weapons  into  effective  play,  and 
in  which  the  muscular  powers  of  the  neck  and 
shoulders  are  the  most  advantageously  and 
naturally  exerted. 

The  Domestic  Hog  {Sus  scrofa).—1\\\i, 
animal  is  too  well  known  to  need  any  descrip- 
tion ;  and  its  utility  too  well  appreciated  to  re- 
quire comment.  It  is  not,  however,  valued  alike 
in  all  countries,  and  in  some  is  regarded  with  abhorrence. 
In  India,  both  Brahmin  and  Mussulman  reject  its  flesh  as  food  ; 
yet,  in  many  districts  of  that  country,  semi-domesticated  Hogs 
wander  about  the  villages,  feeding  on  the  refuse  which  they  pick  up 
in  the  streets.  Colonel  Sykes  states,  that  in  Dukhun  "  every  village 
abounds  with  Hogs  ;  but  any  property  in  them  is  equally  abjured 


Fig.  S41.— Teeth  of  the  Hog. 

by  individuals  and  the  community."  Detestation  of  the  Hog  was  a 
feeling  entertained  by  certain  nations  in  remote  antiquity.  It  was 
classed  by  the  Jews  among  the  vilest  animals,  and  in  Egypt  the 
swineherd  was  numbered  among  the  profane,  and  forbidden  to  enter 
the  temples  of  their  gods  ;  even  the  lowest  dregs  of  the  people  refused 
to  bestow  their  daughter  on  him  in  marriage.  The  Egyptians  sacri- 
ficed the  Hog  to  Bacchus,  and  to  the  moon  when  full.  "  In  the  even- 
ing of  the  festival  of  Bacchus,"  says  Herodotus,  "  though  every  one 

2  U 


33° 


THE  HOG   TRIBE. 


be  obliged  to  kill  a  Hog  before  the  door  of  his  house,  yet  he  imme- 
diately restores  the  carcass  to  the  swineherd  that  sold  him."  The 
ancient  Scythians,  according  to  the  same  authority,  made  no  use  of 
Swine,  nor  suffered  any  to  be  kept  in  the  country.  The  Abyssinians 
and  the  Cophts  of  Egypt,  as  well  as  the  Mohammedans,  reject  the 


Fig.  842. — The  Domestic  Hog. 


Fig.  843. — Group  of  Domcitic  Mogs. 


flesh  of  the  Hog.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  though 
the  office  of  swineherd  appears  to  have  been  held  in  contempt,  the 
flesh  of  the  Hog  was  in  high  estimation,  and  a  Sucking-Pig  was  as 
favourite  a  dish  as  amongst  ourselves  in  the  present  day.  The 
Chinese  have  derived  no  prejudices  against  the  Hog  from  the  Mo- 
hammedan nations  of  the  East:  on  the  contrary,  they  rear  these 
animals  in  great  numbers  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  ;  and  even  the 
numerous  population  who  tenant  the  floating  town  of  rafts  or  barges 
contrive  to  keep  and  rear  them. 

"  One  of  the  most  singular  circumstances,"  says  Mr.  Wilson,  "in 
the  domestic  history  of  this  animal,  is  the  immense  extent  of  its  dis- 
tribution, more  especially  in  far-removed  and  insulated  spots  in- 
habited by  semi-barbarians,  where  the  wild  species  is  entirely  un- 
known. For  e.xample,  the  South  Sea  Islanders,  on  their  discovery 
by  Europeans,  were  found  to  be  well  stocked  with  a  small  black- 
legged  Hog  ;  and  the  traditionary  belief  of  the  people  in  regard  to 
the  original  introduction  of  these  animals,  showed  that  they  were 
supposed  to  be  as  anciently  descended  as  themselves.  Yet  the  latter 
had  no  knowledge  of  the  Wild  Boar  or  any  other  animal  of  the  Hog' 
kind  from  which  the  domestic  breed  might  be  supposed  to  be  derived." 
Among  our  Saxon  forefathers  the  Hog  was  of  great  importance  : 
its  flesh  was  a  staple  article  of  consumption  in  every  household,  and 
a  great  portion  of  the  wealth  of  the  farmers  and  landed  proprietors 
consisted  of  droves  of  Swine,  which  were  attended  by  swineherds, 
thralls,  or  bond-slaves,  and  which  were  driven  into  the  woods  of  oak 
and  beech,  in  order  to  feed  on  acorns  and  mast,  and  all  the  while 
guarded  from  the  attacks  of  the  Wolf.  The  domestic  Hog  of  that 
period  appears  to  have  closely  resembled,  in  form  and  colour,  the 
wild  species;  and  the  old  unimproved  breed,  now  seldom  seen,  may 
be  regarded  as  its  modern  representative.  (Fig.  842.)  There  are 
now  in  our  island  several  breeds  of  this  use- 
ful animal,  of  acknowledged  excellence,  the 
result  of  judicious  crossings.  The  test  of 
excellence  is  productibility,  a  readiness  to 
become  fat,  small  bone,  and  the  quality 
of  the  whole  animal  when  converted  into 
bacon  :  size  is  of  minor  importance.  The 
introduction  of  the  small  Chinese  breed  is 
one  great  source  of  improvement.  The 
Chinese  Hog  is  short  in  the  head,  with 
sharp  neat  ears,  low  on  the  limbs,  and  high 
in  the  chine.  It  is  very  prolific,  and  fat- 
tens readily.  (Fig.  843,^.)  The  prevailing 
colours  are  black  or  half-black  and  half- 
white.  This  breed,  or  one  closely  allied  to 
it,  extends  from  China  throughout  various 
groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific. 

The  breed  nearest  to  the  Chinese  in  this 
country  is  the  Suffolk  (Fig.  843,  _/)  :  these 
are  generally  white  ;  they  are  compactly 
made,  and  deep  in  the  chest. 

Another  source  of  improvement  is  the 
Neapolitan  Hog  :  this  is  a  plump  animal 
of  a  black  colour,  without  any  hair,  and 
with  a  singular  predisposition  to  become 
fat :  it  is,  however,  of  a  tender  constitution. 
The  pure  black  breed  of  Essex,  which  has 
very  little  hair,  is  closely  allied  to  it,  and 
when  crossed  with  the  Neapolitan,  pro- 
duces a  most  valuable  stock  :  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Neapolitan  and  Berkshire  breed 
is  also  in  high  esteem.  A  breed  between 
the  Berkshire,  Chinese,  and  Neapolitan 
may,  by  careful  selection,  produce  every 
quality  which  can  be  desired  :  great  fecun- 
dity, an  early  acquisition  of  fat,  and  mode- 
rate size,  with  admirable  form  and  propor- 
tions. Our  group  of  Hogs  (Fig.  843)  re- 
presents— a,  the  Wild  Boar  ;  b,  the  old  un- 
improved breed  ;  c,  the  black  or  wire-haired 
breed  ;  d,  e.  Boar  and  Sow  of  the  improved 
breed  ;  /,  the  pure  Suffolk  breed ;  g,  the 
Chinese  breed. 

The  domestic  Hog  is  by  no  means  desti- 
tute of  intelligence,  and  little  deserves  the 
character  of  a  stupid  filthy  brute,  as  some 
are  pleased  to  call  it.  As  regards  filthi- 
ness,  everything  will  depend  on  its  keeper  : 
it  is  true  that,  like  the  Elephant  and  Hippo- 
potamus, it  delights  to  wallow  in  the  mire  ; 
but  no  animal  more  luxuriates  in  clean 
straw,  and  when  it  is  styed  up  in  filth  jus- 
tice is  not  done  to  it.  The  Hog  is  a  "  huge 
feeder,"  but  so  are  the  Horse  and  Ox,  and 
a  fat  Hog  is  a  more  comely-looking  beast 
than  one  that  is  lean  and  ill-fed.  With  re- 
pect  to  intelligence,  we  rank  it  far  bpfore 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


the  Ox  and  Horse,  thoua^-h  it  is  loss  docile.  In  ]\Iinorca  it  is  used  to 
draw  the  plough,  and  works  well ;  and  Pennant  says  that,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Moray,  between  the  Spey  and  Elgin,  it  was  formerly  employed 
for  the  same  purpose,  and  that  a  credible  eye-witness  informed  him, 
"  that  he  had  seen  in  his  parish  there,  a  Cow,  a  Sow,  and  two  young 
Horses  yoked  together,  and  drawing  a  plough  in  light  sandy  soil, 
and  that  the  Sow  was  the  best  drawer  of  the  four."  The  senses  of 
taste,  smell,  and  hearing  are  possessed  in  great  perfection  by  the 
Hog :  it  is  a  saying  among  a  certain  class  of  persons,  that  Pigs  can 
smell  the  wind;  they  are  certainly  aware  of  the  approach  of  a  storm, 
and  we  have  seen  them  agitated  during  its  continuance,  screaming, 
and  running  about  with  straw  in  their  mouths,  or  carrying  it  to  their 
sty  as  if  to  add  to  their  shelter.  In  Italy  advantage  is  said  to  be 
taken  of  the  sense  of  smell  with  which  this  animal  is  endowed  in 
searching  for  truffles  ;  and  in  our  own  country  the  famous  Sow,  Slut, 
was  broke-in  to  the  gun,  and  stood  to  her  game  as  staunch  as  the  best 
Pointer. 

The  genus  Sus,  as  at  present  constituted,  contains,  besides  the 
common  Wild  Hog,  and  its  domestic  relatives,  some  other  species 
known  to  naturalists  :  of  these,  one  is  the  Papuan  Hog,  or  Bene  of 
the  natives  of  New  Guinea  {Sus  pajiuetisis),  figured  and  described 
in  the  "  Zoologie  de  la  Coquille,"  by  MM.  Lesson  and  Garnot.  It 
is  remarkable  for  its  small  size,  and  its  light  and  agreeable  propor- 
tions, and  the  shortness  of  the  tusks.  It  is  common  in  the  forests  of 
New  Guinea,  where  it  is  esteemed  by  the  native  Papuans  as  de- 
licate food  :  they  contrive  to  catch  these  animals  when  young,  and 
rear  them  in  a  state  of  domestication. 

Another  animal  is  the  Woodswine  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Africa, 
and  of  Madagascar,  the  Bosch-Vark  of  the  Dutch  colonists  of  the 
Cape  [Sus  larvatKS,  Cuv.)  This  savage  and  formidable  animal 
resembles  the  Wild  Boar  of  Europe  ;  but  its  head  is  larger  in  pro- 
portion, its  snout  broader,  and  an  elevated  callous  protuberance  is 
seated  on  the  cheeks  between  the  tusks  and  eyes,  giving  a  revolting 
aspect  to  the  physiognomy.  Prompt  and  vicious,  the  Bosch-Vark  is 
much  to  be  dreaded  in  combat,  its  strength  and  the  size  of  its  tusks 
rendering  it  a  match  for  almost  any  foe.  It  dwells  in  excavations  in 
the  ground,  where  it  is  dangerous  to  attack  it,  as  it  rushes  out  sud- 
denly from  its  retreat,  and  deals  rapid  destruction  among  its  as- 
sailants. Dr.  Smith  observes,  that  this  species  is  subject  to  great 
variety  of  colouring,  scarcely  any  two  specimens  being  precisely 
alike  :  some  are  of  a  brownish-black  variegated  with  white,  and 
others  are  of  an  almost  uniform  light  reddish-brown  or  rufous  without 
white  markings  ;  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  say  which  is  the  most 
prevailing  style  of  colouring.  The  bristles  are  long,  particularly 
upon  the  upper  parts  of  the  neck  and  back ;  the  canines  are  of  huge 
size  and  strength  ;  the  ears  are  short,  and  thinly  covered  both  with- 
out and  within  with  coarse  black  hair,  which  is  longest  at  their  tips. 
The  tail  is  thinly  covered  with  black  bristles.  Average  length  of 
body,  between  four  and  five  feet ;  of  the  tail,  one  foot.  Living  spe- 
cimens of  the  European  Wild  Swine,  Sus  scrofa;  of  the 
Japanese  Wild  Swine,  Sus  leuco?nystox ;  and  of  the  ^Ethiopian 
Wart -Hog,  Phacochcsrus  csthiopicus,  may  be  seen  in  the  Gardens 
of  the  Zoological  Society  in  Regent's 
Park,  London. 

The  discovery  of  the  bones  of  an  ex- 
tinct Hog  of  huge  size,  in  the  cavern  of 
Sundwick  in  Westphalia,  is  due  to  M. 
Goldfuss.  Bones  of  three  distinct  species 
occur  in  the  Epplesheim  sand  (Miocene 
division  of  Tertiary  deposits,  Lyell),  and 
fossil  relics  of  a  species  have  been  found 
in  Hutton  Cave,  in  Mendip,  and  in  other 
places. 

Several  species  of  an  extinct  genus 
{Chceropoiamus),  closely  allied  to  the 
Hog,  have  been  discovered  in  the  gypsum 
of  Montmartre,  in  certain  strata  in  Swit- 
zerland, and  in  the  Eocene  forma- 
tion of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  &c.  Numer- 
ous specimens  of  fossils  of  the  Pig  tribe, 
and  others  of  the  Pachyderniata,  in- 
cluding the  Elephants,  Rhinoceros,  &c., 
may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 
A  list  of  some  of  them  will  be  found  at 
the  end  of  this  chapter. 

South  African  Swine— -Genus 
Phacochoerus. 


331 

w'?h  those'rfTh^T  f  """^^'  the  grinders  have  a  great  analo^^^ 
of  enamef  PnH.  ^^''=P'^="'  =  they  are  composed  of  ver^cal  cylindc^ 
of  enamel  enclosmg  an  osseous  deposit,  and  are  cemented  ton-ether 
by  cortical  substance,  or  crusta  pctrosa.  It  is  long  be  ore  tire  root 
of  these  teeth  is  perfected,  and  they  advance  in  rotation  from 
behmd  forwards  pushmg  before  them  the  first  molars,  which  in  old 
individuals  are  found  to  be  either  greatly  reduced,  or  to  have  en- 


Fig,  S4.4, — Teeth  of  Phacochoere. 


The  animals  contained  in  this  genus 
resemble  the  Hog  in  manners,  form, 
and  aspect ;  so  that,  were  it  not  for  the 
peculiarity  of  their  dentition,  they  would 
necessarily  be  included  in  the  genus 
Sus.  Their  dentition,  however,  is  so 
different  from  that  of  the  Hog  as  to 
justify  their  separation.    Instead  of  pre- 


Fig.  S.tS. — Abyssinian  Phacochoere. 


332 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


tirely  disappeared.  It  is  not  till  after  ceasing  to  push  forward  that 
the  roots  become  consolidated.  With  regard  to  number  they  appear 
to  vary.  In  the  skull  of  the  Abyssinian  Phacochocre  {Ph.  aliatii, 
Riipp.),  which  we  have  carefully  examined,  tlic  molars  were  found 
to  be  four  on  each  side  above,  and  three  below.  From  the  first 
molar  above,  which  was  very  small,  to  the  third,  the  increase  in 
size  was  gradual,  but  the  fourth  molar  was  long,  and  narrowed 
gradually  as  it  proceeded  backwards.  Had  the  animal  lived  much 
longer,  it  is  probable  that  the  first  molar  would  have  disappeared : 
the  dentition  would  then  have  been  as  represented  in  Fig.  844,  a.  The 
incisors  were  two  above  and  si.K  below.  The  tusks  were  enormous. 
It  would  seem  that  the  presence  of  incisors  is  variable  ;  for  in  the 
South  African  species  they  either  do  not  exist,  or  are  undeveloped. 
Cuvier  states  that  vestiges  of  them  are  sometimes  found  under  the 
gum  ;  but  in  specimens  from  Cape  Verde  the  incisors  are  generally 
complete. 

Fig.  844,  a,  is  one  side  of  the  upper-jaw  of  the  South  African 


districts  these  animals  seldom  venture  to  seek  their  food  during  the 
day ;  but  in  the  countries  inhabited  by  natives  who  are  destitute  of 
the  efficient  arms  of  the  colonists,  they  are  at  all  times  to  be  met, 
though  their  favourite  feeding-times  are  early  in  the  morning,  late  in 
the  evening,  and  even  during  the  night,  if  it  be  moonlight.  When  dis- 
turbed in  its  retreats,  and  especially  when  hunted,  the  Vlacke  Vark 
is  a  very  dangerous  animal  ;  for  though  it  will  not  turn  out  of  its 
way  to  give  chase,  yet,  if  brought  to  bay,  or  forced  to  extremity,  it 
attacks,  with  furious  impetuosity,  and  strikes  w-ith  its  tusks,  which 
are  dreadful  weapons  ;  it  has  been  known  to  cut,  with  one  stroke, 
completely  through  the  fleshy  part  of  a  man's  thigh.  We  learn  that 
though  this  animal  is  used  as  food  by  the  colonists,  the  Hottentots, 
and  Bechuanas,  it  is  rejected  by  the  Coast  Caffres,  who  are  much 
more  particular  as  to  what  they  cat  than  any  other  natives  of  South 
Africa,  and  consider  as  an  inferior  class  the  persons  who  consume 
as  food  the  articles  which  they  hold  as  prohibited.  The  top  of  the 
head,  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  and  the  anterior  part  of  the  back 


Fig.  846. — South  African  Swine. 


Phacocoere  ;  b,  one  side  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  Cape  Verde  species  ; 
c,  a  lateral  view  of  the  last  molar  tooth,  which  may  be  compared 
with  the  molar  of  the  Elephant. 

The  head  of  these  animals  is  enormously  large  and  heavy ;  the 
eyes  are  small  and  set  high  on  the  forehead,  which  is  depressed  be- 
tween them  ;  under  each  eye  is  a  large,  coarse,  fleshy  lobe  ;  and  a 
warty  excrescence  appears  on  each  side  of  the  muzzle,  between  the 
eye  and  the  tusks.  The  muzzle  is  very  broad,  and  the  ears  are 
erect.     (See  Fig.  846.) 

The  South  African  Phacochcere  {Phacochcerus  cBthiopicus, 
F.  Cuvier),  or  Vlacke  Vark  of  the  Cape  colonists.— The  Phacochrere 
found  in  Guinea,  at  Cape  Verde,  and  along  the  Senegal,  is  regarded 
as  distinct  from  the  present  species  by  F.  Cuvier,  m  consequence  of 
the  possession  of  incisors;  and  is  termed  by  \\\m  Ph.  a/ricamis. 
The  range  of  the  South  African  Phacochocre,  or  Vlacke  Vark,  does 
not  appear  to  be  precisely  determined ;  formerly  it  existed  within 
the  limits  of  Cape  Colony,  and  still  lingers  on  the  frontier  districts, 
but  is  much  more  comraQn  in  the  remoter  latitudes.    In  the  frontier 


are  covered  with  very  long  and  rigid  bristles  of  a  black-brown 
colour,  those  on  the  top  of  the  head  diverging  like  the  rays  of  a 
circle.  On  the  other  parts  the  hair  is  shorter,  and  of  a  dull  brown, 
slightly  inclined  to  white  on  the  belly  and  flanks.  The  tail,  except 
along  the  top,  where  it  is  furnished  with  a  number  of  blackish-brown 
bristles,  is  nearly  naked.  Length  of  head  and  body,  about  five  feet ; 
of  the  tail,  about  eleven  inches. 

The  Abyssinian  Phacochcere  {Ph.  celiani,  Riippell). — This 
species  was  found  by  Riippell  first  in  Kordofan,  but  afterwards  in 
greater  abundance  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Abj'ssinia.  It  haunts 
low  bushes  and  forests  ;  and  has  a  habit  of  creeping  on  its  bent 
fore-limbs  in  quest  of  food.  In  this  attitude  it  uses  its  tusks  in 
digging  up,  or  tearing  out  of  the  ground,  the  roots  of  plants,  which 
constitute  part  of  its  diet.  When  thus  engaged,  it  pushes  its  body 
forwards  by  means  of  its  hind-legs,  in  order  to  move  along.  This 
habit  of  kneeling  to  feed  has  been  observed  in  the  species  from  Cape 
Verde.  We  have  occasionally  noticed  it  in  the  common  Hog. 
(See  Fig.  845.) 


FOSSIL  PACHYDERMATA. 


333 


Fossil  Pachydermata,  Etc. 

The  Anoplotherium. — Our  figures  g-ive  Cuvier's  restoration  of 
the  outlines  of  two  species  of  the  extinct  group  of  Pachydermata, 
termed  Anoplotherium,  the  fossil  relics  of  which,  mixed  with  those 
of  the  Paueotherium,  occur  in  the  gypsum-quarries  near  Paris, 
and  also,  though  more  rarely,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Orleans  and 
Genoa.  These  A  noplofhcria  are  remarkable  for  the  characters  of 
their  dentition  :  the  teeth  consist  in  each  jaw  of  six  incisors,  two 
canines,  and  fourteen  molars,  reckoning  both  sides  together ;  and 
these  are  arranged  in  a  continued  and  uninterrupted  series,  without 
any  vacancy  between  the  incisors  and  the  canines,  or  between  the 
canines  and  the  molars.  The  canines  resemble  the  incisors  in  form, 
and  might  be  mistaken  for  them  ;  the  four  posterior  molars  are  like 
those  of  the  Rhinoceros.  The  feet  are  cloven  as  in  the  Deer,  being 
divided  into  two  toes,  sheathed  with  a  hoof  at  the  extremity ;  in  the 
Deer  and  other  Ruminants  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  are 
blended  into  a  single  canon-bone,  but  in  the  Anoplotherium  they 
are  separate  as  in  the  Hog.  Allied  to  the  Pachydermata  in  some 
points,  and  in  others  to  the  Pu>?iinantia,  the  Anoplotkeria  appear 
to  have  occupied  an  intermediate  station  between  these  two  great 
orders:  their  heads,  judging  from  the  skull,  partook  of  the  form  of 
that  of  the  Horse  and  of  the  Camel ;  the  snout  was  not  elongated 
into  a  proboscis,  as  in  the  Tapir  or  the  Elephant.  The  Anoplo- 
theria  are  divided  into  three  sub-genera,  on  various  minor  details  of 
structure.  The  restricted  division,  Ano;plothcr!um  Proper,  com- 
prehends two  species — viz.,  A.  commune  {Fig.  847),  about  the  size 


Fig.  S47. — The  Anoplotherium. 

of  the  Ass,  and  the  .4.  secundarhim,  about  the  size  of  the  Hog. 
These  animals  were  low  on  the  limbs,  and  probably  resembled  the 
Tapirs  in  their  habits,  but  were  furnished  with  a  long  tail,  com- 
pressed horizontally  at  the  base,  and  rendering  them  more  essen- 
tially aquatic  :  they  resorted  to  lakes  and  marshes  in  search  of 
aquatic  plants,  and,  as  the  flattened  form  of  the  tail  indicates,  must 
have  swum  and  dived  with  greater  ease  than  either  the  Hippopota- 
mus or  Tapir. 

The  sub-genus  Ziphodo7t  contains  but  a  single  species  {A .  gracile : 
Fig.  848),   a  light,  slender,  graceful  creature,  with   much  of   the 


Fig.  848.— The  Ziphodon. 

contour  of  the  Gazelle  ;  it  was  probably  fleet  and  active,  and  was 
confined  to  the  dry  land,  where  it  fed  like  the  Deer.  The  tail  was 
short ;  and  in  this  respect,  and  in  its  general  figure,  as  the  skeletons 
prove,  it  must  have  exhibited  a  complete  contrast  to  the  low-built, 
heavy  Anoplotheriu7n  comnuine.  The  third  sub-genus,  Dicho- 
bmtes,  contains  the  D.  leporiniun,  murinum,  and  obliqim/n,  the 
first  of  about  the  size  of  a  Hare,  the  other  two  of  a  Guinea-Pig. 

Skull  of  the  Fossil  Adapis.— To  the  order  Pachydermata 
Cuvier  refers  an  extinct  animal,  of  which  the  remains  have  been 
found  in  the  gypsum-quarries  of  Montmartre.  The  remains,  however, 
are  very  rare,  and  we  believe  that  only  three  fragments  of  skulls 
have  been  recovered.  The  Adapis  was  evidently  a  small  animal,  its 
skull  being  only  about  a  third  larger  than  that;  of  a  Hedgehog. 
There  were  four  incisors,  sharp-edged  and  oblique,  in  each  jaw, 


followed  by  a  canine  tooth  of  a  conical  form,  and  not  exceeding  the 
molars  in  length.  Of  these  latter  there  were  seven  on  each  side,  in 
each  jaw.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  first  molar  was  trenchant,  the 
second  and  third  surrounded  by  a  small  ridge,  and  the  last  four  flat- 
crowned.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  first  three  molars  were  pointed  and 
trenchant,  the  remainder  flat-crowned  and  tuberculous,  like  those 
above  opposed  to  them.  (See  Fig.  849.)  Of  the  general  outline  of 
the  Adapis  we  have  as  yet  no  means  of  arriving  at  any  idea. 

The  DiNOTHERiuii  {D.  gigantcum),  as  restored  by  Professor 
Kaup,  Cuvier,  from  teeth  and  isolated  fragments  ;    and  he  gave,  in 


Fig.  S.)9. — Skull  of  Fossil  Adapis. 


Fig.  S50. — Lower  Jaw  of  Dinotherium. 


Fig.  S51.— Skull  of  Dinotherium. 


334 


FOSSIL  PACHYDERAfATA. 


his  work  on  fossil  bones,  the  title  of  "  Tapir  gigantesque  "  to  the  huge 
animal  of  which  they  were  the  relics,  the  only  ones  then  discovered. 
It  was  reserved  for  Professor  Kaup  to  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  ani- 
mal in  question,  by  the  discovery  first  of  several  lower  j.iws  (Fig.  850), 
and  subsequently  of  the  skull  (Fig.  851),  which  were  found  imbedded 
in  a  stratum  of  sandstone  (the  second  or  Miocene  system  of  Tertiary 
deposits),  at  Eppelsheira,  about  twelve  miles  south  of  Mayence,  in 
company  with  relics  of  the  following — viz.,  a  second  species  of 
Dinotheriu7n,  making  the  species  2  ;  Tasinis,  2,  larger  than 
living  species ;  Chalicotheriiim  (allied  to  Tapirs),  2  ;  Rhinoceros, 
2  ;  Tetracatilodoii  (allied  to  Mastodon),  i  ;  Hippotherium  (aliied 
to  Horse),  i  ;  Siis,  3  ;  Felis  (some  as  large  as  a  Lion),  4  ;  Macfiair- 
odiis  (allied  to  Bear,  Ursiis  culfridcns) :  Gulo  (Glutton),  1 ;  Agno- 
theriu}n  (allied  to  Dog,  but  as  large  as  a  Lion),  i. 

Cuvier,  before  he  had  completed  the  last  edition  of  his  "  Regne 
Animal,"  became  aware  of  M.  Kaup's  discovery  of  the  lower  jaw, 
and  in  his  Additions,  vol.  i.,  p.  581,  he  alludes  to  this  fragment  as 
affording  data  for  the  separation  of  the  "  Tapir  gigantesque  "  into  a 
distinct  genus.  To  this  genus  M.  Kaup  has  given  the  title  Dino- 
therium.    The  skull  of  this  extraordinary  animal  is  more  than  a 


Fig.  852, — Skull  of  Dinotherium. 

yard  in  length,  and  the  size  and  situation  of  the  nasal  orifice  (Fig. 
852),  with  the  salient  portion  of  the  short  nasal  bones,  indicate  the 
probable  possession  of  a  proboscis  ;  we  say  probable,  because  in  the 
Manatee  or  Lamantin,  and  also  the  Dugong,  we  have  a  similar 
extent  and  situation  of  the  nasal  orifice,  a  circumstance  militating 
against  the  inference  that  a  proboscis  necessarily  accompanies  this 
conformation  of  the  skull.  Indeed,  the  general  aspect  of  the  skull 
of  the  Dinotherium,  setting  aside  the  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  its 
strange  alveolar  projection,  strongly  reminds  us  of  that  of  the 
Lamantin  {Ilanahis,  Cuv.)  The  orbits  themselves  are  very  small, 
but  the  temporal  fossae  are  very  deep  and  extensive,  indicating  the 
great  mass  of  the  temporal  muscle.  The  lower  jaw  is  most  remark- 
able. It  is  armed  at  the  extremity  with  two  enormous  tusks 
(incisors),  which,  instead  of  projecting  upwards  or  forwards,  sweep 
downwards,  and  curve  gently  backwards,  having  their  roots  imbedded 

in  enormous  alveoli.    The  dentition  is  as  follows  : — Incisors  — , 

2 

Canines  ^^^,  Molars,  5llS  _  22.    Of   the    molars  the  third  has 
0-0  5-5 

three  transverse  ridges  across  its  surface  ;  the  others  have  two,  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  molar  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  has  only  one 


i'"is-  853.— Palatal  View  cf  the  Skull. 


at  its  posterior  part,  the  anterior  portion  being  trenchant.  Fig.  853 
represents  the  palatal  view  of  the  skull  of  the  Dinotherium.  Fig.  854, 
the  molar  teeth  and  the  relative  bearing  of  the  two  rows,  whicli 
approximate  towards  each  other  anteriorly. 

The  situation  and  affinities  of  the   Dinotherium  have  been  the 
subject  of  much  speculation,  and  very  opposite  opinions  have  been 


Fig.  854.— Molar  Teeth. 

entertained  by  different  naturalists.  M.  Kaup,  influenced  by  the 
discovery  of  huge  claws  and  a  scapula,  resembling  in  character 
those  of  the  Pangolins  [Mam's),  assigns  the  animal  to  the  Edentata, 
but  differing  from  all  extant  species,  not  only  in  exceeding  the 
Elephant  in  size,  but  in  having,  like  the  Elephant,  a  proboscis.  Dr. 
Buckland  regards  the  Dinotherium  as  approximating  to  the  Tapir, 
of  aquatic  habits,  and  furnished  with  a  proboscis,  by  means  of 
which  it  conveyed  to  the  mouth  the  vegetables  raked  from  the 
bottom  of  lakes  and  rivers  by  its  tusks  and  claws  ;  and  he  alludes 
to  its  claw  resembling  that  of  the  Pangolins.  MM.  Blainville  and 
Dumeril  consider  the  Dinotherium  to  have  been  allied  to  the  Laman- 
tins,  or  "aquatic  gravigrades," — to  have  been,  in  fact,  a  Dugong 
with  tusk-incisors,  and  therefore  one  of  the  concluding  forms  of  the 
Pachydermata.  They  consider  that  it  had  no  proboscis,  but  a  huge 
inflated  muzzle  and  upper  lip.  Ganger  places  it  with  the  Seals. 
Now,  as  regards  M.  Kaup's  theory,  we  may  at  once  state  that  the 
claws  and  scapula  on  which  he  founds  it  are  not  proved  to  belong  to 
the  Dinotherium  ;  and  he  himself  admits,  that  should  the  discovery 
take  place  of  other  fossil  relics  whence  the  certain  existence  of  a 
Mfaiiis  gigantea  might  be  presumed,  his  theory  would  be  over- 
thrown.   Our  own  opinion  coincides  with  that  of  M.  Blainville.     The 

occipital  condyles  (see  the  pos- 
terior view  of  the  skull  seen 
from  below.  Fig.  855,  and  the 
skull,  Fig.  85l,a«^(?)  are  termi- 
nal, or  in  the  direction  of  the 
longitudinal  a.xis  of  the  skull, 
as  in  Lamantins,  and  also  the 
Cetacca  Alammalia  modified 
for  aquatic  existence.  The 
occipital  surface  is  large,  sub- 
vertical,  and  even  inclined  from 
before  backwards,  with  a  pro- 
found mesial  depression  for  the 
insertion  either'of  a  very  strong  cervical  ligament  or  powerful  muscles 
for  the  elevation  of  the  head.  The  basilary  portion  of  the  skull  (Figs. 
853,  855)  is  narrow  in  its  component  parts,  while  the  vertical  surface 
(Fig.  851,  ante)  is,  as  in  the  Lamantins  and  Dugongs,  very  wide, 
overplumbing  the  temporal  fossa:,  of  which  the  depth  and  width  indi- 
cate the  enormous  levator  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw,  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  mastication,  but  for  the  particular  action  of  the  lower  jaw, 
with  its  rake-like  tusks.  Moreover,  in  the  lower  jaw  we  find  an 
analogy  to  that  of  the  Dugong,  of  which  the  branches  curve  down- 
wards for  a  third  of  their  length  to  a  deflected  symphysis,  only  that 
in  the  Dinotherium  this  downward  curvature  is  carried  to  a  far 
greater  extreme,  for  the  implantation  of  the  tusk-incisors.  'What 
were  the  limbs  of  this  gigantic  animal  ?  If  its  habits  were  terrestrial, 
which  a  consideration  of  the  skull  forbids  us  to  believe,  the  Dino- 
therium must  have  had  solid  pillars  of  support,  like  the  limbs  of  the 
Elephant,  and  destitute  of  that  liberty  which  even  in  the  Pangolins 
they  are  endowed  with  ;  but,  if  our  ideas  are  correct,  its  limbs  were 
adapted  for  aquatic  locomotion,  and  perhaps  the  posterior  pair  were 
wanting,  or  formed  the  elements  of  a  terminal  paddle.  Its  diet  was 
undoubtedly  vegetable,  as  in  the  Dugong  ;  and  we  may  conceive  it 
tearing  up  the  strong-fibred  vegetables  from  their  sub-aquatic  bed  by 
means  of  its  tusks,  which  might  serve  also  as  weapons  of  offence, 
or  as  anchors  for  the  purpose  of  mooring  itself  to  the  banks  of  the 


Fig.  S55. — Skull  seen  from  below. 


FOSSIL  PACHYDERMATA. 


335 


lake  or  river,  or  of  dragging  its  unwieldy  body  partially  out  of  the 
water. 

Bones  of  the  Dinothcrium  have  been  found  in  Tertiary  frcsh-watcr 
limestone  near  Orthes,  at  tlie  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  with  them 
remains  of  a  new  genus  allied  to  the  Rhinoceros,  of  several  unknown 
species  of  Deer,  and  of  a  Dog  or  Wolf  equalling  a  Lion  in  size. 


was  perfect ;  but  unfortunately  the  boys  of  the  neighbourhood 
knocked  out  the  teeth  witli  stones,  and  set  up  the  head  as  a  mark 
to  throw  at.  Mr.  Darwin,  however,  found  a  perfect  tooth,  and  frag- 
ments, ascertained  by  Professor  Owen  to  be  those  of  the  lower  jaw. 
These  remains  were  so  fresh  as  to  render  it  diflicult  to  believe  that 
ages  had  passed  since  their  interment ;   and  Mr.  Darwin  observes 

that  they  contained  so  much 
animal  matter,  that  when  a 
portion  was  heated  in  the  flame 
of  a  spirit-lamp,  it  not  only  ex- 
haled a  very  strong  animal 
odour,  but  burnt  with  a  slight 
flame.  The  deposit  in  which 
they  were  imbedded  was  a 
whitish  argillaceous  earth, 
forming  the  banks  of  the  Sa- 
randis,  overlying  a  granitic 
foundation. 

The  skull  in  question  equals 
in  size  that  of  the  Hippopota- 
mus, measuring  2  feet  4  inches 
in  length,  and  i  foot  4  inches 
in  extreme  breadth.  The  form 
of  the  skull  (Figs.  857,  858)  is 
elongated  and  depressed  ;  the 
zygomatic  arches  are  of  enor- 
mous size  and  strength,  an 
index  of  the  great  volume  of 
the  temporal  and  masseter  mus- 
cles. The  occipital  region 
slopes  from  the  condyles  up- 
wards and  forwards.  The  ma.x- 
illary  portion  of  the  skull  is 
compressed  laterally,  narrow 
across,  and  with  large  inter- 
maxillary bones,  slightly  di- 
lated at  their  extremity.  The 
superior  part  of  the  skull  is 
cavernous,  with  cells,  or  sinu- 
ses, giving  to  it  greater  appa- 
rent volume  than  the  cerebral 
cavity  would  lead  us  to  infer. 
We  have  already  alluded  to  the 
deceptive  volume  of  the  skull 
of  the  Elephant.  According 
to  Professor  Owen  the  dental 
formula    is    as    follows  : — In- 


canmes  none,  a  va- 


Fig.  855. — The  Dinotherium. 

Cuvier  and  Kaup  calculate  the  length  of  the  Dinotherium  at  about 
eighteen  feet ;  the  massive  lower  jaw  measures  nearly  four  feet,  ex- 
clusive of  the  tusks.  The  above  cut  represents  the  restored  animal. 
(See  Fig.  856.) 

Fossil  Skull  of  Toxodon  {Toxndon  ^laiensis,  Owen). — We 
are  inclined  to  refer  the  Toxodon,  of  which  an  imperfect  skull  and 
fragments  of  a  lower  jaw,  and  some  teeth,  are  our  only  guides,  to 
the  aquatic  Pacliydermafa  ;  and, 
as  in  the  instance  of  the  Dinothe- 
rium, we  draw  our  deductions  from 
the  weight  of  the  skull,  from  the 
form  and  position  of  the  nasal 
aperture,  the  slope  of  the  occiput, 
and  the  position  of  the  occipital 
condyles. 

The  skull  in  question  was 
brought  by  Mr.  Darwin  from  South 
America.  It  appears  that  during 
his  sojourn  in  I3anda  Oriental  he 
heard  of  some  giant's  bones  at 
a  farm-house  on  the  Sarandis,  a 
small  stream  entering  the  Rio 
Negro,  about  120  miles  north-west 
of  Monte  Video.  Accordingly 
there  he  rode,  and  for  the  sum 
of  eighteenpence  purchased  the 
cranium  now  in  the  museum  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
London.  Mr.  Darwin  was  in- 
formed by  the  people  at  the  farm- 
house that  the  relics  were  exposed 
in  consequence  of  a  flood  having 
washed  down  part  of  the  bank  of 
earth.     When  IJrst  fo.md  the  skull        Fi-  S57.— .^Haill  of  Toxodon. 


cant  space  being  in  their  place ; 

molars  '—L  =  78.    The  incisor 

7-7 
teeth  (sec  Fig.  859),  the  fragment  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  lower 
jaw,  with  the  teeth  in  situ  ;  and  Fig.  860,  an  incisor  of  the  lower 
jaw)  are  remarkable  for  their  resemblance  in  many  respects  to  those 
of  the  Rodentia  ;  they  were  rootless,  and  had  persistent  pulps  ; 
growing,  therefore,  as  worn  down  by  use.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  two 
central  incisors  are  very  small  ;  the  two  external  ones  very  large, 
curved,  with  their  sockets  extending  back  in  an  arched  direction 


Fig.  S5S.— Skull  of  Toxodon. 

through  the  intermaxillary  bones  to  the  maxillary,  and  terminating, 
without  becoming  contracted,  immediately  anterior  to  the  grinding 
teeth.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  two  middle  incisors  are  largest,  the  rest 
gradually  diminishing  in  size.  The  molar  teeth  also  are  rootless, 
and  curved,  whence  the  name  Toxodon  {r6Kov,  a  bow,  vcovs,  a 
tooth)  ;  and  their  grinding  surface  presents  one  or  more  folds  of 
enamel  re-entering  the  osseous  substance  of  the  centre,  as  in 
Rodents. 

We  might  here  enter  on  many  minutia?,  and  follow  Professor 
Owen  through  his  anatomical  details,  were  it  not  that  they  are 
rather  adapted  for  the  close  attention  of  the  comparative  anatomist 
than  the  general  reader.  Those  who  wish  to  gain  the  fullest  infor- 
mation on  these  points  we  may  refer  to  tlie  "  Proceeds.  Geol.  Soc, 


336 


FOSSIL  PACHYDERMATA. 


Lond.,"  1837;  and  the  "  Zoology  of  the  Beagle:  Fossil  Mammalia," 
Prof.  Owen's  "  Pateontology,"  and  other  works  on  fossil  geology. 
We  may  observe,  however,  that  "in  the  aspect  of  the  plane  of  the 
occipital  foramen  and  occipital  region  of  the  skull,  in  the  form  and 
position  of  the  occipital  condyles,  in  the  aspect  of  the  plane  of  the 
bony  aperture  of  the  nostrils,  and  in  the  thickness  and  te.xture  of  the 
osseous  parietes  of  the  skull," 
the  To.xodon  manifests  an 
affinity  to  the  Dinotherium  and 
the  aquatic  Pachydermata  (the 
herbivorous  Ceiacea  of  Cuvier, 
but  which  in  manners  and 
organisation  have  little  relation- 
ship to  the  true  Whales,  ex- 
cepting as  far  as  they  are  all 
modified  for  the  waters  of  the 
deep). 

With  respect  to  the  limbs  of 
the  Toxodon,  we  have  as  yet  no 
evidence  respecting  their  form 
or  number;  how  far,  therefore, 
they  were  constructed  for  aqua- 
tic progression,  whether  for  this 
solely,  or  for  occasional  visits  to 
the  land,  is  yet  a  problem  to  be 
solved.  Professor  Owen,  how- 
ever, suggests  that  the  presence 
of  large  frontal  sinuses  renders 

it  not  improbable  that  the  habits  of  this  species  were  not  so  strictly 
aquatic  as  the  total  absence  of  hinder  extremities  would  necessitate. 

In  speaking  of  the  Dinotherium  and  Toxodon,  it  will  be  seen  that 
we  have  referred  them,  with  the  Lamantins  and  Dugongs,  to  the 
Pachydermata,  between  which  group  and  the  ordinary  Pachy- 
dermata we  regard  the  Hippopotamus  as  forming  a  link,  though 


Fig.  S59. — Incisor  Teeth  of  Toxodon. 


Fig.  S60. — Incisor  of  Lower  Jaw  of  Toxodon. 

decidedly  within  the  pale  of  the  latter.  Cuvier  has  remarked,  that 
such  of  the  Pachydermata  as  approach  the  Ruminants  in  the 
structure  of  their  feet,  partake,  in  some  degree,  of  the  complication 
of  the  stomach,  which,  in  the  animals  of  the  latter  order,  is  so  re- 
markable a  character;  and  it  maybe  said,  ;per  contra,  that  such 
Pachydermata  as  approach,  in  a  certain  degree,  in  habits  to  the 
aquatic  group,  resemble  them  in  the  structure  of  the  same  organ. 
The  stomach  of  the  semi-aquatic  Hippopotamus,  for  example,  con- 
sists of  certain  sacculi,  which  renders  it  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Lamantin.  Sir  E.  Home  observes  that  the  stomachs  of  the  Manatee 
and  Hippopotamus  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  each  other  in  struc- 
ture, and  are,  in  many  respects,  similar  to  that  of  the  Peccary,  which 
is  a  variation  of  the  Hogs,  to  which  the  Tapir  is  also  allied ;  and 
these  circumstances  throw  no  small  light  upon  the  preparatory  pro- 
cesses required  for  the  digestion  of  different  kinds  of  vegetable  food. 
The  grass  of  the  field  is  the  food  of  Ruminating  animals  ;  and,  from 
the  structure  of  their  digestive  organs,  it  is  evident  that  much  pre- 
vious digestion  is  necessary  for  its  preparation.  The  grass  and 
weeds  at  the  bottom,  and  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  is  the  food  of  the 
Manatee  and  Hippopotamus,  and  the  apparatus  formed  for  preparing 
these  sutjstances  displays  an  approach  to  the  stomachs  in  Ruminants. 
In  the  Hog  tribe  the  resemblance  is  less,  those  animals  having  a 
more  indiscriminate  diet :  the  structure  of  their  stomach  shows  that 
grass  is  by  no  means  their  natural  food.^  The  stomachs  of  the 
Manatee  and  Hippopotamus,  then,  which  at  first  sight  appear  so 
extraordinary  and  incomprehensible,  are,  in  fact,  the  links  which 
unite  the  Ruminants  to  those  animals  which  feed  on  roots  and 
various  vegetable  substances,  and  form  a  key,  without  which  the 
different  gradations  cannot  be  satisfactorily  explained. 

It  is  not  only  in  the  form  of  the  stomach,  but  in  the  structure  and 
contour  of  the  skull,  the  position  of  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  and  even 
in  the  nature  of  the  skin,  with  its  sub-cutaneous  layer  of  fat,  that  we 
trace  the  approximation  of  the  Hippopotamus  to  the  Lamantins  ; 
and  it  may  be  that  the  Toxodon,  and  even  Dinotherium,  form  links 
between  the  Lamantins  and  Hippopotamus,  being  within  the  pale  of 
the  group  to  which  the  former  belong. 

We  may  here  observe,  that  the  number  of  fossil  genera  included 


within  the  Pachydermata,  greatly  exceeds  that  of  genera  containing 
living  species,  of  which  latter  many,  as  Equus,  Elephas,  Rhino- 
ceros, and  Hippopotamus,  have  fossil  as  well  as  living  species :  so 
that  the  number  of  fossil  or  extinct  species  already  ascertained  of 
the  Pachydermatous  order,  taken  collectively,  is  far  greater  than  the 
number  of  living  species.  In  some,  perhaps  many  instances,  the 
affinities  of  the  fossil  Pachydermata  are  not  understood,  fragments 
of  bones  only  having  been  recovered  :  in  some  instances  they  can- 
not be  mistaken. 

We  began  our  observation  on  the  Pachydermata  by  alluding  to 
the  unfilled  intervals  between  the  forms  now  living  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  a  statement  that  in  fossil  forms — some  yet  to  be  dis- 
covered, others  to  be  made  out,  and,  as  it  were,  re-constructed — 
would  the  lost  links  in  the  chain  be  recovered  ;  and  we  again  ex- 
press our  opinion  that  ultimately  the  work  will  be,  if  not  perfectly, 
at  least  to  a  great  extent,  accomplished. 

That  our  ideas  are  not  unreasonable,  we  have  from  time  to  time 
satisfactory  proofs.  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell  transmitted,  many  years 
ago,  from  Australia,  some  fossil  bones  which  incontestably  prove  the 
existence  of  at  least  one  gigantic  Pachydermata,  at  some  remote 
period,  in  that  region.  These  fossils  consist  of  a  portion  of  a  molar 
tooth,  of  the  shaft  of  a  thigh-bone,  with  part  of  the  spine,  of  a  sca- 
pula, and  some  smaller  fragments  of  a  long  bone.  They  were  found 
on  the  Darling  Downs,  those  extensive  plains  marked  to  the  south- 
west of  Moreton  Bay  on  most  maps  of  Australia,  at  the  source  of 
the  river  Darling,  and  upwards  of  4,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell,  in  his  letter  to  Professor  Owen,  to  whom 
the  relics  were  forwarded,  stated  that  these  huge  bones  were  found 
in  some  abundance.  It  would  appear  from  Professor  Owen's  exami- 
nation, that  this  huge  extinct  animal  was  allied  both  to  the  Mastodon 


Figs.  S62,  S63.— Portions  of  Molar  Teeth. 

and  Dinotherium.  Fig.  861  represents  the  femur  of  the  extinct 
Australian  Pachyderm  :  a,  its  transverse  section.  Figs.  802,  863, 
two  views  of  the  portion  of  a  molar  tooth  of  the  same.   . 

Such  is  a  description  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  fossils  of 
Pachydermatous  Animals.  The  collection  in  the  British  Museum  is 
rich  in  specimens,  including  the  remains  of  the  Hippopotamus, 
Rhinoceros,  Elephant,  &c.,  &c.,  both  of  living  and  extmct  species, 
and  of  other  animals  described  in  this  chapter.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  some  of  the  chief  Pachydermata,  whose  fossils  have  been 
found  in  this  country,  with  the  respective  localities  of  each. 


FOSSTL  PACHYDERMATA. 


33  7 


BRITISH      FOSSIL      PACHYDERMATA. 


NAME. 

Anoploikertum  coinmiire 

„  secufidariiim. 

Charo^otamus  cuvieri  . .         J 

Coryphodon  eocmniis 
Dichobiine  cervinum 
£)ichodo7i  cuspidatus 

Elephas  :primigenius     . . 

Hippopotamus  major    . . 
Hyopofamus,  bovittus  et  vec-  \ 


tiaiius 


Binstead,  Isle  of  Wight, 
do.  do. 

Seafield    and    Binstead,    Isle    of 
Wight. 

Harwich  and  Camberwell. 

Binstead,  Isle  of  Wight. 

Hordwell,  Hants. 

Many  localities  in  the  Pleistocene, 
Valley  of  the  Thames,  Norwich. 

Kirkdale,  Torquay,  Grays,  Brent- 
ford, and  Folkestone. 

Isle  of  Wight. 


HyracotheriiC7n  cuniculus 

,'cporinnm 
Lophiodon  minimus 
lilasiodon  angustidens  . . 
MicrochcBrus 

Palccotherium.  {various) 

Palo^lotherium    do. 


cif 


Rhinoceros, 
Sus  scrofa 


do. 


Suffolk,    and   near    Heme    Bay, 

Kent. 
Rrocklesham,  Isle  of  Wight. 
Thorpe,  Norfolk. 
Hordwell,  Hants. 
Binstead     and    Seafield,    Isle    of 

Wight. 
Hordwell,  Hants. 
Clacton     and     Ilford    in    Essex; 

Chatham    in    Kent ;    Yorkshire 

and  Devonshire  caverns. 
Isle  of  Portland  ;  Newbury,  Berks. 


The  following  is  a  List  of  Fossil  Pachydermatous  remains  found  in  the  Zoological  Collection  of  the  British  Museum  :- 


NAME. 

H.  tctraprotodon 
H.                 do. 
H. 

H.  travaficus 
H.  major  . . 
H.  major  . . 
H.  major  . . 
H.  -major  . . 
H.  viinutus 
H.  major  . . 
H.  pcntlaiidi 

Sus  hysiidricus    . . 
Sus  sivaloisis 
Sus  giganteus 
Sus  giganteus 
Sus  chcsroides 
Sus  cripnanthinus 
Sus  scrofa . . 
Sus  scrofa .. 

Hy.  bovi7ius 
Hy.  bovi?ius 
H.  vectianus 
H.  vectianus 

Ano.  cotnniune    . . 

ty  •  - 

Ano.  secundariu//i 
A  no.  gracile 

D.  icporinum 
U.  ovina 
D.  cervinum 
D.  ovina    . . 

D.  cuspidatus 


Hippopotamus. 


Pliocene  ; 
Miocene; 
Miocene  ; 
Miocene  ; 
Pleistocene 
Pleistocene 


LOCALITY. 

India. 
India. 
India. 
India. 

Walton,  Essex. 

Chelmsford. 


Merycopotamus  dissimi/is 
Anoplotlierium  cotnmune 

,,  secu7idarium 

Orcodon  culbertsoni 

,,      major    . . 
ChalicotIieriu7n  sivalensc 
Pal(SotJteriu77i  7nagnu//i 


Pleistocene  ;  Peckham. 
Upper  Tertiary ;  Auvergne. 
Pleistocene  ;  Malta. 
Upper  Tertiary  ;  Tuscany. 
Grotto  di  Maccagroni ;  Sicily. 
Sus. 

Miocene ;  India. 
Miocene ;  India. 
Miocene;  India. 
Pliocene  ;  Banks  of  Nerbuddha. 
Lignite  ;  Tuscany. 
Miocene  ;  Athens. 
Pleistocene;  Coast  of  Suffolk. 
Pleistocene  ;   Esse.t. 
Hyopotamus. 

Upper  Eocene  ;   Isle  of  Wight. 
Eocene  ;  Hants. 
Eocene  ;  Isle  of  Wight. 
Upper  Eocene  ;   Isle  of  Wight. 
Anoploi'herium. 

Eocene ;  Vaucluse,  France. 
Eocene  ;  Montmartre,      ,, 
Eocene  ;  Vaucluse  ,, 

Eocene ;  ,,  ,, 

DiCHOBUNE. 

Eocene  ;   Montmartre. 

Upper  Eocene  ;  Isle  of  Wight. 

Middle  Eocene ;  Hordwell. 

DlCHODON. 

. .  1  Middle  Eocene  ;  Hordwell. 
Various. 

Miocene';  India. 


crassu?n . . 

)t  •  • 
mi7ior  . . 
an7iecte7is 


Eocene 
Eocene; 
Miocene 
Miocene 
Miocene 
Eocene ; 
Upper  Eocene 
Middle  Eocene 


France, 
do. 
N.  America. 
Dakota. 
India. 
France. 

Isle  of  Wight. 
Hordwell,  Hants. 


Rhinoceros. 


Equus  juvillacus 

77iag7lUS      .  . 

fossilis 
curvidens . . 
sivale72sis .  . 
7i07nadicus 

»»  ■  ■ 

spelcBUs     . . 
palceonus  . . 


Eocene  ;  Montmartre. 
Eocene  ;  France. 
M.  Eocene  ;  Hordwell. 
Equid^. 

. .  Alluvium  Superior ;  Perria. 

. .  Alluvium  Superior  ;      do. 

. .  Pleistocene  ;  Torquay. 

. .  Arroyo  Gutierrez  ;   Uruguay. 

. .  Miocene  ;  India. 

. .  Pliocene  ;  India. 

. .  Miocene  ;     do. 

. .  Cavern  of  Bruniqucl. 

. .  Miocene  ;  India. 

. .  Grays,  Essex. 


P.  tickori/ius 

P.         „  ..         . 

P.        „  ..         . 

P.         „  ..         . 

P.         „  ..         . 

P.  septorhi/ius    . . 

P.         „ 

P.         „  ..         . 

P.         „ 

P.         „ 

P.  megarlitnus   . . 

P.         „ 

P.  sckbiermache7-i 

P.  etruscus 

P.         „ 

P.         „ 

P. 

Typotheriuni  cristatuvi 

Toxodon  a7igustide7is     . 

,,     plate7isis 
P.  peri7nensis 
P.  palceindicus    .. 
P.  occide7italis     .. 
P.  sivaie/isis 
P.  platyrlmius    .. 
P.  si77iorre7isis    .. 
P.  brachypus 


Elcphas  bomhifrons 
pri//iigc?iius 


Pleistocene  ;  Torquay. 
Pleistocene  ;  Peckham. 
Pleistocene  Gravel ;  Peterborough. 
Pleistocene  ;  Chatham. 
Caverns  Pleistocene  ;  Westphalia. 
Pleistocene  ;  Northamptonshire. 
Pleistocene  ;  Ilford,  Essex. 
Pliocene  ;   Clacton,  Essex. 
Pleistocene  ;  Essex. 
Minchin  Hole  ;  Gowernr.  Swansea. 
Pleistocene ;  Grays,  Essex. 
Pleistocene  ;  Thames  Valley. 
Miocene  ;  Eppelsheim. 
Pliocene;  Malaga,  Spain. 
Dredged  off  Happisburgh, Norfolk. 
From  Forest  Bed,  Pakefield. 
Upper  Tertiary ;  Tuscany. 
Pleistocene ;  Buenos  Ayres. 
Pleistocene ;  do. 

Alluvial  Deposits        do. 
Miocene  ;  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
Miocene ;  India. 
Eocene  ;  Nebraska. 
Miocene  ;  India. 
Miocene        do. 

Miocene ;  Villefranch-d' Astarai. 
Miocene ;  do. 


Elephants. 


meridio7ialis 
i7isignis 
cliftii     . . 
ga7iesa  .. 
colu/7ibi 
antiquus 


texia7ms 
coiu/nbi 

pla7lifK07lS 

7i07nadicus 
hysudricus 


Mastodon  andiu?n 
„      arverne/isis 
,,      perimensis 
,,      sivale7isis 
,,       tapir  sides 
,,      a/igustidens 
ohroticus 


S.  leptocephalu7)i 


Mylodo7i  lettso77ii 


Miocene  ;  India. 

Eschscholty  Hay. 

Porcupine  River  ;  Arctic  America. 

Pleistocene  ;  Essex. 

From  a  Tertiary  near  Lyons. 

Upper  Tertiary ;  Tuscany. 

Miocene ;  India. 

Miocene  ;  Perim  Island. 

Miocene;  India. 

Pleistocene ;  Brazos  River. 

Pleistocene  ;  Norfolk  Coast. 

Pleistocene  ;  Essex. 

Pleistocene ;       do. 

Pleistocene ;  Texas. 

,,  Georgia,  U.S. 

Miocene  ;  India. 
Pliocene  ;  Central  India. 
Miocene  ;  India. 


Mastodon. 


I  Pliocene ;  Buenos  A)rres. 

|U.  miocene;   Eppelsheim. 

Miocene  ;  Gulf  of  Cambay. 

Miocene  ;  India. 

U.  miocene  ;  France. 
I  Miocene ;  Sansan. 
j  Pleistocene  ;   Kentucky,  U.S. 
I  Pleistocene  ;  Missouri,  N.  Amer. 


SCELIDOTHERIUM. 

..  I  Pleistocene  ;   Buenos  Ayres. 

. .  I  Caverns  Minas  ;  Geraes,  Brazil. 

Mylodon. 

..  I  Pleistocene  ;  Uruguay. 

2X 


338 


THE  CETACEA. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

MAMMALIA.— ORDER,  CETACEA— WHALES,  Etc.  ;   INCLUDING  SUB-ORDERS-I.  CETE,  AND  II.  SIRENIA. 


-iC'A enormous  size 


\^  HE  last  order  of  Placentarial  Mammalia 
is  that  of  the  Cetacea,  which  includes 
the  Whales,  and  some  similar  or  allied 
animals.  In  external  appearance  they 
much  resemble  Fishes,  but  in  all  their 
physiological  and  other  characters  arc 
evidently  Mammals,  as  they  produce  their 
young  alive,  and  suckle  them  until  they 
are  fit  to  get  their  own  subsistence. 

The  Cetacea  are  generally  very  bulky 
creatures,  the  head  being  often  of  a  most 

the  body  tapers  off  posteriorly,  and  is 


f^%^  terminated  by  a  broad  tail-fin,  which,  like  that  of  the 
J  f^  fishes,  is  the  principal  agent  in  swimming,  but  is  set  on 
0%^  in  the  contrary  direction,  being  transverse  instead  of  per- 
i'fp  pendicular  (Fig.  864).  This  caudal  fin  is  supported  upon 
■\^'f-~afirm  cartilaginous  basis,  but  has  no  trace  of  rays  or 
.'-<f-.r  bones.  The  anterior  limbs  are  converted  into  powerful 
IfiAp  fins,  completely  enclosed  in  one  uniform  skin  ;  but  be- 
^f*^'"  neath  this  we  find  the  usual  bones  of  which  the  arm  of  a 
vertebrated  animal  is  composed,  although  considerably 
J^jH^'  shortened.  In  some  instances  the  phalanges  are  very 
'^^"^  numerous,  but  the  fingers  rarely  exhibit  any  traces  of 
"  nails.  The  posterior  limbs  are  entirely  wanting ;  and  the 
only  trace  of  the  pelvis  consists  in  a  pair  of  bones  sus- 
pended amongst  the  muscles,  and  usually  united  in  the  front  into 
the  form  of  a  V,  but  completely  detached  from  the  vertebral  column. 
This  is  also  destitute  of  that  peculiar  series  of  anchylosed  vertebrse 
called  the  sacrum,  which  serves,  in  the  ordinary  Mammah'a,  to  give 
firm  support  to  the  pelvis.    The  first  caudal  vertebra;  are,  however, 


Fig.  S64.— Tail  of  the  Whale. 

distinguished  from  the  lumbar  by  the  presence  of  a  series  of  small 
inferior  V-shaped  arches  ;  these  disappear  towards  the  extremity  of 
the  tail. 

The  head  is  not  separated  from  the  body  by  a  neck,  although  the 
cervical  vertebrae  are  distinctly  marked  in  the  skeleton  ;  the  great 
bulk  of  the  head  is  made  up  of  the  facial  bones,  the  cranial  portion 
being  often  very  small.  The  nostrils  are  sometimes,  as  in  other 
vertebrated  animals,  placed  on  the  fore-part  of  the  nose  ;  but,  in  the 
typical  forms,  these  orifices  are  brought  quite  to  the  top  of  the  head, 
constituting  what  are  called  the  blow-holes  of  the  Whale.  The  ex- 
ternal ear  is  entirely  wanting ;  and  the  mode  in  which  the  auditory 
organs  of  the  Cetacea  are  adapted  for  the  perception  of  sounds 
both  in  the  water  and  in  the  air,  is  very  interesting.  The 
external  aperture  of  the  ear  is  exceedingly  small,  so  as  to  prevent 
any  injury  to  the  organ  from  the  rush  of  water  when  the  creature  is 
progressing  rapidly  through  that  element,  although  it  apparently 
allows  of  sufficient  access  of  water  for  the  communication  of  any 
sounds  that  may  be  transmitted  by  its  means.  The  air  penetrates 
into  the  ear  through  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  is  of  large  size,  and 
opens  into  the  blow-hole  ;  and  thus,  when  the  Whale  is  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  breathing,  aerial  sounds  can  readily  find 
their  way  into  the  ear.  The  eye  is  of  very  small  size  when  com- 
pared with  the  bulk  of  the  animal ;  and,  from  the  immense  develop- 
ment of  the  facial  bones,  it  often  appears  to  be  placed  nearly  in  the 
middle  of  the  body. 

The  skin  is  naked,  or  only  sparingly  covered  with  scattered 
bristles  ;  but  to  make  up  for  the  want  of  the  ordinary  clothing  of  the 
Manunalia,  the  whole  surface  of  the  body,  beneath  the  skin,  is 
covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  fat,  or  blubber,  as  it  is  termed,  that 


forms  a  most  efBcient  agent  in  preserving  the  temperature  of  the 
body,  at  the  same  time  reducing  its  specific  gravity.  It  is  this 
blubber,  which  is  often  present  in  enormous  quantity,  that  forms  the 
principal  object  for  which  these  creatures  are  pursued.  The  Cetacea 
are  all  inhabitants  of  the  sea.  They  are  divisible  into  two  very 
distinct  groups,  or  sub-orders ;  the  Cete  and  SiRENlA. 

These  animals  are  called  blowing  Cetacea,  because,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  structure  of  the  nostrils,  they  are  capable  of  throwing 
up  jets  of  water  or  spray,  accompanied  with  a  loud  noise  ;  this  act 
is  termed  "blowing,"  and  the  nasal  orifices  blow-holes,  or  spi- 
racles ;  they  open  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  lead  to  two  large 
membranous  pouches  seated  immediately  below  the  integument. 
These  pouches  are  receptacles  for  fluid,  which,  being  forced  up  into 
them,  is  prevented  from  returning  into  the  throat  by  certain  valves, 
furnished  w'ith  strong  muscles,  lodged  above  the  intermaxillary 
bones  (see  Fig.  865,  the  skull  of  the  Dolphin) :  it  is  in  the  hollow  at 


Fig.  865.— Skull  of  Dolphin. 

the  top  of  the  head  that  these  pouches  are  placed.  The  posterior 
nasal  passage  is  furnished  with  longitudinal  and  circular  muscular 
fibres,  and  opens  into  the  pharynx,  or  back  part  of  the  mouth,  and 
into  it  the  larynx  rises  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  and  the  circular 
fibres  of  the  nasal  passage  have  the  power  of  grasping  it  by  their 
contractions.  The  channel,  therefore,  from  the  larynx  through  the 
posterior  nasal  passage  into  the  pouches  is  plain.  Now  these 
pouches  are  lodged,  as  we  have  said,  beneath  the  skin,  and  the  nos- 
trils, which  conduct  to  them,  open  externally  by  a  transverse  semi- 
lunar slit,  while  very  strong  muscular  fibres,  radiating  from  the 
entire  circumference  of  the  cranium,  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the 
apparatus,  and  act  as  compressors  of  the  pouches.  Let  us  suppose, 
says  Cuvier,  "  that  the  cetaceous  animal  has  taken  into  its  mouth 
some  water  which  it  wishes  to  eject ;  it  moves  its  tongue  and  jaws 
as  if  it  were  about  to  swallow,  but,  closing  the  pharynx,  it  forces  the 
water  to  mount  into  the  nasal  passage,  where  its  progress  is  accele- 
rated by  the  action  of  the  circular  fibres,  until  it  raises  the  valves 
and  distends  the  membranous  pouches  above.  Here  it  can  be  re- 
tained until  the  animal  wishes  to  eject  it,  and  take  in  breath.  In 
order  to  spout,  the  valves  being  closed,  it  forcibly  compresses  the 
pouches  by  means  of  the  muscular  expansions  which  cover  them  ; 
and,  compelled  to  escape  by  the  narrow  crescentic  aperture,  it  is 
projected  to  a  height  corresponding  to  the  force  of  the  pressure." 
The  noise,  however,  called  blowing,  shows  that  the  animal  forcibly 


Fig.  866, — Section  of  Head  of  rorpoise. 


THE  CETACEA. 


339 


exhausts  its  lungs  of  the  pent-up  breath,  driving-  the  air  through  the 
nasal  orifices,  which,  mingled  with  the  water  contained  in  the 
pouches,  rises  like  spray  or  dense  mist.  Fig.  866  represents  a  sec- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  Porpoise,  showing  the  structure  of  the  nasal 
apparatus.  This  apparatus  is  of  little  use  as  an  olfactory  organ,  the 
sense  of  smell  being  very  deficient. 

The  Cetacca,  passing  their  existence  in  the  wild  waste  of  seas,  are 
capable  of  remaining  submerged  for  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
and  the  vascular  system  is  modified  accordingly,  the  arteries,  not 
only  of  the  limbs,  but  of  the  chest  and  vertebral  canal,  being  singu- 
larly plcxiform.  The  discovery  of  this  arrangement  is  due  to  the 
celebrated  \V.  Hunter,  who  published  an  account  of  it  in  the  Phil. 
Trans.,  1787.  These  animals,  he  says,  "have  a  greater  proportion 
of  blood  than  any  other  known,  and  there  are  many  arteries  appa- 
rently intended  as  reservoirs  where  a  larger  quantity  seemed  to  be 
required  in  a  part,  and  vascularity  could  not  be  the  only  object. 
Thus  we  find  that  the  intercostal  arteries  divide  into  a  vast  number 
of  branches,  which  run  in  a  serpentine  course  beneath  the  pleura 
(lining  membrane  of  the  chest),  the  ribs,  and  their  muscles,"  forming 
a  deep  maze  of  intermingled  and  contorted  tubes.  "  These  vessels 
everywhere  lining  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  pass  in  between  the  ribs 
near  their  articulation,  and  also  behind  the  ligamentous  attachment 
of  the  ribs,  and  anastomose  with  each  other.  The  spinal  cord  is 
surrounded  with  a  net-work  of  arteries  in  the  same  manner,  more 
especially  where  it  comes  out  from  the  brain,  and  where  a  thick  sub- 


Fig.  S67.— Vascular  Apparatus  of  Whale. 

stance  is  formed  by  their  ramifications  and  convolutions ;    Fig.  867 
represents  the  arrangement  of  the  arteries  of  the  chest. 

We  are  indebted  to  Professor  Owen  for  the  following  remarks  on 
the  osteology  of  the  Cetacea  :^ 

In  the  skeleton  of  the  Whale  (Fig.  868),  which,  to  outward  appear- 
ance, seems  to  have  as  little  neck  as  a  fish,  there  arc  as  many 
cervical  vertebra:  as  in  the  long-necked  Giraffe  ;  this  is  a  very 
striking  instance  of  adherence  to  "type  within  the  limits  of  a  class : 
the  adaptation  to  form  and 
function  is  effected  by  a 
change  of  proportion  in 
the  bones ;  the  cervical 
vertebrae  in  the  Whale  are 
flattened  from  before  back- 
wards into  broad  thin 
plates  ;  in  the  Giraffe  they 
are  produced  into  long 
sub-cylindrical  bones.  In 
the  Whales  the  movements 
of  these  vertebra  upon  one 
another  are  abrogated, 
and  in  the  Grampus  and 
Porpoise  the  seven  verte- 
bra; are  blended  together 
into  a  single  bone ;  they 
thus  give  a  firm  and  un- 
yieldinjs'  support  to  the  large  head,  which  has  to  overcome  the  resist- 
ance of  the  water,  when  the  rapid  swimmer  is  cleaving  its  course 
through  that  element.  The  dorsal  vcrtebne  are  characterised,  in  all 
£Jam/ualia,  by  the  sudden  increase  in  the  length  and  size  of  the  ribs, 


which  in  a  certain  number  of  these  vertebra,  including  the  first,  are 
joined  to  a  breast-bone  by  a  commonly  cartilaginous,  but  rarely 
osseous  part.  The  first  rib  is  remarkable  for  its  great  breadth  in  the 
Whae;  this  and  a  few  following  ribs  are  joined  to  a  short,  and 
broad,  and  often  perforated  sternum  (Fig.  868),  No.  60  ;  the  remain- 
1??  ,"''f.  '"'^J'"''-  o""'  '''=.  they  would  be  called  in  human  anatomy, 

false.  They  are  articulated  to  the  ends  of  diapophyses  which 
progressively  increase  in  length  to  the  end  of  the  dorsal  series, 
ihen  follow  vertebra:  without  ribs,  answering  to  those  called  "  lum- 
bar. The  whole  hinder  part  of  the  trunk  of  Whales  being  needed 
to  effect  the  strokes  by  which  they  are  propelled,  its  vertebra;  are  as 
free  from  anchylosis  as  in  fishes ;  there  is,  consequently,  no  "sa- 
crum," and  the  caudal  vertebra;  are  counted  from  the  first  of  those 
that  have  "  chevron  bones  "  articulated  to  their  undcr-part.  This 
special  name  is  given  to  the  vertebral  elements  called  "  ha;mapnmo- 
physes  "  (see  Fig.  869,  A,  skeleton  of  the  Dugong),  which  are  articu- 
lated in  Cetacea  as  in  Crocodilia,  directly  to  the  under-surface  of  the 
centrum,  and,  coalescing  at  their  opposite  ends,  develop  thence  a 
"ha;mal  spine,"  and  form  a  "  ha;mal "  canal  analogous  to,  but 
not  homologous  with,  that  in  fishes.  The  caudal  vertebra;  of  Whales 
further  differ  from  those  in  fishes  in  retaining  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses, and  in  becoming  flattened  from  above  downwards,  without 
coalescing.  These  modifications  relate  to  the  support  of  a  caudal 
fin,  which  is  extended  horizontally  instead  of  vertically. 

Whales  and  Porpoises  progress  by  bounding  movements  or  undu- 
lations  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  their  necessity  of  coming  to  the  sur- 
face to  inhale  the  air  directly,  as  warm-blooded  Mammals,  calls  for 
a  modification  in  the  form  of  the  main  swimming  instrument,  such 
as  may  best  adapt  it  to  effect  an  easy  and  rapid  ascent  of  the  head. 

The  course  of  the  Whale  is  stopped  and  modified  by  the  action  of 
the  pectoral  limbs,  which  are  the  same  parts  as  those  in  fishes,  but 
constructed  more  after  the  higher  vertebrate  type.  The  digital  rays 
do  not  exceed  five  in  number ;  but  they  consist  of  many  flattened 
phalanges,  and  are  enveloped  in  a  common  sheath  of  integument. 
A  radius,  55,  and  an  ulna,  54  (Fig.  869),  support  the  carpal  series; 
but,  instead  of  being  directly  articulated  to  the  scapular  arch,  they 
are  suspended  to  a  humerus,  53  :  this  is  a  short,  thick  bone,  with  a 
rounded  head.  The  scapula,  51,  is  detached  from  the  occiput,  has 
a  short  stunted  coracoid  anchylosed  to  it,  and  is  thus  freely  sus- 
pended in  the  flesh  ;  it  develops  an  acromial  process  :  the  ulna,  54, 
is  produced  upwards  into  an  olecranon.  With  all  those  marks,  how- 
ever, of  adhesion  to  the  Mammalian  type  of  fore-arm,  the  outward 
aspect  of  the  limb  is  as  simple  as  is  that  of  the  fish's  fin ;  it  moves, 
as  by  one  joint,  upon  the  trunk,  and  is  restricted  to  the  functions  of 
a  pectoral  fin. 

In  the  huge  skull  of  the  Whale  the  broad  vertical  occiput  may  be 
noticed,  by  which  the  head  is  connected,  through  the  medium  of  a 
short  consolidated  neck,  with  the  trunk  :  the  whole  cranium  seems 
to  have  been  compressed  above,  from  before  backwards,  so  that  the 
small  nasal  bones,  15  (Fig.  868),  articulating  with  the  short  and  broad 
frontals,  form  the  highest  part  of  the  skull.  The  long  maxillaries, 
21,  and  premaxillaries,  22,  extend  backwards  and  upwards,  to  arti- 
culate with  the  nasals,  and  complete  with  them  the  bony  entry  to 
the  air-passages,  situated  so  favourably  at  the  summit  of  the  cranium. 
The  nostrils,  formed  by  the  soft  parts  guarding  that  entry,  are  called 
"blow-holes;"  they  are  double  in  the  Whales — single  in  the 
src\sX\iir  Cetacea.  In  the  Whales,  the  "baleen"  or  "whalebone" 
plates  are  attached  to  the  palatal  surface  of  the  maxillary  and  pre- 
maxillary  bones  ;  the  expanded  toothless  mandible  supports  an  enor- 
mous under-lip,  which  covers  the  whalebone  plates  when  the  mouth 
is  shut.  The  skeleton  of  the  great  finner  Whale  (^Balanoptcra  hoops), 
from  which  the  fore-shortened  view  (Fig.  868,  ante)  is  taken,  was 
ninety-six  feet  in  length  ;  the  relative  dimensions  of  man  is  given  by 
the  outlines  of  the  skeleton  at  its  side.  No  known  extinct  animal  of 
any  class  equalled  this  living  Leviathan  in  bulk. 


Fig.  868. — Fore-shortened  view  of  the  Skele- 
ton of  a  Whale  [^Balccnoptcra  loops),  show- 
ing its  relative  size  to  man. 


Fig.  S69.— Skeleton  of  the  Dugong  (Halicore  auslralis.) 

There  are  a  few  Whale-like  Mammals,  equally  devoid  of  rudiments 
of  hinder  limbs,  which  obtain  their  sustenance  from  sea-weeds  or 
sea-side  herbage.  They  have  teeth  adapted  for  bruising  such  sub- 
stances, and  the  movements  of  the  head  in  grazing  require  the 
cervical  vertebra;  to  be  unanchylosed ;  these  are,  however,  short, 
and  in  the  Manatee  but  six  in  number.    In  the  Dugong  (Fig.  80y), 


340 


THE  WHALE  TRIBE. 


one  of  these  herbivorous  sea-mammals  frequenting  the  Malayan  and 
Australian  shores,  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  are  singularly  bent 
down,  and  the  upper  jaw  is  armed  with  a  pair  of  short  tusks.  The 
bones  of  all  those  Cetacea  are  singularly  massive  and  compact. 
Three  or  four  of  the  anterior  thoracic  ribs  are  joined  to  a  sternum — 


Fig.  S70.— Skull  of  Whale  with  baleen. 
c,  cranium  ;  vis,  upper  jaw ;  mi,  lower  jaw ;  a,  single  plate  of  baleen. 


the  other  to  the  ulna,  54,  and  fifth  digit,  57,  v,  and  both  to  the  single 
bone  representing  the  second  row.  The  first  digit,  ?',  consists  of  a 
short  metacarpal ;  the  metacarpals  of  the  others  support  each  three 
phalanges. 

We  next  proceed  to  describe  some  of  the  leading  members  of  the 
two  sub-orders  of  the  Cetacea — namely,  the  Cete  and  Siraiia. 

Sub-order  I.— Cete. 

In  the  first  of  these,  consisting  of  the  true  or  typical  Cetacea  (the 
Whales,  Porpoises,  and  their  allies),  the  body  is  peculiarly  fish-like 
in  its  form ;  the  teats,  two  in  number,  are  placed  on  the  belly,  and 
the  nostrils  on  the  top  of  the  head.  Of  the  latter  there  are  some- 
times two,  and  occasionally  only  one  ;  they  do  not  appear  to  serve 
as  organs  of  smell,  but  must  be  regarded  merely  as  respiratory 
apertures,  and  orifices  for  the  expulsion  of  the  water  taken  into  the 
mouth  with  the  food  of  the  creatures.  The  complicated  and  won- 
derful mechanism  by  which  these  different  objects  are  effected  have 
been  already  described. 

The  head  in  these  creatures  is  of  very  large  size,  sometimes  form- 
ing nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  body  ;  the  skull  is  usually  unsym- 
metrical,  the  bones  of  the  right  side  being  rather  larger  than  those 


Fig.  8;  I. — Dead  Whale  on  shore. 


ttie  rest  are  free.  One  of  the  vertebrae  intervening  between  the 
costal  and  caudal  series  has  connected  with  it  a  simple  pelvic  arch, 
in  which  the  ilium  and  ischium  may  be  recognised,  and  a  still  more 
rudimental  condition  of  such  arch  is  suspended  in  the  inguinal 
muscles  of  the  true  Cetacea.  Most  of  the  caudal  vertebrae,  cd,  of 
the  Manatee  and  Dugong  have  long  diapophyses,  and  haemal 
arches  (Fig.  869),  h.  The  terminal  vertebrae  are  flattened  horizon- 
tally. 

The  lacteal  organs  of  the  Dugong  are  placed  on  the  breast,  and 
the  pectoral  fins,  in  the  female  at  least,  are  applied  to  clasp  the 
young.  The  animal  so  observed,  with  its  own  head  and  that  of  its 
young  above  water,  has  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  Siren  and  Mer- 
maid. The  bones  and  joints  of  the  pectoral  fin  are  accordingly 
better  developed  than  in  the  ordinary  Whales.  The  first  row  of 
carpal  bones,  56,  cousists  of  two— one  articulated  to  the  radius,  55, 


of  the  left.  A  remarkable  peculiarity  presented  by  the  skull  is,  that 
the  petrous  bone,  which  usually  forms  a  part  of  the  temporal  bone 
in  the  Mammalia,  in  these  animals  is  only  attached  to  the  skull  by 
cartilage.  The  mouth  is  exceedingly  wide,  and  the  jaws  usually 
armed  with  numerous  conical  teeth  ;  the  only  exceptions  to  this  rule 
are  found  in  the  BalcB7iidcB,  or  Whalebone  Whales,  which,  in  the 
adult  state,  are  furnished  with  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  horny 
plates,  although,  in  the  early  periods  of  their  e-xistence,  the  jaws  ex- 
hibit distinct  conical  teeth.  The  skin  is  perfectly  naked,  and 
beneath  it  lies  a  layer  of  blubber,  which,  in  some  of  the  large  species, 
attains  an  enormous  thickness. 

Although  the  Cete  all  subsist  upon  animal  food,  it  is  remarkable 
that  they  possess  a  complex  stomach,  consisting  of  at  least  four 
compartments,  and  sometimes  of  as  many  as  seven  ;  the  object  of 
which  is  not  known. 


THE   WHALE  TRIBE. 


341 


This  group  includes  the  largest  of  known  animals.  From  their 
abundance  in  all  seas  they  have  been  generally  known  in  all  ages, 
and  as  commonly  regarded  as  fish.  They  are,  however,  in  all  respects 
true  members  of  the  class  Mamma/ia,  as  already  explained  in  our 
introductory  remarks.  They  appear  to  be  quite  destitute  of  voice  ; 
and  the  majority  are  sociable  animals,  swimming  in  large  shoals 
together,  and  sporting  frequently  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  They 
occur  most  abundantiy  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Seas. 

Sub-divisions.— The  CeU,  or  typical  Cctacca,  are  divided  into 
three  families.  The  first  of  these  is  the  family  of  the  BalcBtiida,  or 
true  Whales,  in  which  the  teeth  are  deficient,  and  the  mouth  is 
furnished  with  numerous  plates  of  a  horny  substance,  well  known  as 
■whalebone  or  halecn.  The  arrangement 
of  these  plates  in  the  mouth  of  the  Whale  is 
as  follows  : — Along  the  centre  of  the  palate 
runs  a  strong  keel,  on  each  side  of  which  is 
a  broad  depression,  and  along  it  the  plates 
of  baleen  are  inserted.  These  are  long  flat 
plates,  attached  by  their  bases  to  the  palate, 
and  hanging  down  freely  into  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  (Fig.  870) ;  they  are  placed  trans- 
versely in  the  mouth,  so  that  their  sides  are 
parallel,  and  at  a  very  small  distance  from 
each  other.  .  The  base  and  outer  edge  of 
each  of  these  perpendicular  plates  is  com- 
posed of  solid  whalebone  ;  but  the  inner 
edge  terminates  in  a  fringe  of  fibres  that 
fill  up  the  interior  of  the  mouth.  The  object 
of  this  structure  is  readily  understood  when 
we  consider  the  mode  in  which  the  Whale 
procures  its  food.  This  enormous  animal, 
although  strictly  an  animal-feeder,  and  pro- 
vided with  an  immense  mouth,  has  an 
oesophagus  so  narrow  that  he  is  compelled 
to  nourish  his  vast  bulk  by  the  consumption 
of  some  of  the  smallest  inhabitants  of  the 
sea  :  his  food  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of 
the  small  swimming  il/o//«Jca  i^Clio  borealis) 
and  Crustacea,  so  abundant  in  the  Arctic 
seas ;  and  it  is  said  he  never  indulges  his 
stomach  with  anything  larger  than  a  Her- 
ring. To  procure  these  insignificant  morsels 
he  engulphs  a  whole  shoal  of  them  at  once 
in  his  capacious  jaws,  where  they  are,  of 
course,  entangled  amongst  the  fibres  of  the 
baleen  ;  the  water  is  then  strained  off,  and 
expelled  through  the  blow-holes,  and  the  monster  is  thus  enabled  to 
pass  his  diminutive  prey  at  his  leisure  into  his  stomach.  The 
baleen,  in  fact,  forms  a  complete  sieve,  through  which  the  Whale 
strains  the  water  from  his  food.  The  lower  jaw  is  entirely  destitute 
of  teeth,  and  furnished  with  large  fleshy  lips,  within  which  the  upper 
jaw,  with  its  apparatus  of  horny  plates,  is  received  when  the  mouth 
is  closed. 

This  family  embraces  the  genera  Balcsna  and  Balcsnoftera.  In 
the  typical  genus  Balana  the  back  has  no  fin ;  while  in  the 
Balcowptcra  there  is  a  small  fleshy  dorsal  fin.  The  most  important 
species  is  the  Greenland  or  Right  Whale,  which  is  so  much  sought 
for  on  account  of  its  blubber,  the  source  of  Whale-oil,  and  on 
account  of  its  luhalebonc,  already  described,  and  which  has  nume- 
rous uses.  A  large  Whale  will  yield  from  thirty  to  forty  tons  of 
blubber,  and  a  ton  or  more  of  whalebone,  so  that  one  animal  will  be 
of  the  value  of  at  least  ;^i,ooo.  The  proportion  of  the  oil  to  the 
blubber  is  as  three  parts  to  four. 

The  Greenland  or  Right  Whale  ;  or  Great  Mysticete 
(_Bal(Z!ui  mysiicetus'). — This  colossal  animal  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic 
seas,  whither  it  is  followed  by  a  daring  race  of  mariners  amid 
horrid  icebergs  and  extensive  floes,  where  danger  in  every  form  is 
imminent.  Cold,  intense  beyond  description — this  has  to  be  borne  ; 
hunger,  for  often  are  the  vessels  ice-bound,  and  the  provisions 
scanty — this  has  to  be  endured ;  watchfulness,  fatigue,  and  the 
chance  of  being  ingulphed  during  the  tremendous  conflict — these  the 
sailor  bears  and  braves,  content  if  he  return  home  with  a  rich  harvest 
gleaned  from  the  Arctic  waters.  The  Greenland  Whale,  therefore, 
even  in  this  sense,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Cetacea ; 
nor  is  it  less  so  from  its  habits  and  manners,  which  various  ob- 
servers, and  in  particular  Captain  Scoresby,  have  contributed  to 
illustrate.  The  ordinary  length  of  this  species  is  from  sixty  to 
seventy  or  eighty  feet ;  but  it  is  said  to  attain  occasionally  to  greater 
dimensions.  Seen  at  a  distance,  it  appears  as  a  dark  ill-defined 
mass  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  only 
when  lying  on  its  side,  after  death,  that  its  true  outline  is  to  be  made 
out.     (See  Fig.  871.) 

It  is  upon  minute  animals,  such  as  small  Shrimp-like  Crustacea, 
Clio  borealis,  Meduscs,  &c.,  that  this  huge  animal  supports  his 
colossal  frame.  Ploughing  his  way  beneath  the  surface  with  open 
mouth,  he  engulphs  his  prey  by  myriads,  which  become  entangled 
eraong;  the  filaments  fringing  the  baleen,  and  thus  are  as  it  were 


sifted  from  the  water,  which  escapes  at  the  sides,  as  already  ex- 
plained. Every  few  minutes  he  rises  to  breathe,  expelling  through 
the  blow-holes  a  column  of  steam  and  water,  and  again  plunges  to 
continue  his  repast.  In  order  to  dive,  the  Whale  "first  raises  his 
head,  and  then  plunges  it  under  the  surface,  dr.iwing  his  tail  at  the 
same  time  underneath  the  body  so  as  to  form  the  segment  of  a  circle  ; 
instantaneously  he  strikes  it  out,  and  goes  down  like  a  shot.  The 
length  of  time  passed  beneath  the  surface  varies  ;  but,  according  to 
Captain  Scoresby,  it  seldom  exceeds  half-an-hour,  and  this  only  when 
harpooned  ;  under  such  circumstances,  on  appearing  again,  which 
is  generally  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  spot  where  the 
animal  descended,  he  is  always  in  a  state  of  great  exhaustion,  owing 


Fig.  872.— The  Greenland  Whale. 

chiefly  to  the  immense  pressure  it  has  sustained,  but  no  doubt  in 
part  to  the  long  suspension  of  respiration  :  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances the  Whale  rises  to  breathe  every  eight  or  ten  minutes.  (See 
Fig.  872.) 

The  velocity  of  the  Whale  is  very  great.  Captain  Scoresby  har- 
pooned one  which,  on  being  struck,  descended  four  hundred  fathoms, 
at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour.  But  under  the  pain  of  this 
weapon  they  often  descend  a  much  greater  depth,  subjecting  them- 
selves to  an  enormous  pressure  of  water,  and  are,  at  the  same  time,  so 
overcome  by  terror  as  often  to  bruise  themselves  severely  by  the  rocks 
met  with  in  their  course,  and  sometimes  even  to  strike  so  violently 
against  the  hard  bed  of  the  ocean  as  to  fracture  their  jaws.  At  the 
depth  of  800  fathoms,  Captain  Scoresby  calculated  the  pressure  at 
21 1,200  tons,  exercised  on  the  surface  of  the  body. 

The  most  pleasing,  as  well  as  astonishing,  exhibition  of  the  power 
and  activity  of  these  animals  is  during  the  pairing  season,  when 
they  gambol  and  frolic  in  the  waters,  throwing  themselves  about  in 
the  exuberance  of  delight,  little  aware  of  the  approach  of  their 
enemies.  Sometimes  they  dart  along  the  surface,  and  then  dive  and 
re-ascend  witih  such  energy  as  to  leap  entirely  out  of  the  water; 
sometimes  they  raise  themselves  perpendicularly ;  sometimes,  head 
downwards,  they  flourish  their  tails  aloft,  and  lash  the  water  with 
tremendous  violence,  throwing  the  sea  around  them  into  foam,  and 
producing  a  roaring  noise  resounding  to  a  considerable  distance. 
The  tail  is,  in  fact,  not  only  their  organ  of  locomotion,  but  their 
weapon  of  defence  ;  and  though  extremely  timid  and  peaceful,  they 
often  use  it,  when  driven  to  despair,  with  terrible  effect ;  and  this 
the  more  particularly  when  one  of  a  pair  is  struck,  or  the  life  of  the 
cub  is  in  danger.  The  mutual  attachment  of  each  pair,  and  the 
affection  of  the  female  for  her  young  one,  are  intense  ;  and  many  are 
the  instances  on  record  in  which  the  one  has  died  in  defending  the 
other.  Captain  Anderson  relates,  that,  "having  struck  one  of  two 
Whales,  a  male  and  female,  that  were  in  company  together,  the 
wounded  one  made  a  long  and  terrible  resistance  ;  it  struck  down  a 
boat  with  five  men  in  it  by  a  single  blow  of  the  tail,  and  all  went  to 
the  bottom  ;  the  other  stili  attended  its  companion,  and  lent  it  every 
assistance,  until  at  last  the  Whale  that  had  been  struck  sunk  under 
its  wounds,  while  its  faithful  associate,  disdainmg  to  survive^  the 
loss,  stretched  itself  upon  the  dead  animal,  shanng  its  fate.  A 
more  affecting  instance,  exemplifying  the  strength  of  maternal 
attachnient,  is  related  by  Captain  Scoresby.    One  of  his  harpogners 


342 


THE   WHALE  TRIBE. 


struck  a  cub,  in  the  hope  of  capturing  the  mother  (a  plan,  we  are 
sorry  to  say,  frequently  made  use  of),  who  arose,  and  seizing  the 
young  one  with  her  paddle,  dived  instantly,  dragging  about  loo 
fathoms  of  line  out  of  the  boat  with  considerable  velocity.  Again 
she  arose  to  the  surface,  furiously  darted  to  and  fro,  frequently 
stopping  short,  or  suddenly  changing  her  direction,  and  exhibiting 
every   symptom  of  extreme  agony.     For  a  considerable  length  of 


Fig.  873. — Harpooning  the  Whale. 


Fig.  874. — Dangers  of  the  Whale-Fishery, 


time  she  thus  continued  to  act,  although  closely  pursued  by  the 
boats  ;  but  her  concern  for  her  offspring  made  her  regardless  of  the 
danger  by  which  she  was  surrounded.  After  two  fruitless  trials  she 
washarpooncd,  but  even  then  did  not  attempt  to  escape,  notwith- 
standing her  sufferings,  but  still  clung  to  her  offspring,  and  allowed 
tlie  other  boats  to  approach,  so  that  in  a  few  minutes  three  more 
harpoons  were   fastened,  and  in  the  course  of  an  hour  both  the 

mother  and  cub  were  floating 
dead. 

Figs.  873  and  874  illustrate 
the  method  of  Whale-fishing, 
and  the  dangers  which  at- 
tend it. 

To  the  natives  of  the  incle- 
ment regions  of  the  North, 
the  Whale  is  a  still  more  im- 
portant animal  than  to  Euro- 
peans. They  not  only  use 
the  oil  for  lighting  and  warm- 
ing their  dwellings,  but  also 
drink  it  with  avidity ;  and 
both  the  blubber  and  the  flesh 
are  favourite  articles  of  food 
with  them.  This  peculiar 
taste  has  sufficient  reasons, 
on  scientific  grounds  ;  for  the 
oil,  containing  much  com- 
bustible matter,  affords,  dur- 
ing digestion,  a  consider- 
able amount  of  animal  heat. 
Europeans  can  indulge  in 
similar  articles  of  food  when 
resident  in  the  Arctic  regions. 
A  well-known  Arctic  naviga- 
tor informed  us  that  he  had 
repeatedly  seen  his  men  eat- 
ing tallow  candles,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  purely  animal  food ; 
and  this,  not  from  sheer  hun- 
ger, but  as  a  positive  matter 
of  taste,  induced  by  the  in- 
tense cold  of  the  climate. 
Indeed,  the  flesh  of  a  young 
Whale,  when  roasted  and 
eaten  with  pepper  and  salt, 
is  said  to  be  very  good,  and 
not  unlike  beef ;  but  that  of 
the  older  animals  is  black 
and  coarse.  From  the  inter- 
nal membranes  the  Esqui- 
maux prepare  some  of  their 
articles  of  clothing,  and  also 
a  semi-transparent  substance 
which  serves  instead  of  glass 
for  the  windows  of  their  dwell- 
ings :  and  the  bones  and  ba- 
leen are  also  applied  by  them 
to  various  useful  purposes. 

The  female  of  this  species 
produces  only  one  cub  at  a 
birth,  which  remains  under 
her  care  for  a  considerable 
period,  until,  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  baleen  plates,  it 
is  enabled  to  procure  its  own 
support.  The  Whale  usually 
lives  in  pairs,  but  sometimes 
numbers  are  seen  together  in 
places  to  which  abundance  of 
food  or  other  causes  induce 
them  to  resort. 

The  unceasing  persecution 
to  which  the  Greenland 
^V^lale  has  been  long  sub- 
jected has  not  only  thinned 
its  numbers,  but  driven  it 
from  localities  in  which  it 
was  formerly  common.  It  is 
at  present  chiefly  to  be  found 
in  the  icy  seas  of  Spitzbergen, 
in  Davis's  Straits,  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  the  waters  of  the 
Polar  circle.  General  colour 
above,  a  velvety  -  blackish 
grey ;  under-parts,  white. 

An  allied  species,  the  Cape 
or  Southern  Whale  {Balcena 


THE   WHALE  TRIBE. 


343 


atisfralis,  Cuv.),  but  not  attaining-  to  so  large  a  size,  inhabits  the 
Southern  Ocean,  and  in  the  month  of  June  visits  the  bays  of  Africa 
adjacent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
forth  its  young.  It  is,  in  fact,  only  the  females  that  thus  approach 
the  coast,  and  they  return  to  the  main  ocean  in  September.  The 
speculations  of  commerce  have  been  directed  to  this  representative 
of  the  northern  Mysticete,  which,  at  a  future  day,  may  in  like  manner 
become  driven  from  its  old  haunts  to  more  remote  abodes.  There  is 
a  variety  of  BaltBiia  {Dalccna  anfiJ>odaria>i)  tenanting  the  ocean 
near  New  Zealand,  in  which  were  considerable  fisheries  ;  but  the 
victims  being  generally  of  one  sex,  the  number  of  Whales  is  rapidly 
decreasing. 

Fig.  8/5  represents  the  instruments  used  in  the  Whale  fishery,  the 
Harpoon  and  Lance,  as  already  described  and  illustrated  at  page 
342,  ante,  w'here  the  mode  and  dangers  of  the  Whale  fishery  are  also 
illustrated  and  described. 

The  BalaiioptercB,  or  Fin-backed  Whales,  are  distinguished  from 
the  preceding  by  the  possession  of  a  dorsal  fin.  They  are  also 
characterised  by  the  shortness  of  the  plates  of  baleen,  which,  in 
animals  of  the  same  size,  do  not  measure  twice, as  many  inches  as 
those  of  the  Greenland  Whale 
do  feet.  Their  food  is  of  a 
more  substantial  nature  than 
that  of  the  true  Balance,  con- 
sisting almost  entirely  of  small 
fishes.  The  largest  species  is 
the  Bal(Z?io;ptcra  boops,  which 
is  known  to  measure  sometimes 
as  much  as  100  feet  in  length, 
and  is  probably  the  largest  of 
all  known  animals,  living  or 
extinct.  Another  species,  the 
B.  musculus,  an  inhabitant  of 
the  Mediterranean,  occasion- 
ally attains  a  length  of  nearly 
eighty  feet.  Notwithstanding 
their  vast  bulk,  these  Whales 
furnish  comparatively  little  oil ; 
and  as  their  great  activity  ren- 
ders their  capture  a  matter 
of  danger  and  diflaculty,  they 
are  generally  avoided  by  the 
whalers,  although  the  species 
are  found  abundantly  in  most 
seas.  The  largest  species, 
commonly  known  as  the  Fin- 
fish  and  the  Rorqual  {B.  boo;ps), 
occurs  not  unfrequently  on  the 
British  coasts.  The  following 
is  a  description  of  it : — • 

The  Rorqu.^l  {Balrsjiop- 
iera  boops,  Flem.  ;  Balcenop- 
tera  rorqual,  Lacep.) — The 
Rorquals,  constituting  the  ge- 
nus BalcznoptcrcB,  differ,  as 
already  stated,  from  the  Green- 
land Whale  and  its  allies  in 
the  possession  of  a  small  dorsal 
fin  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
back,  and  a  series  of  longi- 
tudinal folds  on  the  skin  of  the 
under-surface  of  the  body,  and 
particularly  the  throat  and 
chest.  The  food  of  these  ani- 
mals consists  of  fishes,  and 
especially  Herrings  and  other 
species  which  go  in  shoals,  and 

they  engulph  multitudes  at  once  in  the  abyss  of  their  capacious 
mouth.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  and  ease  of  their 
movements  :  they  dart  along  or  dive  with  almost  unequalled  im- 
petuosity, and  are  dangerous  to  attack. 

The  Great  Rorqual,  as  already  stated,  is  one  of  the  largest,  if  not 
the  largest,  of  this  gigantic  race  of  beings,  often  exceeding  100  feet 
in  length.  Its  native  regions  are  the  Polar  Seas,  where  it  is  seen 
both  in  troops  and  pairs,  the  paired  males  and  females  exhibiting 
devoted  attachment  to  each  other.  The  Rorqual  is  more  restless, 
more  suspicious,  and  fiercer  than  the  common  Whale,  and  when 
struck  by  the  harpoon,  descends  with  such  velocity  as  often  to  snap 
the  line.  It  was  an  individual  of  this  species  which,  in  the  month  of 
November,  1827,  was  stranded  near  Ostcnd,  and  of  which  the  skele- 
ton was  subsequently  exhibited  in  London  and  Paris.  The  length  of 
the  skeleton  was  ninety-five  feet ;  the  head  measured  twenty-two 
feet.  The  spinal  column  consisted  of  sixty-two  vertebra; ;  the  ribs 
were  fourteen  on  each  side.  The  expanse  of  the  caudal  paddle  was 
twenty-two  feet  and  a-half.  The  opportunity  of  examining  the  in- 
ternal anatomy  of  this  animal  was  lost,  a  circumstance  lamented  in 
indignant  but  just  terms  by  M.  Van  Breda,  whose  memoir  on  the 


subject  IS  published  in  Cuvicr's  "  Histoirc  Naturelle  des  C6tac6s." 
This  writer  states,  that  besides  the  usual  plates  of  baleen,  the  animal 
had  at  the  tip  of  its  muzzle  a  thick  tuft  of  rounded  horny  filaments, 
or  rather  coarse  hairs,  united  at  the  root  by  a  common  membrane, 
and  divided  into  finer  threads  at  their  points ;  these  filaments  were 
of  different  lengths,  some  exceeding  three  feet.  This  peculiarity 
had  not,  we  believe,  been  previously  noticed.  The  weight  of  this 
individual  when  captured  was  480,000  pounds,  and  4,000  gallons  of 
oil  were  extracted  from  the  blubber.  Weight  of  the  skeleton  alone, 
70,000  pounds.  Fig.  876  represents  the  skeleton,  and  Fig.  877  the 
general  appearance  of  the  Rorqual. 

The  Sperm  Wh.\les,  or  Cachalots. 

The  second  family  of  the  sub-order  Ccte  is  that  of  the  Physcfcrt'dcs,  or 
Sperm  Whales,  which  are  distinguished  from  the  true  Whales  by  the 
absence  of  baleen  plates  in  the  palate,  and  the  presence  of  from  forty 
to  fifty  conical  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  This  is  shorter  and  narrower 
than  the  upper  jaw,  so  that,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  it  is  completely 
enclosed  by  the  upper  lip.     The  teeth  fit  into  cavities  of  the  upper 


Fig.  875. — Whaling  Harpoon  {a)  and  Lance  {li). 


Fig.  S76. — Skeleton  of  Rorqual. 


Fig.  877.— The  Rorqual. 

s 

iaw,  which,  although  not  quite  destitute  of  teeth,  possesses  these 
orn-ans  in  a  very  rudimentary  condition,  and  concealed  in  the  gums. 
The  head  as  in  the  true  Whales,  is  of  enormous  size,  forming  about 
one-third  of  the  entire  length  of  the  animal,  and  its  form  is  exceed- 
ingly remarkable.  It  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  singularly  truncated 
in  front ;  and  the  blow-hole,  instead  of  being  placed  on  the  forehead, 
is  situated  on  the  anterior  portion  of  this  i"\™ense  snout.  The  mass 
of  this  part  of  the  head  is  not  composed  of  bone,  but  a  sort  ol  car- 
%lgj.s  envelope,  containing  an  oily  fluid,  which  barde"^ J/ 
exposure  to  the  air  ;  and  in  this  state  is  well-known  as  Spc,  maceti. 
This  substance  is  also  diffused  through  «"=  blubber  .pj^.,^^t,y 

Thf  Cojimon   Cachalot,  or  Sperjiaceti  Whale  \fiiyseter 
.„J"-L/T./rLinn. ;  Pkysctcr  catodon,  ^q^^:^;;:'^^ 

FhrdJep  which  t.  daring  sailor  is  called  upon  to  combat 


is  seen  in  all  lati- 


..S  £1Sl,S;T4!rSv"  £SKc"ii'.h.  A».  »d 


344 


THE  WHALE  TRIBE. 


Antarctic  seas.  It  would  seem  that  the  animal  is  gregarious,  and  is 
generaJly  seen  in  parties  consisting  of  half-grown  males,  or  of 
females  attended  by  their  young,  and  guarded  by  one  or  two  males 
of  the  largest  size.  When  solitary  Cachalots  are  observed,  they  in- 
variably prove  to  be  aged  males. 

The  speed  of  an  alarmed  Cachalot  does  not  exceed  from  eight  to 
ten  miles  an  hour,  though,  when  harpooned,  its  temporary  velocity 
may  be  estimated  from  twelve  to  fifteen  miles.  When  thus  flying 
from  pursuit  the  huge  animal  moves  with  a  regular  and  majestic, 
although  rapid  pace,  and  with  a  gently  leaping  gait ;  the  anterior 
and  upper  portions  of  the  colossal  head  are  raised  above  the  water, 
and  a  portion  of  the  back  is  also  frequently  exhibited.  When  parties 
are  pursued,  they  often  move  in  lines,  like  a  troop  of  Horse,  and 
exert  all  their  movements,  and  descend,  rise,  and  even  spout  in  uni- 
son. When  about  to  plunge  deep,  the  Cachalot  assumes  a  vertical 
position,  raising  the  caudal  fin,  or  "flukes,"  perpendicularly  in  the 
air,  an  action  that  is  performed  leisurely,  and  one  that  distinguishes 
this  from  most  other  species  of  Cetacca.  This  evolution  is  not,  how- 
ever, invariably  performed,  since,  when  tranquilly  feeding,  or  care- 
lessly avoiding  a  boat,  the  Cachalot  will  descend  very  gradually, 
lowering  itself,  or,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  "  settling  down."  The 
ordinary  length  of  time  which  the  Cachalot  remains  under  water, 
when  alarmed  or  wounded,  is  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  but  in  some 
instances  the  time  has  extended,  it  is  said,  to  an  hour  and  a  quarter. 

The  chase  of  this  animal  is  very  hazardous,  for  although  generally 
the  troop  fly  on  the  appearance  of  danger,  yet,  when  one  is  wounded, 
the  others  often  come  to  the  rescue,  especially  in  the  case  of  the 
females,  which  mutually  assist  each  other;  while  the  males  com- 
monly make  a  speedy  retreat.  One  of  the  latter,  however,  if  attacked 
and  infuriated,  is  extremely  formidable,  and  will  rush  with  immense 
velocity,  head  foremost,  against  a  boat,  shivering  it  to  pieces,  or, 
lashing  with  its  tail,  will  cut  it  asunder,  scattering  the  hapless 
mariners,  some,  perhaps,  struck  dead,  others  maimed,  on  the  surface 
of  the  rolling  ocean.  Occurrences  of  this  kind  are  indeed  numerous, 
and  many  a  thrilling  narrative  of  the  "  hair-breadth 'scapes,"  and 
of  loss  of  men  and  boats,  in  the  close  encounter  with  this  giant  of 
the  waters,  can  an  old  South  Sea  whaler  tell,  and  many  have  been 
recorded,  which  of  themselves  would  fill  a  goodly  and  not  uninterest- 
ing volume.  Not  only  are  the  boats  in  jeopardy,  but  the  "whaling 
vessel"  itself  is  not  secure.  An  authenticated  instance  occurred  of 
an  American  ship  of  large  size  being  stove  in  and  foundered  by  a 
blow  from  a  gigantic  male  Cachalot  rushing,  head  foremost,  against 
it ;  and  only  a  short  time  ago  a  British  vessel  was  nearly  lost  through 
a  blow  of  one  of  the  animals  near  the  bows  of  the  ship,  the  idea  of 
the  captain  having  first  led  him  to  suppose  that  a  violent  submarine 
earthquake  had  occurred. 

The  food  of  the  Cachalot  consists  of  Seals  and  fishes  of  a  large 
size,  which  it  pursues  with  great  pertinacity  ;  but  it  would  appear 
that  a  large  species  of  Cuttle-fish  {Octopus)  forms  its  principal 
nutriment. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  magnitude  of  the  head  of  the  present 
species ;  and  we  may  here  observe  that  this  magnitude  is  not  owing 
to  any  extraordinary  development  of  the  skull  :  the  maxillary  and 
intermaxillary  bones  are  indeed  prolonged,  but  the  cranial  portion 
is  small,  and  rises  abruptly  (see  Fig.  878,  skull  of  the  Cachalot  in 
profile).  If,  however,  we  look  at  the  upper  surface  of  the  skull  (Fig. 
879),  we    find  the   top  deeply  concave,  with  a  margin  continued 


Fig.  878. — Skull  of  Spermaceti  Whale,  in  profile. 

along  the  outer  edge  of  each  maxillary  bone.  It  is  in  this  con- 
cavity principally  that  the  substance  termed  Spermaceti,  or  more 
properly  Cetine,  is  lodged,  and  that  in  such  immense  quantity  as  to 
give  to  the  head  its  extraordinary  size  and  figure.  This  substance, 
in  a  semi-fluid  state,  is  contained  in  a  tissue  of  cells,  not  only  filling 
up  the  concavity  of  the  surface  of  the  skull,  but  giving  to  the  head  a 
singular  elevation,  the  whole  being  invested  by  a  dense  cartilaginous 
expansion.  Cetine  is  also  found  in  cells  along  the  back,  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  body.  This  cetme  exists  mixed  with  oil,  and 
when  the  Whale  is  killed,  a  hole  is  made  in  the  outer  and  upper 
part  of  the  head,  and  the  oleaginous  fluid  is  baled  out  with  buckets. 


The  first  process  is  the  separation  of  the  oil  by  means  of  draining 
and  squeezing ;  the  impure  cetine  is  then  put  into  barrels,  in  the 
state  of  a  yellow  unctuous  mass,  and  is  afterwards  further  purified 
by  the  following  process  :— The  mass  is  put  into  hair  or  woollen  bags, 
and  pressed  between  plates  of  iron  in  a  screw-press,  until  it  be- 
comes hard  and  brittle  ;   it  is  then  broken  into  small  pieces  and 


Fig.  S79. — Skull  of  Spermaceti  Whale,  seen  from  above. 

thrown  into  boiling  water,  where  it  melts,  and  the  impurities  are 
separated  from  it.  After  being  cooled  and  taken  from  the  first 
water,  it  is  put  into  a  boiler  of  clean  water,  and  a  weak  solution  of 
potash  is  gradually  added.  This  is  thrice  repeated,  after  which  the 
whole  is  poured  into  coolers,  when  the  spermaceti  concretes  into  a 
white  semi-crystallised  mass,  and  on  being  cut  into  small  pieces  ex- 
hibits a  beautiful  flaky  appearance,  so  well  known  as  belonging  to 
the  spermaceti  of  commerce.  Other  methods  have  been  invented 
and  patented  for  the  purification  and  use  of  this  product,  which  is 
largely  employed  in  making  candles,  and  for  pharmaceutical  pur- 
poses. An  ordinary-sized  Whale  will  yield  twelve  large  barrels  of 
crude  spermaceti. 

Like  other  Whales,  the  Cachalot  is  clothed  with  a  layer  of  blubber, 
but  in  less  abundance  than  in  the  common  Whale  {Balccna  j/iysti- 
cctics).  The  oil  procured  from  it,  however,  is  thinner  and  more 
valuable.     Fig.  880  represents  in  outline,  a,  the  Spermaceti  Whale, 


Fig.  SSc— The  Spermaceti  Whale. 

with  the  sections  marked  for  flencing,  or  flenshing  ;  b,  the  anterior 
aspect  of  the  head  ;  c,  the  harpoon  ;  d,  the  lance. 

There  is  another  substance  produced  by  the  Cachalot,  known  in 
commerce  under  the  name  of  Ambergris.  This  substance,  in  the 
form  of  opake  greyish  masses,  marbled  with  darker  tints,  and  some- 
what hard  and  brittle,  is  found  floating  in  many  parts  of  the  sea,  or 
thrown  up  on  the  shore.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Moluccas,  and  along  the  coasts  of  China,  Japan,  Madagas- 
car, Africa,  and  also  South  America.  Its  consistence  resembles 
that  of  common  wax ;  it  is  fatty,  inflammable,  and  when  heated 
emits  a  fragrant  but  powerful  musky  odour.  In  general  it  is  mixed 
up  with  the  beaks  of  Cuttle-fish,  the  bones  of  fishes,  and  other  foreign 
matters.  For  a  long  time  the  nature  of  this  substance  was  utterly 
unknown.  It  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  a  sort  of  bitumen,  or 
as  a  kind  of  gum,  and  by  others  as  a  composition  of  wax  and 
honey.  It  is  now  known  to  be  produced,  as  a  concretion,  in  the  in- 
testines of  the  Cachalot,  and  is  often  found  in  sickly  or  diseased 
animals  :  indeed.  Dr.  Schwediawer  asserts  that  the  existence  of 
these  indigestible  concretions  often  occasions  abdominal  abscesses, 
after  the  bursting  of  which  the  ambergris  is  found  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  sea.  Formerly  this  substance  was  in  high  estimation 
as  a  medicine  ;  at  present  it  is  only  used  as  a  perfume,  but  is  seldom 
to  be  obtained  unadulterated.  As  in  most  of  the  Cetacea,  the  skull 
of  the  Cachalot  is  destitute  of  symmetry,  having  a  turn,  as  it  were, 
or  bend,  towards  the  left ;  it  is  asserted  also  that  the  left  eye  is 
smaller  and  more  limited  in  visual  range  than  the  right,  on  which 
account  the  sailors  endeavour  to  attack  it  on  its  left.  Mr.  Bennett 
makes  no  allusion  to  this  circumstance,  but  merely  observes  that  if 


I 


THE  DOLPHIN  FAMILY. 


315 


boats  are  not  brought  within  the  line  of  vision,  the  animal  may  be 
approached  with  great  facihty,  the  sense  of  hearing-  being  very  im- 
perfect— a  deficiency,  however,  which  appears  to  be  in  some  measure 
compensated  for  by  the  perfection  in  wliich  it  possesses  the  sense  of 
touch,  through  the  medium  of  a  smooth  skin  abundantly  supplied 
with  nervous  papilte.  It  even  appears  as  though  the  Cachalots  had 
the  means  of  conveying  impressions  to  one  another  through  the 
water  at  considerable  distances  ;  for  it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  the 
Southern  whalers,  that  upon  a  Cachalot  being  struck  from  a  boat, 
others  that  are  miles  distant  will  almost  instantaneously  display  by 
their  actions  an  apparent  consciousness  of  what  has  occurred,  and 
either  take  themselves  off  or  come  down  to  the  aid  of  their  injured 
companion.  This  intelligence,  he  supposes,  can  only  be  com- 
municated by  a  concussion  of  the  water. 

We  have  said  that  the  Cachalot  roams  all  seas  ;  it  appears,  how- 
ever, to  be  more  scarce  in  the  Arctic  latitudes  than  formerly,  but  is 
abundant  in  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  within  the  regions  of  the 
Antarctic  circle.  According  to  Colnett,  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Galapagos  constitutes  a  sort  of  rendezvous  in  spring  for  all  the 
Cachalots  frequenting  the  coasts  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Panama. 

We  have  several  instances  on  record  of  this  animal  having  been 
captured  on  our  own  coast,  and  on  that  of  the  adjacent  continent  ; 
it  has  been  seen  in  the  Mediterranean,  off  the  southern  shores  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  off  the  shores  of  Southern  Africa,  and  in  the 
channel  of  Mozambique,  &c.  Another  variety  of  the  animal,  the 
Physefer  iursio,  or  the  High-finned  Cachalot,  has  been  found  off 
the  British  coasts,  and  has  been  regarded  as  a  distinct  species. 

In  1769  a  Cachalot  was  killed  in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  one  was 
seen  off  the  Kentish  coast.  In  1774  a  large  one  was  stranded  on  the 
coast  of  Norfolk ;  some  few  years  since  a  small  one  was  captured  in 
the  Thames,  near  Gravesend.  In  1784  thirty-two  Cachalots  ran 
aground  on  the  coast  of  Audierne,  being  stranded  on  the  sands 
towards  Cape  Estain.  In  1819  one  of  sixty-three  feet  in  length  was 
killed  in  Whitstable  Bay.     According  to  Lowe,  the  Cachalot  "  is 


Fig.  S81. — Lower  Jaw  of  Spermaceti  Whale, 


Fig.  SS2. — Skull  of  Spermaceti  Whale,  seen  from  below. 

often  driven  ashore  about  the  Orkneys,  nay,  sometimes  caught." 
If  we  remember  rightly,  one  was  cast  ashore  off  Margate,  in  Kent, 
about  thirty  years  ago. 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  greyish-black  above,  lighter 
beneath  ;  the  eye  is  small,  with  a  few  stiff  hairs  around.  There  is 
no  dorsal  fin,  but  a  distinct  protuberance  ;  the  pectoral  fins  are 
small,  and  slightly  grooved  longitudinally.  Fig.  881  represents  a 
portion  of  the  lower  jaw,  to  show  the  teeth.  Fig.  882,  the  skull  seen 
from  below.  Fig.  883,  the  back  view  of  the  skull,  showing  its  occi- 
pital elevation  above  the  articulating 
processes  and  foramen  magnum.  (See 
also  Fig.  879,  ante.)  Fig.  884  repre- 
sents, by  way  of  comparison,  the  skull 
of  a  Greenland  Whale,  as  seen  from 
below. 


The  Dolphins,  Etc. 

The  DelpJwiida;,  or  Dolphins, 
forming  the  third  family  of  the  Cete, 
or  true  Cetacea,  are  at  once  distin- 
guishable from  the  great  Whales 
by  the  more  proportionate  size  of  the 
head,  which  usually  forms  about  one-  Fig. 
seventh  of  the  total  length  of  the 
animal.  The  form  of  the  body  con- 
sequently becomes  more  regularly  fish-like  than  in  the  preceding 
families,  and  the  jaws  are  for  the  most  part  armed  with  numerous 
conical  teeth.  (See  Fig.  885.)  This  family  includes  numerous 
species,  which  are  found  abundantly  in  all   parts  of  the  globe, 


8S3.— Skull  of  Spermaceti 
Whale,  back  view. 


rnany  of  them  enjoymg  a  tolerably  wide  geographical  distribu- 
tion.  They  are  usually  far  inferior  in  size  to  the  gigantic  crea- 
tures belonging  to  the  preceding  families,  ten  or  twelve  feet  beinff 
their  ordinary  length,  although  a  few  species  attain  a  length  of 
thirty  feet.  They  are  active  creatures,  and  generally  live  in  con- 
siderable flocks,  swimming  and  playing  on  the  surface  of  the  sea, 


Fig.  SS4. — Skull  of  Greenland  Wli.ale,  under  view,  lower  jaw  removeJ. 


^l^MMAimuM^^^ 


Fig.  885.— Teeth  of  Porpoise. 

and  sometimes  leaping  quite  out  of  the  water.  Some  of  the  species 
appear  to  find  great  pleasure  in  swimming  about  ships,  and  gene- 
rally accompany  them  for  a  considerable  distance,  when  their  gam- 
bols afford  a  good  deal  of  amusement  to  the  passengers  on  board. 
The  ancients  were  well  acquainted  with  this  habit  of  the  Dolphin, 
which  they  regarded  as,  in  an  especial  manner,  the  friend  of  man  ; 
and  the  writings  of  the  poets  of  antiquity  abound  with  allusions  to 
it.  The  food  of  the  Delphinidcs  consists  almost  entirely  of  fishes 
and  Cuttle-fishes.     They  are  well  described  by  Ovid — 

"  Undique  dant  saltus,  multaque  adsperglne  rorar.t ; 
Emerguntque  iteriim,  redeuntque  sub  cequora  ruvsus, 
Inque  chori  ludunt  speciem,  lascivaque  jactant 
Corpora,  et  acceptum  patulis  mare  naribus  efflant," 

The  Common  Porpoise  [Phoccsna  commtinis). — The  common- 
est species  of  the  Delphi7iidce  is  the  well-known  Porpoise,  which  is 
found  abundantly  all  round  our  coast,  and  occurs  in  all  the  European 
seas  as  far  as  the  icy  regions.     The  Porpoises  pursue  the  Herrings, 
and  other  fish  that  swim  in  shoals,  with  great  avidity,  and  not  un- 
frequently  advance  far  up  our  tidal  rivers  in  pursuit  of  their  prey. 
They  may  be  constantly  seen  in  the  Thames.     Their  length  is  from 
four  to  eight  feet,  and,  when  in  the  water,  they  present  a  consider- 
able resemblance  to  large  black  Pigs,  when  they  are  frequently  called 
Sea-hogs  and  Hog-fish.     (See  Fig.  886.)     The  name  of  Porpoise  is 
also  said  to  be  derived  from  the  French  Po?'C-poisson,  or  Hog-fish  ; 
the  German  Mccrschweht  has  the  same  meaning  ;   and  the   French 
name,  Marsozihi,  is  evidently  derived  from  some  old  Teutonic  form 
of  the  same  word.     In  places  where  the   Porpoises  are  abundant 
they  are  often  caught  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  which  they  afford  ;  their 
flesh  is  also  eaten  ;  and  all  the  other  species  of  the  family  are  occa- 
sionally taken  for  the  same   purposes.     The  Grampus  {Phoccena 
orca),  another  British  species  nearly  allied  to  the   Porpoise,  is  of  a 
much  larger  size,  measuring  sometimes  no  less  than  nineteen  feet 
in  length.     It  is  a  voracious  animal,  feeding  not  only  upon  fishes, 
but  also  upon  the  smaller  Cetacea;  there  appears,  however,  to  be  no 
reason  for  putting  any  faith  in  the  accounts  of  the  older  naturalists, 
who  accuse  the  Grampus  of  attacking  the  Whale  in  flocks,  and  wor- 
rying him  to  death. 

The  Round-headed  Porpoise  {Phocana  vielas)  is  another  large 
species,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  exceedingly  gregarious  habits, 
and  for  the  strong  attachment  manifested  by  the  different  members 
of  the  flocks  towards  each  other.  This  species  usually  measures 
about  twenty  feet  in  length,  but  specimens  have  been  seen  of  twenty- 
four  feet  long.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  very  convex,  rounded  head. 
It  occurs  in  the  northern  seas  in  vast  flocks  :  Mr.  Bell  records  one 

2  Y 


346 


THE  DOLPHIN  FAMILY. 


of  these  which  was  run  ashore  in  Iceland,  that  consisted  of  i.iio  in- 
dividuals ;  and  as  many  as  780  have  been  captured  in  one  shoal  in 
the  Shetlands.  In  the  capture  of  these  animals  the  'boatmen  are 
greatly  assisted  by  the  strong-  instinct  which  prompts  the  Porpoises 
to  follow  one  another  like  a  flock  of  Sheep  ;  so  that  when  the  leader 
of  the  flock  has  run  upon  the  beach,  all  the  rest  are  pretty  sure  to 


Fig.  8S7. — Skeleton  of  Porpoise. 

follow  his  example.  To  drive  them  on  shore,  all  the  boats  in  the 
neighbourhood  go  out  and  surround  the  shoal,  upon  which  they 
gradually  close  until  their  victims  are  stranded,  when  they  are 
quickly  despatched  ;  and  the  sea  is  frequently  deeply  tinged  with 
blood  during  one  of  these  massacres.  The  bellowings  of  the 
animals  are  also  described  as  fearful.  The  Shetlanders  call  this 
Porpoise  the  "  Ca'ing  Whale,"  the  meaning  of  the  former  word 
being  "  driving."     Fig.  887  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  Porpoise. 

The  Dolphins. — The  true  Dolphins  have  the  snout  produced 
into  a  sort  of  rostrum,  which  is  separated  from  the  forehead  by  a 
transverse  depression.  The  best  known  species  is  the  common 
Dolphin  {Delphiiius  delphis),  which  abounds  in  all  the  seas  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  It  measures  six  or  eight  feet  in  leno-th,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  active  species  of  the  family.  This  species,  as 
already  stated,  is  noted  for  its  fondness  for  accompanying  ships  in 
considerable  flocks,  sporting  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  as  if  for 
the  delectation  of  the  beholders.  It  is  said  that,  in  these  gambols, 
specimens  have  been  known  to  leap  out  of  the  water  to  such  a  heio-ht 
as  to  fall  upon  the  deck  of  a  ship. 

Amongst  the  numerous  exotic  species,  which  resemble  their 
northern  allies  in  their  general  habits,  we  may  notice  one  which  is 
remarkable  for  living  wholly  in  the  fresh  waters.  This  is  the  Inia 
boliviensis,  an  inhabitant    of  the  great  rivers  of   South  America, 


where  it  is  found  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sea,  and  in  situations 
which  the  intervention  of  cataracts  would  prevent  its  reaching  if  it 
were  a  native  of  the  salt  waters.  The  females  usually  measure  six 
or  seven  feet  in  length  ;  the  males  twelve  or  fourteen.  They  swim  in 
small  shoals,  pursuing  I'he  fishes  with  which  the  South  American 
rivers  abound,  and  arc,  in  their  turn,  captured  by  the  Indians  for 

the  sake  of  the  oil  which  they 
furnish. 

The  Gangetic  Dolphin,  or  Soo- 
sook  {Platanista  gaiigetica),  is 
another  species  which  frequents 
fresh  waters  ;  it  occurs  in  the 
Ganges  as  far  as  that  river  is 
navigable  ;  but  is  most  abundant 
in  the  numerous  mouths  through 
which  its  waters  pass  into  the 
sea.  It  is  consequently  a  less 
strictly  fluviatile  species  than 
the  Amazonian  Dolphin. 

The  Beluga  {Phoccsna  leu- 

cas ;     Delplii7iaptertis    leucas, 

^._  ^  rip V' '    .  Pall.)— The  Beluga  (White  Fish, 

or  White  Whale)  is  a  native  of 
the  high  northern  latitudes,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  con- 
fident, and  active  of  its  race. 
Its  colour  is  clear  milk-white, 
sometimes  tinged  with  a  rose- 
colour  or  a  slight  wash  of  yellow, 
and  the  skin  is  very  soft,  smooth, 
and  slippery.  It  associates  in 
small  troops  or  families,  and  is 
in  the  habit  of  following  and 
surrounding  boats  or  ships,  gam- 
bolling like  the  Dolphin  around 
them  ;  or  chasing  its  finny  prey, 
in  quest  of  which  it  often  ascends 
the  mouths  of  rivers,  occasionally 
to  a  considerable  distance.  Dur- 
ing the  intense  severity  of  the 
winter,  the  Beluga  is  said  to 
migrate  southwards ;  thisjourney 
cannot,  however,  be  to  any  great 
extent,  as  it  very  rarely  occurs  in 
the  sea  around  the  most  northern 
portion  of  the  British  Isles.  The 
flesh  of  this  animal  is  eaten 
by  the  Greenlanders  and  other 
people  of  the  Boreal  regions. 
Crantz  says  it  is  as  red  as  beef, 
and  of  somewhat  similar  flavour : 
Pallas,  that  it  is  black.  The 
carcass  yields  excellent  oil,  and 
it  is  principally  for  the  sake  of 
this  that  the  Beluga  is  hunted. 
It  is  sometimes  intercepted  by 
nets  extended  across  the  inlet  or 
stream  it  has  entered,  and  at- 
tacked with  lances  while  endea- 
vouring to  force  its  return  :  on 
other  occasions  it  is  harpooned, 
and  sometimes  even  caught  by 
means  of  hooks  baited  with  fish. 
The  female  produces  one  or  two 
young  at  a  birth,  towards  which  she  displays  the  strongest  attach- 
ment ;  they  follow  her  in  all  her  movements,  and  do  not  quit  her 
until  they  are  of  considerable  size.  Cuvier  states  that  the  teeth 
are  nine  in  number  on  each  side  above  and  below.  Mr.  Bell  states 
that,  in  a  cranium  in  his  possession,  there  are  eight  teeth  in  the 
upper  and  six  in  the  lower  jaw,  on  each  side  ;  but  that,  as  two  have 


Fig.  888.— The  Beluga. 


THE  NARWHAL. 


evidently  fallen  from  the  former,  there  must  have  been  ten  originally. 
Aged  individuals  are  often  found  without  any  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw.  The  Beluga  measures,  when  adult,  seventeen  or  eighteen  feet 
in  length.  One  caught  in  the  Frith  of  Forth  measured  13  feet 
4  inches,  and  nearly  nine  feet  in  circumference  at  the  thickest  part, 
viz.,  the  centre  of  the  body,  whence  it  tapers  both  to  the  head  and 
to  the  tail.     Fig.  888  represents  the  animal. 

The  directors  of  the  Westminster  Aquarium  made  an  endeavour, 
in  1877,  to  add  a  living^Whale  to  their  collection  ;  but  the  animal  died 
shortly  after  its  arrival  in  London.  In  May,  1878,  undeterred  by  the 
untimely  death  of  the  live  Whale,  which  he  was  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing over  in  the  previous  year,  and  confident  that  this  sea  monster  may 
be  reconciled  to  our  climate,  Mr.  Farini  imported  no  fewer  than  three 
fresh  specimens,  one  of  which  was  safely  housed  in  the  Westminster 
Aquarium.  The  consignment  originally  consisted  of  four,  one 
having  perished  on  the  voyage ;  but  to  most  people  it  will  doubtless 
be  matter  for  surprise  that  the  loss  was  not  greater,  when  it  is 
stated  that  these  strange  creatures  fasted  during  the  whole  period 
of  the  sea  journey,  which  lasted  eleven  days.  This  enforced  absti- 
nence was  due  to  the  fact  that,  like  their  predecessor,  they  appeared 
to  have  no  desire  for  any  food  but  live  fish,  which  they  insist  upon 
catching  for  themselves ;  whereas  it  is  impossible  to  bring  them 
over  safely  otherwise  than  in  boxes,  on  a  layer  of  seaweed.  In  this 
position  they  are  kept  thoroughly  moist — an  indispensable  condition 
of  their  existence — by  the  application  of  wet  flannels  every  three  or 
four  minutes,  both  day  and  night.  Two  of  the  Whales  were  in- 
tended for  the  Westminster  Aquarium  ;  but  it  was  one  of  these,  the 
largest  of  all,  which  unfortunately  succumbed  to  the  voyage.  The 
other,  which  was  lodged  in  the  bath-like  tank  specially  prepared 
at  that  establishment,  was  a  Beluga  ;  and  although  very  young — its 
age  being  estimated  at  about  eighteen  months — it  weighed,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  a  ton  and  a-half,  and  its  length,  strictly  speaking,  was 
13  feet  6  inches,  although  it  did  not  seem  to  the  eye  quite  so  long, 
the  measurement  being  taken  from  the  lower  part  of  the  head,  near 
the  mouth,  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  In  appearance  it  was  fat, 
but  somewhat  flabby,  the  skin  being  broken  in  several  places  by  the 
persistent  rubbing  which  it  had  undergone ;  while  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  back,  near  the  neck  (if  neck  it  can  be  called),  there  was 
a  long  irregular  scar  of  a  wound  which,  it  is  conjectured,  has  been 
caused  at  some  time  by  a  harpoon  from  a  whaler.  It  had  already 
so  far  recovered  from  the  effects  of  its  long  confinement  as  to  be 
able  to  remain  for  two  or  three  minutes  at  a  time  under  water,  and 
to  devour  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  live  Eels  a-day  after  its 
arrival.  It  swam  incessantly  at  an  even  pace  up  and  down  the 
middle  of  the  tank  ;  but  whether  this  motion  was  prompted  purely  by 
a  desire  for  exercise,  or  by  that  vague  longing  to  escape  which  ap- 
pears to  actuate  a  wild  beast  in  a  cage,  is  not  clear.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  monster  did  not  try  to  force  a  way  through  the 
walls  of  the  tank,  but  rather  avoided  them,  giving  a  lurch  on  to  its 
side,  and  swinging  round  by  a  motion  of  the  tail,  invariably  at  some 
distance  from  either  end.  At  the  same  time  great  care  had  to  be 
taken  for  fear  of  its  injuring  its  head  against  the  edges  by  accident, 
and  for  this  purpose  a  constant  watch  was  kept,  and  the  gas  was 
kept  burning  all  night.  To  the  curious  in  such  matters  it  will,  no 
doubt,  be  interesting  to  learn  the  manner  in  which  live  Whales  are 
caught  and  exported  to  this  country.  Large  numbers  of  them  are 
in  the  habit,  it  appears,  of  making  their  way  at  certain  seasons,  in 
quest  of  fresh-water  fish,  up  a  little  river  or  inlet  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  where  these  latest  captures  have  been  made.  A  row  of 
stakes  is  therefore  driven  at  this  period  into  the  bed  of  the  river,  at  a 
considerable  distance  up  stream.  The  Whales  are  then  pursued 
when  returning  to  the  sea,  and,  being  alarmed  at  this  barrier — for 
they  are  of  a  timid  disposition — are  easily  held  prisoners  by  the  tail 
with  long  hooks.  Here  they  are  left,  and  at  ebb-tide  they  are  found 
stranded  in  the  dry  bed  of  the  river. 

The  Narwhal  {Monodoii  monoceros). — The  genus  Monodoti,  of 
which  the  Narwhal  is  the  only  recognised  species,  was  provisionally 
placed  by  Cuvier  in  the  family  DelphinidcB.  It  evidently  forms  the 
type  of  a  distinct  group.  Among  the  Ccfacea  inhabiting  the  dreary 
realms  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  the  Narwhal,  if  not  the  largest,  or  among 
the  largest,  is  nevertheless  one  of  the  most  remarkable  :  its  general 
form  resembles  that  of  the  Porpoise  ;  it  has,  however,  no  teeth, 
properly  so  called,  but  two  ivory  tusks,  or  spears,  implanted  in  the 
intermaxillary  bone,  but  of  which  the  right  remains  usually  rudi- 
mentary and  concealed  during  life.  The  left  tusk,  on  the  contrary, 
attains  to  the  length  of  from  five  to  seven  or  eight,  and  sometimes 
ten  feet  in  length,  and  projects  from  the  snout  in  a  right  line  with 
the  body,  tapering  gradually  to  a  point,  with  a  spiral  twist  (rope- 
like) throughout  its  whole  extent.  (See  Fig.  88g.)  In  its  structure 
and  growth  this  tusk  resembles  that  of  the  Elephant,  being  hollow 
at  its  base  or  root,  and  solid  at  its  extremity.  It  is  in  the  male  only 
that  this  spear-like  weapon,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  becomes 
duly  developed,  the  females  (and  indeed  the  young  males)  having 
the  left,  as  well  as  the  right  tusk,  concealed  within  its  bony  socket. 
This  rule,  however,  is  not  invariable,  for  females  have  not  only  been 
seen  with  the  left  tusk  projecting,  but  the  right  also,  if  wo  may 
credit  the  account  of  Lacepcde,  who  states  that  Capt.  Dirck  Pcter- 


_^______ 3-17 

son,  commander  of  a  vessel  called  the  Golden  Lion,  brought  to 
Hamburg,  in  1689,  the  skull  of  a  female  Narwhal,  having  two  tusks 
implanted  in  it,  of  which  the  left  measured  7  feet  5  inches,  the  right 
seven  feet.  It  may  be  added,  that  Capt.  Scoresby  brought  home  the 
skull  of  a  female  Narwhal  in  which  both  tusks  projected,  though 
only  to  the  distance  of  two  and  a-quarter  inches,  and  which  was  ex- 


Fig.  8S9.— The  Narwhal. 

amined  by  Sir.  E.  Home.  Nor,  with  respect  to  the  male,  must  it  be 
supposed  that  the  right  tusk  never  becomes  developed,  for,  on  the 
contrary,  instances  sometimes  occur  in  which  the  right  tusk  projects 
externally  nearly  as  far  as  the  left ;  and  there  are  grounds  for  sup- 
posing that  when  the  left  becomes  lost  or  broken  by  accident,  the 
right  tusk  becomes  developed  to  supply  the  deficiency.  Formerly 
these  tusks,  or  horns,  were  looked  upon  to  be  the  horns  of  the  fabu- 
lous Land-Unicorn,  and  therefore  they  were  valued  as  an  inestimable 
curiosity,  and  sold  excessively  dear,  till  the  Greenland  fishery  was 
set  on  foot,  when  they  became  more  common,  and  their  real  nature 
known. 

The  use  assigned  to  the  tusk  of  the  Narwhal  by  Crantz,  viz.,  that 
of  uprooting  marine  vegetables  on  which  to  feed,  is  altogether  a 
supposition.  As  the  male  only  has  this  instrument  developed,  or 
generally  the  male,  the  female  must  be  reduced  to  sad  difficulties  in 
the  procuring  of  food ;  but  in  truth  the  position  of  the  tusk  renders 
such  a  use  as  is  here  attributed  to  it  impossible.  Moreover,  the 
Narwhal  does  not  subsist  on  marine  fuci,  or  alga,  but  on  soft 
animal  matters,  as  molluscs  and  fish.  Capt.  Scoresby  found  the 
remains  of  Cuttle-fish  in  the  stomachs  of  several  which  were  opened 
by  him,  and  similar  remains  were  also  found  in  the  stomach  of  one 
driven  ashore  near  Boston. 

In  general  form  the  Narwhal  resembles  the  Porpoise,  but  the  head 
is  small  and  blunt ;  the  mouth  is  small,  and  not  capable  of  much  ex- 
tension. The  under-lip  is  wedge-shaped.  The  eyes  are  placed  in  a 
line  with  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  at  the  distance  of  thirteen  or 
fourteen  inches  from  the  snout,  and  of  small  size,  being  about  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  spiracle,  or  blow-hole,  is  a  single  orifice  of  a 
semicircular  form,  on  the  top  of  the  head,  directly  over  the  eyes. 
The  fins,  or  flippers,  are  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  long,  and 
from  six  to  eight  broad  ;  their  situation  on  the  sides  of  the  animal 
being  at  one-fifth  of  its  length  from  the  snout.  The  breadth  of  the 
tail  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches.  There  is  no  dorsal  fin,  but  a 
sharp  ridge  runs  down  the  centre  of  the  back,  the  edge  of  which  is 
generally  found  to  be  rough  and  worn,  as  if  by  rubbing  against  the 
ice.  At  an  early  age  the  Narwhal  is  blackish-grey  on  the  back, 
Vkfith  numerous  darker  spots  and  markings  running  into  each  other, 
forming  a  general  dusky-black  surface.  The  sides  are  almost  white, 
with  dusky  and  more  open  markings  :  the  under-surface  is  white. 
In  adult  spec4mens  the  ground-colour  of  the  back  is  yellowish-white, 
with  markings  varying  from  dark  grey  to  dusky-black,  and  of  a 
roundish  or  oval  figure,  with  interspaces  of  white  or  yellowish-white 
between  them.  The  skin  resembles  that  of  the  common  Greenland 
Whale  {Balcsna  viysticclKS),  but  is  thinner.  The  female  Narwhal 
produces  a  single  young  one  at  a  birth,  which  she  nourishes  with 
milk  for  several  months. 

To  the  rapidity,  the  great  powers,  and  the  ferocity  of  the  Narwhal, 
when  attacked,  many  writers  have  borne  testimony.  Its  form  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  cleaving  the  waters,  and  we  can  well  believe 
that  the  shock  of  its  weapon,  driven  full  tilt  against  an  enemy,  must 
produce  a  terrible  effect.  The  ribs  of  the  stoutest  boat  would  be 
transfixed,  by  the  dint  of  such  a  blow,  far  more  easily  than  was  ever 
shield  by  the  lance  of  knight  in  battle  or  tournament.  Several 
instances  have,  indeed,  been  known  in  which  the  animal  has  plunged 
his  weapon  deep  into  the  thick  oak  timbers  of  a  ship,  when  it  has 
fortunately  snapped  short,  the  fragment  remaining  fixed  in  the  ori- 
fice, so  as  to  plug  it  up.  A  portion  of  wood  taken  from  the  hull  of  a 
ship,  with  a  piece  of  Narwhal's  tusk  firmly  imbedded  in  it,  came 
some  few  years  ago  under  our  own  inspection.  It  is  probably  only  in 
defence  of  the  females  and  their  young,  unless,  indeed,  when  at- 
tacked himself,  that  the  male  Narwhal  thus  rushes  against  ships  or 
boats ;  for  we  utterly  discredit  the  usual  accounts  of  its  causeless 


348 


THE  SIRENIA,   OR  HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 


and  indiscriminate  attacks  upon  any  object  which  approaches  withm 
its  range.     Doubtless,   when  wounded    and  harassed,    it  becomes 
desperate  ;    and  its    power,  its  velocity,   and  weapon   combine   to 
render  it  formidable. 
The  Narwhal  is  gregarious,  associating  in  troops  of  trom  six  or 


eight  to  twenty  or  more ; 


Fig.  890. — Spearing  the  Narwhal. 


Fig.  S9 1. —Fossil  Teeth  of  Zeuglodon. 


eigni  10  iwiiiuy   V.L  ..."'^ ,  and  numbers   are   often  seen   clustered 
together,  both  in  the  open  sea,  and  in  bays  and  inlets  free  from  the 
ice   forming  a  compact  phalanx,  moving  gently  and  slowly  a  ong. 
Under  such  circumstances,  the  independent  movements  of  each  in- 
dividual are  necessarily  embarrassed,  so  that  a  considerable  slaugh- 
ter   may   be    easily    effected 
among  them.   When  attacked 
at  such  a  time,  the  hind  ranks, 
instead    of    turning    against 
their  assailants,   press    upon 
those    before,    sliding    their 
long  weapons  over  the  glossy 
backs  of  their  leaders,  and  all 
becomes   disorder   and    con- 
fusion.    Opportunities  of  this 
kind    are     welcome    to     the 
Greenlanders,   to   whom    the 
Narwhal     is     an     important 
animal.    Independently  of  the 
oil,  which  the  Narwhal  yields 
in  considerable  quantity  and 
of  excellent  quality,  the  flesh 
is  much  esteemed  by  these 
people  as  food,  and  eaten  both 
fresh    and    in    a    dried    and 
smoked  state,  being  prepared 
over   the   fire   of    their   huts. 
The  tendons  of  the  muscles 
are  useful  in  the  preparation 
of  thin  but  tough   cordage  ; 
and  Duhamel  states  (see  his 
"Traits    des   Peches ")  that 
several  membranous  sacs  ob- 
tained from  the  gullet  are  made 
use  of  as  parts  of  their  fishing 
apparatus.     The  ivory  spear, 
or  tusk,  the  Greenlanders  em- 
ploy in  various  household  and 
economical  purposes   instead 
of  wood,    and  in   the  manu- 
facture of  weapons,  as  darts 
or  arrows,  &c.     When  struck 
by   a  harpoon,  the   Narwhal 
dives  with  great  velocity,  and 
in  the  same  manner   as  the 
Whale,  but  not  to  the   same 
extent.  In  general  it  descends 
about  200  fathoms  ;     and  on 
returning   to   the   surface,   is 
despatched  by  a  whale-lance 
without  any   difficulty.     (See 
Fig.    890.)      The   blubber   is 
about  three  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and   invests  the  whole 
body  :  it  affords  about  half  a 
ton  of  oil. 
The  Zeuglodon.— In  the 
oldest  Tertiary  strata  of  America,  the  bones  of  a  gigantic  extinct 
Cetacean   animal   have   been   discovered,    the    dentition   of   which 
differs    so    much   from    that    of  any   existing    forms,   that    it    has 
been   regarded   as    the   type  of  a  distinct   sub-order,  the  Zeuglo- 
do7ita.     The   teeth  are  compressed  and  furnished  with  two  roots, 
whence    the    name    Zeuglodon,    applied    to    the    animal.      When 
first  discovered  they  were  supposed  to  belong  to  some  gigantic  rep- 
tile ;  and  the  name  of  Basilosaurus  was  given  to  their  unknown 
possessor;  but  the  subsequent  discovery  of  an  entire  skeleton  has 
proved  the  Cetacean  nature  of  this  enormous  animal,  which  mea- 
sured about  seventy  feet  in  length. 

The  fossil  teeth,  represented  in  Fig.  891,  were  discovered  by  Dr. 
Harlan  in  America ;  a,  represents  the  cut  surface  of  one  of  these 
teeth,  each  part  exhibiting  a  central  pulp  cavity,  and  concentric 
striae  of  growth. 

Sub-order  II.— Sirenia. 

The  Sirenia,  or  Herbivorous  Cefacea,  exhibit,  in  some  respects,  a 
considerable  afBnity  to  the  Pachyderjnafa,  and  especially  to  the 
Elephants ;  they  have,  indeed,  been  placed  in  that  order  by  De 
Blainville  and  some  other  geologists.  The  majority,  however,  fol- 
lowing Cuvier,  regard  them  as  forms  of  Cetacea,  with  which  they 
agree  in  their  most  important  characters. 

They,  nevertheless,  present  several  considerable  differences  from 
the  Cctc,  or  Whale-like  animals,  forming  the  preceding  sub-order. 
Thus  the  nostrils  are  placed  on  the  front  of  the  snout,  in  the  same 
position  as  in  most  other  Mammalia;  the  nasal  cavities  present 
nothing  of  the  remarkable  arrangement  which  prevails  amongst  the 
typical  Cetacea  ;  and  the  nostrils  are,  consequently,  never  employed 


THE  MANATEE  AND  DUGONG. 


349 


as  blow-holes.  The  molar  teeth,  which  are  present  in  all,  except 
one  species,  are  furnished  with  broad  crowns,  with  transverse  folds 
of  enamel,  forming'  a  regular  grinding  surface  ;  and  the  teats,  in- 
stead of  being  placed  upon  the  belly,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
anus,  are  removed  forwards  upon  the  breast,  near  the  fins.  The 
head  is  of  moderate  size,  and  more  distinctly  separated  from 
the  trunk  by  a  neck  than  in  the  preceding  sub-order  ;  the  mouth 
is  enclosed  by  thick  fleshy  lips,  and  the  skin  covered  with  scattered 
bristles. 

All  these  characters  point  more  or  less  to  an  affinity  with  the 
Elephants  ;  but  the  general  form  of  the  body,  the  absence  of  the 
posterior  members,  the  conversion  of  the  anterior  limbs  into  fins,  and 
the  presence  of  a  broad  transverse  tail-fin  at  the  hinder  extremity  of 
the  body,  seem  to  indicate  a  still  more  defined  connection  with  the 
Cetiicea. 

The  bones  in  these  animals  are  dense  and  heavy  ;  whilst  those  of 
the  true  Whales  are  light  and  spongy.  The  heart  presents  a  most 
singular  structure,  its  two  auricles  being  separated  by  such  a  deep 
cleft  that  the  organ  presents  two  points,  and  appears  as  though  com- 
posed of  two  separate  hearts. 

The  Sirenia  inhabit  the  sea-shores,  especially  about  the  mouths  of 
rivers,  up  which  they  sometimes  penetrate  to  some  distance.  They 
feed  entirely  upon  seaweeds  and  aquatic  plants,  and  do  not,  as 
stated  by  some  authors,  quit  the  water  to  pasture  on  the  shore.  They 
are  seen  frequently  to  support  themselves  in  an  upright  position, 
with  the  upper  part  of  the  body  out  of  the  water,  when  they  are  said 
to  present  a  somewhat  human  appearance  at  a  distance,  the  illusion 
being  assisted  by  the  long  whiskers  which  usually  project  from  the 
upper  lip,  and  the  pectoral  mamma;  of  the  females.  It  is  supposed 
by  Cuvier,  and  many  other  naturalists,  that  the  lively  imaginations 
of  the  ancient  mariners  raised,  upon  this  slight  foundation,  all  the 
wonderful  stories  of  Tritons  and  Sirens,  Mermen  and  Mermaids, 
that  we  meet  with  in  the  old  writers. 

Sub-divisions. — In  this  sub-order  we  have  only  two  families. 
The  first  is  that  of  the  Rhytniida;,  which  only  includes  a  single 
species,  the  Rhytina  stelleri,  or  Northern  Manatee,  which,  like  the 
Dodo,  has  become  extinct,  but  at  a  much  more  recent  period.  This 
singular  animal  was  distinguished  from  the  other  herbivorous  Cctacea 
by  the  total  absence  of  true  teeth ;  the  only  masticating  organs 
which  it  possessed  being  a  pair  of  bony  plates  in  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  mouth,  one  of  which  was  attached  to  the  palate,  and  the  other 
to  the  lower  jaw.  The  Rhyfina  j/cZ/er/' measured  about  twenty-fivo 
feet  in  length,  and  about  twenty  feet  in  girth  at  the  thickest  part. 
The  skin  was  of  a  very  remarkable  nature.  The  true  skin  was  not 
more  than  a  sixth  of  an  inch  thick,  of  a  soft  texture,  and  whitish 
colour ;  but  this  was  concealed  beneath  an  epidermic  coat,  which 
often  attained  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  was  composed  entirely  of 
perpendicular  horny  tubes,  analogous  to  hair.  This  epidermis  was 
of  a  blackish-brown  colour,  very  rough,  and  strongly  wrinkled  on  the 
sides,  so  that  it  had  no  small  resemblance  to  the  bark  of  a  tree  ;  it 
was  so  exceedingly  tough  that  an  axe  would  not  penetrate  it  without 
difficulty. 

This  most  remarkable  creature  was  discovered  in  the  year  1741, 
upon  the  shores  of  an  island  in  Behring's  Straits,  on  which  Behring^s 
second  expedition  was  shipwrecked  ;    its  flesh  formed  the  principal 
food  of  the  unfortunate  mariners  who  were  compelled  to  pass  ten 
months  in  that  inclement  latitude  ;    but  although  surrounded  with 
everything  that  could   discourage   a   man,   one   of  the  party,  M. 
Steller    contrived  to   prepare   a  most    admirable    account   of   the 
animal,  which   was   afterwards   published   in  St.   Petersburg ;    the 
author,  however,  did  not  live  to  superintend  the  publication  of  his 
treatise.     In  honour  of  this  in- 
defatigable observer,  his  name 
has  been  appended  to  the  ani- 
mal of  which  he  furnished  such 
an  excellent  account ;   and  this 
probably  contains  all  we  shall 
know  of  it,  as  the  islands  near 
which   it   occurred   were    soon 
afterwards  visited  by  numerous 
ships,   in   pursuit  of  the    Sea- 
Otters  which  abounded  there ; 
and  the  crews  killed  these  large 
Cetaceans  in  such  numbers,  for 

the  sake  of  their  flesh,  that  it  is  said  the  last  Rhyihia  was 
destroyed  in  1768,  within  twenty-seven  years  of  the  first  dis- 
covery of  the  species.  The  only  remains  of  this  animal,  at  present 
known,  consist  of  a  skull  and  a  few  other  fragments  in  European 
museums. 

The  Manatee. — The  Manah'dcB,  or  Sea-Cows,  are  always  fur- 
nished with  molar  teeth,  and,  when  young,  with  two  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw  ;  the  latter  are  permanent  in  one  genus  {Halkore), 
but  fall  out  at  an  early  period  in  the  other  iJManatus).  (See  Fig. 
8g2. )  The  skin  is  always  more  or  less  covered  with  scattered  bristles. 
The  habits  of  these  animals,  which  are  peculiar  to  the  tropical  seas, 
have  already  been  described  under  the  characters  of  the  sub-order. 
(See  Fig.  893.) 


In  the  true  Manatees,  or  Lamantins  {Manaius),  the  molar  teeth 
vary  m  number  from  eight  to  twelve  on  each  side  of  each  jaw,  and 
the  caudal  hn  is  of  a  rounded  form.  They  are  confined  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  two  species  inhabiting  the  American  coasts,  and  one  occur- 
ring on  the  west  coast  of  Africa;  The  largest  species  Uf.  latiros- 
tris),  which  inhabits  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  extends  as  far  as 
Florida  and  the  West  Indies,  measures  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet 
in  length,  and  is  said  even  to  attain  a  still  larger  size.  The 
African  species  [M.  sctiegalensis)  does  not  exceed  eight  or 
nine  feet.  The  South  American  species  (j1/.  australis)  occurs 
about  the  mouths  of  the  great  rivers  of  that  continent,  and 
usually  measures  nine  or  ten  feet  in  length.  All  the  species 
occur  in  considerable  abundance,  and  are  pursued  with  avidity 
by  the   natives  of  the  respective  countries   on   whose  coasts  they 


Fig.  S92.— Skull  of  Manatee. 


Fig.  893.— The  Manatee. 

live,  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  and  oil.  Humboldt  states  that 
the  flesh  of  the  South  American  species  is  excellent,  and  fur- 
nishes a  most  welcome  article  of  food  to  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  Brazil,  as  it  is  regarded  by  the  Church  as  a  fish,  and  may 
consequently  be  eaten  on  fast-days.  When  salted,  and  dried  in 
the  sun,  it  will  keep  for  a  whole  year.  The  oil  of  this  species  is 
also  excellent  in  quality,  and  quite  free  from  smell  ;  its  skin  is  cut 
into  harness,  and  frequently  also  into  whips,  which  are  much  dreaded 
by  the  unfortunate  slaves  in  those  countries.  Fig.  894  represents 
the  skeleton  of  the  Manatee. 

The   Dugong  {Halicore  cetacea ;   HaUcore  dugong,  F.  Cuv.  ; 
Halicore  tndicus,   Desmarest). — This    species   is   a  native  of  the 


o^^3^;?>>. 


Fig.  894. — Skeleton  of  Manatee. 

Indian  seas,  being  common  among  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  visiting  also  the  coasts  of  Australia.  Its 
favourite  haunts  are  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  straits  bet\yeen 
proximate  islands,  where  the  depth  of  water  is  but  trifiing  (three 
or  four  fathoms),  and  where,  at  the  bottom,  grows  a  luxuriant 
pasturage  of  submarine  algaj  and  fuci :  here,  in  calm  weather, 
small  troops  may  be  seen  feeding  below  the  surfar-^,  and  every 
now  and  then  rising  to  take  breath.  The  position  of  the 
mouth,  the  muscular  powers  and  mobility  of  the  lips,  garnished 
with  wiry  bristles,  and  the  short  incisor  tusks  of  the  upper  jaw, 
enable  these  animals  to  seize  and  drag  up  the  long  tronds  of 
the  sub-aquatic  vegetables  which  constitute  their  nounshment. 
(See  Fig.  895.) 


350 


THE  DUGONG— FOSSIL   CETACEA. 


The  Dugong  is  in  high  esteem  as  an  article  of  food,  its  flesh  being 
tender  and  not  unhke  beef;  hence  it  is  hunted  assiduously  by  the 
Malays,  who  attack  the  animal  with  harpoons,  in  the  management 
of  which  they  are  very  dexterous.  Of  recent  years  its  oil  has  been 
used  m  Europe  as  a  substitute  for  Cod-liver  oil  in  scrofulous  and 
cognate  diseases. 


Fig.  S95.— The  Dugong. 

The  mutual  affection  of  the  male  and  female  is  very  great,  and 
the  latter  is  devoted  to  her  offspring.  If  a  Dugong  be  killed,  the 
sur\'iv'or  of  the  pair,  careless  of  danger,  follows  after  the  boat, 
carr>-ing  the  body,  impelled  by  an  overmastering  passion,  and  thus 
often  shares  the  fate  of  its  partner. 

The  Dugong  attains  to  the  length  of  seven  or  eight  feet;  its 
caudal  paddle  is  crescent-shaped  ;  the  large  thick  upper  lip  hangs 
over  the  lower;  the  skin  of  the  body  is  thinly  set,  with  very  short 
prickly  bristles  ;  the  anterior  limbs,  or  flippers,  are  destitute  of  nails. 
The  ventricles  of  the  heart  are  not  united  together,  but  form,  as  it 
■were,  two  distinct  hearts  joined  at  the  top:  this  separation  of  the 
ventricles  does  not  alter  the  routine  of  the  circulation.  The  eyes  are 
very  small. 

An  allied  species  {Halkore  tabernaaiU)  has  been  discovered  by 
MM.  Ehrenberg  and  Ruppell,  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  off  the  east 
coast  of  Africa. 

Fig.  896  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  Dugong,  which  may  be 
compared  with  that  of  the  Manatee  in  Fig.  894,  ante.  They  may 
also  be  compared  with  the  skeleton  of  the  Porpoise,  Fig.  887,  ante, 
(a  true  Cetacean),  with  advantage.  In  the  Indian  Dugong  there  are 
seven  cervical  vertebrs,  nineteen  costal,  and  thirty  lumbar,  pelvic 
and  caudal.  In  the  Dugong  of  the  Red  Sea  these  latter  vertebra 
amount  to  thirty-three,  making  in  all  fifty-nine.  The  number  of  ribs 
is  nineteen  on  each  side.  The  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  cranium 
by  a  true  synovial  capsule,  reflected  over  cartilaginous  surfaces,  and 
not,  as  in  the  true  Cetacea,  by  a  coarse,  oily,  ligamentous  substance. 


frontal,  which  consist  of  two  portions  advancing  forwards,  so  as  to 
enter  into  the  upper  margin  of  the  nasal  orifice,  and  form  the  ceiling 
of  the  orbits.  The  interma.xillary  bones  {a)  advance  far  forwards 
but  are  destitute  of  teeth,  excepting  during  the  early  stages  of  the 
animal's  existence  :  these  bones  form  the  lateral  edges  of  the  nasal 
onfice,  which  is  very  spacious ;  but  in  the  living  animal  the  bones 
are  continued  by  a  cartilaginous  addition,  so  that  the  nostrils  open 
at  the  end  of  the  muzzle.  The  orbits  are  situated  far  forwards,  and 
their  margin  is  very  prominent ;  the  zygomatic  arch  is  broad  and 
strong  ;  the  muzzle  advances  directly  forwards  with  a  very  slio-ht 
gradual  downward  bend.  The  dentition  of  the  Manatee  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  898.  In  adult  skulls  eight  molars  on  each  side  are  usually 
tound ;   in  others  nine  or  ten  ;  and  Fred.  Cuvier  observes  that,  as  in 


Fig.  89S.— Teeth  of  Manatee. 


Fig.  899. — Teeth  of  Dugong, 


Fig.  S96. — Skeleton  of  Dugong. 

Fig.  897  represents  the  skull  of  the  Dugong ;  that  of  the  Manatee 
was  given  in  Fig.  892,  ante.  The  skull  of  the  Manatee  may 
be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Dugong  by  the  following  par- 
ticulars : — 

The  nasal  bones  are  very  small,  and  imbedded,  so  to  speak,  in  the 


Fig.  897.— Skull  of  Dugong. 


some  of  the  ordinary  Pachydermata,  the  anterior  molars,  worn  the 
first,  fall  as  the  posterior  ones  become  developed,  being,  indeed, 
pushed  out  by  their  advance. 

The  skull  of  the  Dugong  (Fig.  897)  is  distinguished  by  the  enor- 
mous size  of  the  intermaxillary 
bones,  a,  which  extend  back- 
wards as  far  as  the  middle  of 
the   temporal    fossa;,    and   are 
bent  down  with  a  sudden  angle 
(reminding  us  of  the  beak  of  the 
Flamingo)  over   the  elongated 
symphysis   of  the    lower    jaw. 
In    this    deflected    portion    of 
each     intermaxillary     bone    is 
lodged  the  root  of  a  permanent, 
tusk-like,  but  not  very  promi- 
nent  incisor,  there   being  two 
of  these  teeth  above,  none  be- 
low.     This    development    and 
shape     of    the     intermaxillary 
bones  throws  the  nasal  orifice 
higher  up  than  in  the  Manatee;    the  lower  jaw  is  thicker,  shorter, 
deeper,  and  its  symphysis  fits    the  deflected  portion   of  the   inter- 
maxillary  bones.      In  the  young   Dugong  the   molars    are  five  on 
each  side,  above  and  below ;   but  the  three  anterior  are  deciduous, 
the  two  last  being  permanent. 

Fossil  Cetacea. 

In  respect  to  the  fossils  of  the  order  Cetacea,  we  may  remark 
that  the  skulls  of  several  species  of  gigantic  animals  have  been 
found  in  the  Tertiary  strata  of  different  parts  of  the  world, 
which  are  referred  by  Palaeontologists  to  the  present  sub-order 
of  Sirenia.  Amongst  these  we  have  already  referred,  at  page  833, 
ante,  to  the  remarkable  Diywtherium,  of  which  the  bkuU  has 
been  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  The  animal  appears  to 
have  been  more  than  equal  to  the  Elephant  in  size ;  and,  like 
that  quadruped,  it  was  furnished  with  a  pair  of  long  tusks  ;  but 
these  projected  from  the  end  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  curved 
downwards  at  a  right  angle  to  the  body  of  the  jaw  ;  the  tusks 
were  thus  directed  downwards,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
animal  employed  them  to  support  its  head  upon  the  shore. 
The  molar  teeth  are  broad,  and  furnished  with  notched  trans- 
verse ridges;   and  the  nasal  cavity  is  of  very  large   size,  as  in 


A  PLACENTAL  ANIMALS. 


3SI 


the  Elephant  :  from  this  and  other  circumstances,  it  is  supposed 
that  the  Dhiotherium  was  furnished  with  a  short  flexible  trunk. 
Fuller  particulars  have  been  afforded  at  page  335,  ante,  where  the 
"  restored  "  animal  is  illustrated. 

In  his  "  Pakeontology,"  Prof.  Owen  remarks  that  the  marine  de- 
posits of  the  Miocene  show  the  remains  of  extinct  genera  of  Dolphins 
\Tiphius  and  Dioplodoii),  and  of  Whales  {Baiccnodon).  Petrified 
Cetaceous  teeth,  and  ear-bones,  called  "  Cetololites,"  have  been 
washed  out  of  previous  strata  into  the  red  crag  of  Suffolk.  These 
fossils  belong  to  species  distinct  from  any  known  existing  Cctacca, 
and  which  probably,  like  some  contemporary  quadrupeds,  retained 
fully-developed  characters,  which  are  embryonic  and  transitory  in 
existing  cognate  Mammals.  The  teeth  of  these  Cctacca  were  de- 
termined in  1840,  and  the  ear-bones  in  1843.  The  vast  number  of 
these  fossils,  and  the  proportion  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  them,  has 
led  to  their  enormous  use  as  manure  by  the  agriculturists,  as  crude 
super-phosphates.  Thousands  of  cubic  acres  must  have  been  broken 
up  to  furnish  the  Cetacean  nodules  of  the  red  crag. 

In  regard  to  the  Siroiia,  Prof.  Owen  observes  that,  as  represented 
at  the  present  day  by  the  Dugongs  and  Manatees  (see  a7ite,  p. 
349),  there  were  abundant  and  more  widely  distributed  representa- 
tives during  the  Miocene  periods,  having  on  the  whole  the  nearest 
affinity  with  the  existing  African  Manatee,  Maitatus  seiiegaleiisis, 
but  with  associated  characters  of  the  Dugong.  There  were,  for 
example,  two  incisive  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  four  or  five  small 
incisors  along  the  deflected  part  of  each  ramus,  or  lower  jaw.  The 
upper  molars,  with  three  roots,  were  thickly  enamelled,  like  those  of 
the   Manatee,  but  with  a  pattern  of  grinding  surface   which  led 


Cuvier  to  attribute  detached  specimens  to  a  species  of  IJil,f,of,ota- 
7m,s.  Ihe  lower  molars  had  two  roots.  All  the  bones  have  the 
dense  and  solid  structure  of  those  of  the  Sirenia.  On  the  remains 
of  this  remarkable  amphibious  animal,  discovered  in  the  Miocene 
beds  at  Kppelshcim,  Kaup  founded  the  genus  Ilalitlicrium  Other 
remains  have  been  discovered  in  Piedmont,  Aste,  and  many  parts 
of  France,  from  the  "  calcaire  grossier  "  of  the  Gironde,  containing 
Lophiodont  fossils,  up  to  the  Pliocene  near  Montpcllier,  at  which 
period  the  Halitherium  seems  to  have  become  extinct.  The 
Zeuglodon,  a  fossil  Cetacean,  has  already  been  described  at  paee 
348,  ante.  '^  "^ 

We  are  indebted  for  the  following  list  of  fossil  British  Cetacea  to 
Morris's  "Catalogue  of  British  Fossils." 

Fossil  British  Cetacea. 


Name. 
Balsena  mysticetus, 

f »  It 

Batenodon  affinis. 

,,  definita. 

,,  emarginata. 

,,  gibbosa. 

,,  physaloides. 

Batenoptera  boops. 
Monodon  minoceros  (see  p.  347). 
Phocsena  crassidens. 
Physeter  macrocephalus. 


LOCALITV. 

Pleistocene,  Brighton  ;  London. 
PI.  and  M.,  Heme  Bay. 

Red  Crag,  Felixstow ;  Suffolk. 


Pleistocene,  Bridgewater. 
Pleistocene,  Essex. 
Pleistocene,  Lincolnshire. 
PI.  and  M.,  Essex. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 


MAMMALIA.— SUB-CLASS  APLACENTARIA— KANGAROOS,   Etc. 


.  LL  the  animals  that  have  been  described  in 
the  preceding  chapters  belong  to  what,  for 
the   sake   of  distinction,   we   may   call   the 
Mammals  proper.     In  the   first  chapter  we 
gave   ample   descriptions   of  all   the   pecu- 
'iiarities  they  are  characterised  by.     But  in 
the  sub-class  now  before  us  we  have  an 
extraordinary  departure   in   one   respect. 
All   the  previously-described  Majnmalia 
•are  brought  alive  into  the  world,  having 
had   previous   life    in   the  uterus   of    the 
female.     They  are  therein  attached  to  the  parent  by 
-...,  ^^-_       means  oi  3. ^placenta,  by  which  they  receive,  directly, 
El  ^^'       nutriment   before   birth ;    hence   all    the   previously- 
lit  ^1^       described  animals  are  called  Placentaria.     In  the 
animals  of  the  present  sub-class  no  such  provision 
exists.    Hence  tliey  are  called  A;placentarta.    These 
two  groups  of  Placental  and  Aplacental  animals  are 
distinguished  not  only  by  this  physiological  character 
indicated  in  their  names,  but  also  by  structural  cha- 
racters of  importance,  which  are  quite  sufficient  to 
prove   that  this   division   of    the   class   is   perfectly 
natural,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  remarks. 

SUE-CLASS   I. — APLACENTARIA 

General  Characters. — The  K^\a.c^r\\.3X  Mammalia,  as  already 
stated,  are  those  in  which  the  embryo  never  forms  a  vascular  con- 
nection with  the  uterus  of  the  mother,  the  ovum  being  simply 
retained  within  the  uterus,  and  the  requisite  nourishment  for  the 
development  of  the  young  animal  obtained  by  absorption.  An 
analogous  process  is  supposed  to  take  place  in  the  ovoviviparous 
fishes.  But  the  size  of  the  young  animal,  in  comparison  with  the 
original  yelk,  is  much  greater  in  the  Mammal  than  in  the  Fish,  and 
the  necessity  for  a  supply  of  nourishment  from  the  mother  must 
increase  in  the  same  proportion  ;  so  that  the  term  ovoviviparous, 
applied  to  these  Mammalia  by  many  authors,  is  scarcely  so  strictly 
ajiplicable  to  them  as  to  the  Viviparous  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

Although  this  character,  being  strictly  physiological,  does  not  in 
itself  serve  to  distinguish  an  animal  belonging  to  this  group  from  a 
Placental  Mammal,  the  imperfect  state  of  the  newly-born  young, 
consequent  on  their  somewhat  premature  introduction  into  the 
world,  necessitates  the  provision  of  certain  organs  which  furnish 
excellent  characters  for  that  purpose.  Thus  the  great  majority  of 
the  animals  belonging  to  this  sub-class,  are  provided  with  a  singular 


pouch  (Lat.  Alarsiipiuni)  extending  under  the  belly,  in  which  the  teats 
are  situated  ;  and  the  young,  when  born,  are  introduced  into  this 
cavity,  where  they  adhere  firmly  to  the  teats,  and  remain  concealed 
until  their  development  has  proceeded  sufficiently  far  to  enable  them 
to  venture  forth  from  their  retreat.  For  the  support  of  this  pouch, 
these  animals  are  furnished  with  two  bones,  which  pass  up  the  front 
of  the  abdomen,  resting  upon  the  front  of  the  pelvis  (Fig.  900) ;  and 
these  bones  (called  marsupial  bones)  are  found  not  only  in  the 
females,  which  alone  possess  the  pouch,  but 
^  also  in  the  males.    They  also  occur  in  the 

three  members  of  the  group,  the  females  of 
which  are  destitute  of  the  abdominal  pouch  ; 
so  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  charac- 
teristic of  the  Aplacental  Mammals. 

Another  important  character  by  which 
these  creatures  are  distinguished  from  the 
members  of  the  other  sub-class,  is  derived 
from  the  structure  of  the  brain,  which  is 
always  destitute  of  the  great  commissure, 
called  the  corpus  callosum,  that  in  the 
majority  of  the  Mammalia  unites  the  two 
hemispheres  of  the  brain.  The  latter  are 
usually  smaller  than  in  the  other  Mam- 
malia, and  leave  the  cerebellum,  and  some- 
times even  the  optic  lobes,  uncovered. 

These  animals,  both  in  their  mode  of 
reproduction  and  in  their  general  structure, 
evidently  approach  the  oviparous  classes, 
and  they  are  accordingly  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Mammalian  series.  At  the 
same  time  they  frequently  exhibit,  in  many 
of  their  characters,  a  remarkable  resem- 
blance to  the  higher  groups  of  Mammalia ;  so  much  so,  in 
fact,  that  some  naturalists  have  proposed  to  insert  them  amongst 
the  other  orders  in  those  places,  their  title  to  which  appeared 
to  be  indicated  by  their  external  characters  and  mode  of  life. 
In  the  present  day,  zoologists  are  tolerably  unanimous  in  re- 
garding the  Aplacental  Mammals  as  a  group  apart,  although  offering 
many  points  of  analogy  with  the  higher  orders.  The  Mo?ii)trcmata, 
however,  have  been  retained  by  Wagner  among  the  Edentata. 

Divisions. — The  Aplacentaria  are  divided  into  two  very  dis- 
tinct orders.  In  one  of  these,  which  makes  the  nearest  approach  in 
its  structure  to  the  oviparous  Vertebrata,  the  abdominal  pouch  is 
wanting,  and  the  intestinal  canal,  and  generative  and  urinary 
organs,  all  open,  as  in  the  Birds  and  Reptiles,  into  a  coraraoa 


Fig.  900. — Pelvis  of  the 
Echidna. 

<-,  base  of  the  vertebral 
column  ;  i,  iliac  bone  ; 
VI,  marsupi.il  bone  ;  f, 
cavity  for  the  head  of 
the  femur. 


352 


THE  ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 


cloaca.  From  this  circumstance  these  animals  are  denominated 
Mo7iotremata  [fnotios,  single;  and  trema,  an  orifice).  In  the 
second  order,  that  of  the  Marsuj>ialia  {niarsup!UT>i,  a  pouch),  the 
general  structure  agrees  more  closely  with  that  of  the  ordinary 
quadrupeds  ;  the  urinary  and  generative  organs  have  a  common 
orifice,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  the  anal  opening  ;  and  the  abdo- 
men, in  the  females,  is  furnished  with  a  pouch  for  the  reception  of 
the  young  during  their  long  infancy. 

Order  I.— Moxotrem.\ta. 

General  Characters. — The  Monotrcmata  show  most  dis- 
tinctly, in  all  their  characters,  a  relationship  to  the  oviparous  Verte- 
hrafa.  The  bones  of  the  skull,  as  in  Birds,  are  early  united  together 
in  such  a  way  as  to  obliterate  the  sutures.  The  cranium  is  very 
small  in  comparison  with  the  facial  bones,  which  project  in  a  more 
or  less  beak-like  form  ;  the  jaws  are  not  covered  by  soft,  movable 
lips,  and  are  either  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  or  furnished  with  sub- 
stitutes for  them,  in  the  form  of  small  horny  plates. 

The  bones  of  the  shoulder  (Fig.  901)  are  unlike  those  of  any 
other  Mammals,  and  appear  to  be  intermediate  in  their  arrangement 
between  those  of  Birds  and  Reptiles. 

At  the  top  of  the  sternum  there  „  ^,^     ^ 

is  a  T-shaped  bone,  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  two  clavicles,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  furcula  of  a  Bird  ; 
one  of  the  three  extremities  of  this 
bone  rests  upon  the  top  of  the  ster- 
num ;  whilst  the  other  two  are  in 
contact  with  the  acromion  processes 
of  the  shoulder-blade.  Besides 
these,  the  coracoid  bones,  which 
are  reduced  to  the  form  of  small 
processes  of  the  shoulder-blade  in 
the  other  Mammalia,  are  here  of 
large  size,  and  assist,  as  in  the 
Birds,  in  the  support  of  the  scapular 
arch ;  whilst  the  shoulder-blades 
themselves  are  produced  beyond  the 
socket  of  the  humerus,  to  such  an 
extent  that  they  also  rest  against 
the  sternum. 

The  eyes  are  of  small  size,  and 
the  external  ear  altogether  deficient. 
The  orifices  of  the  alimentary,  uri- 
nary,   and   generative    organs,   all 

open  into  a  common  cloaca,  as  in  Birds,  and  the  whole  structure 
of  the  female  sexual  organs  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a  Bird. 

The  feet  have  five  toes  armed  with  long  nails  ;  and,  besides  these, 
the  males  are  furnished  with  long  spurs  on  the  hind  legs  ;  at  the 
base  of  these  is  a  glandular  organ,  and  the  spurs  are  perforated  ;  but 
it  does  not  appear  that  there  is  any  truth  in  the  assertion  that  the 
wounds  inflicted  by  them  are  venomous. 

So  little  is  known  of  the  habits  of  these  animals,  that  it  was  long 


Fig.  901. — Sternal  apparatus  of 
the  Ornithorhynchus. 

rt,  acromion  process  ;  co,  coracoid 
bone  ;  </,  clavicles  united  ;  /;, 
socket  for  humerus ;  0,  scapula  ; 
s,  sternum ;  c,  ribs. 


considered  doubtful  whether  they  did  not  produce  eggs  instead  of 
living  young;  and  even  at  the  present  day,  the  condition  in  which 
the  young  are  born,  and  the  way  in  which  they  contrive  to  obtain 
tlicir  natural  nourishment,  are  still  matters  of  dispute.  The  orifices 
of  the  mammary  glands  are  not  elevated  into  nipples,  but  consist  of 
simple  slits  in  the  skin  of  the  abdomen.  The  order  Monotremata 
includes  three  species,  all  natives  of  Australia,  which  form  two 
families — viz.,  the  Ornithorhyiicidce  and  the  Ec/u'dm'dcB.  Of  the 
former  there  is  but  one  known  species,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
description  : — 

The  Ornithorhynchus  {Orntiko-hynchtis  ;paradoxus,  Blu- 
menb.  ;  Platypus  aiiatiiius,  Shaw ;  Mallangong  and  Tambreet  of 
the  natives  of  the  borders  of  the  Yas  river,  Murrumbidgee,  &c.) — 
The  genus  Ornithorhytichus  is  perhaps  the  most  singular  of  any 
contained  in  the  class  Manunalia,  and  certainly  one  of  the  most 
interesting,  especially  to  the  physiologist.  It  contains  those  re- 
markable creatures  furnished  with  a  Duck-like  beak  and  webbed 
feet,  which  would  seem,  even  from  their  external  organisation,  to 
partake  in  some  degree  of  the  nature  of  a  Bird — creatures,  the  first 
discovery  of  which  excited  the  most  lively  astonishment. 

On  looking  at  the  Ornithorhynchus,  we  are  immediately  struck 
with  the  configuration  of  the  head.  Instead  of  a  muzzle  gradually 
continued,  as  we  see  in  other  Mammalia  generally,  it  abruptly 
assumes  the  appearance  of  the  bill  of  a  Duck,  being  broad,  flat, 
rounded,  and  covered  with  a  leathery  membrane.  (See  Fig.  902.) 
The  outer  surface  of  the  upper  mandible  is  greyish-black  ;  the  palate 
flesh-coloured  ;   the  under  mandible  paler  externally.     The  edges  of 


Fig.  902.— The  Ornithorhynchus. 


Fig.  903. — Teeth  of  Ornithorhynchus. 

both  are  soft,  and  the  lower,  which  is  the  shortest  and 
narrowest  of  the  two,  has  its  edge  adapted  to  a  depres- 
sion under  the  margin  of  the  upper  mandible,  which  is 
also  channelled  with  obliquely  transverse  furrows ; 
those,  however,  are  merely  in  the  leathery  skin.  There 
are  no  horny  laminae,  as  in  the  bill  of  the  Duck.  True 
teeth  are  wanting  ;  but  on  each  side  in  either  man- 
dible there  are  two  horny  appendages  without  roots ; 
one  on  each  side  is  large  and  tuberculous,  situated  on 
the  base  of  the  mandibles,  at  the  posterior  part  of  the 
mouth  ;  the  other  forms  a  long  narrow  ridge  on  the 
anterior  part  of  the  mandible  along  the  edge.  (See  Fig. 
903.)  Capacious  cheek-pouches  are  carried  under  the 
skin  of  the  face,  from  the  inside  of  the  mouth,  serving 
as  receptacles  for  food.  At  the  base  of  the  beak, 
separating  between  it  and  the  head,  there  projects  a 
broad,  loose,  leathery  flap  from  each  mandible,  the  use 
of  which  is  probably  to  defend  the  eyes  and  fur  of  the 
head  from  the  mud  in  which  the  animal  grubs.  Duck- 
like, in  quest  of  insects.  The  tongue  is  short  and 
thick,  and  covered  with  long  papillae.  The  nostrils 
are  two  small  orifices  situated  near  the  apex  of  the 
upper  mandible.  The  eyes  are  small,  but  brilliant, 
and  placed  rather  high  in  the  head.  The  ears  open 
externally  by  a  simple  orifice  near  the  external  angle 
of  the  eyes,  and  are  capable  of  being  e.xpanded  or 
closed  at  pleasure. 

The  fore-feet  are  largely  webbed,  and  divided  into 
five  toes,  terminating  in  strong,  blunt,  burrowing 
claws.  The  web  which  unites  the  toes  is  tough  and 
leathery  :  it  extends  considerably  beyond  the  claws, 
and  would  appear  at  first  sight  to  act  as  an  impedi- 
ment to  the  animal  while  excavating  its  long  burrow. 


THE  ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 


353 


We  do  not  find,  however,  that  this  is  the  case  :  it  can  be  folded  back 
at  pleasure.  The  hind-feet  are  smaller  and  less  powerful  than  the 
anterior  pair  :  they  are  divided  into  five  toes,  armed  with  sharp  claws, 
and  webbed,  but  the  membrane  is  not  carried  out  beyond  the  roots 
of  the  claws.  The  hind-feet  are  directed  backwards,  as  in  those  of 
the   Seal  (see  Skeleton,  Fig.  904),  and  their   action   is  backwards 


Fig.  904.  — Skeleton  of  Ornitliorhynchus. 

and  outwards.  The  tarsus  of  the  male  is  armed  with  a  large,  sharp, 
movable  spur,  turned  backwards  and  inwards.  It  is  not  used  as  a 
weapon  of  defence,  nor  are  accidental  wounds  and  scratches  made  by 
it  while  struggling  in  a  person's  hands  attended  with  ill  effects. 
Formerly  this  spur  was  regarded  as  poisonous.  In  the  female  a 
rudimentary  spur  may  be  distinguished.    (See  Fig.  905.) 

The  body  is  elongated,  low,  and 
depressed  ;  the  fur  is  close  and  fine, 
and  consists  of  two  sorts,  an  under- 
layer  of  soft,  short,  waterproof  wad- 
ding, and  an  outer  vest  of  long,  fine, 
glossy  hair,  thickly  set,  and  in  many 
instances  assuming  a  crisped  appear- 
ance. The  tail  is  strong,  broad,  flat- 
tened, and  of  moderate  length  :  it  is 
covered  above  with  longer  and  coarser 
hairs  than  those  of  the  body,  but  its 
under-surface  is  only  scantily  fur- 
nished. General  colour,  deep  brown ; 
head  and  under-parts  paler ;  a 
whitish  spot  in  front  of  each  eye ; 
average  length  of  head  and  body, 
including  tail,  twenty  to  twenty-three  inches ;  beak,  about  two  inches 
and  a-half ;  tail,  four  or  five  inches. 

Essentially  aquatic,  as  is  sufficiently  declared  by  its  outward 
structure,  the  Ornithorhynchus  passes  the  active  part  of  its  existence 
almost  exclusively  in  the  water.  The  favourite  places  of  resort  of 
this  animal  are  tranquil  parts  of  rivers  with  high  steep  banks,  and 
abounding  in  water-weeds,  among  which,  and  in  the  oozy  mud,  are 
the  insects,  &c.,  on  which  it  feeds. 

Their  burrows  (see  Fig.  906)  are  excavated  in  the  steep  banks 
overhanging  the  tranquil  sheets  of  water  in  which  they  seek  their 


Fig.  905. — MagnifieJ  IlinJ-loot  of 
Female  Ornithorhynchus. 


Fig.  go6. — Burrow  of  Ornithorhynchus. 

food.  These  burrows  are  continued  in  a  serpentine  form,  rising  as 
they  proceed,  the  termination  often  being  at  the  distance  of  fifty 
feet  from  the  mouth.  The  entrance  is  generally  larger  than  the  rest 
of  the  passage,  but  the  termination  is  again  enlarged,  so  as  to  be 
commodious  for  the  parents  and  their  offspring.  The  female  pro- 
duces from  two  to  four  at  a  birth,  and  in  the  month  of  November  (a 
summer  month  in  Australia).  The  young  at  an  early  period  (imme- 
diately after  birth,  and  for  some  time  afterwards)  are  naked,  and 
very  small,  and  their  general  aspect  is  very  unlike  that  of  the  fully- 
developed  animal.  They  are  curled  round,  the  head  and  tail  being 
doubled  on  the  abdomen  ;  the  skin  of  the  body  is  thrown  into  trans- 
verse folds  ;  the  eyes  are  merely  indicated  by  the  convergence  of  a 
few  wrinkles  on  the  skin,  which  passes  over  these  organs,  proving 
that  their  development  does  not  take  place  till  a  considerable  time 
after  birth,  and,  together  with  the  helpless  rudimentary  condition  of 
the  young  animal,  demonstrating  that  it  is  necessarily  confined  for 
a  long  period  to  the  nest  in  which  it  is  brought  forth,  and  conse- 
quently that  it  does  not  and  cannot  follow  (as  has  been  conjectured, 


I  like  a  Duckling  just  hatched)  its  parents  to  the  water.  The  beak  is 
small,  soft  and  covered  with  thin  skin.  "The  margins  of  the 
upper  mandible  are  rounded,  smooth,  thick,  and  fleshy  ;  the  whole 
ot  the  under  mandible  is  flexible,  and  bends  down  upon  the  neck 
when  the  mouth  is  attempted  to  be  opened.  The  tongue,  which  in 
the  adult  is  lodged  far  back  in  the  mouth,  advances  in  the  youne 
animal  close  to  the  end  of  the  lower  mandible  ;  all  the  increase  of 
the  jaws  beyond  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  which  in  the  adult  gives  rise 
to  a  form  of  the  mouth  so  ill  calculated  for  suction,  or  application  to 
a  flattened  surface,  is  peculiar  to  that  period,  and  consequently 
forms  no  argument  against  the  fitness  of  the  animal  to  receive  the 
mammary  secretion  at  an  earlier  stage  of  existence."  (Prof.  Owen  ) 
That  the  Ornithorhynchus  suckles  its  young,  and  possesses'  a  milk- 
secreting  apparatus,  are  facts  which,  though  once  denied,  arc  now 
incontestably  proved. 

If  the  hairs  be  removed  from  the  abdomen  of  a  female  Ornithor- 
hynchus, an  areola  or  oval  spot  may  be  distinguished,  consisting  of 
a  group  of  ducts,  very  minute,  yet  with  orifices  larger  than  those  in 
which  the  hairs  are  implanted.  The  areola  varies  in  extent,  and 
the  ducts  lead  to  a  large  gland  beneath  the  skin,  and  a  thin  muscu- 
lar expansion.  This  mammary  gland  is  composed  of  a  number  of 
lobes,  amounting  from  120  to  200,  and  tliese  are  tlie  cells  in  which 
the  milk  is  secreted,  and  which  oozes  from  the  ducts,  and  is  re- 
ceived by  the  soft  mouth  of  the  young,  which  is  capable  of  being 
closely  applied  to  the  areola. 

Specimens  of  two  young  Ornithorhynchi  of  different  sizes  were 
minutely  examined  by  Professor  Owen.  The  smallest  of  these 
rather  exceeded  two  inches  in  length  ;  the  largest  was  double  that 
size,  and  was  one  of  the  two  young  ones  taken  with  a  mother  from 
a  nest,  on  the  banks  of  the  Fish  river,  by  Lieutenant  the  Honourable 
Lauderdale  Maule,  and  kept  alive  for  about  a  fortnight  by  that  gen- 
tleman. The  stomach  of  this  larger  specimen  was  ifound  to  be  full 
of  coagulated  milk.  On  carefully  inspecting  the  whole  contents 
with  a  lens,  no  portion  of  Worms  or  bread  could  be  detected,  which. 
Prof.  Owen  observes,  solves  the  doubt  entertained  by  Lieutenant 
Maule,  as  to  whether  the  mother  nourished  this  young  one  with  the 
food  which  was  given  to  her  for  her  support,  or  with  the  secretion 
afterwards  discovered  to  escape  from  the  mammary  pores  ;  for  the 
mother  having  been  killed  by  accident  on  the  fourteenth  day  after 
her  captivity,  it  was  observed,  on  skinning  her  while  yet  warm,  that 
milk  oozed  thi-ough  the  fur  on  the  stomach.  That  it  was  really  milk 
on  the  stomach  of  the  young  animal.  Professor  Owen  demonstrated, 

and  the  matter  may  be  considered  as 
fairly  set  at  rest.  Another  point  which 
seems  to  be  now  established  is,  that  the 
Ornithorhynchus  is  Ovoviviparous,  or, 
in  other  words,  produces  eggs,  which, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Viper  and  the 
viviparous  Lizard  {Zooloca  vivipara, 
Bellj,  are  hatched  just  before  exclu- 
sion, the  young  being  born  rudimen- 
tary and  naked. 

Referring  to  our  illustrations.  Fig. 
907  exhibits  a  portion  of  the  integu- 
ment from  the  abdomen  of  the  Orni- 
thorhynchus, with  the  hairs  removed, 
to  show  the  mammary  areola.  (Owen, 
"Phil.  Trans.")  Fig.  908,  a  magni- 
fied view  of  the  mammary  areola, 
showing  the  orifices  of  the  ducts  of 
the  glandular  lobules.  Fig.  909  shows 
the  mammary  lobular  gland  of  the 
Ornithorhynchus,  reduced  below  the  natural  size.  (Owen,  "  Phil. 
Trans.")  Fig.  910,  view  of  the  larger  of  the  specimens  of  young 
Ornithorhynchi  just  alluded  to  ;  a,  the  nostrils  ;  c,  the  eyes  ;  d,  the 
ears  ;  e,  thesvent ;  f,  the  orifice  and  rudimentary  spur  of  the  hind- 


Fig.  907. — Portion  of  integu- 
ment from  the  abdomen  of 
Ornithorhynchus. 


Fig.  908.— Magnified  view  of  the  Mammar)-  Areola, 


2  2 


354 


THE  ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 


foot;  g,  membrane  at  the  base  of  the  mandibles.  (Owen,  "  Zool. 
Trans.")  Figs.  911,  912,  smaller  specimen  of  young  Ornithorhynchus, 
and  front  view  of  head,  a,  nostrils  ;  b,  prominence  on  upper  mandi- 
bles ;  e,  vent ;  f,  orifice  and  rudimentary  spur  on  hind-foot ;  c,  the 
eyes  ;  d,  the  ears ;  g,  the  membrane  at  the  base  of  the  mandibles ; 
//,  the  tongue.     (Owen,  "  Zool.  Trans.") 


Fig.  909. — Mammary  gland  of  Ornithorhynchus,  reduced  below  the 
natural  size. 


Fig.  910. — Larger  Specimen  of  young  Ornithorhynchus. 

From  the  account  of  Mr.  Bennett,  who 
procured  and  kept  several  of  these  ani- 
mals in  Australia,  it  appears  to  be  a  lively 
interesting  creature.  Its  voice,  which  it 
utters  when  alarmed  or  disturbed,  re- 
sembles the  growl  of  a  puppy,  but  in  a 
softer  key.  It  dresses  its  fur,  and  seems 
to  delight  in  keeping  it  smooth  and 
clean.  (Fig.  913.)  the  mandibles  are 
endowed  with  great  sensibility.  Speak- 
ing of  a  family  of  these  creatures  which 
he  obtained,  and  which  lived  a  con- 
siderable time  in  captivity,  Mr.  Bennett 
says,  "  The  young  sleep  in  various  pos- 
tures ;  sometimes  in  an  extended  po- 
sition, and  often  rolled  up,  like  a  Hedge- 
hog, in  the  form  of  a  ball.  (Fig.  914.) 
They  form  an  interesting  group,  lying  in 
various  attitudes  in  the  bo.\  in  which  I 
had  placed  them,  and  seeming  happy  Fig.  gn. —Smaller  specimen 
and  content.  Ihus,  for  mstance,  one  of  young  Ornithorhynchus. 
lies  curled  up  like  a  Dog,  keeping  its 
back  warm  with  the  flattened  tail,  which 
is  brought  over  it,  while  the  other  lies 
stretched  on  its  back,  the  head  resting, 
by  way  of  a  pillow,  on  the  body  of  the 
old  one,  which  lies  on  its  side,  with  the 
back  resting  against  the  box  ;  the  deli- 
cate beak,  and  smooth  clean  fur  of  the 
young,  contrasting  with  the  rougher  and 
dirtier  appearance  of  the  older  one  ;  all 
fast  asleep."  The  gambols  of  the  )'oung 
Ornithorhynchi  are  thus  detailed  :  "  One 
evening    both    the   animals    came    out 

about  dusk,  and  went,  as  usual,  and  ate  food  from  the  saucer, 
and  then  commenced  playing  with  one  another  like  two  puppies, 
attacking  with  tlieir  mandibles,  and  raising  their  fore-paws  against 
each  other.  In  the  struggle  one  would  get  thrust  down,  and  at  the 
moment  when  the  spectator  would  expect  it  to  rise  again  and  renew 
the  combat,  it  would  commence  scratching  itself,  its  antagonist 
looking  on,  and  waiting  for  the  sport  to  be  renewed.    When  running 


Fig.    gi2. — Front   view   of 
mandibles  of  the  above. 


they  are  exceedingly  animated;  their  little  eyes  glisten,  and  the 
orifices  of  their  ears  contract  and  dilate  with  rapidity  :  if  taken  mto 
the  hands  at  this  time  for  examination,  -they  struggle  violently  to 
escape ;  and  their  loose  integuments  make  it  difficult  to  retain  them. 
Their  eyes  being  placed  so  high  on  the  head,  they  do  not  see 
objects  well  in  a  straight  line,  and  consequently  run  against  every- 


Fig.  913. — Ornithorhynchus  combmg  itself. 


Fig.  914. — Ornithorhynchus  sleeping. 

thing  in  the  room  during  their  perambulations,  spreading  confusion 
among  all  the  light  and  readily-overturnable  articles.  I  have  occa- 
sionally seen  them  elevate  the  head,  as  if  to  regard  objects  above 
or  around  them.  Sometimes  I  have  been  able  to  enter  into  play 
with  them  by  scratching  and  tickling  them  with  my  finger :  they 
seemed  to  en|oy  it  exceedingly,  opening  their  mandibles,  and  biting 
playfully  at  the  finger,  and  moving  about  like  puppies  indulged  with 
similar  treatment.  As  well  as  combing  their  fur  to  clean  it  when 
wet,  I  have  also  seen  them  peck  at  it  with  their  beak  (if  the  term 
may  be  allowed),  as  a  Duck  would  clean  its  feathers.  When  I 
placed  them  in  a  pan  of  deep  water,  they  were  eager  to  get  out  after 
being  there  for  only  a  short  time  ;  but  when  the  water  was  shallow, 
with  a  turf  of  grass  in  one  corner,  they  enjoyed  it  exceedingly.  They 
would  sport  together,  attacking  one  another  with  their  mandibles, 
and  roll  over  in  the  water  in  the  midst  of  their  gambols,  and  would 
afterwards  retire,  when  tired,  to  the  turf,  where  they  would  lie  comb- 
ing themselves.  They  appeared  to  be  in  a  great  measure  nocturnal, 
preferring  the  twilight  to  the  bright  glare  of  day." 

In  Fig.  916,  the  skull  of  Ornithorhynchus  is  represented  in  dif- 
ferent aspects  :  a,  as  seen  from  above  ;  b,  as  seen  from  below  ;  c,  as 
seen  from  behind.  The  upper  figure  (915)13  that  of  the  under  jaw.  The 
skull  is  remarkable  for  the  flattened  and  elongated  form  of  the  bones 
of  the  facial  portion  ;  the  intermaxillary  bones,  which  are,  as  it  were, 
let  into  projecting  maxillaries,  diverge,  leaving  a  vast  opening  (the 
foratneyi  iiicisivum).  The  cranial  cavity  is  considerable  ;  the 
orbits  are  small ;  the  zygomatic  arch  slender  and  compressed.  The 
sub-orbital  foramen  appears  on  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible,  its 
situation  being  marked  by  a  projection  of  the  bone.  The  lower  jaw 
is  slender  and  depressed ;  there  are  no  coronoid  processes ;  the 
outer  sides  of  the  ascending  rami  (though  very  narrow)  have,  as 


THE  ECHIDNA. 


355 


in  most,  if,  indeed,  not  all  the  Marsupials,  a  pit-hke  cavity  for 
Iho  lodo-ment  of  the  massetcr  muscle.  The  extent  of  the  temporal 
muscle  is  trifling.  The  skull  of  the  Ornithorhynchus  can  be  con- 
founded with  that  of  no  other  animal, 


1^'iJ-  9IS- — Lower  Jaw  of  Oinithorhynchu5,  seen  from  hclow. 


Fig.  9x6. — Skull  of  Ornithorhynchus. 

With  respect  to  the  sternal  apparatus,  to  which  we  shall  allude 
in  our  account  of  the  Echidna,  it  appears  to  be  formed  more 
after  the  model  of  that  of  the  Saurian  reptiles,  than  after  that  of 
Mammalia.     (See  Fig-.  917.) 

The  Echidnid.-e. — The  family  of  the 
Echidni'dcs,  or  Porcupine  Ant-eaters,  in- 
cludes only  two  species,  which,  like  the 
Ornitkorhynchiis,  are  found  in  New 
South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land. 
In  many  respects  these  animals  re- 
semble the  Ornithorhynchus ;  but  they 
differ  from  that  curious  creature  in  several 
important  particulars.  Thus  the  snout, 
instead  of  taking  the  form  of  a  flattened 
Duck's  bill,  is  produced  into  a  nearly 
cylindrical  organ,  of  which  both  man- 
dibles are  enclosed  in  a  continuous  skin, 
except  just  at  the  apex,  where  there  is  a 
small  orifice  to  allow  of  the  protrusion 
of  the  tongue.  The  latter  organ,  by  an 
arrangement  of  longitudinal  and  annular 
muscles,  which  we  can  see  repeated  in 
the  true  Ant-eaters,  is  capable  of  being 
extended  and  contracted  to  an  immense 
extent,  so  that  it  may  be  exserted  from  the  mouth  to  a  length  of  nearly 
eight  inches,  and  retracted  till  it  is  wholly  concealed.  The  jaws  are 
entirely  destitute  of  teeth  ;  and  the  nostrils,  as  in  the  preceding 
family,  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  snout.  The  legs  are  short  and 
strong,  and  the  feet  all  furnished  with  five  toes,  armed  with  powerful 
claws,  but  destitute  of  the  sw'imming  membranes  that  form  so  re- 
markable a  feature  in  the  Orniihorhynchus.   The  body  is  short  and 


.  917. — Sternal  apparatus 
of  Ornithorhynchus. 


thick ;  the  tail  is  reduced  to  a  very  small  size  ;  and  the  skin  is 
clothed  with  bristly  hairs,  intermixed  on  the  upper  surface  with 
numerous  short,  acute  spines,  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Hedgehog. 
The  structure  of  the  sternal  apparatus,  the  mammary  glands  of  the 
female,  and  the  spurs  on  the  hind-legs  of  the  male,  is  the  same  as 
in  the  Ornithorhynchus,  already  described  under  that  head. 

Of  the  two  species  belonging  to  this  family,  one,  the  Echidna 
/yj//7'.v  (Fig.  918)  is  certainly  peculiar  to  New  South  Wales;    and 


Fig.  918. — Echidna. 

the  other.  Echidna  setosa,  is  said  to  be  proper  to  Van  Diemen's 
Land— although,  according  to  Mr.  AVaterhouse,  it  is  also  found  in 
New  South  Wales.  They  measure  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  111 
lencrth,  and  arc  found  generally  in  hilly  countries,  where  they  live  in 
burrows,  and  feed  upon  insects,  principally  Ants  and  Termites,  \vliirli 
they  capture  by  the  protrusion  of  their  long  sticky  tongues.  _  They 
are  slow,  dull,  nocturnal  animals,  but  exhibit  a  wonderful  activity  m 
dig<nn'-  for  which  their  powerful  claws  are  admirably  adapted. 
When  surprised,  they  either  make  their  escape  by  burrowing  into 
the  earth,  or  roll  themselves  up  in  the  manner, of  a  Hedgehog,  so  as 
to  expose  their  spiny  covering  to  the  enemy.  ' 

The  Great  Ant-Eater  has  been  already  described  at  page  212, 
ante,  among  the  Edentata. 

.Order  H.— Marsupialia. 

GENERiiL  Characters.— This  order  includes  a  considerable 
number  of  species,  the  majority  of  which  are  inhabitants  of  Austra- 
lia, although  a  few  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  America  They 
exhibit  a  great  variety  of  structure  and  habit ;  and  the  families  into 
which  they  are  divided  often  differ  from  each  other  as  much  as  the 
orders  of  the  Placental  Mammalia.  Thus  the  arrangement  arid 
form  of  the  teeth,  and  the  structure  of  the  extremities,  vary  exceed- 
ingly in  the  different  families  ;  and  these  subordinate  groups  are 
here  often  distinguished  by  characters  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
orders  of  the  higher  forms.  .        •  ,     ■,  v     ., 

From  these  the  Marsupialia  are  of  course  distinguished  by  the 
characters  already  given  for  the  sub-class;  and  their  principal 
points  of  difference  from  the  Mottotremata  may  be  given  in  a  few 
words  One  of  the  most  important  consists  in  the  separation  of  the 
orifices  of  the  urino-gerital  apparatus  and  alimentary  canal,  which 
no  loncrer  discharge  themselves  into  a  common  cloaca.  Ano  her 
character  is  the  possession  by  the  female  of  a  more  or  ess  complete 
pouch,  situated  in  the  under-part  of  the  abdomen,  within  which  the 
teats  are  inclosed,  and  which  serves  for  the  protection  of  the  imma- 
ture voun<T.  Here  they  remain  suspended  to  the  teats  during  the 
earliest  periods  of  their  existence,  and  in  many  cases  they  also  re- 
treat to  this  natural  shelter  when  alarmed,  long  after  tfy  have 
begun  to  lead  an  independent  life,  as  will  be  subsequently  illustrated 
under  the  ^description  of  the  Kangaroo.  The  marsupial  bones  are 
thus  called  into  requisition  for  the  support  of  the  sac,  with  its  con- 
ained  young  ones;  but  we  nevertheless  find  these  bones  in  the 
r^ales,  in  which  no  such  office  is  to  be  performed.  It  is  found  a  so, 
that  the  mammary  organs  in  the  female  marsupial  animals  are  fur- 
nished with  pecu'7ar  muscles,  destined,  ^7  their  contmc  ion  to  pro- 
mote the  flow  of  milk  into  the  stomach  of  the  y°""£-  ^f 'f 'iJ"^  'fj*^ 
early  ages  appear  not  to  possess  the  strength  requisite  to  obum 
this  noSrishment  by  the  ordinary  process  of  mucking.  f^^'-^^^^ 

able,  also,  that  in  order  to  provide  the  young  f '""^i^' .^ '* ',';^^^„"^e^! 
of  breathing  whilst  engaged  in  this  perpetual   and,  to  ^  '^^/'^  °  "^ 
tent,  involuntary  sucking,  the  larynx  is  prolonged  "P^^^rds  to  tne 
aperture  of  the  posterior  nares,  where  it  is  embraced  by   he  soft 

tk  Ln^arrangemenPt  as  the  above  sUl^^^more^.n^^^^^^^^^^^ 

The  skull  IS  very  variable  >°  fo"^"?'  ^'^^  ^^^^  ^^ys  f'urnished  with 


3S6 


THE   WOMBAT— THE  KANGAROOS. 


eluded  by  the  zygomatic  arch.  The  external  ears  are  always  pre- 
sent, and  often  greatly  developed  ;  and,  lastly,  the  arrangement  of 
the  bones  of  the  scapular  arch  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordmary 
Mammalia. 

The  first  traces  of  the  existence  of  Mammalia  upon  the  earth 
consist  of  the  fossil  remains  of  animals  of  this  order.  They  make 
their  first  appearance  in  the  Stonesfield  slate,  and  in  the  gypsum  of 
Paris  ;  so  that,  during  the  formation  of  these  strata,  that  part  of  the 
earth  which  we  now  call  Europe,  was  inhabited  by  animals  of  a  type 
that,  in  the  present  day,  is  entirely  confined  to  Australia,  a  few  of 
the  Indian  islands,  and  America. 

Sub-divisions.— The  Marsiipialia  may  be  divided  into  two 
great  sections— the  Phytophagous,  or  plant-eating,  and  the  Rapa- 
cious, or  Carnivorous,  and  Insectivorous  groups.  These  two  sections 
are  well  characterised  by  the  structure  and  arrangement  of  the 
teeth.  In  the  former  the  canine  teeth  are  small,  and  sometimes 
altogether  wanting  in  one  or  both  jaws  ;  the  incisors,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  large,  but  never  more  than  two  in  number  in  the  lower 
jaw,  and  the  molars  are  furnished  with  broad,  tubercular  crowns. 
This  section  includes  three  families. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  family  of  the  Phascolomydcs,  includmg 
only  a  single  species,  the  curious  Wombat  {Phascolomys  fossor),  an 
inhabitant  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  the  small  islands  in  Bass's 
Straits. 

The  Wombat  {Phascolomys  fossor ;  Phascolomys  ■wombat, 
Peron  and  Lesueur  ;  Didelphis  ursifta,  Shaw).     (See  Fig.  919.) 


Fig.  919.— The  Womb.it. 

In  its  general  figure  the  Wombat  is  heavy  and  clumsy  :  the  limbs 
are  short  ;  the  muzzle  blunt ;  the  eyes  very  small  :  the  ears  short  and 
pointed;  the  nostrils  widely  separated  ;  the  tail  a  mere  tubercle. 
The  feet  are  broad  ;  the  fore-feet  have  five  toes,  with  strong  nails  for 
burrowing.  The  hind-feet  have  also  five  toes,  but  the  inner  is  merely 
a  little  nailless  tubercle.  The  teeth  are  formed  for  grinding  roots 
and  other  vegetable  matters.     (See  Fig.  920.) 

Dental  formula: — incisors,   _;  canines, -^^;  molars,  ?~j  =  24. 

2  0-0  5—5 

All  the  teeth  are  deeply  implanted,  and  hollow  at  the  base. 

The  fur  is  moderately  long  and  very  coarse,  indeed  almost  bristly ; 
the  general  tint  is  grizzled-brown,  or  grey,  mottled  with  dusky- 
black  ;  the  feet  are  black  ;  the  under-parts  of  the  body  dirty  white. 
The  tip  of  the  muzzle  is  naked.  Length  of  head  and  body,  from  two 
to  three  feet.  The  first  account  is  in  Lieut. -Col.  CoUins's  work  ("  Ac- 
count of  the  English  Colony  in  New  South  Wales,"  1802),.  where 
there  is  an  excellent  description,  an  error  as  regards  the  dentition 
of  the  animal  excepted.  The  details  were  furnished  by  Mr.  Bass, 
and  drawn  up  from  a  specimen  obtained  at  Preservation  Island,  and 
sent  to  the  Newcastle  museum. 

As  might  be  conjectured  from  its  clumsy  form  and  heavy  squat 
proportions,  the  Wombat  is  slow  and  indolent.  It  lives  in  burrows, 
which  it  excavates  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  in  which  it  quietly 
reposes  during  the  day,  being  nocturnal  in  its  habits.  Its  food  is 
exclusively  vegetable.  Its  temper  is  placid  ;  but  its  intelligence  is 
at  a  low  ratio.  When  provoked  it  utters  a  hissing  sound.  Its  flesh 
is  said  to  be  excellent. 

In  captivity  the  Wombat  is  perfectly  contented  ;  it  passes  the  day 
in  sleep,  covered  over  by  straw  or  other  materials  ;   it  feeds  during 


the  night,  and  in  the  morning  resumes  its  tranquil  slumber.  Mr.  G. 
Bennett,  in  his  "Wanderings,"  notices  one  of  these  animals  which 
was  kept  at  Been,  in  the  Tumat  country,  in  a  state  of  domestication. 
"  It  would  remain  in  its  habitation  till  dark  ;  it  would  then  come  out 
and  seek  for  the  milk-vessels,  and  should  none  be  uncovered  it  would 
contrive  to  get  off  the  covers,  and  bathe  itself  in  the  milk,  drinking 


Fig.  920. — Teeth  of  Wombat. 

at  the  same  time.  It  would  also  enter  the  little  vegetable  garden 
attached  to  the  station,  in  search  of  lettuces,  for  which  it  evinced 
much  partiality.  If  none  could  be  found,  it  would  gnaw  the  cab- 
bage-stalks without  touching  the  foliage.  Although  these  animals 
were  numerous  in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  colony,  they  are 
difficult  to  procure,  from  the  great  depth  to  which  they  burrow." 
According  to  Mr.  Bass,  though  its  disposition  is  gentle,  yet  it  bites, 
and  is  furious  if  provoked,  and  then  utters  a  low  cry  between  a  hiss- 
ing and  a  whizzing  sound.  Mr.  Bass  chased  one  of  these  animals, 
and  lifted  it  off  the  ground,  carrying  it  for  upwards  of  a  mile  without 
its  exhibiting  any  discomposure,  though  it  was  often  shifted  from  arm 
to  arm.  When,  however,  he  proceeded  to  secure  the  animal  by  tying 
its  legs,  while  he  left  it  in  order  to  cut  a  specimen  of  a  new  wood,  it 
became  irritated,  w-hizzed,  kicked,  and  scratched  with  all  its  might, 
and  snapped  off  a  piece  of  Mr.  Bass's  jacket  with  its  powerful  in- 
cisors. The  creature,  whose  temper  was  now  ruffled,  continued  dur- 
ing all  the  rest  of  the  way  to  the  boat  to  kick  and  struggle,  and  only 
ceased  from  exhaustion.  According  to  the  natives,  the  Wombat, 
among  the  mountains  westward  of  Port  Jackson,  never  comes  out  of 
its  burrow  to  feed  till  night,  but  in  the  islands  it  is  seen  to  feed  dur- 
ing all  parts  of  the  day.  The  stomachs  of  such  as  Mr.  Bass 
examined  were  distended  with  coarse  wiry  grass  ;  but  these  speci- 
mens were  living  on  the  islands ;  and  as  such  grass  is  not  found  in 
the  hilly  districts  of  the  mainland,  he  concludes  that  the  animal 
lives  upon  the  sorts  of  vegetable  that  circumstances  present  to  it. 
He  observed  this  animal  on  some  occasions  among  the  dry  ricks  of 
seaweed  thrown  up  upon  the  shores,  but  could  never  discover  what 
it  was  in  search  of.  Its  pace  is  a  sort  of  hobble,  something  like  the 
awkward  gait  of  a  Bear.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  Wombat 
might  easily  be  naturalised  in  our  island  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
In  1879,  living  specimens  of  the  common  Wombat,  and  of  the 
Platyrhine  Wombat  {P.  platyrkinus)  were  in  the  collection  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park,  London. 

The  Macropodid^,  or  Kangaroos. 

The  second  family  of  the  Marsiipialia  is  that  of  the  Macropo- 
didcB  {macros  long,  and  pous  foot,  both  terms  being  derived  from 
the  Greek,  and  genus  Macropus),  or  Kangaroos,  which  are  at 
once  distinguished  among  the  Marsupials  by  the  structure  of  the 
hind-legs.  These  organs  are  exceedingly  long  and  powerful  ;  and 
the  feet,  being  much  elongated,  rest  with  their  whole  sole  upon  the 
ground ;  the  fore-legs,  on  the  contrary,  are  very  short,  and  are  of 
little  use  to  the  animal  in  progression,  its  movements  consisting  in 


C.3 

<=> 

cx: 

-a: 


J 


I 


«.-    .*A^   .    ^- 


358 


THE  KANGAROOS. 


The  Great  Kangaroo  (the  Boomer,  Forester,  and  Old  Man  Kan- 
garoo of  the  Colonists  ;  Bundaary  of  the  Aborigines)  is  extensively 
spread  in  Australia,  the  intermediate  country  between  New  South 
Wales  and  South  Australia,  and  also  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  or 
Tasmania.  It  was  first  discovered  by  the  celebrated  navigator 
Captain  Cook  in  1770,  while  stationed  on  the  coast  of  New  South 
Wales. 

The  Great  Kangaroo  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  gregarious  ;  more 
than  si.x  or  eight  are  seldom  seen  together  ;  most  frequently  it  is 
met  with  singly,  or  in  pairs.  The  kind  of  country  which  it  prefers 
consists  of  low  grassy  hills  and  plains,  skirted  by  thin  open  forests 
of  brushwood,  to  which  Wx.  Gould  says  it  resorts  for  shelter  from  the 
oppressive  heat  of  the  mid-day  sun.  That  it  would  bear,  if  natural- 
ised, the  severities  of  our  winter,  is  beyond  a  doubt,  since  in  Tas- 
mania, among  other  places,  it  resorts  to  the  bleak,  wet,  and  fre- 
quently snow-capped  summit  of  Mount  Wellington. 

The  male  greatly  exceeds  the  female  in  size,  measuring  7  feet  10 
inches  from  the  nose  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  the  length  of  the 
latter  being  little  more  than  three  feet.  Instances  have  occurred  of 
the  weight  being  220  pounds.  The  general  colour  is  uniform  grey- 
ish-brown, grizzled  on  the  arm  and  under-surface.  A  whitish  mark 
runs  above  the  upper  lip,  and  is  faintly  traceable  along  the  sides  of 
the  face.  The  hands,  feet,  and  tip  of  the  tail  are  black.  (See  Fig.  922.) 


Fig.  922. — Great  Kangaroo. 

The  Kangaroo  readily  takes  to  the  water,  and  swims  well.  It 
often  resorts  to  this  mode  of  escaping  from  enemies,  among  which 
is  the  Dingo,  or  Australian  Dog.  Man,  however,  is  the  most  unre- 
lenting foe  of  this  inoffensive  animal.  The  native  employs  several 
modes  of  obtaining  it.  Sometimes  he  steals  upon  it,  under  the 
covert  of  the  trees  and  bushes,  till  within  range  of  his  unerring 
spear.  Sometimes  numbers  of  men  unite  in  a  large  party,  and, 
forming  a  circle,  gradually  close  in  upon  the  animals  with  shouts 
and  yells,  by  which  the  animals  are  so  terrified  and  confused,  that 
they  easily  become  victims  to  the  bommerangs,  clubs,  and  spears 
which  are  directed  from  all  sides  against  them.  The  colonist  era- 
ploys  the  gun,  and  a  breed  of  Dogs  between  the  Greyhound  and 
Bulldog,  fierce,  powerful,  and  very  fleet  for  the  course.  ''Many  of 
these  Dogs,"  says  Mr.  Gould,  "are  kept  at  the  stock-stations  of 
the  interior  for  the  sole  purpose  of  running  the  Kangaroo  and  the 
Emu."  The  latter  is  killed  solely  for  the  supply  of  oil  which  it 
yields,  and  the  former  for  mere  sport,  or  for  food  for  the  Dogs. 
"Although,"  he  adds,  "  I  have  killed  the  largest  males  with  a  sin- 
gle Dog,  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  this,  as  they  possess  great 
power,  and  frequently  rip  up  the  Dogs,  and  sometimes  cut  them  to 
the  heart  with  a  single  stroke  of  the  hind-leg.  Three  or  four  Dogs 
are  generally  laid  on,  one  of  superior  fieetness  to  j)uU  the  Kan- 
garoo, while  the  others  rush  in  upon  and  kill  it.  It  sometimes 
adopts  a  singular  mode  of  defending  itself  by  clasping  its  short  but 
powerful  arms  around  its  antagonist,  leaping  away  with  it  to  the 
nearest  water-hole,  and  there  keeping  it  beneath  the  surface  until 


drowned.  With  Dogs  the  old  males  will  do  this  whenever  they 
have  an  opportunity,  and  it  is  also  said  they  will  attempt  the  same 
with  man." 

In  Tasmania  the  Great  Kangaroo  is  regularly  hunted  with  Hounds, 
as  the  Deer  or  Fox  in  England.  The  sport  is  said  to  be  excellent. 
Mr.  Gregson  says,  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Gould,  "  I  recollect  one  day  in 
particular,  when  a  very  fine  Boomer  jumped  up  in  the  very  middle 
of  the  Hounds,  in  the  open.  He  at  first  took  a  few  high  jumps  with 
his  head  up,  and  then,  without  a  moment's  hesitation,  he  stooped 
forward,  and  shot  away  from  the  Hounds  apparently  without  effort, 
and  gave  us  the  longest  run  I  ever  saw  after  a  Kangaroo.  He  ran 
fourteen  miles  by  the  map,  from  point  to  point,  and  if  he  had  had 
fair  play,  I  have  little  doubt  that  he  would  have  beat  us.  But  he  had 
taken  along  a  tongue  of  land  that  ran  into  the  sea,  so  that  on  being 
hard  pressed,  he  was  forced  to  try  to  swim  across  the  arm  of  the 
sea,  which  cannot  have  been  less  than  two  miles  broad.  In  spite  of 
a  fresh  breeze,  and  a  head-sea  against  him,  he  got  fully  half-way 
over ;  but  he  could  not  make  head  against  the  waves  any  farther, 
and  was  obliged  to  turn  back,  when,  being  quite  exhausted,  he  was 
soon  killed.  The  distance  he  ran,  taking  the  different  bends  of  the 
line,  was  not  less  than  eighteen  miles."  He  was  far  before  the 
Hounds,  and  quite  fresh  when  he  took  to  the  water.  His  hind-quar- 
ters weighed  nearly  seventy  pounds.  "  We  did  not  measure  the 
distance  of  the  hop  of  this  Kangaroo  ;  but  on  another  occasion,  in 
which  the  Boomer  had  taken  along  the  beach,  and  left  his  prints  in 
the  sand,  the  length  of  each  jump  was  found  to  be  fifteen  feet,  and 
as  regular  as  if  they  had  been  stepped  by  a  sergeant.  When  a 
Boomer  is  pressed,  he  is  very  apt  to  take  to  the  water,  and  then  it 
requires  several  good  Dogs  to  kill  him  ;  for  he  stands  waiting  for 
them,  and  as  they  swim  up  to  the  attack,  he  takes  hold  of  them 
with  his  fore-feet  and  holds  them  under  water.  The  buck  is  very 
bold,  and  will  generally  make  a  stout  resistance ;  for,  if  he  cannot 
get  to  the  water,  he  will  place  his  back  against  a  tree,  so  that  he 
cannot  be  attacked  from  Ijehind,  and  then  the  best  Dog  will  find  him 
a  formidable  antagonist.  The  doe,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  very  timid 
creature  ;  and  I  have  even  seen  one  die  of  fear." 

The  period  of  gestation  in  the  Kangaroo  is  thirty-nine  days.  The 
appearances  presented  by  the  young  one  twelve  hours  after  birth, 
and  adhering  to  the  teat  of  the  mother,  within  the  pouch,  are  thus 
described  by  Prof.  Owen  : — "  It  resembled  an  earth-worm  in  the 
colour  and  semi-transparency  of  its  integument,  adhered  firmly  to 
the  point  of  the  nipple,  breathed  strongly  but  slowly,  and  moved  its 
fore-legs  when  disturbed.  Its  body  was  bent  upon  the  abdomen,  its 
short  tail  tucked  in  between  the  hind-legs,  which  were  one-third 
shorter  than  the  fore-legs,  but  with  the  three  divisions  of  the  toes 
now  distinct.  The  whole  length,  from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the 
tail,  when  stretched  out,  did  not  exceed  one  inch  and  two  lines." 
Though  enabled  by  means  of  its  lips  to  grasp  the  nipple  with  con- 
siderable firmness,  the  unaided  efforts 
t  of  the  young  one  could  not  draw  nutri- 

ment thence,  and  consequently  the  mam- 
mary gland  is  acted  upon  by  a  peculiar 
muscle,  which,  compressing  it,  forces  out 
the  milk  into  the  mouth  of  the  young,  as 
has  been  already  explained.  The  following 
cuts  represent  the  peculiar  arrangement 
by  which  the  sucking  of  the  young  is  thus 
facilitated.     (See  Figs.  923,  924.) 

"Thus  aided  and  protected  by  modifi- 
cations of  structure,"  remarks  Professor 
Owen,  "  both  in  the  system  of  the  mother 
and  in  its  own,  designed  with  especial 
reference  to  each  other's  peculiar  con- 
dition, and  affording,  therefore,  the  most 
irrefragable  evidence  of  creative  foresight, 
the  feeble  offspring  continues  to  increase 
from  sustenance  exclusively  derived  from 
the  mother  for  a  period  of  about  eight 
months.  The  young  Kangaroo  may 
then  be  seen  frequently  to  protrude  its 
the   pouch,   and    \.o_  crop   the  grass   at 


Fi.?.  923.— Outline  of  the 
Kangaroo  about  twelve 
hours  after  birth,  showing 
its  natural  size  and  exter- 
nal development  at  this 
period.  a,  the  upper 
nipple  of  the  left  side,  to 
which  it  was  attached ; 
b,  the  lower  nipple  of  the 
same  side. 

head  from   the  mouth   of 


the  same  time  that  the  mother  is  browsing.  Having  thus  acquired 
additional  strength,  it  quits  the  pouch,  and  hops  at  first  with  a 
feeble  and  vacillating  gait,  but  continues  to  return  to  the  pouch 


Fig. 


924. — I.  Dissected  Head  of  Mammary  Foetus  of  a  Kangaroo.    2.   Teat  of 
the  Mother  :   the  mark  shows  how  far  it  is  taken  in  by  the  young. 


3=- 


V*- 


THE  KANGAROOS. 


359 


for  occasional  shelter  and  supplies  of  food  till  it  has  attained 
the  weight  of  ten  pounds.  After  this  it  will  occasionally  insert  its 
head  for  the  purpose  of  sucking,  notwithstanding  another  foetus  may 
have  been  deposited  in  the  pouch,  for  the  latter,  as  we  have  seen, 
attaches  itself  to  a  different  nipple  from  the  one  which  had  been 
previously  in  use." 

The  following  cut  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  Kangaroo  in  an 
upright  position,  which  may  be  compared  with  that  in  a  bent  form, 
given  in  Fig.  921,  ante,  by  which  the  peculiarities  of  the  structure  of 
the  Kangaroos,  as  contrasted  with  all  other  forms  of  ihe.  Mammalia, 
will  be  further  illustrated. 


Fig.  925. — Skeleton  of  Great  Kangaroo. 


In  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  London,  there  were 
(1879)  """^  following  specimens  of  living  Kangaroos — viz., ^Bennett's 
Kangaroo,  Halinaturus  bennetti ;  the  Derbyan  Kangaroo,  Hal- 
viatu7-iis  derb/'amis ;  the  Great  Kangaroo,  Macropus  gjgas,  or 
giganteiis ;  the  Black-faced  Kangaroo,  ]\Iacj-opiis  inelaiiops ;  the 
Red  Kangaroo,  IMacropus  riifus;  and  the  Yellow-footed  Rock- 
Kangaroo,  Pcfrogale  xanthopus.  Most  of  these  have  bred  in  the 
Gardens.  The  Rock-Kangaroos  differ  from  the  ordinary  forms  in 
the  structure  of  their  feet,  which  are  adapted  to  their  rock-loving 
habits,  and  in  their  bushy  dangling  tails.  About  si.x  species  of  this 
genus  occur  in  different  parts  of  Australia,  amongst  which  the  most 
elegantly  marked  is  certainly  the  Yellow-footed  Rock-Kangaroo  of 
South  Australia. 

The  KiVNGAROO  Rat,  or  Potoroo  {Hypsiprymnus  murinus, 
Pander  and  D'Alton). — The  Bettong  of  the  natives  of  New  South 
Wales. 

It  is  principally  in  their  dentition,  and  in  the  elongated  narrow 
form  of  the  head,  that  the  little  animals  of  the  genus  Hypsiprymnus 
differ  from  the  Kangaroos.     There  are  canines  in  the  upper  jaw. 

The  dental  formula  is  as  follows  (see  Fig.  928)  : — Incisors,  —  ;     ca- 

2 

nines,     ~    ;    molars,  ill5  =  30.      Fig.  937  represents  the  skull, 

the  elongated  contour  of  which  is  very  conspicuous,  resembling  the 
peculiar  structure  of  the  Rndentia. 

The  Potoroo  (the  Macropus  minor  of  Shaw;  H.  sefosiis  of 
Ogilby  ;  H.  peronii,  Quoy  and  Gaimard)  is  about  the  size  of  a 
Rabbit,  measuring  fifteen  inches  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  the  latter  being  ten  inches  and  a-half  in  length.  The  general 
colour  of  the  fur  is  brown;  on  the  back  blackish,  pencilled  with 
brownish-white.  Lips,  chin,  throat,  and  under-parts  of  the  body 
dirty-white  ;  fore-feet  brown  ;  ears  rounded,  and  well  covered  with 
hair  ;  tail  scaled,  and  sparingly  clothed  with  short  decumbent  hairs, 
which  (excepting  at  the  base  and  extreme  point)  are  of  a  black 
colour  on  the  upper  part  and  sides  of  the  tail.     The  hairs  on  the 


under-side  are  brown  :   and  at  the  tip  there  are  a  few  dirty-white 
hairs. 

The  Potoroo  is  common  in  New  South  Wales.     It  is  timid  and  in- 
offensive, feeding  on  vegetables,  and  proceeding  in  the  manner  of 


Fig.  926. — Kangaroo  Rat. 


Fig.  927. — Skull  of  Kangaroo  Rat. 


Fig.  92S. — Teeth  of  Kangaroo  Rat. 

the  Kangaroo.  Of  its  habits  little  is  known.  It  frequents  the  pre- 
cincts  of  scrubs  and  patches  of  brushwood,  and  scratches  up  the 
crround  in  quest  of  roots.  These  animals  are  found  to  be  very 
destructive  to  the  potato  crops,  and  are  thus  easily  caught  by 
baiting  the  trap  with  this  vegetable.  The  above  cuts  represent  the 
Kangaroo  Rat,  its  skull  and  teeth  (Figs.  926—928). 

The  Tree  Kangaroos,  of  the  genus  De?idroIagns,  of  which 
some  species  are  found  in  New  Guinea,  differ  from  the  rest  of  the 
family,  consequent  on  their  habit  of  living  in  trees.  Their  size 
varies  greatly!  some  of  the  largest  species  being  over  four  feet  in 
length  in  the  body,  while  the  smallest  are  about  the  size  of  the 
Kangaroo  Rat,  just  described. 


'360 


THE  PHALANGERS. 


The  Phalangers. — Family  Phalangisiid^. 

The  third  and  last  family  of  the  Phytophagus  Marsupials,  is  that 
of  the  Phalangistidcr,  or  Phalangers,  which  resemble  the  Kanga- 
roos to  a  considerable  extent  in  their  dentition,  but  differ  from  these 
in  their  complete  adaptation  for  an  arboreal  existence.  The 
stomach,  unlike  that  of  the  Kangaroos,  is  simple  in  its  construc- 
tion, and  the  intestine  is  furnished  with  a  very  long  cfficum.     The 


Ogilby)  has  the  tail  less  densely  clothed  than  in  Phala^igista 
proper  :  the  apical  portion  is  naked  beneath  ;  the  fore-feet,  with  the 
two  united  inner  toes,  slightly  opposed  to  the  others. 

Besides  these  are  the  Flying  Phalangers,  constituting  a  distinct 
genus,  Petaiiriis.  The  true  Phalangers,  of  which  we  illustrate  the 
Sooty  Tapoa  (see  Fig.  929),  and  the  Vulpine  Phalanger  {Pk.  vul- 
^ina)  (see  Fig.  931),  are  animals  of  arboreal  habits,  residing  almost 
constantly  among  the  branches.  Their  food  consists  principally  of 
fruits,   buds,   leaves,   &c.,  but  insects,  eggs,  &c.,  are  also  eaten. 


Fig.  929. — Sooty  Tapoa. 

tail  is  usually  very  long  ;  but  in  one  genus,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
reduced  to  a  mere  rudiment.  The  following  description  affords  the 
chief  characteristics  of  the  species  of  this  family. 

The  Sooty  Tapoa  {Phala7igista  fuiiginosa). — This  animal  pre- 
sents us  with  the  example  of  a  group  termed  Phalangers  (genus  Pha- 
langista)  ;  but  they  are  often  erroneously  called  Opossums  by  travel- 
lers and  persons  not  conversant  with  Natural  History.    (See  Fig.  929.) 

The  Phalangers  of  Australia  have  six  incisors  above,  of  which  the 
two  middle  are  the  largest ;  and  in  the  lower  jaw  are  two  long  ob- 
liquely projecting  incisors,  which  are  met  by  the  corresponding 
incisors  on  each  side.  There  is  a  small  canine  on  each  side  in  the 
upper  jaw  only.  The  molars  on  each  side,  above  and  below,  are 
five,  of  which  the  first  is  a  false  molar.  These  are  the  constant 
teeth  ;  but  besides  there  are,  in  some  species,  little  additional  molars, 
sometimes  canine-like  molars,  in  front  of  the  contiguous  and  con- 
stant series.  The  number  of  these  additional  teeth  varies  in  the 
same  individual  on  different  sides  of  the  jaw.     Dental  formula: — 

Incisors,  _ ;  canines,  ^—^■,  molars,  5jl5  .    additional    inconstant 
2  0-0  5-5 


molars, 


2-2 


(See  Fig.  930.)    The  head 


3-3  l-I  2- 

is  somewhat  elongated,  the  forehead  slightly  arched  ;  the  mouth 
moderate.  The  feet  have  five  toes  ;  those  of  the  fore-feet  are  armed 
with  strong  hooked  claws  ;  those  of  the  hind-feet  consist  of  four 
true  toes,  and  a  large  thumb  destitute  of  a  nail,  and  very  distinct 
from  the  rest,  of  which  the  two  innermost  are  shorter  than  the  two 
outermost,  and  are  united  together  to  the  base  of  the  claws.  The 
tail  is  long  and  prehensile,  well  furred,  excepting  at  the  extreme 
point  and  part  of  the  apical  portion  beneath,  which  is  bare  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  We  may  here  observe  that  the  Phalangers 
form  three  sections,  or  sub-genera.  The  first  {Pka!a»gisfa)  is  ex- 
clusively Australian,  and  has  the  tail  naked  beneath  only  at  the  tip. 
The  second  section  comprehends  a  group  {Cuscus),  distinguished 
by  having  the  tail  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  beneath 
naked,  scaly,  and  highly  prehensile.  The  ears  are  short  and  close. 
These  animals  inhabit  the  Celebes  and  Moluccas,  where  they  are 
called  Couscous,  or  CoSscoes.      The  third  group  {Pseudocheirus, 


Fig-  930.— Teeth  of  Sooty  Tapoa. 

Night  is  their  season  of  activity ;  during  the  day  they  conceal  them- 
selves in  the  hollows  of  trees,  or  lie  close  on  the  branches,  hidden 
by  the  foliage.  The  number  of  young  which  the  females  produce  at 
a  birth  appears  to  be  two,  at  least  if  the  account  of  Mr.  Bennett 
(see  "Wanderings  in  New  South  Wales")  is  to  be  taken  as  a  cri- 
terion. He  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  was  present  when  a 
number  of  Flying  Squirrels  (viz.,  Flying  Phalangers),  Opossums 
(Phalangers),  Bandicoots,  Snakes,  &c.,  were  caught  by  the  natives 
during  what  he  terms  a  hunting  expedition,  and  that  one  of  the 
Opossums  among  the  game  was  a  female,  and  had  two  large-sized 
young  ones  in  her  pouch. 

Though  the  Phalangers  are  at  ease  among  the  branches,  the 
motions  of  these  animals,  generally  speaking,  are  not  distinguished 
by  that  nimbleness  and  rapidity  which  we  so  much  admire  in  the 
Squirrel.  On  the  contrary,  their  motions  are  slow  and  cautious,  and 
they  use  their  prehensile  tail  as  an  additional  security.  When  in 
danger  of  discovery,  they  are  said  to  suspend  themselves  by  the  tail, 
hanging,  head  downwards,  motionless  as  if  dead  ;  and  this  is  more 
remarkably  the  case  with  the  Couscous  of  the  Moluccas.  It  is, 
indeed,  reported,  that  if  a  man  fix  his  eyes  on  one  thus  counterfeit- 
ing death,  it  will  continue  to  hang  till,  no  longer  able  to  sustain  the 
weight,  the  muscles  of  the  tail  relax  with  extreme  fatigue,  and  the 
animal  falls  to  the  ground.  Few  animals  have  more  soft  and  deli- 
cately woolly  fur  than  the  Phalangers  ;  their  skins  are  consequently 
highly  prized  by  the  Aborigines,  as  well  as  their  flesh,  which  is  eaten 
with  avidity,  and  doubtless  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  Kangaroo. 

Like  many  of  the  Marsupials,  the  Phalangers  have  an  unpleasant 
smell,  owing  to  a  fluid  secreted  in  certain  glands ;  but  this  does  not 
affect  the  delicacy  and  flavour  of  the  flesh. 

In  captivity  the  Phalangers  are  not  very  attractive  :  during  the 
day  they  slumber  concealed  among  the  hay  or  other  bedding  of  their 
cage,  shrouding  themselves  from  observation,  and  are  impatient  of 
interruption  ;  they  do  not,  however,  attempt  to  bite,  and  appear  as 
stupid  as  they  are  sluggish  :  their  form,  however,  is  graceful,  and 
their  fur  sets  them  off  to  much  advantage.  When  feeding,  they  sit 
up  like  the  Squirrel,  holding  the  article  of  which  they  are  partaking 
between  the  fore-paws.  During  the  night  they  traverse  their  cage, 
take  their  food,  and  enjoy  the  active  hours  of  their  existence.  We 
know  of  no  instance  in  which  they  have  bred  in  Europe  ;  but  as  the 
Kangaroo  produces  young  in  our  climate,  it  is  not  improbable  that, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  these  animals  also  might  multiply 


THE  PHALANGERS. 


in  our  extensive  menageries,  especially  as  tliey  appear  to  bear  our 
climate  very  well,  care  being'  taken  against  their  exposure  to  the 
severities  of  the  weather. 

The  following  description  of  the  Sooty  Tapoa  was  taken  from  a 
living  specimen  : — "  The  shape  and  proportions  of  Phalaiigista 
fiiligiiiosa  are  those  of  the  Phal.  viilpina;  the  ears  are  also  of 
similar  shape  and  size,  hairy  on  the  outsides,  but  naked  within. 
The  colour  is  a  uniform  sooty-brown  over  all  parts  of  the  head  and 
body,  not  even  excepting  the  belly  and  the  inner  surface  of  the 
thighs.  The  hair  has  a  frizzled  appearance,  but  it  is  not  so  close 
nor  so  fine  as  in  Phal.  viilpina.  The  tail  is  long,  black,  and  rather 
bushy;  the  naked  slip  underneath,  as  well  as  the  nose  and  soles  of 
the  feet,  which  are  also  naked,  is  of  a  bright  flesh  colour.  The 
moustaches  are  large,  stiff,  and  black."  The  individual  was  said 
to  have  been  brought  from  Sydney.  In  the  museum  of  the  Zoologi- 
cal Society,  and  in  their  gardens  at  Regent's  Park,  are  specimens 
of  the  Phalangers. 

The  Vulpine  Phalanger  {Phalaiigista  vulpina).—Oi  all  the 
species  the  Vulpine  Phalanger  is  probably  the  most  carnivorous. 
The  female  is  destitute  of  a  true  pouch,  and  the  teats  are  two  in 
number.  The  Vulpine  Phalanger  is  about  the  size  of  a  Cat ;  in 
captivity  it  displays  but  little  to  interest  ordinary  observers,  the  day 
being  passed  in  sleep ;  nor,  when  roused  up  by  the  approach  of 
night,  is  it  remarkable  for  activity  or  alertness.  Its  fur  is  soft,  fine, 
and  woolly  ;  the  predominating  tint  is  greyish-brown,  passing  into  a 
yellowish-grey  on  the  shoulders  ;  the  tail  is  covered  with  long 
black  fur,  excepting  along  a  line  on  the  under-side  at  the  tip, 
which  is  naked.  It  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  and  also  of 
Tasmania,  where  it  is  common.  The  tint  of  colouring  is  subject  to 
considerable  variation  as  respects  intensity,  intermediate  shades 
being'  obsen-able  between  the  ordinary  grey  specimens  and  the  Sooty 
Tapoa,  which  is  regarded  as  a  distinct  species.  The  native  name 
of  the  Vulpine  Phalanger,  according  to  White,  is  JV/ia  tapoa  roo. 
(See  Fig.  931.) 


361 


F'S-  93'' — Vulpine  Phalanger. 

The  Spotted  Couscous  {Cuscus  maculatus.  Cusacs  amioi- 
nensis,  Lacep. ;  Phalaiigista  maculata,  GeofTr.) — This  species  is 
a  native  of  the  Islands  of  Amboina  and  New  Guinea,  where  it  is 
called  Couscous,  or  Coescoes.  M.  Lesson  found  it  at  Waigiou, 
where  it  is  called  Scham-scham.  It  is  arboreal,  and  its  flesh  is  in 
request,  being  esteemed  as  delicate  food  by  the  natives.  In  colour- 
ing this  animal  is  subject  to  much  variation  ;  generally  the  ground- 
tint  is  whitish,  ornamented  with  isolated  brown  spots  ;  these  some- 
times blend  or  run  into  each  other.  The  fur  is  thick  and  woolly. 
(See  Fig.  932.) 

The  Squirrel  Petaurus  [Petauriis  sciiireus). — This  creature 
belongs  to  a  group  of  beautiful  animals,  bearing  the  same  relation- 
ship to  the  Phalangers  that  the  Flying  Squirrels  do  to  the  ordinary 
Squirrels.  (See  Fig.  933.)  They  constitute  the  genus  Petaurus, 
sub-divided  into  some  minor  sections,  according  to  certain  modifi- 
cations of  dentition.  In  the  section  termed  Belideus,  to  which  the 
Squirrel  Petaurus  belongs,  the  dental  formula  stands  thus  : — 

Dental  formula  : — Incisors,  — ;   canines,  -^^ ;  false  molars,  ^ — =?; 

2  0-0  4-4 

true  molars,  ini:  =  40. 
4-4 
In  the  figure  of  the  teeth,  from  F.  Cuvier,  the  numbe'r  of  lower 


molar  teeth  (false  and  true)  only  amounts  to  five  on  each  side  ;  in 
other  pomts  also  he  is  erroneous.     (See  Fig.  934.) 

The  Pctauri,  or  Flying  Phalangers,  are  characterised  by  a  broad 
expansion  of  skin  on  cither  side  of  the  body  between  the  anterior 
and  posterior  limbs  ;  the  tail  is  free,  long,  and  destitute  of  prehen- 
sile power  ;  it  forms  a  balancer  to  the  body  in  the  flying  leaps  which 
these  animals  take,  and  perhaps  assists  them  in  modifying  the 
direction  of  their  career.  These  animals  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  and  feed  upon  fruit,  leaves,  and  insects.  During  the  day 
they  conceal  themselves  in  hollow  trees,  and  are  said  generally  to 
associate  in  small  flocks.  Their  aerial  evolutions,  when  the  shades 
of  evening  have  roused  them  to  activity,  are  described  as  being 
peculiarly  graceful,  and  their  leaps  apparently  desperate.  The 
Squirrel  Petaurus  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  genus.    It  is  a 


Fig.  932. — Spotted  Couscous. 


^''fy^m^ii'  /^ 


'i'ii,\ 


Fig.  933. — Squirrel  Petaurus. 

native  of  New  South  Wales,  and  is  called  by  the  colonists  the  Sugar 
Squirrel  and  Norfolk  Island  Flying  Squirrel.  We  have  seen 
two  of  these  animals  in  captivity  ;  during  the  day  they  remained  in 
a  state  of  torpidity,  rolled  up  in  a  bed  of  wool  and  soft  hay.  At 
night  they  became  animated,  and  traversed  their  cage  with  great 
rapidity,  leaping  from  one  part  to  another,  and  gambolling  in  the 
exuberance  of  a  sportive  disposition.  At  the  same  time  they  \yere 
timid,  and  by  no  means  remarkable  for  intelligence.  .'While  leaping, 
the  lateral  membranes  are  expanded  so  as  to  form  a  parachute. 
The  following  anecdote  serves  to  prove  both  the  daring  extent  of  the 
leaps  taken  by  these  animals,  and  the  power  they  certainly  possess 
of  turning  or  altering  their  course :—"  On  board  a  vessel  sailing 
off  the  coast  of  New  "Holland  was  a  Squirrel  Petaurus,  which  was 
permitted  to  roam  about  the  ship.     On  one  occasion  it  reached  the 

3  A 


362 


THE  BANDICOOTS. 


mast-head,  and  as  the  sailor  who  was  dispatched  to  bring-  it  down 
approached,  it  made  a  spring  from  aloft  to  avoid  him.  At  this  mo- 
ment the  ship  gave  a  heavy  lurch,  which,  if  the  original  direction  of 
the  little  creature's  course  had  been  continued,  must  have  plunged 
it  into  the  sea.     All  who  witnessed  the  scene  were  in  pain  for  its 


Fig.  934. — Teeth  of  Squirrel  Petaurus. 

safety  ;  but  it  suddenly  appeared  to  check  itself,  and  so  to  modify 
its  career,  that  it  alighted  safely  on  the  deck." 

The  Squirrel  Petaurus  is  about  eight  to  twelve  inches  long  in  the 
head  and  body,  and  as  much  in  the  tail.  The  fur  is  peculiarly  deli- 
cate and  soft ;  the  general  colour  above  is  fine  grey,  somewhat 
darker  on  the  head,  and  white  beneath.  A  black  line  passes  from 
the  point  of  the  nose  along  the  back  towards  the  full  furred  tail ; 
and  the  lateral  folds  of  skin  are  bounded  in  front  and  on  the  sides 
by  a  similar  band,  which  confounds  itself  gradually  with  the  grey  of 
the  body  :  the  outer  margins  of  these  expansions  are  fringed  with 
white.  The  thumbs  of  the  hind-feet  are  strong,  distinctly  oppos- 
able to  the  sole,  and  destitute  of  a  claw.  The  eyes  are  full  and 
large. 

The  Koala  {Phascolarctos  ci?tcreus ;  Lipurus  cinereiis,  Goldf.  ; 
Phase,  fuscus.  Desman  ;  Phase,  /lindcrsii.  Less.  ;  the  Ashy 
Koala). — This  extraordinary  animal  is  thick  and  stoutly  made,  with 
robust  limbs  and  powerful  claws  :  there  is  no  tail.  The  head  is 
large,  the  muzzle  blunt ;  and  the  naked  space  in  which  the  nostrils 
are  situated  is  continued  along  the  nasal  bones,  till  it  nearly  attains 
the  level  of  the  eyes.  The  ears  are  large,  standing  out  from  the 
sides  of  the  head,  and  tufted  with  long  full  fur ;  the  eyes  are  small. 
The  fore-feet  have  each  five  toes,  armed  with  large  sharp  claws  ; 
these  toes  are  divided  into  two  sots  ;  the  first  two  forming  a  pair  by 
themselves,  and  antagonising  with  the  other  three.  The  hind-feet 
have  also  five  toes^viz.,  a  large  and  powerful  thumb,  destitute  of  a 
nail,  and  well  padded  beneath,  and  four  strongly  clawed  toes,  of 
which  the  two  first,  as  in  the  Phalangers,  are  united  together  as  far 
as  the  last  joint.  It  may  be  here  remarked  that  in  some  of  the 
Phalangers  (as  Cook's  Phalanger,  &c.)  there  is  a  decided  tendency 
in  the  first  two  fingers  of  the  fore-paws  to  remain  distinct  and  sepa- 
rate from  the  rest.  The  dentition  approaches  closely  to  that  of  the 
Phalangers. 

Dental    formula  : — Incisors,     - ;  canines,  -— !■ ;    false    molars, 

2  0-0 

— ^  ;  true  molars,  'iHA  —  30. 
l-i  4-4 

The  Koala  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  but  does  not  appear 
to  be  very  abundant ;  at  least  it  is  seldom  seen  in  collections  of 
natural  objects  from  that  country.  In  its  habits  it  is  nocturnal  and 
arboreal  ;  it  climbs  with  great  facility,  and  in  passing  along  the 
branches  suspends  itself  like  a  Sloth  by  its  claws,  which  in  adults 
are  very  powerful.  The  female  carries  her  young  one,  when  able  to 
leave  the  pouch,  clinging  to  her  back,  and  long  continues  her  care 
of  it.  The  Koala,  however,  does  not  live  exclusively  on  the  trees  ; 
it  visits  the  ground,  and  there  burrows,  and  that  with  facility.  In 
the  cold  season  it  is  said  to  make  a  nest  in  its  underground  retreat, 


and  retiring  to  it  there  to  lie  dormant.  Its  food  is  entirely  vege- 
t.Tble,  and  consists,  in  part  at  least,  of  the  young  leaves  of  the  gum- 
trees  {Eiica/yptiis).  It  laps  like  a  Dog  when  drinking,  and  uses  its 
fore-paws  in  laying  hold  of  the  branches  while  it  feeds.  Its  voice  is 
a  soft  barking  sound.     On  the  ground  its  gait  resembles  that  of  a 


Fig.  935. — The  Koala. 

Bear.  Length  of  head  and  body  about  twenty-six  inches.  The  fur 
is  compact,  woolly,  and  of  an  ashy-grey,  patched  with  white  over 
the  crupper;  the  inside  ot  the  thighs  is  rusty-grey.  (See  Fig.  935.) 
The  colonists  term  this  animal  Native  Bear,  or  Monkey.  By  the 
Yas  natives  it  is  called  goribun,  and  by  them  its  flesh  is  highly  es- 
teemed. 

The  Bandicoois— Family  Peramelidcz. 

From  the  Phalangers,  of  which  most,  if  not  all,  subsist  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  upon  animal  food,  we  pass,  by  an  easy  transition,  to  the 
Rapacious  Marsupials.  These  are  at  once  distinguished  from  the 
vegetable  feeders  by  the  nature  of  their  dentition. 

The  form  of  the  molars  agrees  with  that  observed  in  the  Insecti- 
vorous Placental  Mammalia,  with  which  the  Bandicoots  seem  to 
correspond. 

The  structure  of  the  limbs  is  remarkable,  the  hind-legs  being 
much  longer  than  the  anterior  pair,  and  adapted  for  leaping,  like 
those  of  the  Kangaroos.  In  the  genus  Cliaroptis  this  number  is 
even  reduced  to  two.  In  the  hind-feet  the  inner  toe  is  rudimentary 
or  entirely  wanting  {Cheer opus);  the  second  and  third  are  com- 
pletely united,  and  the  two  outer  toes  are  the  largest,  and  separate. 

The  Bandicoots  arc  small  animals,  inhabiting  different  parts  of 
Australia  and  Tasmania.  They  are  nocturnal  animals,  digging 
themselves  burrows  in  the  soft  ground,  for  which  purpose  their  claws 
are  well  adapted  ;  and  from  this  circumstance,  and  the  unusual 
length  of  its  ears,  one  of  the  species  [P.  lagotis)  is  called  the 
"  Rabbit"  by  the  colonists  of  Swan  River.  The  flesh  of  the  animal 
is  said  to  resemble  that  of  the  Rabbit,  but  their  food  is  generally  of 
a  very  diff'erent  nature,  consisting  principally  of  insects  and  grubs, 
although  some  species  are  said  to  have  a  particular  predilection  for 
roots,  and  especially  bulbs.  Their  gait  consists  of  a  series  of  hops, 
in  which,  however,  they  are  said,  like  the  Rabbit,  to  use  their  fore- 
feet.    The  following  affords  a  description  of  some  of  the  species. 

The  Long-nosed  Bandicoot  {Pcrameles  nas2tfa). — The  Ban- 
dicoots, as  already  stated,  while  allied  in  the  structure  of  their 
organs  of  locomotion  to  the  Kangaroos,  yet  in  their  system  of  den- 
tition they  exhibit  a  remarkable  difference.  In  this  latter  point  they, 
in  some  respects,  approach  the  Opossums  {Didelphis).  Above,  the 
incisors  are  ten  in  number ;  of  these  the  outermost  on  each  side  is 
conical  and  apart  from  the  rest.  The  canines  are  curved  and  stand 
isolated  ;  the  molars  on  each  side  are  seven,  of  which  the  three  first 
are  false,  compressed,  and  sharp.  The  four  true  molars  are  crowned 
with  sharp  tubercles.  Below,  the  incisors  are  six  in  close  array,  and 
projecting  obliquely.  The  canines  and  molars  are  as  in  the  upper 
jaw. 

Dental  formula  :— incisors,  ~  ;  canines,  ^——  ;  molars,  "L^  =  48. 

6  i-l  7-7 

(See  Fig.  936.) 

The  general  contour  and  form  of  the  Bandicoots  is  Rabbit-like, 
but  the  muzzle  is  elongated,  narrow,  and  pointed,  the  nose  advanc- 
ing considerably  beyond  the  jaw.  The  fore-feet  are  divided  into  five 
toes  ;  of  these  the  innermost  is  rudimentary,  and  the  outermost  a 
mere  tubercle,  having  a  minute  nail.    The  three  middle  toes  are 


THE  BANDICOOTS. 


363 


large,  and  armed  with  strong  claws.  The  hinder  limbs,  though  not 
developed  to  the  same  proportionate  extent  as  in  the  Kangaroos, 
exceed  the  fore-limbs.  The  metatarsus  is  elongated  and  naked 
beneath  ;  the  toes  are  four  in  number — viz.,  on  the  inner  side,  two 
toes  joined  in  common  integument,  as  in  the  Kangaroos,  each 
furnished  with  its  distinct  claw  ;  a  large  and  robust  middle  toe,  with 
a  straight,  strong,  pointed  claw,  and  a  small  outer  toe,  also  armed 
with  a  straight  claw.     (See  Fig.  937.) 


Fig.  936. — Teeth  of  Long-nosed  Bandicoot. 


Fig.  937. — Long-nosed  Bandicoot. 

Though  the  sj'stem  of  dentition  in  the  Bandicoots  is  insectivorous, 
they  do  not  refuse  vegetable  aliment ;  they  hve  in  burrows,  for  the 
digging  of  which  their  fore-paws  are  well  adapted.  In  their  move- 
ments these  animals  resemble  a  Rabbit ;  they  do  not,  like  the  Kan- 
garoo, bound  from  the  hind  limbs  alone,  but  arching  the  back,  pro- 
ceed with  a  saltigrade  gait — that  is,  half-way  between  running  and 
jumping  ;  or  rather  by  a  succession  of  short  leaps  from  the  hind  to 
the  fore-feet,  but  not  with  much  speed,  nor  maintained  for  a  great 
length  of  time.  The  Kangaroos  make  considerable  use  of  the  tail, 
but  in  the  Bandicoots  it  is  by  no  means  so  important  an  organ, 
though  it  assists  them  in  sitting  upright,  an  attitude  usually  assumed 
when  eating,  the  fore-paws  being  brought  into  use  as  holders,  like 
those  of  the  Squirrel.  With  these  paws  they  scratch  up  the  earth  in 
search  of  roots  and  insects ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  potato  crops  of 
the  colonists,  in  some  districts,  suffer  from  their  incursions.  They 
are  readily  tamed,  and  in  a  few  days  become  reconciled  and  familiar. 
Tht  long-nosed  Bandicoot  is  found  in  New  South  Wales.  It  mea- 
sures about  sixteen  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  and 
five  in  that  of  the  tail.  The  ears  are  erect,  pointed,  and  covered 
with  short  hair ;  the  eyes  are  very  small ;  the  nose  remarkably  long, 
pointed,  and  naked  at  the  extremity.  The  tail  is  slender,  and  though 
better  covered  with  hair,  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  a  large 
Rat.     The  hair  is  of  two  kinds,  an  upper  and  under-coat ;  the  hairs 


forming  the  upper  or  external  coat  arc  coarse  and  harsh.  In  colour 
it  resembles  the  Rat,  excepting  that  it  is  of  a  more  sandy  shade  on 
the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  and  of  a  more  clear  silvery-white 
beneath.  The  under-coat,  concealed  by  this  outer  garment,  consists 
of  soft  ash-coloured  wool  or  fur,  well  calculated  to  protect  the  animal 
from  cold  and  variations  of  temperature ;  for  it  appears  to  be  an  in- 
habitant of  the  mountain  districts  of  Australia,  principally,  if  not 
exclusively. 

The  form  and  characters  of  its  teeth  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that 
it  fed  almost  entirely  upon  insects  and  similar  creatures  ;  and  M. 
Geoffrey  even  imagines  that  it  may  use  its  long  snout  for  the  purpose 
of  rooting  up  the  earth  like  a  Pig  in  search  of  Wurms  and  grubs. 
The  colonists,  however,  assert  that  these  Bandicoots  are  chiefly,  if 
not  purely,  herbivorous,  and  that  the  principal  part  of  their  food 
consists  of  roots,  which  they  dig  up  with  their  sharp  and  powerful 
claws.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  human  habitations  they  frequently 
enter  into  the  granaries,  and  do  as  much  mischief  to  the  corn  as  the 
Rats  and  Mice  of  our  own  country.  The  Australians  have,  however, 
one  advantage  over  the  European  farmers  in  this  respect :  the  Ban- 
dicoot is  more  easily  excluded  than  the  Rat,  for  it  cannot,  like  that 
destructive  species  of  vermin,  eat  its  way  through  the  planks  and 
timbers,  and  still  less  through  the  brick  walls  of  the  buildings.  It 
is  probably  from  this  habit  of  committing  petty  depredations  upon 
the  farm-yards  and  granaries,  as  well  as  from  the  general  similarity 
of  their  external  appearance,  that  the  colonists  of  New  South  Wales 
sometimes  confounded  the  Bandicoots  with  various  species  of  murine 
animals  originally  found  in  the  country  under  the  common  denomi- 
nation of  native  Rats  and  Mice.  Nor  is  it  at  all  improbable,  not- 
withstanding the  assertion  of  the  colonists  to  the  contrary,  that  M. 
Geoffrey's  conjecture  as  to  the  insectivorous  habits  of  this  animal 
may  be  at  least  partly,  if  not  entirely,  true.  The  Common  Rat, 
with  teeth  much  less  adapted  for  living  upon  flesh  than  those 
of  the  Bandicoots,  is  well  known  to  have  decidedly  carnivorous 
propensities ;  and,  as  M.  Geoffrey  very  correctly  obser\'es,  it  is 
seldom  that  analogous  forms  of  dentition  fail  to  indicate  analogous 
appetites. 

The  CHiEROPUS  {Charo^pus  ecaudatus,  Ogilby). — This  animal, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Bandicoots,  was  hrst  described  by  Mr. 
Ogilby  (March,  1838)  from  a  drawing  made  by  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell. 
The  animal  was  found  by  that  officer  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Murray  during  his  expedition  into  the  interior  of  New  South 
Wales. 

The  drawing  of  the  fore-foot  very  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
Pig :  two  toes  are  represented    short,    and   of  equal    length,   with 


Fig.  938. — Cha;ropus. 

hoof-like  claws  ;  but  there  is  a  swelling  at  the  base  of  the  first  piia- 
lanc-es  which  renders  it  probable  that  there  may  be  two  rudimen- 
tar^on'es  also  present.  The  form  and  characters  of  the  hmd-feet 
are  perfectly  similar  to  those  of  Pcramdes,  as  are  also  the  teeth,  as 
far  as  Mr  Ogilby  could  judge  from  the  drawmg,  except  that  the 
canines  appeared  much  smaller.  The  ears  are  long,  elliptical,  and 
nearly  naked:  the  head  broad;  the  muzzle  long  and  pointed ;  the 
body  is  described  as  being  about  the  size  of  that  of  a  smal  Kabbi  , 
and  the  fur  much  of  the  same  colour  and  quality  as  m  '!>'-'' animal 
Most  probably,  in  its  habits  and  manners,  the  animal  resembles  the 
Bandicoots.    (See  Fig.  938.) 

The  Opossums— Family  Didelphid<s. 
The  Virginian  Opossum  {Didelphis  vi>■ginmna).—y\^'^  genus 
DidclJ^his,  of  which    the  Virginian    Opossum   is  an   example,    is 


364 


THE   OPOSSUMS. 


It  contains  about  twenty  species,  some 


of 


restricted  to  America 

whicli  are  very  small.  r     1  •  1,  .i,n  i^^tr. 

The  teeth  are   as  follows  :-Upper  mcisors  ten,  of  winch  the  two 

middle  are  longer  than  the  rest,  and  somewhat  separated  from  tnem  , 


lower  incisors  eight ;  canines  as  usual ;  molars  on  each  side  above, 
seven,  the  threefirst  false,  triangular,  compressed ;  molars  below,  seven, 
the  three  first  false  ;  the  true  molars,  both  above  and  below,  crowned 
with  sharp  tubercles.  Of  all  terrestrial  Mammalia,  the  Myrmecobius 
excepted,    the    teeth   are    in    these   animals  the   most   numerous. 


SO- 


Fig.  939.— Teeth  of  Virginian  Opossum. 


Fig.  941. — Male  and  Female  Opossums. 


amounting:  to  fifty  :— Incisors,  '°;  canines,  I — ?-;  molars,?-^ 

"       ■'  8  i-i    "     ^~^ 

(See  Fig.  939.)  The  limbs  are  short,  the  feet  plantigrade,  the 
toes  five  on  each  foot,  armed  with  sharp,  strong,  curved 
claws,  excepting  the  inner  toe  or  thumb  on  the  hinder  feet,  which  is 
opposable,  and  destitute  of  a  nail.  The  soles  are  covered  with  a 
naked  skin  endowed  with  great  sensibility.  The  tail  is  scaly  and 
naked,  except  at  its  base,  and  constitutes  an  organ  of  prehension, 
not,  however,  to  the  same  extent  in  every  species.  The  head  is  long 
and  pointed,  the  profile  straight.  The  eyes  are  small,  dark,  promi- 
nent, and  undefended  by  eyelids,  but  furnished  with  a  nictitating 
membrane.  The  ears  are  large,  thin,  naked,  and  rounded.  The 
tongue  is  rough  with  horny  papilte.  The  snout  is  long  ;  the  muzzle 
pointed,  naked,  and  moist ;  the  nostrils  are  lateral  ;  the  mouth  ex- 
tremely wide  ;  and  the  expression  of  the  physiognomy  peculiar  and 
unpleasant.  In  one  division  of  this  genus  the  females  have  a  pouch 
for  their  young  ;  in  another  division  the  pouch  is  rudimentary,  con- 
sisting of  a  slight  fold  of  skin. 

In  Fig.  940,  skeleton  of  the  Virginian  Opossum,  the  marsupial 
bones  {a)  are  seen. 

The  Virginian  Opossum,  and  its  immediate  relatives,  are  slow  in 
their  movements,  and  nocturnal  in  their  habits  ;  they  reside  habitu- 
ally on  the  branches  and  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  remaining  torpid 
during  the  day.  At  night  they  prowl  about,  and  feed  upon  insects, 
eggs,  birds,  reptiles,  and  small  Mammalia,  adding,  also,  fruits  and 
roots  to  their  diet.  Their  sense  of  smell  is  in  high  perfection.  Like 
our  Pole-Cat,  as  respects  voracity,  though  not  activity,  they  often 
invade  the  precincts  of  the  farm-house,  destroy  poultry  and  other 
domestic  birds,  and  retreat  on  the  first  appearance  of  dawn,  leaving 
their  slaughtered  victims  behind.  Their  odour  is  disgusting,  es- 
pecially when  alarmed  or  irritated. 

The  Virginian  Opossum  is  common  in  many  parts  of  North 
America,  from  Mexico  to  the  southern  provinces  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  robust  of  the  genus,  and 
equals  a  Cat  in  size,  being  about  twenty-two  inches  in  the  length  of 
the  head  and  body,  measured  over  the  curve  of  the  back  ;  the  tail  is 
fifteen  inches  long.     The  under-fur  is  deep  and  woolly,  traversed  by 

long,  straight,  whitish  hairs, 
often  tipped  with  brown.  The 
ears  are  large  and  black  ;  mar- 
gined at  the  tip  with  white.  The 
scaled  portion  of  the  tail  of 
a  whitish  tint.  The  general 
colour  of  the  fur  is  dirty-white, 
■with  a  slight  yellow  hue  ;  the 
legs  are  dusky-brown,  a  tint  of 
which  surrounds  the  eyes. 
Hairs  of  moustaches  long  and 
white,  with  a  few  of  a  black 
colour  intermixed.  (See  Fig. 
941.) 

There  is  nothing  pleasing 
either  in  the  appearance  or 
habits  of  the  Virginian  Opos- 
sum :  in  captivity  it  is  slothful 
in  the  extreme,  and  becomes 
inordinately  fat,  eating  both 
animal  and  vegetable  diet. 
Whatever  may  be  its  cunning 
in  a  state  of  liberty,  it  evinces 
but  little  intelligence  when 
caged  in  our  climate,  but  ap- 
pears to  be  a  compound  of  in- 
dolence and  apathy,  not  un- 
mixed with  timidity.  In  its 
native  woods  it  suffers  from 
the  attacks  of  birds  and  beasts 
of  prey,  and  is  also  hunted  by 
man  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh 
and  fat.  "As  soon  as  the 
Opossum  discovers  the  ap- 
proach of  his  enemies,  he  lies 
perfectly  close  to  the  branch, 
or  places  himself  snugly  in  the 
angle  where  tw-o  limbs  separate 
from  each  other.  The  Dogs, 
however,  soon  announce  the 
fact  of  his  presence  by  their 
baying,  and  the  hunter,  as- 
cending the  tree,  shakes  the 
branch  upon  which  the  animal 


THE  OPOSSUMS. 


36s 


is  sc.ited  with  great  violence,  so  as  to  alarm  and  cause  him  to 
relax  his  hold."  In  tViis  way,  driven  from  branch  to  branch,  he  is 
oblig-ed  at  last  to  drop  to  the  ground,  where,  unless  the  Dogs  are 
vigilant,  the  animal  escapes  ;  for,  as  is  asserted,  it  steals  slowly  and 
quietly  to  a  little  distance,  and  gathering  up  itself  into  a  small  com- 
.  pass,  assumes  the  stillness  and  attitude  of  death.  This  artifice, 
under  the  obscurity  of  night,  and  amidst  dense  rank  herbage,  or 
tangled  underwood,  often  proves  successful.  In  the  "  Perfect 
Description  of  Virginia,"  1649,  it  is  noticed  as  a  beast  "that  hath 
a  bagge  under  her  belly,  into  which  she  takes  her  young  ones,  if  at 
any  time  affrighted,  and  carries  them  away."  Lawson  states  that 
the  'Possum  is  found  nowhere  but  in  America.  "  She  is  the  wonder 
of  all  the  land  animals,  being  the  size  of  a  Badger,  and  near  that 
colour.  The  female,  doubtless,  breeds  her  young  at  her  teats,  for  I 
have  seen  them  stick  fast  thereto,  when  they  have  been  no  bigger 
than  a  small  raspberry,  and  seemingly  inanimate.  She  has  a 
paunch,  or  false  belly,  wherein  she  carries  her  young,  after  they  are 
from  those  teats,  till  they  can  shift  for  themselves.  Their  food  is 
roots,  poultry,  or  wild  fruits.  They  have  no  hair  on  their  tails,  but 
a  sort  of  a  scale,  or  hard  crust,  as  the  Beavers  have.  If  a  Cat  has 
nine  lives,  this  creature  surely  has  nineteen  ;  for  if  you  break  every 
bone  in  their  skin,  and  mash  their  skull,  leaving  them  for  dead,  you 
may  come  an  hour  after,  and  they  will  be  gone  quite  away,  or  per- 
haps you  may  meet  them  creeping  away.  They  are  a  very  stupid 
creature,  utterly  neglecting  their  safety.  They  are  most  like  Rats 
of  anything.  I  have,  for  necessity  in  the  w'llderness,  eaten  of  them. 
Their  flesh  is  very  white,  and  well  tasted  ;  but  their  ugly  tails  put 
me  out  of  conceit  with  that  fare.  They  climb  trees  as  the  Racoons 
do.  Their  fur  is  not  esteemed  nor  used,  save  that  the  Indians  spin 
it  into  girdles  and  garters."  The  prehensile  power  of  the  tail 
ser\-es  the  animal  in  more  ways  than  one,  for  it  is  stated  that  the 
little  ones,  when  advanced  in  growth,  leap  upon  their  mother's  back 
if  they  are  frightened,  and,  twisting  their  tails  round  hers,  escape, 
with  her  assistance,  the  threatened  danger. 

This  animal  climbs  with  great  facility,  and  will  hang  suspended 
from  the  branches  by  its  tail,  and  by  swinging  its  body  contrive  to 
iiing  itself  to  the  adjoining  boughs.  It  is  often  observed  hanging 
motionless  for  a  considerable  time  with  its  head  downwards. 

The  Opossum  produces  several  young,  sometimes  as  many  as  six- 
teen, at  a  birth.  She  makes  a  thick  nest  of  dry  grass  in  some  ob- 
scure retreat,  in  which  to  conceal  herself.  When  first  born  the 
young  are  in  a  most  rudimentary  state,  minute,  blind,  naked,  and 
shapeless.  Yet  even  in  this  state  they  are  always  found  adhering  to 
the  teats  of  the  mother,  shrouded  in  her  pouch.  There  they  remain 
until  they  have  attained  the  size  of  a  Mouse,  which  is  not  until  the 
fiftieth  day,  at  which  period  their  eyes  are  opened,  and  their  bodies 
are  covered  with  hair.  They  now  venture  occasionally  from  their 
hiding-place,  returning  to  it  on  the  least  appearance  of  danger ;  nor 
is  it  until  they  have  attained  to  a  considerable  size  that  they  finally 
quit  their  an.xious  parent.  The  period  of  gestation  is  said  to  be 
twenty- si.x  days. 

Merian's  Opossum  {Didclphis  dorsigera). — Among  the  Opos- 
sums, in  which  a  fold  of  the  skin  of  the  abdomen  forms  only  a  rudi- 
mentary pouch,  must  be  enumerated  Merian's  Opossum.  Though 
the  other  Opossums,  with  complete  marsupial  pouches,  occasionally 


Fig.  942.— Merian's  Opossum, 


carry  their  young  on  the  back,  with  their  tails  twined  round  that  of 
the  parent,  still  it  is  in  these  pouchless  species  that  this  curious 
habit  most  usually  prevails  ;  hence  the  term  Dorsigera,  which, 
though  applied  to  the  present  animal,  might  with  equal  propriety  be 
given  to  other  species,  as  Didel^his  brachyura,  cinerea,  tricolor, 
and  miirina. 

Merian's  Opossum  is  a  native  of  Surin.am,  and  in  its  habits  it 
agrees  with  the  rest  of  the  genus.  The  tail  is  slender,  and  longer 
than  the  head  and  body  taken  together ;  at  the  base  it  is  clothed 
with  fur,  resembling  that  of  the  body  generally  ;  the  naked  portion 
IS  of  a  pale  brown  tint.  The  fur  of  this  animal  is  short,  and  lies 
close  ;  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  it  is  greyish-brown,  the  roots 
of  the  hairs  being  paler.  The  under-parts  of  the  body  are  yellowish- 
white  ;  a  deep  brown  spot  encircles  the  eyes  ;  the  forehead,  top  of 
the  head,  cheeks,  outer  side  of  the  limbs  and  feet,  are  yellowish- 
white.  Length  from  nose  to  root  of  tail  about  six  inches  ;  length  of 
tail  seven  inches.  A  beautiful  specimen  of  this  active  little  Opos- 
sum, with  its  young  clinging  to  it,  is  preserved  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum.    (See  Fig.  942.) 

The  Yapock  {Cheironcctes  varicgatus ;  Ch.  pa!maius).—Th\s 
interesting  animal,  the  Yapock,  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  tenanting  the 
smaller  streams  and  rivers,  and  it  appears  to  extend  from  the  con- 
fines of  that  empire  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras.  Buffon's 
specimen  was  procured  in  Cayenne.  He  terms  it  "  Petite  Loutre 
de  la  Guycne."     It  is  also  called  "  Demerara  Otter." 

The  Yapock  measures  from  ten  to  fourteen  inches  long  in  the  head 
and  body,  the  tail  being  rather  more.  The  limbs  are  short,  and  the 
contour  of  the  body  elongated.  The  ears  are  moderate,  the  nose 
pointed  ;  the  fur  of  the  body  close,  short,  somewhat  crisped  and 
glossy ;  the  tail,  excepting  at  the  base,  is  scaly,  the  scales  being 
spirally  arranged  and  interspersed  with  fine,  short,  bristly  hairs.  The 
fore-feet  are  divided  into  five  long  and  slender  toes,  armed  with 
small  weak  claws,  the  innermost  or  thumb  excepted,  which  has  a  flat 
nail.  It  is  not  opposable,  though  placed  rather  behind  the  general 
line  of  the  other  toes.  On  the  outside  of  the  wrist  there  is  an  elon- 
gated tubercle  (the  pisiform-bone  developed),  resembling  a  sixth 
finger,  the  use  of  which  is  not  apparent.  The  hind-feet,  which  are 
broad,  are  each  divided  into  five  toes,  tied  together  by  ample  webs  ; 
the  clavvs  are  small ;  the  inner  toe  has  a  flat  nail.  This  curious 
animal  is  furnished  with  cheek-pouches  of  great  size,  which  extend 
far  back  along  the  sides  of  the  mouth  ;  and  this  circumstance,  as  Mr. 


^3-<?a^ 


Fig.  943. — The  Yapock  Opossum. 

Ogilby  remarks,  "hitherto  unobserved  by  zoologists,  throws  con- 
siderable light  upon  the  habits  of  this  rare  animal,  which  thus  ap- 
pears, like  the  Ornithorhynchus,  to  feed  upon  fresh-water  Crustacea, 
the  larvae  of  insects,  the  spawn  of  fishes,  &c.,  which  it  probably 
stows  away  in  its  capacious  cheek-pouches."  Small  fishes  are 
doubtless  among  its  prey.     (See  Fig.  943.) 

The  Yapock,  unlike  the  Opossums,  is  incapable  of  climbing  :  it  is 
an  aquatic  animal,  like  the  Otter,  and  lives  in  holes  along  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  which  it  frequents,  and  in  which  it  seeks  its  food.  It  is 
said  to  take  its  young  early  to  the  water.  Two  specimens  in  the 
possession  of  the  celebrated  naturalist,  M.  Natterer,  were  caught 
near  water  not  far  distant  from  Rio  Janeiro,  and  a  third  was  cap- 
tured alive  near  Para,  in  a  basket  similar  to  those  used  in  this 
country  for  catching  Eels.  It  had  made  its  way  through  the  funnel- 
shaped  entrance,  under  water,  and  could  not  return. 

The  dentition  of  the  Yapock  differs  in  some  points  from  that  of 
the  Opossums  :  the  incisor  and  canine  teeth  are  the  same  in  both ; 


THE  BANDED  ANT-EATER— THE  POUCHED   WOLF. 


but  the  molars  are  only  five  on  each  side,  two  false  and  three  true, 
both  in  the  upper  and  under  jaw.  The  ground  colour  of  the  upper 
surface  is  dusky  black  ;  a  white  semilunar  mark  passes  from  ear  to 
ear  across  the  forehead;  on  each  side  are  four  large  transverse 
marks  of  delicate  grey,  one  on  the  scapula,  and  three  on  the  sides  of 
the  body,  forming  bands  interrupted  or  rendered  incomplete  by  a 
middle  dorsal  line.  The  under-surface  is  white,  the  tail  is  black,  its 
tip  (the  extent  varying  from  half  an  inch  to  three  or  four  inches) 
beinsr  white. 

The  Crab-eating  Opossum  {Didelphys  cancrtvora).—T\\\s 
Opossum  is  common  in  Brazil.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  .group. 
It  is  said  to  prefer  marshy  districts,  and  to  be  exceedingly  fond  of 
Crabs.     Fig.  944  represents  this  animal. 


Fig.  944. — The  Crab-eating  Opossum. 

The  ia.m\\y  oi  ihe  Jilyrmecobudcs  includes  only  a  single  species, 
the  Myrmccobius  fasciatiis,  or  Banded  Ant-eater,  an  inhabitant  of 
the  southern  and  western  parts  of  Australia.  It  is  distinguished 
from  all  the  other  Marsupials  by  the  great  number  of  its  teeth,  that 
are  more  numerous  even  than  those  of  the  Opossums.  This  increase 
is  in  the  molars,  of  which  there  are  five  on  each  side  in  the  upper 
iaw,  and  six  in  the  lower  ;  between  these  and  the  canines  there  are 
three  false  molars  in  each  jaw,  and  the  incisors  are  eight  in  number 
in  the  upper,  and  six  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  total  number  of  teeth  is 
consequently  fifty-two.  The  molars  are  furnished  with  small  pointed 
tubercles,  like  those  of  the  ordinary  insectivorous  quadrupeds,  which 
this  animal  resembles  in  its  food.     (See  Fig.  945.) 


Fig.  945. — Skull  and  Lower  Jaw  of  Banded  Myrmecobius. 

The  head  of  the  Myrmccobius  is  terminated  in  front  by  a  pointed 
snout,  and  furnished  with  narrow-pointed  ears.  The  anterior  feet 
have  five,  and  the  posteriorfour  toes,  all  furnished  with  strong  claws, 
and  the  tail  is  rather  long  and  bushy.  Its  feet  are  formed  for  run- 
ning on  the  ground,  where  it  progresses  by  successive  leaps  like  a 
Squirrel ;  but,  when  pursued,  it  usually  takes  refuge  in  the  hole  of 
a  tree.     (See  Fig.  946.) 

Its  food  consists  of  insects,  which  it  is  said  to  collect  m  the  same 
way  as  the  true  Ant-eaters  and  the  Echidna,  by  protruding  its  long 
tongue  ;  and  it  is  generally  found  in  districts  containing  many  Ant- 
hills, no  doubt  for  the  sake  of  the  abundant  supply  of  food  obtainable 
in  such  situations.     The  female  is  destitute  of  a  pouch ;  but  the 


young,  when  adhering  to  the  teats,  are  said  to  be  concealed  by  the 
long'hairs  which  grow  upon  the  belly  of  the  mother.  It  is  an  ele- 
gant little  creature,  measuring  about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  in- 
cluding the  tail ;  the  anterior  parts  are  of  a  reddish-tawny  colour, 
and  the  hind  part  of  the  back  is  adorned  with  transverse  bands  of 
black  and  white.    (See  Fig.  946.) 


Fig.  946. — The  Banded  Myrmecobius. 

In  the  preceding  families  the  coecum  is  of  moderate  size  ;  but,  in 
the  following  one,  it  is  entirely  wanting.  This  is  the  family  of  the 
Dasyuridcs,  or  Dasyures,  including  the  most  Carnivorous  species  of 
the  Marsupial  series,  which  it  completes.  The  teeth  are  usually 
forty-six  in  number,  and  agree,  in  their  arrangement,  with  those  of 
the  Opossums,  except  that  there  are  only  eight  incisors  in  the  upper, 
and  six  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  typical  genus  Dasyiiriis,  however, 
there  are  only  two  false  molars  between  the  true  molars  and  the 
canines,  so  that  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  reduced  to  forty-two. 
The  form  of  the  molars  in  the  upper  jaw  is  usually  irregularly  trian- 
gular, with  three  points  ;  but  those  in  the  lower  jaw  are  compressed 
cutting-teeth,  the  edges  of  w-hich  are  also  furnished  with  three 
points.  The  feet  are  formed  for  terrestrial  progression  ;  the  anterior 
have  five  toes,  and  the  posterior  four,  all  perfectly  separate,  and 
armed  with  curved  claws.  The  deficient  toe  of  the  hind-feet  is 
sometimes  represented  by  a  sort  of  tubercle,  which,  however,  does 
not  reach  the  ground.  The  tail  is  of  moderate  length,  or  elongated, 
and  always  well  covered  with  hair.  This  family  includes  the  largest 
of  the  rapacious  Marsupials.  They  are  evidently  analogous  to  the 
ordinary  Carnivorous  quadrupeds,  not  only  in  their  ferocity  and  car- 
nivorous propensities,  but  also  more  or  less  in  form. 

A  striking  instance  of  this  is  presented  by  the  Pouched  Wolf 
{Peracyoii,  or  Tliylacimis  cy7iocepliaIus),  which,  both  in  its  general 
form  and  the  structure  of  its  extremities,  closely  resembles  a  large 
Dog  or  Wolf.  It  is  of  a  yellowish-grey  colour,  with  transverse  black 
bands  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  back,  whence  it  has  obtained  the 
names  of  the  "  Zebra  Wolf,"  the  "  Hyaena,"  and  the  "  Tiger,"  from 
our  colonists  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  to  which  island  it  appears  to  be 
exclusively  confined.  It  is  a  most  Carnivorous  animal,  often  com- 
mitting considerable  ravages  amongst  the  flocks  of  Sheep  ;  but  it 
has  now  become  rather  rare,  except  in  the  wildest  and  most  inacces- 
sible parts  of  the  colony,  where  it  lives  amongst  the  caves  of  the 
mountains,  and  feeds  upon  the  smaller  Kangaroos  and  other  Mam- 
malia. It  is  even  said  sometimes  to  devour  the  Echidna,  notwith- 
standing his  spiny  protective  coat.  It  is  a  strictly  nocturnal  animal. 
Remains  of  an  animal  nearly  allied  to  this  (Tliylacotlierium)  have 


Fig.  947-— The  Dog-head  Thylacinus,  or  Pouched  Wolf. 


FOSSIL  MARSUPIALS. 


367 


been  found  in  some  of  the  secondary  strata  in  Europe.  (See 
Fief.  947.1 

Of  the  ■  typical  Dasyures  {Dasyitrus),  the  larg-est  species  {D. 
7irsi7ms)  is  also  a  native  of  Tasmania,  wlicro  it  is  commonly  known 
amongst  the  colonists  by  the  name  of  the  "Devil."  It  is  about 
eisjhteen  inches  long  in  the  body,  and  is  covered  with  a  long,  thick, 
co^arse  hair,  of  a  black  colour,  with  a  few  white  spots  on  the  breast 
and  shoulders.  It  is  of  a  most  savage  nature,  and  is  often  destruc- 
tive to  Sheep,  to  which  its  powerful  jaws  render  it  a  most  formidable 
enemy,  notwithstanding  its  comparatively  small  size.  When  Van 
Diemen's  Land  was  first  colonised,  the  "  Devils  "  were  very  abun- 
dant, and  did  much  mischief  amongst  the  poultry  ;  but  they  are 
now,  for  the  most  part,  banished  to  the  woods  in  the  unfrequented 
parts  of  the  country,  where  they  exercise  their  destructive  propensi- 
ties on  the  small  wild  quadrupeds  and  birds.     (See  Fig.  948.) 

In  the  genus  Phascogalc,  including  several  small  Opossum-like 
animals,  with  bushy  tails,  the  first  toe  of  the  hind-foot,  instead  of 
being  absent  or  quite  rudimentary,  is  of  sufficient  length  to  be  em- 
ployed as  a  thumb  in  grasping ;  and  these  animals,  consequently, 


Fig.  94S.— The  Ursine  Opossum. 


Fig.  949. — The  Brush-tailed  I'hascogale. 


ascend  trees  with  facility  in  the  pursuit  of  the  insects  which  consti- 
tute their  food.  One  species  of  this  genus  is  smaller  than  our 
common  Mouse. 

Fossil  Marsupials. 

Besides  the  fossil  Opossum  of  the  Montmartre  gypsum  {Diddphys 
cuvicri),  and  the  fossil  Dasytirus,  Ilypsiprymnus,  IJalmaturiis, 
Phascolomys,  and  Kattgaroo,  from  the  Australian  bone-caves  and 
breccia,  some  fossil  forms  discovered  in  the  Stonesfield  oolite,  as 
evidenced  by  portions  of  the  lower  jaw,  have  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, and  no  little  discussion.  Some  anatomists,  with  M.  de  Blain- 
ville,  contended  against  the  Mammal  origin  of  these  relics,  or  at 
least  of  one  of  the  forms  ;  but  those  who  have  examined  the  fossils, 
and  read  the  arguments  on  either  side,  will,  we  think,  agree  with 
Baron  Cuvier  and  Professor  Owen,  and  assign  them  to  animals  of 
the  Marsupial  section,  which  at  some  epoch  tenanted  our  quarter 
of  the  globe.  The  jaws  of  these  extinct  Marsupials,  named  respec- 
tively, Thylacotlierium  prevostii,  Owen  (Fig.  950),  and  Phascoln- 
therium  bucklandii,  Owen  (Fig.  951),  are  represented  of  the  natural 


Fig.  950. — ^Jaw  of  Thylacolherium. 


Fig.  951. — Jaw  of  Phascolotheriuni. 

size,  and  also  magnified,  in  order  to  show  clearly  the  characters  and 
arrangement  of  the  teeth. 

For  the  following  list  of  British  Marsupial  Fossils  we  are  indebted 
to  the"  Catalogue  of  British  Fossils,"  by  Mr.  John  Morris,  F.G.S.,a 
work  from  which  we  have  already  frequently  quoted. 


Name. 

Amphitherium  (Thylacotherium). 

,,  Broderipii. 

,,  Prevostii  (Didelphys). 

Didelphys  Colchesteri. 
Phascolothesium  Bucklandii,  &c. 


Locality. 

Stonesfield,  Oxfordshire. 

Suffolk. 

Stonesfield,  Oxfordshire. 


In  Prof.  Owen's  "  Paleontology,"  numerous  specimens  of  fossil 
Marsupials,  which  have  been  discovered  in  Australia,  are  mentioned, 
embracing  the  Perameles,  or  Bandicoots,  Wombats,  Phalangers, 
Potoroos,  Kangaroos,  &c.  Among  others  is  the  entire  skull  of  the 
Diprotodon  austral  is,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  This  skull 
measures  three  feet  in  length,  and  indicates  the  necessarily  enor- 
mous size  of  this  primeval  Kangaroo. 


In  the  preceding  pages  the  details  of  Animal  Life  in  relation  to  the 
Mammalia  of  both  Recent  and  Extinct  Creatures  have  been  given, 
together  with  notices  and  tables  of  fossil  species.  In  respect  to  the 
value  of  the  latter  to  the  Naturalist,  the  following  remarks,  by  Pro- 
fessor Ansted,  will  be  not  only  read  with  interest,  but  be  of  much 
value  as  a  guide  to  the  student  of  Modern  Natural  History  in  its  re- 
lation to  Paleontology. 

"  In  Geology,  the  law  of  representation  is   found  to  have  been 


carried  out  in  past  time  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  species  characteris- 
tic of  any  geological  formation,  are  representative  in  time,  as  well  as 
space,  of  the  species  now  existing.  The  whole  mystery  of  extinct 
species  is  revealed  by  the  due  consideration  of  this  law;  and  a  fact, 
perhaps  the  most  startling  of  any  of  those  taught  by  geological  in- 
vestigation, is  thus  seen  to  be  only  another  form  of  a  condition  of 
things  universal  upon  the  earth  at  present. 

"  For  what  can  be  more  striking  than  to  be  told  that,  in  ancient 


368 


REM  A  RKS  ON  PA  L^ONTOL  OGY. 


times,  there  existed  on  this  earth  of  ours,  races  of  beings  now  passed 
away,  and  to  be  taught  the  peculiarities  of  size,  form,  and  even 
habits  of  animals  and  vegetables  which  no  eye  of  man  has  ever  seen 
in  a  living  state ;  what  more  marvellous  than  this  reconstruction  of 
long-lost  organic  forms— this  clothing  with  flesh  and  blood  the  dry 
and  scattered  bones  of  skeletons— has  ever  been  thought  of  by  the 
imagination  of  man,  even  in  its  wildest  flights  ? 

"And  yet  all  this  is  now  effected,  and  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner,  by  those  naturalists  who  have  been  contented  to  study,  with 
patience  and  perseverance,  the  works  and  ways  of  existing  nature. 
When  we  find  that  she  adopts  methods  and  obeys  laws  which  are 
unchangeable,  we  in  fact  only  add  one  more  to  the  innumerable  proofs 
of  order  and  system  which  pervade  all  the  works  of  creation.  The 
extension  of  a  law  is  not  the  adoption  of  a  new  law  ;  and  so  far  as  we 
are  aware,  no  new  method  has  been  required  or  adopted.  _ 

"  But  we  must  refer  again  to  the  important  and  interestmg  subject 
of  ancient  organic  nature,  and  learn  the  extent  to  which  naturalists 
have  advanced  in  proving  the  fact  of  the  ancient  existence  of  animals 
and  ve'^etables  now  no  longer  met  with,  as  well  as  the  limits  of  dis- 
covery ,°and  the  reasons  for  arriving  at  the  conclusion  attained. 

"  And  here  the  main  argument  employed  is  still  that  of  analogy, 
and  the  main  proofs  rest  on  the  accordance  of  the  past  with  the 
present.  .  .  , 

'"  To  take  the  cases  nearest  our  own  times— who  is  not  aware  ot  tne 
fact  that  the  bones  of  the  beaver,  the  wolf,  and  of  many  animals  now 
living  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  are  constantly  met  with  and  that 
these  creatures  must,  not  long  ago,  have  inhabited  the  British 
islands  '  The  progress  of  civilisation  may,  it  is  said,  have  produced 
this  partial  and  local  extinction.  Let  it  be  so  ;  but  what  is  the  case 
with  regard  toother  animals,  such  as  the  great  Irish  elk  ?  _  Ihis 
animal  of  which  the  perfect  skeleton  has  often  been  found  in  the 
boc-s  of  Ireland,  cannot  have  lived  in  the  country  where  we  find 
it  without  having  been  observed,  and  yet  we  have  no  record  of  its 
existence  as  a  fiving  animal.  It  is  quite  gone-the  last  of  its  race 
has  died,  and  left  only  a  few  fragments  for  us  to  put  together,  in 
order  to  show  how  great  the  changes  have  been  even  since  the  sur- 
face of  Ireland  and  the  Isle  of  Man  could  afford  food  and  shelter  for 
these  ^iant  animals.  Smaller  deer  are  still  in  the  British  islands  ; 
the  reindeer  and  the  elk  still  tread  the  frozen  plains  of  Lapland  and 
the  forests  of  North  America  ;  but  this  most  gigantic  of  the  deer 
tribe  is  gone,  although  not  without  leaving  sure  marks  of  its  former 

P'^?7vVu"h'out  dwelling  any  further  at  present  on  these  examples,  let  us 
consider  another  also  of  great  interest,  in  which  we  have  not  merely 
the  dry  skeleton,  but  the  very  flesh  and  skin  of  an  ancient  inhabitant 
of  northern  Europe.  .       ,  ,       »     i-     ,-•    i 

"  In  the  wild  desert  plains  of  Siberia,  close  to  the  Arctic  Circle 
many  miles  north  of  the  last  traces  of  arborescent  vegetation  and 
where  perpetual  frost  binds  together  into  a  rock  those  gravel  y  heaps 
which  in  England  and  northern  Europe  are  loose  and  shingly,  there 
are  found,  from  time  to  time,  the  bones  of  animals  which  once 
inhabited  that  district.  And  what  are  these  animals  ?  Are  they  the 
progenitors  of  the  wolves,  the  dogs,  the  foxes,  the  bears,  which  are 
now  the  only  creatures,  except  man,  who  disturb  such  solitudes  ?  Do 
we  find,  occasionally,  a  straggler  from  the  still  more  glacial  climates 
in  the  vicinity  ?    By  no  means.    These  frozen  gravel  cliffs  of  the  icy 


sea  are  partly  made  up  of  the  bones  of  elephants, 'rhinoceroses,  hip- 
popotamuses, and  of  such-like  animals,  in  incredible  abundance. 

"  For  very  many  years  whole  cargoes  of  ivory  have  been  brought 
annually  from  these  storehouses ;  and  most  of  the  ivory  used  in  the 
beautiful  German  carvings  of  the  middle  ages  was  derived  hence. 
Here,  then,  it  would  seem  probable  these  animals  must  have  lived, 
for  their  bones  are  not  broken  or  injured  by  rolling,  and  have  cer- 
tainly not  been  carried  far.  But  this  is  not  all ;  nor  is  it,  perhaps, 
the  most  extraordinary  fact  with  regard  to  this  subject ;  for  it  is  not 
many  years  since  the  entire  carcass  of  an  elephant  was  obtained 
from  these  cliffs,  the  flesh  having  been  preserved  in  a  sufiiciently  un- 
decomposed  state  to  serve  as  food  for  wild  animals,  and  a  part  of  the 
skin,  hair,  and  wool — for  this  creature  was  warmly  clad — in  such  a 
state  of  preservation,  that  they  were  transported,  with  the  skeleton, 
to  the  museum  of  St.  Petersburg.  Since  then  many  such  carcases 
have  been  discovered  ;  and,  for  a  few  hundred  pounds,  it  is  said  that 
we  might  now  bring  to  England  an  elephant  thus  preserved — one  of 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  northern  Europe. 

"  Now,  when  we  look  at  the  carcass  of  the  animal  thus  handed 
down  in  a  perfect  state,  we  find  that  it  does  not  exactly  agree  with 
any  of  those  at  present  living  on  the  globe.  The  differences,  indeed, 
are  not  considerable,  and  are  evidently  such  as  would  fit  the  animal 
better  for  the  conditions  of  its  abode  and  climate  as  well  as  food. 
There  is  adaptation  in  every  part  of  every  skeleton  ;  and  the  principle 
of  adaptation  of  parts  is  that  on  which  the  comparative  anatomist  and 
naturalist  must  work  to  obtain  any  general  results  in  this  science. 

"  Each  part  of  every  animal  is  admirably  fitted  to  work  with  every 
other  part  in  producing  the  adaptation  of  the  whole  to  the  peculiar 
necessity  of  the  creature.  This  is  a  fact  well  proved  by  a  thousand 
examples  daily  before  us,  and  it  is  universally  and  minutely  true. 

"  Since,  then,  we  find  that  there  are  certain  animals  difi^erent  from 
the  present  inhabitants,  but  whose  remains  are  found  under  circum- 
stances which  render  it  clear  that  they  formerly  inhabited  a  given 
district ;  and  that  these  animals  are,  at  present,  unknown  upon  the 
earth,  the  first  step  is  gained  towards  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
extinct  species.  But  there  is  another  point  to  be  considered — the 
representation  of  the  present  races.  This  we  might  illustrate  by 
reference  to  the  Irish  elk,  or  the  elephants  of  Siberia  ;  but  we  prefer 
taking  a  more  striking  example. 

"  In  New  Zealand,  there  exists  at  present,  although  it  is  now  rare, 
a  small,  wingless  bird — not  like  an  ostrich,  but  absolutely  wingless, 
and  covered  with  hair.  This  animal  is  called  the  apteryx,  and  was 
the  largest  animal  found  in  New  Zealand  at  the  time  of  its  discovery. 
In  the  island  of  Mauritius  there  appears  to  have  formerly  existed  a 
curious  wingless  animal  about  the  size  of  a  turkey,  called  the  dodo ; 
and  the  beak  and  feet  of  this  animal,  as  well  as  a  drawing  of  it,  are 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  No  living  dodo  has,  however,  been 
seen  in  modern  times. 

"  In  the  island  of  New  Zealand,  there  are  also  found,  in  the  gravel, 
some  fossil  bones  nearly  as  large  as  the  thigh-bone  of  an  ox  ;  and  on 
careful  examination  of  the  bones  found  in  this  gravel,  a  number  of 
species  of  wingless  birds  have  been  found,  which  exhibit,  in  regular 
gradation,  a  series  ot  animals  of  various  sizes,  more  or  less  like  the 
apteryx — all  wingless,  but  the  largest  of  them  much  more  gigantic 
than  any  ostrich.  There  is  here,  then,  a  distinct  representation  in 
time." 


THE  BIRDS. 


369 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 


CLASS     II.-AVES,     OR     BIRDS. 
Introductory    Remarks. 


KCIDEDLY  the  most  interesting:  de- 
partment of  Natural  History  is  that  of  the 
class  AVES,  or  Birds.     Their  variety 
of  form,  habits,  and  manners  ;  their  plu- 
mage, always  beautiful,  often  rich  and  gorge- 
ous^  their  aerial  endowments  ;  their  nidifi- 
cation  ;    their  voices  ;    the  Bittern's   boom, 
the  cawing  of  busy  Rooks,  the  Cock's  shrill  clarion, 
the  thrilling  lay  of  the  Skylark,  or  the  rich  strains 
of  Philomel— nay,  even  the  hoarse  cries  of  those 
that  tenant  moorland  and  morass,  fen  or  lake,  or 
wheel  in  buoyant  flight  over  the   broad   expanse 
of  ocean  ;— these  all  combine  to  throw  a  halo  of 
attraction  around    them,    heightened  by   associa- 
tions which,  in  every  mind,  hold  an  abiding  sway,  and 
often  inspire  it  with  sentiments  of  affection. 

The  general  form  of  the  body  in  Birds  is  oval.  The 
leo-s,  two  in  number,  are  usually  placed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  fall  under  the  middle  of  the  body,  and 
the  anterior  limbs  are  modified  to  form  organs  of  flight, 
in  the  form  of  wings.  The  skeleton  is  perfectly  ossified, 
and  the  substance  of  the  bones  generally  exhibits  a 
greater  degree  of  hardness  than  in  any  other  of  the 
Vertcbrata.  This  solidity,  and  consequent  weighty  of 
the  matter  of  which  the  bones  are  composed,  which 
would  seem  to  be  out  of  place  in  animals  intended  for 


Fig.  952.— Skeleton  of  Vulture. 
vc,  cervical  vertebrro  ;  vs,  sacral  vertebrce  ;  w/,  caudal  vertebrre ;  cl,  clavicle  ; 
h,  humerus ;  0,  bones  of  forearm  ;  ca,  carpus  ;  //;,  phalanges ;  st^  sternam  ; 
f,  femur ;  t,  tibia ;  ta,  tarsus. 


habitual  residence  in  the  air,  is  compensated  for 
by  a  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the  bones, 
that  occurs  in  no  other  group  of  animals.  The 
greater  part  of  the  bones  are  hollow,  and  their 
cavities  are  filled  with  air,  which  passes  into  the 
interior  through  small  openings  seen  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  bone,  communicating  with  the  numer- 
ous air-cells  of  the  body.  In  some  Birds  which, 
although  endowed  with  great  power  of  flight, 
have  bulky  and  heavy  bodies,  these  air-cavities 
are  found  in  almost  every  bone  ;  whilst  in  a  few, 
whose  habits  are  entirely  terrestrial,  nearly  all 
the  bones  are  destitute  of  air-cells.  In  young 
Birds,  also,  which  have  not  attained  the  power 
of  flight,  the  bones  are  filled  with  marrow  ;  but 
this  gradually  gives  way  to  the  ordinary  air- 
cavities. 

The  structure  of  the  skeleton  (see  Fig.  952)  is 

of  course  remarkably  modified  to  suit  the  Bird 

for  its  aerial  habits  ;  but  the  recognition  of  its 

different  parts  is   by  no   means   diflacult.     The 

head  is  usually  of  small  size,  and  the  bones  of  the  skull,  which  in 

voung  Birds  are  distinct,  are  generally  completely  amalgamated  in 

the  adults,   so  as  to  form  a  continuous  bony  capsule  (Fig.    953). 

The  size  of  the  skull  and  cerebral 
cavity  is  usually  much  larger,  in 
proportion  to  the  facial  bones, 
than  in  the  Reptiles,  and  the 
former  often  appears  to  predomi- 
nate to  a  still  greater  extent, 
in  consequence  of  the  existence 
of  large  air-cells  in  the  interior 
of  the  bone.  On  the  surface  of 
the  -skull  there  are  usually  scve- 
^  ral  strong  ridges  for  the  attach- 

ment of  muscles  ;  the  occipital 
Fig.  953. — Skull  of  an  Eagle.  foramen  is  situated  on  the  lower 
a,  cranium;  (5,  tympanum ;  r,  tympanic  part  of  the  back  of  the  skull, 
bone ;  d,  interorbital  partition ;  t,  la-  and  the  occipital  condyle  is  sim- 
chrymal  bone  ;  /,  its  superior  branch  ;  pie,  convex,  and  sometimes  glo- 
g,  nostril ;  h,  upper  jaw ;  7,  nasal  bular,  so  as  to  give  the  head 
fossal ;  j,  jugal  bone ;  k,  lower  jaw.     great   mobility.      The   openings 

of  the  ears  are  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  back  of  the  skull,  close  to  the 
base  ;  and  immediately  beneath  these  are 
articulated  the  tympanic  bones,  which  give 
support  to  the  lower  jaw.  In  front  of  the 
skull,  on  each  side,  are  the  orbits,  which 
are  usually  of  enormous  size,  and  very 
rarely  completely  inclosed  ;  they  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  bony  partition,  which,  however, 
is  usually  perforated. 

The  facial  bones  are  produced  into  a 
beak  of  variable  length,  which  is  attached 
to  the  skull  in  such  a  manner  as  to  retain 
a  certain  amount  of  mobility,  although  this 
depends  rather  upon  the  elasticity  of  the 
material  than  upon  an  articulation.  Upon 
this  the  nostrils  are  seen  ;  they  are  very 
variable  in  size,  and  the  bony  septum  is 
frequently  wanting;  so  that  the  nostrils 
form  a  passage  from  side  to  side  of  the 
beak. 

When  viewed  from  beneath  (Fig.  954). 
the  centre  of  the  sphenoid  bone  is  scon  to 
project  in  front  of  the  occipital  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  below  the  orbit ;  this 
supports  a    more   or  less  elongated  bone 


Fig.  954. — Cr.inium  and 
Upper  Jaw  of  Raven, 
seen  from  beneath. 

abbe,    occipital   bone ;   dd, 


temporal  bones ;  <¥,  tym-  /(.|,g  pterygoid)  on  each  side,   which  runs 
panic  bones;/,  sphenoid;  oijijquely  backwards,  and  articulates  at  its 

.»..      .^»Q.Ti-mM    1-innPC   '      hit.  ^  -^    .  •.  '.1.       .1 . ^^^',r^      K/-.na 


temporal  bones  ;  ee,  tym 

panic  bones;/,  sphenoid;  obliq_,,  ..-. 

gS,  pter)-goid  bones ;  h/i,  extremity  with  the  tympanic  bone, 

orbital  plates;  »  palatine  ^^\^^^^  gj  (his  are  the  bones  of  the  upper 
bones  ;  jL;  jugal  bones  ;  palate,  which  are  all  firmly  united 

//,  maxillary  hones ;  »m    J^w  ^"d  pa  ,m  intermaxillarv  bones 

r;tr  '    '  coSJte  the  greater  part  of  the  edge  of 


37° 


OSTEOLOGY  OF  BIRDS. 


the  jaw  ;  the  maxillaries  give  rise  to  a  long  slender  bone  (the  fi/^^al 
bone),  on  each  side,  which  is  directed  backwards,  and  articulates 
with  the  tympanic  bone.  The  palate  is  formed  of  a  pair  of  large 
palatine  bones  and  a  vomer  ;  the  former  are  continued  backwards 
till  they  articulate  either  with  the  sphenoid  bone  or  with  the  tym- 
panic bones.  The  lower  jaw  is  always  articulated  with  the  tympanic 
bones  ;  it  is  composed,  originally,  of  twelve  pieces,  and,  in  some 
Birds,  it  retains  this  condition  for  a  considerable  time  ;  but,  in  the 
adult  state,  these  pieces  are  always  amalgamated  so  as  to  form  a 
single  bone.  The  jaws  of  Birds  are  never  armed  with  teeth,  but 
simply  covered  with  a  horny  sheath,  which  undergoes  an  immense 
number  of  modifications  to  suit  it  to  the  necessities  of  the  different 
Birds. 

The  vertebral  column,  in  Birds,  exhibits  the  same  division^  into 
separate  regions  as  in  the  other  Vcrfebrata  ;  but  as  the  exercise  of 
the  faculty  of  flight  requires  great  solidity  in  the  thoracic  region,  and 
the  tail  is  very  short,  the  only  part  of  the  spine  that  exhibits  any 
flexibility  is  the  neck.  This  is  usually  of  considerable  length,  and 
consists  of  at  least  nine  vertebrje ;  in  the  majority  of  Birds  the  num- 
ber is  from  twelve  to  fifteen,  and  in  some  twenty,  or  even  more.  The 
bodies  of  these  vertebrae  are  convex  behind  and  concave  in  front,  so 
that  they  are  capable  of  great  freedom  of  motion,  and  the  transverse 
processes  are  very  strong,  and  exhibit  a  foramen  at  their  base, 
through  which  a  portion  of  the  arteries  of  the  head,  and  the  main 
stems  of  the  sympathetic  nerve,  pass  upwards  to  the  head.  From 
the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the  verte- 
bra;, the  neck  is  capable  of  describing  very  abrupt  curves,  and  in 
most  Birds  it  is  held  more  or  less  in  the  form  of  an  S,  this  being  the 
most  favourable  position  for  suddenly  darting  forward  the  head,  a 
movement  which  is  constantly  employed  by  many  of  these  animals 
in  the  capture  of  prey. 

The  dorsal  vertebra;  are  usually  eight  or  ten  in  number,  and  vary 
from  six  to  ten  or  eleven.  They  are  short  and  broad,  firmly  at- 
tached to  each  other,  and  not  unfrequently  anchylosed.  They  are 
furnished  with  spinous  processes  on  their  lower  surface,  which  pro- 
ject into  the  cavity  of  the  body,  and  serve  to  give  support  to  the 
lungs.  They  have  also  dorsal  spinous  processes  for  the  attachment 
of  muscles,  and  transverse  processes  to  which  the  ribs  are  articu- 
lated. The  latter,  which  articulate  both  with  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses and  with  the  bodies  of  the  vertebree, 
are  flat  bones,  that  unite  by  a  movable 
articulation  with  a  corresponding  series  of 
bones  rising  from  each  side  of  the  ster- 
num (the  sternal  ribs) :  these  are  analo- 
gous with  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  in 
other  animals.  To  give  increased  sta- 
bility to  this  apparatus  of  ribs,  each  of 
them  is  furnished  with  a  laminar  process, 
which  passes  obliquely  upwards  and  back- 
wards, and  is  attached  to  the  following 
rib  (Fig.  955).  In  addition  to  these  true 
ribs,  which  correspond  in  number  with 
the  dorsal  vertebra,  there  are  frequently 
one  or  two  false  ribs  in  front,  which  do 
not  reach  the  sternum,  and  the  lumbar 
vertebra;  are  also  occasionally  furnished 
with  ribs,  which  resemble  the  true  ribs  in 
structure,  except  that  they  want  the  lami- 
nar processes. 

The  lumbar  and  sacral  vertebrae,  whicti 
vary  in  number  from  seven  to  twenty,  are 
completely  united,  so  as  to  form  a  single 
bony  piece,  the  only  indications  of  its 
compound  nature  being  afforded  by  the 
foramina,  which  exist  in  its  upper  surface 
for  the  passage  of  the  nerves.  With  this  elongated  sacrum  the 
pelvic  arch  is  also  amalgamated,  so  that  the  apparatus,  to  which 
the  hind-limbs  are  attached,  acquires  all  the  solidity  of  a  single 
bone.  The  tail  is  very  short,  and  composed  of  from  six  to  nine 
small  vertebrae,  which  are  capable  of  a  certain  amount  of  motion, 
and  are  furnished  with  strong  transverse  processes.  The  last  verte- 
brae is  considerably  larger  than  its  fellows,  of  an  oblong  form,  and 
set  on  in  a  direction  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  body ; 
it  gives  attachment  to  the  muscles  which  move  thgi  feather  of  the 
tail,  and  is,  consequently,  of  great  importance. 

The  sternum,  which  occupies  the  anterior  part  of  the  thorax,  is  of 
very  large  size  in  most  Birds,  extending  backwards  under  the  greater 
part  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  forms  a  broad  plate,  concave  on 
its  internal,  and  convex  on  its  outer  surface,  where  it  is  also  fur- 
nished with  a  very  prominent  keel,  or  ridge,  to  which  the  powerful 
muscles  of  the  wings  are  attached,  so  that  the  greater  or  less  de- 
velopment of  this  keel  may  be  taken  as  a  criterion  of  the  power  of 
flight  of  the  Bird  to  which  it  belonged.  In  the  Ostriches,  and  other 
Birds  in  which  the  wings  are  so  small  that  they  are  quite  useless  for 
flight,  the  sternal  keel  is  entirely  wanting. 

The  upper  part  of  the  sternum  also  serves  for  the  ."support  of  the 
bones  of  the  scapular  arch,  which  are  very  firmly  united  together,  so 


F'g-  955.— Ribs  of  the 
Golden  Eagle. 

aa,  ribs  ;  ib,  sternal  ribs  ;  cc, 
articulating  surfaces  for  the 
transverse  processes ;  dd, 
heads  of  the  ribs,  articulat- 
ing with  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae  ;  ce,  laminar  pro- 
cesses. 


as  to  afford  a  solid  point  of  attachment  for  the  anterior  limbs.  This 
arch  consists  of  three  bones  on  each  side  (Fig.  956,  showing  sternum 
of  the  Golden  Eagle),  of  which  one,  the  coracoid  bone,  that  is  firmly 
articulated  to  a  large  pit  in  the  anterior  angle  of  the  sternum,  gives 
the  principal  support  to  the  anterior  member.  At  the  superior  ex- 
tremity of  the  coracoid  bone,  which  is  the  strongest  of  all  the  bones 


Fig.  956. — Sternal  Apparatus  of  the  Golden  Eagle. 

a  h  c  d  e  f,  sternum  ;  g  g  g  Si  sternal  ribs  ;  h  h,  coracoid  bones  ;  i  i,  scapulae  ; 
j  j,  clavicles. 

of  the  shoulder,  there  is  an  articulating  surface,  that  assists  in  the 
formation  of  the  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  humerus. 
This  is  completed  by  a  corresponding  surface  on  the  anterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade,  which  is  also  articulated 
at  this  part  to  the  coracoid  bone,  and  extends  backwards,  along  the 
dorsal  surface  of  the  ribs,  close  to  the  spine.  The  arch  is  com- 
pleted by  the  clavicles,  which  are  usually  anchylosed  at  their  ex- 
tremity, so  as  to  form  a  single  V-shaped  bone,  which  is  commonly 

known  as  the/urctdum.  or  merry- 
thought. The  angle  of  union  of 
the  two  clavicles  is  also  sometimes 
anchylosed  to  the  anterior  angle 
of  the  sternal  keel  ;  but,  in  most 
Birds,  it  is  only  attached  to  this 
point  by  ligament.  The  upper 
extremities  of  the  clavicles  are 
articulated  to  the  coracoid  bones 
and  scapulas,  which  they  assist  in 
supporting  against  the  action  of 
the  powerful  muscles  of  the  wings. 
The  bones  of  the  anterior  extre- 
mities are  remarkably  elongated, 
to  suit  them  for  the  important  part 
which  they  have  to  perform  in 
supporting  the  Bird  in  the  air ; 
but,  in  other  respects,  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  recognising  them  as 
modifications  of  the  same  parts 
which  occur  in  all  other  Verte- 
brata  (Fig.  957).  The  humerus, 
which  articulates  with  the  glenoid 
cavity  of  the  shoulder,  is  a  cylin- 
drical bone  of  moderate  length, 
but  very  stout.  At  its  lower  ex- 
tremity it  exhibits  two  articulating 
-Bones  of  the  Wing  of  the  surfaces,  for  the  reception  of  the 


Fig.  957.- 


Jer-Falcon. 


HI, 

ra- 


elbow-joint  ;  11,  wrist-joint ; 
knuckle-joint;  a,  humerus;  h, 
dius  and  ulna  ;  c,  metacarpus  ;  1 
rudimentary  thumb  ;  I,  2,  3,  t 
rudimentary  phalanges  of  fingers. 


two  bones  of  which  the  fore-arm 
is  as  usual  composed.  These 
bones,  the  radius  and  ulna,  are 
much  longer  than  the  humerus ; 
they  are  both  of  a  cylindrical  form, 
and  thickened  at  the  extremities ; 


OSTEOLOGY  OP  BIRDS. 


37« 


but  their  size  is  very  unequal,  the  ulna  being  much  stouter  than 
the  radius,  which  is  usually  very  slender.  These  are  followed  by 
two  small,  rounded  bones  (the  carpal  bones)  forming  the  wrist- 
joint  ;  and  these  again  by  two  elongated  bones,  which  are  com- 
pletely united  at  their  extremities,  and  represent  the  bones  of  the 
hand  {jnctacarpals)  in  man  and  other  Vertcbrata.  At  the  base  of 
the  united  metacarpal  bones  there  is  another  small  bone,  sometimes 
free,  sometimes  anchylosed,  which  represents  the  thumb,  and  gives 
support  to  the  feathers  of  the  pinion  or  bastard-wing  ;  and  they  are 
followed  by  two  short  fingers,  of  which  one  consists  of  two  or  three 
phalanges,  whilst  the  other  never  contains  more  than  a  single  joint. 
The  articulations  of  the  principal  bones  possess  great  freedom  of 
motion  in  certain  directions,  so  that  in  repose  the  whole  limb  can  be 
folded  up  in  a  very  small  compass,  the  bones  taking  a  nearly  parallel 
position.     {See  skeleton  of  the  Vulture,  Fig.  952,  ante.) 

The  bones  of  the  hinder  extremities  are  always  well  developed ; 
but,  except  in  the  Ostriches,  the  two  sides  of  the  pelvis  are  not 
united  beneath.  The  bones  of  each  side  are,  however,  completely 
amalgamated  with  each  other,  and  with  the  sacrum.  The  hinder 
limbs  are  composed  of  the  usual  bones.  The  femur,  or  thigh-bone, 
is  a  short,  stout,  cylindrical  bone,  articulating  with  the  pelvis  by  a 
small  rounded  head,  which  is  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of 
the  bone  ;  it  is  completely  concealed  within  the  muscles  of  the  body. 
The  knee-joint  is  completed  in  front  by  a  zm^W  -patella,  or  knee-cap, 
and  the  shank,  which  is  much  longer  than  the  thigh,  is  formed 
almost  entirely  by  the  tibia,  the  fibula  being  reduced  to  the  form  of 
a  gradually  attenuated  bone,  which  is  usually  attached  to  the  tibia. 
The  tarsus  is  composed  of  a  single  cylindrical  bone,  of  very  variable 
length,  which  is  generally  covered  only  by  a  scaly  skin,  and  rarely 
feathered.  The  foot  consists  of  from  two  to  four  toes,  composed  of 
a  variable  number  of  joints  ;  the  great  toe  is  usually  directed  back- 
wards. The  arrangement  of  the  toes  is,  however,  very  variable  in 
different  groups  of  Birds,  to  adapt  the  feet  for  walking,  perching,  or 
climbing  ;   and  these  modifications  will  be  referred  to  hereafter. 

To  further  illustrate  the  osteology  of  Birds,  we  may  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  skeleton  of  the  Hawk,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  958,  in  which 


SrW 


Fig.  958.— Skeleton  of  Hawk. 

will  be  seen— A,  the  skull ;  E,  cervical  vertebra  ;  C,  the  dotted  lines 
mdicate  the  extent  of  the  anchylosed  vertebrje  of  the  back ;  D,  the 
caudal  vertebrje— the  letter  is  placed  on  the  ploughshare ;  E,  the 
nbs  ;  F,  the  breast-bone  ;  G,  the  furcula,  or  merry-thought ;  HH,  the 
clavicular  or  collar-bone  ;  H*,  the  scapula,  or  shoulder-bone  ;  i,  the 
humerus  ;  K,  L,  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  ulna,  and  radius ;  M, 
metacarpus  of  hand  ;  N,  phalanges  of  fingers ;  O,  p,  Q,  the  pelvic 
bones  ;  R,  the  femur  or  thigh-bone  ;  o,  o,  the  patella  or  knee-pan  ; 
S,  the  leg,  tibia  and  fibula ;  T,  T,  the  os  calcis,  or  heel-bone ;  v,  v, 


viow     f  1  "'',=  ^^■^'-  ^^^  '""■     F'ff-   9^9  affords  another 

view  of  the  wmg  In  this,  illustrating  the  bones  of  the  Hawk's 
wing,  G  IS  the  outline  of  the  furcula  ;  H',  outline  of  part  of  scapula  ; 
I   humerus,  or  arm-bone;  K,  the  ulna;  L,  the  radius,  both  forming 

^f  fr'';i!"",i     '  "'■''•■''  '?■"  ^^^'-bonc-'s;  M,  .M,  metacarpal  bones; 
M,  the  thumb ;  a,  n,  N,  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers. 


Fig.  95g. — Bones  of  Hawk's  Wing. 

The  muscles  of  Birds  are  generally  of  a  very  firm  nature,  and  of 
a  deep  red  colour ;  the  great  mass  of  muscles  is  devoted  to  the 
movement  of  the  wings,  and  attached  to  the  keel  of  the  sternum. 
The  sinews  are  beautifully  white  and  glistening,  and  have  a  great 
tendency  to  become  ossified  in  certain  parts  of  the  body.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  the  long  tendons,  which  pass  down  the  tarsus 
from  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  toes,  which  are  of  particular  impor- 
tance to  the  Bird  in  perching,  as,  from  their  passing  over  the  back 
of  the  joint  between  the  shank  and  tarsus,  they  are  of  course 
stretched  by  the  bending  of  this  joint.  This  is  constantly  observed 
to  take  place  in  a  Bird  resting  upon  a  perch  ;  the  toes  are  thus  in- 
voluntarily made  to  grasp  the  object  upon  which  the  Bird  is  sitting, 
and  by  this  means  it  remains  securely  fixed,  even  when  the  voluntary 
action  of  the  muscles  is  in  abeyance,  as  during  sleep. 

The  clothing  of  the  skin,  in  Birds,  consists  of  the  peculiar  organs 
well-known  3^%  feathers,  which,  although  they  agree  in  their  nature 
and  mode  of  development  with  the  hairs  of  the  Matnmalia,  are  of  a 
far  more  complicated  structure.  It  is  also  to  the  great  development 
of  some  of  these  dermal  appendages,  the  strong  quill 
feathers  of  the  wing,  that  these  animals  are  indebted 
for  their  power  of  flight ;  and  the  existence  of  similar 
strong  feathers  in  the  tail  is  also  of  great  import- 
ance to  them  in  directing  their  course  through  the 
air. 

A  perfect  feather  (Fig.  960)  consists  of  the  shaft, 
b,  or  central  stem— which  is  tubular  at  the  base,  a, 
where  it  is  inserted  into  the  skin — and  the  barbs,  or 
fibres,  which  form  the  webs,  c,  d,  on  each  side  of  the 
shaft.  The  basal  portion  of  the  shaft  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  transparent,  homy,  cylindrical  tube, 
a,  narrowed  at  the  extremity,  which  is  inserted  in 
the  skin.  The  upper  portion,  or  true  shaft,  is  always 
of  much  greater  length  than  the  tube,  and  tapers 
gradually  to  the  extremity;  it  is  flattened  at  the 
sides,  more  or  less  convex  on  the  back,  and  the  lower 
surface  exhibits  a  strong  longitudinal  groove.  It  is 
composed  of  a  white,  elastic,  spongy  matter,  covered 
by  a  thin  homy  sheath.  The  dorsal  portion  of  this 
horny  sheath  envelops  the  whole  of  the  base  of  the 
shaft,  and  becomes  continuous  with  the  tubular  part 
of  the  feather.  At  the  point  where  the  complete 
horny  tube  commences,  the  feather  usually  gives  rise 
to  a  small  supplementary  shaft,  also  furnished  with 
barbs,  which  is  denominated  the  -plumule.  This 
appendage  is  confined  to  the  feathers  composing 
the  general  plumage  of  the  Bird,  and  even  on  these 
it  is  not  always  present ;  it  is  wanting  on  the  quills  of 
c.tube;  /-, shaft;  the  wings  and  tail. 

f,  a,  webs.  Xhe  webs   arc  composed  of  numerous  barbs,    or 

small  fibres,  arranged  in  a  single  series  along  each 
side  of  the  shaft.  These  are  slender  prolongations  of  the  outer 
horny  coat  of  the  shaft ;  they  are  inclined  towards  the  apex  of  the 
feather,  and  are  usually  of  a  flattened  form,  slightly  concave  on 
one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  so  that  each  barb  fits  closely  into 
that  immediately  preceding  it.    Their  margins  are  furnished  with  a 


Fig.  960. 
Quill  Feather. 


372 


WINGS   OF  BIRDS. 


series  of  minute  filaments,  called  barbules,  by  which  the  adhesion 
of  the  barbs  to  each  other  is  effected,  thus  giving  a  great  degree 
of  inrmness  to  the  web ;  and  these  are  not  unfrequently  edged  with 
still  smaller  fibres,  to  which  the  name  of  barbules  has  also  been 
given.  Towards  the  base  of  the  shaft  the  barbs  are  generally  of  a 
loose  texture,  and  more  or  less  disunited,  forming  the  warm  sub- 
stance well  known  as  down  ;  this  modification  of  structure  is  more 
particularly  observable  in  the  feathers  of  the  general  plumage,  in 
which  the  down  often  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  feather ;  the 
plumule  is  also  a  downy  feather. 

The  two  principal  modifications  of  the  feather  are  qiiills  and 
plumes.  The  former  are  distinguished  by  the  great  stiffness  of 
their  shafts,  which  enables  them  to  become  the  prmcipal  aijent  in 
aerial  locomotion  :  they  are  confined  to  the  wings  and  tail.  The 
plumes  constitute  the  general  clothing  of  the  body,  and  differ  from 
the  quills  in  the  greater  delicacy  of  their  texture. 

Besides  the  common  feathers,  the  skin  of  many  Birds — and  es- 
pecially of  the  aquatic  species,  in  which  the  accessory  plumules  rarely 
exist — is  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  down,  consisting  of  a  mul- 
titude of  small  feathers  of  peculiar  construction  ;  each  of  these  down 
feathers  is  composed  of  a  very  small  soft  tube  imbedded  in  the  skin, 
from  the  interior  of  which  there  rises  a  small  tuft  of  soft  filaments, 
without  any  central  shaft.  These  filaments  are  very  slender,  and 
bear  on  each  side  a  series  of  still  more  delicate  filaments,  that  may 
be  regarded  as  analogous  to  the  barbules  of  the  ordinary  feathers. 
This  downy  coat  fulfils  the  same  office  as  the  soft  woolly  fur  of  many 
quadrupeds,  the  ordinary  feathers  being  analogous  to  the  long 
smooth  hair  by  which  the  fur  of  those  animals  is  concealed.  The 
skin  also  bears  a  good  many  hair-like  appendages,  that  are  usually 
scattered  sparingly  over  its  surface  ;  they  rise  from  a  bulb  which 
is  imbedded  in  the  skin,  and  usually  indicate  their  relation  to  the 
ordinary  feathers  by  the  presence  of  a  few  minute  barbs  towards  the 
apex. 

The  development  of  feathers  takes  place  in  small  sacs  of  the 
corium,  or  true  skin,  which  are  at  first  completely  closed,  but  con- 
tinue to  envelop  the  base  of  the  full-grown  feather.  From  the  bot- 
tom of  this  sac  a  small  prominence  arises,  which  is  continued  into 
the  tube  of  the  feather  in  the  form  of  a  vascular  membrane.  This, 
however,  dries  up  when  the  feather  is  mature,  and  then  constitutes 
the  shrivelled  skin  which  is  seen  in  all  quills,  and  commonly  known 
as  the  pith. 

Once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  the  year  the  whole  plumage  of  the 
Bird  is  renewed.  In  many  cases  the  new  clothing  is  very  different 
from  that  which  it  replaces  ;  and  in  Birds  inhabiting  temperate  and 
cold  climates,  we  can  frequently  distinguish  a  summer  and  winter 
dress.  This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  false  species,  as  the  appearance  of  the  Birds  in 
these  different  states  is  often  very  dissimilar ;  and  it  is  only  by  an 
accurate  study  of  the  living  animals — which  is,  of  course,  almost  im- 
possible with  many  exotic  Birds — that  such  mistakes  as  these  can 
be  prevented  or  rectified.  Another  fertile  source  of  similar  errors 
is  to  be  found  in  the  difference  very  commonly  existing  between  the 
two  sexes — a  difference  which  is  often  so  great,  that  without  par- 
ticular information  derived  from  the  observation  of  the  Birds  in  their 
native  haunts,  it  would  be  impossible  to  refer  the  males  and  females 
to  their  proper  partners.  The  difficulty  is  still  further  increased  by 
the  fact,  that  the  young  of  all  Birds,  in  their  first  plumage,  differ 
more  or  less  from  their  parents,  and  frequently  only  acquire  their 
mature  dress  after  the  lapse  of  three  or 
four  years ;  the  plumage  undergoing  a 
certain  change  at  each  moult.  These 
circumstances  undoubtedly  throw  great 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  student  of 
Ornithology  ;  and  it  is  perhaps  not  much 
to  be  wondered  at  if  we  have  sometimes 
half-a-dozen  different  names  for  different 
states  of  the  same  species  ;  but  it  must 
also  be  confessed,  that  in  this,  as  in 
other  departments  of  Natural  History, 
the  desire  to  describe  new  species  has 
often  led  to  an  unjustifiable  multipUca- 
tion  of  errors  of  this  description. 

In  a  zoological  point  of  view,  the 
greatest  importance  attaches  to  the 
feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail,  to  which 
different  names  have  been  given.  The 
quills  are  inserted  into  all  the  bones  of 
the  wing ;  but  the  longest  are  those 
attached  to  the  bones  of  the  hand,  and 
to  these  the  name  oi iprimaries  is  given. 
The  feathers  supported  by  the  fore-arm 
are  denominated  secondaries,  and  those 
attached  to  the  humerus,  tertiaries. 
The  thumb  also  bears  a  few  quills,  which  form  what  is  called  the 
alula,  or  bastard  wing.  These,  and  some  other  feathers  to  which 
particular  names  have  been  given,  are  shown  in  the  following  cut 
(Fig.  961}.     The  base  of  the  quills  is  covered  by  a  series  of  large 


feathers  called  the  wing-coverts,  that  are  also  distinguished  into 
primary  and  secondary.  The  feathers  of  the  tail  are  furnished 
with  numerous  muscles,  by  which  they  can  be  spread  out  and  folded 
up  like  a  fan .  Their  bases  are  also  covered,  both  above  and  beneath, 
by  smaller  feathers,  which  are  called  the  tatl-coverts. 

It  is  impossible  to  conceive  any  covering  more  beautifully  adapted 
to  the  peculiar  wants  of  these  creatures  than  that  with  which  they 
are  endowed  by  nature.  All  the  feathers  being  directed  backwards, 
the  most  rapid  motion  through  the  air  only'  tends  to  press  thein 
more  closely  to  the  body,  and  the  warm  air,  confined  amongst  the 
inner  downy  fibres,  is  thus  effectually  prevented  from  escaping.  In 
the  aquatic  Birds  the  feathers  are  constantly  lubricated  by  an  oily 
secretion,  that  completely  excludes  the  water.  In  the  wings,  the 
quill  feathers  exhibit,  in  the  highest  degree,  a  union  of  the  two 
qualities  of  lightness  and  strength,  whilst,  by  their  arrangement, 
they  can  be  folded  together  into  a  very  small  compass. 


Fig.  961. — A,  ear-coverts;  B,  bastard  wing;  C  D  E,  wing-coverts; 
primaries  ;  G,  scapulars  ;  H,  secondaries ;  L,  tail-coverts. 


F, 


The  feathers  usually  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  Bird,  with  the 
exception  of  the  mandibles  and  feet  ;  and  even  the  latter  are  some- 
times clothed  with  feathers  ;  but  in  some  cases  different  portions  of 
the  surface  are  naked,  and  covered  only  with  a  soft  skin.  These 
naked  portions  are  usually  confined  to  the  head,  where  the  skin  often 


Fig.  962. — Wing  of  Buzzard  (partly  stripped). 

forms  remarkable  folds  or  wattles  ;  but  in  some  cases,  as  the  Vul- 
tures, the  whole  neck  is  bare  of  feathers. 

In  order  that  the  arrangement  of  the  feathers  of  the  wings  may 
be  still  better  understood,  we  refer  to   Fig.  962,  the  wing  of  the 


WINGS  AND  TAILS  OF  BIRDS. 


37J 


common  Buzzard,  stripped  of  all  its  feathers,  excepting  those  which 
give  it  power  and  expanse,  and  which  are  those  arising  from  the 
hand  and  the  ulna,  and  termed  quill-feathers.  They  form  two  sets. 
Tlie  first  set,  A,  A,  A,  consist  of  those  arising  from  the  hand  (meta- 
carpus and  phalanges),  and  constituting  the  most  important  of  the 
series,  being  mainly  instrumental,  by  their  length  and  shape,  their 
stiffness  or  flexibility,  in  determining  the  character  or  the  power  of 
their  flight.  They  are  the  primaries,  or  primary  quill-feathers,  and 
are  ten  in  number,  but  they  differ  in  form  as  well  as  in  relative 
length.  The  second  set  arise  exclusively  from  the  ulna,  and  are  the 
secondaries,  or  secondary  quill-feathers,  B  :  they  are  usually  shorter, 
broader,  and  less  rigid  than  the  former  ;  their  number  varies.  From 
the  small  bone,  which  represents  the  thumb,  arise  certain  short  stiff 
feathers,  lying  close  upon  the  quills  of  the  primaries,  and  constitut- 
ing the  spurious  wing  or  winglet,  c.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  group 
of  feathers,  the  tertiaries,  arising  from  the  humeral  joint  of  the  fore- 
arm, and  which,  in  many  Birds,  as  the  Curlews,  Plovers,  Lapwings, 
&c.,  are  very  long,  forming  a  sort  of  pointed  appendage,  very  appa- 
rent during  flight :  in  most  Birds,  however,  they  are  very  short,  or 
not  to  be  discriminated  from  the  rest  of  the  greater  coverts,  of 
which,  in  fact,  they  are  a  continuation  ;  hence  they  cannot  strictly 
be  reckoned  among  the  quill-feathers.  The  same  observation  also 
applies  to  the  feathers,  D,  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  hu- 
merus, the  scapularies  ;  these  lie  along  the  sides  of  the  back,  and 
in  many  Birds  are  of  great  length.  The  position  of  these  feathers, 
and   of  the  coverts,  will  be   seen  in  the  annexed  sketch,  Fig.  963, 


fig.  963.— Wing  of  Curlew. 

which  is  the  expanded  wing  of  a  Curlew  :  A,  a  series  of  feathers,  the 
lesser  coverts,  disposed  in  scale-like  order,  row  after  row,  on  the 
fore-arm  and  carpal  joint ;  they  cover  the  barrels  of  the  quill- 
feathers ;  below  them  extends  a  series  of  larger  feathers,  B,  which 
sweep  across  the  wing,  encroaching  far  on  the  primaries,  and  when 
the  wing  is  closed  usually  hiding  the  secondaries ;  these  are  the 
greater  coverts,  of  which  the  tertiaries  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  con- 
tinuation. The  under  surface  of  the  wing  is  lined  with  softer  fea- 
thers, or  under-coverts. 

From  the  leading  modifications  exhibited  in  the  wings  of  Birds, 
we  turn  to  those  presented  by  the  tail,  the  osseous  structure  of 
which,  with  the  mode  in  which  the  feathers  are  ordinarily  arranged, 
has  already  been  pointed  out.  Even  more  numerous  than  those  of 
the  wings  are  the  diversities  of  form  and  size  presented  by  this 
organ  ;  diversities  more  or  less  directly  influencing  the  character  of 
the  flight.  In  some  instances  the  tail  is  reduced  to  a  mere  rudi- 
ment, or  is  even  wanting,  and  in  others  it  is  large  and  of  great 
length.  Nor  is  it  only  from  its  form  or  size  that  the  tail  of  the 
feathered  race  influences  the  peculiar  manner  of  flight  ;  the  texture 
and  quality  of  the  feathers  themselves  are  of  great  importance. 
Where  the  tail  consists  of  soft  plume-like  feathers,  we  may  at  once 
set  it  down  that  the  Bird,  thus  furnished,  is  ill-adapted  for  aerial 
progression ;  and  it  will  be  found,  moreover,  that  the  structure  of 
the  wings  and  the  nature  of  the  general  plumage,  will  invariably 
correspond  with  the  characters  of  the  tail  ;  for  wings,  well  calculated 
for  atrial  progression,  and  a  tail  unadapted  for  it,  would  be  a  viola- 
tion of  the  laws  of  nature,  there  being  no  contradiction  of  parts  and 
purposes  in  natural  laws.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  feathers  of  the 
tail  be  firm  and  the  barbs  close — though  the  tail  itself  may  not  be 
very  ample — it  will  be  of  great  avail.  There  are  many  examples  of 
Birds  with  small  tails  being  endowed  with  surprising  powers  of 
flight ;  indeed,  in  most  Birds  of  rapid  flight,  the  wings,  when  closed, 
advance  with  their  points  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  or  even  pass  beyond 
it:  we  may  mention  the  Peregrine- Falcon  and  the  Swift;  in  the 
latter  Bird  the  tail  feathers  are  only  ten  in  number,  and  are  far  ex- 
ceeded by  the  wings  when  closed.  Where,  however,  the  tail  is 
much  reduced,  as  in  the  Kingfisher,  its  rudder-like  power  is  evi- 
dently diminished,  and  though  the  flight  may  still  be  rapid,  it  is  ne- 
cessarily straight  and  arrow-like,  there  being  no  power  of  sailing  in 
easy  circles,  or  of  making  abrupt  turns  and  doubles,  as  we  see  in  the 
Kite  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  the  Swallow  on  the  other. 

We  need  hardly  say  that,  in  the  act  of  flying,  Birds  expand  their 
tails,  and  thus  the  extent  of  surface  is  increased  to  their  manifest 
advantage.  Where  the  wings  are  ample,  and  the  tail  ample  at  the 
same  time,  the  flight  is  easy  and  graceful ;  where  the  tail  is  short 
and  the  wings  long  and  vigorous,  the  flight  is  generally  rapid  and 
impetuous  ;  but  where  the  tail  is  long  and  ample,  and  the  wings 
rounded  and  short,  as  in  the  Magpie,  the  flight  is  laborious.  The 
principal  forms  assumed  by  the  tail  are  as  follows: — i,  square,  or 


even;  2,  rounded;  3,  graduated  regularly  (every  feather  advancing 
in  due  degree),  or  irregularly  (some  advancing  to  an  extreme  beyond 
the  others)  ;  4,  .slightly  forked  with  rounded  points  ;  s,  more  or  less 
deeply  forked  with  acute  points ;  6,  plumose.  The  "size  of  the  tail 
vanes  under  every  modification  of  form,  and  the  forms  themselves 
differ  to  a  considerable  degree,  as  it  regards  a  very  great  number  of 
minute  particulars  ;  the  feathers  also  composing  the  tail  exhibit  an 
mfinity  of  differences,  both  in  form  and  texture. 

As  examples  of  some  of  the  principal  forms  in  the  tail  of  Birds  we 
select  the  following  illustrations  :— Fig.  964,  the  tail  of  the  Kestrel 
spread  out ;  Fig.  972,  the  tail  of  the  common  Buzzard  ;  Fig.  966, 
the  tail  of  a  species  of  Humming-bird  ;  Fig.  974,  the  tail  of  the 
Heron  ;  Fig.  068,  the  tail  of  the  Sandpiper;  Fig.  967,  the  tail  of  the 
Coot;  Fig.  965,  the  tail  of  the  Pied  Wagtail ;  Fiy  973,  the  tail  of 
the  Magpie  ;  Fig.  970,  the  tail  of  the  Chaffinch  ;  Fig.  969,  the  tail 
of  the  Lark;  F^ig.  975,  the  stiff  rudder-like  tail  of  the  Cormorant; 
Fig.  971,  the  scansorial  tail  of  the  Tree-creeper. 


Fig.  964. — Tail  of  Kestrel. 


Fig.  965.— Tail  of  Tied  Wagtail. 


Fig.  966.— Tail  of 
Hummintr-bird. 


Fig.  967. — Tail  of 
Coot. 


Fig.  968.— Tail  of 
Sandpiper. 


Fig.  969. — Tail  of 
Lark. 


?ig.  970. — Tail  of 
Chaffinch. 


Fig.  971.— Tail  of 
Tree-creeper. 


lig.  972. — Tail  of  iluzzard. 


Fig.  973.— Tail  of  Magpie. 


374 


MANDIBLES,  BEAKS,  FEET,  AND  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  OF  BIRDS. 


The  mandibles  are  always  sheathed  in  a  horny  case,  usually  of  a 
more  or  less  conical  form,  on  the  sides  of  which  the  nostrils  are 
commonly  seen.  In  most  Birds  the  edges  of  this  horny  sheath  are 
sharp  and  smooth,  but  in  some  they  are  more  or  less  denticulated 


Fiq 


974-- 


-Tail  of  Heron. 


F'S-  975-— Tail  of  CormoiaRt. 


along  the  margins  ;  the  upper  mandible  is  frequently  hooked  at  the 
extremity,  as  in  the  Predaceous  Birds  (Fig.  976),  where  it  serves  for 
tearing  the  prey  ;  or  in  the  Parrots,  which  employ  also  their  beaks 
in  climbing.  The  beak  is  sometimes  of  enormous  size,  as  in  the 
Toucans  and  Hornbills  (Figs.  977  and  978)  ;  but  in  these  it  is  of  a 
light  spongy  texture,  so  that  the  Birds  exhibit  far  more  activity  tlian 
might  be  expected  from  the  disproportionate  bulk  of  their  bills.  In 
the  Ducks  the  bill  is  more  or 
less  flattened,  and  its  te.xture 
is  much  softer  than  in  other 
Birds ;  it  is  furnished  with 
numerous  nerves,  and  thus 
serves  as  an  organ  of  touch. 
In  other  Birds,  the  simply 
conical  form  predominates, 
although  the  bill  exhibits  an 
almost  infinite  number  of  par- 
ticular modifications,  to  suit  the 
exigencies  of  different  Birds. 
At  the  base  of  the  bill,  there 
is,  in  many  Birds,  a  circle  of 
naked  skin,  which  is  called  the 
cere  ;  and  in  others,  which  cap- 
ture insects  on  the  wing,  the  hinder  portion  of  the  gape  is  bordered 
by  long  bristles  (Fig.  979),  which  are  of  great  service  in  preventing 
the  escape  of  their  insect  prey. 

The  characters  afforded  by  the  form  of  the  bill  are  of  great  im- 
portance in  classification  ;  and  those  derived  from  the  structure  of 
the  feet  and  the  arrangement  of  their  scaly  covering,  are  perhaps 


Ostriches,  one  of  the  others  is  also  deficient,  and  the  foot  consists 
only  of  two  toes.  In  the  Parrots,  again,  the  outer  toe  is  also  turned 
backwards  ^Fig.  982),  and  the  foot  is  divided  into  two  pairs  of  toes— 
an  arrangement  which  enables  these  Birds  to  climb  with  great 
facility,  their  feet  being  applicable  to  many  of 
the  purposes  of  hands.  In  the  Cuckoo,  and 
some  other  Birds,  the  outer  toe  is  capable  of 
being  directed  either  backwards  or  forwards, 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal ;  and  in  some 
of  the  Swallows,  the  whole  of  the  toes  are 
turned  forwards.  The  Water-birds  have  the 
toes  more  or  less  united  by  a  web,  which  is 
usually  confined  to  the  three  anterior  toes,  but, 
in  some  species,  also  extends  along  the  side 
of  the  foot  to  the  great  toe  (Fig.  983). 
feet  and  tarsi  are  generally  bare  of  feathers,  and  covered 
with  a  horny  skin,  sometimes  simply  granular,  but  usually  more  or 
less  distinctly  divided  into  horny  plates,  the  form  and  arrangement 
of  which  afford  very  important  characters  for  the  classification  of 


Fig-  979-— Head  of 
Goatsucker. 


The 


Fig.  976. — Beak  of  Jer-Falcon. 


Fig.  977. — Beak  of  Touran. 


Fig.  97S. — Beak  of  Hornbill. 

equally  valuable.  In  most  Birds  the  toes  are  four  in  number ;  and 
in  the  majority  of  these,  three  of  the  toes  are  directed  forwards, 
■whilst  the  fourth  or  great  toe  is  turned  backwards  (Fig.  980).  In 
some  Birds  the  posterior  toe  is  wanting  (Fig.   981);    and   in  the 


Fig.  980.— -Foot  of  the  Falcon. 

these  animals.  The  toes  are  always  terminated  by  claws,  varying' 
greatly  in  their  form,  according  to  the  habits  of  the  animals.  In 
the  Predaceous  Birds  they  are  very  long,  strong,  curved  and  acute, 
constituting    the  formidable  weapons  with  which  these    creatures 

seize  their  prey :  the  harmless  Perch- 
ing Birds  have  long  slender  claws ; 
and  the  Scratching  Birds,  such  as  the 
common  Fowl  and  its  allies,  are  fur- 
nished with  stout  nails.  The  latter 
are  also  frequently  armed  with  an  ac- 
cessory claw,  attached  to  the  back  of 
the  tarsus  above  the  great  toe  (Fig. 
984).  _        _ 

In  the  structure  of  the  digestive 
organs.  Birds  exhibit  a  great  uni- 
formity. The  oesophagus,  often  very 
muscular,  is  usually  dilated  into  a 
large  sac,  called  the  croJ>,  at  its  en- 
trance into  the  breast ;  this  is  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  glands,  and  acts 
as  sort  of  first  stomach,  in  which  the 
food  receives  a  certain  amount  of  pre- 
paration, before  being  submitted  to 
the  action  of  the  proper  digestive 
organs.  A  little  below  the  crop,  the  narrow  oesophagus  is  again 
slightly  dilated,  forming  what  is  called  the  vctitriculus  succenfurt- 
a/'«j,  the  walls  of  which  are  thick,  and  contain  a  gre.at  number  of . 
glands,  secreting  the  gastric  juice.     Below  this,  the  intestinal  canal 


Fig.  9S1. — Foot  of  the  Bustard. 


Fig.  9S2. — Foot  of  the  I'anot. 


Fig.  983. — Foot  of  the  Gannet. 


CIRCULATING,    RESPIRING,  AND   OTHER   ORGANS  OF  BIRDS. 


37S 


is  enlarged  into  a  third  stomach,  the  gizzard,  in  which  the  process 
of  digL'stion  is  carried  furtlior.  In  the  Granivorous  Birds,  the  walls 
of  this  cavity  are  very  thick  and  muscular,  mostly  clothed  internally 
with  a  strong  horny  epithelium,  serving  for  the  trituration  of  the 
foot;  but  in  the  Predaceous  species,  the  gizzard  is  thin  and  mem- 


Fig.  9S4. — Foot  of  the  Fowl. 

branous.  The  intestine  is  rather  short,  but  usually  exhibits  several 
convolutions  ;  the  large  intestine  is  always  furnished  with  the  ap- 
pendage of  two  coeca,  and  opens  by  a  semicircular  orifice  into  the 
cloaca,  that  also  receives  the  orifices  of  the  urinary  and  generative 
organs.  The  liver  is  of  large  size,  and  usually  furnished  with  a  gall- 
bladder. The  pancreas  is 
lodged  in  a  sort  of  loop  formed 
by  the  small  intestme  im- 
mediately after  quitting  the 
gizzard.  There  are  also  large 
salivary  glands  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  mouth,  which 
pour  their  secretion  into  that 
cavity.     (See  Fig.  985.) 

The  organs  of  circulation 
and  respiration  in  Birds  pre- 
sent a  marked  advance  upon 
those  of  Reptiles.  They  are 
not,  however,  separated  from 
the  abdominal  cavity  by  a 
diaphragm.  The  heart  con- 
sists of  four  distinctly  sepa- 
rated cavities — two  auricles, 
and  two  ventricles — so  that 
the  venous  and  arterial  blood 
can  never  mix  in  that  organ, 
and  the  whole  of  the  blood 
returned  from  the  different 
parts  of  the  body,  passes 
through  the  lungs  before  be- 
ing again  driven  into  the  sys- 
temic arteries.  The  blood 
is  received  from  the  veins  of 
the  body  in  the  right  auricle, 
from  which  it  passes  through 
a  valvular  opening  into  the 
right  ventricle,  and  is  thence 
driven  into  the  lungs.  From 
these  organs  it  returns  through 
the  pulmonary  veins  into  the 
left  auricle,  and  passes  thence 
into  the  ventricle  of  the  same 
side,  by  the  contraction  of 
which  it  is  driven  into  the  , 
aorta.  This  soon  divides  into 
two  branches,  which  by  their 
further  subdivision  give  rise 
to  the  arteries  of  the  body. 

The  lungs  are  of  consider- 
able size,  and  adhere  to  the 

ribs  and  inferior  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebral  column.  They 
are  red  spongy  organs,  and  e.xhibit  several  openings  (usually  four 
pairs,  Fig.  986)  on  their  surface,  which  lead  into  large  air-sacs, 
hollowed  out  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  body  (Fig.  987).  These  air- 
sacs  are  in  communication  with  the  cells  in  the  interior  of  the 
bones,  which  thus  receive  a  constant  supply  of  air.  The  air  thus 
penetrates  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  so  that  respiration  goes  on  with 
greater  activity  in  Birds  than  in  any  other  Vcrtchrata,  for  a  portion 
of  the  blood  is  constantly  in  contact  with  air  when  passing  through 
the  capillaries  of  the  body,  as  well  as  through  those  of  the  lungs. 


Fig.  9S5. — Digestive  Apparatus  of 
Common  Fowl. 

CESophagus ;  /,  crop  ;  vs,  ventriculus  suc- 
centuriatus  ;  g,  gizzard  ;  /,  pancreas  ;  d, 
duodenum  ;  co,  coeca  ;  gi,  large  intestine  ; 
tt,  ureter  ;  0,  oviduct ;  cl,  cloaca  ;  z,  small 
intestine  ;  f,  liver  ;  vf,  gall-bladder  ;  c, 
gall-duct. 


Fig.  986. — Lungs  of  the  Apteryx. 

trachea  ;  v,  pulmonary  vessels  ;  /, 
lung  ;  0,  bronchial  orifices  ;  b  b,  bron- 
chial tube  opened. 


The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  blood  attains  a  higher  tempe- 
rature than  even  in  the  iMammalia;  and  as  the  clothing  of  Birds  is 
.of  a  nature  to  prevent  the  dispersion  of  this  heat,  the  temperature  of 
their  bodies  is  constantly  very  high. 

The  trachea  opens  into  the  ccsophagus  by  a  longitudinal  slit  a 

little  behind  the  roof  of  the 
tongue.  It  runs  down  the  neck 
in  the  form  of  a  single  tube, 
usually  composed  of  complete 
cartilaginous  rings  ;  and  in  some 
Birds  which  have  a  loud  cry, 
such  as  the  V/ild  Swan,  it  is 
convoluted,  and  received  into  a 
cavity  of  the  front  of  the  ster- 
num. In  general,  however,  it 
runs  straight  to  the  lungs,  before 
entering  which  it  divides  into 
two  branches.  At  this  point 
there  is  usually  a  second  larynx, 
furnished  with  an  apparatus  of 
muscles,  which  is  the  principal 
agent  in  the  production  of  the 
well-known  sounds  emitted  by 
many  Birds.  The  mechanism 
of  the  vocal  organs  in  Birds, 
&c.,  has  already  been  described 
in  the  first  chapter  of  this  work, 
at  p.  13. 

The  kidneys,  which  are  fre- 
quently united,  are  situated  in 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity,  close  to  the  sacrum  ;  their  secretion  is  discharged 
directly  through  the  ureters  into  the  cloaca.  In  addition  to  the 
kidneys,  there  is  another  secretory  organ  situated  on  the  surface  of 
the  tail;  it  produces  a  fatty  secretion,  that  communicates  a  certain 

amount  of  greasiness  to  the  feathers  ; 
and  this  is  so  great  in  the  Aquatic 
Birds,  that  their  feathers  are  never 
wetted  by  immersion  in  water. 

In  the  development  of  the  nervous 
system,  also.  Birds  exhibit  a  con- 
siderable superiorityover  the  Reptiles. 
The  brain  is  larger  in  proportion 
to  the  spinal  marrow,  and  the  hemi- 
spheres of  the  cerebrum,  or  true  brain, 
are  especially  developed  (Fig.  988). 
The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  smooth, 
and  quite  destitute  of  the  convolu- 
tions which  are  generally  observable 
on  the  surface  of  these  parts  in  the 
Mammalia  ;  and  the  great  commis- 
sure that  unites  the  hemispheres  in 
the  latter,  known  as  the  corpus  callo- 
sum,  is  also  wanting.  The  cerebel- 
lum is  much  larger  than  in  the  Rep- 
„.       „        _  ,  ,.  tiles,    and   distinctly   grooved   trans- 

Fig.  9S7. -Lungs  and  Au--sacs  of  ^(;,sg,y  .  jj  consists  almost  entirely  of 
the  Ustrich.  ^^  central  portion  ;  the  hemispheres 

a,  heart  ;  b,  stomach  ;  c  c,  intes-  of  the  cerebellum,  which  in  the  Alam- 
tines  ;  d,  trachea  ;  e,  lungs ;  nialia  are  always  of  considerable  size, 
fff,  air-sacs,  with  the  apertures  and  often  form  the  greater  part  of 
through  which  they  communi-  that  organ,  being  here  usually  re- 
cate  with  the  lungs.  duced  to   a   comparatively   rudimen- 

tary  condition.     The   main   stem   of 
the  sympathetic  nerve,  as  already  stated,  passes  up  to  the  brain 
through  the  lateral  apertures  of  the  cervical  vertebra;. 
The  organs  of  the  senses  are  also  usually  present  in  a  tolerably 


Fig.  9SS.— Brain  of  the  Sparrow. 

(I).  From  above— 3,  cerebral  lobes;  /',  cerebellum;  x,  bill;  z,  eyes.  (2). 
From  behind— (7,  cerebral  lobes  ;  b,  cerebellum  ;  c,  optic  lobes  ;  d,  medulla 
oblongata.  (3).  From  beneath— «,  cerebral  lobes;  c,  optic  lobes;  I,  2, 
3.  4j  Si  6,  six  pairs  of  cerebral  nerves. 


376 


SEJ^SES  OF  SMELL  AND  SIGHT  OF  BIRDS. 


high  state  of  development.  The  sense  of  smell,  however,  is  but  im- 
perfect ;  the  nasal  cavity  exhibits  but  few  convolutions ;  and  in 
some  birds,  the  external  nasal  apertures  are  either  entirely  wanting, 
or  reduced  to  a  very  small  size.  These  orifices  are  generally  placed 
on  the  sides  of  the  bill,  or  quite  at  its  base,  where  they  are  fre- 
quently surrounded  by  a  naked  skin  ;  but  in  the  wingless  Apteryx 
of  New  Zealand,  the  nostrils  are  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  long 
bill. 

With  respect  to  the  eye  of  Birds,  we  may  observe  that  the 
bony  orbits  are  capacious,  and  the  organs  seated  therein  of  accord- 
ing magnitude.  In  Birds  of  prey  the  general  shape  of  the  eye  is 
that  of  a  bell,  or  chalice ;  the  cornea,  which  is  very  convex,  forms 
the  bottom  of  the  chalice  ;  the  posterior  segment  of  the  sclerotica 
its  cover.     This  peculiar  form  (see  Fig.  989)  arises  from  the  curva- 


Fig.  990. — Sclerotic  Plates  of  Penguin. 


Fig.  9S9.— Eye  of  Owl. 

ture  and  length  of  the  bony  plates,  which,  as  in  all  other  Birds, 
occupy  the  front  of  the  sclerotica,  lying  close  together  and  over- 
lapping each  other.  These  bony  plates  form  a  flat  or  slightly  con- 
vex ring ;  but  in  the  Rapacious  Birds  they  form  a  concave  ring, 
which  gives  to  the  eyeball  the  above-mentioned  form.  By  means  of 
this  ring  the  eye  becomes  a  kind  of  self-adjusting  telescope,  so  as 
to  take  in  both  near  and  very  distant  objects. 

A  representation  of  the  sclerotic  plates  forming  the  bony  ring  in 
the  eye  of  the  Penguin  {Apteno- 
dytcs)  is  represented  in  Fig.  990. 
They  remind  us  forcibly  of  the 
eye-plates  in  some  of  the  Rep- 
tiles, particularly  of  those  be- 
longing to  the  eyes  of  the  Enalio- 
saurians,  or  fossil  marine  Lizards. 
The  Penguin  has  to  adjust  its  eye 
for  vision  both  on  land  and  under 
water.  This  contrivance  must 
greatly  assist  the  adjustment  ne- 
cessary for  seeing  clearly  in  such 
different  media. 

The  crystalline  humour  is  flat  in  Birds  ;  and  the  vitreous  humour 
is  very  small.  The  colour  of  the  iris  varies  in  different  species,  and 
in  many  cases  is  very  brilliant.  The  marsupium,  which  arises  in 
the  back  of  the  eye,  and  the  use  of  which  is  not  very  clearly  ascer- 
tained, is  a  peculiarity  in  the  eye  of  Birds.  They  have  three  eye- 
lids ;  two  of  which,  the  upper  and  lower,  are  closed,  in  most  of  the 
race,  by  the  elevation  of  the  lower  one,  as  may  be  frequently  seen  in 
uur  domestic  poultry.  The  Owl,  the  Goatsucker,  and  a  few  others 
have  the  power  of  depressing  the 
upper  eyelid.  Of  these  Birds  the 
upper  only  is  furnished  with  eye- 
lashes generall}' :  the  Ostrich,  Secre- 
tary-Vulture, some  Parrots,  and  a 
few  other  Birds  have  them  in  both 
lids.  But  the  third  eyelid,  or  nicti- 
tating membrane,  forms  the  most 
curious  apparatus.  When  at  rest, 
this,  which  is  a  thin  semi-trans- 
parent fold  of  the  tiaiica  conjtuic- 
tiva,  lies  in  the  inner  corner  of  the 
eye,  with  its  loose  edge  nearly 
vertical.  By  the  combined  action 
of  two  muscles  which  are  attached 
towards  the  back  of  the  sclerotica, 
it  is  capable  of  being  drawn  out  so 

as  to  cover  the  whole  front  of  the  F'g-  99i-— Section  of  Eye  of  Owl. 
eyeball  like  a  curtain,  and  its  own 

elasticity  restores  it  to  the  corner  in  which  it  rested.  This,  it  is 
said,  enables  the  Eagle  to  look  at  the  sun. 

Fig.  991  shows  the  section   of  the  eye  of  the  Owl :  a,  the  quad- 
rangular bony  scale  within  the  substance  of  the   sclerotic,  giving  it 


firmness  ;  b,  an  expansion  called  the  ciliary  body,  extending  over 
the  whole  of  the  inner  surface  ;  c,  a  curious  membrane,  called  the 
pccten,  projecting  through  the  choroid  into  the  vitreous  humour, 
and  in  some  Birds  attached  to  the  side  of  the  lens  :  of  its  use  little 
is  known.  Fig.  992  shows  the  posterior  view  of  the  eyeball ;  Fig. 
993  a  lateral  view  of  the  same.     These  show  the  two  muscles  which 


Fig. 


992.— Eyeball  of  Owl ; 
posterior  view. 


Fig.  993. — Eyeball  of  Owl : 
lateral  view. 


originate  from  the  sclerotic,  and  are  applied  to  its  curved  surface 
round  the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve  (Fig.  992,  a).  The  larger  re- 
presents rather  more  than  half  of  what,  if  completed,  would  be  a 
broad  circular  ring  (Fig.  992,^):  it  is  called  the  quadratus.  At- 
tached by  its  wider  edge,  near  the  margin  of  this  part  of  the  scle- 
rotic, its  fibres  converge  to  the  narrower  edge,  and  terminate  in  a 
narrow  tendon  (Fig.  992,  c),  perforated  through  the  whole  length  like 
the  hem  of  an  apron.  The  second  smaller  muscle,  called  the 
pyra7!iidalis,  from  its  shape  (Fig.  992,  d)  at  an  opposite  part  of  the 
circumference.  Its  fibres  converge,  and  are  fixed  into  a  long  round 
tendon  (Figs.  992  and  993,  e),  which  passes  through  the  loop  or 
hem  (c)  of  the  quadratus,  and  hence  turning  over  the  edge  of  the 
broad  part  of  the  sclerotic,  is  continued  along  the  surface  of  its 
bell-shaped  portion,  where  it  passes  through  several  thread-like 
loops  or  pulleys  which  keep  it  applied  to  the  concavity,  and  round  a 
bony  point  which  projects  from  the  surface,  and  is  attached  near  the 
edge  of  the  cornea  to  the  edge  of  an  elastic  fold  (Fig.  993.7^)  of  the 
conjunctiva,  which  is  called  the  third  eyelid,  or  nictitating  {i.e., 
winking)  membrane.  It  will  be  easily  seen  by  the  help  of  the  figures, 
from  this  description,  that  the  effect  of  the  simultaneous  contraction 
of  the  two  muscles  will  be  to  draw  the  membrane  with  great  rapidity, 
making  it  sweep  over  the  surface  of  the  cornea.  It  returns  by  its 
own  elasticity  with  nearly  equal  quickness.  A  Bird  may  be  seen  to 
use  this  mechanism  twenty  times  in  a  minute  ;  in  fact,  as  often  as  it 
may  be  necessary  to  cleanse  the  surface  of  the  eye.  The  colour  of 
the  membrane  is  milky  ;  and  it  is  seen  to  pass  from  the  upper  and 
inner  to  the  outer  and  lower  corner  of  the  eye  with  the  speed  lor 
which  the  act  of  winking  is  proverbial. 

There  is  no  external  auditory  apparatus,  but  the  orifice  to  the 
internal  auditory  apparatus  is  covered  with  a  tuft  of  close  feathers ; 
sometimes,  however,  as  in  the  Owl,  there  are  external  membranous 
valves,  capable  of  being  opened  or  closed  at  will.  The  sense  of 
hearing  is  acute. 

Birds  are  all  oviparous ;   that   is,  they  produce  eggs  which  are 


Fig.  994.— Egg  Organ. 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION  OF  BIRDS. 


377 


Fig.  995-— Vivified  Eg^. 


hatched  by  incubation,  and  from  which  the  young  are  excluded,  in 
different  deo-rees  of  development,  those  of  the  Gallinaceous  and 
Duck  tribes'being  the  most  matured;  they  are,  indeed,  capable  of 
runnin,"'  about  and  picking;  food  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  and 
hence  are  called  Aittojthagi.  In  the  following  illustrations,  the  de- 
velopment of  the  e^%,  during  incubation,  will  be  apparent. 

Fig.  994  represents  the  egg-organ  of  the  Fowl :  the  eggs  in  this 
apparatus  are  found  in  all  stages  of  maturity,  from  a  minute  yellow 
grain,  upwards,  to  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  the  largest  are  destined  to 
be  laid  first ;  all  are  enveloped  in  a  delicate 
membrane,  but  are  destitute  of  the  white, 
or  albumen,  and  the  shell ;  they  exhibit  the 
germ  of  the  future   Bird,  under  a  slightly 
elevated  spot.  (See  Fig.  995.)  After  becom- 
ing disengaged  and  passing  into  the  egg- 
tube,  they  become  covered  with  albumen, 
then  with  a  double  membrane,  and  lastly 
with  a  calcareous  envelope.     The  albumen 
is  laid  on  layer  after  layer  in  the  egg-tube, 
and  gradually  coats  the  membrane  enclos- 
ing the  yolk,  some  of  it  being  inspissated 

so  as  to  form  an  almost  invisible  membrane,  the  chalaza,  which, 
being  twisted  by  the  revolutions  of  the  yolk,  is  gathered  into  deli- 
cate spiral  cords,  retaining  the  yolk  in  its  place.  This  albumen 
and  chalaza  are  secreted  in  the  first  part  of  the  egg-tube;  in  the 
next  part  the  investing  membrane 
{menibraiia  ;putaiiiinis)  is  formed 
and  added,  and  lastly  the  shell. 

The  anatomy  of  the  egg,  prior  to 
the  commencement  of  incubation, 
is  simple.  (.See  Fig.  996.)  Immedi- 
ately beneath  the  shell  (permeable 
by  air)  is  the  meinbrana  pictami- 
?!!S,  consisting  of  two  layers,  sepa- 
rating at  the  larger  end,  so  as  to 
leave  a  space  called  the  vesiciila 
aen's,  which  is  filled  with  air  con- 
taining an  unusual  portion  of  oxy- 
gen, destined  to  serve  for  the  respi- 
ration of  the  future  chick.  En- 
closed in  the  menibrana ;putaminis 
is  the  albumen  with  the  suspending 
cords  (chalaza),  and,  lastly,  the 
yolk  with  its  germ,  enclosed  in  the 
meinbrana  vitelli.  It  is  by  the 
natural  warmth  of  the  body  of  the 
parent,  brooding  over  the  eggs, 
that  the  vital,  though  as  yet  torpid.  Fig.  996.— New-laid  Egg,  with  part 
germ   is   called   into   activity,   and  of  Shell  removed, 

begins  to  develop.     Its  progress  is 

gradual,  but  rapid,  till  the  chick  breaks  from  its  imprisonment  and 
commences  a  new  career. 

The  changes  which  the  chick  undergoes  in  the  egg  during  the 
process  of  incubation,  have  engaged  the  attention  of  many  philo- 
sophical naturalists,  who  have  given  the  minute  details  of  every 
phase  :  we  shall  not  follow  them,  but  refer  to  the  following  illustra- 
tions, as  exhibiting  the  progress  with  sufficient  clearness  for  those 
to  whom  minute  anatomical  disquisitions  would  not  prove  very  at- 
tractive. 

Y\g.  997,  an  egg  as  it  appears  twelve  hours  after  incubation,  with 
a  magnified  view  of  the  germ  in  its  first  stage  of  development.  Fig. 
998,  the  same,  with  the  chick  and  the  first  appearance  of  the  prin- 
cipal blood-vessels  magnified.  Fig.  999,  an  egg  opened  four  days 
after  incubation,  with  a  magnified  view  of  the  chick.  Here  the 
pupil   of  the  eye    is  distinctly  visible,  and   in   the   head   arc   five 


Fig.  997. — Egg  and  Germ  at  Twelve  Houre  after  Incubation. 


vesicles,  filled  with  a  fluid ;  and  these,  as  they  enlarge,  approach 
each  other,  coalesce,  and  form  the  brain,  invested  with  its  mem- 
branes. Fig.  1000  represents  the  chick  at  ten  days  removed  from 
the  egg.  Fig.  looi,  the  chick  removed  at  fourteen  days.  Fig.  ioo-> 
the  condition  of  the  chick  on  the  twentieth  day.  Fig.  1005  the  posi- 
tion of  the  chick  in  the  egg  previous  to  liberation.  Fig.  'looJ  posi- 
tions of  the  shell  after  the  escape  of  the  chick.     Contrary  to  what 


Fig.  99S.— Egg  and  Cliick  at  Thirty-si.x  Hours. 


Fig.  999. — Egg  and  Chick  on  Fourth  Day. 


Fi.c 


1000. — Chick  at 
Ten  Days. 


Fig.  looi. — Chick  at 
Fourteen  Days. 


some  persons  suppose,  the  chick  frees  itself  from  its  narrow  prison 
byTs^own  exerti^ons,  and  not  by  the  aid  of  the  '"fher,  as  some  have 
suggested,  from  the  circumstance  that  pieces  of  the  shell  ^re  often 
brfken  off  while  the  membrane  within  remains  unruptured  :  but  the 
fact  is  tha  the  membrane  is  yielding  and  elastic,  while  the  stacH  s 
not  •  the  latter  therefore  breaks,  while  the  membrane  stretches  It 
might  be  supposed  that  this  task  was  much  above  the  strength  of 


378 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  BIRDS. 


the  yet  feeble  chick,  did  we  not  reflect  that  instinct  calls  upon  it  to 
exert  its  utmost  energies,  and  that  its  very  position  favours  its 
efforts.  The  bill  is  still  soft,  indeed,  and  might  at  first  seem  ill- 
fitted  for  breaking  the  shell ;  but  a  provision  is  made  ;  for,  as  IMr. 
Yarrell  observes,  "upon  the  curved  part  of  the  upper  mandible, 
just  above  the  point,  will  be  seen  a  small  horny  scale,  nearly  circu- 


Fig.  1002. — Chick  on 
'Twentieth  Day. 


Fig.  1003.— Chick  in  Egg 
as  nearly  hatched. 


Fig.  IC04.— Position  of  Shells  after  Escape  of  Chick. 

lar,  having  at  its  centre  a  hard  and  sharp  projecting  point,  and_,  by 
the  particular  position  of  the  head,  this  sharp  point  is  brought  into 
constant  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell."  Such,  at 
least,  is  the  use  generally  attributed  to  this  horny  point ;  and  it  is  to 
be  remarked,  that  when  the  chick  escapes,  and  the  beak  hardens  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  it  soon  falls  off,  and  on  the  second  or  third  day 
only  a  light-coloured  mark  is  observable  on  the  spot  it  had  occupied. 
In  Pigeons,  and  other  Birds,  which  are  long  before  they  become 
capable  of  running  about  and  feeding  themselves,  this  horny  point 
remains  for  more  than  a  week.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  that  on  the 
beak  of  the  very  young  Omithorhynchus,  described  at  p.  354,  arite, 
a  similar  horny  scale  exists. 

Most  Birds  live  in  pairs  during  the  breeding  season,  which  usually 
occurs  only  once  in  the  year;  and  both  sexes  generally  take  an 
equal  part  in  the  care  of  the  young.  They  usually  form  a  nest  of 
some  description  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs  ;  this  is  composed  of 
the  most  different  materials,  such  as  sticks,  moss,  wool,  vegetable 
fibres,  &c.  ;  and  comparatively  few  are  contented  with  a  hole 
scratched  in  the  ground  for  the  performance  of  the  work  of  incuba- 
tion :  in  fact,  in  many  instances,  the  work  of  these  little  architects 
must  excite  the  admiration  of  every  observer.  The  nests  of  different 
individuals  of  the  same  species  are  generally  not  only  of  the  same 
form,  but  even  composed  nearly  of  the  same  materials  ;  so  that  an 
observer,  accustomed  to  the  inspection  of  Birds'  nests,  can  gene- 
rally tell  at  a  glance  the  species  to  which  a  nest  belongs.  The 
number  of  eggs  laid  is  also  very  uniform  in  each  species. 

In  the  structure  and  development  of  the  c^%,  which  have  been 
described  and  illustrated,  we  find  a  great  uniformity  throughout 
this  class.  We  may,  however,  remark  that  the  development  of  the 
embryo  takes  place  here  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
Reptiles.  Notwithstanding  this  general  uniformity  in  the  processes 
of  reproduction,  there  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  the  condition  of 
the  young  Birds  at  the  moment  of  hatching,  and  this  has  given  rise 
to  the  division  of  the  class  into  two  great  sections.  In  some,  which 
usually  reside  upon  the  ground,  where  they  form  their  nests  and 
hatch  their  young,  the  latter  are  able  to  run  about  from  the  moment 
of  their  breaking  the  egg-shell,  and  the  only  care  of  the  parents  is 
devoted  to  protecting  their  offspring  from  danger,  and  loading  them 
into  those  places  where  they  are  likely  to  meet  with  food.  The 
others,  which,  in  fact,  constitute  the  majority  of  the  class,  pass  more 
of  their  time  in  the  air,  and  generally  repose  upon  the  trees,  or  in 
other  elevated  situations,  where  they  also  build  their  nests  ;  and  the 
young  Birds,  for  some  time  after  they  arc  hatched,  remain  in  the 


nest  in  a  comparatively  helpless  state,  their  parents  bringing  them 
food,  and  attending  upon  them  most  assiduously  until  their  feathers 
are  sufficiently  grown  to  enable  them  to  support  themselves  upon  thp 
wing. 

Another  remarkable  phenomenon  presented  by  this  interesting 
class  of  animals,  is  the  instinct  which  prompts  many  of  them  to 
change  the  place  of  their  abode,  in  accordance  with  the  season  ot 
the  year.  In  some  cases  these  migrations  are  of  comparatively 
small  extent,  the  Birds  moving  only  from  one  [part  of  a  country  to 
the  other,  frequently  for  the  sake  of  a  supply  of  food  ;  but  many 
species,  which  are  commonly  known  as  Birds  of  passage,  perform 
long  journeys  twice  in  the  year,  visiting  temperate,  or  even  cold, 
climates  during  the  summer,  and  quitting  these,  at  the  approach  of 
winter,  for  regions  which  enjoy  a  more  genial  temperature  during 
this  period  of  the  year.  The  Swallows,  and  many  others  of  our 
small  Birds,  are  well-known  examples  of  those  which  visit  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  Europe,  and  remain  in  these  countries  to  breed 
during  the  summer ;  and  a  considerable  number  of  other  species, 
including  several  of  our  Aquatic  Birds,  arrive  in  the  temperate 
regions  of  Europe  at  the  approach  of  winter,  their  summer  residence 
and  breeding-places  being  situated  far  to  the  north.  The  winter 
quarters  of  our  summer  visitants  appear  to  be  principally  the  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  especially  the  northern  parts  ot  Airica. 
In  their  long  journeys  to  reach  these  countries,  they  are  of  course 
compelled  to  pass  over  a  considerable  expanse  of  sea ;  and,  before 
venturing  upon  this  arduous  portion  of  their  voyage,  they  are  fre- 
quently found  collected  in  vast  flocks  upon  promontories  which  pro- 
ject towards  the  place  of  their  destination.  On  their  arrival  on  the 
opposite  shore,  many  species  are  so  exhausted  by  their  exertions 
that  they  may  be  taken  by  the  hand. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  description  of  the  physiology,  habits, 
and  other  characteristics  of  Birds,  we  proceed  to  take  them  in 
detail  for  an  especial  description  of  the  various  peculiarities  which 
each  order  presents  for  the  study  of  the  naturalist. 

Various  methods  have  been  adopted  by  naturalists  in  the  classifi- 
cation of  Birds.  But  they  present  analogous  difficulties  with  those 
we  have  already  seen  prevalent  in  the  case  of  the  Mainmalia.  In 
fact,  throughout  nature,  or,  at  least,  animated  nature,  we  can 
scarcely  ever  meet  with  well-defined  or  broad  distinctions  in  the 
order  of  classes.  We  might  even  go  farther ;  for,  on  reference  to 
page  352,  miie,  we  have  shown  that  in  many  respects  the  Omithor- 
hynchus, one  of  the  Mammalia,  singularly  resembles  the  Duck  in 
physical  structure  and  habits. 

The  class  of  Birds  has,  by  some  authors,  been  divided  into  two 
great  natural  sections,  in  one  of  which  the  young  are  produced  in 
such  a  condition  that  they  are  capable  of  moving  about  immediately 
on  their  quitting  the  ^%% :  these  are  the  Autophagi,  or  self-feeders  ; 
whilst,  in  the  other  series,  the  young  remain  in  the  nest  until  they 
are  completely  fledged,  and  are  supplied  with  food  by  their  parents 
until  that  time.  The  general  habits  of  the  adult  animals  are  equally 
characteristic  of  these  two  sections  :  the  Birds  belonging  to  the 
latter  are  generally  distinguished  by  .their  great  power  of  wing, 
which  fits  them  especially  for  an  aerial  residence,  whilst  their  feet 
are  more  particularly  adapted  for  perching  ;  those  of  the  former 
series,  on  the  contrary,  are  distinguished  by  their  stronger  feet, 
which  adapt  them  more  especially  for  walking  upon  the  ground,  and 
their  wings  are  frequently  weaker  than  in  the  opposite  section, 
although  many  of  the  species  possess  great  power  of  flight.  The 
names  oi  Autophagi  and  Insessores  have  been  proposed  for_  these 
two  sections,  each  of  which  includes  several  orders.  The  distinc- 
tion, however,  is  more  apparent  than  real.  It  certainly  is  not  abso- 
lute, because  several  of  the  so-called  ^z^/o/Zz^^/ feed  their  young  for 
a  considerable  period  after  they  are  hatched. 

The  A  utophagi,  in  which  the  young  Birds  are  capable  of  feeding 
themselves  from  the  moment  of  leaving  the  !i%g,  include  four  orders  ; 
namely,  the  Natatorcs,  or  Swimmers,  in  which  the  legs  are  un- 
usually short,  and  the  toes  always  furnished  with  a  membrane  ;  the 
Grallatores,  or  Wading  Birds,  which  have  the  legs  elongated, 
with  the  extremity  of  the  tibia;  usually  naked,  and  the  toes  free  ; 
the  Cursores,  or  Runners,  with  rudimentary  wings,  and  powerful 
cursorial  legs;  and  the  iJaJ-ori^J,  or  Gallinaceous  Birds,  with  short 
legs,  divided  toes,  adapted  either  for  walking  or  perching  ;  and  well- 
developed  wings.  r     ,  •  ,  ..     i-    1 

The  Insessorial  section  also  includes  four  orders,  of  which  the  tirst, 
includino-  the  Pigeons,  or  Cohanbcs,  is  distinguished  by  the  pre- 
sence of^  cartilaginous  scale  at  the  base  of  the  beak,  covering  the 
nasal  cavities,  and  exhibits  considerable  analogy  with  the  Gallina- 
ceous Birds,  especially  in  the  structure  of  the  feet.  Of  the  three  other 
orders  the  Scansores,  or  Climbing  Birds,  are  characterised  by  the 
structure  of  their  feet,  two  of  the  toes  being  directed  fonvards,  and 
two  backwards  ;  the  Passeres,  or  Perchers,  by  their  usually  straight 
bills  and  comparatively  slender  feet,  of  which  three  of  the  toes  are 
turned  forwards,  and  one  backwards ;  and  the  Rapfnrcs,  or  Proda- 
ceous  Birds  by  their  powerful  hooked  beaks,  and  strong  talons 
armed  with  formidable  claws.  It  is  with  the  latter  we  shall  com- 
mence our  description  of  Birds,  neglecting  for  our  purpose  strict 
Zoological  classification. 


RAPTORIAL  BIRDS. 


379 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

CLASS  II.— AVES,  OR   BIRDS— ORDER,  RAPTORES. 


APTORES  is  a  term  .-ipplied  to  an  extensive 
order  of  Birds,  including  Eagles,  Vultures, 
Owls,  &c.  Amongst  the  Passerine  Birds 
there  are  a  few  instances  of  species  which 
^  are  exceedingly  predaceous  in  their  disposi- 
tion, destroying  not  only  insects  and  worms, 
that  in  fact  constitute  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  food  of  most  of  the  species,  but  also 
;v.")'j'Si^^  tyrannising  over  the  smaller  Birds  and 
^- "-  ''^-  ^flr''"  other  vertebrated  animals,  in  a  style  which 
would  justify  us  in  applying  to  them  the 
denomination  of  Birds  of  prey.  It  is,  however,  in  the 
present  order  that  we  find  the  powers  of  destruction 
developed  to  tlie  fullest  extent,  and  the  whole  structure 
of  the  Raptorial  Birds  is  evidently  adapted  to  the  in- 
cessant warfare  which  they  wage  with  their  neighbours. 
Nevertheless  some  of  these  Birds  are  of  a  peaceful 
nature,  and  feed  exclusively  upon  the  bodies  of  animals 
which  they  find  already  dead,  although  in  all  their 
characters  they  are  unmistakable  members  of  this  order. 
Amongst  these  distinctive  characters,  the  most  im- 
portant are  those  furnished  by  the  bill  and  feet.  The 
former  of  these  organs  is  always  rather  short  and  strong, 
with  the  upper  mandible  longer  than  the  lower  one  ; 
strongly  hooked  at  the  tip,  or  curved  throughout  its 
whole  length ;  very  sharp  at  the  point,  and  frequently 
armed  with  teeth  on  the  margins.  The  base  of  the  bill  is  covered 
by  a  cere,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  pierced.  The  feet  are  usually 
short  and  powerful,  composed  of  four  toes,  armed  with  long,  curved, 
and  acute  claws.  With  these  the  predaceous  Birds  seize  their  prey 
in  a  deadly  grasp,  and  hold  the  victim  whilst  the  powerful  bill  is 
engaged  tearing  off  portions  of  its  flesh. 

The  other  parts  of  their  organisation  exhibit  the  same  adaptation 
to  a  piratical  mode  of  existence.  The  wings  are  always  of  large 
size,  and  often  of  extraordinary  length,  giving  the  Birds  an  as- 
tonishing rapidity  of  flight ;  it  has  been  calculated  that  some  of  the 
Falcons  progress  through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  at  least  sixty  miles 
an  hour,  under  ordinary  circumstances  ;  but,  when  in  immediate 
pursuit  of  their  prey,  they  are  supposed  sometimes  to  attain  at  least 
twice  this  speed.  The  tail  is  long  and  broad,  usually  composed  of 
twelve  feathers ;  it  is  sometimes  rounded  or  forked  at  the  end. 

The  tarsi  are  rarely  furnished  with  scutella,  as  in  the  Passerine 
Birds  ;  but  these  and  the  toes  are  generally  covered  with  a  reticu- 
lated skin,  although,  in  some  cases,  a  few  scutella  are  found  upon 
the  front  of  the  tarsi  and  the  upper  part  of  the  toes.  The  latter  are 
arranged  three  in  front  and  one  behind,  and  the  anterior  toes  are 
usually  united  at  the  base  by  a  short  membrane,  except  in  the  Owls, 
in  which  the  outer  toe  is  capable  of  being  turned  backwards,  and 
the  inner  one  alone  is  united  to  the  middle  toe  by  a  membrane.  In 
some  instances  the  feet  are  feathered  down  to  the  toes. 

The  Raptorial  Birds  are  very  generally  distributed  over  the  globe. 
They  vary  greatly  in  size,  but  the  majority  feed  upon  the  flesh  of 
animals  which  they  capture  for  themselves  ;  some  of  the  smaller 
species,  however,  condescend  to  prey  upon  insects. 

Sub-divisions. — These  Birds  form  three  families,  which  may  be 
arranged  in  two  sections,  or  tribes — the  Nocturnal  and  Diurnal 
rapacious  Birds.  The  former  of  these  sections  only  includes  a 
single  family,  that  of  the  Owls ;  the  second  includes  the  Falcons, 
Vultures,  &c. 

Families  Falconid^  and  Vulturid^,   including   Eagles, 
Falcons,  Hawks,  Etc. 

The  Diurnal  Raptorial  Birds  are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
Nocturnal  by  the  smaller  comparative  size  of  the  head  and  eyes,  by 
the  lateral  position  of  the  eyes,  and  by  the  nature  of  the  plumage, 
which  is  firm,  and  wants  that  peculiar  softness  that  enables  the 
Nocturnal  species  (the  Owls)  to  fly  noiselessly  through  the  air.  The 
wings  are  larger,  and  more  pointed.  The  bill  is  strong ;  nearly 
half  the  mandible  is  covered  by  a  cere ;  the  tarsi  and  toes  are 
usually  covered  with  the  reticulated  scales,  but  sometimes  are 
plumed.  In  the  structure  of  the  intestinal  canal  there  is  also  a 
great  difference.  The  oesophagus  of  the  Diurnal  Raptores  is  di- 
lated into  a  large  sac,  or  crop,  which  is  wanting  in  the  Nocturnal  ; 
and  the  coecal  appendages  of  the  intestine,  which  in  the  Owls 
attain  a  large  size,  are  reduced  largely  in  the  Diurnal  species. 
The  general  appearance  of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  following  illus- 
tration of  the  Milan  Royal  Hawk,  or  Kite.    (See  Fig.  1006.) 


The  Golden  Eagle  (Aqmla  c/irysaV/nsJ.-Wo  select  the 
Golden  Eagle  as  a  specimen  of  the  family  Fnlconidu- ;  not  indeed 
because  it  is  w^iat  modern  naturalists  call  the  type,  which  mav  be 
found  in  the  Peregrine  or  the  Iceland  Falcon,  but  because  it  is 
associated  in  our  minds  with  ideas  of  courage,  strength  and 
ferocity;  characteristics  which  are  not  displayed  even  by  some  of 
the  species  of  the  genus  Falco—3.s  the  Kestrel,  for  example— and 
still  less  so  by  the  species  of  other  genera.  The  Eagles  form  the 
sub-family  Aquiliitcs. 

What  the  Feline  and  Musteline  races  are  among  terrestrial  quad- 
rupeds, such  arc  the  Fakonidts  among  Birds.  They  live  by  slaugh- 
ter ;  their  life  is  passed  "  in  armis,"  and  they  carry  on  with  unceas- 
ing activity  the  work  of  destruction  ;  they  rejoice  in  carnage  and 
cower  with  outspread  wings  over  their  reeking  quarry,  utt'erine 
shrieks  of  exultation.  *" 

Their  bearing  is  lofty  and  noble  ;  their  eyes  are  largo,  bright  .and 
piercing;  their  frame  sinewy  and  muscular;  their'  flight'  im- 
petuous. Their  beak  is  strong  and  hooked,  and  the  talons°are  for- 
midable.    Look  at  those  of  the  Golden  Eagle  (Fig.  1005),  and  picture 


Fig.  1005. — Talons  of  Golden  Eagle. 

them  driven  with  remorseless  force  into  the  flesh  of  the  agonising 
victim. 

The  Falconidm  live  either  alone  or  in  pairs  ;  some  tenant  deep 
forests  ;  others  scour  wide  and  level  plains,  or  high  moorland  ; 
some  haunt  the  sea-shore,  and  build  on  the  wave-beaten  rocks; 
and  some  make  the  "  difficult  peak"  of  the  mountain  range  their 
home.  They  surround  their  eyry  with  the  relics  of  many  a  sangui- 
nary feast,  and  their  "young  ones  suck  up  blood." 

Among  the  FalcoiudcB  the  Eagles  are  pre-eminent  in  size  and 
daring.  When  at  rest  on  the  crag  of  the  rock,  they  assume  an  atti- 
tude of  dignified  calmness,  as  if  conscious  of  superiority ;  but  the 
bright  glance  of  the  eye  betrays  the  ferocity  of  disposition,  which 
the  «e.\t  moment  may  be  displayed  in  a  terrific  burst,  as,  sweeping 
down  with  irresistible  force,  they  prostrate  their  victim,  and  dye  their 
beak  and  talons  in  its  gore. 

In  all  the  Eagles  the  cere  at  the  base  of  the  beak  is  large,  and 
perforated  by  the  nostrils  ;  the  talons  are  strong  ;  the  wings  ample, 
and  slightly  rounded,  the  fourth  quill-feather  being  the  largest.  In 
the  genus  Aquila,  which  includes  the  Golden  Eagle,  the  tarsi  are 
plumed  to  the  toes  ;  the  beak  is  sub-triangular  above  ;  the  nostrils 
are  rounded.  „  .  .  , . 

The  Golden  Eagle  (Eryr  Melyn  of  the  ancient  British)  was  once 
common  in  many  parts  of  England,  and,  till  in  comparatively  recent 
times,  bred  annually  in  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  the  t  eak 
of  Derbyshire.  It  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
and  in  some  districts  of  Ireland  is  far  from  being  uncommon.  Mr. 
Thompson  ("  Mag.  of  Zool.  and  Botany,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  43)  states  that 
the  gamekeeper  of  Mr.  Stewart,  between  the  years  1828  and  1832, 
had  killed  thirteen  or  fourteen  Golden  Eagles,  on  the  mountain 
range  of  the  Horn  (the  name  given  to  the  peninsula  bounding  the 
western  entrance  to  Sheephaven,  in  the  county  o.  Donegal,  and 
which  terminates  in  the   stupendous  promontory  of  Horn  Head; ; 


THE    GOLDEN  EAGLE. 


380  

and  the  same  observant  naturalist  writes  :-"  On  visjtins:  Achil^  off 
the  coast  of  Mayo,  in  June,  1834,  in  company  with  Robert  Ball, - 
Esq  of  Dublin,  Lieutenant  Reynolds  of  the  Preventive  Service,  a 
keen  sportsman,  and  well  acquainted  with  Birds,  assured  us  that 
one  or  two  pairs  of  Golden  Eagles  breed  annually  in  the  island. 
When  subsequently  on  the  mountain  of  Croagh-patrick,  which  ter- 
minates volcano-like  in  a  magnificent  cone,  and  is  in  elevationthe 
second  in  Connaught,  we,  for  a  considerable  time,  observed  a  pair  ot 
these  Eaeles  towering  above  its  summit.  In  the  county  of  Kerry,  a 
few  weeks  afterwards,  an  Eagle,  supposed  to  be  of  this^  species,  was 
seen  by  some  of  our  party  when  viewing  the  Lakes  of  KiUarney  irom 
the  topmost  ridge  of  Mangerton.  When  on  a  visit  to  this  same 
place  the  previous  autumn,  my  friend,  Robert  Patterson,  Esq.,  ot 


1  liL  Mihn  Royal  Hawk,  or  Kite. 


Belfast,  made  the  following  note,  which  he  has  kindly  permitted  me 
to  use  : — •  Near  to  the  little  lake  called  the  Devil's  Punchbowl,  we 
disturbed  four  Eagles  preying  on  a  full-grown  Sheep  :  they  rose 
majestically  into  the  air  as  we  approached.  The  people  who  were 
with  us  supposed  the  Sheep,  being  perhaps  sickly,  had  been  killed 
by  the  Eagles,  a  supposition  corroborated  by  the  quantity  of  fleece 
scattered  over  the  ground  for  some  yards  in  one  direction.  The 
flesh  of  the  neck  was  completely  removed,  although  that  of  every 
other  part  was  untouched.  We  were  assured  that'  two  Eagles  will 
occasionally  pursue  a  Hare,  one  flying  low,  coursing  it  alono-  the 
ground,  the  other  keeping  perpendicularly  above  the  terrified  ani- 
:nal.  When  the  lowest  Eagle  tires,  they  change  places,  and  pursue 
the  same  system  of  tactics  until  the  Hare  is  completely  wearied  out. 
1  was  told  the  same  circumstance  a  few  days  afterwards  near  Tra- 


lee,  and  again  near  Monastercvan  :  my  informant  in  every  instance 
stated  the  fact  as  having  fallen  under  his  own  knowledge,  and  not 
as  a  matter  of  hearsay.'  " 

The  mode  of  pursuing  the  Hare  above  described,  and  on  the  cor- 
rectness of  which  we  rely,  reminds  us  that  either  this  or  an  allied 
Eagle  [Aqiiila  imperialis)  is  employed  by  the  Tartars  in  the  chase 
of  Antelopes,  Wolves,  Foxes,  Hares,  &c.  ;  nor  would  it  appear  that 
there  is  much  difficulty  in  training  these  powerful  Birds  to  the  work, 
for,  though  Eagles  captured  when  adult  are  extremely  savage  and 
indocile,  they  are  as  easily  reclaimed  as  the  Peregrine  Falcon  when 
taken  young  from  the  nest.  Mr.  Thompson  observes,  that  R.  Lang- 
try,  Esq.,  of  Fortwilliam,  near  Belfast,  "  has  at  present  an  Eagle  of 
this  species  which  is  extremely  docile  and  tractable.     It  was  taken 

last  summer  from  a  nest  in 
Inverness-shire,  and  came 
into  his  possession  about  the 
end  of  September.  This  Bird 
became  at  once  attached  to 
its  owner,  who,  after  having 
it  about  a  month,  ventured 
to  give  it  its  liberty,  a  privi- 
lege which  was  not  on  the 
Eagle's  part  abused,  as  it 
came  to  the  lure  whenever 
called.  It  not  only  permits 
itself  to  be  handled  any 
way,  but  seems  to  derive 
pleasure  from  the  applica- 
tion of  the  hand  to  its  legs 
and  plumage.  The  Eagle 
was  hooded  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  Hunting-Hawks 
for  some  time,  but  the  prac- 
tice was  abandoned ;  and 
although  it  may  be  requisite 
if  the  Bird  be  trained  for  the 
chase,  hooding  is  otherwise 
unnecessary,  as  it  remains 
quiet  and  contented  for  any 
length  of  time,  and  no  mat- 
ter how  far  carried  on  its 
master's  arm.  It  is  quite  in- 
difi^erent  to  the  presence  of 
any  persons  who  may  be  in 
his  company,  and  is  unwil- 
ling to  leave  him  even  to  take 
a  flight,  having  to  be  thrown 
into  the  air  whenever  he 
wishes  it  to  do  so.  When 
this  Eagle  is  at  large,  he  has 
only  to  hold  out.  his  arm  to- 
wards it,  which,  as  soon  as 
perceived,  even  at  a  distance, 
it  flies  to  and  perches  on.  I 
have  seen  it  thus  come  to  him 
not  less  than  a  dozen  times 
within  half-an-hour,  without 
any  food  being  oflfered.  It 
runs  very  fast,  and  when  on 
the  ground,  and  the  lure  is 
thrown  comparatively  near, 
it  prefers  this  mode  of  pro- 
gression to  using  its  wings. 
Live  Rats  have  several  times 
been  turned  out  of  the  cage- 
trap  to  this  Bird,  but  before 
running  very  far  were  invari- 
ably pounced  upon."  Other 
instances  of  the  docility  of 
the  Golden  Eagle  might  be 
adduced. 

Of  the  boldness,  or  rather 

familiarity,  of  this  species,  the 

from  the  writer  already  quoted,  is  a  proof: — 

he  says,  "  who  was  eye-witness  to  the  fact, 

hunting  among  the  Belfast  mountains, 


following  statement, 
"  A  sporting  friend," 
assures  me  that  when  out 
many  years  ago,  an  Eagle,  which,  from  the  darkness  of  its  plumage, 
he  considered  was  the  Golden,  appeared  above  his  Hounds  as  they 
came  to  a  fault  on  the  ascent  to  Davis  (the  highest  of  the  chain), 
after  a  good  chase.  As  they  came  on  the  scent  again,  and  were  at 
full  cry,  the  Eagle  for  a  short  time  kept  above  them,  but  at  length 
advanced,  and  carried  off  the  Hare  when  at  the  distance  of  from 
three  to  four  hundred  paces  before  the  Hounds." 

Fig.  1007  is  a  spirited  delineation  of  an  Eagle  brooding  over  her 
callow  young,  which  are  well  supplied  with  game  ;  instances,  in- 
deed, are  on  record  (as  that  of  a  peasant  in  Kerry,  and  of  a  man  at 
Glenariff,  in  Antrim),  of  persons  supporting  their  family  for  a  con- 


THE  GOLDEN  EA  GLE. 


3S1 


siderable  length  of  time  on  the  produce  of  the  industry  of  the  parent 
Birds,  which  continue  to  brin.sf  food  to  their  younr;,  mailing  up  for 
the  recurring  abstraction.  Young  Lambs,  Hares,  Rabbits,  and 
Grouse,  forn?  the  chief  articles  of  provision.  Low,  in  his  "Fauna 
Orcade'nsis,"  says,  that  they  do  not  abstain  from  pork  in  the  Ork- 
neys, but  occasionally  seize  both  old  and  young  Swine.     A  clergy- 


Fig.  IC07.  — Tlie  Golden  Eagle  and  her  young. 

man  told  him  that  he  had  seen  one,  mounted  in  the  air,  with  a  pretty 
large  Pig  in  her  talons,  which  she  let  fall  alive  when  he  fired  at 
her.  Martin,  in  his  "  Description  of  the  Western  Islands  of  Scot- 
land," published  in  1716,  speaking  of  this  Bird,  says  : — "  The  Eagles 
are  very  destructive  to  the  Fawns  and  Lambs.  The  natives  observe 
that  it  fixes  its  talons  between  the  Deer's  horns,  and  beats  its  wings 
constantly  about  its  eyes,  which  puts  the  Deer  to  run  continually 


Fig.  1008.— The  Golden  Eagle  (Male  Bird). 


till  it  falls  into  a  ditch  or  over  a  precipice,  where  it  dies,  and  so  be 
comes  a  prey  to  this  cunning  hunter.  The  Eagle  never  engages  in 
a  perfectly  solitary  chase,  e.\cept  when  the  female  is  confined  to  her 
eggs  or  her  young.  At  that  season  the  proper  prey  of  these  Eagles 
is  generally  so  abundant  that  the  male  is  able  to  provide  for  his  own 
wants  and  those  of  the  family,  without  the  assistance  of  the  female. 

At  other  times  they  unite  their  ex- 
ertions, and  are  always  seen  cither 
together  or  only  at  a  short  distance 
from  each  other.  It  is  said  that 
the  one  beats  the  bushes,  while  the 
other,  perched  on  an  eminence, 
watches  the  escape  of  the  prey." 

Pennant  adds  his  authority  to 
part  of  IMartin's  statement,  and 
says  that  the  Eagles  in  the  island 
of  Rum  have  nearly  extirpated  the 
Deer  that  used  to  abound  there. 
He  also  states  that  Eagles  seem  to 
give  a  preference  to  the  carcasses  of 
Cats  and  Dogs.  "  Persons  who 
make  it  their  business  to  kill  these 
Birds  lay  that  of  one  or  other  by 
way  of  bait,  and  then  conceal  them- 
selves within  gun-shot.  They  fire 
tlie  instant  the  Eagle  alights,  for 
she  that  moment  looks  about  before 
she  begins  to  prey." 

Martin,  in  the  work  just  quoted, 
relates  the  following  anecdote  ;  and 
one  very  similar  is  also  related  by 
Sir  Robert  Sibbald  : — "There's  a 
couple  of  large  Eagles  who  have 
their  nest  on  the  north  end  of  the 
isle  [St.  Kilda].  The  inhabitants 
told  me  that  they  commonly  make 
their  purchase  in  the  adjacent  isles 
and  continent,  and  never  take  so 
much  as  a  Lamb  or  Hen  from  the 
place  of  their  abode,  where  they 
breed.  I  forgot  to  mention  a  singu- 
lar providence  that  happened  to  a  native  of  the  Isle  of  Skye,  called 
Neil,  who,  when  an  infant,  was  left  by  his  mother  in  the  field,  not  far 
from  the  houses  on  the  north  side  of  Loch  Portrie  ;  an  Eagle  came  in 
the  meantime  and  carried  him  away  in  its  talons,  as  far  as  the  south 
side  of  the  loch,  and  there  laid  him  on  the  ground.  Some  people 
that  were  herding  Sheep  there  perceived  it,  and  hearing  the  infant 
cry,  ran  immediately  to  its  rescue,  and,  by  good  providence,  found 
him  untouched  by  the  Eagle,  and  carried  him  home  to  his  mother. 
He  is  still  living  in  that  parish,  and,  by  reason  of  this  accident,  is 
distinguished  among  his  neighbours  by  the  surname  of  Eagle." 
Ray  mentions  an  instance  of  a  child  a  year  old  being  seized  by  an 
Eagle  in  one  of  the  Orkneys,  and  carried  to  the  eyry,  about  four 
miles  distant.  But  the  mother,  who  was  aware  of  its  situation, 
pursued  the  Bird  thither,  found  her  child  in  the  nest,  and  took  it 
home  unhurt.  Other  instances  are  related,  but  we  confess  we  regard 
them  with  suspicion. 

Elevated  on  some  lofty  pinnacle  (Fig.  1008),  or  soaring  in  the  sky, 
"towering  in  his  pride  of  place,"  the  Eagle  gazes  below  and 
around,  and  marks  his  prey  at  an  astonishing  distance.  His  won- 
derful powers  of  vision  have  supplied  the  poets  with  apt  suggestions, 
as  have  also  his  powers  and  ferocity.  Homer,  speaking  of  Menelaus, 
describes  him  as — 

"The  field  exploring  with  an  eye 
Keen  as  the  eagle's — keenest  eyed  of  all 
That  wing  the  air,  whom,  though  he  soar  aloft, 
The  leveret  'scapes  not,  hid  in  tliickest  shades. 
But  down  he  swoops,  and  at  a  stroke  she  dies." 
'  //.,  xvii.  C74. — CowPER. 

The  eye  of  the  Eagle  is  indeed  large,  compared  with  the  skull, 
though  the  mere  bulk  of  the  eye  is  a  "fallacious  test,  and,  as  in  the 
Woodcock,  Owl,  &c.,  is  often  connected  with  nocturnal  or  crepus- 
cular vision.  Fig.  1009  represents  a  preparation  of  the  skull  and 
eyes  of  the  Golden  Eagle  ;  and  Fig.  loio  represents.  A,  the  bony  ring 
of  the  orbit  of  the  eye  ;  H,  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  same  Bird  ;  a, 
the  anterior  surface,  somewhat  less  convex  than  the  posterior  one. 

The  Golden  Eagle  is  common  in  many  parts  of  the  Continent, 
where,  in  level  districts,  it  frequents  extensive  forests.  It  is  found 
in  France,  in  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau,  as  well  as  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Auvergne  and  the  Pyrenees;  it  is  abundant  in  the  Tyrol, 
Russia,  Sweden,  Franconia,  and  Suabia,  but  is  rare  in  Holland. 
Of  the  havoc  it  occasions  where  common,  some  idea  may  be  formed 
from  the  statement  of  Bechstein,  that  in  one  eyry  in  Germany  the 
skeletons  of  300  Ducks  and  forty  Hares  were  found  ;  and  these  were, 
in  all  probability,  the  relics  of  such  prey  only  as  it  could  carry  to  its 
nest,  the  remains  of  the  larger  game,  Sheep,  Fawns,  Roebucks,  &c., 


S82 


THE  IMPERIAL  AND  SEA-EAGLES. 


being-  left  after  the  feast  on  the  spot  where  the  animals  were 
slaughtered.  The  present  species  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Asia. 
We  have  seen  specimens  from  India,  and  Colonel  Sykes  enumerates 
it  among  the  Birds  of  the  Dukhun.  Nor  is  it  to  the  Old  World  that 
tliis  Eagle  is  confined.  It  inhabits  North  America  from  the  tem- 
perate  to   the  Arctic   regions,   where,  according  to   Wilson,  it   is 


Fig.  loio.— Parts  of  Eye  of  Eagle. 


Fig.  1009.— Skull  of  an  Eagle. 

sparingly  dispersed,  breeding  on  high  precipitous  rocks,  and  always 
preferring  a  mountainous  country.  Dr.  Richardson,  in  his  "  Fauna 
Boreali-Americana,"  mentions  it  with  a  query,  as  breeding  in  the 
recesses  of  the  sub-alpine  country  which  skirts  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  as  seldom  seen  farther  to  the  eastward.  It  is  the  Koeoo 
of  the  Cree  Indians.  This  Eagle  "is  held  by  the  aborigines  of 
America,  as  it  is  by  almost  every  other  people,  to  be  an  emblem  of 
might  and  courage  ;  and  the 
young  Indian  warrior  glories 
in  his  Eagle-plume  as  the 
most  honourable  ornament 
with  which  he  can  adorn 
himself.  Its  feathers  are 
attached  to  the  calumets,  or 
smoking-pipes,  used  by  the 
Indians  in  the  celebration  of 
their  solemn  festivals,  which 
has  obtained  for  it  the  name 
of  the  Calumet  Eagle.  In- 
deed, so  highly  are  these 
ornaments  prized,  that  a  warrior  will  often  e.^change  a  valuable 
Horse  for  the  tail-feathers  of  a  single  Eagle. 

The  age  attained  by  the  Eagle  is  very  great ;  one  that  died  at 
Vienna  is  said  to  have  lived  in  confinement  one  hundred  and  four 
years. 

As  is  the  case  with  all  ^e:  FaIconid(S,W\Q  young  and  old  Birds 
differ  in  the  colour  and  markings  of  the  plumage,  a  circumstance 
which,  before  it  was  clearly  understood,  led  to  the  erroneous  multi- 
plication of  species,  as  already  mentioned. 

The  old  Birds  have  the  top  of  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck 
covered  v.'ith  slender-pointed  feathers  of  a  bright  golden  red  ;  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  body  are  obscure  brown,  more  or  less  blackish, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  individual  ;  inside  of  the  thighs  and 
feathers  of  the  tarsus  clear  brown  ;  no  white  feathers  among  the 
scapulars  ;  tail  deep  grey,  regularly  barred  with  blackish-brown, 
and  terminated  at  the  end  by  a  large  band  of  that  colour ;  beak 
horn-colour  ;  iris  brown  ;  cere  and  feet  yellow.  Length  about  three 
feet ;  expanse  of  wings  about  eight  feet.  Female  three  feet  and 
a-half  in  length  ;  expanse  of  wing  nine  feet. 

Young  Birds  of  one  or  two  years  old,  the  Ring-tail  Eagle  of 
various  writers,  have  all  the  plumage  of  a  ferruginous  or  clear 
reddish-brown,  uniform  on  all  parts  of  the  body.  Lower  tail-coverts 
■whitish;  inside  of  the  thighs,  and  feathers  of  the  tarsus, 'white ; 
tail  white  from  the  base  to  three-fourths  of  its  length,  but  after- 
wards brown  to  the  end.  In  the  third  year  the  adiilt  plumage  is 
assumed.  The  females,  as  in  all  the  Falconidm,  exceed  the  males 
in  size,  contrary  to  the  general  law. 

The  nest  of  the  Golden  Eagle  is  composed  of  sticks,  twigs,  rushes, 
heath,  &c.,  and  is  generally  placed  upon  the  jutting  lodge  of  some 
inaccessible  precipice  :  here  it  rears  its  young,  generally  two,  some- 


times three,  in  number,  feeding  them  with  the  bleeding  morsels  of 
the  yet  warm  victim.  In  forests  the  nest  is  placed  near  the 
summit  of  a  lofty  tree. 

The  liii'KKiAL  Eacle  {Aquila  imj)cria!is,  Tcmminck  ;  Aquila 
/leliaca,  Viedlot).— This  species  is  closely  allied  to  the  Golden 
Eagle,  but  has  longer  wings  and  largo  white  scapulary  feathers.  It 
is  extremely  powerful,  fierce,  and  destructive.  The  Imperial  Eagle 
inhabits  the  mountain  districts  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  the 
adjacent  countries  of  Asia,  but  is  never  seen  in  the  British  Islands. 
(See  Fig.  loii.) 


Fig.  loil. — The  Imperial  Eagle. 

In  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  Regent's 
Park,  living  specimens  of  this  Bird  will  be  found  in  the  Vulture's 
aviary.  There  is  a  good  series  of  examples,  obtained  Irom  different 
localities  in  Europe  and  Asia,  to  be  seen  there. 

The  White-headed  Sea-Eagle  {Haliaetus  leucocepkalus); 
Bald  Eagle,  Latham  and  Wilson  ;  Falco  ossifragus  (young),  Wil- 
son.— The  characters  of  the  genus  Haliai'tus  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows  : — Bill  elongated,  strong,  straight  at  the  base,  curving  in  a 
regular  arc,  in  advance  of  the  cere,  to  the  tip,  and  forming  a  deep 
hook  ;  nostrils  transverse,  large,  lunate.  Wings  ample  ;  the  fourth 
quill-feather  the  longest.  Legs  having  the  tarsi  half-feathered,  the 
front  of  the  naked  part  scutellated,  and  the  sides  and  back  reticu- 
lated. Toes  divided  to  their  origin  ;  the  outer  one  versatile.  Claws 
hooked  and  strong,  grooved  beneath  ;  claw  of  hind-toe  the  largest, 
and  next  that  of  the  inner  toe.  (See  Fig.  loi  2,  the  Head  and  Foot  of 
the  White-headed  Eagle.) 

Of  the  present  genus,  several  species,  generally  called  Fishing, 
or  Sea-Eagles,  are  known,  as  the  Chilian  Sea-Eagle  {H.  agtiia), 
the  Cape  Fishing-Eagle,  of  South  Africa  {H.  voci/er),  the  Sea- 
Eagle,  Erne,  White-tailed  Eagle,  or  Cinereous  Eagle  {H.  albicilla, 
Selby)  of  Europe  and  the  British  Isles  :  the  Australian  Sea-Eagle, 
{^H.  lencogaster,)  and  the  White-headed  Eagle  of  America.  It  is 
the  latter  that  will  more  particularly  engage  our  present  attention. 

This  species  (like  its  British  representative,  the  White-tailed  Sea- 
Eagle)  varies  greatly  in  its  plumage  at  different  stages  of  life  : 
hence  the  Cree  Indians,  who  term  the  species  Meekeeshew,  add 
other  epithets  by  way  of  distinction.  The  mature  Bird  is  called 
Wapustiquan-Meekeeshew,  or  White-headed  Eagle  ;  the  immature 
Bird,  Appisk-Meekeeshew,  or  Black-headed  Eagle  ;  and  the  year- 
ling Bird,  Meekeeseeseesh. 

This  noble  Bird,  emblazoned  on  the  national  standard  of  the 
United  States  of  America  (not  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  Benjamin 
Franklin),  is  spread  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  the  northern 
division  of  the  New  World,  and  is  common  along  the  course  of  the 
larger  rivers,  and  at  their  embouchures,  as  well  as  along  the  coast 
of  inland  lakes  and  of  the  sea. 

"  The  celebrated  cataract  of  Niagara,"  says  Wilson,  "  is  a  noted 
place  of  resort  for  the  Bald  Eagle,  as  well  on  account  of  the  fish 
procured  there,  as  for  the  numerous  carcasses  of  squirrels,  deer, 
bears,  and  various  other  animals,  that,  in  their  attempts  to  cross 
the  river  above  the  falls,  have  been  dragged  into  the  current,  and 


CO 
LU 


CO 


THE  SEA-EAGLES. 


3^3 


precipitated  down  that  tremendous  gulf,  where,  among  the  rocks 
that  bound  the  rapids  below,  they  furnish  a  rich  repast  for  the  vul- 
ture, the  raven,  and  the  subject  of  the  present  account."—"  Formed 
by  nature  for  braving  the  severest  cold  ;  feeding  equally  on  the  pro- 
duce of  the  sea  and  of  the  land  ;  possessing  powers  of  flight 
capable  of  outstripping  even  the  tempests  themselves  ;  unawed  by 
anything  but  man  ;  and  from  the  ethereal  heights  to  which  he  soars, 
looking  abroad  at  one  glance  over  an  immeasurable  expanse  of 
forestst  fields,  lakes,  and  ocean  deep  below  him,  he  appears  indif- 


Fig.  1012. — Head  and  Foot  of  White-headed  Eagle. 

ferent  to  the  change  of  seasons,  as  in  a  few  minutes  he  can  pass 
from  summer  to  winter,  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  abode  of  eternal  cold,  and  thence  descend  at  will 
to  the  torrid  or  to  the  arctic  regions  of  the  earth  :  he  is  therefore 
found  at  all  seasons  in  the  countries  he  inhabits,  but  prefers  such 
places  as  have  been  mentioned  above,  from  the  great  partiality  he 
has  for  fish." — "  In  procuring  these,  he  displays,  in  a  very  singular 
manner,  the  genius  and  energy  of  his  character,  which  is  fierce, 
contemplative,  daring,  and  tyrannical ;  attributes  not  exerted  but 
on  particular  occasions,  but,  when  put  forth,  overpowering  all  oppo- 
sition. Elevated  on  the  high,  dead  limb  of  some  gigantic  tree,  that 
commands  a  wide  view  of  the  neighbouring  shore  and  ocean,  he 
seems  calmly  to  contemplate  the  motions  of  the  various  feathered 
tribes  that  pursue  their  busy  avocations  below — the  snow-white  gulls 
slowly  winnowing  the  air,  the  busy  Triiiga  coursing  along  the 
sands,  silent  and  watchful  cranes  intent  and  wading,  clamorous 
crows,  and  all  the  winged  multitudes  that  subsist  by  the  bounty  of 
this  vast  magazine  of  nature.  High  over  all  these  hovers  one  whose 
action  instantly  arrests  his  whole  attention.  By  his  wide  curvature 
of  wing  and  sudden  suspension  in  air,  he  knows  him  to  be  the  fish- 
hawk,  settling  over  some  devoted  victim  of  the  deep.  His  eye 
kindles  at  the  sight,  and,  balancing  himself  with  half-opened  wings 
on  the  branch,  he  awaits  the  result.  Down,  rapid  as  an  arrow, 
from  heaven  descends  the  distant  object  of  his  attention,  the  roar  of 
its  wings  reaching  the  ear  as  it  disappears  in  the  deep,  making  the 
surges  foam  around.  At  this  moment  the  eager  looks  of  the  eagle 
ai  all  ardour ;  and,  levelling  his  neck  for  flight,  he  sees  the  fish- 
haivk  once  more  emerge  struggling  with  his  prey,  and  mounting  in 
the  air  with  screams  of  exultation.  These  are  the  signal  for  the 
eagle,  who,  launching  into  the  air,  instantly  gives  chase,  and  soon 
gains  on  the  fish-hawk.  Each  exerts  his  utmost  to  mount  above 
the  other,  displaying  in  these  rencontres  the  most  elegant  and  sub- 


lime atrial  evolutions.  The  unencumbered  eagle  rapidly  advances, 
and  is  just  on  the  point  of  reaching  his  opponent,  when,  with  a 
sudden  scream,  probably  of  despair  and  honest  execration,  the 
latter  drops  his  fish  ;  the  eagle,  poising  himself  for  a  moment,  as  if 
to  take  a  more  certain  aim,  descends  like  a  wOiirlwind,  snatches  it 
in  his  grasp  ere  it  reaches  the  water,  and  bears  his  ill-gotten 
booty  silently  away  to  the  woods."  It  is  this  eloquent  descriptive 
passage  which  the  representation,  Fig.  1013,  is  intended  to  illus- 
trate. 


Fig.  1013. — ^Vhite•headed  Sea-Eagle  and  Fish-Hawk. 

This  is  not  the  only  mode  in  which  the  White-headed  Eagle  pro- 
cures his  sustenance.  Young  Lambs  and  Pigs,  Ducks,  Geese, 
Swans,  and  various  Sea-Fowl,  arc  attacked  and  carried  away.  Mr. 
J.  Gardiner  stated  to  Wilson,  that  he  had  seen  one  flying  with  a 
Lamb  ten  days  old,  but  which,  from  the  violence  of  its  struggles,  it 
was  obliged  to  drop  at  the  height  of  a  few  feet  from  the  ground. 
He  adds  that,  by  running  up  and  hallooing,  he  prevented  it  from 
again  seizing  the  Lamb,  whose  back  it  had  broken,  and  to  whose 
misery  he  put  an  instant  termination.  The  dam  seemed  astonished 
to  see  its  offspring  suddenly  snatched  up,  and  borne  off  by  a  Bird. 
Sheep,  if  old  or  sickly,  are  also  subject  to  the  attacks  of  these 
tyrants  of  the  feathered  race  ;  nor  do  they  reject  carrion,  keeping 
the  Vultures  (over  which  they  often  exercise  their  despotism)  at  a 
respectful  distance,  waiting  till  they  have  gorged  their  fill  and  de- 
parted. Now  and  then  they  procure  fish  for  themselves  in  shallow 
places,  wading  in  the  water,  and  striking  at  them  with  their  beak. 
They  have  been  known  even  to  attack  children.  We  have  quoted 
Wilson's  animated  description  of  the  attack  of  the  White-headed 
Ea^^le  upon  the  Fish-Hawk  or  Osprey  ;  and,  in  justice  to  Mr.  Audu- 
bo^,  we  will  transcribe  his  equally  graphic  details  of  a  different 
conflict : — "  To  give  you,"  he  writes,  "  some  idea  of  the  nature  of 
this  Bird,  permit  me  to  place  you  on  the  Mississippi,  on  w^hich  you 
may  float  gently  along,  while  approaching  winter  brings  millions  of 
water-fowl,  on  whistling  wings,  from  the  countries  of  the  north,  to 
seek  a  milder  climate  in  which  to  sojourn  for  a  season;  The  eagle 
is  seen  perched,  in  an  erect  attitude,  on  the  summit  of  the  tallest 
tree  by  the  margin  of  the  broad  stream.  His  glistening  but  stern 
eye  looks  over  the  vast  expanse ;  he  listens  attentively  to  every 
sound  that  comes  to  his  quick  ear  from  afar,  glancing  every  now 
and  then  on  the  earth  beneath,  lest  even  the  light  tread  of  the  fawn 
may  pass  unheard.  His  mate  is  perched  on  the  opposite  side,  and, 
should  all  be  tranquil  and  silent,  warns  him,  by  a  cr)',  to  continue 
patient.  At  this  well-known  call  he  partly  opens  his  broad  wmgs, 
inclines  his  body  a  little  downwards,  and  answers  to  her  voice  m 
tones  not  unlike  the  laugh  of  a  maniac.  The  next  moment  he  re- 
sumes his  erect  attitude,  and  again  all  around  is  sdent.  Ducks  of 
many  species— the  teal,  the  widgeon,  the  mallard,  and  others— are 
seen  passing  with  great  rapidity,  and  following  the  course  of  the 


384 


THE  OSPREY,   OR  FISH-HA  WK. 


current,  but  the  eagle  heeds  them  not ;  they  are,  at  that  time,  be- 
neath his  attention.  The  next  moment,  however,  the  wild  trumpet- 
like  sound  of  a  yet  distant  but  approaching  swan  is  heard.  A 
shriek  from  the  female  eagle  comes  across  the  stream,  for  she  is 
fully  as  alert  as  her  mate.  The  latter  suddenly  shakes  the  whole  of 
his  body,  and,  with  a  few  touches  of  his  bill,  aided  by  the  action  of 
his  cuticular  muscles,  arranges  his  plumes  in  an  instant.  The 
snow-white  bird  is  now  in  sight ;  her  long  neck  is  stretched  forward  ; 
her  eye  is  on  the  watch,  vigilant  as  that  of  her  enemy  ;  her  large 
wings  seem  with  difficulty  to  support  the  weight  of  her  body, 
although  they  flap  incessantly  ;  so  irksome  do  her  exertions  seem, 
that  her  very  legs  are  spread  beneath  her  tail  to  aid  her  in  her 
flight.  She  approaches,  however.  The  eagle  has  marked  her  for 
his  prey.  As  the  swan  is  passing  the  dreaded  pair,  starts  from  his 
perch  the  male  bird  in  preparation  for  the  chase,  with  an  awful 
scream,  that,  to  the  swan's  ears,  brings  more  terror  than  the  report 
of  the  large  duck-gun.  Now  is  the  moment  to  witness  the  display 
of  the  eagle's  powers.  He  glides  through  the  air  like  a  falling  star, 
and,  like  a  flash  of  lightning,  comes  upon  the  timorous  quarry, 
which  now,  in  agony  and  despair,  seeks,  by  various  manoeuvres,  to 
elude  the  grasp  of  his  cruel  talons.  It  mounts,  doubles,  and 
willingly  would  plunge  into  the  stream  were  it  not  prevented  by 
the  eagle,  which,  possessed  of  the  knowledge  that  by  such  a  strata- 
gem the  swan  might  escape  him,  forces  it  to  remain  in  the  air  by 
attempting  to  strike  it  with  his  talons  from  beneath.  The  hope  of 
escape  is  soon  given  up  by  the  swan.  It  has  already  become  much 
weakened,  and  its  strength  fails  at  the  sight  of  the  courage  and 
swiftness  of  its  antagonist.  Its  last  gasp  is  about  to  escape,  when 
the  ferocious  eagle  strikes  with  its  talons  the  under  side  of  its  wing, 
and,  with  unresisted  power,  forces  the  bird  to  fall  in  a  slanting  di- 
rection upon  the  nearest  shore.  It  is  then  that  you  may  see  the 
cruel  spirit  of  this  dreaded  enemy  of  the  feathered  race,  whilst,  ex- 
ulting over  his  prey,  he,  for  the  first  time,  breathes  at  ease.  He 
presses  down  his  powerful  feet,  and  drives  his  sharp  claws  deep 
into  the  heart  of  the  dying  swan  ;  he  shrieks  with  delight  as  he  feels 
the  last  convulsions  of  his  prey,  which  has  now  sunk  under  his 
efforts  to  render  death  as  painful  as  it  possibly  can  be.  The  female 
has  watched  every  movement  of  her  mate  ;  and  if  she  did  not  assist 
him  in  capturing  the  swan,  it  was  not  from  want  of  will,  but  merely 
that  she  felt  full  assurance  that  the  power  and  courage  of  her  lord 
were  quite  sufficient  for  the  deed.  She  now  sails  to  the  spot  where 
he  eagerly  awaits  her  ;  and  when  she  has  arrived,  they  together 
turn  the  breast  of  the  luckless  swan  upwards,  and  gorge  themselves 
with  gore." 

The  White-headed  Eagle  is  seldom  seen  alone,  but  generally  in 
company  with  its  mate  ;  the  union  continues  during  life  ;  they  hunt 
for  the  support  of  each  other,  and  feed  together.  The  nest  is 
usually  placed  on  some  tall  tree,  with  a  massive  towering  stem  des- 
titute of  branches  for  a  considerable  height.  It  is  composed  of 
sticks,  clods,  weeds,  and  moss,  and  measures  five  or  six  feet  in 
diameter  ;  and  being  annually  augmented  by  fresh  layers  (for  it  is 
used  year  after  year),  it  is  often  as  much  in  depth.  The  eggs  are 
from  two  to  four  in  number,  and  of  a  dull  white.  The  attachment 
of  the  parents  to  their  young  is  very  great  ;  and  they  provide 
abundantly  for  their  support,  bringing  home  Fish,  Squirrels, 
young  Lambs,  Opossums,  Racoons,  &c.  Incubation  commences  in 
January. 

This  Eagle  requires  at  least  four  years  before  it  attains  the  full 
beauty  of  its  plumage,  and  acquires  the  white  head  and  neck  ;  but 
it  breeds  the  first  spring  after  birth.  Colour  of  adult : — general  plu- 
mage of  a  deep  chocolate,  approaching  black ;  head,  neck,  tail, 
and  upper  tail-coverts  white. 

_  The  Osprey,  Fish-Hawk,  or  Bald  Buzzard  {Pandwn  hal- 
iaehis) ;  Le  Balbusard,  Buffon. — The  generic  characters  of  the 
genus  Pandion  are  these  : — beak  rounded  above  ;  cere  hispid  ; 
nostrils  lunulated  ;  tarsi  naked,  and  covered  anteriorly  with  rigid 
reticulated  scales.  Toes  five,  outermost  versatile.  Claws  large, 
much  curved,  equal,  and  rounded  underneath ;  under  surface  of 
toes  very  rough,  with  sharp  pointed  scales.  Wings  long  and 
ample,  second  and  third  quill-feathers  the  longest.  (See  Fig.  1014, 
the  Head  and  Foot  of  the  Osprey.)     Fig.  1015  represents  this  Bird. 

The  Osprey  is  widely  spread,  being  dispersed  over  Europe  and  a 
great  part  of  Asia,  as  well  as  North  America,  but  is  everywhere  a 
Bird  of  passage.  Being  strictly  Piscivorous,  it  is  only  in  the 
vicinity  of  lakes  and  rivers,  and  along  the  coast,  that  it  is  ordi- 
narily met  with.  In  England,  according  to  Montagu,  this  Bitd  is 
more  abundant  in  Devonshire  than  in  any  other  district.  In  Ireland 
it  occasionally  visits  the  lakes  of  Killarney.  In  Scotland  it  appears 
to  be  more  common.  Mr.  Selby  observed  several  on  Loch  Lomond, 
where  they  are  said  to  breed,  and  upon  Loch  Awe,  where  an  eyrie 
is  annually  established  upon  the  ruins  of  a  castle  near  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  lake,  and  another  in  a  similar  situation  nearly  oppo- 
site to  the  gorge  or  egress  of  the  River  Awe.  On  the  continent  this 
Bird  annually  visits  the  larger  rivers  and  lakes  of  Russia,  Germany, 
and  the  middle  districts  of  Europe,  whence  it  passes  southwards  on 
the  approach  ot  winter.  In  its  habits  it  appears  to  be  partially 
gregarious,  several  pairs  associating  together,  and  in  harmony  pur- 


suing their  occupation.  In  America,  the  Fish-Hawk,  according  to 
Wilson,  arrives  on  the  coasts  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  about 
the  2ist  of  March,  and  retires  to  the  south  about  the  22nd  of  Sep- 
tember.— "  On  the  arrival  of  these  birds  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  March,  tlicy  sometimes  find  the  bays 
and  ponds  frozen,  and  experience  a  difficulty  in  procuring  fish  for 


Fig.  1014. — Head  and  Foot  of  Osprey. 


Fig.  1015. — The  Osprey. 

many  days ;  yet  there  is  no  instance  on  record  of  their  attacking 
birds  or  inferior  land-animals  with  intent  to  feed  on  them,  though 
their  great  strength  of  flight,  as  well  as  of  feet  and  claws,  would 
seem  to  render  this  no  difficult  matter.  To  the  white-headed  eagle 
the  arrival  of  these  fish-hawks  brings  promise  ot  gain  ;  we  have 
shown  the  tyrannical  conduct  of  the  former;  sometimes,  however,  a 


THE  OSPREY—THE  HARPY  EA  GLE. 


.^f'S 


number  of  the  fish-hawks  make  common  cause  against  their  oppres- 
sors, and  succeed  in  driving  them  from  the  scene  of  action." — "The 
first  appearance  of  the  tish-hawk  in  spring  is  welcomed  by  the 
fishermen  as  the  happy  signal  of  the  approach  of  those  vast  shoals 
of  herring,  shad,  &c.,  that  regularly  arrive  on  the  coast,  and  enter 
the  rivers  in  prodigious  multitudes.  Two  of  a  trade,  it  is  said,  sel- 
dom agree :  the  adage,  however,  will  not  hold  good  in  the  present 
case,  for  such  is  the  respect  paid  to  the  fish-hawk,  not  only  by  this 
class  of  men,  but  generally  by  the  whole  neighbourhood  where  it 
resides,  that  a  person  who  should  attempt  to  shoot  one  of  them 
would  stand  a  fair  chance  of  being  insulted.  This  prepossession  in 
favour  of  the  fish-hawk  is  honourable  to  their  feelings.  They  asso- 
ciate with  its  first  appearance  ideas  of  plenty  and  all  the  gaiety  of 
business  ;'  they  see  it  active  and  industrious  like  themselves  ;  inoffen- 
sive to  the  productions  of  their  farms,  building  with  confidence,  and 
without  the  least  disposition  to  concealment,  in  the  middle  of  their 
fields  and  along  their  fences,  and  returning  year  after  year  regularly 
to  its  former  abode." 

The  flight  of  this  Bird  is  easy  and  graceful,  and  its  plunge,  when 
sweeping  down  to  its  finny  prey,  inconceivably  rapid.  Audubon 
says  that  it  never  strikes  at  a  Fish  leaping  out  of  the  water.  In 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  these  Birds  are  numerous,  and  where 
shoals  of  Flying-Fish  are  continually  emerging  from  the  sea  to 
escape  the  pursuit  of  the  Dolphins,  he  observed  that  the  Fish- 
Hawks  never  made  a  sweep  at  them,  but  would  at  once  plunge 
after  them,  or  other  Fish,  while  swimming  in  their  usual  mode 
near  the  surface.  When  it  plunges  into  the  water  in  pursuit  of  a 
Fish,  it  sometimes  proceeds  deep  enough  to  disappear  for  an 
instant,  throwing  the  water  around  into  foam  ;  on  rising,  it 
mounts  a  few  yards  into  the  air,  shakes  off  the  spray,  and  flies 
off  to  its  nest  with  its  booty,  or  to  an  accustomed  tree,  there  to 
satisfy  its  appetite,  when,  without  longer  repose,  it  again  launches 
into  the  air,  and  sails,  circling  at  a  great  height  over  the  waters. 

The  nest  of  the  Fish-Hawk  is  built  on  a  tree,  and  consists  of  a 
mass  of  sticks,  seaweed,  grass,  turf,  &c.,  and  being  repaired  every 
year,  is  sometimes  a  fair  cartload.  Among  the  interstices  of  the 
materials,  other  Birds  are  permitted  to  nidify,  and  several  pairs  of 
Grakles,  or  Crow-Blackbirds,  may  be  often  seen  taking  up  their 
abode  around  the  margin  and  sides  of  the  structure,  "like  humble 
vassals  round  the  castle  of  their  chief,"  laying  their  eggs,  rearing 
their  young,  and  living  together  in  the  utmost  harmony. 

The  Osprey  breeds  in  May ;  and  both  parents  are  devoted  to 
their  young,  defending  them  from  any  assailant  with  indomitable 
resolution,  and  using  both  beak  and  talons  with  terrible  eiTect.  The 
young  are  generally  three  in  number.  The  eggs  are  yellowish-white, 
irregularly  spotted  with  yellowish-brown. 

The  Osprey  is  about  two  feet  in  length,  and  about  five  feet  three 
or  four  inches  in  expanse  of  wing.  The  plumage  is  very  compact 
and  imbricated  ;  bill  brownish-black,  blue  at  the  base  ;  cere  light 
blue,  iris  yellow.  Feet  pale  greyish-blue,  claws  black.  General 
colour  of  the  upper-parts  dusky-brown  ;  tail  barred  with  pale 
brown  ;  upper  part  of  head  and  neck  white,  with  a  brown  mark  on 
the  crown,  and  a  brown  stripe  from  the  bill  down  each  side  of  the 
neck.  Under-parts  of  the  neck  brownish-white,  streaked  with  dark 
brown.     Under-parts  generally  white. 

Some  species  of  the  Osprey  are  found  in  the  East  Indies,  and  in 
America.  The  Haliastiir  indits,  or  Pondicherry  Eagle,  called  the 
Brahman  Kite,  feeds  upon  Fish,  small  Birds,  and  Animals,  Crabs, 
and  even  carrion.     It  is  sacred  to  Vishnu,  the  god  of  the  Hindoos. 

The  Barred  H.-tjmatornis  {Hcsmatornis  zmdulatus). — The 
genus  Hamatortiis,  which  contains  several  species,  was  first  cha- 
racterised by  Mr.  Vigors.  Beak  rather  strong,  moderately  elon- 
gated: upper  mandible  straight  at  the  base,  very  much  curved  at 
the  apex ;  nostrils  oval  and  oblique.  Wings  long,  and  rather 
rounded.  Feet  weak  for  an  Eagle  ;  tarsi  rough,  reticulated  with 
scales ;  toes  rather  short ;  claws  strong ;  tail  moderate  and 
rounded. 

To  this  genus  belongs  the  Bacha  Eagle  of  South  Africa  {H. 
bacha) ;  the  Manilla  Haematornis  {H.  holosJ>tliis) ;  and  the  Barred 
Hffimatornis  {H.  undulatus),  a  native  of  the  Himalayan  Moun- 
tains. 

The  description  of  the  latter  is  as  follows  : — Back  and  wings 
intense  brown  ;  head  crested  with  feathers,  white  at  the  base,  black 
at  the  point.  Wing-coverts  marked  with  small  white  spots ;  quill- 
feathers  marked  with  white  towards  the  base  of  the  inner  web. 
Under-parts  brownish-red ;  breast  with  wavy  bands  of  brown  ;  ab- 
domen with  white  spots,  margined  with  a  ring  of  brown.  Cere, 
base  of  beak,  and  legs  yellow ;  claws  black.  Length  about  2  feet 
7  inches  (male) ;  female  a  third  larger. 

Of  the  habits  of  this  species  little  is  known :  probably  they 
resemble  those  of  the  African  species,  which  preys  habitually  on  the 
Daman,  or  Cape  Hyrax,  watching  for  its  victims  as  they  emerge 
from  their  retreats,  and  instantly  darting  upon  them.  (See 
Fig.  1016.) 

The  Harpy  Eagle  {Harpyia  destrtictor).—1\\(t  Harpy  Eagle 
constitutes  the  type  of  a  distinct  section  among  the-Birds  of  prey, 
a  section  first  established  by  Cuvier,  and  adopted  by  most  natu- 


ralists. The  species  comprehended  in  this  genus,  Harpyia,  are 
exclusively  American  :  they  arc  characterised  by  the  enormous 
thickness  and  strength  of  the  tarsi,  which  are  feathered  half-way 
down ;  the  wings  are  short  and  rounded  ;  the  beak  is  strongly 
hooked,  as  are  the  talons  also,  and  of  formidable  magnitude.  Com- 
paring the  Harpy  with  the  Golden  Eagle,  we  observe  the  former  to 


Fig.  loi6. — The  Barred  Ho^matornis. 

be  distinguished  not  only  by  shorter,  but  by  more  rounded  wings, 
by  tarsi  far   more   robust,  and  only   partially   feathered,    by   more 
powerful  talons,  and  by  a  more  stout  and  curved  beak :  the  physiog- 
nomy of  the  two  Birds  is  also  very  different ;  both  have  a  stern,  but 
glistening  eye,  indicative  of  courage  and  ferocity ;  of  both  the  port 
is  royal,   but  the  arrangement  of  the  feathers  of  the  head  in   the 
Harpy  in  some  degree  reminds  us  of  the  Great-eared  Owl.     In  the 
Golden  Eagle  the  head  and  neck  are  covered  with  long,  narrow- 
pointed  feathers,  which  fall  over  each  other,  and  yet  preserve  their 
distinctness  of  appearance.     On  the  contrary,  the  feathers  of  the 
neck  and  sides  of  the  head  in   the   Harpy  Eagle  are  broad  and 
rounded  at  their  anterior  margin,  and  capable  of  being  puffed  up  ; 
while  on  the  back  of  the  head,  the  feathers,  still  of  the  same  cha- 
racter, but  longer,  form  a  crest,  which  the  Bird  can  raise  or  depress 
at  pleasure.     The  middle  feathers  of  this  crest  are  shorter  than  the 
more  lateral,  so  that  when  erected  it  is  lowest  in  the  centre,  and 
rises  at  each  side  somewhat  in  the  form  of  ears  or  tufts  ;  but  the 
proud  deportment  and  the  fierce  glance  of  the  eyes  redeem  the  Owl- 
like character  thus  given  to  the  head.     Often  have  we  watched  the 
splendid  Harpy  Eagle,  formerly  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  as  he  has  sat  upright  on  his  perch,  and  motionless  as  a 
statue,  unmoved  by  every  attempt  to  intimidate  him,  or  disturb  his 
dignified  composure,  while  the  gleam  of  his  eye,  fixed  steadily  upon 
us,  betokened  at  once  daring  and  energy.     In  strength  none  can 
equal  him  ;  in  courage  and  ferocity  none  can  excel  him.     But  we 
have  seen  the  Harpy  Eagle  under  other  circumstances :    we  have 
seen  him  feasting  on  his  slaughtered  prey,  with  his  talons  buried  in 
the  body,  and  his  beak  crimson  with  gore  ;  on  our  approach,  instead 
of  quitting  it,  he  has  expanded  his  ample  wings  over  it,  so  as  to 
conceal  it,  and  assumed  a  menacing  attitude,   as  if  prepared   to 
contest  the  possession  of  it  to  the  utmost ;  and  such  was  the  ferocity 
afid  power  displayed,  as  to  convince  us  that  any  attempt  at  inter- 
ference (had  it  been  practicable)  would  have  been  a  most  dangerous 
undertaking.     The  Harpy  Eagle  is  a  native  of  Guiana  and  other 
parts  of  South  America,  where  it  frequents   the  deep  recesses  of 
the  forests,  remote  from  the  abodes  of  man.     Of  its  habits,  how- 
ever, in  a  state  of  nature,  we  have  but  little  information.   It  is  feared 
for  its  great  strength  and  fierceness,  and  is  reported  not  to  hesitate 
in  attacking  individuals  of  the  human  race  ;    nay,  that   instances 
have  been   known  in  which  persons  have  fallen  a  sacrifice,  their 
skulls  having  been  fractured  by  the  blows  of  its  beak  and  talons. 
This  may  be  an  exaggeration,  but  certainly  it  would  be  a  hazardous 
experiment  to  venture  unarmed  near  the  nest  of  a  pair  of  these 
formidable  Eagles.   Hernandez  states  that  this  species  not  only  thus 
ventures  to  assault  man,  but  even  Carnivorous  animals.     According 
to  Mandruyt,  it  makes  great  destruction  amongst  the  Sloths,  which 
tenant  the  branches  of   the  forest,  and   are  ill-fitted  to   resist   so 
formidable  an  antagonist ;  it  also  destroys  Fawns,    Cavies,    Opos- 
sums, and  other  quadrupeds,  which  it  carries  to  its  lonely  retreat, 
there  in  solitude  to  satiate  its  appetite.     Monkeys  are  also  to  be 

?  D 


386 


THE  HARPY  EAGLE. 


numbered  among  its  victims ;  but  the  Sloth  is  said  to  constitute  its 
ordinary  prey.  Of  its  niditication  we  know  nothing.  As  the  Eagles, 
however,  lay  only  from  two  to  three  eggs,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  this  species  is  not  an  exception  to  the  rule. 

It  has  been  correctly  observed  by  Mr.  Selby,  that  the  members  of 
the  Aquiline  division  of  the  Raptorial  order  do  not  possess  the  same 
facility  of  pursuing  their  prey  upon  the  wing  which  we  sec  in  the 
Falcons  and  Hawks  ;  for  though  their  flight  is  very  powerful,  they 
are  not  capable  of  the  rapid  evolutions  that  attend  the  aerial  attacks 
of  the  above-named  groups,  in  consequence  of  which  their  prey  is 
mostly  pounced  upon  on  the  ground.     The  shortness  of  the  wings  of 


Fig.  1017. — The  Harpy  Eagle. 

the  Harpy  Eagle,  when  compared  with  those  of  the  Golden  Eagle 
of  Europe,  and  their  rounded  form  and  breadth,  though  well  adapt- 
ing them  for  a  continued  steady  flight,  render  them  less  efficient  as 
organs  of  rapid  and  sudden  aerial  evolutions  than  those  of  the 
latter  ;  but  as  it  inhabits  the  woods,  and  does  not  prey  upon  Birds, 
but  upon  animals  incapable  of  saving  themselves  by  flight,  its 
powers  of  wing  (or  rather  the  modification  of  those  powers)  are  in 
accordance  with  the  circumstances  as  to  food  and  locality  under 
which  it  is  placed.  If  the  Harpy  Eagle  soars  not  aloft,  hovering 
over  plains  and  mountains,  it  threads  the  woods,  it  skims  amidst 


the  trees,  and  marks  the  Sloth  suspended  on  the  branch,  or  the 
Monkey  dozing  in  unsuspicious  security,  and  with  unerring  aim 
strikes  its  defenceless  victims.  Mr.  Selby,  commenting  on  the 
fierceness  of  a  pair  of  Golden  Eagles  in  his  possession,  and  their 
readiness  to  attack  every  one  indiscriminately,  observes  that  when 
living  prey  (as  Hares,  Rabbits,  or  Cats)  are  thrown  to  them,  the 
animal  is  "  instantly  pounced  on  by  a  stroke  behind  the  head,  and 
another  about  the  region  of  the  heart,  the  bill  appearing  never  to 
be  used  but  for  the  purpose  of  tearing  up  the  prey  when  dead."  It 
is  precisely  in  this  manner  that  the  Harpy  Eagle  deals  with  its 
victims ;  death  seems  the  work  of  an  instant ;  the  strongest  Cat, 

powerless  in  his  grasp, 
is  clutched,  and  expires. 
Nor  will  this  surprise  any 
one  who  has  contemplated 
the  power  seated  in  the 
talons  of  this  Bird.  Strong 
as  are  the  talons  of  the 
Golden  Eagle,  great  as  is 
the  muscular  development 
of  its  limbs,  and  formid- 
able as  are  its  claws,  they 
seem  almost  trifling  com- 
pared with  those  of  the 
Harpy  Eagle.  In  the  mu- 
seum of  the  Zoological 
Society  are  skeletons  of 
both  these  Birds,  which  it 
is  interesting  to  compare 
together.  The  thickness 
of  the  bones  of  the  limbs 
in  the  latter,  and  especi- 
ally of  the  tarsus,  which  is 
more  than  double  that  of 
the  Golden  Eagle,  and  the 
enormous  size  of  the  talons, 
are  suflncient  to  convince 
the  obser\'er  of  the  ease 
with  which,  when  living, 
the  fierce  Bird  would  bury 
its  sharp-hooked  claws  in 
the  vitals  of  its  prey,  and 
how  vain  resistance  when 
the  fatal  grasp  was  taken. 
In  its  native  regions  the 
Harpy  Eagle  is  said  to 
be  by  no  means  common  ; 
were  it  so,  the  destruction 
occasioned  by  its  presence 
would,  it  might  be  natu- 
rally expected,  preponde- 
rate over  the  renovation  of 
the  species  which  consti- 
tute its  habitual  food,  and 
the  balance  which  nature 
has  established  between 
the  destroyed  and  the  de- 
stroying, the  sanguinary 
and  their  victims,  be  thus 
disarranged.  No  doubt 
that  (as  is  the  case  with 
all  Carnivorous  animals) 
its  numerical  ratio  in  a 
given  space  is  proportion- 
ate to  that  of  the  animals 
on  which  it  is  destined 
habitually  to  feed.  Where 
the  Sloth  is  most  abundant, 
there  will  most  abound  the 
Harpy  Eagle.  We  there- 
fore see  in  this,  as  in  all 
cases,  a  compensating  ac- 
tion in  nature. 

The    general    colour  of 
this   noble   Bird   is   slate- 
black  ;    the  head  is   light 
slate-grey,     passing    into 
dusky-black  on  the  crest ;  the  under-parts  are  white,  with  a  broad 
band  of  dark  slate-colour  across  the  chest.     The  tail  is  barred  with 
black  and  slate-colour.     The  beak  and  claws  are  black  ;  the  tarsi 
yellow.     (See  Fig.  1017.) 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  their 
Gardens  in  Regent's  Park,  are  numerous  specimens  of  EagleSj  in- 
cluding those  already  named.  From  their  "Guide"  for  1879,  we 
extract  the  following  particulars,  in  addition  to  the  description  of 
the  Eagles  in  their  possession,  already  named.  Others  will  be 
iound  under  .the  head  of  Vultures  : — 


THE   LAMMERGEYER. 


3S7 


The  Wedge-tailed  Eagle  {A.  audax).—'Y\\c  series  of  Wedge- 
tailed  Eagles  is  rather  numerous,  being  constantly  replenished  by 
the  liberality  of  the  Society's  Australian  correspondents.  The 
Wedge-tailed  Eagle  represents  our  Golden  Eagle  in  Australia,  and 
is  found  in  every  part  of  that  continent.  Mr.  Gould,  in  his  great 
work  on  the  "  Birds  of  Australia,"  gives  us  the  following  notes  on 
its  habits  :—"  The  natural  disposition  of  the  Wedge-tailed  Eagle 
leads  it  to  frequent  the  interior  portion  of  the  country  rather  than 
the  shores  or  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea.  It  preys  indiscrimi- 
nately on  all  the  smaller  species  of  Kangaroo  which  tenant  the 
plains  and  the  open  crowns  of  the  hills,  and  whose  retreats,  from 
the  wonderful  acuteness  of  its  vision,  it  descries  while  soaring  and 
performing  those  graceful  evolutions  and  circles  in  the  air  so  fre- 
quently seen  by  the  residents  of 
the  countries  it  inhabits  ;  neither 
is  the  noble  Bustard,  whose 
weight  is  twice  that  of  its  enemy, 
and  who  finds  a  more  secure 
asylum  on  the  extensive  plains 
of  the  interior  than  most  ani- 
mals, safe  from  its  attacks ;  its 
tremendous  stoop  and  powerful 
grasp,  in  fact,  carry  inevitable 
destruction  to  its  victim,  be  it 
ever  so  large  and  formidable. 
The  breeders  of  Sheep  find  in 
this  Bird  an  enemy,  which  com- 
mits extensive  ravages  among 
their  Lambs  ;  and  consequently, 
in  its  turn,  it  is  persecuted  un- 
relentingly by  the  shepherds  of 
the  stock-owners,  who  employ 
every  artifice  in  their  power  to 
effect  its  extirpation ;  and  in 
Tasmania  considerable  rewards 
are  ofl^ered  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  same  end.  The 
tracts  of  untrodden  ground,  and 
the  vastness  of  the  impenetrable 
forests  will,  however,  for  a  long 
series  of  years  to  come,  afford  it 
an  asylum  secure  from  the  in- 
roads of  the  destroying  hand 
of  man ;  still,  with  every  one 
waging  war  upon  it,  its  numbers 
must  necessarily  be  considerably 
diminished. 

The  Tawny  Eagle  {Aquila 
■nccvioides'). — This  Eagle  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  Imperial  Eagle 
already  described.  (See  Fig. 
101 1,  afife.)  It  is  a  native  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  extending  into 
Southern  Europe,  and  is  rather 
scarce  in  captivity. 

The    Lajimergeyer    Grif- 
fon,   OR    Bearded  Vulture 
{Gypaetiis     barbaius). — Among 
the   Raptorial  Birds,  classed  by 
naturalists    under   the   Aquiline 
section,    are    many   which  have 
neither  the  bold  bearing  nor  the 
ferocity  and  great  powers  of  the 
true  Eagles,   represented  by  the 
Golden    Eagle    or    the    Harpy. 
Some  form  a  series  of  interven- 
ing links    between    the    Eagles 
and   the    Buzzards    and    Kites, 
whilst  others  appear  to  hold  an 
intermediate  station  between  the 
Eagles  and  the  Vultures.  Among 
the  latter  may  be  instanced  the 
Lammergeyer,     which     various 
writers,  according  to  their  differ- 
ent views,  assigned  to  the  Vul- 
tures on  the  one  hand  or  to  the  Eagles  on  the  other.     Storr,  a  natu- 
ralist of  great  eminence,  rescued  it  from  the  intermediate  situation 
in  which  it  previously  stood,  and  founded  for  its  reception  a  new 
genus,   to   which  he  gave  the  title  of   Gypaetus  (yi''!//,  a  Vulture  ; 
atToQ,  an   Eagle),   thereby   alluding  to   its   intermediate   situation, 
though   it  still   appears   to  come  within  the  pale  of  the   Aquiline 
family.     The  characters  of  the  genus  are  these : — head  and  neck 
clothed  with  feathers ;    nostrils  covered   with  bristly   hairs,    w'hich 
form  a  sort  of  pendent  tuft  or  beard  ;  bill  elongated  and  hooked ; 
tarsi  short,    and  feathered  to  the  toes,   which  are  of  considerable 
strength,  and  armed  with  sharp,  but  slightly  curved .  talons.     (See 
Fig.  1018.) 


The  Lammergeyer,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Bearded 
Vulture,  which  equals  or  exceeds  the  largest  Eagle  in  size,  is  found 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  great  mountain-chains  of  the  Old 
World,  being  in  fact  very  widely  dispersed.  Jt  occurs  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  in  the  Alps  of  Germany  and  Switzerland,  where  it  is 
notorious  for  its  destructiveness  among  the  Lambs  (hence  its  name) 
and  Kids  which  are  fed  on  the  green  slopes  of  the  lower  ranges. 

The  intermediate  situation  assigned  to  the  Lammergeyer.  and 
which  is  aptly  expressed  in  the  generic  appellation  Gypaetus,  is 
clearly  indicated  in  its  form  and  general  habits.  Of  a  powerful  and 
robust  make,  it  has  neither  the  bill  nor  the  talons  of  the  Eagle,  the 
former  being  elongated,  and  hooked  only  at  the  tip,  and  the  latter 
comparatively  small ;  yet  it  prefers  to  prey  on  victims  which  it  has 


^^J^ 


Fig.  1018.— The  Lammergeyer. 


itself  destroyed,  or  upon  the  flesh  of  animals  recently  slaughtered 


388 


THE  LAMMERGEYER—THE  CARACARA. 


Children,  indeed,  are  said  to  have  often  fallen  sacrifices  to  its 
rapacity.  Young'  or  small  animals  are  easily  destroyed,  for,  thoug-h 
elongated,  the  beak  is  hard  and  strong,  and  well  adapted  for 
lacerating  the  victim  ;  but  larger  animals,  instead  of  being  at  once 
g'rappled  with,  are,  as  it  is  said,  insidiously  assaulted  while  upon  the 
edge  of  some  precipice  or  steep  declivity,  the  Bird  unexpectedly 
sweeping  upon  them  with  fury,  and  hurrying  them  into  the  abyss, 
down  which  it  plunges  to  glut  its  appetite.  As  illustrative  of  the 
boldness  of  the  Lammergeyer,  Bruce  relates  that,  attracted  by  the 
preparations  for  dinner  which  his  servants  were  making  on  the 
summit  of  a  lofty  mountain,  a  Bearded  Vulture  "  slowly  made  his 
advances  to  the  party,  and  at  length  fairly  seated  himself  within  the 
ring  they  had  formed.  The  affrighted  natives  ran  for  their 
lances  and  shields,  and  the  bird,  after  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
abstract  a  portion  of  the  meal  from  the  boiling  water,  seized  a  large 
piece  in  each  of  his  talons  from  a  platter  that  stood  by,  and  carried 
them  off  slowly  along  the  ground  as  he  came."  Returning  in  a 
few  minutes  for  a  second  freight,  he  was  shot. 

There  is  little  in  the  general  aspect  of  this  Bird  to  remind  one  of 
the  Vulture,  j'et  the  character  of  the  head  and  the  general  contour 
of  the  body  are  strikingly  different  from  those  of  the  Eagle  ;  there 
is  a  want  of  dignity  and  quiet  grandeur  in  its  attitude  ;  and  the 
glance  of  its  small  red  eye,  though  keen  and  cruel,  is  deficient  in 
that  expression  of  daring  and  resolution  which  we  admire  in  the 
feathered  monarch.  The  bristly  beard  which  depends  from  the 
lower  mandible,  tends  also  to  give  a  peculiar  character  to  its 
physiognomy.  Of  the  nidification  of  the  Lammergeyer  little  is 
ascertained,  except  that  it  selects  the  most  inaccessible  pinnacles 
as  the  site  of  its  eyrie.  Pallas  states  that  it  is  known  to  breed  on 
the  high  rocks  of  the  great  Altaic  chain,  and  beyond  the  Lake 
Baikal.  The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  marked  with  brown  blotches 
on  a  w'hite  ground. 

In  length  this  extraordinary  Bird  measures  about  four  feet  from 
the  bill  to  the  tail,  and  from  nine  to  ten  in  the  expanse  of  its  wings. 
Larger  admeasurements  have  been  given  by  various  writers,  which 
are  probably  exaggerated — none  of  the  numerous  specimens  which 
we  have  seen  exceeding  our  statement.  The  tarsi  are  short  and 
almost  hidden  by  the  feathers  of  the  thighs  ;  the  iris  is  bright  red  ; 
the  wings  are  ample,  the  second  and  third  quill-feathers  being  the 
longest ;  the  tail  is  graduated :  the  head  is  clothed  with  feathers, 
and  from  the  sides  of  the  under-mandible  proceeds  a  row  of  black 
bristles,  which  form  a  beard  or  pencil  at  its  angle,  and  a  layer  ol 
similar  bristles,  beginning  at  the  eye,  covers  the  nostrils.  The 
general  colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  dark  greyish-brown,  the 
centre  of  each  feather  having  a  longitudinal  dash  of  white.  The 
neck  and  the  whole  of  the  under-surface  are  white,  tinted  with 
reddish-brown.  The  young  Birds  are  darker  in  the  general  hue  of 
their  plumage  than  the  adult,  and  the  white  spots  are  larger  and 
less  defined ;  in  this  stage  it  has  been  mistaken  for  a  distinct 
species. 

The  flight  of  the  Lammergeyer,  as  its  great  bodily  powers,  its 
ample  wings  and  tail,  sufiiciently  indicate,  is  sweeping  and  majestic. 
It  sails  round  the  Alpine  summits,  whence  it  marks  its  quarry  from 
afar,  and,  collecting  all  its  energies  for  the  onset,  glides  like  an 
arrow  upon  its  prey.  If,  however,  it  be  allured  from  its  aerial 
altitude  by  the  carcass  of  some  animal,  it  no  longer  emulates  the 
Eagle  in  its  pounce,  but  calmly  descending  to  some  neighbouring 
crag,  it  then  sets  out,  flying  with  heavy  wings,  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  ground,  towards  its  repast,  to  be  joined  by  others  of  its 
species. 

It  would  appear  that  in  Europe  this  noble  Bird  was  formerly 
much  more  common  than  at  present.  It  was  once,  as  M.  Tem- 
minclc  remarks,  abundant  on  all  the  high  mountains  of  Tyrol, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany,  various  hunters  in  the  iSth  century 
having  killed  their  forty,  fifty,  or  sixty  Lammergeyers.  The 
chasseur  Andreas  Burner  had  killed  sixty  with  his  own  hand.  In 
Sardinia  it  is  still  far  from  being  rare.  Specimens  have  been 
received  from  the  north  of  Africa,  and  also  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  differing  in  no  respect  from  individuals  belonging  to  the 
European  Alps. 

It  occurs  in  the  lofty  mountains  of  Central  Africa,  and  towards  the 
borders  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  and  in  Asia,  tenants  the  chain  of  the 
Caucasus,  the  Himalayan,  Siberian,  and  Persian  mountains.  The 
Lammergeyer  is  the  Avoltoio  barbuto  of  the  Italians ;  and  the 
Weisskopfige  Geier  Adler  of  the  Germans.  According  to  Bruce, 
the  Abyssinians  call  it  Abou  Duch'n,  or  Father  Longbeard.  He 
figures  it  under  the  title  of  Nisser,  the  Ethiopic  for  Eagle.  It  forms 
the  sub-family  of  GypaefiticB  of  modem  naturalists. 

Passing  from  the  Lammergeyer,  various  other  aberrant  forms,  as 
the  naturalist  terms  them,  meet  our  attention,  and  claim  a  few 
remarks.  Of  these,  some  are  half  Vulturine  in  form  as  well  as  in 
habits. 

The  Aquiline  Ibycter  {Ibyder  aqutliniis).—YLea.A  and  foot.  In 
the  genus  Ibycter  the  beak  is  convex  above  ;  the  lower  mandible 
notched  at  the  apex  and  sub-acute  ;  the  cheeks,  throat,  and  crop 
featherless  ;  the  claws  acute.     (See  Fig.  1019.) 

The  Aquiline  Ibycter,  the  Petit  Aigle  d'Araerique  of  Buffon,  is  a 


native  of  South  America,  but  of  its  peculiar  habits  we  have  no  de- 
tails. Gmelin  regards  it  as  the  Red-throated  Falcon  of  Latham. 
The  colours  of  this  Bird  are  well  contrasted;  the  beak  is  cerulean 
blue  ;  the  cere  and  feet  are  yellow ;  the  iris  is  orange.  The  plumage 
above,  deep  blue  ;  below,  red  passing  into  white  ;  the  feathers  of 
the  neck  are  of  a  purplish  tint  inclining  to  rufous ;  the  claws  are 
black. 


Fig.  loig. — Head  and  Foot  of  Aquiline  Ibycter. 

The  Black  Daptrius,  or  Caracara  {Ibycter  or  Daptrius  atcr). 
— Head  and  foot.  It  is  not  quite  clear  that  this  Bird  is  generically 
separable  from  the  preceding.  The  beak  is  shorter  and  stouter 
than  in  the  Ibycter,  and  the  tarsi  longer;  but  in  other  respects  the 
characters  closely  correspond.  They  are  evident  links  between  the 
Eagles,  perhaps  the  Sea  or  Fishing  Eagles,  and  the  Vultures. 

The  present  species  is  the  Iribin  noir  of  Vieillot ;  and  the  Caracara 
noir,  Falco  aterrimus  of  M.  Temminck.  Back  with  bluish  reflex- 
ions ;  tail  white  at  its  base  and  rounded ;  beak  and  claws  black  ; 
cere  dusky  ;  space  round  the  eyes  naked  and  flesh-coloured ;  feet 


Fig.  1020. — Head  and  Foot  of  Black  Daptrius. 


THE  BRAZILIAN  CARACARA. 


389 


yellow.     Length  about  seventeen  inches.     There  are  several  other 
varieties  of  the  Ibycfer.     (See  Fig.  1020.) 

The  Brazilian  Caracara,  or  Carrancha  {Polyborus  bra- 
sinensis). — Head  and  foot.  The  generic  characters  of  Polyborus 
are  these  : — Beak  compressed  above,  lower  mandible  entire  and  ob- 
tuse ;  cere  large,  and  covered  with  hairs  ;  cheeks  and  throat  feather- 
less  ;  crop  woolly. 

The  best  account  of  the  Caracara  is  given  by  ]\Ir.  Darwin  ("Voy- 
ages of  the  Adventure  and  Beagle"  vol.  iii.),  who  had  many  oppor- 
tunities of  observing  these  Birds  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  whose 
delineation  of  their  habits  is  very  interesting : — Speaking  of  the 
"Carrion  Hawks,"  as  he  terms  them,  which  frequent  the  extra- 
tropical  parts  of  South  America,  he  says,  "  The  number,  tameness, 
and  disgusting  habits  of  these  birds  make  them  pre-eminently 
striking  to  any  one  accustomed  only  to  the  birds  of  Northern 
Europe.  In  this  list  may  be  included  four  species  of  Caracara: — 
The  Turkey  Buzzard  (a  vulture,  Vultur  aura) ;  the  Gallinazo  (a 
vulture,  Cathartes  atratus) ;  and  the  Condor. 

"  The    caracaras   are,  from  their   structure,   placed   among   the 
eagles  :  we  shall  soon  see  how  ill  they  become  so  high  a  rank.     In 
their  habits  they  well  supply  the  place  of  our  carrion-crows,  mag- 
pies, and  ravens,  a  tribe  of  birds  totally  wanting  in  South  America. 
To  begin  with  the  Polyborus  brasilicnsis. — This  is  a  common  bird, 
and  has  a  wide  geographical  range  ;  it  is  most  numerous   on  the 
grassy  savannahs  of  La  Plata,  where  it  goes  by  the  name  of  carrancha, 
and  is  far  from  unfrequent  through  the  sterile  plains  of  Patagonia. 
In  the  desert  between  the  rivers  Negro  and  Colorado  numbers  con- 
stantly attended  the  line  of  road  to  devour  the  carcasses  of  the  e.K- 
hausted  animals  which  chanced  to  perish  from  fatigue  and  thirst. 
Although  thus  common  in  these  dry  and  open  countries,  and  like- 
wise on  the  arid  shores  of  the  Pacific,  it  is  nevertheless  found  in- 
habiting the  damp  impervious  forests  of  West  Patagonia  and  Tierra 
del   Fuego.      The   carranchas,    together  with   the   Polyborus   chi- 
7nango,  constantly  attend  in  numbers  the  estancias  and  slaughter, 
ing-houses.     If  an  animal  dies  on  the  plain,   the  gallinazo  com- 
mences the  feast,    and   then   the  two  kinds  of  caracara  pick  the 
bones  clean.     These  birds,  though  thus  commonly  feeding  together, 
are  far  from  being  friends.     When  the  carrancha  is  quietly  seated 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree  or  on  the  ground,  the  chimango  often  con- 
tinues for  a  long  time  flying  backwards  and  forwards,  up  and  down, 
in  a  semicircle,  trying  each  time  at  the  bottom  of  the  curve  to  strike 
its  larger  relative.     The    carrancha  takes  little  notice,  except  by 
bobbing  its  head.     Although  the  carranchas  frequently  assemble  in 
numbers,  they  are  not  gregarious,  for  in  desert  places  they  may  be 
seen  solitary,  or  more  commonly  in  pairs.     Besides  the  carrion  of 
large  animals,  these  birds  frequent  the  borders  of  streams  and  sea- 
beaches  to  pick  up  whatever  the  w'aters  may  cast  ashore.     In  Tierra 
del  Fuego  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Patagonia  they  must  exclusively 
live  on  such   supplies.     The  carranchas  are  said  to  be  very  crafty, 
and  to  steal  great  numbers  of  eggs.     They  attempt  also,  together 
with  the  chimango,  to  pick  off  the  scabs  from  the  backs  of  horses  and 
mules.     The  poor  animal  on  the  one  band,  with  its  ears  down,  and 
its  back  arched,  and,  on  the  other,  the  hovering  bird  eyeing  at  the 
distance  of  a  yard  the  disgusting  morsel,  form  a  picture  which  has 
been  described  by  Captain  Head  with  his  own  peculiar  spirit  and 
accuracy.     The  carranchas  kill  wounded  animals  ;   but  Mr.  Bynoe 
saw  one  seize  in  the  air  a  live  partridge  (ortyx  ?),  which  escaped, 
and  was  for  some  time  chased  on  the  ground.     I  believe  this  cir- 
cumstance is  very  unusual  ;  at  all  events  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
chief  part  of  their  sustenance  is  derived  from  carrion.     A  person 
will  discover  the  necrophagous  habits  of  the  carrancha  by  walking 
out  on  one  of  the  desolate  plains   and  there  lying  down   to  sleep. 
When  he  awakes,  he  will  see  on  each   surrounding  hillock  one  of 
these  birds  patiently  watching  him  with  an  evil  eye.     It  is  a  feature 
in  the  landscape  of  these  countries  which  will  be  recognised  by 
every  one  who  has  wandered  over  them.     If  a  party  goes  out  hunt- 
ing with   dogs  and  horses,  it  will  be  accompanied  during  the  day 
by  several  of  these  attendants.     After  feeding,  the  uncovered  craw 
protrudes  ;  at  such  times,  and  indeed  generally,  the  carrancha  is  an 
inactive,  tame,  and  cowardly  bird.     Its  flight  is  heavy  and  slow, 
like  that  of  an  English  rook.     It  seldom  soars,  but  I  have  twice 
seen  one  at  great  height  gliding  through  the  air  with  much  ease. 
It  runs  in  contradistinction  to  hopping,  but  not  quite   so  quickly  as 
some  of  its  congeners.     At  times  the  carrancha  is  noisy,  but  is  not 
generally  so  ;  its  cry  is  loud,  very  harsh,  and  peculiar,  and  may  be 
likened  to  the  sound  of  the  Spanish  guttural  g,  followed  by  a  rough 
double  r.     Perhaps  the  Gauchos   from  this  cause  have  called  it 
carrancha.     Molina,  who  states  that  it  is  called  Tharu  in  Chile, 
says  that  when  uttering  this   cry  it  elevates  its  head  higher  and 
higher,   till   at   last,  with  its   beak  wide  open,  the   crown   almost 
touches  the  lower  part  of  the  back.     This   fact,  which  has  been 
doubted,  is  quite  true.     I  have  seen  them   several  times  with  their 
beads  backwards  in  a  completely  inverted  position.     The  carrancha 
builds  a  large  coarse  nest,  either  in  a  low  cliff,  or  in  a  bush  or  lofty 
tree.     To  these  observations  I  may  add,  on  the  high  authority  of 
Azara,   that  the  carrancha  feeds  on  worms,  shells,   slugs,   grass- 
hoppers, and  frogs ;  that  it  destroys  new-fallen  lambs,  and  that  it 


P"  h"":  *'''=  gnlhnazo  t.ll  that  bird  is  compelled  to  disgorge  the 
severnl  1  ^^  'f""  fi^  ''^'''  .^"-^""^^cd.  Lastly,  Azara  states  that 
large  birds,  even  such  as  herons.  All  these  facts  show  that  it  is  a 
bird  of  very  versatile  habits  and  considerable  ingenuity." 
Inn  ;i;  ^^rf ''"■^•  T  ^^"ancha,  measures  about  twenty-two  inches  in 
length.  The  who  e  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  black,  with  the 
fea  hers  slightly  elongated  backwards,  and  capable  of  being  par! 
tially  elevated  in  the  shape  of  a  pointed  crest.  "^The  entire  n^cck  s 
of  a  light  brownish-grcy,  which  also  forms  the  ground-colour  on  the 
breast  and  shoulders,  but  with  the  addition  on  these  parts  of  nume^ 
rous  transverse  w'avy  bars  of  a  deeper  brown.  Ncariy  all  the  rest  of 
the  plumage  is  of  a  tolerably  uniform  shade  of  black.sh-brown  with 
the  exception  of  the  tail,  which  is  at  the  base  of  a  dirty  white  with 
numerous  narrow,  transverse,  undulated  bands  of  a  dusky  hue'  and 
in  Its  terminal  third,  black  without  any  appearance  of  banding-'  The 
beak  is  horn-coloured  at  the  tip,  and  bluish  at  the  base  •  the  iris 
hazel  ;  the  cere  and  naked  cheeks  of  a  dull  red  ;  the  legs  yellow  and 
the  claws  black.  (See  Fig.  1021.)  Several  changes,  however, 'take 
place  in  the  plumage  of  the  Bird  as  it  advances  in  age. 


Fig.  102 1. — Head  and  Foot  of  Brazilian  Caracara. 

With  respect  to  the  Polyborus  Chimango,  noticed  by  Mr.  Dar- 
win, and  which  is  smaller  than  the  Carrancha,  we  may  observe  tliat 
it  is  common  on  both  sides  of  the  same  continent.     It  is  found  in 
Chiloe  and  on  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  but  does  not  appear  to  in- 
habit Tierra  del  Fuego.     It  feeds  on  carrion,  and  is  the  last  Bird  to 
leave  the  carcass,  and,  as  Mr.   Darwin  says,   may  be  often  seen 
within  the  bare  ribs  of  a  Cow  or  Horse,  like  a  Bird  in  a  cage.  "The 
Shimango,"  he  adds,  "  often   frequents  the  sea-coast,  and  the  bor- 
ders of  lakes  and  swamps,  where  it  picks  up  small  fish.     It  is  truly 
omnivorous,  and  will  even  eat  bread  when  thrown  out  of  the  house 
with   other  offal.     I  was   assured   that  they  materially  injure  the 
potato  crops  in  Chiloe,  by  grubbing  up  the  roots  when  first  planted. 
In   the  same  island   I    myself   saw  them    by  scores  following  the 
plough,  and  feeding  on  the   worms  and  lar\'a;  of  insects.     I  do  not 
believe  they  ever  kill  birds  or  quadrupeds.     They  are  more  active 
than  the  carranchas,  but  their  flight  is  heavy ;  I  never  saw  one  soar.  ■ 
They  are  very  tame,  but  are  not  gregarious  ;   they  commonly  perch 
on  stone  walls,  and  not  upon  trees,  and  frequently  utter  a  gentle 
shrill  scream." 

Mr.  Darwin  notices  a  third  species  of  Polyborus,  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  which  he  only  met  with  in  one  valley  of  Patagonia.  The 
fourth  species  to  which  he  alludes  is  the  Polyborus  nova:  zelandicz,  or 
Milvago  australis.  This  Bird,  he  remarks,  is  exceedingly  numerous 
over  the  whole  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  appear  to  constitute  its 
metropolis.  He  was  informed  by  the  Sealers,  that  they  are  found  on 
the  Diego  Ramirez  rocks,  but  never  on  the  mainland  of  Tierra  del 


390 


THE  BRAZILIAN  EA  GLE—THE  CYMINDIS. 


Fuego,  nor  on  Georgia,  or  the  more  southward  islands.  In  habits 
and  manners  they  resemble  in  many  respects  the  Carranchas,  living 
on  the  flesh  of  dead  animals,  and  on  marine  productions,  which 
latter  on  the  Ramirez  rocks  must  constitute  their  principal,  if  not 
their  sole  subsistence..  They  are  ordinarily  tame  and  fearless,  and 
confidently  haunt  the  precincts  of  houses  for  offal.  When,  he  adds, 
a  hunting-party  kills  any  animal,  a  number  of  these  Birds  soon  col- 
lect, and  wait  patiently,  standing  on  the  ground  on  all  sides.  After 
gorging  themselves,  their  uncovered  craws  are  largely  protruded, 
giving  them  a  disgusting  appearance. 

"  They  readily  attack  wounded  birds:  a  cormorant  in  this  state 
having  taken  to  the  shore,  was  immediately  seized  on  by  several, 
and  its  death  hastened  by  their  blows.  The  Beagle  was  at  the 
Falklands  only  during  the  summer,  but  the  officers  of  xXvt  Adve7iture , 
who  were  there  in  the  winter,  mention  many  extraordinary  instances 
of  the  boldness  and  rapacity  of  these  birds.  They  actually  made  an 
attack  on  a  dog  that  was  lying  asleep  close  to  one  of  the  party  ;  and 
the  sportsmen  had  difficulty  in  preventing  the  wounded  geese  from 
being  seized  before  their  eyes.  It  is  said  that  several  together  wait 
at  the  mouth  of  a  rabbit-hole,  as  is  the  practice  also  of  the  car- 
ranchas, and  seize  on  the  animal  when  it  comes  out.  They  were 
constantly  flying  on  board  the  vessel  when  in  the  harbour;  and  it 


true  Eagles ;  they  evidently  compose  a  distinct  group.  The  fol- 
lowing species  seem  to  exhibit  an  alliance  with  the  Buzzards  and 
Harriers,  which  they  resemble  in  form  and  modes  of  life. 

The  Urubitinga,  or  Brazili.vn  Eagle  of  Latham  {Morpknus 
urub!ii>!ga).—HQ.a.A  and  foot.  The  characters  of  the  genus  Morph- 
jiiis  may  be  thus  summed  up: -beak  convex  above  ;  nostrils  ellip- 
tical ;  tarsi  elevated,  scutellated  anteriorly ;  sometimes  feathered 
toes  rather  short ;  claws  acute. 

The  Urubitinga  is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  frequenting 
water,  humid  grounds,  and  inundated  places,  where  it  seeks  its  prey, 
consisting  of  small  animals.  The  general  plumage  is  dusky  black, 
the  wings  being  waved  with  ash-colour,  the  tail-coverts  and  base  of 
tail  white ;  the  beak  is  strong  ;  the  eyes  large  ;  the  cere  and  legs 
are  yellow  ;  claws  black.  The  young  are  blackish  yellow  below, 
each  feather  having  a  central  dash  or  spot  of  blackish  brown.  The 
throat  and  cheeks  are  marked  with  brown  streaks  on  a  whitish 
ground.     (See  Fig.  1022.) 

The  Crested  Morphnus.or  IIuppart  {Morphnus  occipitalis). 
— Head  and  foot.  This  is  the  Aigle-Autour,  Noir  Hupp^  d'Afrique, 
the  Falco  occipitalis  of  Daudin.  Its  tarsi  are  closely  feathered  to 
the  toes.  This  species  is  a  native  of  Africa,  where  it  seems  to  be 
almost  universally  spread.    It  equals  a  Raven  in  size.    The  plumage 


Fig.  1022. — Head  and  Foot  of 
Brazilian  Eagle. 


Fig.  1023. — Head  and  Foot  of 
Crested  Morphnus. 


Fig.  1024. — Head  and  Foot  of 
Hook-billed  Cymindis. 


was  necessary  to  keep  a  good  look-out,  to  prevent  the  leather  being 
torn  from  the  rigging,  and  the  meat  or  game  from  the  stern.  These 
birds  are  very  mischievous  and  inquisitive  ;  they  will  pick  up  almost 
anything  from  the  ground  ;  a  large-sized  glazed  hat  was  carried 
nearly  a  mile,  as  was  a  pair  of  heavy  balls  (bolas),  used  in  catching 
cattle.  Mr.  Usborne  experienced,  during  the  survey,  a  more 
severe  loss  in  their  stealing  a  small  Kater's  compass,  in  a  red 
morocco  leather  case,  which  was  never  recovered.  These  birds  are, 
moreover,  quarrelsome  and  very  passionate,  tearing  up  the  grass 
with  their  bills  from  rage.  They  are  not  truly  gregarious,  and  do 
not  soar.  Their  flight  is  heavy  and  clumsy,  but  on  the  ground  they 
run  with  extreme  quickness,  very  much  like  pheasants.  They  are 
noisy,  uttering  several  harsh  cries,  one  of  which  is  like  that  of  the 
English  rook  ;  hence  the  sealers  always  so  call  them.  It  is  a 
curious  circumstance  that  when  crying  they  always  throw  their 
heads  upwards  and  backwards,  after  the  same  manner  as  the  car- 
rancha.  They  build  on  the  rocky  cliffs  of  the  sea-coast,  but  only  in 
the  small  islets,  and  not  in  the  two  main  islands.  This  is  a  singular 
precaution  in  so  tame  and  fearless  a  bird.  The  sealers  say  that  the 
flesh  of  these  birds,  when  cooked,  is  quite  white,  and  very  good 
eating." 

These  rapacious  Birds  arc,  as  the  above  details  sufBciently  prove, 
Vulturine  in  their  habits,  and  have  no  immediate  relationship  to  the 


is  black,  and  a  crest  of  long  feathers  ornaments  the  back  of  the 
head.     (See  Fig.  1023.) 

The  Hooked-billed  Cymindis  {Cymindis  /lamatus).— Beak 
and  foot.  There  are,  says  Cuvier,  Raptorial  Birds  in  America  with 
a  beak  like  the  preceding  species,  with  tarsi  short  and  reticulated, 
and  half  covered  anteriorly  with  feathers,  and  with  wings  shorter 
than  the  tail,  and  whose  distinctive  feature  consists  in  the  nostrils 
being  nearly  closed,  bearing  the  appearance  of  a  narrow  slit.  Of 
these,  one  is  the  present  species,  which,  however,  has  the  tarsi 
scutellated  anteriorly,  and  the  upper  mandible  very  much  hooked. 
This  Bird  inhabits  Brazil,  and  when  adult  is  of  a  uniform  lead- 
colour,  the  cere  and  feet  being  yellow.  Length  about  seventeen 
inches.  The  young  have  the  plumage  of  a  sombre  brown,  each 
feather  being  bordered  and  blotched  with  red ;  the  cheeks  are 
marked  with  yellowish  rashes,  and  a  stripe  of  the  same  colour 
runs  below  the  eyes ;  the  front  of  the  neck  is  whitish.  (See  Fig. 
1024.) 

The  Cayenne  Cymindis  {Cymindis  cayennensis).  — Head  and 
foot.  This  species,  which  inhabits  Cayenne,  has  a  small  tooth-like 
projection  on  the  edge  of  the  beak  where  it  begins  to  curve  down. 
The  adult  is  white,  with  a  blue-black  mantle,  the  head  ash-coloured, 
and  the  tail  barred  with  four  white  bands.  In  the  young  the  mantle 
is  variegated  with  brown  and  red,  and  the  head  is  white  with  a  few 


THE  SECRETARY  BIRD. 


391 


black  dashes.  It  is  the  Petit  Autour  de  Cayenne  of  Buffon. 
(See  Fig.  1025.) 

Grey  Asturina  {Asfun'na  cinerea). — Head  and  foot.  Generic 
characters  : — beak  convex  above  ;  nostrils  lunulate  ;  tarsi  short  and 
somewhat  slender;  claws  long  and  very  acute. 

The  Grey  Asturina  is  a  native  of  Guiana.  The  general  plumage 
is  of  a  bluish  ash-colour,  with  whitish  bands  on  the  under-part  of  the 
body.  The  tail,  which  is  white  at  the  point,  is  traversed  by  two 
black  bands.     Beak  blue  ;  cere  yellow.     (See  Fig.  1026.) 

The  Short-toed  Circaetus  {Circacttis  brachydacfyltis). — 
Head  and  foot.  This  Bird  is  the  Aigle  Jean-le-Blanc  of  Tem- 
minck ;  Falco  gallicus,  Gmelin  ;  Falco  leticopsis,  Bechstein. 

The  genus  Circaetus,  says  Cuvier,  holds  an  intermediate  station 
between  the  Fishing  Eagles,  the  Osprey,  and  the  Buzzards  :  the 
wings  resemble  those  of  the  Eagles  and  Buzzards,  while  the  tarsi 


Fig.  1025. — Head  and  Foot  of  Cayenne  Cymiiidis. 


*f*"%H viy 


are  reticulated,  as  in  the  Osprey.  The  external  toe  is  united  to  the 
middle  by  a  short  tncmbrane. 

The  Short-toed  Circaetus,  or  Jean-lc-Blanc,  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  Asia  ;  it  is  found  in  the  great  fir-forests  on  the  eastern  pans  of 
northern  Europe,  but  is  elsewhere  not  very  common.  It  is,  in  fact, 
never  seen  in  England  or  Holland,  and  is  rare  in  France.  It  is 
occasionally  observed  in  Italy. 

In  size,  this  species  exceeds  the  Osprey,  but  its  toes  are  propor- 
tionally short,  though  powerful.  Its  manners  are  those  of  a  Buz- 
zard ;  it  feeds  on  Snakes  and  other  Reptiles,  and  small  quadrupeds, 
rarely  on  Birds  or  domestic  poultry.  It  builds  its  nest  on  the 
highest  trees,  and  the  eggs  are  two  or  three  in  number,  of  a  lustrous 
grey,  and  spotless.  Colonel  Sykes  notices  it  among  the  Birds  of 
the  Dukhun,  and  states  that  in  the  stomach  of  a  female  which  he 
shot  were  found  the  remains  of  a  Snake  and  two  I-lats.  Its  length 
was  thirty  inches. 

Description  of  Old  Male. — Head  very  large ;  below  the  eyes  a 
space  clothed  with  white  down ;  summit  of  the  head,  cheeks, 
throat,  breast,  and  belly  white,  but  variegated  with  a  few  spots  of 
bright  brown  ;  back  and  coverts  of  the  wings  brown,  but  the  origin 


Fig,  1026.— Head  and  Foot  of  Grey  Asturina.  . 


Fig.  1027. — Head  and  Foot  of  Short-toed  Circaetus. 

of  all  the  feathers  of  a  pure  white ;  tail  square,  grey-brown,  barred 
with  deeper  brown,  white  below;  tarsi  long  and  greyish-blue,  as  are 
the  toes  ;  beak  black  ;  cere  bluisli  ;  iris  yellow. 

Of  Female. — Less  white  than  the  male.  The  head,  the  neck,  the 
br^st,  and  the  belly  are  marked  with  numerous  brown  spots,  which 
are  very  much  approximated. 

Of  Young. — Upper  parts  darker,  but  the  origin  of  the  feathers 
pure  white;  throat,  breast,  and  belly  of  a  red-brown,  little  or  not  at 
all  spotted  with  white  ;  bands  on  the  tail  nearly  imperceptible ;  beak 
bluish  ;  feet  greyish-white. 

There  are  numerous  species  of  these  Birds. 

The  Secretary  Bird  {Serpentarius  reptilivorotts!  or  Secre- 
tariiis). — Among  the  aberrant  forms  of  the  Aquihne  group  must  be 
placed  this  extraordinary  Bird,  forming  the  only  species  of  the 
sub-family  of  the  Serpentarincs,  or  Serpent-eaters,  which  to  natu- 
ralists has  been  a  sort  of  "  Petrum  sca^idali  ei  lapsis  offensionis." 
Some  have  placed  it  among  the  Vultures,  others  among  the  Gallina- 
ceous  Birds,  and  others  among  the  Wading  Birds,  as  did  Vieillot, 
after  repeatedly  changing  his  opinions. 

That  naturalists  should  have  assigned  it  to  the  Gallinaceous  or 
the  Wading  orders,  with  the  former  of  which  it  has  nothing  in 
common,  and   with   the   latter  only  the  elevation  of  the  tarsi,  is. 


392 


SECRETARY  BIRDS. 


indeed,  not  a  little  surprising.  With  respect  to  the  Vultures,  it 
exhibits  but  little  affinity  to  them.  Fig.  1028  represents  the  head 
of  the  Secretary  in  two  views  ;  the  short  abruptly  hooked  beak,  the 
large  eye,  the  overhanging  brows,  with  a  row  of  strong  black 
bristles,  the  breadth  of  the  head  across  the  top  of  the  skull,  and  the 
occipital  plumes  are  anything  but  characteristic  of  the  Vulture; 


Fig*.  102S. — Head  of  Secietary  Uird. 

whereas  in  many  of  the  genera  intermediate  between  the  Eagles 
and  the  Hawks,  we  trace  these  characteristics,  conjoined  with  that 
length  of  limb  which  fits  them  for  terrestrial  habits,  and  which  is 
carried  to  its  ultimate  in  the  Secretary  Bird. 

It  is  among  these  aberrant  terrestrial  Falco7iidcB,  feeding  on 
Reptiles  and  small  quadrupeds,  that  we  consider  the  genus  Gypo- 
gcratnis  to  stand.  The  generic  characters  of  this  genus  are  as 
follows  : — Bill  rather  slender,  shorter  than  the  head,  strong,  very 
much  hooked  and  curved  nearly  from  its  origin  ;  cere  extending 
almost  naked  over  the  cheeks ;  nostrils  diagonal,  oblong ;  tarsi 
long  and  slender ;  toes  short,  rough  below,  hind-toe  articulated 
higher  than  the  anterier  toes ;  wings  long,  armed  near  the  elbow- 
joint  with  obtuse  spurs  ;  five  first  quill-feathers  the  longest  and 
nearly  equal ;  occipital  plume ;  the  two  middle  tail-feathers  longer 
than  the  others. 

It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  there  may  not,  in  reality,  be  three 
distinct  species  of  Secretary  :  one  inhabiting  the  regions  of  South 
Africa  :  one,  Senegambia  ;  and  one,  the  Philippine  Islands,  north 
of  Borneo.  In  some  interesting  observations  on  the  genus  Gypo- 
gera?2us,hy  Mr.  Ogilby  ("  Zool.  Proceeds.,"  1835,  p.  104),  that 
naturalist  gives  certain  distinctive  characters,  from  which  it  would 
appear  that  the  Philippine  Bird  at  least  (whatever  the  Senegambian 
may  hereafter  prove  to  be)  is  distinct  from  the  South  African. 

South  African  Secretary  [G.  capeiisis,  Ogilby). — "  With  the  plume 
of  long  cervical  feathers  commencing  upon  the  occiput  spreading 
irregularly  over  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  narrow  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  their  length,  as  if  the  vane  had  been  cut  on  each 
side,  close  to  the  shaft  of  the  quill,  spreading  only  at  the  point." 

Senegambia  Secretary  {G.  gambietisis,  Ogilby). — "With  the 
cervical  crest  commencing  some  distance  below  the  occiput, 
arranged  in  two  regular  series,  one  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  with 
the  intermediate  space  clear,  and  composed  of  long  spatule-shapcd 
feathers,  much  broader  throughout  than  in  the  last  species,  though 
similarly  decreasing  in  width  towards  the  root.  In  both  these 
species  the  two  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  are  considerably  longer 
than  the  others." 

Philippine  Secretary  {G.  fhilip-pensis,  Ogilby).— "With  the 
cervical  crest  spread  irregularly  from  the  occiput  to  the  bottom  of 
the  neck,  the  longest  feathers  being  those  situated  the  lowest,  which 
is  just  the  reverse  of  what  we  observe  in  Gyp.  gambietisis,  and 
with  the  two  e-xterior  tail-feathers  the  longest,  so  that  the  tail 
appears  forked."  This  is  apparent  not  only  in  Sonnerat's  figure, 
but  is  expressly  mentioned  in  his  detailed  description,  and,  if  con- 
firmed, is  clearly  indicative  of  a  specific  distinction.  Inhabits 
the  Philippine  Islands.  Described  and  figured  in  Sonnerat's 
"Voyage  a  la  Nouvelle  Guinee,"  p.  87,  t.  50.  Speaking  of  the 
manners  of  this  Bird,  Sonnerat  says,  "  that  it  is  sociable,  and  lives  in 
a  state  of  domesticity ;  that  it  hunts  rats,  and  might,  in  this  point 
of  view,  become  useful  in  the  colonies,  where  it  would  probably  not 
be  difficult  to  multiply  it.  Although  he  erroneously  describes  the 
bill  and  feet  of  the  Secretary  (Philippine)  as  resembling  those  of 
Gallinaceous  Birds,  (fowl,  turkey,  &c.),  he  states  that  it  feeds  on 
flesh,  and  ought  consequently  to  be  placed  in  the  ranks  of  the  Birds 


of  Prey,  among  which,  he  adds,  it  forms  an  entirely  insulated 
genus."  The  colours  of  the  three  species  or  varieties  here  indi- 
cated, do  not  seem  to  be  materially  different  in  other  respects.  It 
is  to  the  South  African  species  or  variety  that  our  details  more  par- 
ticularly apply. 

This  singular  Bird  is  termed,  in  allusion  to  its  habits,  Slangen- 
vreeter,  or  Serpent-eater,  by  the  Dutch  colonists  of  the  Cape, 
and  its  Hottentot  name  has  the  same  meaning :  Snakes,  in  fact, 
constitute  its  principal  food,  and  in  the  attack  and  defence  it 
displays  the  greatest  coolness  and  address.  The  Slangen-vreeter, 
says  Sparrman,  has  a  peculiar  method  of  seizing  upon  Serpents. 
When  It  approaches  them,  it  always  takes  care  to  hold  the  point  of 
one  of  its  wings  before  it,  in  order  to  parry  off  their  venomous  bites  ; 
sometimes  it  finds  an  opportunity  of  spurning  and  treading  upon  its 
antagonist,  or  else  of  taking  it  up  on  its  pinions  and  throwing  it 
into  the  air:  when  by  this  method  of  proceeding  it  has  at  length 
wearied  out  its  adversary,  and  rendered  it  almost  senseless,  it  then 
kills  it,  and  swallows  it  without  danger. 

Sparrman,  it  is  true,  did  not  himself  see  the  scene  which  he  de- 
scribes ;  but  his  account  is  confirmed  by  Le  Vaillant,  who  thus  gives 
the  results  of  his  own  observations,  which  go  to  prove,  contrary  to 
Buffon's  statement,  that  the  Secretary  Bird  is  bold  and  courageous. 
"  In  descending  from  a  mountain  into  a  very  deep  bog  (fondriere), 
I  perceived,  nearly  perpendicularly  below  me,  a  bird  which  raised 
and  lowered  itself  very  rapidly,  with  very  extraordinary  motions. 
Although  I  well  knew  the  Secretary,  and  had  killed  many  of  these 
birds  at  Natal,  it  was  impossible  for-me  to  recognise  it  in  the  ver- 
tical situation  in  which  I  found  myself,  and  I  only  suspected  that  it 
was  one  from  its  bearing.  Having  found  means,  by  favour  of  some 
rocks,  to  approach  sufficiently  near,  noiselessly,  and  without  being 
discovered,  I  found  that  this  bird  was  a  Secretary  combating  a  ser- 
pent. The  fight  was  very  sharp  on  both  sides,  and  the  skill  (la  ruse) 
equal  on  the  part  of  each  of  the  combatants.  But  the  serpent, 
which  perceived  the  inequality  of  its  strength,  employed  that  adroit 
cunning  which  is  attributed  to  it,  in  order  to  save  itself  by  flight  and 
regain  its  hole ;  while  the  bird,  divining  its  intention,  stopped  it 
at  once,  and  throwing  itself  before  the  serpent  by  one  spring,  cut  off 
its  retreat.  Wherever  the  reptile  essayed  to  escape,  there  it  always 
found  its  enemy.  Then,  uniting  skill  with  courage,  it  erected  itself 
fiercely  to  intimidate  the  bird,  and  presented,  with  a  frightful  hiss,  a 
menacing  gape,  inflamed  eyes,  and  a  head  swollen  with  rage  .and 
poison.  Sometimes  this  offensive  resistance  suspended  hostilities 
for  an  instant  ;  but  the  bird  soon  returned  to  the  charge,  and  cover- 
ing its  body  with  one  of  its  wings,  as  with  a  shield,  struck  its 
enemy  with  the  other,  with  the  bony  protuberances  of  which  I  have 
already  spoken,  and  which,  like  small  clubs,  overpowered  it  the 
more  surely,  inasmuch  as  it  presented  itself  to  the  blows.  In  effect, 
I  saw  it  reel  and  fall  extended  :  then  the  conqueror  threw  himself 
upon  it  to  finish  his  work,  and  with  one  blow  of  the  bill  split  its  skull. 
At  this  moment,  having  no  further  observations  to  make,  I  killed  it. 
I  found  in  its  crop  (for  it  has  one,  which  nobody  has  stated),  on  dis- 
secting it,  eleven  rather  large  lizards,  three  serpents,  as  long  as 
one's  arm,  eleven  small  tortoises,  very  entire,  many  of  which  were 
about  two  inches  in  diameter,  and,  finally,  a  quantity  of  locusts 
(sauterelles)  and  insects,  the  greater  part  of  which  were  sufficiently 
whole  to  deserve  being  collected  and  to  be  added  to  my  specimens. 
The  lizards,  the  serpents,  and  the  tortoises  had  all  received  the 
stroke  of  the  bill  on  the  head.  I  observed  besides,  that,  indepen- 
dently of  this  mass  of  aliments,  the  craw  (poche)  of  the  animal  con- 
tained a  species  of  pellet,  as  large  as  a  goose's  ^%%,  and  formed  of 
the  vertebrae  of  serpents  and  lizards  which  the  bird  had  devoured 
previously,  scales  of  small  tortoises,  and  the  wings,  feet,  and  corse- 
lets of  different  scaraba;i.  Doubtless  when  the  undigested  mass  is 
become  too  large,  the  Secretary,  like  other  birds  of  prey,  vomits  it 
and  gets  rid  of  it.  It  results  from  the  superabundant  quantity  of 
nourishment  which  this  specimen  had  secured,  that  in  attacking  the 
serpent  of  the  bog  it  was  not  hunger  which  had  stimulated  it  to  the 
combat,  but  the  hatred  and  antipathy  which  it  bears  to  these  rep- 
tiles. Such  an  aversion  as  this  is  of  an  inappreciable  advantage 
in  a  country  where  the  temperature  wonderfully  favours  the  multi- 
plication of  an  infinity  of  noxious  and  venomous  animals.  In  this 
point  of  view  the  Secretary  is  one  of  nature's  real  benefactions  ;  and 
indeed  its  utility  and  the  services  rendered  by  it  are  so  well  recog- 
nised at  the  Cape  and  in  its  neighbourhood,  that  the  colonists  and 
Hottentots  respect  it  and  do  not  kill  it  :  herein  imitating  the  Dutch, 
who  do  not  kill  the  stork,  and  the  Egyptians,  who  never  injure  the 
ibis.  The  Secretar)'  is  easily  tamed,  and  when  domesticated,  every 
kind  of  nourishment,  cooked  or  raw,  agrees  with  it  equally. 

"  The  eggs  ordinarily  amount  to  from  two  to  three,  nearly  as  large 
as  those  of  a  goose,  and  white,  like  those  of  a  hen.  The  young 
remain  a  long  time  before  they  quit  the  nest,  because,  their  legs 
being  long  and  slender,  they  sustain  themselves  with  difficulty. 
They  may  be  observed,  even  up  to  the  age  of  four  months,  unable  to 
progress,  except  by  leaning  on  their  heels ;  which  gives  them  a 
strikingly  clumsy  and  ungraceful  air.  Nevertheless,  as  their  toes 
are  not  so  long  nor  their  claws  so  curved  as  the  other  birds  of  prey, 
they  walk  with  much  more  facility  than  those.     So  that  when  they 


Ik 


CO 


THE  PEREGRINE  FALCON. 


393 


have  attained  the  age  of  seven  months  they  maybe  seen  to  develop 
easy  and  graceful  movements  which  suit  well  with  their  noble 
bearing."  • 

M.  Lesson,  in  his  description,  quotes  the  account  of  Mr.  Smith, 
who  relates,  "that  one  day  he  saw  a  Secretary  take  two  or  three 
turns  on  the  wing  at  a  little  distance  from  the  place  where  he  was. 
The  bird  soon  settled,  and  Mr.  Smith  saw  that  it  was  attentively 
examining  an  object  near  the  spot  where  it  had  descended.     After 


Secretary  Birds. 


approaching  it  with  great  precaution,  the  Secretary  extended  one  of 
its  wings,  which  the  bird  continually  agitated.  Mr.  Smith  then  dis- 
covered a  large  serpent  raising  its  head,  and  appearing  to  wait  the 
approach  of  the  bird  to  dart  upon  it ;  but  a  quick  blow  of  the  wing 
soon  laid  it  prostrate.  The  bird  appeared  to  wait  for  the  serpent's 
raising  itself,  in  order  to  repeat  the  blow ;  but  this  the  serpent,  it 
seems,  did  not  attempt,  and  the  Secretary,  walking  towards  it, 
seized  it  with  the  feet  and  bill,  and  rose  perpendicularly  into  the 
air,  whence  the  bird  let  the  serpent  fall  on  the  ground,  so  that  it 
might  be  securely  destroyed." 

The  Secretary  was  so  called  by  the  Dutch  from  the  plumes  at  the 
back  of  its  head,  which  reminded  them  of  the  pen  stuck  behind  the 
ear,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  "  gens  de  cabinet"  in  Holland, 
and  the  name  has  since  been  generally  adopted.  These  Birds,  at 
least  in  South  Africa,  are  not  gregarious,  but  live  in  pairs,  and  build 
on  high  trees  or  in  dense  thickets.  Their  gait  is  a  singular  stalk, 
reminding  of  a  person  moving  along  on  elevated  stilts  ;  but  they  run 
with  great  swiftness,  and  are  not  to  be  approached  without  diflSculty 
by  the  sportsman. 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  a  bluish-grey ;  the  primary 
and  secondary  quill-feathers  are  black  ;  so  are  also  the  feathers  of 
the  thighs,  and  those  composing  the  crest.  The  two  long  middle 
tail-feathers  are  grey,  becoming  black  towards  their  extremities,  and 
ending  in  a  white  tip,  as  do  the  rest  of  the  tail-feathers,  which  are 
otherwise  black.  Length  of  head  and  body,  including  the  tail,  three 
feet  in  the  adult.     (See  Fig.  1029.) 

The  True  Falcons— Sub-family  Falconintz. 

Among  all  the  Raptorial  Birds,  none  are  more  bold  and  daring 
than  the  Falcons,  though  there  are  certain  exceptions.  All  are 
formed  for  rapid  flight,  and  pursue  their  prey  with  extreme  velocity, 
or  soaring  above,  descend  upon  it  with  a  swoop,  bearing  it  to  the 
ground.  Some,  as  the  Kestrels,  which  feed  principally  on  Frogs  and 
Mice,  not  excluding  insects,  sail  in  the  air  performing  easy  circles, 
and  often  appear  motionless  over  one  spot  for  a  considerable  time  ; 
when,  perceiving  their  prey,  they  make  a  sudden  and  rapid  descent. 


and  pounce  upon  it  with  unerring  certainty.  Rut  the  Nobler  Falcons 
as  they  are  termed— viz.,  the  Peregrine  and  Gcr-Falcon,  which  prey 
chiefly  on  Birds,  as  Pigeons,  Grouse,  Sea-fowl,  (Src,  strike  their 
victim  on  the  wing,  and  carry  it  in  their  talons  to  their  eyry. 

The  Falcons  are  distinguished  by  the  following  characters-  the 
beak  is  short,  strong,  and  abruptly  hooked,  the  edge  of  the  upper 
mandible,  near  the  curve,  being  furnished  with  a  tooth-like  projection 
The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  second  quill-feathcr  being  the 

longest.  The  tarsi  are  of 
moderate  length,  but  stout ; 
the  toes  are  long  and  power- 
ful, and  armed  with  large, 
sharp,  retractile  claws.  The 
eye  is  full,  bright,  and 
beautiful  ;  the  contour  of  the 
body  graceful  and  vigorous; 
the  plumage  close  and  com- 
pact. The  muscles  of  flight 
are  remarkably  developed, 
as  indicated  by  the  breadth 
of  the  sternum,  the  depth  of 
the  keel,  and  the  strength 
of  the  furcula,  and  of  the 
clavicular  or  coracoid  bones. 
Fig.  1030  represents  the 
sternum  of  the  Peregrine 
Falcon  and  its  appendages : 
a,  the  expanse  of  the  ster- 
num ;  b,  the  keel ;  c,  the 
furcula ;  d,  the  clavicular 
or  coracoid  bones ;  e,  the 
scapula  broken  off.  Fig. 
1031  represents  the  head 
of  the  Peregrine  Falcon  as 
illustrative  of  the  generic 
characters  of  the  group ; 
Fig.  1032,  the  foot. 

The  Peregrine  Falcon 
{Falco  ^eregriniis).  —  Tliis 
beautiful  and  once  highly 
valued  Bird  is  very  widely 
spread,  being  found  in  most 
of  the  bold  and  rocky  dis- 
tricts of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  America.  Every- 
where it  seems  to  be  a  Bird 
of  passage,  whence  its  spe- 
cific name  ^eregyinus.  As 
regards  the  British  Islands, 
it  is  common  in  Scotland 
and  Wales,  building  on  high  precipitous  rocks  bordering  the 
sea-coast.  It  frequents  similar  situations  in  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
wall, where  it  is  called  the  Cliff-Hawk :  and  we  have  seen  fine 
specimens  procured  on  the  Needles  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  many 
parts  of  Ireland  it  is  abundant.  "  In  the  four  maritime  counties  of 
Ulster,"  says  Mr.  Thompson,  "it  has  many  eyries:  and  in  Antrim. 


Fig.  1030. — Ereast-bonc  of  Peregrine  Falcon. 

whose  basaltic  precipices  are  favourable  for  this  purpose,  seven,  at 
least,  might  be  enumerated ;  of  these  one  only  is  inland :  at  the 
Gobbins,  regularly  frequented  by  a  pair,  there  were  two  nests  in  one 
year  within  an  extent  of  rock  considerably  less  than  a  mile."  There 
are  eyries  also  at  the  Horn  in  Donegal,  and  many  other  places. 
The  Peregrine  Falcon  is,  however,  often  seen  inland,  and  has  been 
known  to  take  up  its  temporary  residence  on  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 
and  Westminster  Abbey,  making  havoc  among  the  flocks  of  Pigeons 
in  the  neighbourhood.  We  once  saw  a  Pigeon  in  Leicester  Square 
struck  and  carried  off  by  one  of  these  Birds.  In  the  days  of  falconry 
the  courage,  power,  docility,  and  swiftness  of  the  Peregrine  Falcon 
rendered  it  a  great  favourite,  and  according  to  age,  sex,  &c.,  it 
received  different  appellations.     When  wild  or  yet  unreclaimed,  it 

3E 


394 


THE  PEREGRINE  FALCON. 


was  termed  a  Haggard ;  hence  the  sentence  in  Shakspcare  ("  Much 
Ado  about  Nothing"),  "As  coy  and  wild  as  Haggards  of  the  rock." 
(See  Fig.  1033.)  The  young  Bird  was  called  Eyess,  a  corruption 
of  the  French  word  niais ;  it  was  also  named  Red  Hawk,  from 
the  colour  of  its  plumage  during  the  first  year.  The  male  Bird  was 
termed  Tiercel,  Tersel,  or  Tassel;  "Tassel-gentle,"  a  reclaimed 
male.  The  female  was  called  "  Falcon "  par  e.xcellence.  This 
Bird  has  by  some  writers  been  called  the  Lanner ;  but  the  true 
Lanner,  which  is  a  distinct,  though  an  allied  species  {Fa/co  laiia- 
riiis),  is  found  only  in  Asia  and  the  south-eastern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  has  never  been  seen  wild  in  the  British  Islands.  It  is  to  the 
Peregrine  Falcon  that  Pennant  alludes  {and  after  him  Bewick),  when 
treating  of  the  Lanner  he  remarks,  "  this  species  breeds  in  Ireland." 
Besides  these  names  the  Peregrine  Falcon  has  various  other  appella- 


I'ig.  1031. — Head  of  Peregiinc  Falcon. 


Fig.  1032. — Foot  of  Peregrine  Falcon. 


Fig.  1033.— The  Peregrine  Falcon. 


tions,  as  the  Slight  Hawk  and  the  Passenger  Falcon.  In  America 
it  is  termed  the  Duck-Hawk,  from  the  havoc  it  makes  among  Wild 
Ducks  ;  and  also  the  Great-footed  Hawk,  from  the  size  and  strength 
of  its  talons.  Of  the  prowess  and  daring  of  the  Peregrine  many 
instances  are  on  record.  Mr.  Thompson  ("  Mag.  Zool.  andBotan.," 
vol.  ii.,  p.  53)  observes,  that  "Mr.  Sinclair,  when  on  one  occasion 
e.xcrcising  his  dogs  on  the  Belfast  mountains  towards  the  end  of 
July,  preparatory  to  grouse-shooting,  saw  them  point ;  and  on  com- 
ing up  he  started  a  male  peregrine  falcon  off  a  grouse  {Tcirao 
scufici/s)  ^ust  killed  by  him  ;  and  very  near  the  same  place  he  came 
upon  the  female  bird,  also  on  a  grouse.  Although  my  friend  lifted 
both  the  dead  birds,  the  hawks  continued  flying  about ;  and  on  the 
remainder  of  the  pack  (of  grouse),  which  lay  near,  being  sprung  by 
the  dogs,  either  three  or  four  more  grouse  were  struck  down  by 
them,  and  thus  two  and  a-half  or  three  brace  were  obtained  by  means 
of  these  wild  birds,  being  more  than  had  ever  been  procured  out  of 
a  pack  of  grouse  by  his  trained  falcons."  The  Peregrine  Falcon 
attacks  its  prey  only  while  on  the  wing,  seldom  pursuing  it  into 
dense  cover ;  and  it  has  been  observed  that  Birds  thus  driven  to 
shelter  by  the  Peregrine  Falcon  are  so  terrified,  that  rather  than 
venture  again  on  wing  they  will  allow  themselves  to  be  captured  by 
the  hand.  Even  the  Blackcock  has  been  known  to  be  thus  taken. 
Mr.  Thompson  says  the  strike  of  this  species  is  more  fatal  than  its 
clutch,  and  that  when  flown  at  Rooks  it  has  been  known  to  strike 
down  several  in  succession  before  alighting  to  prey  on  one  ;  and  he 
adds,  "An  eye-witness  to  the  fact  assures  me  that  he  once  saw  a 
falcon  strike  down  five  partridges  out  of  a  covey  one  after  the 
other:  but  such  occurrences  are  rare."  Mr.  Selby,  in  his  "British 
Ornithology,"  gives  a  similar  instance  of  daring  to  that  related  by 
Mr.  Thompson,  from  the  account  of  Mr.  Sinclair.  "In  e.xercising 
my  dogs  upon  the  moors  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the 
shooting  season,  I  saw  a  large  bird  of  the  hawk  genus  hovering  at 
a  distance,  which  upon  approaching  I  knew  to  be  a  peregrine 
falcon.  Its  attention  was  now  drawn  towards  the  dogs,  and  it 
accompanied  them  while  they  beat  the  surrounding  ground.  Upon 
their  having  found  and  sprung  a  brood  of  grouse,  the  falcon  im- 
mediately gave  chase  and  struck  a  young  bird  before  they  had  pro- 
ceeded far  upon  the  wing.  My  shouts  and  rapid  advance  prevented 
it  from  securing  its  prey.  The  issue  of  this  attempt,  however,  did 
not  deter  the  falcon  from  watching  our  subsequent  movements ;  and 
another  opportunity  soon  offering,  it  again  gave  chase  and  struck 
down  two  birds  by  two  rapidly  repeated  blows,  one  of  which  it  secured 
and  bore  off  in  triumph."  The  flight  of  this  Falcon  when  pursuing 
its  quarry  is  astonishingly  rapid.  Montague  has  reckoned  it  at  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  an  hour;  and  Colonel  Thornton,  an  expert 
Falconer,  estimated  the  flight  of  one  in  pursuit  of  a  Snipe  to  have 
been  nine  miles  in  eleven  minutes,  without  including  the  frequent 
turnings.  Audubon,  in  his  "  Birds  of  America,"  states  that  he  has 
seen  this  Falcon  come  at  the  report  of  a  gun,  and  carry  off  a  Teal 
not  thirty  steps  distant  from  the  sportsman  who  had  killed  it,  "with 
a  daring  assurance  as  surprising  as  unexpected." 

This  singular  aptitude  in  the  Wild  Bird  to  join  men  and  Dogs  in 
their  pursuit  of  game,  availing  itself  of  their  assistance,  shows  at 
once  the  little  trouble,  comparatively  speaking,  requisite  for  reclaim- 
ing and  training  it.  A  knowledge  of  the  service  rendered  by  Dogs 
and  men  in  putting  up  game,  thereby  giving  it  the  opportunity  of 
striking  it,  is  intuitive.  In  disposition  it  is  confident  and  docile ; 
and  with  patience,  kind  treatment,  and  proper  management,  its 
training  is  soon  effected. 

The  Peregrine  Falcon  breeds  on  the  ledges  of  precipitous  rocks, 
laying  four  eggs,  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  with  darker  blotches 
and  variegations. 

With  respect  to  the  distribution  of  this  species  in  America,  Dr. 
Richardson,  who  describes  an  old  male  from  Melville  Peninsula, 
lat.  68°  N.,  says  ("Fauna  Boreali-Americana  "),  "The  peregrine 
being  a  rare  bird  in  the  wooded  districts  of  the  fur  countries  where 
the  trading-posts  are  established,  I  did  not  procure  a  specimen  on 
the  late  expeditions ;  but  I  have  frequently  seen  it  whilst  on  the 
march  across  the  Barren  Grounds."  Of  the  two  specimens  figured 
by  Edwards,  one  was  from  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  other  was  caught 
off  the  entrance  of  Hudson's  Straits.  Captain  Parry  likewise  brought 
home  several  male  and  female  specimens  from  Melville  Peninsula, 
some  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  a  summer 
visitor  of  the  northern  parts  of  America,  and  frequents  the  coasts  of 
Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Arctic  Sea,  with  the  Barren  Grounds,  but 
is  very  seldom  seen  in  the  interior.  It  preys  habitually  on  the  Long- 
tailed  Ducks  [Anas g/aciaiis),  which  breed  in  great  numbers  in  the 
Arctic  regions,  arriving  in  June  and  departing  in  September. 
Captain  Parry  observed  it,  in  his  second  voyage,  following  flocks  of 
the  Snow-Bunting  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  near  Cape  Farewell. 
It  frequents  the  shores  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  in  the 
winter,  and  is  celebrated  there  for  the  havoc  it  makes  among  the 
Water-fowl.  Mr.  Ord  states  that  the  Ducks  which  are  struck  by  it 
are  lacerated  from  the  neck  to  the  rump  ;  it  gives  the  blow  in  pass- 
ing, and  returns  to  pick  up  its  Bird.  According  to  Captain  King, 
it  is  found  at  the  Straits  of  Magalhaens. 

Like  all  the  Fakonidce,  this  Bird  undergoes  successive  variations 


THE  ART  OF  FALCONRY,    OR  HAWKING. 


395 


of  colouring'  before  attaining  its  permanent  livery.  When  young, 
the  plumage  on  the  back  inclines  to  rufous,  the  middle  of  each 
feather  only  having  a  tint  of  deep  bluish-ash,  and  the  undor-parts 
being  white,  with  brown  longitudinal  dashes.  The  colouring  of  the 
adult  is  as  follows  : — Head  and 
back  of  the  neck  blackish-lead 
colour,  which  colour,  as  it  ex- 
tends over  the  back,  assumes  a 
more  ashy  tinge  ;  below  the  eye 
is  a  large  triangular  mark  of 
dark  lead  colour,  pointing  down- 
wards, and  commonly  called  the 
moustache  :  this  mark  is  a  com- 
mon feature  in  many  others  of 
the  genus.  '  The  throat  and 
breast  are  white,  with  a  few 
slender  dashes  of  brown  ;  the 
under-parts  are  dirty-white,  with 
fine  transverse  bars  of  brown. 
The  tail  is  alternately  barred  with 
bluish-grey  and  black.  Cere, 
eyelids,  and  tarsi  yellow ;  iris 
dark  hazel-brown  ;  claws  black. 
Fig.  1034  represents  "  a  hawk 
on  fist,"  with  hood  and  bells: 
Fig.  1035,  going  to  the  field ; 
Fig.  1036,  "casting  off"  the 
Hawk,  [and  Fig.  1037  's  illus- 
trative of  the  death  of  the  quarry. 

gaged  the  most  earnest  attention,  and  is  still  a  common  amuse- 
ment among  the  Turks,  in  some  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  among  the 
Persians,  Circassians,  and  the  wandering  hordes  of  Turkomans 
and  Tartars.  Hawking  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  the  North  of  Europe  during  the  fourth  century.  Our 
Saxon  ancestors  became  passionately  fond  of  the  sport,  but  do  not 
appear  to  have  made  great  progress  in  the  art  of  training  the  Birds. 
In  the  eighth  century,  one  of  the  kings  of  that  race  caused  a  letter 
to  be  written  to  Winifred,  Archbishop  of  Mons,  begging  the  digni- 


Fig.  1034. — Hawk  on  Fist. 
Falconry,  in  former  days,  en- 


Fig.  1035.— Going  to  the  Field. 

tary  to  send  him  some  Falcons  that  had  been  well  trained  to  kill 
Cranes.  The  month  of  October  was  more  particularly  devoted  to 
that  sport  by  the  Saxons.  We  are  indebted  to  our  fierce  invaders, 
the  Danes,  for  many  improvements  in  Falconry.  Denmark,  and 
still  more  Norway,  were  always  celebrated  for  their  breeds  of  Hawks, 
and  the  natives  of  these  countries  had  attained  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  skdl  in  the  art  of  training  them.  In  the  eleventh  century, 
when  Canute,  Kmg  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  ascended  the  English 
throne,  the  sport  became  more  prevalent.  We  are  not  aware  of 
what  restrictions  were  imposed  under  the  Saxon  or  Danish  monarchs, 
but  after  the  conquest  by  William  of  Normandy  none  but  persqns  of 


the  highest  rank  were  allowed  to  keep  Hawks.  Cruel  laws,  with 
respect  to  field-sports,  were  framed  and  rigorously  executed  by  the  first 
princes  of  our  Norman  dynasty.  According  to  the  liberal  views  of 
those  times,  the  people  were  held 
anything  except  the  air  of  heaven 


utterly  ;inworthy  of  partaking 


-     -ri  -  ir     r  ,      '"  common  with  their  noble  OD 

pressors.     The  life  of  a  serf  was  of  less  value  in  the  eyes  of  a  Nor. 


i-u^.'^^'-"-' 


Fig.  1036. — Casting  off  the  Hawk. 

man  baron  than  that  of  a  Buck,  a  Hound,  or  a  Hawk  ;  and  in  those 
days  the  mass  of  what  we  now  call  the  "people"  were  serfs  and 
slaves.     As  to  the  keeping  of  Falcons,  the  great  expense  attending 
it  put  it  entirely  out  of  the  power  of  the  commonalty  ;  but  the  pro- 
hibitive Norman  law  was  probably  meant  at  first  to  extend  to  such 
of  the  Saxon  landholders  as  were  rich,  and  remained  free,  but   had 
no  rank  or  nobility  according  to  the  conqueror's  estimation.     In  the 
days  of  John,  however,  every  frccma?z  was  most  liberally  permitted 
to  have  eyries  of  Hawks,  Falcons,  Eagles,  and  Herons,  in  his  own 
woods.     In  the  year  1481  was  printed  the  "  Book  of  St.  Albans,"  by 
Juliana  Berners,  sister  of  Lord  Berners,  and  prioress  of  the  nunnery 
of  Sopewell.     It  consisted  of  two  tracts,  one  on  Hawking,  the  other 
on^Heraldry.   The  noble  dame  obtained  from  her  grateful  contempo- 
raries the  praise  of  being  "a  second  Minerva  in  her  studies,  and 
another  Diana  in  her  diversions. "i..  Her  subject  was  well  chosen  ; 
Hawking  was  then  the  standing  pastime  of  the  noble,  and  the  lady 
abbess  treated  it  in  the  manner  most  likely  to  please.     The  book 
became  to  Falconers  what  Hoyle's  has  since  become  to  whist-players ; 
but  the  dame  Juliana's  had,  moreover,  the  merit  of  paying  proper 
homage  to  the  jealous  distinctions  between  man  and  man,  as  then 
established.     According  to  the  "  Book  of  St.  Albans,"  there  was  a 
nice  adaptation  of  the  different  kinds  of  Falcons  to  different  ranks. 
Thus,  such  species  of  Hawks  were  for  kings,  and  could  not  be  used  by 
any  person  of  inferior  dignity  ; — such  for  princes  of  the  blood,  such 
others  for  the  duke  and  great  lord,  and  so  on,  down  to  the  knave  or 
servant.     In  all,  there  were  fifteen  grades  ;  but  whether  this  number 
was  so  small  owing  to  the  species  of  Birds,  or  because  it  included  all 
the  factitious  divisions  of  society  then  recognised,  we  cannot  well 
determine.     We   have  too   much   respect  for  the  patience   of  our 
readers  to  follow  the  dame   through  all  her   directions,  to  which 
additions  have  been  made  in   the  15th  and    17th   centuries.     We 
would  rather  accompany  the  trained  Hawks  into  the  field. 


396 


THE  ART  OF  FALCONRY.   OR  HAWKING. 


Strut,  in  his  industrious  work  on  the  "  Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the 
English, "  gives  one  or  two  engravings,  from  very  old  pictures, 
representing  ladies  followed  by  Dogs,  and  running  on  foot,  with 
their  Hawks  on  their  fists,  to  cast  them  off  at  game.  Indeed,  John 
of  Salisbury,  who  wrote  in  the  13th  century,  says  that  the  women 
even  excelled  the  men  in  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  Falconry, 


Fig.  1037. — Death  of  the  Heron. 

whence  he  ungallantly  takes  occasion  to  call  the  sport  itself  frivol- 
ous and  effeminate.  Taking  altogether,  however,  a  hunting  party 
of  this  kind,  composed  of  knights  and  dames,  mounted  on  their 
piaffing  manage  horses, 

"  Ryding  or  hawking  by  the  river, 
With  grey  goshawk  in  hand,"  (Chaucer) 

and  with  their  train  of  Falconers  in  appropriate  costume,  and  their 
well-broken  Dogs,  and  the  silver  music  of  the  bells,  mingled  with  a 
variety  of  other  sounds,  must  have  been  a  pleasant  enough  scene  to 
behold,  or  to  form  part  of. 

For  most  species  of  game,  it  appears  that  Spaniels,  Cockers,  or 
other  Dogs  were  required  to  rouse  the  Birds  to  wing.  When  at  a 
proper  elevation,  the  Hawk,  being  freed  from  his  head-gear,  was 
cast  off  from  the  sportman's  iist,  with  a  loud  whoop  to  encourage 
him.  But  here  great  science  was  required ;  and  it  was  frequently 
made  matter  of  an.Kious  and  breathless  debate  as  to  whether  the  far 
jettie  or  the  jettee  serre  should  be  adopted.  These  terms,  like 
many  more  employed  in  those  days  m  Hawking  and  hunting,  were 
derived  from  the  French.  Jeter  signifies  to  throw  or  cast  off.  The 
far  jettee  meant  to  cast  off  the  Hawk  at  a  distance  from  the  quarry 
it  was  to  pursue  ;  and  the  jettee  serre  to  fly  it  as  near  to  the  Bird,  or 
as  soon  after  the  destined  prey  had  taken  wing,  as  possible.  But 
many  considerations  were  involved  in  these  decisions  : — the  species 
of  the  quarry,  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  Hawk  on  hand  at  the 
time, — the  nature  of  the  country,— the  force  and  direction  of  the 
wind,  and  numerous  other  circumstances,  had  to  be  duly  pondered. 

When  the  Hawk  was  cast  off,  it  flew  in  the  direction  of  the  game, 
and  endeavoured  to  surmount  it,  or  get  above  it,  in  its  flight.  To 
obtain  this  advantage,  when  Herons  and  other  Birds  strong  on  the 
wing  were  pursued,  the  Hawk  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  scal- 
ing, or  ascending  the  air  by  performing  a  succession  of  small  circles, 
each  going  higher  and  higher,  like  the  steps  of  a  winding  corkscrew 
staircase.  In  whatever  way  it  was  performed  this  was  called  "the 
mount."  At  times,  both  the  pursuer  and  pursued  would  fly  so  high 
as  almost  to  be  lost  in  the  clouds.  When  the  Hawk  reached  a  pro- 
per elevation  above  the  game,  he  shot  do\vn  upon  it  with  all  his 
force  and  velocity,  and  this  descent  was  technically  called  "the 
stoop,"  or  "the  swoop."    John  Shaw,  Master  of  Arts,  of  Cam- 


bridge, who  published  a  strange  book  called  "Speculum  Mundi " 
(The  World's  Looking-glass),  in  that  learned  city,  1635,  informs  us 
that  the  Heron,  or  Hernsaw,  "is  a  large  fowle  that  livcth  about 
waters,"  and  that  hath  a  marvellous  hatred  to  the  Hawk,  which 
hatred  is  duly  returned.  "  When  they  fight  above  in  the  air,  they 
labour  both  especially  for  this  one  thing,  that  one  may  ascend  and 
be  above  the  other.  Now  if  the  hawk  getteth  the  upper  place,  he 
overthrowcth  and  vanquisheth  the  heron  with  a  marvellous  earnest 
flight."  It  should  seem,  however,  that  this  was  not  always  the 
case,  and  that  the  Heron  sometimes  received  the  Hawk  on  its  long 
sharp  bill,  and  so  transfixed  and  killed  it.  When  the  Hawk  closed 
or  grappled  with  its  prey  (which  was  called  binding  in  Falconry), 
they  generally  tumbled  down  from  the  sky  together;  and  the  object 
of  the  sportsman  was,  cither  by  running  on  foot  or  galloping  his 
Horse  to  get  to  the  spot  as  soon  as  they  should  touch  the  earth,  in 
order  to  assist  the  Hawk  in  its  struggle  with  its  prey. 

We  believe   all  Birds  of  the   Falcon  genus  naturally  strike  their 
prey  with  their  talons,  or  claws;  but  in  Fig.   1038,  we  see  a  Hawk 


Fig.  103S. — Hawking  for  Wild  Ducks. 

striking  and  binding  a  Wild  Duck  with  its  beak.  So  correct  a 
dehneator  as  Reidinger  was  not  likely  to  make  a  mistake  ;  and,  in- 
deed, we  see  it  mentioned  in  one  of  the  books  we  have  consulted, 
that  a  Hawk,  well-reclaimed  and  enlured,  would  kill  the  smaller 
game  with  its  beak,  or  the  strong  percussion  of  its  breast-bone,  and 
then  hold  or  bind  it  with  its  beak. 

The  Falcons,  it  should  be  observed,  were  taken  into  the  field  with 
hoods  over  their  eyes,  and  with  little  bells  on  their  legs ;  and  the 
sportsman  carried  a  lure,  to  which  the  Bird  had  been  taught  to  fly  by 
being  fed  regularly  upon  or  near  it  with  fresh-killed  meat.  "When 
the  hawk,"  says  Master  Gervase  (1615),  "is  passingly  reclaimed,  you 
must  bring  her  to  lure  by  easy  degrees  ;  first  by  dainties,  making 
her  jump  upon  your  fist,  then  to  fall  upon  the  lure,  when  held  out  to 
it,  and  then  to  come  at  the  sound  of  your  voice  ;  and  to  delight  her 
the  more  with  the  lure,  have  it  ever  garnished,  on  both  sides,  with 
warm  and  bloody  meat." 

These  lures  seem  to  have  been  of  various  sorts.  In  very  old 
times,  a  "  tabur-stycke,"  which  was  merely  a  piece  of  wood  rounded 
and  besmeared  with  blood,  was  in  use  j  but  with  the  progress  of 


THE   GYR-FALCON. 


397 


civilisation,  abetter  lure,  called  a  "hawker,"  was  introduced.  The 
hawker  was  a  staff  about  twenty-two  inches  long,  cased  at  the  upper 
part  with  iron,  having-  a  bell,  "  ratlicr  of  sullen  tone  than  musical," 
and  the  fit'-ure  of  a  Bird,  with  outstretched  wings,  carved  at  the  top. 
When  this  instrument  was  agitated,  a  reclaimed  Haw^k  would  de- 
scend to  it  from  the  clouds  ;  but  we  believe,  for  a  Bird  of  the  highest 
training,  nothing  more  was  required  than  to  shake  the  tasselled 
hood  in  the  hand  of  the  sportsman,  and  to  use  the  voice. 

"Oh  !  for  a  falconer's  voice,  to  lure  this  tassel  gentle  back  again," 

is  put  by  Shakspeare  into  the  mouth  of  Juliet,  and  the  same  de- 
lineator of  nature  makes  Hamlet  exclaim,  by  way  of  answer  to 
Horatio,  in  the  language  of  the  Falconer  calling  in  his  Hawk,  "  lUo, 
ho,  ho,  boy!  come,  bird,  come."  It  may  interest  some  to  hear, 
that  in  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  his  reign,  Henry  VIII.  issued  a 
proclamation  in  order  to  preserve  the  Partridges,  Pheasants,  and 
Herons,  "  from  his  palace  at  Westminster  to  St.  Giles's-in-the- 
Fields,  and  from  thence  to  Islington,  Hampstead,  Highgate,  and 
Hornsey  Park."  Any  person,  of  whatsoever  rank,  who  should  pre- 
sume to  kill  or  in  anywise  molest  these  Birds,  was  to  be  thrown  into 
prison,  and  visited  by  such  other  punishments  as  should  seem  meet 
to  his  highness  the  king. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Henry  VIII.  removed  the  royal  Hawks 
(which  had  been  kept  there  during  many  reigns)  from  the  Mews  at 
Charing  Cross,  and  converted  that  place  into  stables.  According 
to  Stowe,  the  king  of  England's  Falcons  were  kept  at  the  Mews 
in  Charing  Cross  as  early  as  1377,  or  the  time  of  the  unhappy 
Richard  II.  The  term  "Mews,"  in  Falconer's  language,  meant 
strictly  a  place  where  Hawks  were  put  at  the  moulting  season,  and 
where  they  cast  their  feathers.  The  name,  confirmed  by  the  usage 
of  so  long  a  period,  remained  to  the  building  at  Charing  Cross, 
though  Henry  VIII.  had  so  changed  its  destination  as  to  make  it 
inapplicable.  But  what,  however,  is  much  more  curious  is  this, — 
that  when  in  modern  times  the  people  of  London  began  to  build 
ranges  of  stabling  at  the  back  of  their  streets  and  houses,  they 
christened  those  places  "  Mews,"  after  the  old  stabling  at  Charing 
Cross,  which,  as  we  have  shown,  was  misnamed  from  the  time  the 
Hawks  were  withdrawn  from  it.  In  accidental  modes  like  this  many 
an  old  word  is  turned  from  its  original  meaning,  which  eventually 
is  altogether  lost. 

The  old  travellers  Marco  Polo  and  Father  Rubruquis  give  graphic 
descriptions  of  Hawking  among  the  Mongol  Tartars  during  the 
13th  century,  which  sport  was  conducted  in  a  style  of  barbaric  mag- 
nificence. The  Klian  had,  among  other  Birds  of  prey.  Eagles 
trained  to  stoop  at  Wolves  ;  and  such  was  their  size  and  strength, 
that  none,  however  large,  could  escape  from  their  talons.  Recent 
travellers  in  Central  Asia  make  frequent  mention  of  Hawks  and 
Hawking.  Mr.  Johnson,  in  his  "  Indian  Field-Sports,"  describes 
the  sport  as  carried  on  by  the  princes  and  nobles  of  India.  The  late 
Sir  John  Malcolm,  in  his  delightful  little  work  called  "  Sketches  of 
Persia,"  also  gives  some  very  animated  descriptions  of  these  sports. 
He  frequently  partook  in  them  during  his  journeys  and  embassies  to 
the  court  of  the  Shah.  In  speaking  of  his  stay  at  Abusheher  (a  place 
on  the  Persian  Gulf),  he  says — "  The  huntsmen  proceeded  to  a  large 
plain,  or  rather  desert,  near  the  sea-side  ;  they  have  hawks  and 
greyhounds  ;  the  hawks  carried  in  the  usual  manner  on  the  hand  of 
the  huntsman ;  the  dogs  led  in  a  leash  by  a  horseman,  generally 
the  same  who  carries  the  hawk.  When  an  antelope  is  seen,  they 
endeavour  to  get  as  near  as  possible  ;  but  the  animal,  the  moment  it 
observes  them,  goes  off  at  a  rate  that  seems  swifter  than  the  wind : 
the  horsemen  are  instantly  at  full  speed,  having  slipped  the  dogs. 
If  it  is  a  single  deer,  they  at  the  same  time  fly  the  hawks :  but  if  a 
herd,  they  wait  till  the  dogs  have  fixed  on  a  particular  antelope. 
The  hawks,  skimming  along  near  the  ground,  soon  reach  the  deer, 
at  whose  head  they  pounce  in  succession,  and  sometimes  with  a 
violence  that  knocks  it  over.  At  all  events  they  confuse  the  animal 
so  much  as  to  stop  its  speed  in  such  a  degree  that  the  dogs  can 
come  up  ;  and  in  an  instant  men,  horses,  dogs,  and  hawks  sur- 
round the  unfortunate  deer,  against  which  their  united  efforts  have 
been  combined.  The  part  of  the  chase  that  surprised  me  most  was 
the  extraordinary  combination  of  the  hawks  and  the  dogs,  which 
throughout  seemed  to  look  to  each  other  for  aid.  This,  I  was  told, 
was  the  result  of  long  and  skilful  training. 

"  The  antelope  is  supposed  to  be  the  fleetest  quadruped  on  earth, 
and  the  rapidity  of  the  first  burst  of  the  chase  I  have  described  is 
astonishing  The  run  seldom  exceeds  three  or  four  miles,  and  often 
is  not  half  so  much.  A  fawn  is  an  easy  victory  ;  the  doe  often  runs 
a  good  chase  ;  and  the  buck  is  seldom  taken.  The  Arabs  are,  in- 
deed, afraid  to  fly  their  hawks  at  a  buck,  as  these  fine  birds,  in 
pouncing,  at  times  impale  themselves  on  its  sharp  horns. 

"  The  hawks  used  in  this  sport  are  of  a  species  I  have  never  seen 
in  any  other  country.  This  breed  is  called  cherkh,  is  not  large,  but 
of  great  beauty  and  symmetry.     *     *     • 

"The  novelty  of  these  amusements  interested  me;  and  I  was 
pleased,  on  accompanying  a  party  to  a  village,  about  twenty  miles 
from  Abusheher,  to  see  a  species  of  hawking  peculiar,  I  believe,  to 
the  sandy  plains  of  Persia,  on  which  the  hubara,  a  noble  species  of 


a  smalUhrnh  ^fl>  H  ^'"'.°'',  ^^""^  P'^'"='  ^'^^^^  ''  ^as  no  shelter  but 

fvPr^  i  t    called  geetuck.     When  we  went   in  quest  of  them,  we 

nwL-=     ^  ^^         ^^°."'   ^I'^^'^y-  ''^"  ^^'e"  mounted.     Two  kinds  of 

Sfiffl   "'^"f.fyfo"-  this  sport;  the  first,  the  cherkh  (the  same 

.  f  11        .^     ""'  the  antelope  ,  attacks  them  on  the  ground,  but  will 

no   follow  them  on  the  wing ;  for  this  reason,  the  bhyrec/ a  hawk 

well  known  in  India,  is  flown  the  moment  the  hubara  rises 

As  we  rode  along,  in  an  extended  line,  the  men  who  carried  the 
cherkhs,  every  now  and  then  unhooded  and  held  them  up,  that  thev 
might  look  over  the  plain.  The  first  hubara  we  found  afforded  us  a 
proof  of  the  astonishing  quickness  of  sight  of  one  of  the  hawks  • 
she  fluttered  to  be  loose  and  the  man  who  held  her  gave  a  whoop  as 
he  threw  her  off  his  hand,  and  then  set  off  at  full  speed  We  all  did 
the  same.  At  first  we  only  saw  our  hawk  skimming  over  the  plain 
but  soon  perceived,  at  the  distance  of  more  than  a  mile,  the  beautiful 
speckled  hubara,  with  his  head  erect  and  wings  outspread  runnine 
fonvard  to  meet  his  adversary.  The  cherkh  made  several  unsuccess- 
ful pounces,  which  were  either  evaded  or  repelled  by  the  beak  or 
wings  of  the  hubara,  which  at  last  found  an  opportunity  of  rising 
when  a  bhyree  was  instantly  flown,  and  the  whole  party  were  again 
at  full  gallop.  We  had  a  flight  of  more  than  a  mile,  when  the 
hubara  alighted  and  was  killed  by  another  cherkh,  who  attacked  him 
on  the  ground.  This  bird  weighed  ten  pounds.  We  killed  several 
others,  but  were  not  always  successful,  having  seen  our  hawks  twice 
completely  beaten  during  the  two  days  that  we  followed  this  fine 
sport." 

_  To  those  who  wish  to  enter  more  fully  into  the  mysteries  of  Hawk- 
ing, we  recommend  Turbcvill  among  the  old  writers,  and  Sir  John 
Sebright  ("  Observations  on  Hawking")  as  the  best  modern  autho- 
rity on  the  subject. 

The  Gvr-Falcon;  Jer-Falcon,  or  Iceland  Falcon  (/"a/fo 
gyr-fa/co).— This  Bird  has  already  been  alluded  to  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Peregrine  Falcon.  It  is  a  Bird  of  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
three  inches  in  length,  white,  with  the  whole  upper  part  of  its  plu- 
mage marked  with  dark  grey  spots  ;  the  bill  is  blue,  and  the  cere  and 
feet  yellow,  the  tarsi  being  clothed  with  feathers  about  half-way 
down.    (See  Fig.  1039.)     This  large  and  powerful  Falcon  is  found  in 


Fig.  1039.— Head  of  the  Gyi- Falcon. 

all  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  but  it  is  most  abundant 
in  the  colder  regions  of  North  America.  It  appears  always  to  have 
been  a  scarce  Bird  in  this  country ;  for,  in  the  palmy  days  of  Fal- 
conry, great  sums  were  expended  in  procuring  these  Birds  from 
Norway  and  Iceland  ;  but  in  the  opinion  of  Falconers,  the  Birds 
from  the  latter  country  belonged  to  a  distinct  species,  which  they 
called  the  Iceland  Falcon.  From  the  great  strength  and  courage  of 
the  Gyr-Falcon,  they  were  used  in  the  pursuit  of  large  Birds,  such  as 
Cranes,  Storks,  Herons,  and  Wild  Geese.  In  the  territories  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  it  usally  preys  on  the  Ptarmigan,  but  also 
destroys  Plovers  and  Ducks,  and  will  even  attack  Geese  as  already 
mentioned. 

The  Hobby  {Falco  subbidcd). — This  Bird  presents  a  great  general 
resemblance  to  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  but  measures  only  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  inches.  The  flight  is  very  rapid,  and  it  was  formerly 
employed  in  the  pursuit  of  small  Birds.  In  a  state  of  nature  its  food 
consists  principally  of  small  Birds  and  Insects  ;  but  Skylarks  are 
said  to  form  its  favourite  prey.  It  is  a  summer  visitor  to  this  country, 
and  is  not  very  abundant  here ;  but  it  appears  to  be  distributed  over 
nealy  the  whole  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  It  builds  its  nest  in 
trees,  and  lays  three  or  four  eggs  of  a  bluish-white  colour,  blotched 
with  greenish-brown.  Occasionally  it  dispenses  with  the  trouble  of 
building,  and  takes  possession  of  the  deserted  nest  of  a  Crow. 

The  Merlin  {Falco  cssalon). — This  small  but  beautiful  and 
high-spirited  Falcon  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  breeds  in  the  British 
Islands  ;  Mr.  Selby  has  found  its  nest  frequently  in  the  upland  moors 
of  Northumberland.  Dr.  Heysham  mentions  three  instances  that 
came  to  his  knowledge  of  Merlins'  nests  in  Cumberland,  where  he 
says  the  Bird  remains  all  the  year.    It  breeds  in  several  parts  of 


398 


THE  -MERLIN—THE  KESTREL. 


Wales,  and,  according^  to  IMr.  Eyton,  on  the  mountain  of  Cader 
Idris.  It  is  indigenous  in  Ireland,  breeding  on  the  mountains  of 
Londonderry,  Mourne  (Down),  Claggin  (Antrim),  Clonmcl  (Tippe- 
rary),  Youghal  (Cork),  and  other  places.  The  nest  is  loosely  made 
upon  the  ground  among  the  heath.  Larks,  Thrushes,  Fieldfares, 
and  Partridges  constitute  the  prey  of  this  species,  which  it  strikes 
with  great  address.  According  to  Mr.  Thompson,  it  frequents  the 
sea-shore  in  pursuit  of  Dunlins  {Tringa  variabilis),  which  it  has 
been  seen  to  kill. 

Merlins  were  formerly  used  in  the  field  ;  and,  as  the  author  of  the 
"Book  of  Falconrie"  says,  they  become  "passing  good  hawkes 
and  verie  skilful ;  their  property  by  nature  is  to  kill  thrushes,  larks, 
and  partridges.  They  flee  with  greater  fierceness  and  more  hotely 
than  any  other  hawke  of  prey.  They  are  of  greater  pleasure, 
and  full  of  courage,  but  a  man  must  make  greater  care,  arid 
take  good  heed  to  them,  for  they  are  such  busie  and  unruely 
things  with  their  beakes,  as  divers  times  they  eate  off  their 
own  feet  and  tallons  very  unnaturally,  so  as  they  die  of  it. 
And  this  is  the  reason  and  true  cause,  that  seldom  or  never 
shall  you  see  a  mewed  or  entermewed  merlyn.  For  that  in  the 
mew  they  do  spoyle  themselves,  as  I  have  before  declared." 
Sir  J.  Sebright  says  that  the  Merlin  will  take  Blackbirds  and 
Thrushes,  and  that  he  may  be  made  to  wait  on — that  is,  hover  near 
till  the  Bird  be  pursued  and  started  again  ;  "  and  though  a  merlin 
will  kill  a  partridge,  they  are  not  strong  enough  to  be  effective 
in  the  field."     ("  Observations  on  Hawking.") 

From  its  habit  of  sitting  on  a  bare  stone,  or  portion  of  rock,  on 
the  mountain  moorlands,  this  Bird  has  acquired  the  name  of  Stone 
Falcon,  Rochier  and  Faucon  de  roche  of  the  French,  and  Steinfalke 
of  the  Germans.  The  general  plumage  of  the  young  is  brown  ;  when 
fully  adult,  the  back  and  wings  are  of  a  bluish-ash  colour,  each 
feather  having  a  central  dash  of  black  ;  the  under-parts  are  rufous, 
with  oblong  blackish  spots.  Length  of  male  eleven  inches,  of  female 
twelve  inches  and  a-half.  The  female  resembles  the  immature  male 
in  having  a  brown  plumage.  The  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  reddish- 
brown,  mottled  with  a  deeper  tint.     (See  Fig.  1040.) 


Fig.  1040. — Merlins. 

The  Kestrel  {Fa?co  f/juucuniius ;  Ccrchncis  iimiuticiila).— 
This  Falcon,  often  called  Windhover,  Stannel,  and  Stonegall,  is  very 
common  in  our  islands,  and  is  spread  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
This  probably  is  the  KtyxP'C  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Tinnunculus  of 
the  Latins  (Pliny,  "  Nat.  Hist.,"  .x.,  37).  It  is  the  Foutivento,  Cani- 
bello,  Tristunculo,  Acertello  Falchetto  di  Torre,  Gheppio,  and 
Gavinello  of  the  modern  Italians ;  Cercrelle,  Quercerelle,  Cresser- 
elle,  and  Epervier  des  Alouettes  of  the  French  ;  Turmfalke,  Roethel- 
geyer,  Mausefalke,  Winewachl,  Rittl-weyer,  and  Wannen-wehr  of 
the  Germans ;  Kyrko-falk  of  the  Swedes ;  and  Cudyll  coch  of  the 
ancient  British. 

The  Kestrel  is  a  Bird  of  considerable  powers  of  flight,  but,  unlike 
the  little  Merlin,  seldom  takes  its  prey  in  the  air ;  unless,  indeed, 
when  it  gives  chase  to  insects,  as  the  Cockchafer,  &c.,  for  it  is 
chiefly  on  Mice,  Frogs,  &c.,  that  it  feeds.  Mr.  Selby,  indeed,  says 
that  bird-catchers  have  seen  it  making  a  dash  at  their  decoy-birds, 
and  that  he  has  himself  caught  it  in  a  trap  baited  with  a  Bird ;  and 


Mr.  Thompson  ("Birds  of  Ireland,"  "Mag.  Zool.  and  Botan  " 
vol.  11.,  p.  57)  says,  that  though  it  is  generally  pursued  by  Swallows 
he  once  saw  u  the  pursuer.  "  On  September  22,  1832,  when  walking 
with  a  friend  m  the  garden  at  Wolf  hill,  near  Belfast,  a  male  kestrel 
m  full  pursuit  of  a  swallow  appeared  in  sight  over  the  hedgerow,  and 
continuing  the  chase  with  extreme  ferocity,  lost  not  the  least  way  by 
the  swallow's  turnings,  but  kept  within  a  foot  of  it  all  the  time,  at 
one  moment  passing  within  five  or  si.x  yards  of  our  heads.     It  is  idle 


Fig.  1041. — Kestrels. 

to  conjecture  how  long  the  foray  may  have  lasted  before  we  witnessed 
it,  but  immediately  on  the  kestrel's  giving  up  the  chase,  the  swallow, 
nothing  daunted,  became  again,  accompanied  by  many  of  its  species, 
the  pursuer  and  tormentor,  and  so  continued  till  they  all  disappeared. 
The  kestrel  was  probably  forced  to  this  chase  by  the  particular 
annoyance  of  the  swallows,  they  and  the  martins  being  more  nume- 
rous this  day  at  Wolfhill  than  they  had  been  during  the  season." 
It  is  thus  that  the  large  White-headed  Eagle  is  teased  by  the  little 
King-bird  or  Tyrant  Flycatcher  [Tyrannus  intrepidus),  &x\6.  even 
forces  him  to  retreat.  The  Kestrel,  as  the  same  writer  states,  has 
been  so  far  trained  by  Mr.  W.  Sinclaire  as  to  attend  and  soar  above 
him  like  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  and  fly  at  small  Birds  let  off  from  the 
hand. 

This  species  is  often  seen  high  in  the  air,  with  outspread  tail  and 
winnowing  pinions,  suspended  over  one  spot ;  its  keen  eye  is  survey- 
ing with  careful  scrutiny  the  ground  below — not  a  Mouse,  nor  a 
Frog,  nor  a  Lark  on  her  nest,  escapes  its  glance  ;  having  fixed  upon 
its  victim,  down  it  drops,  clutches  its  prize,  and  flies  rapidly  to  its 
usual  haunt.  The  destruction  of  Field-mice  by  the  Kestrel  ought 
to  recommend  it  to  the  farmer,  especially  as  it  attacks  neither 
Pigeons  nor  Poultry;  unfortunately  it  is  often  confounded  by  the 
ignorant  with  the  fierce  Sparrow-Hawk  (indeed,  we  have  generally 
heard  it  so  called),  which  will  devastate  the  dovecote  and  pounce 
upon  young  Chickens. 

The  Kestrel  generally  usurps  the  nest  of  a  Crow  or  Magpie  in 
which  to  lay  its  eggs  and  rear  its  young.  It  breeds  also  on  inland 
and  marine  cliffs,  church  towers,  &c.  We  have  many  times  seen  it 
fly  in  and  out  of  the  fissures  of  the  perpendicular  limestone  rocks  of 
the  Peak  of  Derbyshire,  and  about  Buxton.  The  eggs  are  four  in 
number,  pale  reddish-brown,  mottled  with  a  darker  tint.  The 
colouring  is  as  follows  : — 

Male. — Top  of  the  head  bluish-grey  ;  upper  parts  reddish-brown, 
regularly  sprinkled  with  angular  black  spots ;  lower  parts  white, 
slightly  tinged  with  reddish  and  with  oblong  brown  spots ;  tail  ash- 
coloured,  with  a  wide  black  band  towards  its  extremity,  and  termi- 
nated with  white  ;  bill  bluish  ;  cere,  space  round  the  eyes,  iris,  and 
feet  yellow.     Length  about  fourteen  inches. 

Female. — Larger  than  the  male  ;  all  the  upper  parts  of  a  brighter 
reddish  ;  lower  parts  yellowish  rusty,  with  oblong  black  spot ;  tail 
reddish,  with  nine  or  ten  narrow  black  bands,  and  with  a  large 


THE  SPARROW-HAWKS. 


399 


band  of  that  colour  near  its  extremity,  which  is  terminated  with  red- 
dish-white. 

The  You)ig\\ZL.\e.  the  top  of  the  head,  the  nape,  and  the  mantle 
brown-rusty  streaked  with  black  ;  these  streaks  form  the  angle  of 
the  back :  on  the  first  quills  are  seven  reddish  and  whitish  spots ; 
tail  reddish,  undulated  with  grey-ash  and  transversely  striped  as  in 
the  female  :  throat  reddish-white  ;  at  the  opening  of  the  bill  a  small 
black  stripe,  which  is  prolonged  on  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  ;  the 
rest  of  the  lower  parts  whitish-rusty,  with  oblong  black  spots  ;  iris 
brown  ;  cere  yellowish-green. 

Allied  to  the  Kestrel  is  the  Red-legged  FALCON  {Falco  yesper- 
tiiiiis),  which  is  the  rarest  of  all  the  British  Falcons.  It  is,  how- 
ever, common  in  many  parts  of  the  continent,  but  only  a  few  speci- 
mens have  been  shot  in  this  country. 

The  Bengal  Falcon  {Hicrax  cccrukscens). — Allap  of  the 
Javanese  ;  Falco  bengalcnsis,  Brisson.  This  beautiful  little  Falcon 
is  gencrically  distinguished  by  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible 
being  bidentate,  and  the  tarsi  scutellated  anteriorly.  (See  Fig. 
1042,  the  head  and  foot.)     It  is  a  native  of  Java,  and  also,  as  it  is 


Fig.  1042. — Head  and  Foot  of  Bengal  Falcon. 

stated,  of  Bengal.  Small  as  it  is,  for  it  does  not  exceed  six  and  a 
half  inches  in  length,  it  is  nevertheless  bold  and  active,  and  pursues 
prey  equal  to  itself  in  size  with  great  determination.  Its  general 
colour  above  is  glossy  bluish-black ;  forehead,  throat,  breast,  and 
a  line  continued  from  the  bill  over  the  eye  down  the  sides  of  the 
neck,  white  with  a  ferruginous  tint.  Under-parts  ferruginous ; 
plumes  of  thighs  long  and  silky ;  wings  reaching  only  half-way 
down  the  tail.     (See  Fig.  1043.) 


Fig.  1043. — The  Bengal  Falcon. 

In  the  East,  where  Falconry  is  still  a  favourite  sport  with  the 
natives  of  rank,  many  species  of  these  Birds  are  trained  for  this  pur- 
pose. Amongst  these  our  Peregrine  Falcon  takes  a  very  high  place, 
but  it  is  considered  interior  to  a  nearly  allied  species,  the  Falco 
peregrinator,  which  is  called  the  Shaheen,  or  Sultan  Falcon.  It  is 
generally  used  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Partridge  and  the  Florikin  [fitis 


auritai),  a  species  of  Bustard  which  is  common  in  India  ,  and,  in- 
stead of  being  cast  from  the  hand  like  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  is 
trained  to  fly  in  circles,  high  over  the  heads  of  the  Falconers,  until 
the  game  is  started,  when  it  descends  upon  the  quarry  with  the 
velocity  of  an  arrow.  Several  other  large  species  of  Falcons  are  used 
in  falconry  in  different  parts  of  India.  The  best  known  of  these  is 
the  Luggur,  or  Juggur  {F.jiiggur),  which  is  usually  slipped  from 
the  hand  in  pursuit  of  Partridges,  Florikins,  and  even  Herons.  The 
Lanner  {Falco  la7iartus\  another  large  species,  was  formerly  im- 
ported into  Europe  from  the  East,  and  trained  to  the  pursuit  of 
Kites.  Several  small  species  are  also  t mined  in  that  country  ;  and 
amongst  these,  the  Birds  of  the  genus  Hicrax,  some  of  which  are 
scarcely  bigger  than  a  Thrush,  are  distinguished  for  their  courage. 
These  are  employed  in  the  pursuit  of  Quails  and  other  Birds  of  cor- 
responding size  ;  and  the  mode  in  which  they  are  started  after  their 
game,  as  described  by  Captain  Mundy,  is  rather  curious.  "The 
falconer  holds  the  little  well-drilled  savage  within  the  grasp  of  his 
hand,  the  head  and  tail  protruding  at  either  end,  and  the  plumage 
carefully  smoothed  down.  When  he  arrives  within  twenty  or  thirty 
yards  of  the  quarry,  the  sportsman  throws  his  hawk,  much  as  he 
would  a  cricket-ball,  in  the  direction  of  it.  The  little  creature  gains 
his  wings  in  an  instant,  and  strikes  his  game  after  the  manner  of  a 
bhause."    The  Bhause  is  the  same  as  our  Goshawk. 

The  Sparrow-Hawks— Sub-family,  Accipitrince. 

The  Acci_pitrina,  or  Sparrow-Hawks,  form  another  sub-family  of 
the  Falconidce.  They  have  the  beak  short,  hooked  from  the  base  ; 
wings  short ;  fourth  quill-feather  the  longest.  Though  the  Hawks 
differ  in  flight  and  their  mode  of  attacking  their  prey  from  the  Fal- 
cons, they  are  equally  daring  and  impetuous,  and  one  in  particular, 
the  Goshawk,  v^-as  among  the  most  valued  of  the  Falconer's  Birds  ; 
it  was  termed  "falcon  gentil,"  and  was  flown  at  Pheasants,  Wild 
Geese,  and  even  Hares.  Instead  of  soaring  after  the  manner  of  the 
true  Falcons,  the  short-winged  Hawks,  as  the  Falconer  calls  them, 
dart  along  with  arrow-like  impetuosity  in  pursuit  of  their  prey, 
threading  woods,  glens,  and  ravines  ;  they  strike  it  obliquely,  over- 
taking it  by  their  swiftness,  and  clutching  it  in  their  talons,  bear  it 
off  in  triumph. 

The  Sparrow- Hawk  {Accipiter  nisiis ;  A.  fringinarius).— 
Generic  characters  of  the  genus  Accipiter : — beak  short ;  nostril 
sub-oval ;  tarsi  elongated,  smooth,  anteriorly  scutellated.  {Fig. 
1044,  head  and  foot  of  Sparrow-Hawk.) 

The  Sparrow-Hawk  isL'Epcrvier  of  the  French  ;  Falco palombino 
and  Sparviere  da  fringuelli  of  the  Italians  ;  die  Sperber  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Sparfhoek  of  the  "Fauna  Suecica;"  Falco  nisus  of 
Linnaeus  ;  and  Gwepia  of  the  ancient  British. 

This  species  is  notorious  for  its  destructiveness  and  daring.     It  is 


lii*  >ii«4 ' 
V 


Fig.  1044.— Head  and  Foot  of  Sparrow-Hawk. 


400 


THE  SPARROW-HAWK— THE  GOSHAWK. 


spread  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  is  common  in  the 
wooded  parts  of  our  islands  ;  it  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  terrors 
of  the  farm-yard.  The  female,  which  much  exceeds  the  male  in 
size,  is  fatal  to  Partridges  and  Pigeons.  The  Sparrow-Hawk  flies 
low,  skimming  with  great  rapidity,  and  pounces  on  its  prey  with  un- 
erring aim  ;  in  the  days  of  Falconry  it  was  accounted  the  best  Bird 
for  Landrails. 

This  Hawk  builds  in  trees  and  thorn-bushes,  making  a  shallow 
flat  nest  of  twigs  ;  occasionally  it  occupies  the  deserted  nest  of  a 
Crow,  and  in  the  Orkneys  it  breeds  on  the  rocks  and  sea-cliffs.  The 
eggs,  five  in  number,  are  of  a  whitish  tint,  blotched  at  the  larger  end 
with  reddish-brown.  In  a  nest  examined  by  Mr.  Selby  were  found  a 
Lapwing,  two  Blackbirds,  a  Thrush,  and  two  Green  Linnets,  re- 
cently killed.  No  Hawk  is  more  pertinacious  in  the  pursuit  of  its 
quarry  than  the  Sparrow-Hawk ;  it  has  been  known  to  follow  its 
terrified  prey  through  open  windows,  into  rooms,  barns,  and  churches, 
undeterred  by  the  presence  of  man.  The  male  measures  about 
twelve  inches  in  length.  The  upper  parts  are  of  a  dark-bluish  ash- 
colour  ;  the  cheeks,  throat,  and  chest  rufous,  which  colour  breaks  into 
obscure  bars  as  it  proceeds  to  the  under  surface  ;  beak  blue-black, 
cere  greenish-yellow,  tarsi  yellow,  and  tail  greyish -brown,  with  three 
transverse  dusky  bands.  The  female  is  fifteen  inches  in  length  ;  the 
upper  surface  is  of  a  browner  tinge  than  in  the  males,  and  the  throat 
and  under-parts  are  greyish-white,  the  former  having  small  longitu- 
dinal dashes,  the  latter  regular  transverse  bars  of  reddish-brown. 
The  young  differ  very  considerably  in  having  the  general  plumage 
brown,  the  feathers  at  the  back  of  the  neck  and  the  scapularies 
being  blotched  with  white,  and  the  under-parts  yellowish-white,  with 
irregular  longitudinal  dashes  of  brown.  The  nestlings  are  at  first 
covered  with  snow-white  down.     (See  Fig.  1045.) 


Fig.  1045.— The  Sparrow-Hawk. 

The  Goshawk  {Ashir  ■palumbarius). — The  genus  Astur  differs 
from  Accipiter  in  the  proportionate  shortness  of  the  tarsi.  This 
beautiful  and  high-spirited  Hawk  is  the  Autour  and  Atour  of  the 
French ;  Astore  (Zinan)  and  Girifalco  (Bonaparte) ;  Sparviere  da 
columbe  and  Sparviere  Terzuolo  of  the  Italians ;  Grosser  gepfeilter 
Falck  and  Hunerhabicht  of  the  Germans ;  Hebog  Marthin  of  the 
ancient  British. 

The  Goshawk  is  rare  in  the  British  Islands,  but  is  more  abundant 
in  the  forest  districts  of  the  continent,  inhabiting  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Russia  and  Switzerland,  France  and  Germany.  It  extends  also 
into  Asia. 

Mr.  Yarrell  says:  "The  few  that  are  used  for  hawking  are 
obtained  from  the  continent.  Colonel  Thornton,  who  kept  them 
constantly  in  Yorkshire,  procured  some  of  his  specimens  from  Scot- 
land. Dr.  Moore,  in  his  catalogue  of  the  birds  of  Devonshire,  says 
that  it  is  found  occasionally  in  Dartmoor  ;  but  I  can  find  no  record  of 
its  appearance  further  west  in  England,  nor  any  notice  of  it  in  Ire- 
land. A  fine  adult  male  was  trapped  by  a  gamekeeper  in  Suffolk, 
in  March,  1843  ;  and  Mr.  Doubleday,  of  Epping,  has  sent  me  word 
that  he  received  a  young  bird  from  Norfolk  in  the  spring  of  the  same 
year.  Mr.  Selby  mentions  that  he  had  never  seen  a  recent  speci- 
men south  of  the  Tweed,  but  states  that  it  is  known  to  breed  in  the 
forest  of  Rothiemurcus,  and  on  the  wooded  banks  of  the  Dee.  Mr. 
Low  says  that  this  species  is  pretty  frequent  in  Orkney ;  but  as  he 
speaks  of  it  in  connection  with  sea-beaten  rocks  without  shelter  or 
woods,  is  there  not  reason  to  suspect  that  Mr.  Low  was  mistaken, 
and  that  the  birds  he  saw  were  peregrine  falcons  ? — the  more  so  as 
several  recent  visitors  to  these  northern  islands  have  observed  pere- 
grines, but  no  goshawks."     ("British  Birds.")     Prince  Bonaparte 


has  noted  the  Goshawk  as  not  common  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rome. 

The  Goshawk  frequents  the  deep  solitudes  of  forests,  preying  upon 
Hares,  Squirrels,  and  the  larger  kinds  of  Birds.  It  makes  its  nest 
in  lofty  trees,  preferring,  it  is  said,  the  fir,  laying  three  bluish-white 
eggs  marked  with  reddish-brown.  The  flight  of  this  Hawk  is  low 
and  rapid,  and  it  strikes  its  prey  as  it  skims  along  with  terrible 
force  ;  but  should  the  quarry  take  to  covert  and  there  conceal  itself, 
it  ceases  pursuit,  and  waits  in  patience  on  some  perch  commanding 
a  view  of  the  spot,  till  the  game  takes  wing.  In  this  way  it  will 
remain  hour  after  hour  on  the  watch  :  and  an  instance  is  on  record 
of  a  trained  Goshawk  which  drove  a  Pheasant  to  cover  one  evening, 
remaining  stationary  till  ten  the  next  morning,  when,  on  the  Fal- 
coners finding  her  and  taking  her  away,  the  poor  Pheasant,  which 
all  that  time  had  not  dared  to  stir,  but  had  remained  fixed  to  the 
place  under  the  influence  of  terror,  at  once  took  wing  and  flew  off. 
(See  Fig.  1046.) 


mi^-^ 


Fig.  1045.— The  Goshawk, 

A  full-grown  female  Goshawk  can  secure  a  Hare  with  ease.  With 
regard  to  using  these  Birds,  the  late  Mr.  Hoy,  who  was  experienced 
in  their  training,  informed  Mr.  Bartlett,  that  "  their  habits  and 
mode  of  flight  were  much  better  suited  to  an  enclosed  district  than 
those  of  the  peregrine  falcon.  When  used  or  taken  into  the  field, 
the  wing  of  a  bird  or  the  thin  end  of  an  ox-tail  is  generally  held  in 
the  hand  to  engage  their  attention,  which  they  are  constantly  biting 
and  tearing  without  being  able  to  satisfy  their  appetites,  as  that 
would  render  them  unfit  for  work.  They  do  not  require  to  be 
hooded,  but  have  bells  attached  to  the  legs  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
notice  of  their  situation  when  they  alight  (which  would  otherwise  be 
difficult  to  ascertain),  and  a  leathern  strap  by  which  they  are  held; 
it  is  also  necessary  to  have  spaniels  to  hunt  up  the  birds,  upon  the 
appearance  of  which  the  hawk  flies  from  the  hand  with  incredible 
swiftness  direct  at  the  game,  generally  taking  it  at  the  first  attempt ; 
but  should  the  hawk  fail,  it  will  perch  on  some  elevated  situation, 
and  remain  until  the  game  is  again  started,  and  is  rarely  known  to 
miss  a  second  time.  When  the  hawk  has  captured  the  game,  he  is 
rewarded  with  a  small  piece  of  meat,  or  a  pigeon's  head,  to  induce 
him  to  give  up  his  prey.  If  the  hawk  be  allowed  to  range  at 
pleasure,  by  whistling  it  will  return  with  a  swiftness  truly  astonish- 
ing, and  finding  it  cannot  stop  suddenly  to  settle  without  striking 
you  with  great  force,  it  will  glide  past,  form  a  circle  round  you,  and 
alight  with  the  greatest  ease  and  the  most  gentle  manner  upon  the 
hand."  ("Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,"  1839,  p.  603.)  These  Hawks,  be  it 
observed,  never  ascend  in  gyrations  and  make  the  swoop  for  which 
the  Peregrine  Falcon  is  so  celebrated.  The  Goshawk  is  dis- 
tinguished both  for  beauty  of  colour  and  elegance  of  contour. 

The  female  measures  about  twenty-four  inches  in  length,  the  male 
nineteen  or  twenty.  The  beak  is  bluish-black,  the  cere  wax-yellow, 
the  irides  bright  yellow ;  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  and  tail- 
feathers  dark  greyish-brown  ;  in  the  females  the  colour  inclines  to 
clove-brown,  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail-feathers  barred  with  darker 
brown  ;  the  nape  of  the  neck,  throat,  breast,  belly,  and  thighs  nearly 
white,  with  spots,  transverse  bars,  and  undulating  lines  of  dull 


VARIETIES  OF  HA  TVES. 


401 


black;  under  tail-coverts  white;  -lore,  checks,  and  ear-coverts, 
greyish-brown,  forming  an  elong-ated  dark  patch  on  the  side  of  the 
head  ;   the  legs  and  toes  yellow  ;  the  claws  black. 

North  America  produces  a  closely  allied  species,  distinguished  by 
a  darker  colour  on  the  head,  and  a  greater  multitude  of  zig-zag 
lines  and  dashes  on  the  under-parts.  It  was  met  with  by  Dr.  Richard- 
son in  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories,  and  is  figured  in  his  "  Fauna 
Boreali- Americana." 

The  Laughing  Hawk  {Dccdalion  cachintians). — Head  and 
Foot.  In  this  genus  the  beak  is  short,  the  tarsi  moderate,  and  re- 
ticulated anteriorly.  This  species,  which  is  a  native  of  South 
America,  has  obtained  its  specific  name  from  its  peculiar  cry.  It 
tenants  the  neighbourhood  of  lakes  or  sheets  of  water,  and  lives  upon 
reptiles  and  fish.  Its  general  plumage  is  white  ;  the  back  and 
wings,  and  the  space  round  the  eyes  with  a  nuchal  intervening  band, 
being  brown  ;  head  crested.  It  is  the  Nacagua  of  Azara.  (See 
Fig.  1047.) 


Fig.  1047. — Head  and  Foot  of 
Laughing  Hawk. 


Fig.  1048. — Head  and  Foot  of 
Bidentate  Harpagus. 


The  Chanting  Hawk  {Melierax  ca?iorus ;  Accipikr  mtisicns ; 
Falco  niusictis,  Daudin.) — It  is  somewhat  strange  to  find  a  Song- 
bird among  the  feathered  tyrants  of  the  air,  whose  cries  are  in 
general  wild,  shrill  and  discordant.  The  present  species,  however, 
is  an  exception,  and  stands  pre-eminent  and  alone,  the  minstrel  of 
its  race.  It  is,  as  Cuvier  says,  "  the  only  known  bird  of  prey  which 
sings  agreeably."  In  size  it  equals  a  Goshawk  ;  its  plumage  is  grey 
above,  white  barred  with  brown  on  the  lower  part  of  the  back  and  on 
the  under-parts  of  the  body.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa,  and  preys  upon 
large  Birds,  Hares,  and  other  animals ;  it  builds  in  trees.  Accord- 
ing to  Le  Vaillant,  it  "utters  its  strain  every  morning  and  evening,  and 
not  uncommonly  continues  it  the  whole  night ;  each  strain  is  con- 
tinued in  a  loud  tone  for  more  than  a  minute,  and  after  a  pause  it 
begins  anew.  While  it  is  singing,  it  is  so  regardless  of  its  safety 
that  any  one  may  approach  very  near  it ;  but  at  other  times  it  is 
suspicious,  and  takes  to  flight  on  the  slightest  alarm,"  ("  Oiseaux 
d'Afrique,"  i.,  120.)     (See  Fig.  1049.) 

The  Bidentate  Harpagus  {Harpagus  b!'denfaf!is).—Yie&6. 
and  Foot.  This  Bird,  representing  the  genus  Harpagus,  is  in  all 
essentials  a  Hawk,  but  with  a  double  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  beak 
as  in  the  genus  Terax.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  link  between  the 
Hawks  and  the  Falcons.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  but  of 
its  habits  we  have  no  details  ;  length  about  thirteen  inches.  Upper 
surface  slate-colour  :  throat  white ;  under-parts  red,  undulated  with 
yellowish  :  lower  tail-coverts  white ;  tail  brownish,  barred  with  dirty- 
white.     (See  Fig.  1048.) 

Hawks  and  Falcons  often  attack  each  other,  and  sometimes  two 
of  the  same  species  fight,     Audubon  gives  an  animated  account  of 


the  conflict  which  he  witnessed  between  two  Red-tailed  Hawks  of 
America  respecting  a  Hare  which  one  had  killed.  Fig.  1050  illus- 
trates the  mode  of  their  aerial  contests. 

Exotic  species  of  the  Hawks,  or  ^cc?)4;/'/-;«(Z7,  arc  tolerably  numer- 
ous. South  America  particularly  appears  to  possess  a  great  many 
Birds  belonging  to  this  group,  one  of  which  has  just  been  described; 


Fig.  1049.— Tlie  Chanting  Hawk. 


■'im 


*fe# 


j<7,| 


Fig.  1050.— Hawks  fighting. 

and  several  species  are  inhabitants  of  Australia.  Amongst  the  latter, 
ose  beautiful  species,  the  Astur  novcB-hollandicB,  is  generally  of  a 
pure-white  colour. 

In  India,  one  or  two  species  of  this  group  are  trained  for  falconry. 
The  commonest  of  these  is  the  %\Yi\sXZ.\Mic7-onisus  badius),  which  is 
said  by  Mr.  Jerdon  to  be  more  often  trained  in  India  than  any  other 
Hawk.  The  Besra  [Accipitcr  virgafus)  is  a  less  abundant  Bird, 
but  is  in  high  esteem  amongst  the  native  Falconers.  These  Birds, 
and  also  some  of  the  true  Falcons,  are  often  taken  by  a  snare,  which 
is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Jerdon  : — "  This  is  a  small  thin  net,  from 
four  to  five  feet  long,  and  about  three  feet  broad,  stained  of  a  dark 
colour,  and  fixed  between  two  thin  pieces  of  bamboo  by  a  cord  on 
which  it  runs.  The  bamboos  are  fixed  lightly  in  the  ground,  and  a 
living  bird  is  picketed  about  the  middle  of  the  net,  and  not  quite  a 
foot  distant  from  it.  The  hawk  makes  a  dash  at  the  bird,  which  it 
sees  struggling  at  its  tether  ;  and,  in  the  keenness  of  its  rush,  either 
not  observing  the  net,  from  its  dark  colour,  or  not  heeding  it,  dashes 
into  it  ■  the  two  side  sticks  give  way,  and  the  net  folds  round  the 
bird  so  cflectually,  as  to  keep  it  almost  trom fluttering."      a„  t„^,.„ 


An  Indiaa 


3F 


403 


THE  KITES. 


species  of  Goshawk  {Astur  trivirgatus),  inhabiting  Assam,  is  said 
by  M'Clelland  to  haunt  the  water-side,  and  to  seize  sucli  fishes  as 
come  to  the  surface. 

The  Kites— Sub-family  MihtncB. 

In  the  'sub-family  Milviiia;,  or  Kites,  the  beak  is  moderate, 
compressed,  rather  hoolied  from  the  base  ;  tail  forked ;  wings  long 
and  ample  ;  tarsi  short.  The  Birds  of  this  section  are  remarkable 
for  the  ease,  grace,  aud  buoyancy  of  their  flight  ;  they  sweep 
through  the  air  in  wide  circles,  sailing  on  outspread  wings,  and 
often  mount  to  such  a  height  as  to  become  nearly  invisible.  Tlieir 
vast  wings  and  broad-fork  tail  give  them  great  advantage.  Unlike 
the  Falcons,  however,  they  do  not  make  an  impetuous  swoop  upon 
their  victim,  but  skim  it  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  even  water, 
and  be.'ir  it  away  in  their  talons.  Moles,  Reptiles,  Rats,  Mice,  and 
young  ]  jultry  are  their  habitual  prey,  but  they  do  not  refuse  carrion  ; 
they  ha    ;  not  the  daring  of  the  Hawks  and  Falcons. 

The  rt^lTE,  OR  Glead,  [lili'/vus  ictiiius ;  M.  regalis). — Milan 
Royal  of  the  French,  from  Belon  to  Buffon  ;  Pojana,  Milvio,  Nicchio, 
and  Nibbio  of  the  Italians  ;  Rother  Milan  of  the  Germans  ;  Glenta  of 
Brunnich  ;  Glada  of  the  "  Fauna  Suecica;"  Kite,  Fork-tailed  Kite, 
Glead  or  Glede  (Pennant  says  from  the  Saxon  "  Glida")  of  the  Eng- 
lish ;  Barcud  of  the  ancient  British.  In  some  of  the  counties  of  Eng- 
land it  is  called  the  Puttock,  a  name  also  sometimes  bestowed 
provincially  upon  the  common  Buzzard.  In  Essex  it  is  called  the 
Crotched-tailed  Puddock. 

The  Kite  is  distributed  over  the  greatest  part  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  the  northern  districts  of  Africa.  In  our  islands  it  appears  to  be 
less  common  than  formerly  :  in  Ireland  it  is  not  known.  Formerly 
it  was  very  abundant  in  the  southern  counties  of  England,  and 
Clusius  states  that  when  he  was  in  London  an  amazing  number  of 
Kites  flocked  there  for  the  offal  thrown  into  the  streets  ;  they  were 
so  tame  that  they  took  their  prey  in  the  midst  of  crowds,  and  it  was 
forbidden  to  kill  them. 

The  Kite,  says  Mr.  Selby,  "  is  proverbial  for  the  ease  and  grace- 
fulness of  its  flight,  which  consists  of  large  sweeping  circles 
performed  with  a  motionless  wing,  or  at  least  with  a  slight  and 
almost  imperceptible  stroke  of  its  pinions,  and  at  very  distant  in- 
tervals. In  this  manner,  and  directing  its  course  by  the  aid  of  the 
tail,  which  acts  as  a  rudder,  its  slightest  motion  producing  an 
effect,  it  frequently  soars  to  such  a  height  as  to  become  almost  in- 
visible to  the  human  eye."  Its  appearance,  as  it  wheels  over  the 
farm-yard  with  eyes  intent  upon  the  broods  of  Chickens  and  Duck- 
lings, is  by  no  means  hailed  with  pleasure,  either  by  the  feathered 
dependants  of  the  farm  or  the  good  man  who  owns  them.  The 
Poultry  set  up  loud  cries  of  execration,  the  Hens  call  their  broods 
beneath  their  wings,  and  chanticleer  prepares  for  battle ;  the  very 
Dogs  are  roused,  and  the  men  run  for  their  guns.  Finding  prepara- 
tions made  to  receive  him,  the  marauder  generally  makes  off;  but 
if  he  has  swept  away  a  Chicken  before  the  alarm  is  given,  he  is 
almost  sure  of  repeating  his  visit,  and  is  oftentimes  so  successful  as 


Fig.  1051.— The  Kite. 


to  destroy  a  whole  brood.  Leverets,  Rabbits,  young  game,  and 
small  Alamtnalia  are  also  the  prey  of  this  species ;  it  has  been 
known  to  skim  off  dead  fish  and  other  floating  animal  substances 
from  the  surface  of  the  water  with  the  greatest  address.  The  Kite 
builds  its  nest  in  the  forked  branch  of  some  tall  forest-tree,  and 
constructs  it  of  sticks  and  twigs,  lining  it  with  wool,  hair,  and  other 
soft  materials.  The  eggs  are  three  in  number,  rather  larger  than 
those  of  a  Hen  ;  they  are  of  a  dirty-white,  with  reddish-brown  spots 
at  the  large  end.     The  female  defends  her  nest  vigorously. 

The  Kite  (male)  is  about  twenty-six  inches  in  length  ;  beak  horn- 
colour;  cere  and  irides  yellow;  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck 
greyish-white,  streaked  along  the  shaft  with  ash-brown  ;  feathers  of 
the  back  and  wing-coverts  dark  brown  in  the  centre,  broadly  edged 
with  rufous  :  inner  web  of  some  of  the  tertials  edged  with  white ; 
primaries  nearly  black  ;  upper  tail-coverts  rufous  ;  tail-feathers  red- 
dish-brown, the  inner  webs  barred  with  dark  brown ;  chin  and 
throat  greyish-white,  streaked  with  dusky;  breast,  belly,  and  thighs 
rufous-brown,  each  feather  with  a  central  longitudinal  streak  of 
dark  brown  ;  under  tail-coverts  plain  rufous-white  ;  tarsi  and  toes 
yellow  ;  claws  black.  The  females  are  larger  than  the  males.  (See 
Fig.  I05i,and  Fig.  1006,  p.  380,  a«/e,  of  the  Milan  Royal).  Another 
species  of  Kite,  the  Black  Kile  (M.  nigcr),  forms  the  only  other 
species  commonly  occurring  in  Europe. 

The  Swallow-tailed  Hawk  {Nauclcrus  fiircatus).~1\v& 
extreme  length  of  the  wings  and  tail,  and  the  strongly  forked  outline 
of  the  latter,  characterise  the  genus  Nauclerus.     (See  Fig.  1052.) 


Fig.  1052. — The  Swallow-Liikd  Hawk. 

This  beautiful  Kite,  remarkable  for  its  grace  and  case  on  the 
wing,  is  a  native  of  North  America;  and  is  described  very  graphi- 
cally both  by  Wilson  and  Audubon.  According  to  the  latter,  only 
"  a  solitary  individual  of  this  species  has  once  or  twice  been  seen  in 
Pennsylvania.  Farther  to  the  eastward  the  Swallow-tailed  Hawk 
has  never,  I  believe,  been  observed.  Travelling  southward  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  we  find  it  in  Virginia,  although  in  very  small 
numbers.  Beyond  that  state  it  becomes  more  abundant.  Near  the 
falls  of  the  Ohio  a  pair  had  a  nest,  and  reared  four  young  ones,  in 
1820.  In  the  lower  parts  of  Kentucky  it  begins  to  become  more 
numerous  ;  but  in  the  States  farther  to  the  south,  and  particularly  in 
parts  near  the  sea,  it  is  abundant.'  In  the  large  prairies  of  the 
Attacapas  and  Oppellousas  it  is  extremely  common.  In  the  States 
of  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  where  these  birds  are  abundant,  they 
arrive  in  large  companies  in  the  beginning  of  April,  and  are  heard 
uttering  a  sharp  plaintive  note.  At  this  period  I  generally  remarked 
that  they  came  from  the  westward,  and  have  counted  upwards  of  a 
hundred  in  the  space  of  an  hour,  passing  over  me  in  a  direct 
easterly  course.  At  that  season  and  in  the  beginning  of  September, 
when  they  all  retire  from  the  United  States,  they  are  easily 
approached  when  they  have  alighted,  being  then  apparently 
fatigued,  and  busily  engaged  in  preparing  themselves  for  continuing 
their  journey  by  dressing  and  oiling  their  feathers.  At  all  other 
times,  however,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  get  near  them,  as  they 
are  generally  on  wing  through  the  day,  and  at  night  rest  on  the 
higher  pines  and  cypresses  bordering  the  river  blulfs.  the  lakes,  or 


SWALLOW-HAWKS— THE  BUZZARDS. 


403 


the  swamps  of  that  district  of  country.  Tliey  always  feed  on  tlio 
wing-.  In  calm  and  warm  weather  they  soar  to  an  immense  height, 
pursuing  the  large  insects  called  musquito  hawks,  and  performing 
the  most  singular  evolutions  tliat  can  be  conceived,  using  their  tail 
with  an  elegance  of  motion  peculiar  to  themselves.  Their  principal 
food,  however,  is  large  grasshoppers,  grass-caterpillars,  small 
snakes,  lizards,  and  frogs.  They  sweep  close  over  the  fields,  some- 
times seeming  to  alight  for  a  moment  to  secure  a  snake,  and,  hold- 
ing it  fast  by  the  neck,  carry  it  off,  and  devour  it  in  the  air.  When 
searching  for  grasshoppers  and  caterpillars  it  is  not  difficult  to  ap- 
proach them  under  cover  of  a  fence  or  tree.  When  one  is  then 
killed  and  falls  to  the  ground,  the  whole  flock  come  over  the  dead 
bird,  as  if  intent  upon  carrying  it  off.  An  excellent  opportunity  is 
thus  afforded  of  shooting  as  many  as  may  be  wanted  ;  and  I  have 
killed  several  of  these  hawks  in  this  manner,  firing  as  fast  as  I  could 
load  my  gun.  The  swallow-tailed  hawk  pairs  immediately  after  its 
arrival  in  the  southern  states  ;  and  as  its  courtships  take  place  on 
the  wing,  its  motions  are  then  more  beautiful  than  ever.  The  nest 
is  usually  placed  on  the  top  branches  of  the  tallest  oak  or  pine  tree 
situated  on  the  margin  of  a  stream  or  pond.  It  resembles  that  of 
a  carrion  crow  externally,  being  formed  of  dry  sticks,  intermixed 
with  Spanish  moss,  and  is  lined  with  coarse  grasses  and  a  few 
feathers.  The  eggs  are  from  four  to  six,  of  a  greenish-white  colour, 
with  a  few  irregular  blotches  of  dark  brown  at  the  larger  end.  The 
male  and  female  sit  alternately,  the  one  feeding  the  other.  The 
young  are  at  first  covered  with  buff-coloured  down.  Their  next 
covering  exhibits  the  pure  white  and  black  of  the  old  birds,  but 
without  any  of  the  glossy  purplish  tints  of  the  latter.  The  tail, 
which  at  first  is  but  slightly  forked,  becomes  more  so  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  at  the  approach  of  autumn  exhibits  little  difference  from  that 
of  the  adult  birds.  The  plumage  is  completed  the  first  spring. 
Only  one  brood  is  raised  in  the  season.  The  species  leaves  the 
United  States  in  the  beginning  of  September,  moving  off  in  flocks, 
which  are  formed  immediately  after  the  breeding  season  is  over." 
(See  Fig.  1052.) 

This  species,  according  to  Mr.  Nuttall,  will,  like  the  Honey- 
Buzzard,  prey  upon  Locusts  and  Wasps,  and  their  larvae,  and  make 
a  regular  attack  on  their  nests.  M.  Vieillot  states  that  it  visits 
Peru  and  Buenos  Ayres.  Mr.  Yarrell  gives  it  a  place  among  the 
British  Birds  on  the  authority  of  two  specimens,  one  killed  at 
Balachoalist,  in  Argyleshire,  in  1772,  and  another  taken  alive  in 
Shaw-gill,  near  Hawes,  in  Wensleydale,  Yorkshire,  in  1805.  Ap- 
parently to  avoid  the  violence  of  a  tremendous  thunderstorm,  and 
the  clamorous  persecution  of  a  flock  of  Rooks  which  attacked  it 
at  the  same  instant,  it  took  shelter  in  a  thicket,  where  it  was  seized 
before  it  could  extricate  itself,  on  the  6th  of  September.  The  person 
who  caught  it  kept  it  a  month  ;  but  a  door  being  accidentally  left 
open,  it  make  its  escape.  It  first  alighted  on  a  tree,  at  no  great 
distance,  from  which  it  soon  ascended  in  a  spiral  flight  to  a  great 
elevation,  and  then  went  steadily  off  in  a  southerly  direction  as  far 
as  the  eye  could  trace  it.     ("  Linn.  Trans.,"  vol.  xiv.) 

Bill  bluish-black  ;  cere  light  blue  ;  iris  black  ;  tarsi  light  greenish- 
blue  ;  claws  flesh-coloured.  The  general  plumage  above  is  glossy 
black,  with  blue  and  purple  reflexions  ;  the  head,  the  neck,  and  all 
the  under-parts  are  white,  tinged  with  bluish-grey.  Length  two  feet ; 
the  female  is  similar  to  the  male. 

The  Black-v/inged  Swallow-Hawk  {Elanus  melatio- 
■ptcriis). — In  this  genus  the  tail  is  only  slightly  forked,  and  the  tarsi 
are  not  only  short,  but  semi-plumed. 

The  Black-winged  Swallow-Hawk  is  Le  Blac  of  Vaillant.     It  is 


Fig.  1053.-- -The  Black-winged  Swallow-Hawk. 


common  throughout  the  whole  of  Africa,  from  Egypt  and  Barbary 
to  the  Cape.  It  is  found  in  Syria,  and  in  some  parts  of  India  alone 
the  Ganges,  and  in  the  mountain  chain  of  upper  Hindostan.  It  is 
said  to  live  principally  upon  insects,  which  it  catches  with  great 
address  while  on  the  wing.  Its  size  is  that  of  the  Sparrow-IIawk ; 
the  plumage  is  silky ;  general  colour  above  ash-grey  ;  the  shoulders 
black ;  under-parts  and  greater  part  of  taiLivhite  ;  bill  black  ;  tarsi 
yellow.     (See  tig.  1053.)  . 

The  Lead-coloureu  Ictinl\,  or  kriE  Falcon  ilctinia 
^//COTtoz).— Heaa  and  Foot.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  posi- 
tion of  this  genus  ;  Vieillot,  who  founded  it,  regarded  it  as  approach- 
ing the  Kites.  Mr.  Vigors  referred  it  to  the  Buzzards  or  Harriers. 
An  alhed  species  (Falco  mississippiensis,  Wilson)  is  regarded  by 
its  describer  as  a  Kite.     (See  Fig.  1054.) 

The  Lead-coloured  Ictinia  is  a  native  of  America ;  its  powers  of 
wing  are  very  great,  and  it  flies  to  an  astonishing  eleva-  on,  often 

remaining  for  a  long  ti.i  e  poised 
or  stationary.  It  feeds  mi.oh  on  the 
larger  kinds  of  Insects,  ai.d  sweeps 
along  rapidly  in  the  chase.  To 
these  it  adds  Reptiles  and  small 
Quadrupeds.  The  b.ack  and  wings 
are  of  a  slate-blue  ;  the  head  and 
under-parts  whitish  spotted  with 
brown  ;  iris  fine  red. 

W'ilson,  speaking  of  its  relative, 
the  Mississippi  Kite,  states  that 
it  feeds  on  Insects,  and  sails  in 
the  air  with  the  Turkey- Vulture 
— one  looking  out  for  carrion, 
the  other  for  Insects.  "  For  seve- 
ral miles,"  he  adds,  "as  I  passed 
near  Bayo  Manchak,  the  trees 
were  swarming  with  a  kind  of 
cicada,  or  locust,  and  here  I  ob- 
served numbers  of  this  hawk 
sweeping  about  among  the  trees, 
like  swallows,  evidently  in  pursuit 
of  these  locusts  ;  yet  when  we  con- 
template the  beak  and  talons  of 
this  bird,  both  so  sharp  and  power- 
ful, it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
they  were  not  intended  by  nature 
for  some  more  formidable  prey 
than  beetles,  locusts,  and  grass- 
hoppers ;  and  I  doubt  not  but 
mice,  lizards,  snakes,  and  small  birds  furnish  him  with  an  occa- 
sional repast." — "The  long  pointed  wings  and  forked  tail  point 
out  the  affinity  of  this  bird  to  that  family  or  sub-division  of  the  Falco 
genus  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Kites,  which  sail  without 
flapping  the  wings,  and  eat  from  their  talons  as  they  glide  along." 

In  India  the  Kite  is  represented  by  the  Govinda  {M.  go:  I'/ida). 
These  are  very  numerous  in  Calcutta.  The  Bird  will  stoop  down  in 
an  instant  after  any  garbage  that  may  be  thrown  into  the  street, 
seizing  the  fragments  without  alighting,  and  carrying  them  up  into 
the  air.  It  will  also  alight  amongst  the  Crows,  to  feed  upon  any 
larger  pieces  of  carrion  ;  and  the  alliance  between  these  scavengers 
is  rarely  broken  ;  although  it  is  said  that  sometimes,  when  very 
hungry,  a  Kite  will  seize  upon  a  Crow.  The  Govinda  Kite  is  exceed- 
ingly bold,  descending  upon  his  food  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
crowded  street,  and  occasionally  even  stooping  upon  a  dish  of  meat 
on  its  way  from  the  cook's  shop. 

Among  the  living  specimens  of  the  Kite  in  the  collection  of  the 
Zoological  Society  at  Regent's  Park,  London,  are  the  following:^ 
The  Common  Kite  [Mih'ies  regalis)  ;  the  Indian  Kite  {M.  govii'uia); 
the  Black  Kite  {M.  afer) ;  the  African  Black  Kite  (J/,  ccgyptius), 
already  described.     Beside  these  are  the  following  :—  ■ 

The  Caracara  {Polyborus  brasilicnsis);  FORSTr.R's  MilvaGO 
{i/ihago  leucuriis). — These  Birds  represent  a  grou,i  of  Raptorial 
Birds  altogether  peculiar  to  America,  in  which  are  included  several 
species. 

The  Forster's  Milvago  is  exceedingly  common  in  the  Falkland 
Islands.  Mr.  Darwin,  in  his  well-known  "Naturalist'sVoyage,"  gives 
many  details  of  the  tameness  and  voracity  of  this  "  Carrion  Hawk," 
as  he  calls  it.  Both  of  these  species  have  been  already  referred  to. 
In  the  British  Museum  there  are  numerous  specimens  of  Kites,  in- 
cluding some  from  Australia. 

The  Buzzards— Sub-family  Buteonmcs. 
The  Buzzards,  forming  the  sub-family  of  the  Buteoiiina;,  like  the 
Eagles,  have  the  basal  portion  of  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible 
nearly  straight  as  far  as  the  extremity  of  the  cere,  which  covers  more 
of  the  bill  than  in  the  Eagles.  The  bill  is  broader  at  the  base  than 
in  the  other  Hawks,  and  compressed  towards  the  tip,  with  the  sides 
sloping,  and  but  slightly  convex,  and  the  lateral  margins  distinctly 
festooned.  The  wings  are  long,  broad,  and  rounded,  with  the  third 
and  fourth  quills  usually- the  longest.     The  legs  are  short  and  robust, 


Fig.  1054. — The  Lead-coloured 
Ictinia,  or  Kite  Falcon. 


404 


THE  BUZZARDS. 


with  the  tarsi  sometimes  naked,  and  scutellatcd  both  in  front  and 
behind,  frequently  featliered  in  front  half-way,  and  occasionally 
completely  clothed  with  feathers  to  the  base  of  the  toes.  The  latter 
are  rather  short,  and  by  no  means  so  robust  as  those  of  the  Ean-Ies. 

The  Buzzards  greatly  resemble  the  Eagles  in  their  general  form  ; 
but  some  of  them  also  present  affinities  to  the  Hawks  and  Kites, 
both  in  structure  and  habits.  They  are  generally  regarded  as  the 
least  active  of  the  Hawk  family,  but  proceed  with  considerable 
rapidity  when  progressing  in  a  direct  course;  and  often,  like  the 
Eagles,  ascend  to  a  great  height  in  the  air,  and  then  sail  in  circles 
with  extended  wings.  When  searching  for  prey,  the  Buzzards,  like 
the  ordinary  short-winged  Hawks,  fly  along  at  but  a  small  elevation  ; 
their  food  consists  principally  of  small  Birds  and  Quadrupeds,  upon 
which  they  pounce  on  the  ground,  rarely  pursuing  Birds  on  the  wing. 
They  also  feed  upon  Reptiles,  Insects,  and  Worms. 

These  Birds  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  they  are  most 
abundant  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  especially  in  South  America. 
Three  species  are  known  to  occur  in  Europe,  including  the  Bee 
Haw^k,  or  Honey-Buzzard  {Fcrttis  apivorus),  which  is  placed  by 
some  authors  amongst  the  Kites.  All  these  species  are  found  in 
Britain. 

The  Buzzard  {Bufeo  vulgaris). — This  species  is  common  in  all 
the  wooded  countries  of  Europe  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Asia.  It 
is  not  rare  in  England,  but  more  so  in  Scotland.  In  Ireland  it  is 
abundant.  It  occurs  in  the  fur-countries  of  North  America.  This  Bird 
is  termed  La  Buse  by  the  French  ;  Falco  Bottaone  and  Pagana  by 
the  Italians  ;  Mause  Falk  and  Wald  Geyer  by  the  Germans  ;  and 
Bod  teircaill  by  the  ancient  British.  It  is  the  Quidfogel  of  the 
"  Fauna  Suecica." 

The  Buzzard  has  little  of  the  daring  impetuosity  of  the  nobler 
Birds  of  prey,  though  its  strength  and  size  are  considerable.  It  is 
inactive  in  disposition,  and  is  generally  seen  perched  on  the  branch 
of  a  tree ;  whence,  on  perceiving  its  prey,  it  takes  wing,  gliding 
rapidly  and  silently  on  its  victim.     (See  Fig.  1055.)     We  have  fre- 


Fig.  1055.— The  Buzzard. 

quently  observed  it  sailing  with  easy  undulations  over  fallow-lands 
bordering  woods,  evidently  in  quest  of  food.  Rabbits,  Hares,  Rats, 
Reptiles,  and  small  Birds  are  its  prey.  Mr.  Thompson  found  this 
species  sailing  about  the  basaltic  precipices  in  the  county  of  Lon- 
donderry, and  obtained  a  pair  of  young  from  a  nest  previously 
occupied  by  Ravens,  on  a  ledge  midway  down  a  precipice,  at 
Rosheen  mountain,  near  Dunfanaghy.  It  breeds  also  on  the  range 
of  inland  rocks  called  Salagh  Braes,  and  on  another  similar  locality 
in  Antrim  ;  and  also  on  the  promontory  of  Fairhead  in  the  same 
county.  It  builds  on  rocks  also  in  Scotland.  Generally  speaking, 
however,  the  Buzzard  builds  in  tall  trees,  selecting  the  most  re- 
tired part  of  the  wood ;  often  it  appropriates  the  deserted  nest  of  a 
Crow.  The  eggs  are  three  in  number,  larger  than  those  of  a  Hen, 
and  of  a  greenish-white,  slightly  spotted  with  pale  brown.  It  defends 
its  young  with  great  resolution,  and  as  its  strength  is  considerable, 
its  homestead  is  not  to  be  assailed  with  impunity.     The  young  are 


very  vociferous.  The  colour  of  the  Buzzard  is  subject  to  consider- 
able variety,  few  individuals  exactly  coinciding  in  their  markings. 
The  upper  parts  are  usually  of  a  deep  brown  ;  the  inferior,  of  a 
yellowish-white,  with  brown  or  reddish  stains  and  dashes ;  the  tail  is 
barred;  the  bill  is  lead-colour ;  the  cere,  tarsi,  and  iris  yellow.  Male 
twenty  inches  in  length  ;  female  twenty-two. 

Dr.  Richardson  ("  Fauna  Boreali-Americana  ")  states  that  the 
common  Buzzard  arrives  in  the  fur  countries  in  the  middle  of  April ; 
very  soon  afterwards  begins  to  build  its  nest,  and  having  reared  its 
young,  departs  about  the  end  of  September.  It  haunts  the  low  alluvial 
points  of  land  which  stretch  out  under  the  high  banks  of  a  river, 
and  may  be  observed  for  a  long  time  motionless  on  the  bough  of  a 
tree  watching  for  some  small  Quadruped,  Bird,  or  Reptile  to  pass 
w'ithin  its  reach.  As  soon  as  it  espies  its  prey,  it  glides  silently  into 
the  air,  and,  sweeping  easily  but  rapidly  down,  seizes  it  in  its  claws. 
When  disturbed  it  makes  a  short  circuit,  and  soon  settles  on  another 
perch.  One  of  Dr.  Richardson's  specimens  had  two  middle-sized 
Toads  in  its  crop.  It  builds  its  nest  on  a  tree,  of  short  sticks,  lining 
it  with  Deer's  hair.  The  eggs  are,  he  says,  from  three  to  five  in 
number,  and  he  remarks  that  it  was  seen  by  the  Expedition  as  far 
north  as  the  fifty-seventh  parallel,  and  that  it  most  probably  has  a 
still  higher  range.  He  gives  a  description  of  two  :  one,  a  male, 
shot  on  the  17th  of  June,  at  the  nest,  which  contained  three  eggs, 
on  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  ;  and  another  a  female,  killed  at 
the  nest  also,  near  Carlton,  May  zz. 

A  second  British  species,  the  Rough-legged  Buzzard  [B.  lagopits), 
which  is  distinguished  from  the  former  by  its  feathered  tarsi,  is  by 
no  means  so  well  known  here  as  the  common  Buzzard  ;  and,  indeed, 
it  is  only  to  be  regarded  as  a  winter  visitor  from  the  north.  It  is, 
however,  generally  distributed  over  the  continent  of  Europe  ;  has 
been  found  in  Africa  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and 
also  occurs  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  rather  larger 
Bird  than  the  common  Buzzard,  which,  however,  it  closely  resem- 
bles in  its  habits  and  food,  although  it  appears  to  prey  upon  animals 
of  rather  larger  size,  such  as  Rabbits  and  Wild  Ducks.  It  breeds 
in  the  northern  regions,  and  migrates  southwards  for  the  winter. 
Its  nest  is  said  to  be  built  in  high  trees. 

The  Honey-Buzzard  {Perm's  apivorus). — Head  and  Foot.  La 
Bondree  and  Buse  Bondr^e  of  the  French  ;  Wespen-Busard  of  the 
Germans;  Frosch-geyerl  of  Kramer;  Slaghok  of  the  "Fauna 
Suecica  ;  "  Muse-Haeg  and  Muse-Baage  of  ]3runnich  ;  and  Bod-y- 
mel  of  the  ancient  British.     (See  Fig.  1056.) 


Fig.  1056.— Head  and  Foot  of  the  Honey-Buzzard. 

Mr.  Vigors  observes  that  the  genus  Perm's  is  distinguished  by 
the  singular  character  of  the  lorum  that  surrounds  the  eye  being 
covered  with  feathers,  instead  of  being  naked,  as  in  the  other  Fal- 
conidcB,  or  furnished  only  with  hairs.  In  other  respects,  also,  he 
states  the  genus  differs  from  that  of  Buteo ;  the  tarsi  are  reticulated 
anteriorly,  and  the  third  quill-feather  the  longest. 


THE  HARRIERS— THE  VULTURES. 


The  Honey-Buzzard  is  very  rare  in  England,  but  more  common  in 
the  warmer  countries  of  Europe,  where  it  is  migratory.  It  is  found 
in  Asia,  and  specimens  have  been  received  from  various  parts  of 
India.  We  believe  one  instance  only  of  its  having  been  killed  in 
Ireland  is  on  record.  The  Bird  in  question  was  shot  by  R.  G.  Bom- 
ford,  Esq.,  in  his  demesne  of  Annandale,  near  Belfast.  Mr.  Thomp- 
son states  that  the  bill  and  forehead  were  covered  with  Cow-dung, 
from  the  search  the  Bird  had  evidently  been  making  for  Insects. 
The  stomach  contained  some  of  the  larva;  and  fragments  of  Coleop- 
tera  and  various  Caterpillars.  It  is  in  fact  chiefiy  upon  Caterpillars 
and  the  larva;  of  Bees  and  Wasps  that  the  Honcy-Buzzard  feeds, 
together  with  other  Insects,  not,  however,  to  the  exclusion  of  Moles, 
Mice,  Rats,  small  Birds,  Reptiles,  and  Slugs. 

According  to  Vieillot  the  Honey-Buzzard  flies  low,  but  runs  on  the 
ground  with  great  celerity.  It  breeds  in  tall  trees,  making  a  nest 
of  twigs  with  an  inner  layer  of  wool ;  the  eggs  are  two  or  three  in 
number,  of  an  ashy-grey,  dotted  at  each  end  with  small  red  spots, 
and  surrounded  in  the  middle  with  a  broad  blood-red  zone,  or  mot- 
tled all  over  with  two  shades  of  orange-brown. 

The  Honey-Buzzard  is  a  Bird  of  passage,  emigrating  from  Europe 
on  the  approach  of  winter  ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  the  common 
Buzzard,  but  more  slender  :  the  top  of  the  head  is  bluish  ash-colour, 
the  upper-surface  generally  deep  brown,  with  a  greyish  tint  ;  the 
secondary  quill-feathers  are  barred  alternately  with  dusky-brown 
and  grey  ;  under-surface  whitish,  with  triangular  reddish  bars  or 
dashes  ;  tail  crossed  by  three  bars  of  dark  brown. 

The  Harriers — Sub-family  Circincs. 

The  CircintB,  or  Harriers — which  have  the  eyes  and  ears  of  larger 
size  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  family — are  considered  to  approach 
most  closely  to  the  Owls,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  are 
at  all  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  They  have  the  bill  short,  of  mode- 
rate strength,  and  compressed,  with  the  sides  sloping,  and  the 
lateral  margins  slightly  festooned  or  sinuated.  The  wings  are  long, 
and  more  or  less  pointed,  the  third  and  fourth  quills  being  the 
longest ;  and  the  whole  of  the  plumage  is  soft  and  downy,  some- 
what like  that  of  the  Owls,  the  resemblance  to  which  is  increased  in 
some  species  by  the  presence  of  a  sort  of  ruff,  which  runs  from 
behind  the  eyes  to  the  chin.  Tlie  tarsi  are  long  and  slender,  and 
the  toes  are  rather  short. 

Of  this  group  three  species  are  recorded  as  British.  These  are — 
the  Common  or  Ring-tailed  Harrier  {Circus  cyanetis),  the  Marsh 
Harrier,  sometimes  called  the  Moor  Buzzard  ((7.  CBriiginosiis),  and 
Montagu's  Harrier  (C  a'neraceus).  Of  these,  the  first  only,  the 
Ring-tailed  Harrier  {C.  cyaneus,  Fig.  1057),  can  be  called  common  ; 


40s 


Fig.  1057, — Head  of  the  Common  Harrier. 

but  this  species  is  generally  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
In  this  Bird  the  wings  are  about  two  inches  shorter  than  the  tail ;  the 
male  is  of  a  light  bluish-grey  colour,  and  eighteen  or  nineteen  inches 
long ;  and  the  female,  which  is  about  two  inches  longer  than  her 
partner,  is  brown  above,  and  pale  yellowish-red  beneath.  The 
Marsh  Harrier  is  about  two  inches  longer  than  the  common  Harrier ; 
it  is  by  no  means  abundant,  although  it  occurs  in  most  parts  of 
England  and  Wales.  Montagu's  Harrier  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
common  species,  from  which  it  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  great 
length  of  the  wings,  that  reach  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  This 
Bird  also  occurs  in  various  parts  of  England,  but  is  not  very  plen- 
tiful. 

The  Harriers  in  general  feed  upon  small  Quadrupeds,  such  as 
young  Hares,  Rabbits,  Rats,  &c..  Birds,  Reptiles,  and  sometimes 
Insects  and  Fishes.  When  searching  for  their  prey,  they  fly  gentlv 
along,  at  a  small  elevation,  and  appear  to  beat  over  every  part  of 
the  .surface  of  the  ground,  like  a  Dog  hunting  for  game  ;  to  this 
habit,  no  doubt,  they  are  indebted  for  their  name  of  Harriers.     They 


wnpuXBirds'^.non?h'P'''^"P°"''^'^  ^^°""^  =  but  some  species 
Tecn^to  canturo  PnfM.!  -""v:  '"'"'^  '''<^  <^°'"'"0"  "••>"'"  has  been 
SsnhcMe  ind  n,  ■'^''f  '"  "'"  ™^"""-  They  are  found  in  both 
the  world\t  the  nnn'       K  ^'"'^'■■■'''^  '°"'"^^  thc  Warmer  regions  of 

?rLrc^'tsll^\To;gsffu^ro"r''^h^eath''^j;dTh^e'  ne't  """^  °"  "'S 
merely  of  a  few%ticks;with  a  sh^  hnin^of  g^a'^ssTs'  metrrs'e^^e^ 
this  scanty  provision  ,s  dispensed  with,  and  the  eggs  a^  laU^  on  the 
bare  ground.  Occasionally,  however,  thc  nest  is  raised  -,mtl.°frl^ 
the  ground,  in  a  bush.     Tl(e  eggs  are  th?ee  or  four  in  number? 

THE  Vultures— Family  Vulturidec. 
Although  the  parallels  which  some  distinguished  naturalists  in 
the  present  day  have  attempted  to  draw  between  ManZlllTJ^^ 
Birds  sometimes  appear  to  be  rather  overstrained,  there  are  some 
instances  in  which  they  are  too  palpable  to  be  overlooked.  The 
FalcomdcB  represent  the  Lions,  Tigers,  Cats,  and  Musteline  groups  • 
and  m  the  present  family,  a  foul-feeding  race  to  whom  the  most 
loathsome  carrion  is  acceptable,  we  may  trace  an  analogy  to  the 
Hysna,  Jackal,  and  Wild  Dog :  alike  scavengers  of  the  earth 
which  they  clear  of  putrescent  animal  remains,  the  noisome  reiec- 
tanea,  which  would  otherwise  corrupt  the  air  with  pestilential  exha- 
lations. Providence  has  placed  them  in  those  countries  where  their 
services,  disgusting  as  they  are,  are  nevertheless  essential  From 
the  earliest  times  the  Wild  Dogs  and  the  Vultures  have  been  noto- 
rious for  their  participation  in  the  feast  of  carrion,  the  repast  of  the 
slam :  ^ 

iroXXoii£  li  Kvveg  kiu  yvTrig  tSovrai 

Tpwujv." — Hoiuerus,  //iai/,  lib.  xviii.,  line  271. 

And  again,  Ovid — 

"  Unguibus  et  rostro  tardus  trahet  ilia  vultur, 
Et  scindent  avidre  perfida  coida  canes." 

Vultures  are,  however,  less  ferocious  in  their  disposition  than 
Wild  Dogs  or  Hyaenas,  and  seldom  attack  living  prey.  Where  the 
dead  are,  there  are  they  gathered  together  :  sailing  on  wide  and 
ample  wmgs,  they  sweep  from  the  higher  regions  of  the  air  to  their 
repast,  and  gorge  themselves  until  scarcely  able  to  rise  from  the 
ground. 

In  these  Birds  the  beak,  hooked  at  the  point,  varies  in  strength 
and  form.  In  the  more  typical  species  the  head  and  neck  arc 
denuded  of  feathers,  or  only  covered  with  a  little  down,  while  round 
the  bottom  of  the  latter  is  a  ruff  of  soft  or  slender  feathers,  arising 
from  a  loose  fold  of  skin,  within  which  they  can  withdraw  the  neck 
and  even  the  greatest  part  of  the  head,  while  they  remain  in  a  semi- 
torpid  state,  motionless  as  statues,  during  the  digestion  of  their 
meal. 

On  the  breast  and  over  the  crop  the  skin  is  bare,  or  at  most 
scantily  covered  ;  the  limbs  are  of  moderate  strength,  but  the  toes 
are  feeble,  and  unarmed  with  formidable  talons  ;  and  they  seldom 
attempt  to  remove  their  carrion  food,  but  continue  with  it  till  satis- 
fied. The  plumage  generally  consists  of  stiff  large  feathers  over- 
lying each  other,  and  forming  an  almost  shot-proof  defence.  The 
wings  are  ample.  It  has  been  a  matter  of  much  discussion  as  to 
whether  it  is  by  their  extraordinary  powers  of  vision,  or  by  the  keen- 
ness of  their  scent,  that  Vultures  detect  their  food.  It  has  been  fre- 
quently noticed,  that  when  the  sky  seems  clear,  when  not  a  wing- 
can  be  seen  in  the  glowing  expanse  above,  no  sooner  does  an  animal 
fall — no  sooner  has  the  hunter  slain  and  left  his  quarry — than,  as  if 
suddenly  called  into  existence,  multitudes  of  Vultures  are  observed 
pouring  from  the  sky  and  thronging  to  the  feast. 

The  ancient  classic  writers  teem  with  passages  attributing  to  thc 
Vulture  an  acute  and  discriminating  scent : 

"Nare  sagaci 
AtJra  non  sanum,  motumque  cadavere  sentit." 

LUCAN. 

'   "...  Per  auras  .  .  .  long&  ducuntur  odore  volturii  cadaveribus." 

Lucretius. 

And  Pliny,  speaking  of  the  senses,  says:  "Ex  sensibus  ante  cstera 
homini  tactus  ;  deinde  gustatus  ;  reliquis  superatur  a  multis,  aquila; 
clariils  cernunt,  vultures  sagaciijs  odorantur."  With  the  experience 
of  the  ancients  agree  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Waterton,  while  Mr. 
Audubon  as  strenuously  maintains  that  it  is  on  sight  alone  that  the 
Vulture  depends,  and  such  appears  to  be  the  opinion  of  Le  Vaillant.  - 
"Desirous,"  says  this  naturalist,  "of  observing  how  so  great  a 
number  of  vultures  could  congregate  together  in  so  short  a  time,  I 
concealed  myself  one  day  in  a  thicket,  after  having  killed  a  large 
gazelle,  which  I  left  upon  the  spot.  In  an  instant  a  number  of 
ravens  made  their  appearance,  fluttering  about  the  animal,  and 
loudly  croaking.  In  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  these  birds  were 
reinforced  by  the  arrival  of  kites  and  buzzards ;  and  immediately 
after^vards  1  perceived,  on  raising  my  head,  a  flight  of  birds  at  a 
prodigious  height,  wheeling  round  and  round  in  their  descent 


4b6 


SENSES  OF  THE    VULTURES 


These  I  soon  recognised  to  be  vultures,  which  seemed,  if  I  may  so 
express  myself,  to  escape  from  a  cavern  in  the  sky.  They  seemed 
almost  to  precipitate  themselves  from  the  clouds  to  share  the  spoil, 
but  my  presence  caused  them  speedily  to  disappear.  Thus  then  it 
is  that  the  vultures  are  called  upon  to  participate  their  prey:  the 
first  carnivorous  birds  that  discover  a  Cafcass  rouse  the  others  which 
happen  to  be  in  the  environs  by  their  cries  and  actions.  If  the 
nearest  vulture  does  not  spy  his  prey  from  the  lofty  region  of  the 
air  in  which  he  swims  by  means  of  his  wide-spread  wings,  he  per- 
ceives at  least  the  subaltern  and  more  terrestrial  birds  of  prey  pre- 
paring to  take  possession  of  it :  but  perhaps  he  himself  has  suffi- 
cient power  of  vision  to  enable  him  to  discover  it ;  he  descends 
hastily  and  with  a  wheeling  flight,  and  his  fall  directs  the  other 


♦  Fig.  105S. — Egyptian  Vultures. 

vultures  who  witness  his  evolutions,  and  who  have,  no  doubt  their 
instinct  sharpened  with  regard  to  everything  that  concerns'  their 
food."  Notwithstanding  this,  and  various  experiments  by  Mr. 
Audubon,  we  by  no  means  concur  in  the  attempted  deduction  that 
the  Vulture  is  destitute  of  the  powers  of  smell.  Professor  Owen, 
in  his  account  of  the  dissection  of  the  olfactory  organs  of  the  Turkey- 
Buzzard,  thus  concludes  :  "The  above  notes  show  that  the  vulture 
has  a  well-developed  organ  of  smell  ;  but  whether  he  finds  his  prey 
by  that  sense  alone,  or  in  what  degree  it  assists,  anatomy  is  not  so 
well  calculated  to  explain  as  experiment."  ("  Zool.  Proceeds.," 
1S.57.  P-  35-) 

_  Professor  Owen's  details  are  appended  to  the  following  observa- 
tions on  the  habits  of  the  Turkey-Buzzard,  called  John   Crow  in 


Jamaica,  where  a  fine  of  five  pounds  was  imposed  upon  those  who 
destroyed  the  Bird  within  a  stated  distance  of  the  principal  towns. 
The  writer  is  Mr.  W.  Sells  :  "  It  has,"  he  says,  "  been  questioned 
whether  the  vulture  discovers  its  food  by  means  of  the  organ  of 
smell  or  that  of  sight.  I  apprehend  that  its  powers  of  vision  are 
very  considerable,  and  of  most  important  use  to  the  bird  in  that 
point  of  view  ;  but  that  it  is  principally  from  highly  organised  olfac- 
tories that  it  so  speedily  receives  intelligence  of  where  the  savoury 
morsel  is  to  be  found,  will  plainly  appear  by  the  following  facts.  In 
hot  climates  the  burial  of  the  dead  commonly  takes  place  in  about 
twenty-four  hours  after  death,  and  that  necessarily,  so  rapidly  does 
decomposition  take  place.  On  one  occasion  I  had  to  make  a  post- 
mortem examination  of  a  body  within   twenty  hours   after   death, 

in  a  mill-house,  completely  con- 
cealed, and  while  so  engaged 
the  roof  of  the  mill-house 
was  quickly  studded  with  these 
birds.  Another  instance  was 
that  of  an  old  patient  and 
much-valued  friend  who  died 
at  midnight ;  the  family  had 
to  send  for  necessaries  for  the 
funeral  to  Spanish  Town,  dis- 
tant thirty  miles,  so  that  the 
interment  could  not  take  place 
till  noon  next  day,  or  thirty-six 
hours  after  his  decease,  long 
before  which  time,  and  a  most 
painful  sight  it  was,  the  ridge 
of  the  shingled  roof  of  his 
house,  a  large  mansion  of  but 
one  floor,  had  a  number  of  these 
melancholy-looking  heralds  of 
death  perched  thereon,  besides 
many  more  which  had  settled 
on  trees  in  its  immediate  vi- 
cinity. In  these  cases  the 
birds  must  have  been  directed 
by  smell  alone,  as  sight  was 
totally  out  of  the  question." 

In  opposition  to  the  above 
opinion,  it  has  been  stated  by 
Mr.  Audubon  that  Vultures  and 
other  Birds  of  prey  possess  the 
sense  of  smell  in  a  very  inferior 
degree  to  Carnivorous  Quad- 
rupeds ;  and  that,  so  far  from 
guiding  them  to  their  prey 
from  a  distance,  it  affords  them 
no  indication  of  its  presence 
even  when  close  at  hand.  In 
confirmation  of  this  opinion, 
he  relates  that  he  stuffed  the 
skin  of  a  Deer  full  of  hay  and 
placed  it  in  a  field,  and  that  in 
a  few  minutes  a  Vulture  lighted 
near  it,  and  directly  proceeded 
to  attack  it  ;  but  finding  no 
eatable  food,  at  length  quitted 
it.  He  further  relates  that  a 
dead  Dog  was  concealed  in 
a  narrow  ravine,  twenty  feet 
beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground  around  it,  and  filled 
with  briars  and  high  canes ; 
that  many  Vultures  were  seen 
sailing  in  all  directions  over 
the  spot,  but  that  none  dis- 
covered it.  We  may  remark 
upon  the  above  experiments 
that  the  Deer  was  doubtless 
seen  hy  the  Birds,  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  they  might  not 
also  have  smelt  the  hide, 
though  inodorous  to  the  human  nose;  in  the  second  case,  the  Birds 
had  undoubtedly  been  attracted  by  the  smell,  however  embar- 
rassed they  might  have  been  by  the  concealment  of  the  object  which 
caused  it.  We  have  in  many  hundred  instances  seen  the  Vulture 
feeding  upon  small  objects  under  rocks  and  bushes,  and  in  other 
situations,  where  it  was  utterly  impossible  that  the  Bird  could  have 
discovered  it  but  through  the  sense  of  smell ;  and  we  are  to  recollect 
that  the  habit  of  the  Vulture  is  that  of  soaring  aloft  in  the  air,  and 
not  that  of  foraging  upon  the  ground. 

The  inference  we  have  drawn  from  experiments,  anatomy,  and 
analogy,  is,  that  both  the  eye  and  the  olfactory  organs  of  the  Vulture 
(and  we  may  add  the  Crow,  the  Raven,  &c.)  aid  this  Bird  in  its 
pursuit  of  food.     We  generally  find  every  sense  in  due  degree  sub- 


THE   TURKEY-BUZZARD— THE  BLACK  VULTURE. 


407 


servient  to  the  necessities,  habits,  and  appointed  work  of  animals  '• 
hence,  where  odour  is  a  prevailing-  characteristic  of  food,  that  the 
organs  of  the  animal  intended  to  devour  that  food  should  be  insen- 
sible to  it,  seems  an  anomaly. 

The  Egyptian  Vulture  {Neophi-on  pcrcnopterus). — Vautour 
Ourig-ourap  of  Vaillant ;  Rachamah,  or  Pharaoh's  Chicken,  of  Bruce 
and  others  ;  Avoltoio  aquilina  and  Caporaccajo  of  the  Italians  ; 
Maltese  Vultur,  Latham.  This  species  is  found  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
Malta,  Turkey,  and  in  the  Archipelago  ;  abundant  in  Africa,  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  Southern  Russia.  In  October,  1825,  one  of  these  Birds, 
gorged  with  food,  was  shot  near  Kilve,  Somersetshire  ;  and  another 
of  the  same  species  was  seen,  but  escaped.  The  utility  of  these 
Birds  in  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  in  clearing  the  streets  of 
filth  of  every  description,  a  task  which  they  undertake  in  common 
with  the  Pariah  Dogs,  has  been  often  alluded  to  by  travellers.  Nor 
were  the  services  of  this  Vulture  less  valued  in  ancient  than  in 
modern  times  ;  it  was  among  the  number  of  the  sacred  animals  of 
Egypt,  and  is  often  accurately  represented  on  their  monuments. 
Hence  the  appellation  of  Pharaoh's  Chicken.  A  constant  attendant 
on  the  caravan  as  it  pursues  its  way  from  town  to  town  ;  an  assi- 
duous frequenter  of  the  shambles  ;  an  industrious  searcher  for  car- 
rion, it  merits,  at  least  as  far  as  public  utility  is  concerned,  the 
regards  of  the  community  ;  nor  are  its  services  overlooked  :  if  not 
reverenced  in  the  present  day  as  a  deity,  it  is  still  protected  as  a 
benefactor.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Gibraltar,  and  in  the  south  of 
Spain  generally,  flocks  of  this  Vulture  are  annually  seen  ;  most  pro- 
bably they  winter  in  Africa,  but  of  this  we  have  no  decided  informa- 
tion. Captain  S.  E.  Cook  says  that  he  saw  them,  near  Seville,  fol- 
lowing the  track  of  the  plough,  like  rooks,  in  order  to  devour  the 
grubs  in  the  upturned  soil.     (See  Fig.  1058.) 

The  long  and  ample  w'ings  of  the  Egyptian  Vulture  give  it  amazing 
powers  of  flight,  and  enable  it  to  soar  with  great  buoyancy.  Like 
the  rest  of  the  family,  however,  when  gorged  to  repletion  with  its 
foul  diet,  it  becomes  so  sluggish  and  unwieldy  as  scarcely  to  be  able 
to  raise  itself  from  the  ground,  and  indeed  in  this  state  may  be  easily 
captured ;  not  that  the  task  would  be  very  pleasant,  so  strong  and 
disgusting  is  the  effluvium  which  it  emits. 

Bruce  considers  this  Bird  to  be  the  Rachamah  of  Scripture  (see 
the  Appendi.x  to  his  "  Travels  "),  such  being  the  name  by  which  it 
is  now  known  in  Egypt.  In  size  the  Egyptian  Vulture  somewhat 
exceeds  a  Raven,  its  length  being  2  feet  5  or  6  inches,  and  the  ex- 
panse of  its  wings  about  5  feet  8  or  9  inches.  When  in  complete 
plumage  it  is  of  a  uniform  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  greater 
quill-feathers,  which  are  black.  The  forehead,  cheeks,  and  throat 
are  naked,  the  skin  being  of  a  livid  yellow.  The  eyes  are  dark.  The 
bill  is  slender  and  straight,  abruptly  hooked  at  the  tip.  This  state 
of  plumage  is  acquired  by  successive  changes,  the  first  livery  being 
umber-brown,  which  is  gradually  exchanged  at  each  moult  for 
lighter  and  lighter  tints,  till  the  purity  of  the  white  is  complete.  It 
breeds  in  the  clefts  of  rocks  and  on  elevated  places  ;  its  eggs  are 
stated  to  be  three  or  four  in  number,  and  of  a  white  colour.  Fig. 
1059  represents  the  head  of  this  species. 


F!g.  1059. — Head  of  Egyptian  Vulture. 

The  TuRKEY-buzzARD,  American  Vulture,  or  Turkey- 
Vulture  {Cathartes  aura). — This  species  is  spread  through  South 
America  and  the  southern  section  of  the  United  States.  It  is  com- 
mon in  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  islands. 

According  to  Wilson,  the  Turkey-Buzzard  is  gregarious,  roosting 
in  flocks  on  the  limbs  of  large  trees  ;  rows  of  them  may  be  seen  on  a 
summer  morning  spreading  out  their  wings  to  the  rising  sun,  and 
remaining  in  that  posture  for  a  considerable  time.  They  are,  he 
adds,  often  seen  in  companies  soaring  at  an  immense  height,  par- 
ticularly previous  to  a  thunder-storm.  His  observations  allude  to 
this  Bird  as  observed  by  him  in  New  Jersey.  Mr.  Darwin,  on  the 
contrary,  states  that  "  the  turkey-buzzard  is  a  solitary  bird,  or  at 
most  goes  in  pairs.  It  may  at  once  be  recognised  frorn  a  long  dis- 
tance by  its  lofty  soaring  and  most  elegant  flight.     It  is  well  known 


to  be  a  true  carrion  feeder.  On  the  west  coast  of  Patagonia,  amon? 
the  thickly-wooded  islets  and  broken  land,  it  lives  exclusively  on 
what  the  sea  throws  up,  and  on  the  carcasses  of  dead  seals  ;  and 
wherever  these  animals  are  congregated  on  the  rocks,  there  the 
vu  tures  may  bo  seen."  Mr.  Watcrton  observes,  that  though  tlocks 
collect  as  to  a  common  feast,  still  he  does  not  consider  the  Turkey- 
Buzzard  to  be  gregarious,  properly  speaking-that  is,  they  do  not 
torm  a  colony,  like  Rooks,  but  each  pair  pursues  its  separate  inter- 
ests. We  suspect  that  this  applies  to  most  other  Vultures  which 
congregate  round  the  grand  object  of  attraction— their'  putrid 
banquet. 

The  Turkey-Buzzard  breeds  in  May,  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the 
solitary  swamps  of  New  Jersey,  as  Wilson  informs  us,  the  female 
making  no  nest,  but  laying  her  eggs  in  the  hollow  of  some  decayed 
stump  of  a  tree  or  log  ;  the  eggs  are  three  or  four  in  number,  of  a 
dull  white,  blotched,  especially  at  the  larger  end,  with  chocolate 
brown  and  dashes  of  black.  The  male  often  watches  while  the 
female  is  sitting,  and,  if  not  disturbed,  the  same  pair  will  occupy  the 
same  breeding-place  for  many  years  in  succession.  The  young  are 
at  first  clothed  with  whitish  down.  Botli  young  and  old,  if  moU'^stt-d, 
disgorge  the  offensive  contents  of  their  stomachs,  so  that  it  is  not 
safe  to  attempt  to  touch  them. 

The  Turkey- Vulture  is  two  feet  and  a-half  in  length.  The  bill  is 
light  horn-colour  ;  the  nostrils  arc  wide  slits  ;  the  eyes  are  dark  ; 
the  head  and  neck,  for  about  an  inch  below  the  ears,  are  naked,  the 
skin  being  reddish,  wrinkled,  and  beset  with  short  hairs,  but  the 
neck  is  not  so  much  carunculated  as  that  of  the  Black  Vulture. 
From  the  back  of  the  head  to  the  neck-feathers  the  space  is  covered 
with  down  of  a  sooty-black  colour;  the  fore  part  of  the  neck  to  the 
crop  is  bare.  The  general  colour  of  the  plumage  is  glossy  brownish- 
black,  with  green  reflexions  ;  bill  elongated,  feeble,  and  curved  only 
at  the  point.     (See  Fig.  1060.) 


Fig.  1060. — The  Turkey-BuzzarJ. 

The  Black  Vulture,  or  Gallinazo  {Cathartes  atratus). — 
The  Gallinazo  inhabits  South  America  and  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
northern  division  of  that  continent ;  and  in  South  Carolina,  Savan- 
nah, Georgia,  &c.,  maybe  seen  in  numbers  sauntering  about  the 
streets  or  sunning  itself  on  the  tops  of  houses;  multitudes  maybe 
often  observed  in  the  fields,  congregated  round  the  carcass  of  any 
dead  animal,  and  blackening  the  ground  like  a  flock  of  Rooks  :  they 
keep  up  a  continual  hissing  while  engaged  in  their  feast,  from  which 
it  is  not  easy  to  drive  them,  having  become  confident  from  long  and 
universal  tolerance. 

Wilson  says  that  the  Black  Vultures  are  indolent  in  their  habits, 
loitering  for  hours  together  in  one  place.  They  do  not  associate 
with  the  Turkey-Buzzard,  from  which  they  differ  not  only  in  their 
much  darker  colour  and  other  details,  but  also  in  flight.  They  rise 
flapping  their  wings,  and  then  sail  with  them  extended  nearly  hori- 
zontally ;  while  the  Turkey-Buzzard  seldom  flaps  its  wings ;  and 
when  sailing  they  form  an  angle  with  the  body  upwards.  The 
Black  Vulture  on  the  ground  hops  along  very  awkwardly  ;  but  the 
Turkey-Buzzard  moves  with  an  even  gait  :  the  latter,  unless  pressed 
by  hunger,  will  not  cat  of  a  carcass  until  it  becomes  putrid  ;  the 
former  is  not  so  fastidious,  but  will  devour  animal  food  without  dis- 
tinction. 

According  to  Mr.  Darwin,  the  Gallinazo  has  a  different  range  in- 
South  America  from  the  Turkey-Buzzard,  "  as  it  never  occurs  to  the 
southward  of  latitude  41°.  Azara  states  that  there  existed  a  tradi- 
tion that  these  birds  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  were  not  to  bo 
found  at  Monte  Video,  but  that  they  subsequently  followed  the  in- 
habitants from  the  more  northern  districts.  At  the  present  day 
they  are  numerous  in  the  valley  of  the  Colorado,  which  is  300  miles 
due  south  of  Monte  Video.  It  seems  probable  that  this  additional 
migration  has  happened  since  the  time  of  Azara.  The  gallinazo 
generally  prefers  a  humid  climate,  or  rather  the  neighbourhood  of 
fresh  water  :  hence  it  is  extremely  abundant  in  Brazil  and  La  Plata, 


4o8 


THE  GRIFFON  AND  CINEREOUS   VULTURES. 


■while  it  is  never  found  on  the  desert  and  arid  plains  of  Northern 
Patagonia,  excepting  near  some  stream.  These  birds  frequent  the 
■nhole  Pampas  to  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera,  but  I  never  saw  or  heard 
of  one  in  Chile  :  in  Peru  they  are  preserved  as  scavengers.  These 
vultures  certainly  may  be  called  gregarious,  for  they  seem  to  have 
pleasure  in  society,  and  are  not  solely  brought  together  by  the 
attraction  of  a  common  prey.  On  a  fine  day  a  flock  may  often  be 
observed  at  a  great  height,  each  bird  wheeling  round  and  round 
without  closing  its  wings,  in  the  most  graceful  evolutions.  This  is 
clearly  done  for  sport-sake,  or  perhaps  is  connected  with  their  matri- 
monial alliances." 

The  Gallinazo  builds  its  nest  in  the  large  trees  of  the  low  swamps. 
Its  length  is  twenty-six  inches.  The  head  and  part  of  the  neck  are 
covered  with  a  black,  wrinkled,  carunculated  skin,  beset  with  short 
black  hairs,  and  downy  behind ;  the  nostrils  are  oblong  slits.  The 
general  colour  is  dull  black,  except  the  primaries,  which  are  whitish 
on  the  inner  vane,  with  a  cream-white  bar  on  the  outer  vane  of  the 
first  four. 

The  Califomian  Vulture  {Cathartes  californianus)  is  the  largest 
of  these  rapacious  Birds,  and  chiefly  frequents  the  region  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Griffon  Vulture,  or  Tawny  Vulture  {Gyps  fiilvus ; 
Vultur  ficlvus). — ^This  large  species,  which  may  be  regarded  as  an 
example  of  the  more  typical  forms  of  this  group  of  Birds,  is  a  native 
of  Silesia,  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  Spain,  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps, 
Turkey,  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  Arabia,  Syria,  Persia,  and  Africa. 
It  is  Le  Griffon  of  the  French  ;  Weisskopfiger  Geier  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Avoltoio  di  color  costagno  of  the  Italians. 

Like  all  its  tribe,  the  Griffon  feeds  upon  dead  carcasses,  to  which 
it  is  attracted  in  considerable  numbers,  and  when  once  it  has  made 
a  lodgment  upon  its  prey  it  rarely  quits  the  banquet  while  a  morsel  of 
flesh  remains  ;  so  that  it  may  be  sometimes  seen  perched  upon  the 


Fig.  1061.— The  Griffon  Vulture. 

putrescent  mass  for  several  successive  days.  It  never  attempts  to 
carry  off  any  portion  in  its  claws,  not  even  to  satisfy  its  young,  but 
feeds  them  by  disgorging  the  half-digested  morsel  from  its  maw 
— the  ordinary  manner  indeed  in  which  the  Vultures  rear  their  young, 
and  which  is  very  different  fromi  that  of  the  Eagles,  Falcons,  Hawks, 
&c.,  who  bring  living  or  yet  reeking  prey  to  their  nest,  and  tear  it 
up  for  their  brood. 

Occasionally  this  Vulture  attacks  sickly  animals  incapable  of  de- 
fending themselves  :  but  this  is  only  when  no  other  mode  of  satisfy- 
ing its  appetite  presents.  After  gorging  itself  to  repletion,  the 
Griffon  assumes  an  unchanged  attitude,  and  patiently  waits  till  the 
process  of  digestion  is  complete  :  if  disturbed,  it  is  incapable  of 
flight  until  it  has  freed  its  maw  from  the  oppressive  load. 

The  powers  of  wing  possessed  by  the  Griffon  are  very  great,  and 


it  often  soars  to  such  a  pitch  as  to  become  invisible  to  human  sight. 
In  captivity  it  is  apathetic,  or  at  least  is  only  roused  to  animation 
by  the  calls  of  hunger ;  and  having  feasted,  it  resumes  its  listless 
composure.  Head  and  neck  covered  with  close  white  down  ;  lower 
part  of  the  neck  surrounded  by  a  ruff  of  long,  slender,  white 
feathers  ;  a  space  on  the  middle  of  the  breast  is  covered  with  white 
down.  General  colour  fulvous  or  yellowish-brown,  verging  towards 
buff;  quill  and  tail  feathers  blackish-brown  :  length  upwards  of  four 
feet ;  female  larger  than  the  male.  The  general  plumage  of  the 
young  is  yellow,  variegated  with  markmgs  of  grey,  and  the  down  of 
the  neck  is  more  or  less  brown.     (See  Fig.  1061.) 

The  Cinereous  Vulture  (  Vuliurcinercus;  Viilturmonackus). 
—  Gyps  cincrc2is,  Savigny  ;  Vautour  arrian  and  Vautour  noir  of  the 
French  ;  Grauer  Geier  of  the  Germans.  This  species  is  a  native  of 
the  forests  of  Hungary,  the  south  of  Spain,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Western 
Asia,  Egypt,  and  India.  In  its  habits,  though  the  beak  is  stouter, 
and  the  claws  more  curved  than  in  most  Vultures  (the  Sociable  and 
Pondicherry  Vultures  resembling  it  in  these  particulars),  the  Cinere- 
ous Vulture  agrees  with  the  rest  of  its  race.  Tcmminck  states  that 
its  food  consists  of  carrion,  but  never  of  living  animals,  towards 
which  it  manifests  fear.  Bechstein,  on  the  contrary,  states  that 
in  the  winter  this  Vulture  descends  from  the  mountain-ranges  into 
the  plains,  where  it  attacks  not  only  Hares,  Goats,  and  Sheep,  but 
even  Deer.  The  farmers  are  said  to  suffer  severely  from  its  depreda- 
tions, for  it  will  frequently  pick  out  the  eyes  of  a  Sheep  ;  but,  as  it  is 
not  shy,  often  pays  the  penalty  of  its  life  to  the  watchful  hunter,  who 
is  well  paid  for  shooting  the  marauder. 

Back  of  the  head  and  neck  denuded  of  feathers ;  the  skin  of  a 
bluish  cast ;  on  the  rest  of  the  neck  a  yellow  down  ;  sides  of  the  neck 
furnished  with  curled  feathers,  and  an  ample  tuft  of  long  loose  fea- 
thers at  the  insertion  of  the  wings  ;  general  colour  chocolate-brown  ; 
tarsi  half-plumed.  Length  near  four  feet ;  female  rather  larger. 
(See  Fig.  1062.) 


Fig.  1062. — The  Cinereous  Vulture. 

The  Sociable  Vulture  ( F?/////r,  or  Otogyps  attricularis).^ 
Oricou  of  Le  Vaillant  ;  T'Ghaip  of  the  Hottentots.  This  noble 
Bird,  a  native  of  South  Africa,  is  said  by  Le  Vaillant  to  be  gregari- 
ous in  its  habits,  numbers  associating  together  in  building  their 
nests  in  the  fissures  of  craggy  rocks,  two  or  three  nests  being  some- 
times in  the  same  fissure  or  cavern,  side  by  side,  and  others  in  ad- 
jacent crevices  :  hence  the  title  of  Sociable,  a  title  which  Dr.  A. 
Smith  considers  to  be  founded  on  error.  He  never  met  with  more 
than  one  nest  actually  occupied  on  the  same  tree  (not  fissure  of  a 
rock).  The  mistake  has  probably  originated  in  a  new  nest  being 
occasionally  built  adjoining  to  an  old  one  which  had  been  deserted 
on  account  of  its  having  become  unserviceable.  The  Bird,  he  adds, 
seems  but  little  disposed  to  sociability  ;  more  than  two  are  rarely 
seen  together,  and  if  four  occur  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  carcass, 
the  number  is  considered  as  great ;  while  of  the  Griffon  Vulture  it  is 
by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  a  hundred  or  even  more  congregated 


THE   PONDICHERRY,   CHINESE,  AND  KOLBE   VULTURES. 


409 


where  carrion  exists.  Head  and  neck  red  and  naked  ;  folds  of  skin 
originatinsf  behind  the  cars  and  passing  down  the  sides  of  the  neck  ; 
ruff  of  feathers  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  black  ;  goneral  plumage 
blackish-brown;  feathers  of  the  undcr-pavts  long  and  narrow,  cover- 
ing a  fine  white  down.  Length  nearly  four  feet ;  expanse  of  wings 
ten  feet.     (See  Fig.  1063.) 

The  Pondicherry  Vulture  (  Vitlhir  calvus  ;  Vtdtiir  ^onti- 
ccrra>tt/s). — This  species,  which  offers  nothing  differing  from  its 
race  in  habits  and  food,  is  found  abundantly  in  various  parts  of 
India,  as  Bengal,  &c.  Colonel  Sykes  met  with  it  in  the  Dukhun. 
It  is  solitar}',  more  than  two  being  seldom  if  ever  seen  together. 
The  top  of  the  skull  is  remarkably  broad  and  flat;  a  fold  of  skin, 


Fig.  1063. — The  Sociable  Vulture. 


arismg  below  the  ears,  runs  down  each  side  of  the  neck,  which  is 
flesh-coloured  and  naked,  a  few  scattered  hairs  being  dispersed  over 
It ;  ruff  at  the  base  of  the  neck  composed  of  short  rounded  feathers. 
Crop  covered  with  down;  plumage  generally  blackish-brown. 
Length  thirty-si.x  inches.     (See  Fig.  1064.) 

The  Chinese  Vulture  ( Vu/tur  le!icono/tis).—\  beautiful  speci- 
men of  this  Vulture  has  been  living  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society.  It  equals  a  Turkey  in  size  :  the  general  colour  is  brownish- 
black  ;  lower  part  of  the  back,  under  side  of  wings,  and  inner  side 
of  thighs  white  ;  when  the  wings  are  closed,  the  white  of  the  black 
is  not  seen.  Head  brownish-black,  witli  short  black  hairs;  back  of 
the  neck  covered  with  whitish  down  ;  the  front  of  it  bare  and  of  a 
livid  flesh-colour ;  ruff  at  the  base  of  the  neck  dirty-white  ;  white 
feathers  from  each  side  lap  over  the  crop  ;  cere  blackish  ;  bill  horn- 
colour  ;  iris  dark.  In  aspect  and  manners  this  species  is  similar  to 
the  rest  of  its  race  ;  and  in  captivity  it  is  contented.  (See  Fig.  106^.) 

Kolbe's,  or  South  African  Vulture  {Vu/tur  kolhii;  Gyps 
kolbii). — This  species  is  generally  dispersed  through  Africa  and 
India;  it  occasionally  visits  Sardinia.     In  South  Africa  it  is  very 


Fig.  1065. — The  Chinese  Vulture. 


Fig.  1064. — The  Pondicherry  Vulture. 


Fig.  1066. — Kolbe's  Vulture. 


3G 


410 


THE   INDIAN    VULTURE— THE    CONDOR. 


numerous.  Dr.  A.  Smith,  speaking  of  Kolbe's  Vulture,  the  VuUur 
atiriciilaris,  and  another  species,  the  Vultitr  occipitaUs,  says, 
"The  three  foregoing  birds  feed  exclusively  on  carrion.  The 
Viiltiir  kolbii,  though  not  the  most  powerful,  is  by  far  the  most 
courageous  species,  and  while  it  is  feeding  neither  of  the  others  will 
venture  to  approach  its  prey.  Its  numbers,  moreover,  are  very  great 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  two  other  species,  hundreds  of  them 
appearing  wherever  there  is  carrion  to  attract  them.  So  numerous 
are  they,  indeed,  that  when  an  ox,  a  horse,  or  other  large  quad- 
ruped lies  dead,  they  assemble  in  hundreds,  and  in  a  few  hours  the 
whole  of  the  carcass  is  consumed.     At  such  a  time  many  of  these 


Fig.  1067. — The  Indian  Vulture. 


Fig.  Io68. — Condors. 


rapacious  birds  may  be  observed  so  exceedingly  gorged,  as  to  be 
quite  unable  to  fly ;  when  they  may  be  beaten  to  death  with  sticks  : 
but  their  assailants  run  the  hazard  of  being  severely  wounded  with 
the  strong  beaks  of  the  birds,  which  even  in  this  state  will  defend 
themselves  with  the  greatest  vigour." 

Kolbe's  Vulture  is  closely  allied  to  the  Griffon  Vulture,  which  it 
closely  resembles  in  colouring,  but  is  less  in  size.  In  Kolbe's  Vul- 
ture tine  feathers  of  the  wings  of  the  lower  parts  are  all  rounded  at 
the  end  :  in  the  Griffon  Vulture  they  are  long  and  pointed.  In 
Kolbe's  Vulture  the  ruff  is  neither  so  long  nor  so  abundant  as  in  the 
Griffon  ;  the  plumage  of  the  adult  is  nearly  of  a  whitish  Isabella 
colour  ;  while  that  of  the  adult  Griffon  is  of  a  uniform  bright  brown 
throughout.     (See  Fig.  1066.) 

The  Indian  'Vvsi.ivky.  {Vulture  indiais ;  Gyjis indicus). — Tliis 
Vulture  is  common  throughout  the  whole  of  India.  It  is  a  voracious 
Bird,  and  may  be  seen  lingering  on  the  sea-shore,  preying  on  dead 
Fish,  and  the  putrescent  exuvise  of  the  waters,  left  by  the  waves  on 
the  beach.  Flocks  follow  armies,  and  multitudes  assemble  on  the 
battle-field,  for  "  where  the  slain  are,  there  are  they." 

Head  and  neck  destitute  of  feathers  ;  all  the  upper  plumage 
yellowish  ash-colour,  varied  with  brown  and  greyish-white  ;  undcr- 
parts  yellow ;  breast  covered  with  close  down  of  a  brown  tint ;  bill 
black,  lighter  at  the  point  ;  naked  skin  of  the  head  rusty  ash. 
Length  forty-two  inches.  Colonel  Sykes  says  these  Birds  "  congre- 
gate in  flocks  of  twenty  or  thirty.  On  a  dead  camel  or  horse  or 
bullock  being  thrown  out  on  the  plain,  numbers  of  these  vultures  are 
found  assembled  round  it  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  though  they 
may  not  have  been  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  for  weeks  before." 
(See  Fig.  1067.) 

The  Condor  {Sarcoratnphus  gryphus). — The  exaggerated  ac- 
counts of  the  earlier  writers  and  the  naturalists,  who  painted  this 
Bird  as  rivalling  the  Rukh  or  Roc  of  Oriental  fable,  have  given 
place  to  the  moderate  details  of  sober-minded  observers,  and  we  no 
longer  look  upon  this  Vulture  as  the  winged  guardian  of  the  moun- 
tain-mines, within  whose  depths  were  entombed  "gems  and  bar- 
baric gold,"  the  freightage  of  a  thousand  royal  argosies,  treasures, 

"  Which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind." 

We  no  longer  imagine  it  the  giant  of  the  winged  race,  dimming  the 
light  of  the  sun  by  its  wide-spread  pinions,  or,  by  their  mighty 
rushing  as  it  sweeps  down  from  some  lofty  pinnacle,  or  the  upper 
regions  of  the  sky,  deafening  and  stupefying  the  terror-stricken 
beholders. 

To  the  scrutiny  of  the  Baron  Von  Humboldt,  and  of  M.  Bonpland, 
we  owe  the  reduction  of  the  Bird  to  its  proper  dimensions.    Nestling 

in  the  most  solitary  places,  often 
upon  the  ridges  of  rocks,  which 
border  the  lower  limit  of  perpetual 
snow,  and  crowned  with  its  extra- 
ordinary comb,  the  Condor  for  a  long 
time  appeared  to  the  eyes  of  Hum- 
boldt himself  as  a  winged  giant,  and 
he  avows  that  it  was  only  the  mea- 
surement of  the  dead  Bird  that  dis- 
sipated this  optical  illusion.  The 
grand  scenery  amid  which  it  is  found 
had  a  precisely  contrary  effect  on 
Lieutenant  Maw,  who  in  describing 
his  descent  into  the  deep  and  narrow 
valley  of  Magdalena,  says,  "  Whilst 
descending,  several  condors  hovered 
round  us,  and  about  the  rocks  on 
which  they  build  their  nests  :  but  so 
vast  was  the  scale  of  the  rocks  and 
mountains,  that  even  these  immense 
birds  appeared  quite  insignificant, 
and  I  doubted  for  a  time  that  they 
were  condors." 

The  Condor,  a  native  of  the  Andes 
of  South  America,  is  an  example  of 
the  genus  Sarcoramphus,  charac- 
terised by  the  fleshy  carbuncles  or 
comb-like  appendages  at  the  base 
of  the  beak  and  the  forehead,  and 
the  nakedness  of  the  neck,  and  the 
size  and  oval  form  of  the  nostrils, 
placed  on  the  anterior  edge  of  the 
cere :  the  third  quill-feather  is  the 
longest.  This  genus  is  peculiar  to 
the  New  World,  and  contains,  be- 
sides the  Condor,  the  King- Vulture 
and  the  Californian  Vulture. 

The  elevation  chosen  by  the  Condor 
as  its  breeding-place  and  habitual 
residence  varies  from  10,000  feet  to 


THE  CONDOR— THE   KING-VULTURE. 


411 


15,000  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  and  here,  on  some  isolated 
pinnacle  or  jutting  ledge,  it  rears  its  brood  and  looks  down  upon 
the  plains  below  for  food.  (See  Fig.  1068.)  It  is  generally  seen 
singly  or  in  pairs — seldom  in  large  companies  ;  though  among  the 
basaltic  cliffs  of  the  St.  Cruz,  Mr.  Darwin  found  a  spot  where  scores 
usually  haunt.  "On  coming,"  he  says,  "to  the  brow  of  the  pre- 
cipice, it  was  a  fine  sight  to  see  between  twenty  and  thirty  of  these 
great  birds  start  heavily  from  their  resting-places,  and  wheel  away 
in  majestic  circles."  It  appears  that  many  clusters  of  rocks  or 
high  precipitous  crags  are  named  after  these  Birds  ;  the  appella- 
tions, in  the  language  of  the  Incas,  meaning  the  "Condor's  look- 
out, "  the  "  Condor's  roost,"  the  "  Condor's  nest,"  &c. 

High  over  the  loftiest  pinnacles  may  the  Condor  often  be  seen 
soaring,  borne  up  on  outspread  wings,  describing  in  its  flight  the 
most  graceful  spires  and  circles.  "  Except  when  rising  from  the 
ground,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "  I  do  not  recollect  ever  having  seen 
one  of  these  birds  flap  its  wings.  Near  Lima  I  watched  several  for 
nearly  half  an  hour  without  once  taking  off  my  eyes.  They  moved 
in  large  curves,  sweeping  in  circles,  descending  and  ascending  with- 
out once  flapping  As  they  glided  close  over  my  head,  I  intently 
watched  from  an  oblique  position  the  outlines  of  the  separate  and 
terminal  feathers  of  the  wing ;  if  there  had  been  the  least  vibratory 
movement,  these  would  have  blended  together ;  but  they  were  seen 
distinct  against  the  blue  sky.  The  head  and  neck  were  moved  fre- 
quently, and  apparently  with  force  ;  and  it  appeared  as  if  the  ex- 
tended wings  formed  the  fulcrum  on  which  the  movements  of  the 
neck,  body,  and  tail  acted.  If  the  bird  wished  to  descend,  the 
wings  were  for  a  moment  collapsed ;  and  then,  when  again  ex- 
panded with  an  altered  inclination,  the  momentum  gained  by  the 
rapid  descent  seemed  to  urge  the  bird  upwards  with  the  even  and 
steady  movement  of  a  paper  kite.  In  case  of  any  bird  soaring,  its 
motion  must  be  sufficiently  rapid  so  that  the  action  of  the  inclined 
surface  of  its  body  on  the  atmosphere  may  counterbalance  its 
gravity.  The  force  to  keep  up  the  momentum  of  a  body  moving  in 
a  horizontal  plane  in  that  fluid  (in  which  there  is  so  little  friction) 
cannot  be  great,  and  this  force  is  all  that  is  wanted.  The  move- 
ment of  the  neck  and  body  of  the  condor  we  must  suppose  sufficient 
for  this.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  truly  wonderful  and  beautiful 
to  see  so  great  a  bird  hour  after  hour,  without  any  apparent  exer- 
tion, wheeling  and  gliding  over  mountain  and  river." 

The  Condor  feeds,  like  other  Vultures,  on  carrion,  dead  Llamas, 
Mules,  Sheep,  &c.  When  gorged  with  food  they  sit  sullen  and 
drowsy  on  the  rocks,  and,  as  Humboldt  says,  will  suffer  themselves 
to  be  driven  before  the  hunters  rather  than  take  wing  ;  but  he  adds 
that  he  has  seen  them  when  on  the  look-out  for  prey,  especially  on 
serene  days,  soaring  at  a  prodigious  height,  as  if  for  the  purpose  of 
commanding  the  most  extensive  view.  The  same  writer  states  that 
he  never  heard  of  any  well  authenticated  instance  of  these  Birds 
commencing  an  attack  on  man,  or  of  their  carrying  away  children 
(according  to  vague  report) ;  that  he  often  approached  within  a  few 
feet  of  them  as  they  sat  on  the  rocks,  but  they  never  manifested  any 
disposition  to  assault  him  :  and  the  Indians  at  Quito  assured  him 
that  men  have  nothing  to  fear  from  them.  This  scarcely  applies  to 
other  animals.  "Besides  feeding  on  carrion,"  says  Mr.  Darwin, 
"  the  condors  will  frequently  attack  young  goats  and  lambs.  Hence 
the  shepherd-dogs  are  trained,  the  moment  the  enemy  passes  over, 
to  run  out,  and,  looking  upwards,  to  bark  violently."  Two  of  them 
will  sometimes  attack  the  Vicugna,  the  Llama,  the  Heifer,  and  even 
the  Puma,  persecuting  the  quadruped  till  it  falls  beneath  the 
wounds  inflicted  by  the  beaks  of  its  assailants.  The  Condor  is,  in- 
deed, amazingly  strong,  and  extremely  tenacious  of  life.  An 
author  relates  the  account  of  a  struggle  between  one  of  his  Cornish 
miners  and  a  Condor  gorged  with  food,  and  therefore  not  in  the 
best  state  for  the  fray  ;  the  man  began  by  grasping  the  Bird  round 
the  neck,  which  he  tried  to  break  ;  but  the  Bird,  roused  by  the  un- 
ceremonious attack,  struggled  so  violently  as  to  defeat  the  plan  ; 
nor  after  an  hour's  struggling,  though  the  miner  brought  away 
several  of  the  wing-feathers  in  token  of  victory,  does  it  appear  that 
the  Bird  was  despatched. 

According  to  Mr.  Darwin  (and  Humboldt  states  the  same),  "  the 
condor  makes  no  sort  of  nest,  but  in  the  month  of  November 
and  December  lays  two  large  white  eggs  on  a  shelf  of  bare 
rock.i  .On  the  Patagonian  coast  I  could  not  see  any  sort  of  nest 
among  the  cliffs  where  the  young  were  standing.  It  is  said  the 
young  condors  cannot  fly  for  an  entire  year.  At  Concepcion,  on 
the  5th  of  March  (corresponding  to  our  September),  I  saw  a  young 
bird,  which,  though  in  size  little  inferior  to  an  old  one,  was  com- 
pletely covered  with  down  like  that  of  a  gosling,  but  of  a  blackish 
colour.  After  the  period  when  the  young  condors  can  fly,  and 
apparently  as  well  as  the  old  birds,  they  yet  remain  at  night  on  the 
same  ledge  and  hunting  by  day  with  their  parents.  Before,  however, 
the  young  bird  has  the  ruff  turned  white,  it  may  be  often  seen 
hunting  by  itself."  Mr.  Darwin  considers  it  probable  that  the 
Condor  breeds  only  once  in  two  years ;  but  this  is  a  question  that 
has  not  yet  been  determined. 

At  the  age  of  two  years  the  Condor  is  not  yet  black,  but  of  a 
yellowish-brown  ;  and  up  to  this  time  the  female  has  no  appearance 


of  a  ruff:  hence,  ignorant  of  the  change  in  the  plumage  of  this 

Bird,  many  travellers  talk  of  two  species  of  Condor. 

The  feathers  of  the  Condor  are  so  close  and  firm,  and  overlap 
each  other  so  regularly,  as  to  throw  off  a  bullet,  unless  it  hits  point 
blank.  The  general  colour  of  the  adult  male  is  glossy  black,  with 
a  tmge  of  grey.  The  greater  wing-coverts,  except  at  the  base  and 
tips,  and  the  secondary  quill-feathers,  are  white  ;  and  a  white  ruff 
of  downy  feathers  encircles  the  base  of  the  neck.  This  part,  as  well 
as  the  head,  is  bare,  the  skin  being  coarse  and  wrinkled,  and  of  a 
dull  reddish  colour,  with  a  tinge  of  purple.  A  large  firm  comb 
surmounts  the  forehead,  and  the  skin  at  the  back  of  the  head  folds 
into  irregular  wrinkles,  converging  into  a  sort  of  loose  wattle  beneath 
the  bill,  which,  as  in  the  Turkey,  is  capable  of  being  dilated  at 
pleasure.  The  tail  is  broad  and  somewhat  wedge-shaped.  Length 
about  four  feet ;  expanse  of  wing  about  nine  feet  ;  tarsi  powerful. 
The  female  wants  the  comb,  and  the  greater  wing-coverts  are 
blackish-grey. 

The  Condor  is  captured  by  the  lasso,  or  taken  in  various  traps 
and  stratagems.  According  to  Mr.  Darwin,  the  Chilcnos  are  in 
the  habit  of  marking  the  trees  in  which  they  roost,  frequently  to  the 
number  of  five  or  six  together,  and  then  at  night  climb  up  and  noose 
them.  They  are  such  heavy  sleepers,  he  adds,  that  this  is  not  a 
difficult  task.  Lieutenant  Maw  saw  the  Condor's  quill  used  as  a  pen 
in  the  Cordillera  (Toulea). 

The  '^mG-\VLTV&-e.{Cathartes ^af>a ;  Sarcoramf>hus ^af>a.).~ 
This  beautiful  species  is  a  native  of  the  intertropical  regions  of 
America,  and  is  seen  occasionally  in  Florida,  probably  its  most 
northern  limit.  It  is  not,  like  the  Condor,  a  mountain  Bird,  but 
tenants  the  low  humid  forests  bordering  rivers  and  savannahs,  where 
animal  life  is  abundant,  and  where  decomposition  rapidly  succeeds 
death.  It  is  amidst  the  most  luxuriant  scenery  that  this  monarch 
of  the  Vultures  reigns  ;  the  Turkey-Buzzard  and  Gallinazo  being  in 
subjection  under  him.  Waterton,  in  his  amusing  work  relates,  that 
while  sailing  up  Essequibo,  he  observed  a  pair  of  King-Vultures 
sitting  on  the  naked  branch  of  a  tree,  with  about  a  dozen  of  the 
common  species,  waiting  to  begin  the  feast  upon  a  Goat,  killed  by 
a  Jaguar,  but  which  he  had  been  forced  to  abandon.  The  pair 
seemed  rather  to  tolerate  the  presence  of  the  rest,  than  to  asso- 
ciate with  them  on  terms  of  familiarity.  The  same  traveller, 
having  killed  a  large  Serpent,  caused  it  to  be  carried  into  the  forest 


Kig.  1069. — ^The  King-VuUuie. 

as  a  lure  for  one  of  these  Vultures  w^hich  he  wished  to  obtain.  He 
watched  the  result.  "The  foliage,"  he  says,  "where  I  laid  the 
snake  was  impervious  to  the  sun's  rays  ;  and  had  any  vultures 
passed  over  that  part  of  the  forest,  I  think  I  may  say  with  safety, 
that  they  would  not  have  seen  the  body  through  the  shade.  For  the 
first  two  days  not  a  vulture  made  its  appearance  at  the  spot,  though 
I  could  see  a  vulture  aura  gliding  on  apparently  immovable  pinions 
at  a  moderate  height  over  "the  tops  of  the  forest  trees.     But  during 


412 


THE  OWL  FAMILY. 


the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  when  the  carcass  of  the  serpent  had 
got  into  a  state  of  putrefaction,  more  than  twenty  of  the  common 
vultures  came  and  perched  upon  the  neighbouring  trees,  and  the 
next  morning,  a  httlc  before  six  o'clocl;,  I  saw  a  magnificent  king 
of  the  vultures.  There  was  a  stupendous  mora-tree  close  by,  whose 
topmost  branches  had  either  been  dried  by  time  or  blasted  by  the 
thunder-storm.  Upon  this  branch  I  killed  the  king  of  the  vultures 
before  it  had  descended  to  partake  of  the  savoury  food  which  had 
attracted  it  to  the  place.  Soon  after  this  another  king  of  the  vul- 
tures came,  and  after  he  had  stuffed  himself  almost  to  suffocation, 
the  rest  pounced  down  upon  the  remains  of  the  serpent,  and  stayed 
there  till  they  had  devoured  the  last  morsel." 

Though  this  species  is  mostly  seen  alone,  or  in  pairs,  travellers 
state  that  in  Mexico  it  is  sometimes  observed  in  flocks.  The 
general  account,  that  the  other  Vultures  stand  patiently  by  till  their 
monarch  has  finished  his  repast,  and  which  appears  to  be  not  with- 
out foundation,  may  be  easily  accounted  for  by  the  superior  strength 
and  courage  of  this  species. 

The  colours  of  the  King-Vulture  are  very  splendid.  The  naked 
skin  of  the  head  and  neck  is  deeply  tinged  with  mingled  scarlet, 
orange,  and  violet :  beneath  the  eye  are  several  deep  wrinkles  con- 
verging to  a  fold  of  skin,  extending  obliquely  downwards  along  the 
reck.  Over  the  cere  of  the  beak  hangs  a  loose  comb  of  bright 
orange  ;  the  circle  round  the  eyes  is  scarlet,  in  singular  contrast 
with  the  pearl  white  of  the  iris ;  the  ruff  round  the  bottom  of  the 
neck  is  soft,  downy,  and  of  a  delicate  grey.  The  general  plumage 
is  of  a  bright  fawn-colour  ;  the  quill-feathers,  the  greater  coverts, 
and  tail-feathers  glossy  black.  Length  about  two  feet  and  a-half ; 
expanse  of  wings  upwards  of  five  feet.  The  young  Birds  of  the 
year  have  a  dull  bluish  plumage,  and  a  violet  head  and  neck  :  in  the 
second  year  their  plumage  is  dusky,  marked  with  longitudinal  white 
spots  ;  in  the  third  year  the  permanent  colouring  is  nearly  assumed, 
and  is  completed  on  the  subsequent  change  of  feathers.  (See 
Fig.  1069.) 

The  Bateleur  Eagle  {Helofarsus  ecatidatus). — In  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  there  are  specimens  of  this 
Eagle.  The  brilliant  coral  colour  of  its  legs  and  cere  (the  naked 
base  of  the  beak),  and  the  alternation  of  chestnut,  grey,  and  black 
in  its  plumage  in  the  adult  Bird,  would  be  sufficiently  striking,  even 
if  the  excessive  shortness  of  the  tail  did  not  give  it  the  appearance 
of  being  absolutely  deficient  of  that  important  organ.  The  Bateleur, 
or  Short-tailed  Eagle,  is  found  in  Africa,  in  the  southern  regions  of 
which  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  In  Abyssinia,  a  curious 
variety,  with  the  back  almost  white,  occurs,  which  has  been  some- 
times considered  as  a  distinct  species.  The  Society  have  lately 
possessed  specimens  of  this  interesting  Bird. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  given  descriptions  of  some  of  the 
best  known  and  characteristic  species  of  the  Raptorial  Birds  (except- 
ing of  the  Owls,  which  immediately  follow).  IJut  we  must  remind 
our  readers  that  comparatively  few  of  these  have  come  under  notice, 
and  consequently  we  refer  them  to  the  collection  in  the  British 
Museum  for  stuffed,  and  to  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
for  living  specimens,  which  unitedly  present  some  two  or  three 
thousand  for  the  study  of  the  naturalist. 

The  Owls— Family  Strigidm. 

The  Birds  of  this  family  have  large  heads,  and  great  projecting 
eyes  directed  forwards,  and  surrounded  by  a  circle  or  disc,  more  or 
less  developed,  formed  of  loose  and  delicate  feathers,  the  margin 
consisting  of  feathers  of  a  firmer  texture  and  more  definite  outline. 


Fig.  1070. — Ilcid  of  Barn-Owl. 

The  beak  is  hooked  and  raptorial ;  the  claws  are  curved,  sharp,  and 
retractile  ;  and  the  outer  toe  is  versatile,  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
grasp.  The  plumage  is  full  and  soft,  generally  spotted,  barred,  and 
clouded  with  different  shades  of  tawny,  brown,  and  yellow.     IMany 


species  have  the  top  of  the  head  garnished  with  elongated  plume- 
lets, or  tufts,  capable  of  being  erected  or  depressed  ;  they  rise  from 
the  margin  of  the  disc  over  each  eye,  and  are  commonly,  but  of 
course  erroneously,  called  ears  or  horns.     (Sec  Fig.  1070,  the  head 


Fig.  1071. — Head  of  Horned  Owl. 

of  the  common   Barn-Owl,  exhibiting  the  facial  disc;   Fig.  1071, 
head  of  the  Horned  Owl,  showing  the  tufts  ;   Fig.  1072,  the  foot  of 
the  Barn-Owl.     In  Fig.  1073,0  represents  one  of  the  feathers  of 
disc,  magnified.) 
The  Owls,  some  few  excepted,  are  crepuscular  and  nocturnal  in 

their  habits  ;  they  come  forth  with 
the  dusk  of  evening  to  prowl  for 
food  ;  they  winnow  the  air  with 
silent  pinions,  their  ears  attentive 
to  every  slight  sound,  and  their 
eyes  quick  to  discern  their  creep- 
ing prey,  on  which  they  glide  with 
noiseless  celerity. 

The  organic  endowments  of 
these  nightly  marauders  are  in 
admirable  concordance  with  their 
destined  mode  of  life.  Let  us 
look  at  the  common  Barn-Owl  as 
a  type  of  the  family.  The  eyes, 
we  observe,  are  large  and  staring, 
but  they  are  incapable  of  bear- 
ing the  strong  light  of  day ;  the 
iris  is  irritable,  and  the  pupil 
almost  completely  contracted  ;  the 
lids  are  half  closed,  and  the  tneiii- 
braaa  nicfitans  almost  con- 
stantly drawn  over  the  ball,  like 
a  delicate  curtain  ;  but  when  twi- 
light sets  in,  the  eyes  display  a 
very  different  appearance  —  the 
lids  are  wide  open,  the  curtain  is 
folded  back,  the  pupil  is  widely 
dilated,  and  they  gleam  with  lus- 


Flg.  1072.— Foot  of  Barn-Owl. 


Fig.  1073.— External  Ear  of  OwL 


ORGANS   OF  THE    OTFL    TRIBE. 


trous  effulgence.  In  all  British  Birds,  and,  we  believe,  as  a  gene- 
ral rule,  tiie  bony  ring  of  the  eyeball  'is  convex  externally ;  but  in 
the  Owls  it  is  concave,  and  lengthened — the  transparent  cornea 
being  placed,  as  it  were,  at  the  end  of  a  tube,  the  whole  resembling 
the  glass  used  by  watch-makers.  Fig.  1074  represents,  i,  the  bony 
ring  of  the  Snowy  Owl :  2,  the  cr)'stalline  lens  of  the  same  Bird; 
the  anterior  surface  being  less  convex  than  the  posterior  one.  The 
facial  disc  of  feathers  materially  aids  vision  by  concentrating  the 


Fi^.  1074. — Bony  Ring  and  Lens  of  Snowy  Owl. 

rays  of  light.  Mr.  Yarrell  observes  that  the  extent  of  vision  enjoyed 
by  the  Falcons  is  probably  superior  to  that  of  the  Owls,  but  that 
the  more  spherical  lens  and  corresponding  cornea  give  to  the  eyes 
of  the  latter  an  intensity  better  suited  to  the  opacity  of  the  medium 
in  which  their  power  is  required  to  be  exercised.  They  may  be 
compared  to  the  eyes  of  "  a  person  near-sighted,  who  sees  objects 
with  superior  magnitude  and  brilliancy  when  within  the  prescribed 
limits  of  his  natural  powers  of  vision  from  the  increased  angle  these 
objects  subtend." 

We  have  previously  said  that  Birds  have  no  external  ears  (see  p. 
376),  but  in  the  Owls,  whose  sense  of  hearing  is  exquisite,  and  who 


-MiiiMVT^r.*^.,. . 


Fig.  107;. — Drum  of  Ear 
in  Owls. 


Fig.  1076. — External  Ear  of  Owl. 


Fig.  1077. — Head  of  young  Bavn-Owl. 

listen  for  their  prey,  we  find  an  exception  to  the  general  line.  If 
we  part  the  feathers  forming  the  back  part  of  the  rim  of  the  disc, 
we  shall  find  the  large  auditory  orifice  enclosed  between  two  valves 
of  thin  skin,  from  the  edges  of  which  proceed  the  feathers  in  ques- 
tion. The  leaves  of  this  double  valve  are  capable  of  being  thrown 
wide  apart,  so  as  to  concentrate  as  well  as  admit  every  slight  vibra- 
tion, the  eifect  of  which  is  increased  by  the  widely-diffused  cavities 
connected  with  the  internal  chambers.  The  drum  of  the  ear  is  very 
thin  and  transparent,  and  its  vibrations  are  conveyed  to  those  wind- 
ing hollows  called  the  labyrinth,  by  a  single  ossiculum,  as  in  Rep- 
tiles. In  order  to  distend,  support,  or  relax  the  drum,  there  is  a 
cartilaginous  organ  stretching  from  the  side  of  the  passage  almost 
to  the  middle  of  the  membrane,  while  there  is  another  cartilage 


413 

I  divided  into  three  branches,  of  which  the  middle  one  being  the 
longest,  is  jonied  to  the  top  of  the  cartilaginous  organ  before  men- 
tioned (see  Fig.  1075),  and  assists  in  bearing  up  the  external  mem- 
brane (the  drum).  The  cartilage  joins  the  top  of  the  ossiculum  or 
columella,  which  is  a  very  fine,  light,  bony  tube,  the  bottom  of 
which  expands  into  a  plate,  fitting  into  the  foramen  ovale  (the  en- 
trance to  the  labyrinth),  to  which  it  is  braced  all  round  by  very  slen- 
der muscles.  Figs.  1073,  atile,  and  1076,  represent  the  external  ear  of 
the  Owl ;  Fig.  1077,  t'^e  head  of  a  young  Barn-Owl.  The  head  is  so 
turned  as  to  expose  the  auditory  passage  and  valvular  ossiculum. 
a,  the  cranium  ;  b,  the  nostril  on  the  beak  ;  c,  the  neck  ;  d,  the  eye  ; 
c,  the  termination  of  the  external  skin  surrounding  the  orifice  of  the 
ear  ;/,  the  anterior  flap  or  opercular  fold  of  the  ear  ;  g,  part  of  the 
tympanic  or  quadrate  bone ;  h,  membrana  tym^ani,  or  drum  of  the 
ear. 

From  the  loose  texture  of  their  soft  full  plumage,  and  from  the 
laxity  of  tlio  quill-feathers  (of  which  the  outer  edges  are  fringed  by  a 
pectinated  line  of  delicate  lashes,  the  terminations  of  the  barbs),  the 
flight  of  the  Owl,  though  buoyant  and  easy,  is  by  no  means  distin- 
guished for  velocity,  like  that  of  the  Falcon  ;  the  wings  gently  fan 
the  air  j  they  present  no  rigid  edges ;  they  do  not  cut  it  with  the 


Fig.  1079.— Skull  of  Horned  Owl. 


Fig.  107S. — Breast-bone  of  Wood-Owl. 

whistling  stroke  of  the  pinions  of  the  Hawk  or  Dove ;  no  rustling 
sound  is  heard  as  the  Owl  skims  lightly  by  ;  and  in  accordance  with 
this  condition  of  the  plumage  and  feathers  of  the  wing,  is  the  de- 
velopment of  the  sternum  and  its  appendages.  Variation  of  course 
exists  in  different  species,  but  the  keel  (see  Fig.  1078)  is  less  deep 
and  projects  less  forward  than  in  the  Falcon  ;  the  furcula  is  less 

arched,  more  slender,  and  more 
distinctly  triangular ;  and  the 
coracoid  or  clavicular  bones 
are  less  robust  and  straighter  ; 
the  whole  is  less  solid  and  ex- 
pansive. Fig.  1079  represents 
the  skull  of  the  Strix  otus, 
showing  the  orbit,  and  below 
it,  (7,  the  large  auditory  orifice. 
The  Owls  prey  generally 
upon  small  Vertebrate  animals, 
principally  Birds  and  Quadru- 
peds, and  some  are  expert 
fishers.  They  also  share  with  the  Goatsuckers  in  the  destruction 
of  the  larger  species  of  Night-flying  Insects,  such  as  Moths  and 
large  Beetles.  Their  treatment  of  their  prey  depends  greatly  upon 
its  size  ;  if  it  be  small  they  transfer  it  at  once  from  their  claws  to 
their  bill,  and  swallow  it  whole  :  but  if  they  seize  upon  a  booty 
which  is  too  large  to  be  disposed  of  in  this  manner,  they  carry  it 
off  to  some  resting-place,  where  they  tear  it  to  pieces,  and  thus 
devour  it.  The  indigestible  portions  of  the  prey,  such  as  feathers, 
bones,  &c.,  are  collected  into  small  pellets  in  the  stomach,  and 
disgorged. 

The  Owls  are  solitary  Birds,  and  retire  during  the  day  to  holes  in 
trees,  rocks,  or  old  buildings,  where  they  roost  and  breed.  With  the 
twilight  their  activity  commences  ;  they  then  take  their  noiseless 
flight  in  search  of  food ;  and  as  this  consists,  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  of  the  small  animals  which,  under  the  denomination  of 
ve>-min,  are  generally  regarded  as  enemies  to  the  human  race,  the 
Owls  should  be  placed  amongst  the  number  of  our  friends,  instead  of 
being  looked  upon,  as  they  are  by  many,  with  a  superstitious  eye,  as 
ominous  of  some  dire  calamity.  It  must  be  confessed,  indeed,  that 
their  voices  are  none  of  the  sweetest ;  and  the  superstitious  peasant 
who  hears  the  Owl  shrieking  about  the  village  churchyard,  or  in 
some  solitary  place,  when  every  other  sound  is  hushed,  may  perhaps 
be  excused  for  feeling  some  little  awe  on  the  occasion. 

The  Owls  are  divided  into  four  sub-families — viz.,  the  Strigiiia;,  or 
True  Owls  ;  the  Otina,  or  Owlets  ;  the  Bubonincr,  or  Horned  Owls ; 
and  the  Surnincs,  or  Hawk  Owls.  The  following  affords  a  descrip- 
tion of  some  of  the  most  important  species. 

The  Barn-Owl  {Strix flammca).—T\\\%  is  the  Effraie,  Frcsaie, 
and  Petit  Chathuant  Plombe  of  the  F'rench  ;  Barbagianni,  Alloco 
Commune  e  Bianco,  of  the  Italians  ;  Schleierkauz,  Perlschlierkautz, 
and  Perl-Eule  of  the  German;  De  Kerkuil  of  the  Netherlands; 
Barn-Owl,  White  Owl,  Church  Owl,   Gillihowlet,   Howlet,  Madge 


414 


THE  BARN-OWL. 


Howlet,  Madge  Owl,  Hissing  Owl,  and  Screech  Owl  of  the  modern 
British ;  and  Dylluan  wen  of  the  ancient  British. 

This  beautiful  Bird  is  spread  throughout  the  temperate  and 
warmer  regions  of  Europe.  It  is  common  in  England  and  Ireland, 
but  less  so  in  Scotland  ;  in  the  high  northern  latitudes  of  the  con- 
tinent it  is  not  known.  The  Barn-Owl  conceals  itself  during  the 
day  in  deep  recesses  among  ivy-clad  ruins,  in  antique  church-towers, 
in  the  hollow  of  old  trees,  in  barn-lofts,  and  similar  places  of  seclu- 
sion. At  night  it  sallies  forth  for  prey,  which  consists  of  Mice, 
Rats,  Moles,  and  Shrews,  but,  we  believe,  never  Birds.  Hence  it  is 
persecuted  by  the  farmer  in  vain,  who  suspects  that  it  thins  his  dove- 
cot, and  little  knows  the  extent  of  the  services  which  the  Bird 
renders  to  him.  "  If,"  says  Mr.  Waterton,  "  this  useful  bird  caught 
its  food  by  day,  mstead  of  hunting  for  it  by  night,  mankind  would 
have  ocular  demonstration  of  its  utility  in  thinning  the  country  ot 


Fig,  loSo. — The  Barn-Owl,  and  its  young 

mice,  and  it  would  be  protected  and  encouraged  everywhere.  When 
it  has  young  it  will  bring  a  mouse  to  the  nest  every  twelve  or  fifteen 
minutes"  (that  is,  during  the  night)  ;  and  he  adds,  "  formerly  I  could 
get  very  few  j'oung  pigeons  till  the  rats  were  e.xcluded  from  the 
dovecot ;  since  that  took  place  it  has  produced  a  great  abundance 
every  year,  though  the  barn-owl  frequents  it,  and  is  encouraged  all 
round  it ;  "  and  he  afBrms  that  the  Pigeons  neither  regard  it  "  as  a 
bad  or  suspicious  character." 

Mr.  Thompson  ("  Mag.  Zool.  and  Botan.,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  178)  ob- 
serves that  "  the  white  (barn)  owl  is  a  well-known  visitor  to  the 
dovecot, — and  in  such  a  place,  or  rather  a  loft  appropriated  to 
pigeons,  in  the  town  of  Belfast,  I  am  informed  by  an  observant 
friend,  that  a  pair  once  had  their  nest  ;  this  contained  four  young, 
which  were  brought  up  at  the  same  time  with  many  pigeons.  The 
nests  containing  the  latter  were  on  every  side,  but  the  owls  never 
attempted  to  molest  either  the  parents  or  their  young.  As  may  be 
conjectured,  the  owl's  nest  was  frequently  inspected  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  young  birds  ;  on  the  shelf  beside  them  neverless  than 
six,  and  often  fifteen  mice  and  young  rats  (no  birds  were  ever  seen) 
have  been  observed,  and  this  was  the  number  they  had  left  after  the 
night's  repast.  The  parent  owls,  when  undisturbed,  remained  all 
day  in  the  pigeon-loft."  In  further  proof,  it  may  be  urged,  that  the 
remains  of  Rats,  Mice,  and  occasionally  Beetles,  have  been  found, 
to  the  exclusion  of  feathers,  in  the  stomachs  of  most  Owls  when 
examined.  Such  remains  were  found  in  the  stomachs  of  all  those 
opened  by  Mr.  Thompson,  and  of  such  are  the  pellets  cast  by  the 
Owls  invariably  composed.    The  Owl  and  all  the  Hawk  tribe  cast 


up  the  indigestible  parts  of  their  prey,  as  bones,  feathers,  hair, 
claws,  &c.,  in  the  form  of  pellets,  as  already  mentioned  ;  and  in  the 
long-tenanted  haunt  of  an  Owl  these  generally  accumulate.  The 
Owl  quarters  the  ground  for  food  with  great  regularity,  and  drops 
upon  it  with  unerring  aim.  Selby  says  it  occasionally  utters  loud 
screams  during  its  flight ;  and  Mr.  Yarrell  says  it  screeches  but 
does  not  generally  hoot.  But  Sir  Win.  Jardine  asserts  that  he  shot 
one  in  the  act  of  hooting,  and  that  at  night,  when  not  alarmed, 
hooting  is  its  general  cry.  It  snores  and  hisses,  and  when  annoyed 
snaps  its  bill  loudly. 

The  Barn-Owl  constructs  a  rude  nest ;  the  eggs  are  three  or  four 
in  number,  and  of  a  white  colour,  and,  strange  to  say,  the  female 
often  lays  a  second  time  before  the  young  are  able  to  leave  the  nest 
— hence  young  Owls  have  been  found  late  in  the  autumn,  and  even 
in  December.     Mr.    Blyth,   in  the  "  Field-Naturalist's  Magazine  " 

(vol.  i.),  says,  "  A  nest  of  the  barn- 
owl  in  this  neighbourhood  (Toot- 
ing) contained  two  eggs  ;  and  when 
these  were  hatched  two  more  were 
laid,  which  were  probably  hatched 
by  the  warmth  of  the  young  birds  ; 
a  third  laying  took  place  after  th^ 
latter  were  hatched :  and  the  nest 
at  last  contained  six  young  owls,  of 
three  different  ages,  which  were  all 
reared."     (See  Fig.  1080.) 

The  plumage  of  the  Barn-Owl 
is  very  beautiful ;  the  upper  parts 
are  bright  yellowish,  varied  with 
grey  and  brown  zigzag  lines,  and 
sprinkled  with  a  multitude  of  small 
whitish  dots ;  face  and  throat 
W'hite  ;  lower  parts  in  some  indi- 
viduals rusty-white,  sprinkled  with 
small  brown  dots ;  in  others  bright 
white,  marked  with  small  brown- 
ish points  ;  in  others  again,  with- 
out the  slightest  appearance  of 
spots  ;  feet  and  toes  covered  with 
very  short  down ;  iris  yellow. 
Length  about  thirteen  inches  ;  no 
horn-like  tufts.  In  the  female  all 
the  tints  are  brighter.  The  young 
are  covered  with  a  thick  white 
down,  and  remain  long  in  the  nest 

The  species  of  this  sub-family  of 
StrigincB,  although  not  very  numer- 
ous, are  generally  distributed  in  all 
parts  of  the  globe,  but  their  habits 
are    everywhere    nearly   the    same. 
A  Javanese  species — the  Pholidus 
badius,  or  Wowo-Wiwi,  which  re- 
sides in  the  thickest  forests  of  that 
island,  the  haunts  of  the  Tiger — is 
said   by   the   natives    to   show   the 
greatest    familiarity    towards    that 
formidable  Quadruped,  even  alight- 
ing on  his  back  ;   for  what  purpose 
is  not  stated. 
The  second  sub-family  is  that  of 
the   Otmcc,  or  Owlets,  in  which  the  facial  discs  are  complete,  or 
nearly  so  (Fig.  1081),   and  the  head  is  usually  furnished  with  two 
small  tufts.     These  small  Owls,  like  the  Sti-igina:,  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  the  species  enjoy  a  very  wide  geographical 
range.     Thus  the  common  British  species  are  not  only  found  in  all 
parts  of  Europe,  but  also  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  United  States  of 


Fig.  loSl.— Head  of  thf  lx)ng-cared  Owl. 


THE  LONG-EARED  OWL— THE   GREAT  EAGLE-OWL. 


41S 


Americi ;  and  some  of  those  which  occur  rarely  in  Europe,  are  met 

with  abundantly  in  the  last-nicntioncd  locality. 

Most  of  thciii  are  strictly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  retirinj^  during 
the  day  to  the  shelter  of  tliick  woods,  and  are  said  to  breed  generally 
in  the  deserted  nests  of  other  Birds.  One  of  the  l?ritish  species, 
however,  the  Short-eared  Owl  {Of us  (^/-rtc/yo///j-),  which  is  not  un- 
common in  many  places,  especially  in  winter,  is  found  resting  during 
the  day  amongst  high  grass  and  herbage,  or  in  the  stubble-fields, 
and  its  nest,  formed  of  a  little  dry  grass  and  moss,  is  placed  on  the 
ground  in  similar  situations.  This  Bird  is  also  remarkable  in  its  sub- 
family, from  its  habit  of  seeking  food  by  day,  and  it  does  not  appear 
to  be  at  all  incommoded  even  by  the  light  of  the  sun.  In  the  Orkneys, 
where,  according  to  Mr.  Low,  it  is  very  abundant,  it  is  exceedingly 
bold  and  impudent  during  the  breeding  season,  stealing  Chickens 
from  before  the  doors,  pursuing  Pigeons  in  the  open  day,  and  per- 
forming various  feats  of  the  same  nature  which  are  very  unusual 
with  the  Owls.  The  same  naturalist  states  that  he  found  the  remains 
of  a  Grouse  in  the  nest  of  a  Bird  of  this  species,  although  it  would  seem 
almost  impossible  for  the  little  Owl  to  kill  and  carry  off  a  Bird  so 
much  larger  and  heavier  than  itself.  Its  ordinary  food,  however, 
appears  to  consist,  like  that  of  the  majority  of  our  Owls,  of  Mice ; 
and  when  these  are  abundant,  the  Birds  have  been  seen  to  collect 
in  particular  fields  in  considerable  numbers. 

It  is  found  in  both  hemispheres,  and  is  recorded  to  occur  in  India. 
In  the  most  northern  parts,  both  of  the  eastern  and  western  conti- 
nents, it  is  only  a  summer  visitor,  and  a  great  number  of  individuals 
migrate  in  the  summer  from  this  country  to  the  north  of  Europe,  re- 
turning again  in  the  autumn. 

The  Long-eared  Owl  {Otus  z'lilgar/s.  Fig.  1081),  is,  next  to  the 
Barn-Owl,  the  most  abundant  of  the  British  Owls.  It  is  a  perma- 
nent resident  in  this  country,  and  does  not  appear  to  perform  even 
the  partial  migration  executed  by  the  Short-eared  Owl. 

To  this  sub-family  also  belong  the  Hooting  Owls  {Syrniuni),  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  species  by  the  absence  of  the  ear- 
tufts,  of  which  two  species  occur  in  Britain.  The  commonest  of 
these  is  the  Tawny  Owl  {S.  striduld),  which  inhabits  the  wooded 
parts  of  the  country,  and  always  remains  concealed  during  the  day, 
coming  forth  at  night  in  pursuit  of  the  small  animals  which  consti- 
tute its  food,  and  giving  utterance  to  a  most  dolorous  cry,  resem- 
bling the  syllables  hoo-hoo-hoo.  It  feeds  on  Leverets,  young 
Rabbits,  and  all  the  smaller  animals,  including  Frogs,  Insects,  and 
Earth-Worms  ;  and  from  the  testimony  of  several  observers,  it  not 
unfrequently  captures  Fishes  in  the  water.  It  breeds,  according  to 
some  naturalists,  in  the  deserted  nests  of  other  Birds  ;  but  also,  ac- 
cording to  others,  in  the  holes  of  trees,  where  it  makes  little  or  no 
nest,  and  often  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  rotten  wood  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hole.  The  Tawny  Owl  does  not  appear  to  occur  in  America  ; 
but  in  the  northern  parts  of  that  continent  it  is  replaced  by  an  allied 
species,  the  Syrin'uin  {A^ycfa/a)  tenginalmi,  of  which  specimens 
are  occasionally  found  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
especially  in  the  north.  The  habits  of  this  species  appear  to  be  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Tawny  Owl. 


Fig.  10S2.  —  Head  of  the  Great  Eagle-Owl. 

In  the  third  sub-family,  that  of  the  Buboiiina;,  or  Horned  Owls, 
the  facial  discs  are  imperfect,  and  the  head  is  large  and  broad,  and 
furnished  with  a  pair  of  long  horn-like  tufts  (Fig.  1082).  These 
Birds  are  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  vary  greatly  in 
size,  some  of  them  being  the  largest,  and  others  amongst  the  smallest 
members  of  the  family  of  the  Owls,     They  are  most  abundant  in  the 


warmer  parts  of  the  world ;  and  of  the  two  well-known  European 
species,  only  one  extends  its  range  far  to  the  north.  This  is  the 
great  Eagle-Owl,  of  which  the  following  is  a  description. 

The  Gre.\t  Eagle-Owi,  {Bichi)  w«.v/w//jr).— This  species  is  the 
Strix  bubo  of  Linna;us  ;  Le  grand  Due  of  the  French  ;  Gufo,  Cufo 
grandc,  and  Gufo  realo  of  the  Italians  ;  Schuffut,  Uhu,  Grosse 
ohreule  Huhu  of  the  Germans  ;  Uff  of  tlie  "  Fauna  Suecica  ;  "  Buhu 
of  the  Lower  Austrians  ;  Great  Owl,  or  Eagle-Owl,  of  Willoughby, 
Ray,  and  Pennant. 

The  Great  Owl  is  the  largest  of  the  Slrigida;,  and  is  most  pro- 
bably the  ^vat-  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Jitibo  funcbris  mentioned  by 
Pliny,  and  of  which  the  appearance  upon  two  occasions  within  the 
walls  of  Rome  occasioned  no  little  alarm,  a  lustration  being  per- 
formed each  time  to  purify  the  city.  Butler  thus  humorously 
alludes  to  the  circumstance  :  — 

"  The  Roman  Senate,  when  within 
The  city  walls  an  owl  was  seen, 
Did  cause  their  clergy  with  lustrations 
(Our  Synod  calls  humiliations) 
The  round-faced  prodigy  t'  avert 
From  doing  town  and  countiy  hurt." 

The  Great  or  Eagle-Owl  is  a  native  of  the  extensive  forests  of 
Hungary,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  and  is  said  to  occur 
eastward  as  far  as  Kamtschatka.  It  is  rare  in  France,  and  never 
seen  in  Holland.  Pennant  states  that  it  has  been  shot  in  York- 
shire, and  Latham  adds  Kent  and  Sussex  as  localities  in  which  it 
has  been  found  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  seen  also  in  Orkney.  In 
Mr.  Stewart's  "  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Donegal,"  is  the  remark, 
that  "  four  of  these  birds  paid  us  a  visit  for  two  days  after  a  great 
storm  from  the  north,  when  the  ground  was  covered  with  snow. 
They  have  not  been  since  seen  here.  As  I  am  informed  that  a  pair 
of  them  breed  in  Tory  Island,  about  nine  miles  to  the  north  of  this 
coast,  it  is  probable  that  they  came  from  that  island  :  I  have  heard 
of  them  nowhere  else."  Young  Roes  and  Fawns,  Hares,  Rabbits, 
Rats,  and  Moles,  Reptiles,  and  winged  game  are  the  prey  of  this 
species.  From  its  lonely  retreat  in  some  deep  forest  glen,  some  rift 
among  hoary  rocks,  where  it  reposes  in  silence  during  the  day,  this 
winged  marauder  issues  forth  at  night,  intent  upon  its  victims,  its 
harsh  dismal  voice  resounding  at  intervals  through  the  gloomy 
solitudes  of  a  wild  and  savage  scene. 

The  Eagle-Owl  makes  its  nest  in  the  fissures  of  rocks,  in  old 
ruined  and  deserted  castles,  and  similar  places.  The  eggs  are  two 
or  three  in  number,  round,  and  white.  The  young  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  food,  and  the  broods  of  Partridges  and  Moor-Fowlare 
sadly  thinned  to  supply  their  wants. 

This  noble  Bird  is  upwards  of  two  feet  in  length.  The  upper- 
surface  is  barred,  waved,  and  streaked  with  black  on  a  mingled 
brown  and  yellow  ground.     The  throat  in  the  m^le  is  white;   the 


Fig.  1083.— The  Great  Owl. 


'4i6 


THE    VIRGINIAN  HORNED    OWL. 


under-surface  is  yellow,  with  longitudinal  dashes  of  black  on  the 
chest,  and  fine  transverse  bars  below ;  tarsi  feathered  to  the  toes  ; 
beak  and  claws  black  ;  iris  fine  orang-e  colour.     (See  Fijj.  1083.) 

The  ViRC.iN'iAN  Horned  Owl  {Bubo  vi>-g/jn'an!cs).—t)uc  de 
Virginie  of  Butfon  ;  Netowky-omesew  of  the  Cree  Indians,  according 
to  Sir.  Hutchins  ;  Otowuck-oho,  of  the  Crees  of  the  plains  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  according  to  Dr.  Richardson. 

The  species  is  a  native  of  North  America,  being  found  in  almost 
every  quarter  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  Fur-countries  where 
the  timber  is  of  large  size. 

Wilson  thus  describes  the  haunts  and  habits  of  the  Virginian 
Homed  Owl : — "  His  favourite  residence  is  in  the  dark  solitudes  of 
deep  swamps,  covered  with  a  growth  of  gigantic  timber  ;  and  here, 
as  soon  as  the  evening  draws  on,  and  mankind  retire  to  rest,  he 
sends  forth  such  sounds  as  seem  scarcely  to  belong  to  this  world. 
*  *  *  Along  the  mountain  shores  of  the  Ohio,  and  amidst  the 
deep  forests  of  Indiana,  alone  and  reposing  in  the  woods,  this 
ghostly  watchman  has  frequently  warned  me  of  the  approach  of 
morning,  and  amused  me  with  his  singular  exclamations  ;  some- 
times sweeping  down  and  around  my  fire,  uttering  a  loud  and 
sudden  '  Waugh  O  !  Waugh  O  ! '  sufficient  to  have  alarmed  a  whole 
.garrison.  He  has  other  nocturnal  solos,  one  of  which  very  strik- 
ingly resembles  the  half-suppressed  screams  of  a  person  suffocating 
or  throttled."  Wilson  treats  this  visitation  like  a  philosopher  ;  but 
after  reading  his  description  and  that  of  Nuttall  ("  Ornithology  of 
the  United  States  "),  we  shall  cease  to  wonder  at  the  well-told  tale 
in  "  Fauna  Boreali-Am'ericana,"  of  the  winter  night  of  agony  en- 
dured by  a  party  of  Scottish  Highlanders  who,  according  to  Dr. 
Richardson,  had  made  their  bivouac  in  the  recesses  of  a  North 
American  forest,  and  inadvertently  fed  their  fire  with  a  part  of  an 
Indian  tomb,   which  had  been  placed  in  the   secluded  spot.     The 


Fig.  1084. — The  Virginian  Horned  Owl. 

startling  notes  of  the  Virginian  Horned  Owl  broke  upon  their  ear, 
and  they  at  once  concluded  that  so  unearthly  a  voice  must  be  the 
moaning  of  the  spirit  of  the  departed,  whose  repose  they  supposed 
they  had  disturbed. 

The  flight  of  this  Bird  is  elevated,  rapid,  and  graceful.  It  sails 
with  apparent  ease  in  large  circles,  and  rises  and  descends  without 
the  least  difiicu2;y,  by  merely  inclining  its  wings  or  its  tail  as  it 
passes  through  the  air.  Now  and  then  it  glides  silently  close  over 
the  earth,  with  incomparable  velocity,  and  drops  as  if  shot  dead  on 
the  prey  beneath.  At  other  times  it  suddenly  alights  on  the  top  of 
a  fence,  stake,  or  dead  stump,  and  utters  a  shrie'--  so  horrid,  that  the 
woods  around  echo  to  its  dismal  sound.  Durinj;  -  utterance  of  the 
deep  gurgling  cries  so  well  described  by  Wilson,  it  moves  its  body, 
and  particularly  its  head,  in  various  grotesque  ways,  and  at  intervals 
violently  snaps  its  bill.     Its  food  consists  of  various  Gallinaceous 


Birds,  half-grown  Turkeys,  Domestic  Poultry  of  all  kinds.  Ducks, 
Grouse,  Hares,  Opossums,  and  Squirrels  ;  and  whenever  chance 
throws  a  dead  Fish  on  the  shore,  this  Bird  feeds  on  it  with  peculiar 
avidity.  The  Virginian  Horned  Owl  is  very  powerful,  and  equally 
spirited.  Mallards,  Guinea-Fowl,  and  common  Fowls  fall  an  easy 
prey,  and  are  carried  off  in  its  talons  to  the  depths  of  the  woods. 
When  wounded,  says  Audubon,  it  exhibits  a  revengeful  tenacity  of 
spirit,  scarcely  surpassed  by  the  noblest  of  the  Eagle  tribe  ;  disdain- 
ing to  scramble  away,  it  faces  its  enemy  with  undaunted  courage, 
protruding  its  powerful  talons,  and  snapping  its  bill.  Its  large 
goggle  eyes  open  and  shut  in  quick  succession  ;  and  the  feathers 
of  its  body  are  puffed  up,  and  swell  out  its  apparent  bulk  to  nearly 
double  the  natural  size.  In  some  districts  it  is  a  great  nuisance  to 
the  settler,  making  sad  havoc  among  his  stock  of  Poultry.  Among 
some  of  the  Indian  nations  a  sort  of  reverential  horror  is  entertained 
towards  this  Bird,  and  the  priests  and  conjurors  have  adopted  it  as 
the  symbol  of  their  office,  carrying  about  with  them  a  stuffed  speci- 
men with  glass  e)'es,  which  excites  general  awe.  This  Bird  usually 
constructs  a  bulky  nest  in  the  forked  branch  of  a  tree,  composed  ex- 
ternally of  crooked  sticks,  and  lined  with  coarse  grass  and  feathers. 
The  eggs  are  three  or  four  in  number,  and  of  a  dull  white. 

In  size  this  species  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  large  as  its  European 
representative,  the  Eagle-Owl,  and  in  the  general  style  of  colouring 
is  similar,  the  upper  parts  being  waved  and  mottled  with  black  and 
brownish-red  ;  a  tinge  of  grey  as  the  ground-colour  prevails  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  back  ;  the  throat  is  pure  white  ;  the  rest  of  the 
under-surface  is  marked  by  innumerable  narrow  transverse  dusky 
bars,  on  a  reddish  ground-colour,  thinly  interspersed  with  white  ; 
beak  and  claws  black  ;  iris  bright  orange ;  facial  disc  brown  with  a 
margin  of  black.     (See  Fig.   loS^.) 

The  other  European  species  of  BuhoiiincB,  the  Little  Horned  Owl 
{Scops  aldrovandi),  appears  to  be  almost  confined  to  the  southern 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  it  is  said  to  be  most  abundant  in  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  Even  in  these  countries,  how- 
ever, it  is  a  Bird  of  passage,  and  crosses  to  the  African  continent  at 
the  approach  of  winter.  It  is  found  also  in  the  southern  parts  of  Asia, 
at  least  as  far  to  the  eastward  as  India.  Specimens  have  occurred, 
but  very  rarely,  in  this  country.  This  Bird  measures  only  seven 
or  eight  inches  in  length  ;  its  food  consists  principally  of  Mice  and 
Insects  ;  it  nestles  in  the  cavities  of  rocks,  or  in  the  holes  of  trees, 
and  lays  from  two  to  four  eggs. 

Amongst  the  Indian  species,  which  are  tolerably  numerous,  we 
may  notice  the  Kctiipa  Jlavipes,  which  is  somewhat  diurnal  in  its 
habits,  and  is  said  to  frequent  especially  the  borders  of  streams, 
into  which  it  plunges  sometimes  to  a  considerable  depth  in  pursuit 
of  Fish.  The  note  of  an  allied  species,  the  Ketupa  ceyloneiisis,  is 
a  hoarse  hollow  laugh,  resembling  the  syllables  Haw,  Haw,  Haw, 
Ho  1  which  is  described  as  most  disagreeable  and  repulsive.  The 
Bubo  beiigaleiisis  feeds  principally  upon  Rats  ;  and  Colonel  Sykes 
has  described  an  instance  in  which  one  of  these  Birds  was  found  to 


mm  Wr^'ik         T 

Fig.  10S5. — Head  of  the  Snowy  Owl. 

have  swallowed  a  Rat  whole,  the  head  and  part  of  the  body  being  in 
the  stomach,  and  partially  decomposed  :  whilst  the  tail  was  still 
hanging  out  of  the  mouth.  This  species  is  said  to  build  in  trees, 
forming  a  nest  of  sticks. 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  Surnincs,  or  Hawk-Owls,  with  which  the 
family  of  the  Strigida  concludes,  we  find  an  approach  to  the  struc- 
ture of  the  Diu7-nal  Raptores.  They  agree  with  the  BubonincB  in 
having  the  facial  discs  imperfect ;  but  are  distinguished  from  those 
Birds  by  the  comparatively  small  size  of  the  head,  and  the  absence  of 
the  horn-like  tufts.    The  eyes  are  also  smaller  in  proportion  than  in  the 


THE  SNOWY  OWL— THE  HA  WK-OWL. 


417 


Fig.  10S6.— Ear  of  the  Snowy  Owl 


more  typical  Owls,  and  the  external  ear  is  smaller  and  less  compli- 
cated (Fig-.  1086).  Tlicse  differences  in  structure  are  evidently  con- 
nected with  the  diurnal  habits  of  the  Birds  composing  this  group, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  confined  to  the  Arctic  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  at  least  during  the  summer;  and  as  at  that  season 
there  is  no  night  in  those  regions,  a  strictly  nocturnal  Bird  would 
find  himself  very  inconveniently 
situated.  At  the  approach  of 
winter  these  Birds  move  a  little 
soutlnvards,  and  some  of  the 
species  are  then  found  in  Bri- 
tain and  the  milder  parts  of 
Europe. 

The  best  known  species  is 
the  Snowy  0\\\{Siirnia  nycfca. 
Fig.  1085),  which  is  said  to  be 
a  permanent  resident,  and  even 
to  breed,  in  the  Shetland  Isles. 
Ne.\t  to  the  Eagle-Owl  it  is 
the  largest  British  species  of 
the  family  ;  it  preys  upon  Birds 
and  small  Quadrupeds,  which 
it  appears  to  swallow  whole. 
It  flies  with  great  rapidity, 
and  generally  frequents  open 
ground,  reposing  and  breeding 

amongst  rocks,  which  harmonise  so  well  with  its  colour  that  it 
cannot  be  easily  detected.  The  habits  of  the  other  northern  species 
appear  to  be  very  similar. 

The  genus  AtJioie,  belonging  to  this  sub-family,  is  for  the  most 
part  confined  to  the  warm  regions  of  tlie  earth.  Several  species  are 
found  in  different  parts  of  India,  where  some  of  them  are  very 
troublesome  from  the  continual  noise  they  make.  The  cries  of  one 
species,  the  Athene  scufiilafa,  are  said  to  resemble  those  made  by 
a  Cat  when  undergoing  the  process  of  strangulation.  They  are 
rather  small  Birds,  and  their  food  consists  principally  of  Mice  and 
Beetles.  The  Burrowing  Owl,  which  belongs  to  this  species,  will  be 
subsequently  described. 

The  Hawk-Owl  {Surnia  funcrea). — Tliis  is  the  Strix  uhila, 
Linn.  ;  Sfrix  fiuierca,  Gmel.,  Forst.  ;  Strix  hudsonta,  Gmel.  ; 
Strix  canadensis  et  freti  Iiudsojiis,  Bris.  ;  Strix  hudsonia, 
Wils. ;  Strix  nisoria,  Meyer ;  Chouette  de  Canada  et  Chouette 
Eperviere,  ou  Caparacoch,  and  Chouette  a  longue  queue  de  Siberie, 
Bufion  (Eul  463,  a  very  good  figure  of  this  species,  under  the 
erroneous  name  of  the  Ural  Mountains  Owl) ;  Chouette  Eperviere, 
Sonn.  ;  Sperbereule,  Meyer,  Naum.  ;  Habichtseule,  Bechst.  ;  Platt- 
kopfige  and  Hochkopfige  Habichtseule,  Brehm.  ;  Hawk-Owl  of 
Pennant  and  Wilson  ;  Little  Hawk-Owl  of  Edwards  ;  Canada  Owl 
of  Latham  ;  Paypaw  theecawsew  or  Cobadecootch  of  the  Cree 
Indians  ;  Theechazza  of  the  Copper  Indians  and  Chepewyans  ;  and 
Ood  no  ha:oot  of  the  Esquimaux. 

The  Hawk-Owl  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  con- 
tinents ;  it  sometimes  appears  in  Germany  during  the  winter,  re- 
tiring northward  on  the  return  of  spring.  It  seldom  visits  France  ; 
and  though  one  settled  and  was  taken  on  board  a  collier  vessel  a  few 
miles  off  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  in  1830,  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  ever  seen  within  the  shores  of  our  island.  Wilson  says  that 
this  species  is  rare  in 
Pennsylvania  and  the 
more  southern  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  its  favourite 
range  being  along  the 
borders  of  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, making  occasional 
excursions  southward  when 
compelled  by  severity  of 
weather,  and  consequent 
scarcity  of  food.  The 
facial  disc  of  the  Hawk- 
Owl  is  very  limited ;  its 
head  is  comparatively 
small,  and  the  face  nar- 
row, approaching  in  re- 
semblance to  that  of  some  of  the  Harriers  (Circus).  It  preys  more- 
over by  day,  its  eyes  being  adapted  for  a  dull  light,  and  its  flight  is 
steady.  From  these  circumstances  it  has  obtained  its  English  ap- 
pellation. Fig.  1087  represents  the  head  in  profile.  From  the 
writer  alluded  to,  we  learn  that  it  is  bold  and  active,  and  will  follow 
the  fowler,  carrying  off  his  game  as  soon  as  shot. 

According  to  Dr.  Richardson,  the  Hawk-Owl  remains  all  the 
winter  in  high  northern  latitudes,  and  is  rarely  seen  so  far  south  as 
Pennsylvania,  and  then  only  in  severe  winters.  Wilson  saw  only 
two  specimens  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  common  species 
throughout  the  Fur-countries,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Pacific,  and 
is  more  frequently  killed  than  any  other  by  the  hunters,  which  may 
be  partly  attributed  to  its  boldness  and  its  habit  of  flying  about  by 
day.     In  the  summer  season  it  feeds  principally  on  Mice  and  In- 


Fig.  10S7.— Head  of  Hawk-Owl. 


ntih^  f  H  ^  "  s^ow-clad  regions,  which  it  frequents  in  winter, 
neither  of  these  are  to  be  procured,  and  it  then  preys  mostly  on 
I  tarmigan.  It  is  a  constant  attendant  on  the  flocks  of  Ptarmigan 
in  their  spring  migrations  to  the  northward.  It  builds  its  nest  on 
a  ree,  of  sticks,  grass  and  feathers,  and  lays  two  white  eggs. 
When  the  hunters  are  shooting  Grouse,  this  Bird  is  occasionally  It- 
tracted  by  the  report  of  the  gun,  and  is  often  bold  enough,  on  a  Bird 
being  killed,  to  pounce  d.nvn  upon  it,  though  it  may  be  unable  from 
its  size  to  carry  it  off.  It  is  also  known  to  hover  round  the  fires 
made  by  the  natives  at  night.  , 

The  colouring  is  as  follows  :— Forehead  dotted  with  white  and 


Fi?.  loSS.— The  Hawk-Owl. 


Fig.  10S9.— The  Ural  OwL 


3H 


4i8 


THE   URAL   OWL— THE  BURROWING  OWL. 


brown  ;  outer  margin  of  the  facial  disc  black  ;  upper  parts  marked 
with  brown  and  white  spots  of  various  forms  :  on  the  borders  of  the 
wings  are  similar  white  spots  disposed  on  a  brown  ground ;  throat 
whitish  ;  the  other  lower  parts  white,  transversely  striped  with  ashy 
brown  ;  at  the  insertion  of  the  wings  a  great  spot  of  blackish-brown  ; 
tail-feathers  ashy-brown,  striped  at  considerable  distances  with 
transversal  narrow  zigzags  ;  bill  yellow,  varied  with  black  spots  ac- 
cording to  age ;  iris  bright  yellow ;  feet  feathered  to  the  claws. 
Total  length  about  fifteen  inches.  The  colours  of  the  female  are 
less  pure  than  those  of  the  male,  and  she  is  rather  larger— measur- 
ing seventeen  or  eighteen  inches.     (See  Fig.  1088.) 

The  Ural  Owl  {Surnia  iiraIensis).—Strix  urahnsis,  Pallas; 
La  Chouette  des  Monts  Urals,  Sonnini ;  Die  Ural  Habichtseule, 
Bechstein. 

This  rare  species  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  regions  of  the  Old 
World,  Lapland,  the  north  of  Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  Hungary, 
and  Japan.     It  is  occasionally  seen  in  Germany. 

In  the  Ural  Owl  the  tail  is  long,  and  far  exceeds  the  tips  of  the 
folded  wings  ;  the  tarsi  are  rather  short  and  robust.  Leverets,  Rats, 
Mice,  Grouse,  Ptarmigans,  and  other  Birds,  are  the  prey  of  this 
species.     It  constructs  its  nest  in  tlie  hollows  of  decayed  trees,  often. 


Fig.  1090. — Burrowing  Owls  and  Prairie  Dog?, 


it  is  said,  near  the  dwellings  of  man  ;  the  eggs  are  three  orfour  in 
number,  and  of  a  pure  white.  The  head  of  this  Owl  is  of  consider- 
able size  ;  the  facial  disc  large,  and  of  a  greyish-white  marked  with 
some  blackish  hairs  ;  the  marginal  circle  of  the  disc  is  composed 
of  white  feathers  spotted  with  brownish -black.  Top  of  the  head, 
nape,  back,  and  wing-coverts,  marked  with  great  longitudinal  spots 
disposed  on  a  whitish  ground;  all  the  under  parts  w^hitish,  marked 
in  the  middle  of  each  feather  with  a  large  longitudinal  stripe  of 
brown.  Quill  and  tail-feathers  banded  with  brown  and  white 
alternately;  seven  bands  on  the  tail.  Beak  yellow,  nearly  hidden 
in  the  long  hairs  of  the  face.  Iris  brown  ;  tarsi  and  toes  covered 
with  hairs  of  a  white  colour  freckled  with  brown  ;  claws  very  long, 
and  yellowish      Total  length  about  two  feet.     (See  Fig.  1089.) 

The  Burrowing  Owl  {Athene  ciciiiciilaria ;  Pholeoptynix 
ciinicularia  ;  Noctua  cuniciclaria,  &=<:.)— This  singular  little  Owl 
(if  the  species  be  identical)  is  widely  spread  through  the  American 
continent,  everywhere  inhabiting  burrows  ;  it  is  diurnal  in  its  habits, 
as  well  as  terrestrial  ;  is  of  slender  contour,  and  walks  about  with 
ease  elevated  on  long  naked  tarsi  ;  the  facial  disc  is  circumscribed. 
C.  L.  Bonaparte  thus  describes  the  strange  economy  of  this  Bird  :— 

"  In  the  trans-Mississippian  territories  of  the  United  States,  the 


burrowing  owl  resides  exclusively  in  the  villages  of  the  marmot  or 

prairie  dog,  whose  excavations  are  so  commodious  as  to  render  it 
unnecessary  that  our  bird  should  dig  for  himself,  as  he  is  said  to  do 
in  other  parts  of  the  world  where  no  burrowing  animals  e.xist.  These 
villages  are  very  numerous,  and  variable  in  their  extent,  sometimes 
covering  only  a  few  acres,  at  others  spreading  over  the  surface  of 
the  country  for  miles  together.  They  are  composed  of  slightly- 
elevated  mounds,  having  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone,  about  two 
feet  in  width  at  the  base,  and  seldom  rising  as  high  as  eighteen 
inches  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  entrance  is  placed  either 
at  the  top  or  on  the  side,  and  the  whole  mound  is  beaten  down  ex- 
ternally, especially  at  the  summit,  resembling  a  much-used  foot- 
path. 

"  From  the  entrance,  the  passage  into  the  mound  descends  verti- 
cally for  one  or  two  feet,  and  is  thence  continued  obliquely  down- 
wards, until  it  terminates  in  an  apartment,  within  which  the  indus- 
trious marmot  constructs,  on  the  approach  of  the  cold  season,  a 
comfortable  cell  for  his  winter's  sleep.  This  cell,  which  is  composed 
of  fine  dry  grass,  is  globular  in  form,  with  an  opening  at  top  capa- 
ble of  admitting  the  finger  ;  and  the  whole  is  so  firmly  compacted, 
that  he  might,  without  injury,  be  rolled  over  the  floor. 

"  In    all     the     prairie-dog 
villages  the  burrowing  owl  is 
-.--:,-  seen  moving  briskly  about,  or 

else  in  small  flocks  scattered 
among  the  mounds,  and  at  a 
distance  it  may  be  mistaken 
for  the  marmot  itself  when 
sitting  erect.  They  manifest 
but  little  timidity,  and  allow 
themselves  to  be  approached 
sufficiently  close  for  shoot- 
ing ;  but  if  alarmed,  some  or 
all  of  them  soar  away  and 
settle  down  again  at  a  short 
distance;  if  further  disturbed, 
their  flight  is  continued  until 
they  are  no  longer  in  view, 
or  they  descend  into  their 
dwellings,  whence  they  are 
difficult  to  dislodge. 

"  The  burrows  into  which 
these  owls  have  been  seen 
to  descend  on  the  plains  of 
the  river  Platte  (a  tributary 
to  the  Missouri),  where  they 
are  most  numerous,  were  evi- 
dently excavated  either  by 
the  marmot,  whence  it  has 
been  inferred  by  Say  that 
they  were  common  though 
unfriendly  residents  of  the 
same  habitation,  or  that  our 
owl  was  the  sole  occupant 
of  a  burrow  acquired  by  the 
right  of  conquest.  That  the 
latter  idea  is  correct  was 
clearly  presented  by  the  ruin- 
ous condition  of  the  burrows 
tenanted  by  the  owl,  while  the 
neat  and  well-preserved  man- 
sion of  the  marmot  showed 
the  active  care  of  a  skilful 
and  industrious  owner.  We 
have  no  evidence  that  the 
owl  and  marmot  habitually 
resort  to  one  burrow  ;  yet  wo  arc  well  assured  by  Pike  and  others 
that  a  common  danger  often  drives  them  into  the  same  excavation, 
where  lizards  and  rattlesnakes  also  enter  for  concealment  and  safety. 
The  owl  observed  by  Vieillot  in  St.  Domingo  digs  itself  a  burrow 
two  feet  in  depth,  at  the  bottom  of  which  its  eggs  are  deposited  on  a 
bed  of  moss,  herb  stalks,  and  dried  roots." 

Mr.  Darwin  states  that  the  Burrowing  Owl,  on  the  plains  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  e.xclusively  inhabits  the  holes  of  the  Bizcacha,  or  Viscacha, 
but  that  in  Banda  Oriental  it  is  its  own  workman. 

The  general  colour  of  this  Owl  above  is  light  burnt  umber, 
spotted  with  whitish  ;  the  wings  are  darker  ;  the  lower  part  of  the 
breast  and  under  parts  whitish.  Length  about  ten  inches.  (See 
Fig.  1090.) 

In  the  British  Museum  a  great  variety  of  specimens  of  Owls  may 
be  found ;  and  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  at  Regent's 
Park,  London,  are  living  specimens  of  members  of  this  family,  in- 
cluding most  of  those  already  named.  Beside  these  are  the  Wood- 
Owl  [Syrnium  aliico),  and  many  other  members  of  the  group. 
Among  the  Eagls-Owls  in  that  collection,  are  the  European  Owl 
[Bubo  maximus),  and  the  Virginian  Owl  [Bubo  virgiiitanus)  already 
described. 


PERCHING  BIRDS. 


419 


CHAPTER     XXV. 

CLASS   II.— AVES,  OR  BIRDS;   ORDER  PASSERES,   OR  INSESSORES-PERCHING  BIRDS. 


.-"  \,i 


OR  reasons   already   stated  at  page  378, 
aiite,  we  have  adopted  an  arbitrary  classifi- 
cation oi  Autophagi  and  Iiisessorials,  as  a 
general  rule,  in  describing  the  class  Aves,  or 
Birds  ;  at  the  same  time,  claiming  a  full  license 
to  deal  with  the   subject  without  adhering  to  a 
strict  view  of  Zoological  classification.     Perhaps 
our  best  reason   for   doing  so  is   the   fact   that 
almost     every   naturalist   has  adopted   his   own   plan, 
simply  because  nature  presents,  in  no  case,  any  very 
broad  distinctions.      It  is  this  circumstance,   indeed, 
that  has  given  rise  to  the  modern  theory  of  "  Evolution  of 
Species,"  which  has  been  so  much  discussed,  praised,  and 
deprecated. 

At  the  head  of  this  chapter  we  have  used  two  terms — one, 
Pi!sse?-cs,  derived  from  the  Latin,  passer,  a  Sparrow ;  and  the  other, 
Inscssores,  also  from  the  Latin,  insessus,  or  "perched,"  the  Spar- 
row forming  the  type  of  the  section. 

But  the  term  "Insessores"  must  be  defined  rather  by  negations 
than  any  positive  characters  :  it  includes  all  Birds  which  are  neither 
Raptorial,  nor  Gallinaceous,  nor  Waders,  nor  Swimmers  ;  yet  do  its 
subjects  feed  on  every  kind  of  diet,  from  flesh  to  grain,  and  they 
exhibit  every  variety  of  habits  and  manners,  from  those  of  the  vora- 
cious Raven  to  those  of  the  tiny  Humming-Bird  or  brilliant  Honey- 
sucker  ;  consequently  their  beak,  plumage,  limbs,  and  digestive 
organs  are  as  diversified  as  their  modes  of  life.  Take,  for  example, 
the  Parrot  and  the  Cuckoo — and  yet  these  are  both  examples  not 
only  of  one  order,  but  of  one  tribe. 

Leaving  all  this,  however,  we  may  proceed  to  observe  that  the 
security  and  firmness  with  which  Birds  perch  have  often  excited 
surprise,  and  no  doubt  led  many  to  conjecture  that  there  must  be 
some  peculiarity  in  the  mechanism   from  which  such  tenacity  of 


Fig    1091. — Lircl  asleep. 

grasp  proceeds.  Fig.  logi  represents  a  Bird  in  a  perched  attitude 
asleep,  with  the  leg  dissected,  after  Borelli,  and  in  which  the 
mechanism  is  shown  ;  but  much  more  clearly  by  Fig.  1092,  the 
anatomy  of  the  leg  of  the  Bird  at  rest — nothing  can  be  more  simple, 
yet  more  effective,  a  is  a  muscle  which  arises  from  the  haunch- 
bone,  and  becoming  suddenly  tendinous,  passes  over  the  outer  angle 


of  the  thigh-joint  (analogous  to  our  knee)  at  b  ; 
then  winding  down  the  bone,  being  diverted 
from  its  straight  course,  and  firmly  bound  down 
so  as  not  to  slip,  it  passes  posteriorly  over  the 
angle  of  the  tarsal  joint,  c,  and  proceeds  down 
the  back  of  the  tarsus  to  the  under  side  of  the 
toes,  d,  into  the  bones  of  which  slips  from  it  are 
respectively  inserted.  From  this  arrangement  it 
is  evident  that  when  the  bones  of  the  leg  and 
thigh  are  bent  together  (the  joints  forming  acutcr 
angles)  by  the  weight  of  the  sleeping  Bird,  the 
tendon  will  be  stretched  more  and  more  over  the 
angles  d  and  c,  and  the  toes  become  more 
strongly  drawn  together  or  clasped.  Hence 
Birds  can  rest  as  easily,  perhaps  more  so,  on  one 
leg  than  on  both,  and,  as  is  well  known,  it  is  on 
one  leg  only  that  most  sleep  perched  ;  while  the 
flexibility  of  the  neck  allows  it  to  be  turned  back 
upon  the  body,  and  the  head  brought  under  the 
wing,  so  as  to  throw  the  centre  of  gravity  more 
over  the  feet,  and  thereby  increase  the  stability. 
Fig.  1093  relates  to  a  different  subject,  and  ex- 
hibits the  Vibrissa:,  or  Bristles,  round  the  base  of  the  beak  of  the 
Roller.  Most  Birds  which  feed  on  Insects  are  distinguished  by  a 
fringe  of  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  beak,  not  unlike  the  whiskers 
of  the  Cat,  and  evidently  intended  to  aid  them  in  capturing  their 

prey.  These  bristles  are  larger  in  the 
Night-Jars  than  in  most  other  Birds  ; 
but  are  very  distinct  in  our  small  In- 
sectivorous feathered  tribes  generally, 
as  the  Nightingale,  Red-breast,  Shrike, 
Flycatcher,  and  the  Roller,  selected  by 
way  of  example.  To  these  vibrissa; 
we  shall  have  to  make  frequent  allu- 
sion. 

The  Passerine  or  Insessorial  Birds 
have  been  variously  divided.  Accord- 
ing to  some  they  embrace  the  four  fol- 
lowing sub-orders — viz.,  the  FlSSlROS- 
TRES  {fisstis,  cleft,  and  rostri/m,  ? 
beak)  ;  the  Texuirostres  [tenuis, 
slender, orslender-beaked);  Dentiros- 
TRES  {dens,  a  tooth,  or  tooth-beaked) ; 
and  CoNiROSTRES  {conns,  a  cone, 
or  cone-beaked).  We  shall  commence 
with 

Sub-order  I. — Fissirostres, 
OR  Cleft-beak  Birds. 

General  Characters. — The  Fissi- 
rostres are  characteribed  by  having 
the  gape-line  continued  far  back,  usually  reaching  under  the  eyes. 
They  are  generally  Insectivorous  Birds,  and  many  of  them  take 
their  prey  on  the  wing ;  the  gape  is  accordingly  usually  furnished 
with  bristles,  which,  by  enlarging  the  space  occupied  by  the 
mouth,  greatly  facilitate  the  capture  of  Insects,  as  already  explained. 
The  Nocturnal  Fissirostres,  as  forming  a  continuous  group,  in 
many  of  their  habits,  with  the  Owls,  which  were  described  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  last  chapter,  afford  a  natural  transition  from  the 
^RaJ>iores. 


Fig.  1092. — Leg  of  Bird, 
perched. 


Fig.  1093.— Head  of  Roller,  showing  the  Vihriss*. 


420 


THE   GOATSUCKERS. 


The  Goatsuckers,  or  Night -Jars— Family  Cap-imulgidcs. 

The  Birds  comprising  tlie  present  family  are  Crepuscular  and 
Nocturnal  in  their  habits  ;  they  spend  the  hours  of  day  in  repose, 
surrounding  themselves  from  observation  in  the  gloom  of  woods,  or 
amidst  the  dense  foliage  of  trees  ;  coming  forth  at  evening  to  feed 
upon  such  Insects  as,  like  themselves,  are  roused  from  inertion  by 
the  advance  of  darkness.  They  take  their  prey  upon  the  wing,  and 
perform  during  the  chase  the  most  elegant  aerial  evolutions.  Their 
eyes  are  large  and  of  the  true  nocturnal  character ;  the  beak  is 
small,  but  the  gape  is  enormous,  extending  below  the  eyes,  remind- 
ing us  of  the  mouth  of  a  toad  (sec  Fig.  1094,  the  head  of  the  com- 


Fig.  1094. — Head  of  the 
Night-Jar. 


Fig,  1005. — Foot  of  the 
Night-Jar. 


mon  Night-Jar)  ;  its  margin  is  fringed  with  strong  vibrissae  ;  the 
wings  are  long  and  pointed  ;  the  tarsi  usually  very  short ;  the  hind 
toe  is,  in  some  genera,  united  close  to  the  base  of  the  inner  toe,  and 
directed  almost  as  equally  forwards  ;  the  middle  of  the  three  an- 
terior toes  is  the  longest,  and  in  the  genus  Capriiniilgiis  is  armed 
with  a  long  claw,  having  a  comb-like  (pectinated)  inner  margin. 
(See  Fig.  1095,  the  foot  of  the  Night-Jar.) 

The  plumage  is  full  and  soft,  and  beautifully  variegated  with  dots, 
bars,  dashes,  and  zigzag  marks  of  mingled  giey.  brown,  fawn- 
colour,  black,  and  white  ;  difficult  to  describe,  and  almost  as  difficult 
to  imitate.  Rapid  and  abrupt  as  is  the  flight  of  these  Birds,  still  it 
is  noiseless  ;  resembling  in  that  respect  the  flight  of  the  Owl,  and 
from  the  same  cause — the  laxness,  the  want  of  rigidity  in  the  quill- 
feathers  :  but,  from  the  form  of  the  wing,  the  flight  is  of  a  different 
character.  Some  have  the  sides  of  the  head  adorned  with  tufts  of 
soft  feathers. 

The  Night-Jar,  or  GoxT?,vcii^v.  {Caprimulgus  europcBus).— 
This  is  the  Goatsucker,  Jar-Owl,  Churn-Owl,  Fern-Owl,  Dor- 
Hawk,  Night-Hawk,  and  Wheel-Bird  of  various  writers.  Aiyo0i]\jig 
of  the  Greeks  ;  Caprimulgus  of  the  Latins  ;  Calca-botto  Piattaglione, 
Porta  quaglie,  Boccaccio,  and  Cova-terra  of  the  modern  Italians ; 
Chotacabras  of    the    Spaniards ;    Tette-chevre,    Engoulevert,    and 


Fig.  1096,— The  Night-Jar,  or  Goatsucker. 

Crapaud  volant  of  the  French  ;  Milchsauger,  Geiss-milcher,  Nacht 
Rabe,  Nacht  Shcwalbi,  and  Tagschliifer  of  the  Germans  ;  Nats- 
kraffa,  Natskarra,  and  Quallknarren  of  the  "  Fauna  Suecica ;" 
Natravn,  Nat-skade,  and  Aften-bakke  of  Brunnich  ;  Muckenstecker 
and  Nachtrabb  of  Kramer;  Adcryn  y  droell  and  Rhodwr  of  the 
ancient  British.     It  is  typical  of  the  sub-family  CaprimulgincB. 


An  evil  name  has  this  beautiful  Bird  had  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  among  almost  all  European  nations.  Aristotle,  who  describes 
it  under  the  title  AtyoQiiXtjg.  accuses  it  of  flying  upon  Goats  and 
sucking  them  (whence  its  name) ;  and  adds,  as  a  common  report, 
that  the  teat  of  the  Goat  afterwards  becomes  dry,  and  the  animal 
itself  blind.  .Elian's  version  is  nearly  to  the  same  effect,  and  so 
also  is  Pliny's.  In  France  the  same  erroneous  opinion  has  long 
been  entertained,  and  also  in  Italy,  as  well  as  in  Germany  and  Eng- 
land :  in  short,  it  seems  to  be  a  superstition  of  universal  prevalence. 
In  our  country  it  is  not  the  udder  of  the  Goat,  but  that  of  the  Cow, 
that  it  is  supposed  to  drain  (a  nefarious  practice  attributed  also  to 
the  poor  little  Hedgehog)  ;  and  not  this  only,  for,  as  White  says, 
("  Selbome"),  "the  country-people  have  a  notion  that  the  fern-owl 
or  churn-owl,  or  eve-jar,  is  very  injurious  to  weaning  calves,  by  in- 
flicting, as  it  strikes  at  them,  a  fatal  distemper.  Thus  does  this 
harmless,  ill-fated  bird  fall  under  a  double  imputation  which  it  by 
no  means  deserves  : — in  Italy,  of  sucking  the  teats  of  goats,  whence 
it  is  called  Caprimulgus  ;  and  with  us,  of  communicating  a  deadly 
disorder  to  cattle."  The  disease  in  question  is  in  reality  occa- 
sioned by  the  ravages  beneath  the  skin  of  the  Maggots  of  a  species 
of  Fly  [cvstfus) ;  and  if  the  Fern-Owl  was  ever  seen  making  a  sweep 
near  the  suffering  Calves,  that  is,  as  it  would  appear,  striking  at 
them,  it  was  in  order  to  snap  at  some  Insect,  from  the  torments  of 
which  the  Calf  would  be  gladly  freed. 

The  Night-Jar  preys  upon  Moths,  Chaffers,  and  other  large 
Insects,  and  may  be  often  seen,  when  the  sun  begins  to  set,  darting 
in  chase  of  its  food,  displaying  almost  unequalled  rapidity  of  flight, 
and  the  most  rapid  and  surprising  evolutions  ;  yet  it  flits  along 
noiseless  as  a  shadow,  not  a  rustle  is  heard ;  on  many  occasions, 
in  days  past  by,  we  have  watched  this  interesting  Bird  thus  occu- 
pied, and  we  have  seen  it  settle,  and  with  head  depressed  almost  to 
the  perch  on  which  it  rested,  and  swollen  quivering  throat,  utter  its 
jarring  vibratory  note,  and  again  give  chase  to  its  prey.  White 
says,  and  though  we  never  observed  it  ourselves,  we  fully  believe  it, 
that  "  when  a  person  approaches  the  haunt  of  the  fern-owls  in  an 
evening,  they  continue  flying  round  the  head  of  the  obtruder,  and  by 
striking  their  wings  together  above  their  backs,  in  the  manner  that 
the  pigeons  called  smiters  are  known  to  do,  make  a  smart  snap  : 
perhaps  at  that  time  they  are  jealous  for  their  young,  and  their  noise 
and  gesture  are  intended  by  way  of  menace." 

It  is  not  often  that  this  Bird  utters  its  churring  sound  in  the  air  ; 
but  usually  when  perched,  a  bare  branch,  high  palings,  or  the  ridge 
of  any  building  being  chosen  as  a  resting-place.  The  Fern-Owl 
does  not  perch  across  the  branch,  as  Birds  in  general  do,  but 
lengthwise,  and  rests  upon  it  instead  of  grasping  it,  and  that  with 
the  head  low,  so  as  almost  to  touch  it.  The  male  sometimes  utters 
a  small  squeak  repeated  four  or  five  times,  when  playfully  chasing 
his  mate  through  the  boughs  of  trees. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  respecting  the  pectinated  claw  on 
the  middle  toe  of  the  Fern-Owl,  but  its  use  has  not  yet  been  expli- 
citly determined.  White  supposed  it  to  serve  in  the  capture  of  its 
prey  ;  but  that  the  Bird  should  strike  at  its  prey  with  its  little  feet 
and  short  legs  is  out  of  the  question  :  when  observed  by  White  to 
bring  its  foot  to  its  beak  during  flight,  might  it  not  have  been  clear- 
ing its  bill  and  vibrissae  of  the  hard  wing-cases  and  limbs  of  the 
Beetles  it  had  captured  ?  In  which  case  the  worthy  historian  of 
Selborne  w-ould  indeed  have  seen  what  he  relates,  incorrect  as  we 
deem  his  inference.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  other  Birds,  of 
very  different  habits,  as  the  Heron,  &c. ,  have  the  claws  similarly 
pectinated  :  may  not  this  modification  be  connected  with  their  mode 
of  perching  on  the  bare  branches  of  trees  ?  These  are  queries  yet  to 
be  decided  ;  certainly  the  serrations,  whether  in  the  Fem-Owl  or  the 
Heron,  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  seizure  or  retention  of  prey  ;  in 
fact,  the  comb-like  teeth  are  directed  obliquely  forwards,  not  back- 
w'ards,  as  they  ought  to  be,  if  intended  as  retainers  of  struggling  or 
slippery  captives. 

The  Fern-Owl,  or  Night-Jar,  is  a  Bird  of  passage,  arriving  on  our 
island  in  May,  and  departing  in  September ;  it  is  spread  over  all 
the  southern  and  middle  districts  of  Europe,  and  retires  to  pass  the 
winter  in  Africa.  Woods  skirting  heaths,  or  common  lands,  plan- 
tations of  oak,  or  rows  of  sycamores  near  farm-houses,  are  the 
favourite  spots  which  it  haunts.  It  builds  no  definite  nest,  but  lays 
its  eggs  on  the  ground  among  fern  or  heath,  or  under  the  protec- 
tion of  shrubs  ;  they  are  two  in  number,  marbled  with  white,  yellow- 
ish-brown, and  grey. 

The  plumage  of  this  Bird  is  beautifully  diversified  with  a  rich  and 
intricate  commingling  of  grey,  black,  brown,  rufous,  and  yellowish, 
in  dots,  dashes,  and  zigzag  bars,  the  latter  being  conspicuous  on 
the  under  parts  and  tail.     Length  almost  ten  inches. 

The  Great  Ibijau,  or  Grand  Goatsucker  {Nyctihius 
grandis). — Caprimulgus  grandis,  Latham  ;  Grand  Crapaud  vo- 
lant de  Cayenne,  Buffon.  The  principal  character  of  the  genus 
Nyctibius  consists  in  an  obtuse  tooth  on  each  edge  of  the  upper 
mandible  of  the  beak. 

This  Bird  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and  in  general  habits  re- 
sembles the  Night-Jar  ;  being  Nocturnal  and  Insectivorous,  pursuing 
its  prey  on  rapid  pennons ;  during  the  day  it  haunts  hollow  trees, 


THE  NIGHT-HA  WK—THE  WHIP-POOR-  WILL. 


^21 


especially  in  the  neiy;libourhood  of  water.  The  bill  is  much  de- 
pressed, and  broad  at  the  base  ;  the  tail  is  rather  rounded  ;  the  hind 
toe  is  stout  and  flattened.  The  general  plumage  is  brown,  speckled 
with  black,  fulvous,  and  white  ;  the  ground-colour  is  deepest  on  the 
breast ;  head,  neck,  and  lower  parts  Isarrcd.  Length  nearly  thirteen 
inches.     (See  Fig.  1097.) 


Fig.  1097. — The  Great  Ibijau. 

The  Nyctibiusjaniaicens:s,  or  PoTOO,  is  said  to  be  of  a  sedentary 
disposition,  perching  on  a  post  or  dead  tree  to  look  out  for  passing 
Insects. 

The  Night-H.\wk  (Cho7-dciIcs  americanus). —  Caprinutlgus 
aincricanus ,  Wilson  ;  C.  virginianiis,  Prince  of  Musignano  and 
Canino.  Edge  of  beak  smooth  ;  tail  forked.  This  Bird  is  common 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  ranges  in  summer  through  the 
Fur-countries  of  the  north,  even  to  the  remotest  Arctic  islands.  It  is 
the  Musquito-Hawk  described  in  Parry's  first  voyage.  Its  manners, 
as  described  by  Wilson,  remind  us  closely  of  those  of  our  own 
Night-Jar  :  it  is  a  Bird  of  strong  and  vigorous  pinions,  and  in  dull 
and  cloudy  w-eather  is  abroad  during  the  day,  giving  chase,  like  the 
Swallow,  to  its  Insect  prey,  sometimes  at  a  considerable  height, 
sometimes  skimming  over  marsh  and  meadow,  and  uttering  shrill 
squeaks  as  it  dashes  along.  Often  from  an  elevation  of  sixty  or 
eighty  feet,  will  the  male,  hovering  over  the  female  engaged  in  the 
duty  of  incubation,  dart  suddenly  down,  head  foremost,  with  incon- 
ceivable rapidity,  and  as  suddenly  wheel  up,  uttering,  at  the  moment 
he  makes  the  turn,  a  loud  vibratory  booming  sound,  produced  by 
the  sudden  expansion  of  his  capacious  mouth  as  he  sweeps  through 
the  air.  Having  mounted,  he  again  repeats  the  aerial  feat,  with 
the  same  impetuosity  and  the  same  sound  as  before.  The  female 
lays  her  eggs  on  the  bare  ground ;  these  are  two  in  number,  of  a 
dirty  white,  thickly  marbled  and  dashed  with  dark  olive-brown. 
(See  Fig.  1098.)  Like  our  British  species,  this  Bird  perches  length- 
wise on  the  branches  of  trees,  or  on  the  edge  of  fences.  During 
the  time  the  female  is  sitting  she  will  permit  a  person  to  approach 
her  within  a  foot  or  two  before  she  attempts  to  stir,  and  then,  like 
our  Lapwing,  feigns  lameness,  and  flutters  and  tumbles  about,  keep- 
ing just  before  the  pursuer,  till  she  has  drawn  him  to  a  distance 
from  the  spot ;  when,  just  as  he  hopes  to  succeed  in  catching  her, 
she  mounts  and  disappears  in  an  instant.  The  young  when  just 
hatched  are  very  shapeless,  and  covered  with  fine  brownish  down. 
When  the  Night-Hawk  is  wounded  and  captured,  it  opens  its  mouth 
widely,  utters  a  guttural  whizzing  noise,  and  strikes  with  its  wings, 
but  never  with  the  bill  or  claws.  The  general  ground-colour  of  the 
plumage  is  dark  liver-brown  glossed  with  greenish  ;  head,  neck, 
and  wing-covens  spotted  with  yellowish-brown  ;   back  and  tcrtials 


mottled  with  brownish-white  and  greyish-brown  ;  a  band  of  white 
across  the  middle  quill-feathers;  a  white  broad  arrow-shaped  mark 
on  the  throat,  and  a  white  dotted  stripe  above  the  eyes.  Plumage 
below  barred  with  brownish-white  and  dark-liver  brown  ;  tail 
barred ;  claw  of  middle  toe  serrated.  Length  nine  inches  and 
a-half. 


Fig.  109S.— Night-Hawks. 

The  Whip- poor-Will  {Caf>}-!mu7gus  vocifcrus). — This  species, 
universally  spread  over  all  the  United  States  of  America,  has  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  singularity  of  its  notes,  which  seem  to 
articulate  the  words  Whip-poor-Will  with  considerable  distinctness, 
the  first  and  last  syllables  being  uttered  with  great  emphasis ;  and 
when  two  or  more  males  meet,  they  seem  as  if  endeavouring  to 
overpower  each  other  by  the  vehemence  of  their  vociferations.  At 
these  times,  and  indeed  generally,  they  fly  low,  skimming  round  the 
house  or  barn,  and  alighting  on  stacks,  palings,  or  the  roof.  To- 
wards midnight  they  generally  become  silent,  unless  a  clear  moon- 
light, when  they  are  heard  without  intermission  till  morning.  It  is 
about  the  25th  of  April,  according  to  Wilson,  that  this  Bird  is  heard 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  at  Kentucky  about  the  14th,  commencing  its 
call  as  the  dusk  begins  to  set  in  ;  and  hundreds  are  sometimes  heard 
at  once  in  different  parts  of  the  wood,  striving  to  outdo  each  other. 
Early  in  June,  when  the  young  appear,  the  notes  of  the  male  usually 
cease  ;  but  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  summer  they  are  again 
occasionally  heard,  though  with  less  vehemence  and  emphasis  than 
in  the  spring.  Early  in  ""September  the  Birds  all  move  southwards, 
performing  a  regular  migration. 

The  favourite  haunts  of  this  species  are  high,  drj',  barren  or  hilly 
situations  ;  they  seldom  visit  low  marshy  tracts,  or  the  low  lands  of 
the  sea-coast ;  they  abound  in  the  barrens  of  Kentucky,  where  in 
April  and  May  their  confused  clamour  is  incessant  every  evening, 
and,  as  Wilson  asserts,  extremely  agreeable  to  the  inhabitants,  who 
are  lulled  to  sleep  by  their  voices,  to  which,  especially  on  the 
approach  of  dawn,  the  full-toned  "  tooting  "  of  the  Pinnated  Grouse 
forms  a  pleasing  bass. 

The  food  of  this  species  of  Caprimulgiis  consists  of  various  sorts 
of  Insects  ;  its  flight  in  the  pursuit  is  rapid,  zigzag,  and  noiseless  ; 
but  it  utters  during  the  time  a  low  murmuring  sound.  Its  general 
habits  and  mode  of  perching  resemble  those  of  our  British  Night- 
Jar. 


422 


THE  CHUCK-WILV S-WIDOW~THE  OIL-BIRD. 


The  female  lays  her  eggs  on  the  bare  ground,  and  puts  every 
"ruse"  in  practice  to  decoy  intruders  from  her  young,  which  are 
little  shapeless  things  covered  with  a  down-like  mould,  and  scarcely 
to  be  seen  amidst  the  withered  leaves.  It  would  appear  that,  if  the 
young  be  disturbed,  the  parent  Bird  removes  them  to  a  more  secure 
locality.  During  the  day,  the  Whip-poor-Will,  unlike  the  Night- 
Hawk,  is  completely  confused  by  the  light,  and  it  sits  sleeping  on  a 
low  branch  or  log,  or  even  on  the  ground,  and  that  so  soundly,  that 
with  caution  a  person  may  pass  within  a  vcr)'  short  distance  of  it 
without  disturbing  it.  When  startled,  however,  it  flies  off,  but  only 
to  a  short  distance,  and  soon  again,  if  unmolested,  settles  into 
tranquil  slumber. 

The  plumage  of  this  species  is  soft :  the  general  colour  of  the 
upper  parts  is  dark  brownish-grey,  streaked  and  minutely  sprinkled 
with  brownish  -  black  ;  cheeks  brownish-red ;  quill-feathers  and 
coverts  dark-brown,  spotted  in  bars  with  light-brown :  the  three 
lateral  tail-feathers  white  at  the  tips.  A  yellowish-white  transverse 
band  across  the  fore-part  of  the  neck  ;  under  parts  paler  than  the 
upper,  and  mottled.     Length  nine  inches.     (See  Fig.  1099.) 


Fig.  1099.— The  Whip-poor-Will. 

The  Chuck-Will's- Widow  {Cap}-iiniilgus  caroUnc7isis). — 
The  name  of  this  species  is  taken  from  its  cry,  which  it  utters  with 
great  clearness,  repeating  the  sound  Chuck-Will's-Widow  loudly 
and  distinctly  si.x  or  seven  times  in  succession,  then  stopping  and 
repeating  it  again.  It  is  to  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States 
of  America  that  this  Bird  pays  its  annual  visit,  coming  from  Mexico, 
and  perhaps  still  warmer  climates,  where  it  sojourns  during  the 
winter.  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  the  lower  portions  of  Alabama  and 
Georgia,  are  the  districts  in  which  it  chiefly  abounds.  Ravines, 
swamps,  and  extensive  pine-ridges  are  alike  resorted  to  by  the 
Chuck-Will's-Widow,  its  food  abounding  equally  in  all  those  places, 
which  also  aiford  it  ample  means  of  safety  during  the  day.  It  prin- 
cipally roosts  in  the  hollow  of  decayed  trees  or  prostrate  logs,  and 
often  in  company  with  Bats,  which  cling  to  the  sides  of  the  cavities. 
"\yhen  surprised  in  such  situations,"  says  Audubon,  "  instead  of 
trying  to  effect  their  escape  by  flying  out,  they  retire  backwards  to 
the  farthest  corners,  rufBe  all  the  "feathers  of  the  body,  open  the 
mouth  to  its  full  extent,  and  utter  a  hissing  kind  of  murmur ;  when 
seized  and  brought  to  the  light  of  day,  they  open  and  close  their 
eyes  in  rapid  succession,  as  if  it  were  painful  for  them  to  encounter 
so  bright  a  light ;  they  snap  tlieir  little  bills  in  the  manner  of  fly- 
catchers, and  shufHe  along  as  if  extremely  desirous  of  making  their 
escape."  During  the  hours  of  dusk  they  are  all  animation,  and  dis- 
play the  most  rapid  and  varied  evolutions  in  the  air,  wheeling, 
sweeping  along,  mounting  and  descending  with  admirable  ease  and 
grace.  The  mode  of  incubation  resembles  that  described  of  the 
other  species,  and  the  manner  of  perching  is  the  same.  The  young, 
and  also  the  eggs,  if  meddled  with,  arercmoved  to  another  spot. 
"When  the  Chuck-Will's-Widow,"  says  Audubon,  "either  male  or 
female,  for  each  sits  alternately,  has  discovered  that  its  eggs  have 
been  touched,  it  rufSes  its  feathers,  and  appears  extremely  dejected 
for  a  minute  or  two,  after  which  it  emits  a  low  murmuring  cry, 
scarcely  audible  to  me  as. I  have  lain  concealed  at  a  distance  of 
eighteen  or  twenty  yards;  At  this  time  I  have  seen  the  other  parent 
reach  the  spot,  flying  so  low  over  the  ground  that  I  thought  its  little 
feet  must  have  touched  it  as  it  skimmed  along.  After  a  few  low 
notes  and  some  gesticulations,  I  have  witnessed  each  take  an  egg  in 
its  large  mouth,  and  'ooth  fly  off  together,  skimming  closely  over  the 
ground,  until  they  disappeared  among  the  branches  and  trees.  But 
to  what  distance  they  remove  their  eggs  I  have  never  been  able  to 
ascertain,  nor  have  I  ever  had  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  the 
removal  of  the  young.  Should  a  person  coming  upon  the  nest  when 
the  bird  is  sitting,  refrain  from  touching  the  eggs,  the  bird  returns 
to  them  and  sits  as  before  :  this  fact  I  have  also  ascertained  by 


observation."  The  Chuck-Will's-Widow  arrives  in  Georgia  about 
the  middle  of  March,  and  in  Virginia  early  in  April,  and  immedi- 
ately gives  notice  of  its  arrival  by  its  evening  call,  numbers  keeping 
up  the  chorus  during  the  hours  of  twilight,  and  through  the  night  if 
It  be  clear.  They  leave  the  United  States  towards  the  end  of 
August.  The  colours  of  the  plumage  of  this  elegant  Bird  consist 
of  yellow,  ferruginous,  and  blackish-brown,  blended  and  mingled 
together ;  the  head  and  back  are  dark-brown,  minutely  mottled  witli 
yellowish-red,  and  longitudinally  streaked  with  blaek  ;  the  wings 
are  barred  with  yellowish-red  and  brownish-black,  and  minutely 
sprinkled  wHh  the  latter  colour.  Tail  similarly  barred  and  sprinkled  : 
the  inner  webs  of  the  three  outer  feathers  white.  Under  parts 
blackish,  sprinkled  with  yellowish-red:  a  slight  band  of  whitish 
across  the  fore-part  of  the  neck.     (See  Fig.  11 00.} 


Fig.  1 100.— The  Chuck-Will's-Widow. 

An  allied  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Podagen'/icv,  a  group  of  Birds 
very  nearly  allied  to  the  true  Goatsuckers,  but  differing  from  them 
in  the  structure  of  their  feet,  the  tarsi  being  usually  rather  long,  and 
the  inner  toe  longer  than  the  outer  one.  The  middle  toe,  as  in  the 
Capritniilgina;,  has  a  serrated  claw,  and  the  bill  is  much  depressed 
and  weak.  These  Birds  are  found  in  South  America  and  Africa, 
but  scarcely  anything  is  known  of  their  habits.  The  species  of  the 
genus  Podager,  the  South  American  forms  of  the  group,  are  said  to 
fly  in  large  flocks  in  the  day-time,  and  to  nestle,  like  the  Goat- 
suckers, on  the  ground. 

The  Guacharo,  or  Oil-Bird  [Sfeaform's  caripcvsis,  Hum- 
boldt).— This  extraordinary  Bird  (type  of  the  sub-family  Stca- 
forniyicB)  was  discovered  by  Baron  Humboldt  in  the  cavern  of 
Caripe,  called  Cueva  del  Guacharo,  in  the  province  of  Cumana, 
which  it  haunts  in  thousands  ;  and  either  the  same  or  closely  allied 
species  was  seen  by  him  in  a  ravine,  traversed  by  two  natural 
bridges,  of  the  valley  of  Icononzo  (Cordilleras),  visited  by  himself 


Fig.  nor.— The  Guacharo. 

and  Bonpland  on  their  way  from  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  to  Popayan 
and  Quito.  The  Bird  is  also  found  in  Guadaloupe  and  Trinidad. 
It  is  in  a  deep  ravine  that  these  Birds  congregate,  flitting  in  the 
gloom,  like  foul  spirits,  as  if  unwilling  to  meet  the  light  of  "  garish 
day."  They  were  described  by  the  Indians  (who  call  them  Cacas)  as 
being  about  the  size  of  a  Hen,  and  having  the  eyes  of  an  Owl,  with 
crooked  beaks.  The  colour  of  their  plumage  is  uniform  throughout, 
and  of  a  brownish-grey,  whence  Humboldt  rightly  conjectures  that 


THE   OIL- BIRD. 


423 


they  belong  to  the  CafrimulgidcB,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties 
ill  this  region. 

With  respect  to  the  Cueva  del  Guacharo,  it  is  not  actually  in  the 
valley  of  Caripe,  but  at  the  distance  of  three  leagues  from  the  con- 
vent, and  is  pierced  in  the  vertical  profile  of  a  rock  ;  the  entrance  is 
to  the  south,  forming  a  vault  eighty  feet  broad  and  seventy-two  high. 
The  rock  surmounting  the  cavern  is  covered  with  trees  of  gigantic 
height,  and  all  the  luxuriant  profusion  of  an  intertropical  climate  ; 
and  it  is  worthy  of  observation  that  this  luxuriance  of  vegetation 
penetrates  even  into  the  vestibule  of  the  cave.  The  travellers  saw 
with  astonishment  plantain-leaved  heliconias  eighteen  feet  in  height, 
the  praga-palm,  and  tree-arums  follow  the  banks  of  the  river  even 
to  the  subterranean  places.  The  party  went  forwards  for  about  430 
feet  without  being  obliged  to  light  their  torches.  Where  the  light 
began  to  fail,  they  heard  from  afar  the  hoarse  cries  of  the  Guacharo. 
These  Birds  quit  the  cave  only  at  nightfall,  especially  when  there  is 
moonlight ;  and  Humboldt  remarks  that  it  is  almost  the  only  Fru- 
givorous  Night-Bird  yet  known.  It  feeds  on  very  hard  fruits  (an 
exception  to  the  rule  among  the  Capriinulgida:^ ;  and  the  Indians 
assured  him  (though  we  place  little  dependence  on  their  statement) 
that  it  does  not  pursue  either  the  hard-winged  Insects  or  the  Moths 
that  serve  as  the  food  of  this  tribe  of  Birds.  It  is,  he  states,  difficult 
to  form  any  idea  of  the  horrible  noise  made  by  thousands  of  the 
Guacharo  in  the  dark  recesses  of  the  cavern,  whence  their  shrill  and 
piercing  cries  strike  upon  the  vaulted  rock,  and  are  repeated  by  the 
echo  in  the  depths  of  the  grotto.  By  fixing  torches  of  copal  to  the 
end  of  a  long  pole,  the  Indians  showed  the  nests  of  these  Birds  fifty 
or  sixty  feet  above  the  heads  of  the  explorers,  in  funnel-shaped 
holes,  with  which  the  cavern-roof  is  pierced  like  a  sieve. 

Once  a  year,  near  Midsummer,  the  Guacharo  cavern  is  entered  by 
the  Indians.  Armed  with  poles,  they  ransack  the  greater  part  of 
the  nests,  while  the  old  Birds  hover  over  the  heads  of  the  robbers, 
as  if  to  defend  their  brood,  uttering  horrible  cries.  The  young 
which  fall  down  are  opened  on  the  spot.  The  peritoneum  is  found 
loaded  with  fat,  and  a  layer  of  the  same  substance  on  the  abdomen 
forms  a  kind  of  cushion  between  the  Bird's  legs.  At  the  period 
above-mentioned,  which  is  generally  known  at  Caripe  by  the  desig- 
nation of"  the  oil-harvest,"  huts  are  built  by  the  Indians  with  palm- 
leaves,  near  the  entrance  and  even  in  the  very  porch  of  the  cavern. 
There  the  fat  of  the  young  Birds 
just  killed  is  melted  in  clay  pots 
over  a  brushwood  fire  ;  and  this 
fat  is  named  butter  or  oil  (man- 
teca  or  aceite)  of  the  Guacharo. 
It  is  half-liquid,  transparent,  in- 
odorous, and  so  pure  that  it  will 
keep  above  a  year  without  be- 
coming rancid.  In  the  kitchen 
of  the  monks  of  the  convent  of 
Caripe  no  other  oil  is  used,  and 
Humboldt  never  found  that  it 
imparted  a  disagreeable  taste  or 
smell  to  the  aliments.  The 
quantity  of  very  pure  manteca 
collected  does  not  exceed  150  or 
160  bottles,  each  being  sixty 
cubic  inches  ;  the  rest,  which  is 
less  transparent,  is  preserx-ed  in 
large  earthen  vessels  ;  the  whole 
hardly  seems  to  correspond  with 
the  immense  annual  carnage  of 
Birds.  The  use  of  the  Guacharo 
oil  is  very  ancient,  and  the 
race  of  Guacharo  Birds  would 
have  been  extinct  long  since  if 
several  circumstances  had  not 
contributed  to  its  preservation. 
The  natives,  withheld  by  super- 
stitious fears,  seldom  dare  to 
proceed  far  into  the  recesses  of 
the  cavern.  Humboldt  had  great 
difficulty  in  persuading  them  to 
pass  beyond  the  outer  part  of 
the  cave,  the  only  portion  of  it 
which  they  visit  annually  to  col- 
lect the  oil ;  and  the  whole 
authority  of  the  Padres  was 
necessary  to  make  them  pene- 
trate as  far  as  the  spot  where 
the  floor  rises  abruptly  at  an  in- 
clination of  sixty  degrees,  and 
where  a  small  subterraneous  cas- 
cade is  formed  by  the  torrent. 
In  the  minds  of  the  Indians  this 
cave,  inhabited  by  nocturnal 
Birds,  is  associated  with  mystic 
ideas,   and  they  believe  that  in 


the  deep  recesses  of  the  cavern  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  sojourn. 
They  say  that  man  should  avoid  places  which  are  enlightened 
neither  by  the  sun  nor  the  moon  ;  and  "  to  go  and  join  the  Gua- 
charoes"  means  to  rejoin  their  fathers— in  short,  to  die.  At  thij 
entrance  of  the  cave  the  magicians  and  poisoners  perform  their 
exorcisms  to  conjure  the  chief  of  the  evil  spirits.  It  appears,  also, 
as  another  cause  of  preservation,  that  Guacharo  Birds  inhabit 
neighbouring  caverns  too  narrow  to  be  accessible  to  man,  and  from 
these,  perhaps,  the  great  cavern  is  repeopled  ;  for  the  missionaries 
declared  that  no  sensible  diminution  of  the  Birds  had  been  observed. 


Fig.  1 102. — The  Long-eared  Podargus. 

Young  Birds  of  this  species  have  been  sent  to  the  port  of  Cumana, 
and  have  lived  there  several  days,  but  without  taking  any  food — ■ 
the  seeds  offered  to  them  not  suiting  them.  The  crops  and  gizzards 
of  the  young  Birds  opened  in  the  cavern  contained  all  sorts  of 
hard  and  dry  fruits,  which  are  conveyed  to  them  by  their  parents  ; 
these  are  preserved,  and  under  the  name  of  semilla  del  Guacharo 
(Guacharo  seed)  are  considered  a  celebrated  remedy  against  intcr- 


Fig.  IIOJ. — The  Pai^vian  Po.largus. 


424 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  PODARGI—THE  MORE-PORK  BIRD. 


mittent  fevers,  and  sent  to  the  sick  at  Cariaco  and  other  low 
localities  where  fever  prevails.  Our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  pursue 
Humboldt's  description  farther  ;  and  we  must  content  ourselves  with 
referring  the  reader  to  the  "  Narrative  "  for  many  interesting  details 
respecting  the  cavern  itself  and  the  surrounding  scenery. 

The  Long-eared  Podargus  {Podargus,  or  Batrachostomtis 
at/rit!is).—Tht  genus  Podargus  is  one  of  the  aberrant  groups  of 
the  Capr!7nulg'ida:,  and  as  its  structure  departs  to  a  certam  extent 
from  the  typical  form  presented  by  our  common  Night-Jar,  so  also 
it  exhibits  a  corresponding  difference  with  regard  to  habits  and 
manners.  Exclusively  confined  to  Australia  and  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  the  genus  Podargus  contains  several  recog- 
nised species.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  appearing  stupe- 
fied by  day.  The  formation  of  the  wing  renders  their  flight  less 
buoyant  and  undulating  than  in  the  typical  Night-Jars,  though  it  is 
at  the  same  time  rapid  ;  and  the  enormous  gape  of  the  beak,  con- 
joined with  its  strength,  enables  them  to  take  in  the  largest  Insects. 
The  French  give  the  name  of  Crapaud  volant,  or  Flying  Toad,  to 
the  common  Night-Jar,  in  allusion  to  its  wide  gape;  but  the  de- 
pressed form  of  "the  head  and  the  enormous  width  of  the  gape  of 
these  Birds  give  them  a  much  better  claim  to  such  a  title  ;  and 
indeed,  witho'ut  much  impropriety,  they  may  be  regarded  as  repre- 
sentatives among  the  feathered  race  of  those  nocturnal  dusky  Insec- 
tivorous Reptiles. 

In  the  genus  Podargus  the  eyes  are  large  and  staring  ;  the  bill 
is  robust,  and  the  tip  and  margins  of  the  upper  mandible  fold  over 
those  of  the  lower ;  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  is  elevated  and 
arched  ;  vibrissa  scanty  ;  tarsi  short ;  the  middle  claw  not  serrated, 
nor  the  Iiind  toe  directed  forwards  :  they  perch  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner. Many  have  phimelcts  produced  by  the  elongation  of  the  ear- 
tufts.  The  colouring  of  the  plumage  is  sombre,  and  composeil  of 
deep  tones  of  brown,  black,  grey,  and  tawny  yellow  blended  to- 
gether.    (See  Fig.  1 102.) 

The  Long-eared  Podargus  is  a  native  of  Sumatra ;  in  its  aspect  it 
is  very  Owl-like.  Its  head  is  voluminous,  its  eyes  large,  and  the 
gape  of  its  bill  is  enormous  ;  and  the  elongation  of  the  ear-plumes 
adds  to  the  singularity  of  its  appearance.  It  is  a  recluse  Bird,  and 
active  only  during  the  hours  of  darkness.  It  forms  the  type  of  the 
sub-genus  Batrachostojnus. 

The  Papuan  Podargus  {Podargus  papiiensis).—Th\%  is  an- 
other species  of  the  present  genus,  and  is  destitute  of  elongated 
ear-tufts.  It  appears  to  be  nearly  related  to  a  Japanese  species, 
described  by  Dr.  Horsfield  under  the  title  of  Podargus  javancnsis 
(which  will  be  presently  described),  and  is  very  characteristic  of  the 
group  to  which  it  belongs.  As  we  have  already  observed,  the 
!Night-Jar  is  a  Migratory  Bird  throughout  every  part  of  Europe  ; 
but  whether  the  species  of  the  genus  Podargus  obey  a  similar  law 
is  not  very  clear.  It  is  not  unlikely,  however,  that  those  peculiar  to 
Australia  pass  periodically  from  one  district  to  another,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  greater  number  if  not  all  the  feathered  tenants  of  that 
vast  continent ;  which,  according  to  the  statements  of  travellers, 
mitrrate  from  region  to  region  according  to  the  season,  and  regularly 


Fig.  1 104. — The  Cold-River  Podargus. 


return  to  their  summer  breeding  haunts,  summer  there  answering  to 
our  winter.  In  North  America,  the  Night-Hawk,  the  Whip-poor- 
Will,  and  other  CaprimulgidcB  are  migratory.  With  respect  to 
nocturnal  habits,  the  members  of  the  genus  Podargus  are  more 
confused  by  light  than  the  ordinary  CaprimulgidcB,  if  wo  except 
that  strange  Bird  the  Guacharo  :  they  haunt  the  solitudes  of  the 
woods,  and  the  sombre  but  intermingled  tints  of  their  plumage 
screen  them  from  observation.  At  night  they  issue  forth  on  their 
aerial  chase,  and  retire  with  the  first  streaks  of  day  to  their  wonted 
seclusion.     (See  Fig.  1103.) 

The  Cold-River  or  Tawny-shouldered  Podargus  {Po- 
dargus humeralis). — This  species  is  a  native  of  Australia  :  above, 
it  is  variegated  with  ashy-brown  and  yellow ;  the  head  and  sides  of 
the  back  are  conspicuously  striped  with  black  ;  the  forehead  and 
dorsal  plumage  lightly  dotted  and  banded  with  white.  The  plumage 
of  the  under  parts  is  transversely  striped  with  narrow  lines  of  black,  on 
a  dirty-yellow  ground.     Length,  twenty  inches.  (See  Fig.  1104.) 

In  the  "  Zoological  Proceedings"  for  1840,  p.  163,  will  be  found 
the  description  of  a  closely  allied  but  smaller  species,  under  the 
name  of  Podargus  hracJiypterus,  or  lilacrorhynchus,  which  in- 
habits the  district  of  the  Swan  River,  Western  Australia,  but  without 
any  account  of  its  habits  or  manners  ;  indeed  there  is  much  in  the 
economy  of  the  whole  of  these  strange-looking  Birds  which  remains 
yet  to  be  ascertained. 

The  Podargus  cuvierii\%  the  "  More-pork"  Bird  of  the  Australian 
colonists.  It  is  called  thus  because  of  the  resemblance  of  its  note  to 
the  words  More-pork. 

The  J.avanese  Podargus  {Podargus javancnsis,  Horsfield).— 
Cliabba-wonno  of  the  Javanese,  or  Burong  saiang :  see  "Cata- 
logue of  a  Collection  of  Birds  from  Malaya,"  by  T.  C.  Eyton,  lisq., 
"  Zool.  Proceeds.,  i8jg,"  p.  loi.  The  general  colour  of  this  Bird 
is  ferruginous  or  rufous,  with  a  tint  of  buff-vellow,  varied  bv  undu- 
lating transverse  bands  of  dark-brown  ;  a  collar  of  pale  yellowish- 
white,   variegated  with  two    narrow   bands  of  deep  brown,   passes 


V\'g.  1 105. — The  Javanese  Podargin. 

round  the  lower  part  of  llie  neck,  and  from  this  collar  several  large 
irregular  white  marks  are  disposed  in  an  interrupted  series  from  the 
root  of  the  wing  to  the  middle  of  the  back  ;  on  the  breast  and  under 
parts  several  white  feathers  are  scattered.  The  tail,  which  is 
rounded,  is  marked  with  strong  transverse  bands  ;  the  feet  are 
rufous ;  the  claws  blackish  ;  the  bill  obscure,  yellow,  and  rather 
shining.     Length,  nine  inches. 

This  species,  which  is  a  native  of  Java,  is  of  small  size  compared 
with  the  Podargi  generally,  but  it  agrees  with  them  in  form  and 
style  of  colouring.  It  tenants  the  depths  of  extensive  forests,  pass- 
ing the  hours  of  day  in  sleep,  and  rousing  up  on  the  approach  of 
night  to  commence  its  chase  of  Insect  prey.     (See  Fig.  1105.) 

The  Fork-t.ailed  Go.atsucker  {Psalurus  macroptcrus). — 
The  genus  Psalurus  closely  approaches  the  genus  Caprimulgus 
in  its  principal  characters  :  the  vibrissa:  of  the  bill  are  strong  ;  the 
tail  is  excessively  long,  and  deeply  forked.  This  singular  Bird  is  a 
native  of  Paraguay  and  Brazil  :  a  bright  ruddy  derai-coUar  orna- 
ments the  back  part  of  the  neck ;  the  two  external  tail-feathers  in 
the  male  are  greatly  elongated,  far  surpassing  the  others  ;  but  in 
the  female  these  feathers  are  not  so  excessively  produced.  The 
Fork-tailed  Goatsucker  flies  with  great  rapidity,  expanding  and 
closing  its  tail  as  it  skims  along.  It  is  Crepuscular  and  Nocturnal, 
and,  like  our  Night-Jar,  gives  chase  to  Insects,  on  wl:ich  it  feeds. 
(See  Fig.  1106.) 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  GOATSUCKERS. 


425 


The  African  Long-tailed  Night-Jar  {Scotornis  cUma- 
iiirus). — In  the  genus  Scotornis  the  outer  toe  is  shorter  than  the 
inner  ;  the  vibrissas  of  the  beak  are  strong  and  numerous  ;  the  tail 
is  lengthened  and  graduated. 

The  present  species,  which  is  common  in  Senegal,  appears  to  be 
larger  than  it  really  is,  from  the  great  length  of  the  tail,  which 
measures  nine  inches,  of  which  three  inches  and  a-quarter  are 
occasioned  by  the  two  middle  tail-feathers  exceeding  the  others. 


Fig.  1 106. — The  Fork-tailed  Goatsucker. 

The  vibrissse  are  longer  than  the  bill :  of  the  quill-feathers  the  third 
is  longest.  The  ground-colour  of  the  plumage  is  light  ferruginous 
brown  varied  with  dark  freckles.  The  chin  and  a  stripe  from  the 
angle  of  the  gape  white  ;  the  lesser  wing-coverts  have  at  their  tips 
a  broad  band  of  white,  and  the  greater  have  a  terminal  spot  of 
cream-colour  much  smaller  than  the  former.  The  ground-colour  of 
the  five  primary  quills  is  entirely  black,  without  any  rufous,  their 
tips  only  being  freckled  with  grey ;  but  they  are  crossed  in  the 
middle  by  a  snowy-white  broad  band  beginning  in  the  inner  web  of 
the  first  and  terminating  on  the  outer  web  of  the  si.xth  quill ;  the 
remaining  quills  are  varied  with  black  and  rufous  and  tipped  with 
white.  The  tail  is  variegated  in  the  usual  manner,  the  middle  pair 
of  feathers  having  about  twenty  very  slender  transverse  bars,  but 
much  undulated,  while  the  outer  margin  of  the  exterior  feather  and 
the  tips  of  that  and  of  the  next  are  pure  white.  No  grey  in  the 
plumage.  Total  length,  including  the  tail,  thirteen  inches.  (See 
Fig.  1 107.) 

The  Leona  Night- Jar  [Macrodipteryx  africanus). — Ca;pri- 
viiilgus  macrodipterus,  Afzelius  ;  C.  loyigzpentizs,  Shaw ;  Pennon- 
winged  Night-Jar  ;  Long-shafted  Goatsucker.  This  curious  Bird  is 
remarkable  for  two  long  elastic  shafts  issuing  from  the  middle 
of  the  wing-coverts,  and  varying  in  length  from  eight  or  ten  to 
twenty  inches  ;  they  are  tipped  with  a  broad  web  for  three,  four,  or 
five  inches,  and  occur  only  in  the  male.  What  may  be  their  use  is 
difficult  to  imagine.  Mr.  Swainson  ("  Birds  of  Western  Africa"), 
after  stating  that  the  female  is  entirely  destitute  of  these  long-shafted 


or  supplementary  feathers,  proceeds  to  observe  that  the  fact  is  im- 
portant, as  "  it  goes  far  to  prove  that  they  arc  not  essential  to  the 
economy  of  the  species  ;  for  if  otherwise,  both  sexes  would  possess 
them,  unless  it  be  contended— a  supposition  highly  improbable— that 
the  male  feeds  in  one  manner  and  the  female  in  another.  In  the 
absence  of  all  information  on  this  point,  we  arc  led  to  conclude  that 
they  are  more  ornamental  than  useful,  given  to  the  male  sex  as 
attractive  decorations  to  the  female,  in  a  similar  manner  as  the 


Fig.  1107. — The  African  Long-tailed  Night-Jar. 


Fig.  IIoS.— The  Leona  Night-Jar.  j 


426 


THE  SWALLOW  FAMILY. 


flowing-  feathers  of  the  Paradise-bird  are  known  to  distinguish  the 
male  sex.  In  their  texture  they  are  remarkably  flexible,  moving 
about  with  the  least  breath  of  wind."  The  inner  web  at  the  end 
is  two  inches  broad  in  the  middle ;  the  outer  web  is  scarcely  half  an 
inch.     (See  Fig.  1108.) 

The  Leona  Night-Jar  is  a  small  species,  measuring,  from  bill  to 
end  of  tail,  about  eight  inches.  The  wings  are  long,  exceeding  the 
tip  of  the  tail,  which  latter  is  even,  and  consists  of  ten  feathers ;  the 
bill  is  feeble  ;  the  vibrissa  strong.  The  colour  of  the  plumage  con- 
sists of  mingled  tints.  Upon  each  web  of  every  primary  quill-feather 
is  a  row  of  nine  rufous  and  nine  black  spots.  The  secondary  quill- 
feathers  are  black,  with  four  rufous  bands  ;  the  middle  tail-feathers 
are  grey,  speckled  with  black  points,  and  crossed  by  six  black  bars  ; 
the  outer  web  of  the  lateral  tail-feather  on  each  side  is  fulvous- 
white,  with  about  ten  black  spots  at  equal  distances  from  each  other. 
Some  of  the  scapulars  have  a  broad  cream-coloured  stripe,  which 
forms  a  connected  series  when  the  feathers  lie  over  each  other. 
The  male  has  a  few  obscure  white  mottles  about  the  throat 
and  ears. 

The  Nacunda  {Pro'Uhera  diurna  :  Podager  fiacunda  ;  Capri- 
miilgus  diurjius,  Wied.) — The  genus  Pro'Uhera  differs  from  Capri- 
vnilgiis  in  the  paucity  of  the  vibrissae  round  the  gape  of  the  beak, 
in  the  great  length  of  the  wings,  the  shortness  of  the  tail,  and  the 
size  and  complete  nakedness  of  the  tarsi. 

The  Nacunda  is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  and  is,  to  a 
great  extent  at  least,  diurnal  in  its  habits,  being  seen  abroad  in 
cloudy  days  in  flocks  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  skimming  over  the  ponds  in 
pursuit  of  Insects,  precisely  in  the  manner  of  Swallows. 

The  plumage  above  is  a  mixture  of  grey-brown,  yellowish-red,  and 
brownish-black,   with    great    spots   of    blackish-brown,    and  wide 


Fig.  1 109. — The  Nacunda. 

borders  of  yellowish-red.  The  chin  is  pale  yellow,  striped  with  grey 
brown.  The  tail  is  marked  with  brownish-black  and  bright  yellow, 
and  crossed  with  nine  or  ten  transverse  bands  speckled  with  brownish- 
black.  Plumage  beneath,  white  ;  streaked  with  grey  brown  on  the 
chest  ;  below  spotless. 

Numerous  specimens  of  the  various  species  of  the  Caprimulgldir 
may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  that  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London. 

The  Swallows — Family  Hirundinidce. 

The  present  family  comprises  an  extensive  and  very  natural  group 
of  Birds,  distinguished  for  their  powers  of  flight  and  insectivorous 
appetite.  The  limbs  are  short  and  comparatively  feeble,  but  the 
toes  are  furnished  with  sharp  hooked  claws  for  the  purpose  of 
clinging  to  walls  or  the  sides  of  rocks.  In  the  Swifts,  which  form 
the  family  Cypselidcs,  the  toes  are  all  directed  forwards.  In  the 
true  Swallow  the  hind-toe  is  reversible  ;  the  wings  are  long  and 
pointed,  and  the  quill-feathers  of  firm  texture  ;  the  general  plumage 
is  close  set,  always  smooth,  sometimes  burnished  and  glossy ;  the 
beak  is  small,  depressed,  broad  at  the  base,  and  with  a  wide  gape. 
The  food,  consisting  of  the  smaller  species  of  Insects,  is  always 
taken  on  the  wing ;  and  they  often  completely  fill  the  throat  with 
their  Insect  prey,  so  as  to  distend  it  like  a  pouch,  doubtless  in  order 
that  their  nestlings  may  have  a  full  supply  at  each  visit.  The  whole 
of  the  active  existence  of  these  Birds  is,  in  fact,  passed  upon  the 
wing;  they  skim  along  with  marvellous  rapidity;  quarter  their 
ground  over  meadows,  lakes,  and  rivers  ;  wheel  round  barns  and 
steeples,  and  dash  along  apparently  as  untired  when  evening  closes 
as  when  they  began  their  aerial  evolutions  with  the  first  dawn  of 


day.     They  feed  and  drink  on  the  wing,  and  pursue  each  other  in 
sportive  chase,  performing  the  most  rapid  and  beautiful  evolutions. 

The  British  species  of  the  Hiriindiiiida;  arc  the  Chimney- 
Swallow  {Hirimdo  rustica),  the  Martin,  or  Window-Swallow  {H. 
vrbica),  the  Sand-Martin  {H.  riparia),  and  the  Swift  {Cypseliis 
apus),  family  Cypselidcs.  We  may  add  the  White-bellied  Swift  of 
Gibraltar,  or  Alpine  Swift  {Cypsches  alpinus),  as  a  rare  and  acci- 
dental visitor.  All  our  Swallow  tribe  are  Birds  of  passage  ;  they 
come  in  spring,  and  depart  in  autumn,  winging  their  way  to  the 
south,  and  passing  the  winter  in  Africa,  the  great  rendezvous  of  the 
Migratory  Birds  of  Europe. 

Fig.  1 1 10  represents  a  group  of  British  Hinindinida; ;  a,  the 
Swallow ;  b,  the  Martin  ;  c,  the  Sand-Martin  ;  d,  the  Swift. 

The  Swallow  {Hiruiido  rustica). — "The  swallow,"  says  Sir 
H.  Davy,  "  is  one  of  my  favourite  birds,  and  a  rival  of  the  nightin- 
gale ;  for  he  glads  my  sense  of  seeing  as  much  as  the  other  does 
my  sense  of  hearing.  He  is  the  joyous  prophet  of  the  year,  the  har- 
binger of  the  best  season  ;  he  lives  a  life  of  enjoyment  amongst  the 
loveliest  forms  of  nature  ;  winter  is  unknown  to  him,  and  he  leaves 
the  green  meadows  of  England  in  autumn  for  the  myrtle  and  orange 
groves  of  Italy  and  for  the  plains  of  Africa." 

The  Swallow  is  too  well  known  to  need  a  very  detailed  descrip- 
tion. It  makes  its  appearance  in  our  island  about  the  middle  of 
April,  though  sometimes  a  few  stragglers  arrive  earlier,  before  the 
spring  has  fairly  opened ;  and,  as  they  disappear,  should  the 
weather  set  in  cold,  we  are  inclined  to  suspect  that  they  retrace 
their  passage  to  a  warmer  latitude,  and  return  with  the  great  body 
on  their  way  northwards.  Who  has  not  watched  the  Swallow  on 
the  wing  ?  who  has  not  marked  its  rapid  flight,  now  smoothly 
skimming  along,  now  executing  sudden  turns  and  abrupt  and 
intricate  evolutions  with  astonishing  celerity  ?  The  Swallow 
delights  to  quarter  the  surface  of  pasture-lands,  new-mown 
meadows,  streams,  and  ponds,  attracted  by  the  abundance  of  Insects 
on  which  it  feeds,  a  smart  snap  of  its  bill,  easily  distinguishable  by 
an  attentive  ear,  accompanying  the  capture  of  its  prey.  If  the 
weather  be  warm,  it  dips  in  the  water  as  it  passes  along,  and 
emerges  shaking  the  spray  from  its  burnished  plumage  uninterrupted 
in  its  career. 

The  Swallow  breeds  twice  a  year,  choosing  different  situations 
as  they  may  present  themselves ;  we  have  known  them  frequently 
attach  their  nest  to  the  inside  of  tall  old  chimneys ;  we  have  seen 
them  building  in  barns  and  outhouses  against  the  beams  or  rafters  ; 
and  we  v/ell  remember  a  pair  or  two  annually  building  in  a  wheel- 
wright's workshop,  undisturbed  by  the  noise  of  hammer,  axe,  and 
saw,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  good  man,  who  left  a  place  open  for 
their  entrance  and  exit  when  his  workshop  was  shut.  Mr.  Selby 
says  that  where  coal-pits  abound  the  Swallow  sometimes  fixes  its 
nest  against  the  side  of  a  deserted  shaft,  a  circumstance  we  have 
once  or  twice  noticed.  The  nest  is  open  at  the  top,  and  composed 
of  clay  or  mud,  worked  up  by  a  glutinous  exudation  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Bird  into  a  proper  consistence.  It  is  lined  internally  with  a 
bed  of  feathers.  The  eggs  are  five  in  number,  of  a  white  colour, 
speckled  with  reddish-brown. 

"  The  swallow,"  says  White,  "  is  a  delicate  songster,  and  in  soft 
sunny  weather  sings  both  perching  and  flying  on  trees  in  a  kind  of 
concert,  and  on  chimney-tops."  Its  notes  are  indeed  pleasing,  but 
are  hurried  and  twittering,  and  are  generally  uttered  at  sunrise, 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  genial. 

The  Swallow  brings  out  her  first  brood  about  the  last  week  in 
June  or  the  first  in  July,  and  her  second  brood  towards  the  middle 
and  end  of  August.  During  the  month  of  September  the  young  of 
the  last  incubation  have  acquired  full  strength  of  wing;  and  at  the 
end  of  that  month,  or  in  the  beginning  of  October,  the  great  migra- 
tory movement  southwards  commences.  Multitudes  from  various 
quarters  now  congregate  together,  and  perch  at  night  in  clusters  on 
trees,  barns,  house-tops,  but  especially  among  the  reed-beds  of 
marshes  and  fens,  round  which,  as  evening  draws  on,  they  may  be 
observed  wheeling  and  skimming,  now  sinking,  now  rising  and 
wheeling  again,  all  the  while  uttering  their  garrulous  concert, 
till,  as 

"  Evening  draws  o'er  all 
Her  gradual  dusky  veil," 

they  finally  settle  down,  and  all  is  quiet  and  silent.  It  is  strange 
that  so  excellent  an  observer  of  nature  as  Gilbert  White  should  have 
entertained  the  opinion  that  Swallows  hybemate  submerged  in 
marshes,  or  secreted  in  holes  and  caverns,  like  Bats  ;  and  the  more 
so  as  the  ancients  were  well  aware  of  their  migratory  movements, 
and  of  their  winter  residence  in  Africa. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  history  of  our  Hirun- 
dijitda,  that  they  return  annually  to  the  same  place,  and  resume  and 
repair  their  old  nests,  or,  if  they  have  been  destroyed,  build  others 
in  their  stead ;  but  the  question  arises.  Is  not  this,  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  the  same  with  all  our  summer  visitors  ?  Do  they  not 
return  to  their  old  haunts  ?  and  if  they  do  not  repair  their  nests, 
which  are  always  spoiled  by  the  winter's  rains  and  snows,  do  they 
not  return  to  the  same  hedge-row,  the  same  copse,  the  same  garden  ? 


THE  SWALLOW  FAMILY. 


427 


Even  with  respect  to  non-migratory  Birds  we  think  we  have  ob- 
served a  tendency  to  build  in  the  vicinity  of  their  former  nest,  espe- 
cially if  unmolested ;  indeed,  in  the  case  of  the  Hedge-Sparrow 
{^Accentor  modular  is)  we  have  reason,  from  personal  experience,  to 
believe  it  to  be  so. 

The  Swallow  is  very  assiduous  in  the  nurture  of  her  young.  She 
leads  them,  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  leave  the  nest,  to  the  ridge 
of  the  barn  or  house-top,  where,  settled  in  a  row,  and  as  yet  unable 
to  e-xert  their  pinions  in  flight,  she  supplies  them  assiduously  with 
food.  In  a  few  days  they  begin  to  trust  to  their  wings,  and  follow 
their  parents,  who  feed  them  during  their  afirial  evolutions  ;  but  in  a 
little  time  they  depend  on  their  own  exertions. 


Fig.  ilio.— Group  of  British  Swallows.— (r,  the  Swallow;  h,  the  Martin  ;  r,  the  Sand-Martin  ;  i1,  the  Swift 


The  forked  character  of  the  tail  easily  distinguishes  the  Swallow 
from  the  rest  of  our  British  HincndinidcB.  The  forehead  and  throat 
are  rich  chestnut ;  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  and  the  breast  are 
black  with  reflexions  of  steel  blue  and  purple  :  a  white  spot  on  the 
inner  web  of  all  the  tail-feathers  except  the  two  middle.  Under- 
surface  white  with  a  wash  of  reddish-brown. 

The  Swallow  of  Palesiine. — The  common  Swallow  appears 
to  have  a  most  extensive  range  ;  not  only  does  it  visit  Europe,  but 
Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and  the  adjacent  country,  and  in  the  earliest 
times  its  habits  of  regular  migration  were  observed. and  understood  ; 
hence  the  expression — "The  stork    in    the  heaven  knoweth  her 


appomted  times;  and  the  turtle  and  the  crane  and  the  swallow 
observe  the  time  of  their  coming"  (Jeremiah  viii.  7).  From  a 
passage  m  Aristophanes  we  learn  that  among  the  Greeks  the  arrival 
of  the  Crane  pointed  out  the  time  of  sowing,  that  of  the  Kite  the 
time  of  Sheep-shearing,  and  that  of  the  Swallow  the  time  to  put  on 
summer  clothes.  According  to  the  Greek  Calendar  of  Flora,  kept 
by  Theophrastus  at  Athens,  the  ornithian  winds  blow  and  the  Swal- 
low comes  between  the  28th  of  February  and  the  12th  of  March. 
(See  Fig.  11 12.) 

The  Cliff-Swallow  {Hirundo /ulva).—T\ic  Republican  Swal- 
low of  Audubon.     This  elegant  species  is  a  native  of  the  western 
parts  of  the  United  States  of  America,  and  it  is  only  recently,  com- 
paratively speaking,   that  it  has 
ventured    within   the   domains   of 
.    ,  civilised  man.     It  is  now  familiar 

■    •  in  different  localities  of  Ohio  and 

^-  '  Kentucky,  and  in  the  western  part 

of  New  York.  Like  all  the  other 
American  Swallows,  it  passes  the 
winter  in  Tropical  America,  and 
arrives  at  its  northern  breeding- 
places  in  April.  This  species  is 
gregarious  in  its  habits,  and  num- 
bers construct  their  symmetrical 
nests  in  clusters,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
1 1 13.  At  the  dawn  of  day  they 
commence  their  labours,  collect- 
ing the  mud  of  which  the  exterior 
is  formed,  and  persevere  in  their 
work  until  near  mid-day,  when 
they  relinquish  it  for  some  hours, 
employing  the  time  in  the  capture 
of  Insects  and  in  aerial  gambols. 
In  unsettled  countries  these  Birds 
avail  themselves  of  the  sides  of 
rocks  under  the  shelter  of  over- 
hanging ledges ;  but  in  civilised 
districts  they  evince  a  predilec- 
tion for  the  abodes  of  man,  build- 
ing against  the  walls  of  houses, 
under  the  eaves  of  the  roof,  though 
they  have  not  in  the  least  changed 
their  style  of  architecture.  The 
nest  is  hemispherical,  five  inches 
in  diameter  at  its  attachment  to 
the  wall,  from  which  it  projects  six 
inches,  having  the  entrance  at  the 
end  of  a  short  neck-like  projection 
somewhat  turned  downwards.  It 
is  lined  with  dried  grass  and  straw. 
The  whole  is  completed  in  three 
or  four  days.  The  Cliff-Swallow 
is  more  closely  related  to  our  Mar- 
tin in  form,  habits,  and  manners, 
than  to  our  Chimney-Swallow ;  it 
is  active  and  rapid,  feeding  on  the 
wing.  Its  note  is  peculiar,  and 
may  be  imitated  by  rubbing  a 
moistened  cork  around  the  neck 
of  a  bottle. 

This  Swallow  is  characterised 
by  its  even  tail.  Instead  of  hav- 
ing the  lower  part  of  the  back 
white,  like  our  Window-Swallow 
or  Martin,  it  is  of  a  pale  ferrugin- 
ous tint,  as  is  also  the  forehead  ; 
a  narrow  black  line  extends  over 
the  bill  to  each  eye  ;  the  upper 
parts  generally  arc  glossy  violet- 
black;  thebreast  is  pale  rufous  ash- 
colour;  the  under  parts  dirty  white. 
Length,  five  inches  and  a-half. 
Eggs,  four  in  number ;  colour, 
white  spotted  with  dusky-brown. 

The  American  Barn-Swal- 
low {Hiru}ido  r///«).— This  spe- 


cies is  the  representative  of  our  Chimney-Swallow  m  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  is  a  universal  favourite.  It  builds  in  barns 
and  outhouses,  but  never  in  chimneys.  It  is  very  customary  to  ht  up 
boxes  for  it  to  nestle  in,  and  the  country-people  have  a  superstitious 
idea  that  if  they  permit  the  Swallows  to  be  shot  their  Cows  will  give 
bloody  milk,  and  moreover  that  the  barn  they  tenant  will  never  be 
struck  with  lightning  ;  so  at  least  was  Wilson  assured,  who  adds, 
"  I  nodded  assent ;  for  when  the  tenets  of  superstition  lean  to  the 
side  of  humanity,  one  can  readily  respect  them.  .       .      , 

"Early  in   May,"    says   this   admirable  writer,  "they  begin  to 
build.     From  the  size  and  structure  of  the  nest,  it  is  nearly  a  week 


428 


THE  SWALLOW  TRIBE. 


before  it  is  completely  finished.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  inverted 
cone,  with  a  perpendicular  section  cut  off  on  that  side  by  which  it 
adheres  to  the  rafter  ;  at  the  top  it  has  an  extension  of  the  edge,  or 
an  offset,  for  the  male  or  female  to  sit  on  occasionally ;  the  upper 


Fig.  iiii. — Swallow  and  Nest. 

diameter  is  about  six  inches  by  five,  the  height  externally  seven 
inches.  This  shell  is  formed  with  mud  mixed  with  fine  hay,  as 
plasterers  do  mortar  with  hair  to  make  it  adhere  the  better;  the 
mud  seems  to  be  placed  in  regular  layers  from  side  to  side ;  the 


Fig.  1 1 1 2.  —The  Swallow  of  Palestine. 

shell  is  about  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  the  hollow  of  the  cone  is 
filled  with  fine  hay  well  stuffed  in,  and  above  that  is  laid  a  handful 
of  downy  feathers.  Though  it  is  not  uncommon  for  twenty  or  even 
thirty  to  build  in  the  same  barn,  yet  everything  seems  conducted 
with  great  order  and  affection  ;  all  seems  harmony  among  them,  as 


if  the  interest  of  each  wore  that  of  all.  Several  nests  are  often 
within  a  few  inches  of  each  other,  yet  no  appearance  of  discord  or 
quarrelling  takes  place  in  this  peaceful  and  affectionate  community." 
They  have  generally  two  broods  in  the  season.  The  male  twitters 
with  great  sprightliness,  and  thus  cheers  his  mate  during  her  task 
of  incubation.  The  flight  of  this  species  is  rapid  and  circuitous,  and 
varied  by  the  most  complicated  and  zigzag  evolutions.  The  Ameri- 
can Barn-Swallow  differs  from  our  European  Swallow  in  having  the 
under  parts  and  the  lining  of  the  wing  of  a  bright  chestnut  in  the 
male,  and  of  a  rufous-white  tint  in  the  female.  Length,  seven  inches. 
(See  Fig.  1114.) 


Fig.  1 1 13. — Nests  of  the  Clitf  Swallow. 


Fig.  1 1 14. — The  American  Barn-Swallow. 

The  Martin,  or  Window-Swallow  {Hirundo  nrhicd). — 
Who  is  not  acquainted  with  this  elegant  little  Bird,  and  with  its 
clay-built  nest,  the  "pendent  bed  and  procreant  cradle,"  which  it 
makes  under  the  eaves  of  our  houses  ?  It  is  the  temple-haunting 
Martlet  of  Shakspeare,  the  guest  of  summer,  that 


"  does  approve 


By  his  loved  niansionry  that  the  heaven's  breath 
Smells  wooingly." 

The  Martin,  or,  as  White  calls  it,  the  House-Martin,  usually 
appears  a  few  days  later  than  the  Swallow,  repairing  to  its  old 
quarters,  where,  after  examining  the  shell  of  its  nest,  it  gives  some 
time  to  play,  sporting  and  gambolling,  and  chasing  its  Insect  food. 
Towards  the  middle  of  May  it  sets  itself  seriously  to  work  in  re- 
storing the  dilapidated  tenement,  or  constructing  a  new  one.  The 
crust  or  shell  is  made  of  clay  or  mud,  tempered  with  glutinous 
saliva,  and  lined  with  straws,  grass,  and  feathers.  The  eggs  are 
from  three  to  five,  and  of  a  pinkish-white.  We  may  often  observe 
rows  of  these  clay-built  homesteads  under  the  eaves  of  barns  or 
farmhouses ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  see  two  or  three  little  heads 
peeping  out  of  each,  watching  their  parents  as  they  wing  their  way, 
and  dash  by  in  pursuit  of  Insects,  or  querulously  receiving  the  food 
which,  arresting  their  career  for  an  instant,  their  parents  bring 
them.  During  the  season  of  incubation  the  male  utters  his  soft 
guttural  song,  sometimes  while  on  the  wing,  sometimes  while  cling- 
ing to  the  nest,  or  even  in  it,  as  if  to  cheer  his  faithful  mate,  patient 
in  her  appointed  duties.  Two  broods  are  generally  produced  every 
year,  the  first  leaving  the  nest  in  July,  the  second  in  August  or  the 
beginning  of  September. 

The  flight  of  the  Martin  differs  from  that  of  the  Swallow,  in  being 
more  smooth  and  uniform,  with  fewer  and  less  abrupt  turns  and 
evolutions  ;  it  is  very  rapid,  but  scarcely  so  much  so  as  in  the  latter 
species. 

Towards  the  end  of  September,  and  at  the  beginning  of  October, 
Martins  assemble  in  multitudes,  day  after  day  increasing  their 
numbers,  till  at  last  they  swarm  in  myriads,  the  air  appearing 
crowded  with  them,  and  the  roofs  of  barns  and  houses  and  the 
larger  branches  of  the  trees  literally  covered  by  them.  This  "re- 
union" is  preparatory  to  their  departure,  which  takes  place  towards 
the  end  of  the  month,  flock  after  flock  leaving,  till,  by  the  6th  or  8th 
of  November  all  have  disappeared.  The  Martin  is  distinguished  by 
the  less  forked  character  of  the  tail,  and  by  the  pure  white  of  the 
rump,  breast,  and  under-surface.  The  head,  back,  and  wings  are 
purplish-black.  The  tarsi  are  covered  with  white  down  to  the  very 
claws.  (See  b.  Fig.  mo,  p.  427,  ante,  in  group  of  British  Swal- 
lows.) 

The  Sand-Martin  {Hirundo  ri;paria). — The  Sand-Martin,  or 
Bank-Swallow,  is  the  smallest  of  our  British  Hiriindimda: ,  but  it 
certainly  makes  its  appearance  the  earliest,  often  about  the  end  of 
March.  Its  flight  is  less  impetuous  than  that  either  of  the  Swallow 
or   House-Martin,   and   more  vacillating,   though  still  brisk    and 


THE   SWIFTS. 


429 


Fig.  1 1 15. — Head  of  Bank 
Swallow. 


animated.  In  Spain,  from  the  manner  in  which  it  flies,  this  species 
is  called  by  the  countrj'-people  the  Mountain  Butterfly  (Papillon  de 
Montagna),  and  it  is  sold  in  the  markets  at  Valencia  for  the  table. 
It  is  fond  of  skimming  over  the  surface  of  water,  and  flat  heaths 
and  commons:  seventy  years  ago  White  says,  "Some  few  sand- 
martins,  I  see,  haunt  the  skirts  of  London,  frequenting  the  dirty 
pools  in  St.  George's  Fields  and  about  Whitechapel ;"  and  we  have 
seen  them  in  flocks  over  the  Serpentine  in  Hyde  Park.  The  query 
is,  where  do  these  individuals  make  their  nests  ?  for,  unlike  the 
Swallow  or  Martin,  this  species  bores  with  its  bill  deep  holes  in 
abrupt  precipitous  sand-banks,  at  theextremity  of  which  it  makes  an 
inartificial  nest  of  hay,  straw,  and  feathers.  A  convenient  spot  is 
often  colonised  by  scores  of  these  Birds,  we  may  say  hundreds  ;  we 
have  seen  steep  sand-cliffs  in  Cheshire  and  other  places,  especially 
if  overhanging  a  rivulet,  loopholed  by  their  burrows  in  the  most 
extraordinary  manner,  and  in  close  array  ;  and  Professor  Pallas  says 
that  on  the  high  banks  of  the  Irtish  their  nests  are  in  some  places 
so  numerous,  that  when  disturbed  the  inmates  come  out  in  vast 
flocks  and  fill  the  air  like  flies.  These  burrows  are  sometimes  three 
feet  in  depth,  and  more  or  less  tortuous  ;  and  it  is  surprising  that 
so  small  a  Bird  should  be  so  efficient  a  miner.     Its  beak,  however 

(see  Fig.  11 15),  instead  of  being 
soft  and  tender,  as  White  describes 
it,  is  uncommonly  hard  and  sharp, 
and  well  calculated  for  working  on 
the  loose-textured  material  sub- 
jected to  its  action.  The  Bird 
clings  with  its  claws  to  the  face  of 
the  cliflf,  and  pegs  away  with  its 
miniature  pickaxe,  making  greater 
progress  than  could  be  expected  ; 
as  it  proceeds,  it  scrapes  out 
with  its  feet  the  sand  detached  by 
its  bill,  and  so  continues  its  labours  till  the  requisite  depth  is  at- 
tained. 

This  species  is  decidedly  gregarious,  and  may  be  seen  flying 
about,  not  only  in  company  with  others  of  its  own  species,  but  with 
Swallows  and  IMartins,  busy  in  the  chase  of  prey.  (See  c,  Fig.  mo, 
p.  427,  ante).  It  probably  breeds  twice  if  not  thrice  in  the  season. 
The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  Mouse-brown  above,  white 
beneath.     The  eggs,  five  in  number,  are  white. 

The  Purple  Martin  {Prague,  or  Fliruiido  purpurea).— 1\i\% 
well-known  Bird,  says  Wilson,  "  is  a  general  inhabitant  of  the 
United  States  (of  America),  and  a  particular  favourite  wherever  he 
takes  up  his  abode."  It  arrives  in  the  southern  frontiers  late  in 
February  or  early  in  March,  reaches  Pennsylvania  about  the  ist  of 
April,  and  extends  its  migrations  as  far  north  as  the  country  round 
Hudson's  Bay,  where  it  is  first  seen  in  May  and  disappears  in 
August. 

"  The  summer  residence  of  this  agreeable  bird  is  universally 
among  the  habitations  of  man,  who,  having  no  interest  in  his  de- 
struction, and  deriving  considerable  advantage  as  well  as  amuse- 
ment from  his  company,  is  generally  his  friend  and  protector. 
Wherever  he  comes  he  finds  some  hospitable  retreat  fitted  up  for  his 
accommodation  and  that  of  his  young,  either  in  the  projecting 
wooden  cornice,  on  the  top  of  the  roof,  or  sign-post,  in  the  box 
appropriated  to  the  blue-bird  {Saxicola  sialis) :  or,  if  all  these  be 
wanting,  in  the  dove-cot,  among  the  pigeons.  In  this  last  case  he 
sometimes  takes  possession  of  one  tier  of  the  premises,  in  which 
not  a  pigeon  dare  for  a  moment  set  its  foot.  Some  people  have 
large  conveniences  formed  for  the  martins,  with  many  apartments, 
which  are  usually  fully  tenanted  and  occupied  every  spring  ;  and  in 
such  places  particular  individuals  have  been  known  to  return  to  the 
same  box  for  several  successive  years.  Even  the  solitary  Indian 
seems  to  have  a  particular  respect  for  this  bird.  The  Chactaws  and 
Chickasaws  cut  off  all  the  top  branches  from  a  sapling  near  their 
cabins,  leaving  the  prongs  a  foot  or  two  in  length,  on  each  of  which 
they  hang  a  gourd  or  calabash,  properly  hollowed  out  for  their  con- 
venience. (See  Fig.  1116.)  On  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  the" 
negroes  stick  up  long  canes  with  the  same  species  of  apartment 
fixed  to  their  tops,  in  which  the  martins  regularly  breed.  Wherever 
I  have  travelled  in  this  country,  I  have  with  pleasure  seen  the  hos- 
pitality of  the  inhabitants  to  this  favourite  bird." 

The  Purple  Martin  is  the  terror  of  Crows,  Hawks,  and  Eagles, 
uniting  with  the  King  -  Bird  in  attacking  them  ;  and  so  well 
is  this  known  to  the  lesser  Birds  and  to  the  domestic  poultry, 
that  as  soon  as  they  hear  the  Martin's  voice  engaged  in  fight,  all 
is  confusion. 

"  To  observe  with  what  spirit  and  audacity  this  bird  sweeps  round 
the  hawk  or  the  eagle  is  astonishing.  He  also  bestows  an  occa- 
sional bastinading  on  the  king-bird  when  he  finds  him  too  near  his 
premises,  though  he  will  at  any  time  instantly  co-operate  with  him 
in  attacking  the  common  enemy." 

"  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  remarkably  graceful,  easy,  and  rapid  ; 
he  darts  along  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow,  and  wheels  and  turns 
with  the  most  surprising  address.  His  usual  note'  is  loud  and 
musical,   resembling    the    syllables  ' ^etio-^etio-^aw,'   but  is   fre- 


quently succeeded  by  others  more  low  and  guttural.  Most  of  the 
swallow  tribe  feed  upon  the  smaller  insects.  This  species,  on  the 
contrary,  preys  on  wasps,  bees,  and  even  largo  beetles,  as  gold- 
smiths {Cetonia),  &c.,  which  are  swallowed  whole  " 


Fig.  n  16.— Purple  Martins  and  Nest. 

"At  the  approaching  dawn,"  says  Nuttall,  "the  merry  martin 
begins  his  lively  twitter,  which,  continuing  for  half  a  minute,  sub- 
sides until  the  twilight  is  fairly  broken.  To  this  prelude  succeeds 
an  animated  and  incessant  musical  chattering,  sufficient,  near  the 
dwelling,  to  awaken  the  soundest  sleeper.  His  early  vigils  are 
scarcely  exceeded  by  the  domestic  cock:  the  industrious  farmer 
hears  the  pleasing  call  to  labour,  and  associates  with  the  favourite 
bird  the  idea  of  an  economical,  cheerful,  and  useful  guest.  In  the 
middle  States,  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of  April,  the  martins  begin 
to  prepare  their  nest,  which  is  usually  made  of  small  green  or 
dry  leaves,  straw,  hay  and  feathers,  laid  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  eggs,  pure  white,  are  from  four  to  six,  and  without  spots.  They 
rear  two  broods  in  the  season.  Several  pairs  also  dwell  harmoni- 
ously in  the  same  box.  The  male,  very  attentive  to  his  sitting  mate, 
also  takes  part  in  the  task  of  incubation ;  and  his  notes  at  this 
time  have  apparently  a  peculiar  and  expressive  tenderness." 

The  male  Purple  Martin  is  dark-bluish  glossy  purple  :  the  wings 
and  forked  tail  are  brownish-black.  The  female  and  young  are 
bluish-brown,  and  have  the  belly  whitish.  Tail  considerably  forked. 
Length,  about  eight  inches.     Alar  extent,  sixteen. 

There  are  numerous  other  species  of  the  Swallow  family  resident 
in  America,  in  the  East  Indies,  and  other  parts  of  Asia.  Their 
habits  generally  resemble  those  of  the  British  species. 

The  Swifts— Family  CyJ>selidcB. 
The    Swifts,    formerly  included  amongst    the   Swallows,    and 


Fig.  U17. — Head  of  the  Common  Swift. 

placed  as  a  sub-family  of  the  HirundinidcB  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray, 
appear  to  possess  distinctive  characters  of  sufficient  importance  to 
entitle  them  to  rank  as  a  separate  family — that  of  the  Cypsclida. 
They  resemble  the  Swallows  in  their  general  form,  and  the  structure 
of  the  bill  (Fig.  11 17)  is  very  similar;  but  the  feet  are  different  from 
those  of  any  other  Bird,  all  the  four  toes  being  directed  for\vards 
(Fig.  Ill 8).  The  nostrils  are  very  large,  oblong,  and  furnished 
with  an  elevated  margin  ;  and  the  wings  are  extremely  long  and 
narrow.  The  Swifts  also  differ  from  the  Swallows  in  the  struc- 
ture  of  the   trachea,  the   inferior  larynx  being  destitute  of  those 


430 


THE  SWIFTS. 


muscles  which  confer  t.ieir  powers  of  melody  upon  the  true  Sing- 
ing-Birds ;  and  this  has  induced  some  naturalists,  who  have 
adopted  the  characters  derived  from  the  presence  or  absence  of 
these  peculiar  organs  as  a  means  of  dividing  the 
Passerine  Bird-s  into  two  sections,  to  place  the 
Swifts  and  Swallows  at  a  considerable  distance 
apart.  According  to  the  views  of  these  authors, 
the  nearest  allies  of  the  Swifts  are  the  Humming- 
Fig.  iiiS.— Footof  Birds,  with  which  they  also  agree  in  the  structure 
Common  Swift,      of  the  sternum,   that   organ   being   destitute    of 

posterior  notches  in  both  groups. 
In  their  habits  the   Swifts   closely  resemble    the   Swallows,   but 
perhaps  even  e.\cel  those  active  and  graceful  Birds  in  activity  and 
swiftness  of  flight. 

The  Swift  {Cypselus  apus). — Cyfsehis  imirartHs,  Temminck  ; 
Hiruiido  apiis,  Linnaeus;  Provincial,  Screech,  Develing,  Black 
Martin,  Screamer,  Squeeler ;  Moutardier,  Martelet,  Martinet  Noir, 
ou  Grand  Martinet,  of  the  French  :  Rondone,  Dini,  and  Dardano 
of  the  Italians  ;  Ring-swala  of  the  Swedes  ;  Thurm  Schwalbe  of  the 
Germans  ;  Gier  Zwaluw  of  the  Netherlanders ;  Martin  dil  of  the 
ancient  British. 

This  species  is  the  largest  of  the  British  Hirundtnid(Z,  but  its 
weight  is  proportionately  small  to  its  e.xtent  of  wing  ;  the  former 
being  scarcely  one  ounce,  the  latter  measuring  eighteen  inches. 
Length  eight  inches.     (See  d.  Fig.  mo,  ante.) 

From  its  form,  the  Swift  is  the  most  rapid  in  its  flight  of  our 
Swallow  tribe  ;  the  air  is  its  home.  On  the  ground,  from  the  short- 
ness of  its  tarsi,  it  can  only  crawl ;  and  from  the  length  of  its  wings, 
unless  it  avails  itself  of  some  trifling  elevation,  it  finds  difliculty  in 
rising,  and  does  not  succeed  until  after  one  or  tw^o  trials.  On  the 
ground,  however,  the  Swift  never  willingly  settles.  Its  feet,  armed 
with  sharp  curved  claws,  are  admirably  adapted  for  clinging  to  the 
slightest  roughness  on  the  surface  of  rocks  or  towers,  in  the  dark 
crevices  of  which  it  rears  its  j'oung.  The  Swift  is  the  latest  of  its 
tribe  to  visit  us,  and  the  earliest  to  depart,  appearing  about  the 
middle  of  April,  and  retiring  southwards  in  August ;  and  rearing  only 
one  brood. 

There  are  few  village  steeples  round  which  these  Birds  may  not 
be  seen  wheeling  and  screaming  during  the  fine  evenings  and 
mornings  of  June  and  July,  now  soaring  aloft,  now  dashing  round 
the  angles  of  the  building  with  astonishing  address  and  velocity. 
It  is  interesting  to  watch  them  ;  on  the  wing  they  feed— they  drink 
— they  collect  the  materials  of  their  nests — and  enjoy  the  pleasures 
of  existence.  From  dawn,  till  darkness  commences,  are  they  thus 
engaged,  excepting  the  females  brooding  over  their  eggs  in  dark- 
ness ;  these  are  ever  and  anon  visited  by  their  mates,  who  wing 
their  way  repeatedly  close  past  the  crevices  where  the  nests  are 
placed,  uttering  a  scream  as  they  glide  by,  which  is  ansvt-ered  by  a 
low  murmur  of  complacency. 

The  nest  of  the  Swift  is  composed  of  dry  grass  and  light  straws, 
interwoven  and  held  together  by  a  viscous  substance ;  and  lined 
with  feathers,  silk,  and  linen  threads,  skimmed  from  the  ground 
during  flight.  The  eggs  are  white,  and  from  two  to  four  in  number. 
When  the  female,  says'White,  has  sat  hard  all  day,  she  rushes  forth 
just  as  it  is  dusk,  relieves  her  weary  limbs,  snatches  a  scanty  meal, 
and  returns  to  her  work  of  incubation.  The  same  writer  notices  the 
pouch  full  of  Insects  under  the  tongue,  which,  when  these  Birds  are 
wantonly  shot,  is  usually  discovereii.  It  is  in  this  way  that  all  our 
British  Swallows  store  up  food  for  their  young. 

In  Derbyshire,  the  Swift,  the  Swallow,  and  the  Martin,  haunt  the 
precipitous  rocks  of  limestone,  and  there  build  and  breed,  as  we 
have  abundantly  experienced.  The  Swift,  short  as  is  its  stay  in 
these  latitudes,  is  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  It  visits 
Lapland,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden ;  in  which  last  country 
Professor  Nilsson  states  that  it  makes  its  nest  in  hollows  of  trees  in 
the  woods.  Its  eastward  range  appears  to  be  as  far  as  the  moun- 
tain-lake Baikal.  At  Erzeroum  it  has  been  observed  in  numbers 
from  May  till  September.  Mr.  Yarrell  states  that  he  has  never  seen 
this  species  in  any  collection  brought  from  India.  It  has  been  noted 
at  Madeira.  Montagu  extends  its  southward  range  in  Africa  as  far 
as  the  Cape ;  Temminck  limits  it  to  the  tropics.  In  our  own 
country  it  has  been  remarked  that  Swifts  are  less  plentiful  with  us 
than  they  formerly  were. 

With  the  exception  of  the  throat,  which  is  dusky  grey,  the  plumage 
is  sooty  black  with  a  greenish  tinge.  The  tail  is  forked.  The 
plumage  is  close  and  firm. 

The  Large-winged  Swallow  {Macropteryx  longipennis, 
Swainson). — Head  and  foot.  Generic  characters  : — Tarsus  remark- 
ably short  and  naked  ;  anterior  toes  long,  and  nearly  equal ;  hinder 
toe  very  short.     Tail  long  and  forked.     Locality,  India. 

The  present  species,  given  as  an  example  of  the  genus  Macro- 
pteryx,  is  of  an  obscure  glossy  green  above  ;  the  throat,  breast,  and 
lower  part  of  the  back  light  grey  ;  belly,  spot  on  the  scapulars,  and 
line  over  the  eye,  white ;  ears  rufous ;  front  with  an  incumbent 
crest. 

Mr.  Swainson,  whose  description  this  is,  and  who  has  given  an 
elegant  figure  of  the  Bird  in  the  second  series  of  his  "Zoological 


Illustrations,"  inquires  whether  the  A'/y-ww^/oAVec/io  of  Dr.  Horsfield 
(Sambor-galeng  of  the  Javanese),  which  is  described  by  him  in  the 
13th  vol.  of  "  Linn.  Trans."  as  eight  inches  and  a-half  in  length,  is 
not  the  female  of  this  species  ?  Mr.  Swainson  considers  the  genus 
Macropteryx  intermediate  between  the  typical  Swifts  and  the 
Swallows.  To  the  first,  he  remarks,  it  is  allied  by  its  strong  scan- 
sorial  feet ;  to  the  latter  by  the  length  and  fixed  position  of  the  hind- 
toe,  and  the  depression  of  the  bill.     (See  Fig.  1 1 19.) 


Fig.  II 19. — Head  and  Foot  of  Large- winged  Swallow. 

The  Long-winged  Swift  {Chcetura  macropiera).  —  Generic 
characters  : — Feet  as  in  the  genus  Macroptcryx ;  but  the  tarsus 
longer  than  the  middle  toe.  Tail  short  and  even,  with  the  shafts 
prolonged  into  acute  points.     (See  Fig.  1120.) 


Fig.  I120. — Long. winged  Swift. 

The  Long-winged  Swift  is  brown,  with  the  wings  and  tail  glossed 
with  greenish-blue,  the  back  being  of  a  grey  white,  the  chin  and 
under  tail-coverts  snowy  ;  the  tail  is  even.  This  species  and  the 
Hiru7ido  albicollis  are  two  of  the  largest  species  yet  discovered  of 
a  very  singular  group  of  Swifts  which  have  the  tail-feathers 
spined,  and  even  more  rigid  than  those  of  the  Woodpeckers :  by 
this  structure,  as  Mr.  Swainson  remarks,  the  Birds  can  remain  for 
a  considerable  time  in  the  most  perpendicular  situations.  The  ex- 
panded tail,  he  adds,  thus  acts  as  a  powerful  support,  which  is 
further  increased  by  the  size  and  strength  of  the  claws,  these  last 
being  much  longer  than  those  of  ordinary  Swallows.  Most  of  the 
species  are  natives  of  America. 

The  White-banded  Swallow  {Hinindo  fasciata).  —  Hiron- 
delle  a  ceinture  blanche,  Buffon.  This  Bird,  which  is  extremely 
rare,  is  a  native  of  South  America.  According  to  Buffon  it  is  some- 
times seen  perched  on  floating  trees  in  the  rivers  of  Guiana.  (See 
Fig.  1121.) 

Mr.  Dallas  remarks  that  of  the  White-bellied  Swift  {Cypselus 
fnelba),  only  a  few  specimens  have  been  killed  in  this  country,  but  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  continent  it  occurs  abundantly  every  year. 
It  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  the  common  species  by  its 
larger  size  and  the  whiteness  of  the  lower  surface  ;  the  plumage  of  the 
upper  parts  is  of  a  greyish-brown  colour.  Its  habits  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  common  species;  and,  indeed,  all  the  Birds  of  this 
family  agree  so  closely  in  this  respect,  that,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
one  description  will  apply  generally  to  the  whole. 

Amongst  these  exceptions,  we  may  notice  that  many,  perhaps 
most,  of  the  exotic  species,  such  as  the  Indian  Swift,  Cypselus 
affinis,  the  Tachortiis phcBiiicobia,  or  Palm  Swift  of  Jamaica,  and 
even  the  North  American  Chimney  Swift  {Acantkylis  pelasgia). 


THE  ESCULENT  SWALLOW. 


431 


rear  two  or  three  broods  in  a  season  ;  and  the  Birds  of  some  of  the 
species,  such  as  the  Jamaica  Palm  Swift  just  referred  to,  and  the 
Indian  Palm  Swift  {CyJ>scius  bafassiciisis),  and  the  species  of  the 


Fig.  1 121. — White-banded  Swallow. 

fenus  Dendrochelidon,  attach  their  nests  to  the  trunks  of  trees, 
ome  of  the  species,  also,  like  our  common  Martin,  construct  their 
nests  of  mud  ;  but  these  habitations  are  usually  composed  of  the 
same  materials  as  those  of  the  common  Swift,  more  or  less  agglu- 
tinated together  by  the  viscid  secretion  produced  by  the  peculiar 
glands  of  the  mouth.  The  nests  of  the  common  Swift  generally  ex- 
hibit this  character  to  a  certain  e.xtent,  as  already  explained ;  but 
many  of  the  species,  especially  those  which  attach  their  nests  to  the 
surface  of  the  supporting  body,  make  a  much  greater  use  of  the 
glutinous  secretion  ;  and  some  of  the  genus  Collocaiia  construct  the 
great  bulk  of  the  nest  of  this  material. 

To  this  genus  Collocaiia  belong  the  following  species  :  — 

The  Salangane,  or  Esculent  Swallow  {Hirujido  or  Collo- 
caiia esculeiita ;  the  Lawet  of  the  Javanese),  and  the  Linchi 
[Hirutido  ox  Collocaiia  fuciphaga ;  the  Linchi  of  the  Javanese). 
— These  two  species,  with  others  not  clearly  defined,  are  the  con- 
structors of  those  singular  nests  which  are  prized  as  luxuries  by  the 
Chinese,  and  form  so  considerable  an  article  of  commerce. 

The  Lawet  is  brown  above,  whitish  beneath,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
tail,   which    is    forked.      The   Linchi   is   rather   smaller  than   the 


Fig.  1 122. — The  Esculent  Swallow  and  Nest. 

former,  being  about  five  inches  long ;  its  under  parts  are  white,  and 
its  wings  are  longer  in  proportion.     (See  Fig.  1122.) 

Much  has  been  written  about  these  Birds  and  their  nests,  till, 
from  clashing  opinions,  the  subject  has  become  involved  in  difficulty. 
According  to  Lamouroux,  there  are  three  species  which  make  edible 
nests,  the  most  valuable  being  those  of  the  smallest  species,  which 
he  states  is  distinguished  by  the  feet  not  being  covered  with  down  ; 
it  is  never  found  inland,  but  always  on  the  sea-coast.  The  nest  is 
clear  and  white,  and  composed,  as  he  believes,  of  sea-plants  of  an 
order  termed  by  him  Gclidia,  which  by  boiling  or  steeping  in  water 
may  be  almost  wholly  reduced  to  jelly.     Others  consider  the  nest 


^Lt  s°rt°f. fish-spawn  ;    others  as  composed  of  inspissated  sea- 
foam,  or  the  juice  of  .a  tree  ;  and  others  of  Molluscous  animals. 
To  give  an  idea  of  these  nests  (several  of  which,  varying  in  clear- 

rP<f.'nn°w^""'P°%  "'  T  '"^i''^  examined),  we  may  describe  them  as 
resembling  in  form  that  of  the  Chimney  Swallow,  being  concave, 
shallow,  and  lined  with  feathers  ;  but  the'  crust  or  shell^instead  of 
^nlH^n!^?^''  A  "'■  f  ,5°'?''''""^'^  '"  appearance  like  fine  manna  as 
ufncl^L  Q  r-^^cf '  '''°P''  approximating,  however,  to  coarse 
isinglass.  Sir  G.  Staunton  says-"  In  the  Cass,  a  small  island  of 
Sumatra,  we  found  two  caverns  running  horizontally  into  the  side  of 
'^  '"^'l '  f,,"  'n.  •'•'"'^  "'^re  a  number  of  those  birds'-nests  so  much 
prized  by  the  Chinese  epicures.  They  seemed  to  be  composed  of 
fine  filaments  cemented  together  by  a  transparent  viscous  matter, 
not  unhke  what  is  left  by  the  sea  upon  stones  alternatelv  covered  bv 
the  tide,  or  those  gelatinous  animal  substances  found'  floatinsr  on 
every  coast.  The  nests  adhere  to  each  other,  and  to  the  sides  of  the 
cavern,  mostly  in  horizontal  rows,  without  any  break  or  interruption 
and  at  different  depths  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  feet.  The  same 
sort  of  nests  are  also  said  to  be  found  in  the  deep  caverns  at  the 
foot  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the  middle  of  Java,  at  a  distance 
from  the  sea."— "  The  value  of  these  nests  is  chiefly  ascertained  by 
the  uniform  fineness  and  delicacy  of  their  texture,  those  that  are 
white  and  transparent  being  most  esteemed,  and  fetching  often  in 
China  their  weight  in  silver." 

Montbeillard,  who  in  1741  visited  the  Straits  of  Sunda  near  Java 
and  went  ashore  on  an  islet  called  the  Little  Toque,  discovered  a 
deep  cavern  in  the  rocks  on  the  brink  of  the  sea,  the  mouth  of  which 
was  darkened  by  multitudes  of  Swallows  pouring  out  in  swarms, 
and  the  roof  of  the  cavern  was  covered  with  their  nests.  He  de- 
scribes them  as  softening  in  water,  and  as  composed  of  Fish-spawn, 
resembling  half-melted  glue  which  floats  on  the  sea,  and  adds^ 
fi,  u'^f'"?'^^  threads  of  this  viscous  substance  are  seen  hanging  to 
the  bills  of  these  birds,  and  which  have  been  supposed,  without  founda- 
tion, to  be  extracted  from  the  stomach  in  the  breeding-season  "  It 
was  perhaps  this  passage  that  induced  Sir  E.  Home  to  examine  the 
gastric  glands  of  a  species  of  Swallow  of  a  very  large  size,  and  which 
he  regarded  as  the  Edible  Swallow,  brought  from  Java  by  Sir  T   S 


Glands  of  Stomach  in  Birds. 


Raffles.  In  this  species  he  found  the  gastric  glands  projecting,  and 
splitting  into  several  portions  like  the  petals  of  a  flower,  and  argues 
that  their  development  is  to  supply  a  secretion  for  the  formation  of 
the  nests.  Fig.  1123  shows — a,  the  gullet  and  gizzard  of  the  Java 
Swallow  laid  open  ;  B,  the  gastric  glands  magnified  225  times  ;  C, 
the  same  glands  in  the  common  Swallow;  D,  the  same  glands  in 
the  Blackbird ;  E,  similar  glands  in  the  pylorus  of  the  human 
stomach,  magnified  900  times.  Against  the  inference  of  Sir  E. 
Home  it  is  objected,  and  with  force,  that  it  does  not  appear  that  the 


432 


THE  TODIES-THE  KINGFISHERS. 


Swallow  he  examined  (double  the  size  of  our  Swallow)  was  one  of 
the  edible  species,  and  that  we  have  not  the  shadow  of  proof  from 
analogy  to  conclude  that  these  gastric  glands,  for  whatever  reason 
they  might  be  developed,  secrete  the  materials  of  the  nest.  The 
most  probable  theory  is,  that  whatever  else  may  be  used,  the  Bird, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  Swallow  and  Swift,  employs  a  viscid  saliva 
as  a  cementing  medium  ;  as  M.  Reinwardt,  a  celebrated  professor, 
who  resided  a  considerable  time  in  Java,  and  made  some  careful  re- 
searches upon  the  subject,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Bird 
consolidates,  if  it  does  not  wholly  form,  its  nest  with  a  viscous  and 
glutinous  fluid,  secreted  by  its  very  large  parotid  (salivary)  glands. 
Mr.  Crawford,  formerly  British  resident  at  the  Court  of  the  Sultan  of 
Java,  and  who  superintended  the  collection  of  these  nests  (for  they 
are  claimed  as  royal  property,  and  form  a  valuable  branch  of  the 
revenue  of  the  State)  at  Karang-Bolang  for  several  years,  has  given 
an  interesting  commercial  history  of  them  too  long  to  be  quoted. 
We  may  observe,  however,  that  about  27,000  pounds,  the  chief  part  of 
the  best  quality,  were  then  annually  exported  from  Java,  but  a  still 
greater  quantity  from  the  Suluk  Archipelago  ;  that  much  was  also  ex- 
ported from  Ceylon  and  New  Guinea ;  and  that  altogether  about 
30,000  tons  of  Chinese  shipping  were  engaged  at  that  time  in  the 
traffic,  freighted  with  property  worth  in  the  Archipelago  nearly 
^300,000.  The  danger  attendant  upon  the  collecting  of  the  nests  in 
the  awful  caverns  is  described  as  imminent  in  the  extreme. 

The  Todies— Family  Todidm. 

The  Todies  have  had  various  places  assigned  them  by  naturalists  ; 
as  have  also  the  genus  Eurylaimus  :  some  have  formed  of  them 
two  sub-families  of  the  Coracida;,  or  Rollers.  As,  however,  they 
are  few  in  number,  they  may  be  Ijriefly  described  here  under  the 
sub-families  of  the  Todina;  and  EiirylaimincB. 

The  Todies,  genus  Todus,  are  characterised  by  a  peculiar  flatness 
or  depression  of  the  bill,  which  has  a  wide  gape  margined  with 
vibrissa.  The  breadth  varies  ;  in  some  (as  the  Eiirylaiini)  it  is  very 
broad,  somewhat  resembling  the  bill  of  the  Podargi,  with  a  boat- 
like upper  mandible.  The  wings  are  rounded  ;  the  tarsi  of  mode- 
rate length  ;  the  two  outer  toes  are  united  as  far  as  the  last  joint. 
The  habits  of  these  Birds  are  little  known. 

The  Green  Tody  [Todus  viridisj. — Generic  characters  : — ^Bill 


Fig.  1 124. — The  Green  Todies. 

lengthened ;  broad  throughout,  suddenly  contracting  at  the  tip ; 
very  flat.  Vibrisss  few  and  weak ;  tail  short ;  tarsi  weak  ;  toes 
short.     Locality,  Tropical  America. 

The  Green  Tody  inhabits  the  islands  of  Jamaica,  Hayti,  and 
others  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  said  to  be  a  Bird  of  recluse  habits, 
haunting  the  borders  of  retired  marshes,  and,  as  Sloane  says, 
"  melancholy  places,"  sitting  with  its  head  crouched  between  its 
shoulders ;  and  suffering  itself  to  be  approached  within  a  few  feet. 


number  and  of 
much  exceed  a 
whitish  beneath 


and  gazed  at  for  minutes  together  before  it  will  move.  "  It  keeps 
much  about  houses  in  the  country  parts,  flics  very  low,  and  probably 
may  be  easily  tamed."  These  Birds,  says  Lesson,  live  upon  Insects 
which  they  catch  in  the  mud  or  the  water;  "they  are,  in  truth, 
water  moucherollcs,  and  their  wide  and  flattened  bill,  furnished 
with  asperities,  or  teeth,  permit  them  to  sift  the  mud  and  retain  the 
prey  ;  they  also  seek  for  small  insects  under  the  moss  or  on  the 
ijanks  of  rivulets."  The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground,  of  cotton  down, 
feathers,  moss,  and  other  soft  materials ;  the  eggs  are  five  in 
a  blue  colour.  This  little  Bird,  which  does  not 
Wren  in  size,  is  of  a  fine  bright  green  above, 
the  throat  is  scarlet ;  the  sides  rosy ;  the  under 
tail-coverts  yellow.     (See  Fig.  1124.) 

The  Javanese  Eurylaimus  {Eurylatmiis  javanicris ;  sub-family 

Eurylaimhicr.') — Generic  characters  : — Bill  broader  than  the  head  ; 

under  mandible  very  thin  ;  nostrils  basal,  transverse,  oval  ;  wings 

rounded;    tail  rounded.     Fig.  1125  displays  the  characters  of   the 

^_  bill    and   feet    in    this  genus, 

which    is    restricted    to    India 

and  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

The  Javanese  Eurylaimus  is 
a  native  of  Java  and  Sumatra  ; 
it  frequents  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  lakes,  feeding  on  Insects 
and  Worms.  It  builds  its  nest 
pendant  from  the  branch  of  a 
tree  which  overhangs  the  water. 
In  Java  it  tenants  the  most 
remote  and  inaccessible  wastes 
covered  with  extensive  forests 
and  abounding  with  rivers  and 
marshes.  General  colour,  rich 
vinous  purple  ;  forehead  black  ; 
liack  of  the  neck  brown  ;  wings 
blackish-brown,  with  a  yellow 
streak  between  the  coverts  and 
secondaries ;  and  bordered 
with  yellow,  which  extends  un- 
derneath the  shoulders.  Tail- 
coverts  black,  with  yellow  tips  ; 
tail-feathers  black,  with  a 
white  mark,  the  two  middle  ex- 
cepted. Bill  irregularly  varie- 
gated and  striped  ;  the  ridge 
yellowish ;  the  edges  black. 
Tarsi  dusky  yellowish.  (See 
Fig.  1x26.) 


Fi". 


1125.  — Bill  and  Foot  of  the 
Eurylaimus. 


Fig.  1126. — The  Javanese  Eurylaimus. 

In  the  British  Museum  are  several  specimens  of  the  Todies  ;  as 
the  San  Domingo,  Todus  subulatus  ;  the  Jamaican,  or  Todus  viridis, 
just  described  ;  the  Porto  Rican,  T.  hy^ochondricus  ;  the  Collared 
Eurylaimus,  E.  lunaius,  &c. 

The  Kingfishers — VsxWxXy  Haley onidcs,  or  A  kedini'des. 

In  this  family  are  included  several  genera  which  differ  much  in 
their  habits  and  modes  of  life  ;  some  resembling  our  well-known 
Kingfisher  in  the  metallic  brilliancy  of  their  plumage,  as  well  as  in 
their  darting  upon  Fishes,  which  constitute  their  food ;  others  again. 


THE  KINGFISHERS. 


-133 


with  a  fuller  and  less  glossy  plumage,  feeding  on  Reptiles,  Insects, 
and  small  Quadrupeds,  and  never  plunging  into  the  water  after 
prey. 

They  are  divided  into  three  sub-families — viz.,  the  Alcedititnw, 
or  True  Kingfishers;  the  G^£?/i«/;>/^,  orjacamars  ;  sxidiBucconincs, 
or  Puff. Birds. 

Varying  in  minor  details,  all  generally  present  the  following 
characters: — the  beak  is  lengthened  and  pointed;  the  tarsi  are 
short ;  the  toes  feeble,  and  the  outer  and  middle  are  united  as  far 
as  the  last  joint.  In  some  there  are  only  two  anterior  toes,  the  in- 
nermost being  deficient. 

In  the  Bucconina:  the  toes  are  arranged  in  pairs,  in  the  same  way 
as  in  the  Scansorial  Bird,  with  which  they  were  formerly  united  by 
naturalists. 

The  Gigantic  Kingfisher  (Dacelo  gigasj. — This  remarkable 
Bird  (one  of  the  aberrant  forms  of  the  family)  is  a  native  of  Austra- 
lia. The  plumage  is  full  and  soft ;  and  the  feathers  of  the  head  are 
elongated  into  a  crest.  The  bill  is  large,  long,  powerful,  and 
swollen  at  the  side ;  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible  is  bowed  in 
near  the  point,  which  latter  is  acute  and  bends  over  the  point 
of  the  lower  mandible.  The  tarsi  are  stout  ;  the  toes  armed  with 
sharp  claws  ;  the  wings  are  rather  long,  advancing  when  folded 
half-way  down  the  tail — this  is  long,  broad,  and  somewhat  rounded. 
The  eyes  have  a  forward  situation,  being  placed  close  to  the  base  of 
the  beak,  imparting  a  sharp,  cunning,  and  even  fierce  expression 
to  the  aspect,  and  well  depicting  the  disposition  of  the  Bird,  which 
is  daring  and  rapacious.  Among  the  wooded  mountain  districts  in 
many  parts  of  Australia,  and  especially  those  which  border  the 
Murrumbidgee  River,  this  species  is  very  common,  and  may  be  ob- 
served sitting  on  the  watch  for  its  prey,  which  consists  of  Insects, 
small  Quadrupeds,  and  Reptiles.  Ever  and  anon  it  breaks  out  into 
a  singular  abrupt  laugh,  somewhat  resembling  the  syllables  ^'a//- 
yak-ya/i,  commencing  in  a  low  and  gradually  rising  to  a  high  and 
loud  tone,  startling  when  heard  amidst  the  solitudes  of  the  woods. 
From  this  wild  and  discordant  cry  it  has  obtained  from  the  colonists 
the  title  of  the  "laughing  or  feathered  jackass."  The  natives  at 
Yas  called  it  gobera  ox  gogobera.  One  seldom  laughs  without  being 
answered  by  a  second ;  and  among  Diurnal  Birds  it  is  the  first  which 
is  heard  in  the  morning,  and  the  last  at  the  close  of  evening  ;  it  rises 
with  the  dawn,  when  the  woods  re-echo  with  its  gurgling  laugh,  and 
at  sunset  they  are  heard  again  in  dissonant  chorus. 

Unqualified  for  plunging  in  the  stream,  this  Bird  is  vigilant  in  the 
pursuit  of  Reptiles  and  Insects.  Snakes  are  a  favourite  food,  and  it 
may  often  be  seen  flying  to  a  tree  with  one  of  these  Reptiles  in  its 
beak,  holding  it  just  behind  the  head.      Generally  the   Snake  is 


Fig.  1 127. — Gigantic  Kingfisher. 

killed  before  being  carried  away  ;  but  sometimes  the  Bird  is  ob- 
served on  the  branch  to  break  the  Reptile's  head  to  pieces  with  its 
strong  sharp  beak.  Occasionally,  as  it  is  asserted,  the  Gigantic 
Kingfisher  will  kill  young  Chickens,  and  carry  away  eggs  ;  but  its 
services  in  destroying  Reptiles  compensate  the  settler  for  these  petty 
depredations.     The  general  colour  above   is  olive-brown  :  beneath 


whitish,  with  obscure  dusky  bars  on  the  breast ;  top  of  the  crest 
brown  ;  a  white  belt  above  each  eye  goes  round  the  occiput  ;  and  a 
broad  white  collar  extends  from  the  throat  over  the  sides  of  the 
neck  ;  the  tail  banded  with  black  and  ferruginous  white  at  the  tip. 
Total  length,  one  foot  six  inches.     (See  Fig.  1127.) 

The  Co.mmon  Cr.a.r-Eater  {Halcyon  ci/inamomina)  is  a  New 
Zealand  species.  The  general  plumage  is  of  a  delicate  fawn- 
colour  ;  the  wings  and  tail  changeable  blue-green ;  ear-feathers 
sea-green,  whence  a  narrow  black  line  extends  round  the  back  of 
the  neck.     Total  length,  ten  inches. 

The  Belted  Kingfisher  {Alccdo  a/o'o«,  Linn.)— The  Belted 
Kingfisher  is  a  native  of  America,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Mexico, 
and  is  a  constant  resident  in  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
Arkansas,  and  all  the  districts  that  lie  to  the  south  of  North 
Carolina,  whence  it  migrates  southwards  during  severe  winters. 
The  flight  of  this  Bird  is  very  rapid,  and  in  the  course  of  its  excur- 
sions, if  it  passes  over  a  pool,  it  suddenly  checks  itself  in  its 
career,  poises  in  the  air  like  a  Kestrel,  and  inspects  the  water 
beneath,  watching  the  movements  of  the  Fishes  ;  it  then  dashes 
spirally  down  headlong  into  the  water,  seizes  a  Fish,  and  alights 
on  the  nearest  tree  or  stump,  where  it  swallows  its  prey  in  a  mo- 
ment. The  Bird  makes  its  nest  in  deep  holes  in  dry  banks.  The 
extremity  is  made  capacious  ;  and  here,  on  a  few  sticks  and  fea- 
thers, the  eggs  are  deposited,  five  in  number,  and  of  a  pure  white. 
The  parents  are  very  attentive  to  their  young,  and  the  female  cm- 
ploys  various  artifices  to  draw  the  intruder  from  her  brood.  The 
same  e.xcavation  is  used  by  the  same  pair  year  after  year  in  suc- 
cession. 

The  plumage  is  close  and  compact.  General  colour  above,  light- 
blue,  the  shaft  of  each  feather  blackish  ;  a  white  spot  before  the  eye. 
and  a  streak  of  the  same  below  it;  quill-feathers  brownish-black, 
barred  with  white  ;  secondaries  blue  on  the  outer  web.  Two  middle 
tail-feathers  blue  ;  the  rest  brownish-black  barred  with  white ;  a 
broad  collar  of  white  from  tl.e  throat  over  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  a 
blue  band  across  the  breast  ;  sides  mottled  with  blue  ;  under  parts 
white.  Total  length,  twelve  inches  and  a-half.  The  feathers  of 
the  head  are  long,  narrow,  and  pointed,  and  form  a  crest  capable  of 
being  elevated  and  depressed.     (See  Fig.  1128.) 


Fig.  1 128. — The  Belled  Kingfisher. 

The  Common  Kingfisher  (^/cc^fo  ispida).—Th\s\s  the  Martin- 
Pecheur  of  the  French  ;  and  also  Pescheur,  Martinet  Pescheur, 
Tartarin,  Artre,  and  Mounier,  according  to  Belon ;  Piumbino, 
Ucello  del  Paradiso,  Pescatore,  Pesoatore  del  Re,  Martino  Pesca- 
tore,  Ucello  di  Santa  Maria,  and  Vitriolo  of  the  Italians,  according 
to  Belon ;  Ucello  della  Madonna,  Ucello  Santa  Maria,  Piombmo, 
and  Alcione  of  the  same,  according  to  the  Prince  of  Musignano; 
Gemeine  Eisvogel  (Bechstein)  and  Grosser  Kleiner  und  Fremder 
Eisvogel  (Brehm)  of  the  Germans ;  Glas  y  dorian  of  the  ancient 
British. 

The  Kingfisher  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Europe ;  and  there 
are  few  of  our  streams  and  rivers  flowing  through  fertile  meads, 
abounding  with  Fish,  over  which  this  beautiful  but  voracious  Bird 
may  not  be  seen  glancing  backwards  and  forwards,  its  metallic 
hues  glittering  in  the  sun.  Occasionally  it  hovers  at  a  moderate 
elevation   over   the  water,  and   then  darts  down  with    astonishing 


434 


THE   KIKGFISHERS. 


velocity  and  suddenness  on  some  unwary  Fish,  which,  heedless  of  its 
foe,  ventures  near  the  surface,  and  which  is  seldom  missed  by  the 
keen-eyed  Bird.  The  ordinary  manner,  however,  in  which  the 
Kingfisher  captures  its  finny  prey  is  by  remaining  quietly  perched 
on  some  stump  or  branch  overhanging  the  water,  and  then  intently 
watching  with  dogged  perseverance  for  the  favourable  moment  in 
which  to  make  its  plunge ;  it  marks  the  shoals  of  Minnows  glidmg 
past— the  Trout  lurking  beneath  the  concealment  of  some  stone  or  in 
the  shadow  of  the  bank— the  Roach  and  Dace  pursuing  their  course. 
But  the  instant  the  Fish  rises  to  take  an  Insect,  the  Bird  plunges 
into  the  w^ater  and  seizes  its  prey,  afterwards  returning  to  its  resting- 
place  to  feed.  Its  mate  is  its  only  companion,  and  both  labour  as- 
siduously in  the  support  of  their  young.  The  place  chosen  for 
incubation  is  the  bank  of  the  river  where  it  is  steep  or  overhangmg, 
and  here  it  either  constructs,  or  appropriates  to  itself,  a  burrow  two 
or  three  feet  in  extent,  bearing  diagonally  upwards.  At  the  end  of 
the  gallery  is  a  little  chamber,  and  here,  without  making  any  nest, 
the  female  lays  her  eggs,  from  five  to  seven  in  number,  and  of  a 
clear  pinky-white.  While  engaged  in  the  work  of  incubation  the 
female  is  supplied  by  her  industrious  mate,  and  as  the  fish-bones  and 
scales  are  disgorged  (for,  like  Owls,  the  Kingfisher  recasts  the  mdi- 
gestible  parts'of  its  food),  a  circle  of  these  rejectanea  surround  the 
eggs,  which,  after  the  young  are  hatched,  is  greatly  increased,  and 
hence  has  arisen  the  supposition  that  of  pellets  of  fish-bones  is  the 
nest  composed.  The  young  are  clamorous  for  food,  uttering  an  in- 
cessant cry  ;  they  soon  acquire  their  brilliant  plumage,  and  when 
able  to  leave  their  abode,  follow  their  parents,  and,  resting  on  a 
branch  in  some  lonely  retreat,  tax  their  industry.  They  are,  how- 
ever, soon  able  to  fish  for  themselves. 

The  Kingfisher  performs  a  sort  of  limited  migration  :  when  winter 
sets  in,  and  drives  the  Fish  from  the  shallows  to  deep  and  sheltered 
bottoms,  freezes  the  mill-dams,  or  coats  with  ice  the  sluggish  basin 
worked  out  by  the  river's  current  in  rich  alluvial  soil,  these  Birds 
wander  from  the  interior  to  the  coast,  and  frequent  the  mouths  of 
rivulets,  entering  large  navigable  rivers,  dikes  near  the  sea,  and 
similar  places,  especially  on  the  southern  portion  of  our  island. 

The  colouring  of  this  beautiful  Bird  is  as  follows  :— Bill  blackish- 
brown,  reddish  at  the  base.  Behind  each  eye  is  a  patch  of  light 
orange-brown,  succeeded  by  a  white  one.  From  each  corner  of  the 
under  mandible  proceeds  a  streak  of  verditer  blue,  tinged  with  ver- 
digris green.  Crown  of  the  head  deep  olive  green,  the  feathers 
tipped  with  verdigris  green.  From  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the 
tail  is  a  strip  of  verditer  blue  feathers,  tinged  in  some  shades 
with  verdigris  green.  Chin  and  throat  yellowish-white.  Breast, 
belly,  and  vent  orange-brown,  palest  tovv'ards  the  under  tail- 
coverts.  Tail  greenish-blue  ;  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  black.  Legs 
pale  tile  red.  The  irides  are  hazel.  The  bill  of  the  female  is  not 
so  long  as  in  the  other  sex.  The  colours  also  are  deeper  and  more 
of  a  green  shade.  Length,  seven  inches.  The  sexes,  however,  are 
not  easily  distinguished.     (See  Fig.  1129.) 


Fig.  11:9. — The  Common  Kingfisher. 

Some  extraordinary  superstitions  have  been  held  in  regard  to  the 
Kingfisher  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  Some  writers  have 
attributed  to  it  the  power  of  allaying  the  violence  of  the  waves  of  the 


sea.  A  modern  superstition  gives  the  Bird  the  power  of  determining 
the  north,  and  also  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Its  feathers  have  been 
variously  esteemed  as  lucky  for  fair  weather  at  sea,  securing  the 
affections  of  a  fickle  sweetheart,  and  as  an  antidote  to  witch- 
craft. 

The  Sacred  Kingfisher  {Todirainjihus  sacer). — The  Sacred 
Kingfisher  (with  other  allied  species)  is  a  native  of  the  islands  of  the 
South  Seas.  These  Birds  inhabit  woods,  and  perch  almost  con- 
stantly on  the  cocoa-palms.  Their  nourishment  appears  to  consist 
almost  exclusively  of  small  Flies  ;  these  they  catch,  when  settling  o;i 
the  spathes  loaded  with  the  flowers  of  the  palm.  The  islanders 
name  these  Birds  O-tatare,  and  used  to  regard  them  as  sacred, 
severe  penalties  being  inflicted  on  those  who  destroyed  them.  In  the 
islands  of  Tahiti,  Borabora,  &c. ,  the  present  species  is  very  common, 
frequenting  the  cocoa-nut  trees,  which  form  girds  on  the  shores  of 
those  islands.  Its  flight  is  short,  and  it  is  not  timid.  According  to 
Latham  it  has  been  found  in  Dusky  Bay,  New  Zealand. 

The  total  length  of  this  beautiful  Bird  is  about  nine  inches.  Bill 
black,  white  at  the  origin  of  the  lower  mandible  ;  summit  of  the 
head  covered  with  brownish-green  feathers,  which  form  a  sort  of 
hood,  separated  by  a  large  white  streak  which  rises  on  the  front, 
passes  above  the  eyes,  and  continues  behind  the  occiput.  A  large 
black  line  springs  from  the  eye,  and  taking  a  tinge  of  green  and 
then  of  brown,  forms  a  border  to  the  white  line  and  circumscribes  it. 
Throat,  breast,  and  all  the  upper  part  of  the  body  pure  white  ;  a  very 
large,  whitish,  demicollar,  waved  with  light  brown  and  very  light 
chestnut,  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  mantle,  and  is  bordered  with 
black  ;  the  back,  coverts  of  the  wings,  rump,  upper  part  of  the  tail 
and  wings,  are  uniform  bluish-green  ;  primaries  brown  and  blue  on 
their  external  edges,  secondary  lapped  with  brown  ;  tarsi  black. 
(See  Fig.  1130.) 


*^^.k'W§' 


Fig.  1 130. —The  Sacred  Kingfisher. 

There  arc  numerous  other  species  of  the  Alcedinina  found  in  Java, 
India,  Senegal,  &c.,  specimens  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  which  we  have  not  space  to  describe. 

The  JacamaRS— Sub-family  GalbulitKE. 

The  sub-family  GalbuUiKS,  or  Jacamars,  approaches  nearly  to 
the  Bee-eaters  {Meropida),  to  be  presently  described.  The 
Jacamars  are  handsome  Birds,  and  adorned  with  bright  colours. 
The  following  affords  an  illustration  of  this  sub-family.  They 
are  peculiar  to  the  Tropical  parts  of  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies. 

The  Paradise  Jacamar  {Galbula  paradisea);  the  Swallow- 
tailed  Kingfisher  of  Edwards.— The  genus  Galbula  is  distinguished 
by  its  metallic  plumage ;  by  the  bill  being  very  long,  perfectly 
straight,  and  greatly  compressed  ;  wings  short ;  tail  lengthened  and 
graduated  ;  toes  in  pairs  (zygodactylous),  or  the  hind-toe  wanting  : 
nostrils  with  a  few  strong  bristles.  Cuvier,  who  places  the  Jacamars 
in  the  Scansorial  order,  observes  that  in  either  points  they  approach 
the  Kingfishers;  and  both  Mr.  Vigors  and  Mr.  Swainson,  as  well  as 
Mr.  G.  Gray,  assigned  them  to  the  family  of  the  latter.  The 
Jacamars  are  recluse  Birds,  tenanting  extensive  woods  ;  "  they 
o-enerally  sit  on  low  naked  branches  in  the  forest  paths,  whence  they 
dart  upon  butterflies,  spearing  them  with  their  long  bill ;  their 
haunts,  indeed,  may  frequently  be  known  by  the  ground  being- 
strewed  with  the  beautiful  wings  of  their  victims,  the  body  of  which 


THE  BEE-EATERS. 


43  S 


alone  they  devour.  "While,  as  already  stated,  the  species  are 
usually  American,  the  Paradise  Jacamar  is  a  native  of  Surinam  :  its 
size  somewhat  exceeds  that  of  a  Lark  ;  the  general  colour  is  golden 
green  •  the  throat,  neck,  and  lesser  wing-covcrts  are  white  ;  the  head 
violaceous  brown  ;  the  bill  and  feet,  the  latter  of  which  are  feathered 
to  the  toes,  black  ;  the  two  central  tail-feathers  are  the  longest.  (See 
Fig.  1 131.) 


Fig.  :i3l. — The  Paradise  Jacamar. 


The  Bee-eaters— Family  Mero^idce. 

The  MerofidcB,  or  Bee-eaters,  make  the  nearest  approach  to  the 
Tenuirostral  Birds,  at  the  same  time  that,  in  their  habits,  they 
present  some  resemblance  to  the  Swallows.  They  have  the  bill 
elongated  and  curved ;  the  nostrils  partly  concealed  by  short  bristles 
(see  Fig.  1132);  the  w'ings  long  and  pointed  ;  and  the  tail  long  and 
Ijroad,  with  the  two  middle  feathers  usually  produced  considerably 
beyond  the  rest.  The  tarsi  are  very  short,  and  the  toes  long ;  the 
two  lateral  toes  are  more  or  less  united  to  the  middle  one,  from 
which  character  the  Birds  were  placed  by  Cuvier  amongst  his 
Syndactyli. 

These  Birds  are  confined  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  in  the 
Tropical  parts  of  which  they  are  most  abundant.  They  feed  on 
Insects,  which  they  capture  in  the  air,  and  are  especially  partial  to 
Bees  and  Wasps,  whence  their  English  name  of  Bee-eaters,  and  the 


Europe  ;  it  is  common  in  Sicily,  Italy,  Spain,  Greece,  Turkey,  &c., 
whence  it  retires  into  Africa  on  the  approach  of  winter.  In  .Spain, 
which  it  enters  by  way  of  Gibraltar,  it  appears  duiing  the  first  week 
in  April,  in  ilocks  of  forty  or  fifty,  somclimcs  at  considerable  eleva- 
tion, at  other  times  skimming  low,  and  uttering  a  shrill  whistle 
heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  They  thus  give  chase  to  various 
Insects,  Bees,  Wasps,  Beetles,  Grasshoppers,  and  Butterflies, 
catching  them  on  the  wing  with  great  address.  Bee-eaters  haunt 
rivers  and  streams,  and  may  be  seen  coursing  up  and  down  in  pur- 
suit of  their  prey,  and  glittering  in  the  sun  with  metallic  effulgence. 
They  abound  on  the  rivers  Don,  Volga,  and  Yaik,  in  Southern 
Russia,  and  are  common  in  Syria  and  Arabia.  In  their  habits  these 
Birds  much  resemble  the  Kingfisher :  they  breed  in  holes,  which 
they  burrow  in  steep  banks  overhanging  the  river,  at  the  extremity 
of  which,  in  a  nest,  according  to  Selby,  composed  of  moss,  &c.,  the 
eggs  are  laid  :  these  are  of  a  pure  white,  and  from  five  to  seven  in 
number.  It  is  observed  also  that,  like  the  Kingfisher,  which  recasts 
the  bones  and  scales  of  Fishes,  these  Birds  disgorge  the  wing-cases 
and  other  indigestible  parts  of  their  Insect  food  rolled  up  in  the 
shape  of  small  pellets. 

From  the  earliest  times  the  Bee-eater  has  been  notorious  for 
thinning  the  hive  of  its  industrious  inhabitants.  Aristotle  notices 
this  circumstance  ;  and  Virgil,  in  his  "Georgics,"  directs  that  the 
bee-hives  must  be  secured  from  the  Lizard,  the  Swallow,  and  the 
Bee-eater. 

According  to  Latham  this  Bird  is  called  in  Egypt  Melino-orghi, 
or  Bee's  enemy.  It  is  there  eaten  for  food,  as  Ray  states  it  is  in 
Italy,  where  he  saw  it  sold  in  the  markets.  The  Bee-eater  is  not 
only  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa  ;  it  is  also  a  native 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  colouring  of  this  Bird  is  as 
follows  : — Forehead  yellowish-white,  merging  into  bluish-green  ; 
back  of  the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  back  rich  chestnut,  passing 
into  brownish  amber  yellow.  Ear-coverts  black  ;  wings  greenish, 
with  an  olive  tinge,  and  a  large  band  of  brown  across  the  middle. 
Quill-feathers  fine  greenish-blue,  ending  in  black.  Throat  bright 
yellow,  bounded  by  a  line  of  black.  The  under  parts  generally 
glossy  greenish-blue.  Irides  red.  Length,  eleven  inches.  (See 
Fig-  1133O 


Fig.  1 132. — Head  of  the  Common  Bee-eater. 

French  Giiepiers.  They  are  beautiful  Birds,  generally  adorned 
with  bright  colours,  amongst  which  green  usually  predominates. 
We  take  the  following  as  an  example. 

The  European  Bee-eater  {Alerops  a^iasier).— This  brilliant 
species,  which  occasionally  wanders  as  far  westward  as  the  British 
Isles,  is  a  summer  visitant  to  the  southern  and  eastern  countries  of 


Fig.  1 133. — The  Bee-eater. 

The  Puff-Birds— Sub-family  Bucconiiice. 
In  the  sub-family  of  the  Bucconincs,  or  Puff-Birds,  the  bill  is  very 
stout  and  conical,  and  inflated  at  the  base,  which  is  furnished  with 
several  tufts  of  strong  bristles  ;  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is 
curved  or  hooked  ;  the  nostrils  are  concealed  by  the  plumes  and 
bristles  of  the  forehead  ;  the  tarsi  are  about  the  length  of  the  outer 
anterior  toe,  which  is  the  longest;  and  the  toes  are  arranged  in 
pairs,  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  Scansonal  Birds  with  which  the 
Bucco,iina  were  formerly  placed.  The  name  of  Puff-Birds  is  given 
to  them  from  the  manner  in  which  their  plumage  is  puffed  out ;  a 
character  which  gives  them  a  dull,  heavy  appearance.  This  aspect 
is  in  accordance  with  their  mode  of  life,  as  they  are  solitary  and 


436 


THE  TROGONS,    OR    COUROUCOUS. 


melancholy  Birds,  inhabiting-  the  recesses  of  the  forests  of  Tropical 
America,  where  they  perch  upon  the  branches  of  trees  to  look-out 
for  the  Insects  which  constitute  their  food.  They  are  said  to  perch 
in  the  same  spot  for  months  together.  They  also  occasionally  creep 
upon  the  bark  of  trees  in  search  of  Insects,  supporting-  themselves 
■with  the  tail  when  in  this  position,  like  the  Woodpecker.  They 
nestle  in  holes  of  trees. 

The  Great-billed  Puff-Bird  is  an  instance  of  this  sub- 
family. It  has  a  large  head,  short  tail,  and  large  beak.  It  is  a 
native  of  Brazil.  The  length  is  about  eight  inches.  Plumage  black 
and  white,  except  the  belly  and  vent,  which  are  tinged  with  blue. 
Fig.  1134  represents  this  Bird. 


■t-e.^'.  --=- 


Fig.  1 134.— Great-billed  Puff-Bird. 


The  Trogons,  or  Couroucous— Family  Trogo7iidce. 

The  Trogons  constitute  a  family  of  Birds,  the  members  of  which 
are  peculiar  to  the  hotter  regions  of  America  and  of  India,  and  its 
adjacent  islands,  Ceylon,  Java,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  &c. ,  one  species 
only  having  as  yet  been  discovered  in  Africa.  Among  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  feathered  tribes  for  beauty  and  brilliancy  of  plumage, 
the  Trogons  stand  confessedly  pre-eminent.  The  metallic  golden 
green  of  some  species  is  of  dazzling  effulgence  ;  in  others  less 
gorgeous  :  the  delicate  pencillings  of  the  plumage,  and  the  con- 
trasted hues  of  deep  scarlet,  black,  green,  and  brown,  produce  a 
rich  and  beautiful  effect. 

Tfie  Trogons  are  zygodactyle  ;  that  is,  they  have  their  toes  in 
pairs,  two  before  and  two  behind,  like  Parrots  and  Woodpeckers  ; 
the  tarsi  are  short  and  feeble,  the  beak  is  stout,  and  the  gape  w-ide  ; 
the  general  contour  of  the  body  is  full  and  round,  and  the  head 
large  ;  the  plumage  is  dense,  soft,  and  deep  ;  the  wings  are  short 
but  pointed,  the  quill-feathers  being  rigid  ;  the  tail  is  long,  ample, 
and  graduated,  its  outer  feathers  decreasing  in  length  ;  in  some 
species  the  tail-coverts  are  elongated,  so  as  to  form  a  pendent 
plumage  of  loose  feathers. 

Of  solitary  habits,  the  Trogons  (or  Couroucous)  frequent  the  most 
secluded  portions  of  dense  forests,  remote  from  the  abodes  of  man. 
For  hours  together  they  sit  motionless  on  some  branch,  uttering 
occasionally  a  plaintive  melancholy  cry,  especially  while  the  female 
is  brooding  on  her  eggs.  Indifferent  during  the  day  to  every  object, 
listless  or  slumbering  on  their  perch,  they  take  no  notice  of  the 
presence  of  an  intruder,  and  may  indeed  be  often  so  closely  ap- 
proached as  to  be  knocked  down  by  a  stick  ;  the  bright  glare  of  the 
sun  obscures  their  sight,  and  they  wait  for  evening,  the  dusk  of 
twilight  being  their  season  of  activity. 

Fruits,  with  Insects  and  their  larva;,  constitute  their  food.  Formed, 
most  of  them  at  least,  for  rapid  but  not  protracted  flight,  they  watch 
from  their  perch  the  Insects  flitting  by,  and  dart  after  them  with 
surprising  velocity,  returning  after  their  short  chase  to  the  same 
point  of  observation.     Some,  however,  are  almost  exclusively  Frugi- 


vorous.  Many  species  are  certainly  migratory.  M.  Natterer 
observes,  respecting  the  Pavonine  Trogon  {Trogoti  pavo7ii>i!ts, 
Spix),  which  inhabits,  during  a  certam  season  of  the  year,  the  high 
woods  along  the  upper  part  of  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negro,  that  he 
found  the  contents  of  its  stomach  to  consist  principally  of  the  fruit  of 
a  certain  species  of  pjalm,  and  that  it  arrives  in  those  districts  when 
its  favourite  food  is  ripe,  but  that  when  the  trees  no  longer  yield 
an  adequate  supply  it  retires  to  other  districts. 

Like  the  Parrots  and  the  Woodpeckers,  the  Trogons  breed  in  the 
hollows  of  decayed  trees,  the  eggs  being  deposited  on  a  bed  of  wood- 
dust,  the  work  of  Insects ;  they  are  three  or  four  in  number,  and 
white.  The  young,  when  first  hatched,  are  totally  destitute  of 
feathers,  which  do  not  begin  to  make  their  appearance  for  two  or 
three  days  :  and  their  head  and  beak  appear  to  be  disproportionately 
large.     They  are  said  to  rear  two  broods  in  the  year. 

Azara,  speaking  of  the  Surucua  Trogon,  a  native  of  Paraguay  and 
the  Brazils,  informs  us  that  it  is  seen  only  in  the  largest  woods,  and 
that  it  "  generally  remains  on  the  upper  portions  of  the  trees, 
without  descending  to  the  lower  branches  or  to  the  earth  ;  it  sits  a 
long  time  motionless,  watching  for  insects  which  may  pass  within 
its  reach,  and  which  it  seizes  with  adroitness  ;  it  is  not  gregarious, 
but  dwells  either  in  solitude  or  in  pairs  ;  its  flight,  which  is  rapid, 
and  performed  in  vertical  undulations,  is  not  prolonged.  These 
birds  do  not  migrate,  and  are  never  heard  except  in  the  breeding 
season  ;  their  note  then  consists  of  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
syllables  j>ce-o,  in  a  strong,  sonorous,  and  melancholy  voice ;  the 
male  and  female  answer  each  other.  They  form  their  nest  on  the 
trees,  by  digging  into  the  lower  part  of  the  nest  of  a  species  of  ant, 
known  by  the  name  of  cupiy,  until  they  have  made  a  cavity  suffi- 
ciently large,  in  which  the  female  deposits  her  eggs,  of  a  white 
colour,  and  two,  or,  as  some  assert,  four,  in  number." 

The  American  Trogons  have  their  beak  of  moderate  size,  with 
serrated  (or  saw-like)  edges,  and  furnished  at  its  base  -with  bristles  ; 
the  upper  surface  (of  the  males  at  least)  is  of  a  rich  metallic  green, 
the  under  parts  being  more  or  loss  universally  scarlet  or  rich  yellow. 
The  outer  tail-feathers,  in  the  majority  of  the  species,  are  more  or 
less  barred  with  black  and  white. 

In  the  Indian  Trogons  the  beak  is  larger  and  stouter,  with  smooth 
edges,  having  a  tooth  near  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  eyes 
are  encircled  by  a  large  bare  space  of  richly  coloured  skin  ;  the 
upper  surface  is  brown,  the  lower  more  or  less  scarlet,  and  the  outer 
tail-feathers  exhibit  no  tendency  towards  a  barred  style  of  marking, 
excepting  in  one  species,  Diard's  Trogon  {Trogon  Diardii),  in 
which  the  three  outer  tail-feathers  are  finely  powdered  with  black. 

The  African  species  {Trogon  ?!ari?ui,  Le  Vaill.)  closely  approxi- 
mates to  its  American  relatives  ;  but  its  three  outer  tail-feathers  are 
unbarred.  This  species  inhabits  the  dense  forests  of  Caffraria  ; 
during  the  day  it  sits  motionless  on  a  low  dead  branch,  and  it  is 
only  in  the  morning  and  evening  that  it  displays  activity.  Locusts 
and  other  Insects  are  its  principal  food. 

Of  all  the  Trogons  none  are  so  magnificent  as  the  Resplendent 
Trogon  (Trogon  .-esplendensj,  to  be  presently  described.  This 
Bird,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Gould,  "  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  dense  and 
gloomy  forests  of  the  southern  states  of  Mexico."  Little  known  to 
Europeans,  except  within  the  last  few  years,  the  brilliant  plumes 
which  fall  over  the  tail  (and  which,  as  is  the  whole  of  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  body  of  this  Bird,  are  of  the  richest  metallic  golden 
green)  were  made  use  of  by  the  ancient  Mexicans  as  ornaments  on 
their  head-dresses;  and  gorgeous  must  a  head-dress  be,  composed 
of  such  feathers — soft,  flowing,  of  dazzling  lustre,  and  three  feet  in 
length.  Mr.  Gould  observes  that  M.  Temminck  was  the  first  who 
figured  the  present  species  ;  but  that  celebrated  naturalist  con- 
founded it  with  the  Trogon  pavoniincs  of  Dr.  Spix,  a  Brazilian  species 
to  which  it  is  nearly  allied,  but  from  which  it  differs  in  having  a  soft 
silky  crest,  of  long  full  feathers,  and  the  plumes  of  the  tail-coverts 
extremely  long,  whereas  in  the  Pavonine  Trogon  there  is  no  crest, 
and  the  tail-coverts  do  not  extend  above  an  inch  or  two,  at  most, 
beyond  the  tail. 

In  Fig.  1135  is  represented  a  group  of  Trogons.  On  the  topmost 
branch  are  perched  a  pair,  male  and  female,  of  the  Trogo7i 
resplendejis.  The  middle  Bird  towards  the  left  hand  is  the  lYogon 
pavonhius.  The  lower  figure  on  the  left  hand  is  the  Trogon 
Diardii;  and  that  on  the  right,  the  Trogon  temnurus.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  description  of  some  of  the  family. 

The  Resplendent  Trogon  (Trogon  resj>lende7is). — Male  and 
female.  (See  the  top  Birds  in  group  of  Trogons,  Fig.  1135.) 
Male  : — Beak  gamboge-yellow ;  head  coverd  with  long  filamentous 
plumes,  forming  a  rounded  crest ;  from  the  shoulders  spring  a  number 
of  lance-shaped  feathers,  which  hang  gracefully  over  the  wings  ;  from 
the  rump  are  thrown  off  several  pairs  of  narrow  flowing  plumes,  the 
longest  of  which  in  fine  adults  measure  from  three  feet  to  three  feet 
four  inches  ;  the  others  gradually  diminishing  in  length  towards  the 
rump,  where  they  again  assume  the  form  of  the  feathers  of  the 
back  :  these  plumes,  together  with  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface, 
throat,  and  chest,  are  of  a  most  resplendent  golden  green  ;  the 
breast  and  under  parts  are  of  a  rich  crimson  scarlet ;  the  middle 
feathers  of  the  tail  black  ;  the  six  outer  ones  white  for  nearly  their 


THE  TROGONS. 


437 


Li  1  ti,  ti,Airhaqps  beino- black;  feet  brown.  Totallensrth, 
7''°''h  '  hfl  to  he  en^o  the  tS.l  twcke  to  fourteen  inches  ;  wing, 
^'°w/nlnP-  tarsi  one  encrth  of  he  longest  plume,  about  three  leet. 
''fimaleo;  Young  of 'the  fear -.-These  have  only  rudiments  of  the 

coverts  fine  scarlet ;  bill  black. 

,%  


Fig-  1 1 35.— Group  of  Trogons. 

It  was  of  the  brilliant  feathers  of  these  and  other  Trogons  that  the 
ancient  Mexicans  made  their  famous  mosaic  pictures.  They  were 
probably  kept  in  one  of  the  two  houses  which  formed  the  Royal 
Menagerie  of  ancient  Mexico,  one  of  these  houses  being  appropriated 
to  Birds  which  did  not  live  by  prey  ;  the  other  to  Birds  of  prey. 
Quadrupeds,  and  Reptiles.  Three  hundred  men,  according  to 
Cortes,  were  employed  to  take  care  of  these  Birds,  besides  their 
physicians,  who  watched  their  diseases,  and  applied  timely  remedies. 
Of  the  three  hundred  attendants,  some  procured  their  food,  others 
distributed  it,  others  took  care  of  the  eggs  at  the  time  of  incubation  ; 
whilst  others,  at  certain  seasons,  picked  their  plumage— for  the  king 


not  only  delighted  in  the  sight  of  so  many  species,  but  was  very 
careful  of  their  feathers,  for  the  sake  of  the  works  in  the  fabrication 

of  which  they  were  used.  _  v      rvi j  njr  1         n»,V 

The  Mexican  Trogon  {Trogonmextcanus). — Old  Male  : — BeaK 
bright  yellow  ;  throat  and  ear-coverts  black,  gradually  blending 
witTr  the  srreen'  that  covers  the  chest  and  the  whole  of  the  upper  sur- 
face Two  middle  tail-feathers  green  with  black  tips,  the  two  next 
on  each  side  wholly  black  ;  the  three  outer  on  each  side  black,  with 
white  tips-  wings  black,  the  whole  of  which,  with  the  exception  ot 
the  nrimari'es,  is'finely  dotted  with  grey  ;  a  crescent  of  white  encircles 
flip  rhpst-  breast,  belly,  and  under  tail-coverts  fine  scarlet ;  feet 
tne  cnesi ,    u         ,  Uo\-jn.      Total     length,     eleven     to 

twelve  inches  ;  wing,  five  inches  and 
three-quarters ;  tail,  seven  inches 
and  three-quarters.  Fig.  1136  re- 
presents (upper  figure)  a  young  male, 
and  (lower  figure)  a  female.  They 
are  indigenous  to  the  north  of 
Mexico. 

Young  Male  :— Distinguished  from 
the  adult  by  the  grey  freckles  on  the 
wings    being    rather    stronger,    and 
more  inclined  to  brown  on  the  secon- 
daries ;    by  the   extreme    outer  edge 
of  the  primaries  being  white  ;  and  by 
the  tail  being  regularly  barred  with 
black  and  white,  which  character  is 
most  conspicuous  on  the  outer  edges. 
Female  :— Top  of  the  head,  throat, 
chest,  and  back,  dark  brown,  inclin- 
ing  to   olive   on   the  upper  surface, 
and  to  rufous  on  the   chest  ;  across 
the  chest  an   obscure  band  of  light 
.o-rey,  the  lower  parts  scarlet  ;  wings 
black,  slightly  freckled  with  brown 
on  the  outer  edges  of  the  secondaries 
and  shoulders  ;    the  outer   edges    of 
the    primaries    fringed   with    white  ; 
two    middle    tail-feathers    chestnut- 
brown,    tipped  with    black;   the  two 
next  on  each  side  wholly  black  ;  the 
remainder  strongly  barred  with  black 
and    white    for  nearly     their    whole 
length;    bill     yellow,    clouded    with 
brown.  ,^ 

The  Narina  Trogon  {Trogon 
nar!na).—T\\\s  is  the  only  African 
species,  and  is  a  native  of  Caffraria  ; 
Narina,  whose  name  it  bears,  was 
a  Gonaqua  Hottentot  girl,  whose 
charms  and  manners  appear  to  have 
produced  a  great  impression  on  Le 
Vaillant  (the  discoverer  of  the  Bird), 
as  he  devotes  some  pages  to  her 
in  his  "  Travels." 

According  to  the  account  of  this 
naturalist,  the  haunts  of  the  Narina 
Trogon  are  the  thickest  parts  of  the 
forest ;  and  there  it  sits  nearly 
motionless,  on  a  low  dead  branch 
during  mid-day  :  in  the  morning  and 
evening  it  captures  its  food,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  Locusts,  Beetles, 
and  other  winged  Insects,  with  the 
addition  of  Caterpillars.  Its  flight 
is  short  and  rapid;  and  it  darts 
from  its  chosen  perch  on  every  pass- 
ing Insect,  returning  to  the  statior 
which  it  had  left,  or  settling  near  it. 
During  the  pairing  season,  the  male, 
which  is  at  other  times  mute,  utters 
frequently  a  melancholy  cry.  The 
eggs  four  in  number,  nearly  round, 
and  of  a  rosy  white  hue,  are  laid  in  a 
nest  in  the  hole  of  a  tree,  and  the 
female  sits  for  twenty  days.  !•  ig. 
in7  represents  a  male  and  female. 
Male:-Bin  yellow,  with  a  tin'L  of  ^ue  ;  who,e  of  the  head 
throat,   chest,   shoulders,   back,   and  upper  tal-cover^s.  resplen 

green;     breast    and  under   f'^f^^/^^f^'^'^dlnef  powdered    wifh 
brown,     the     greater     coverts     and     seconaaries     1 
greyish-white,   the  outer  edge  of  e^^'^.f-^'^"    havmg  a  ^^_^^^^^ 
metallic  green  ;  two  centre  feathers  ot     ''^  ta  '      g^^,,,  side 

two  next  on  each  side  dark  ohve-green     the  U  rce 
dark  green   at   their  base,   largely   tippea  wiui 
brownish-yellow.  Mnselv  resembling  those  of  the 

mal-^turd^trVe-lrd^  ^S^o^^^^^^^.  beco'Lng  paler  on 


THE  ROLLERS. 


the  chest,  which  is  slightly  tinted  with  rosy  pink  ;  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen  and  tail-coverts  deep  rose-red.  Total  length,  eleven 
inches  and  a  quarter  ;  bill,  one  inch  and  an  eighth  ;  wing,  five  inches 
and  a  quarter ;  tail,  six  inches  and  a-half ;  tarsi,  three-quarters  of 
an  inch. 


Fig.  1 1 36. — Mexican  Trogons. 

Reinwardt's  Trogon  (Trogon  reinwardtii). — This  species  is 
an  example  of  the  sub-genus  Apaloderma,  and  is  a  native  of  Java 
and  Sumatra,  where,  however,  it  is  rare  ;  or  perhaps  a  tenant  of  the 
remoter  solitudes  of  the  forests,  and  therefore  escapes  observation. 
Fig.  1 138  represents  an  adult  male  and  (the  lower  figure)  a  young 
Bird. 

Bill,  bright  reddish  orange  ;  top  of  the  head,  back,  and  upper 
tail-coverts  dark  green  ;  six  middle  tail-feathers  black,  with  green 
reflexions  ;  the  bases  of  the  three  outer  feathers  on  each  side  the 
same  colour  as  the  middle  ones,  the  remaining  portions  being  white  ; 
centre  of  the  wings  and  shoulders  green,  transversely  rayed  with  fine 
lines  of  yellow  ;  primaries  black,  with  the  exception  of  the  outermost 
web,  which  is  white  ;  throat  yellow  ;  ear-coverts,  sides  of  the  neck, 
and  chest  olive-brown  ;  belly  and  under  surface  yellow,  becoming 
rich  orange  on  the  sides  ;  tarsi  yellow  ;  bare  skin  round  the  eye 
blue.  Total  length,  from  twelve  inches  and  a-half  to  thirteen  inches 
and  a-half;  tail,  seven  inches  and  a-half;  wing,  five  inches  and 
a-half. 

Young : — Similar  to  the  adult,  particularly  in  the  colours  of  the 
back  and  tail — a  circumstance,  observes  Mr.  Gould,  which  rarely 
occurs  in  the  family,  as  in  all  the  Trogons  where  the  plumage  of  the 
female  differs  much  from  that  of  the  male,  the  young  Birds  generally 
resemble  the  former ;  while,  as  in  the  present  case,  where  the  sexes 
are  nearly  alike,  the  young  partake  of  the  adult  colouring,  differing 
only  in  the  markings  of  the  wings  and  the  rufous  brown  tint  of  the 
breast. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  there  are  numerous 
specimens  of  Trogons  brought  from  South  Africa,  Nepaul,  Brazil, 
Mexico,  and  South  America  generally. 

The  Rollers — Family  Coracidce. 

The  family  of  the  Coracida,  or  Rollers,  the  last  in  this  section  of 
the  FiSSlROSTRES,  presents  a  considerable  resemblance  to  some  of 
the  Conirostral  and  Dentirostral  Birds,  amongst  which  it  was,  in 
fact,  formerly  placed.  The  bill  in  these  Birds  is  elongated,  broad  at 
the  base,  and  compressed  towards  the  tip,  which  is  considerably 
hooked,  and  sometimes  slightly  notched.  (See  Fig.  1139.)  The 
tarsi  are  short,  and  the  toes  moderately  long,  the  outer  toe  being 
sometimes  free,  or  occasionally  united  to  the  middle  one  at  the  base. 

The  Birds  referred  to  this  group  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray,  form  four 
sub-families.  Of  these  the  Todies  \Todi?ia;)  and  the  Eurylairai 
{EjirylaimincB)  have  been  described  at  page  432,  a7ite.  The  first  of 
these,  the  sub-family  of  the  MomotincB,  or  Motmots,  is  distinguished 


at  once  by  the  peculiar  character  of  the  bill,  the  lateral  margins  of 
which  are  serrated.      The  wings  are   short  and  rounded  ;  the  tail 

■  long  ;  the  outer  toe  is  longer  than  the  inner  one,  and  united  to  the 
middle  one  as  far  as  the  second  joint,  and  the  hind-toe  is  short  and 

I  weak.  The  tongue  is  pectinated,  like  that  of  the  Toucans  ;  and 
from  this  circumstance,  some  of  the  species  were  described  as 
belonging  to  the  genus  Rhaviphastos.  The  name  of  Mofmofs, 
applied  to  these  Birds,  is  said  to  be  their  denomination  in  the 
Mexican  language,  derived  from  their  peculiar  note. 


Narina  Trogons. 


The  Motmots  are  confined  to  the  Tropical  regions  of  America  and 
the  West  Indian  Islands.  They  are  found  only  in  the  deepest 
recesses  of  the  forests,  and  about  the  ruins  of  ancient  buildings,  on 
which,  and  the  branches  of  trees,  they  perch  in  solitude,  with  the 
head  drawn  back  between  the  shoulders,  and  every  now  and  then 
emit  a  sort  of  hoarse  croak.  In  the  morning  and  evening,  however, 
they  show  a  great  degree  of  activity  in  pursuit  of  the  Insects  which 
constitute  their  principal  sustenance  ;  these  they  take  by  pouncing 
upon  them  after  a  short  flight.  They  do  not  confine  themselves  to 
such  small  game  ;  and  as  their  average  size  is  about  that  of  a  Black- 
bird, they  are  able  to  prey  upon  Lizards  and  small  Snakes,  and  even 
occasionally  upon  small  Birds.  They  are  said  to  take  these  larger 
objects  up  in  the  bill,  throw  them  up  into  the  air,  and  swallow  them 
as  they  fall.     Fruits  also  form  a  portion  of  their  food. 

It  is  generally  stated  that  they  make  their  nests  in  the  holes  of 
trees  ;  but  Sir  William  Jardine  mentions  that  the  nest  of  a  species  of 
this  group  was  found  in  a  bank  of  marl,  and  was  of  a  rather  com- 
plicated construction.  It  commenced  by  an  entrance-passage  about 
two  inches  and  a-half  in  width,  which  ran  in  a  straight  line  horizon- 
tally to  a  depth  of  about  five  feet.  It  then  turned  at  right  angles, 
and  proceeded  downwards  for  about  five  feet  more,  and  at  this  point 
terminated  in  an  enlarged  chamber,  within  which  three  young  were 
found,  on  the  top  of  a  mass  of  Maggots  and  the  remains  of  Insects. 

The  Motmots  are  remarkable  for  a  curious  sort  of  mutilation  which 
they  are  supposed  to  practise  on  themselves.  The  two  middle 
feathers  of  the  tail  are  considerably  elongated,  and  in  most  specimens 
the  barbs  are  wanting  on  that  part  of  the  stem  a  little  before  the  tip, 
so  that  a  portion  of  the  shaft  is  left  quite  bare  at  this  point.  There 
seems  to  be  no  other  way  of  accounting  for  this  than  by  supposing 
that  the  Birds,  probably  from  some  mistaken  notion  of  elegance, 
must  have  deliberately  picked  off  the  barbs  of  the  part  of  the 
feathers. 

The  best  known  species  is  the  Momotus  brasilietisis,  which  is  of 
about  the  size  of  a  Blackbird,  and  of  a  deep  rich  green  colour,  with 
the  forehead  bluish,  the  back  of  the  head  violet,  and  the  crown 
black. 


THE  ROLLERS. 


43:) 


The  Mexican  Motmot  {Momotus  mexkanus ;  Prionites 
mexicanus). — Generic  character  : — Both  mandibles  sHghtly  curved 
and  compressed  ;  the  margins  with  strong  denticulations.  Tongue 
long,  slender;  the  sides  ciliated.  Wings  short,  rounded.  Tail 
lengthened,  cuneatcd.     Feet  gressorial,  as  in  the  genus  Mcrops. 

Mr.  Swainson  ("  Zool.  Illus.  ")  states  that  the  Motmots,  or 
Momots,  "  so  named  from  their  monotonous  note,  live  only  in  the 
tropical  forests  of  the  New  World,  preferring  those  deep  recesses  of 


Fig.  1 138. — Reinwardt's  Trogon. 

perpetual  shade,  where  a  high  canopy  of  matted  foliage  nearly 
e,xcludes  the  rays  of  a  vertical  sun.  They  appear  even  more 
solitary  in  their  disposition  than  the  trogons  ;  their  note  may  be 
heard,  morning  and  evening,  from  the  depths  of  the  forests,  but  the 
bird  is  never  seen,  unless  the  hunter  comes  unexpectedly  upon  its 
retreat.  This  we  have  generally  found  to  be  a  low  withered  branch 
completely  shaded,  and  just  at  the  edge  of  such  paths  as  are  made 
by  the  Cavies  or  the  Indians.  The  jacamars  and  the  trogons  both 
love  these  shady  nooks,  where  they  sit  nearly  motionless,  watching 
for  passing  insects,  on  which  they  dart.  Such  is,  no  doubt,  the 
manner  in  which  the  motmot  feeds ;  but  his  strong  conformation 
enables  him  to  capture  larger  game.     Travellers  assert  that  he  also 


South  America,  are   to  be   found  in  the   collection  of  the   British 
Museum. 

The  True  Rollers— Sub-family  Coracina. 

In  the  Coracutm,  or  Rollers,  forming  the  last  sub-family  of  this 
group,  the  bill  is  elongated  and  compressed,  higlier  and  more  broad 
at  the  base,  and  distinctly  hooked  at  the  tip,  the  extremity  of  the 


Fig.  1139.— Head  of  the  Roller. 

devours  the  eggs  and  young  of  other  birds,  like  the  toucans  ;  this 
we  believe,  as  both  have  the  same  long  and  feathcr-Iike  tongue." 

The  present  species  is  green  above,  paler  beneath  ;  the  ear-coverts 
are  black,  varied,  and  tipped  with  bright  blue.     (See  Fig.  1 140.) 

Numerous  specimens  of  the   Motmot,  obtained  fcom  Central  and 


Fig.  1 140. — The  Mexican  Motmot. 

upper  mandible  overhanging  that  of  the  lower  one  (Fig.  1139  Head 
of  Roller) ;  the  nostrils  are  basal,  and  the  toes  are  all  free  at  the 
base. 

These  Birds,  which  are  of  moderate  size,  and  usually  adorned 
with  bright  colours,  are  found  only  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and 
especially  in  the  warmer  regions.  Their  food  consists  of  fruits  and 
Insects.  A  single  species,  the  common  'R.oW&i  {Coracias  garrula), 
occurs  in  Europe,  and  occasionally  visits  this  country.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  description  of  this  Bird  : — 
The  Common  Roller  {Coracms  garrula). — Bill  moderate, 
straight,  the  sides  broad,  but  much  compressed  ;  tip  of  the 
upper  mandible  bent  over  that  of  the  lower;  nostrils  basal, 
oblique,  linear ;  gape  very  wide,  with  the  edges  bristled ;  tarsi 
short  ;  toes  cleft  to  their  base. 

The  Roller  is  only  an  accidental  visitor  to  England,  where, 
however,  it  has  been  several  times  killed  ;  but  there  is  some 
reason  to  think  that  formerly,  when  our  island  oiTered  exten- 
sive forests  for  its  shelter,  that  it  was  not  uncommon,  for  it  has 
a  name,  "y  Rholydd,"  in  the  ancient  British  language.  It  is 
the  Pica  Marina  and  Pica  Merdaria  of  the  Italians  ;  Rollier 
of  the  French;  Birk-Heher,  Blaue-Racke,  and  Mandel- 
krahe  of  the  Germans  ;  Spransk  Kraka,  Blakraka,  and  Alle- 
kraka  of  the  Swedes  ;   EUekrage  of  Brunnich. 

On  the   continent  this    Bird  has  a  very  extensive  range.    In 
Europe,   it   is   found  in  Denmark,   Sweden  (where    it  arrives 
with   the   Cuckoo),  and  the  southern  provinces  of  Russia ;  is 
more  common  in  Germany  than  France,  where,  however,  it  has 
been  found  in  Provence  ;  and  it  has  been  taken  at  Gibraltar. 
In    Italy,   it    is  said  to    be   rather  common,    arriving  in    the 
spring,  and  departing  in  September.     In  Malta  and  Sicily  it  is 
e.xposed  for   sale   in  the  shops   of  poulterers,  and  is  said  to 
have  the  taste  of  a  Turtle-Dove.      In  the  Morea  it  is  con- 
sidered a  delicacy  in  the  autumn,  when  it  is  fat  with  its  summer 
food.      It  has  been   captured   at  Aleppo,   and   at   Trebizond    and 
Erzeroum.      It  visits   the   countries   between    the    Black   and   the 
Caspian    Seas  ;    and    Dr.    von    Siebold   and   M.   Burger  include   it 
among  the  Birds  of  Japan.    In  North  Africa  it  is  found  from  Morocco 
to   Egypt ;   flocks  were  seen  by  Adanson  at  Senegal,  and  he  con- 


440 


THE  ROLLERS. 


eluded   that  they  passed   the   winter    there.      Dr.    Andrew   Smith 
records  it  among'  the  Birds  of  Soutli  Africa. 

The  Roller  is  wild,  shy,  restless,  and  fierce,  frequenting,  by  way 
of  preference,  deep  forests  of  oak  and  birch,  where  its  harsh  cry 
may  be  often  heard.  In  the  "  Annals  of  Nutural  History  "  for  1839, 
it  is  stated  by  a  traveller  in  Asia  Minor,  that  the  Roller,  which  was 
most  common  throughout  the  south  and  w-cst  parts  of  the  country 
wherever  the  Magpie  was  not  found  (for  it  was  not  seen  in  the  same 
district  with  that  Bird),  was  observed  to  fall  through  the  air  like  a 
Tumbler  Pigeon.  Temminck  states  that  it  makes  its  nests  in  the 
holes  of  trees,  where  it  lays  from  four  to  seven  eggs  of  a  lustrous 
white.     M.  Vieillot  states  that  in  Malta,  where  trees  are  scarce,  the 


Fig.  1 141. — The  Common  Roller. 

Bird  builds  on  the  ground.  In  Barbary  it  has  been  observed  to  form 
its  nest  on  the  banks  of  the  Sheliff,  Booberak,  and  other  rivers ;  and 
Pennant  remarks,  that  where  trees  are  wanting,  it  makes  it  in  clayey 
banks.  These  last  modes  of  nidification  bring  it  very  close  to  the 
Bee-eaters  and  Kingfishers,  whose  eggs  quite  resemble  those  of  the 
Roller  in  colour  and  shape,  and  only  vary  in  size.  The  male  takes 
his  turn  to  sit.  The  food  is  very  varied,  according  to  Temminck, 
who  enumerates  Moles,  Crickets,  Cockchafers,  Grasshoppers, 
Millipedes  and  other  Insects,  Slugs,  and  Worms.  Gould  states 
that  it  feeds  on  Worms,  Slugs,  and  Insects  generally.  Yarrell 
informs  us  that  the  food  consists  of  Worms,  Slugs,  Insects  in  their 
various  stages,  and  berries.  The  colouring  of  this  species  is  as 
follows  : — Bill  black  towards  the  point,  becoming  brown  at  the  base 
with  a  few  bristles;    irides  of  two  circles  yellow  and  brown  ;  head. 


.r^iii^ 


Fig.  1 142. — The  Abybsiuian  Roller, 


neck,  breast,  and  belly  various  shades  of  verditer  blue,  changing  to 
pale  green ;  shoulders  azure  blue,  back  reddish-brown,  rump 
purple,  wing-primaries  dark  bluish-black,  edged  lighter  ;  tail-feathers 
pale  greenish-blue,  the  outer  ones  tipped  with  black,  those  m  the 
middle  also  much  darker  in  colour ;  legs  reddish-brown ;  in  old 
males  the  outer  tail-feathers  are  somewhat  elongated. 

Adult  females  differ  but  little  from  the  males  ;  young  Birds  do  not 
attain  their  brilliant  colour  till  the  second  year.  Length,  about 
thirteen  inehes.     (See  Fig.  1141.) 

The  Abyssinian  Roller  (Ccir^zc/^^j  c*jjj/«/f«).— This  species 
of  Roller  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia,  and  in  general  habits  resembles 
the  preceding,  tenanting  woods  and  forests.     The  colouring  is  as 


Fig.  1 143. — The  Oriental  Swallow-Roller. 

follows  : — White  round  the  bill  ;  body  aquamarine  green  ;  back  and 
wing-coverts  cinnamon  colour  ;  shoulders,  rump,  and  quills,  blue  ; 
tail  green,  the  two  middle  feathers  blue  ;  two  long  loose  processes 
terminating  the  two  external  quills.     (See  Fig.  1142.) 

The  Oriental  Swallow-Roller  {Eurystomiis  orientalts). — 
This  genus  is  closely  allied  to  Coracias,  but  the  bill  is  shorter  and 
wider,  and  the  wings  longer  than  in  that  form.  The  Oriental 
Swallow-Roller  is  a  native  of  Java,  the  south  of  Australia,  and 
all  the  Polynesian  islands.  It  is  the  Naytay-kin  of  the  natives 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Sidney,  DoUar-Bird  of  the  colonists,  and 
Tiong-ba-tu  of  the  inhabitants  of  Sumatra ;  Coracias  orientalts, 
Linn.  It  is  a  Bird  of  rapid  and  vigorous  flight,  and  feeds  upon 
various  kinds  of  Insects.  Its  general  colour  is  aquamarine  green  ; 
the  throat  and  point  of  the  wing  are  azure  :  the  quill-feathers  black, 
with  a  white  bar  ;  tail  black.     (See  Fig.  1143.) 

The  Green  Leptosome  [Lejiiosomus  viridis). — From  its  zygo- 
dactyle  feet  (two  toes  before  and  two  behind),  this  Bird,  with 
others  of  the  genus,  has  been  placed,  by  most  wTiters  on  ornithology 
in  the  family  of  the  Cuckoos  {Cuculidcs).     (See  Fig.  1144.) 


^:j^- 


Fig.  1 144. — The  Green  Leptosome. 


TENUIROSTRAL  BIRDS. 


441 


CHAPTER    XXVT. 

CLASS  II.-AVES,  OR  BIRDS;   SUB-ORDER  TENUIROSTRES,  OR  SLENDER-RITX  BIRDS. 


*■*:■<.  A  %.'^,iv>ipi  HE  name  of  this  sub-orderof  Birds  is  de- 
26--:  j»:--  -  --i:— i-^'--         j.;ygj  f^Q^  tenuis  (Lat.  slender),  and  ros- 
trum, a  beak.     While  the  bill  is  always 
slender,  it  is  very  variable  in  its  length 
and   form,    being    sometimes    perfectly 
straight,  and  occasionally  much   curved. 
The  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is  usually 
entire   and  acute.      The   toes  are   elon- 
gated,  especially  the  hinder    one,    and 
the   outer  toe  is   usually  more    or  less 
united  to  the  middle    one  at  the  base. 
While  the    leading    character   of  these 
Birds  consists  in  the  slendemess  of  the  bill,  many   of 
them    certainly   present    an    exceedingly   close  resem- 
blance, even    in  the  form  of  this  organ,  to  the  Birds 
of  the    Dentirostres  section,   to    be  afterwards_  de- 
scribed.     Like  them,   also,  their  food  consists  princi- 
pally of  Insects,  which,  however,  they  generally  capture 
on   plants    and    trees,  rarely  on    the    wing  or  on  the 
ground.     The  majority  are  destitute  of  the  peculiar  ar- 
rangement of  the  lower  larynx,  by  which  the  beautiful 
songs  of  the  Dentirostral  Birds  are  produced. 

Sub-divisions. — This  group  may  be  divided  into 
five  great  families.  The  first  of  these,  the  family 
of  the  Certhiada,  or  Creepers,  includes  a  _  great 
variety  of  forms,  and  the  characters  by  which  it  is  circum- 
scribed are  exceedingly  vague ;  it  may,  in  fact,  almost  be 
regarded  as  a  receptacle  for  all  the  Tenuirostral  Birds  which 
cannot  be  embraced  in  any  of  the  other  families.  The  bill  in 
these  Birds  is  more  or  less  elongated,  slender,  and  slightly  arched  ; 
the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is  acute,  and  usually  entire  ;  the 
nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  in  a  small  groove,  and 
covered  by  a  membranous  scale.  In  the  form  and  structure  of  the 
wings  and  feet,  these  Birds  exhibit  many  varieties  ;  but  the  legs  are 
usually  short,  and  the  toes  long,  and  furnished  with  strong  curved 
claws.  The  trachea  is  furnished  with  an  apparatus  for  singing,  and 
many  of  the  species  have  a  sweet  song.  The  name  of  Creepers, 
given  to  them  collectively,  indicates  the  mode  of  life  of  most  of  the 
species ;  they  seek  their  Insect  food  by  running  about  upon  the 
trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  very  much  in  the  manner  of  the 
Woodpeckers.  With  very  few  exceptions,  they  are  all  of  small  size. 
Of  the  numerous  sub-families  into  which  the  Certhiadce  are 
divided,  that  of  the  Troglody titles,  or  Wrens,  approaches  most 
closely  to  the  Dentirostres ;  in  fact,  our  common  Wren  has  often 
been  placed  by  the  side  of  the  Golden-crested  Wren,  amongst  the 
Sylvida  or  Sylz'iadce.  In  the  Wrens  the  tarsi  are  long  and  slender ; 
the  toes  are  long  ;  the  outer  one  longer  than  the  inner,  and  slightly 
united  to  the  middle  toe  at  the  base,  the  inner  one  being  free.  The 
bill  is  usually  slightly  curved,  and  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is 
entire.  The  wings  are  short  and  rounded,  and  the  tail,  which  varies 
considerably  in  length,  is  usually  rounded  at  the  extremity. 

This  group  includes  at  once  the 
largest  and  smallest  members  of 
the  family — namely,  the  diminutive 
Wrens  and  the  Australian  Lyre- 
Birds,  which  in  bulk,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  also  in  appearance, 
approach  to  Gallinaceous  Birds. 
In  their  general  habits,  the 
TroglodytincB  agree  closely  with 
the  common  Wren  {Troglodytes 
viilgaris) ;  and  a  short  description 
of  the  manners  of  this  Bird  will 
consequently  furnish  a  very  fair 
notion  of  those  of  the  rest  of  the  group.  Fig.  1145  illustrates  the 
Head  of  the  common  Wren. 

The  Common  Wren  {Troglodytes  vulgaris ;  T.  euroj>ceus\ — 
This  is  the  Troglodyte,  Roytelet,  Bouf  de  Dieu,  Berichot,  and  Roy 
Bertaud  of  the  French  ;  Reillo,  Regillo,  Rectino,  Reatin,  Fiorracino, 
Sericciolo,  Re  d'Uccelli,  and  Sbuccafratte  of  the  Italians;  Nelle 
Konge  of  Brunnich  ;  Schneekonig,  Konickerl,  and  Zaunschlupfrel  of 
Kramer ;  Zaun  Sanger  of  Meyer  ;  Haus  und  Waldzaunkonig  of 
Brehm  ;  Katy  or  Kitty  Wren,  and  Kitty,  provincial  English  ;  Dryw 
of  the  ancient  British.     (See  Fig.  1146.) 

This  well-known  Bird  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  is 
everywhere  noted  for  its  familiarity  and  its  sprightly  habits.  In  our 
island  it  is  very  common,  and  braves  the  severity  of  our  winter, 
flitting  from  spray  to  spray,  and  traversing  the  hedgerows  with 
restless  activity.     Its  actions  are  very  smart ;   it  takes  short  flights, 


Fig.  1 145.— Head  of  the  Wren. 


alights  on  a  twig  towards  the  bottom  of  the  hedge,  flirts  up  its  short 
tail,  utters  a  cry  like  chit-chit,  and  disappe.-irs  in  the  maze  of 
branches  like  a  Mouse,  passing  out  on  the  other  side,  and  repeating 
its  flight.  In  the  depth  of  winter  it  frequents  farm-yards,  cow-sheds, 
and  similar  places,  both  for  the  sake  of  shelter  and  food.  The  song 
of  this  Bird  is  varied  and  pleasing  ;  and  small  as  the  warbler  is,  its 
notes  are  loud  and  clear.  We  have  often  seen  it  on  a  sunshiny  day, 
even  in  the  middle  of  winter,  perched  on  a  naked  twig,  singing  with 
great  vivacity,  evidently  cheered  by  the  transient  gleam. 


Fig.  1 146. — The  Common  Wren. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  or  whole  of  Europe  the  Wren  is 
King  of  Birds,  Little  King,  King  of  Cold,  Snow-King,  &c.  (Te 
degii  Uccelli,  Roitelet,  Roi  de  Froidure,  Schnee-Konig,  cSfc.) ;  but 
what  has  given  rise  to  this  title,  which  is  as  old  as  Aristotle,  who 
says  it  is  called  Upic^vq  icai  BaatXtvg,  Elder  and  King,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conjecture. 


Fig.  1147. — Nest  of  the  Common  Wren. 


3L 


442 


THE  WREN— THE  LYRE-BIRD. 


The  Wren  breeds  early,  and  begins  to  prepare  its  nest  in  March  ; 
and  various  are  the  places  chosen  as  a  site,  sometimes  under  the 
thatched  covering  of  an  outhouse,  sometimes  in  a  niche  or  cavity 
between  the  branches  of  a  tree,  often  amidst  the  ivy  covering  aged 
trees  or  old  walls,  or  the  side  of  a  hayrick.  It  is  a  domed  structure 
with  a  small  lateral  aperture  ;  generally  it  consists  externally  of  green 
moss,  but  it  varies  the  material  according  to  situation  and  the  colour 
of  the  objects  around ;  on  a  stump  or  rock,  for  example,  grey  lichens 
and  withered  grass  compose  its  outer  coating  :  internally  it  is  lined 
with  hair,  feathers,  wool,  and  other  soft  mafcrials.  We  have  seen 
nests  of  this  composed  of  fine  dried  grasses  or  hay,  mixed  with  bits 
of  leaves,  moss,  and  lichens. 

The  eggs  are  usually  from  six  to  eight  in  number,  of  a  yellowish- 
white,  sprinkled,  especially  at  the  larger  end,  with  reddish-brown. 
It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  Wren  often  makes  several 
nests,  deserting  them  when  they  are  finished  or  nearly  so  ;  these,  it 
is  asserted,  are  the  work  of  the  male  exclusively,  during  the  incuba- 
tion of  the  female,  who  labours,  as  it  has  been  said,  for  the  sake  of 
doing  something,  but  never  lines  them  with  feathers.  Are  they  not 
rather  structures  which  some  circumstances  have  prevented  the  pair 
from  finishing  ?     Fig.  1147  illustrates  the  nest  of  the  Wren. 


Fig.  114S.— Lyre-Biids. 

The  House  Wren.— The  House  Wren  of  the  United  States 
{Troglodytes  dojnesticd)  appears  to  be  far  more  familiar  than  our 
native  species.  It  constantly  frequents  gardens,  and  builds  about 
the  houses,  or  in  little  boxes  placed  on  purpose  for  it.  It  often 
selects  curious  places  for  the  reception  of  its  home.  Wilson  men- 
tions one  instance  of  a  mower  who  had  hung  up  his  coat  in  a  shed, 
and  having  left  it  for  two  or  three  days,  found  that  the  progress  of 
his  arm  into  the  sleeve  was  interrupted  by  a  mass  of  rubbish,  which, 
on  being  extracted,  proved  to  be  a  Wren's  nest  completely  finished, 
and  ready  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  The  proprietors  of  the 
nest  were  by  no  means  satisfied  with  this  termination  of  their  labours, 
but  followed  the  destroyer  for  some  distance,  scolding  him  violently 
for  his  unwarrantable  interference  in  their  household  affairs.     The 


House  Wren  is  said  to  be  far  superior  as  a  songster  to  our  Euro- 
pean Wren.  Like  our  Robin,  the  male  is.  exceedingly  pugnacious, 
and  attacks,  without  hesitation.  Birds  of  twice  its  size,  who  appear 
inclined  to  trespass  upon  the  domain  which  he  has  marked  out 
for  his  own.  In  these  contests  he  is  generally  victorious.  He  has 
also  a  very  strong  antipathy  to  Cats.  Two  or  three  other  species 
are  found  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum,  London,  there  are 
numerous  specimens  of  the  Wren  tribe.  Among  these  are  the  Plata 
Wren,  T.  jtlafcnsis,  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  ;  the  Equinoctial 
Wren,  T.  ccquinoxialis,  South  America  ;  the  Short-billed  Wren, 
and  others  from  North  America,  besides  specimens  from  Honduras, 
&c. 

The  most  remarkable  species  belonging  to  the  Cerihiadcs,  but 
which  have  been  assigned  by  some  naturalists  to  a  special  family 
called  Meintrida,  are  the  Lyre- Birds  of  Australia,  of  which  at  least 
two  species  are  known — viz.,  the  Alenura superba,  zx\?i.\\\ft ]\Ieiiura 
alberti.  The  Common  Lyre-Bird,  Meniira  stcpcrba,  has  been 
arranged  with  very  different  groups  by  different  authors,  some 
placing  it  with  the  Gallinaceous  Birds,  its  apparent  relation  to  which 
is  shown  by  the  name.  Wood  Pheasant,  sometimes  given  to  it; 
others  with  the  Hornbills  and  the  Hoazin, 
amongst  the  Conirostres ;  and  others, 
again,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Thrushes. 
It  appears,  however,  to  be  most  nearly  allied 
to  the  diminutive  Birds  of  the  present  sub- 
family of  Tenuirosfres.  In  the  following 
article  this  Bird  is  more  particularly  de- 
scribed. 

The  Lyre-Bird  {Menura  supcrba). — 
It  is  to  that  eminent  ornithologist,  Mr. 
Gould,  that  we  are  indebted  for  our  know- 
ledge of  the  habits  of  this  species,  which  he 
himself  diligently  investigated  in  its  native 
country  ;  and  we  shall  therefore  transcribe 
part  of  his  original  observations. 

"  Perhaps  no  bird  has  more  divided  the 
opinion  of  ornithologists,  as  to  the  situation 
it  should  occupy  in  the  natural  system,  than 
the  Menura  ;  and  although  more  than  fifty 
years  (1840)  have  now  elapsed  since  the  bird 
was  discovered,  little  or  no  information  has 
been  hitherto  published  respecting  its 
economy  and  habits,  as  ornithologists  have 
had  only  its  external  structure  to  guide 
them  in  their  opinions.  Aware  of  this  fact, 
I  paid  considerable  attention  to  the  subject 
while  in  Australia,  and,  after  a  minute  ob- 
servation of  the  bird  in  a  state  of  nature,  I 
am  decidedly  of  opinion  that  it  has  not,  as 
has  been  very  generally  considered,  the 
most  remote  relationship  to  the  GallinacecB ; 
but  that  it  forms,  with  the  American  genera 
Pteroptochos,  Scytalopus,  and  their  allied 
group,  a  family  of  the  Insessorial  order,  to 
which  Troglodytes  Amyt/s,  St/pitun/s, 
Malurus,  Dasyornis,  and  Psophodes  closely 
assimilate  in  their  habits,  and  of  which 
they  will,  in  all  probability,  be  hereafter 
found  to  form  a  part.  Notwithstanding  the 
great  size  of  the  Menura.  and  the  extra- 
ordinary form  of  its  tail,  in  almost  every 
other  point  it  presents  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  its  minute  congeners  ;  like  them 
it  possesses  the  bristles  at  the  base  of  the 
bill,  but  to  a  less  extent ;  the  same  unusual 
mass  of  loose,  flowing,  hair-like  feathers  on 
the  back  and  rump,  the  same  extraordi- 
nary power  of  running,  and  the  like  feeble- 
ness of  flight:  all  which  will,  I  trust,  render 
it  evident  that  there  are  sufficient  grounds 
for  the  opinion  I  have  here  expressed. 
Many  intervening  genera  will,  doubtless,  yet 
be  discovered  to  complete  the  series  of  affinities  :  at  all  events,  if,  as 
I  am  informed  is  the  case,  the  young  of  Menura  are  helpless 
and  blind  when  hatched,  it  cannot  with  propriety  be  placed  with  the 
Gallinacc(B. 

"  In  the  structure  of  its  feet,  in  its  lengthened  claws,  and  in  its 
whole  contour,  the  Lyre-bird  presents  the  greatest  similarity  to  the 
Pteroptockos  megapodius  of  Kittlitz.  Another  singular  circum- 
stance, by  which  their  alliance  is  rendered  still  more  evident,  is  the 
fact  that  Pteroptochos  differs  from  the  other  families  of  the  Inses- 
sorial order  in  having  fourteen  feathers  in  its  tail,  and  that  Menura 
also  differs  in  the  same  particular  in  possessing  sixteen.  The 
immense  feet  and  claws  of  these  two  birds  admirably  adapt  them  for 
the  peculiar  localities  they  are  destined  to  inhabit,  and  the  same 


THE  LYRE-BIRD— THE  NUTHATCHES. 


443 


beautiful  modification  of  structure  is  observable  in  the  other  genera, 
equally  adapting  them  for  tlie  situations  they  are  intended  to  fulfil. 
Thus  the  Menura  passes  with  ease  over  the  loose  stones  and  the 
sides  of  rocky  gullies  and  ravines,  while  the  Maluri  trip  over  the 
more  open  and  even  ground,  and  the  Dasyorni  with  equal  facility 
thread  the  dense  shrubs  and  reed-beds.     (See  Fig.  1148.) 

"The  great  stronghold  of  the  Lyre-bird  is  the  colony  of  New 
South  Wales.  It  inhabits  equally  the  brushes  on  the  coast  and 
those  that  clothe  the  sides  of  the  mountains  in  the  interior ;  on  the 
coast  it  is  especially  abundant  at  the  Western  Port  and  lUawarra  ; 
in  the  interior,  the  cedar  brushes  of  the  Liverpool  range,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  G.  Bennett,  the  mountains  of  the  Tumat  country,  are 
among  the  places  of  which  it  is  a  denizen. 

"Of  all  the  birds  I  have  ever  met  with,  the  Menura  is  far  the 
most  shy  and  difficult  to  procure.  While  among  the  mountains  I 
have  been  surrounded  by  these  birds,  pouring  forth  their  loud  and 
liquid  calls,  for  days  together,  without  being  able  to  get  a  sight  of 
them  ,  and  it  was  only  by  the  most  determined  perseverance  and 
extreme  caution  that  I  was  enabled  to  effect  this  desirable  object ; 
which  was  rendered  more  difficult  by  their  often  frequenting  the 
almost  inaccessible  and  precipitous  sides  of  gullies  and  ravines, 
covered  with  tangled  masses  of  creepers  and  umbrageous  trees  ;  the 
cracking  of  a  stick,  the  rolling  down  of  a  small  stone,  or  any  other 
noise,  however  slight,  is  sufficient  to  alarm  it ,  and  none  but  those 
who  have  traversed  these  rugged,  hot,  and  suffocating  brushes,  can 
fully  understand  the  excessive  labour  attendant  on  the  pursuit  of  the 
Menura.  Independently  of  climbing  over  rocks  and  fallen  trunks  of 
trees,  the  sportsman  has  to  creep  and  crawl  beneath  and  among  the 
branches  with  the  utmost  caution,  taking  care  only  to  advance  when 
the  bird's  attention  is  occupied  in  singing,  or  in  scratching  up  the 
leaves  in  search  of  food  ;  to  watch  its  action  it  is  necessary  to 
remain  perfectly  motionless,  not  venturing  to  move  even  in  the 
slightest  degree,  or  it  vanishes  from  sight  as  if  by  magic. 

"At  Illawarra  it  is  sometimes  successfully  pursued  by  dogs  trained 
to  rush  suddenly  upon  it,  when  it  immediately  leaps  upon  the  branch 
of  a  tree,  and  its  attention  being  attracted  by  the  dog  below  barking, 
it  is  easily  approached  and  shot.  Another  successful  mode  of  pro- 
curing specimens  is  by  wearing  a  tail  of  a  full-plumaged  male  in  the 
hat,  keeping  it  constantly  in  motion,  and  concealing  the  person 
among  the  bushes,  when  the  attention  of  the  bird  being  arrested  by 
the  apparent  intrusion  of  another  of  its  own  sex,  it  will  be  attracted 
within  the  range  of  the  gun.  The  Menura  seldom,  if  ever,  attempts 
to  escape  by  flight,  but  easily  eludes  pursuit  by  its  extraordinary 
power  of  running.  None  are  so  efficient  in  obtaining  specimens  as 
the  naked  black,  whose  noiseless  and  gliding  steps  enable  him  to 
steal  upon  it  unheard  or  unperceived,  and  with  a  gun  in  his  hand  he 
rarely  allows  it  to  escape,  and  in  many  instances  he  will  even  kill  it 
with  his  own  weapons, 

"  The  Lyre-bird  is  of  a  wandering  disposition  ;  and  although  it 
probably  keeps  to  the  same  brush,  it  is  constantly  engaged  in 
traversing  it  from  one  end  to  the  other,  from  the  mountain  base  to 
the  top  of  the  gullies,  whose  steep  and  rugged  sides  present  no 
obstacle  to  its  long  legs  and  powerful  muscular  thighs  :  it  is  also 
capable  of  performing  extraordinary  leaps  ;  and  I  have  heard  it 
stated  that  it  will  spring  ten  feet  perpendicularly  from  the  ground. 
Among  its  many  curious  habits,  the  only  one  at  all  approaching  to 
those  of  the  Gallinacece  is  that  of  forming  small  round  hillocks, 
which  are  constantly  visited  during  the  day,  and  upon  which  the 
male  is  continually  tramping,  at  the  same  time  erecting  and  spread- 
ing out  its  tail  in  the  most  graceful  manner,  and  uttering  its  various 
cries,  sometimes  pouring  forth  its  natural  notes,  at  other  mocking 
those  of  other  birds,  and  even  the  howling  of  the  native  dog  (Dingo). 
The  early  morning  and  the  evening  are  the  periods  when  it  is  most 
animated  and  active. 

''  It  may  truly  be  said  that  the  beauty  of  this  bird  lies  in  the 
plumage  of  his  tail,  the  new  feathers  of  which  appear  in  February 
and  March,  but  do  not  attain  their  full  beauty  until  June  :  during 
this  and  the  four  succeeding  months,  it  is  in  its  finest  state ;  after 
this  the  feathers  are  gradually  shed,  to  be  resumed  again  at  the 
period  above  stated. 

"  The  food  of  the  Menura  appears  to  consist  principally  of  insects, 
particularly  centipedes  and  coleoptera  ;  I  also  found  the  remains  of 
shelled  snails  in  the  gizzard,  which  is  very  strong  and  muscular. 

"  The  nest  appears  to  be  either  placed  on  the  ledge  of  a  projecting 
rock,  at  the  base  of  a  tree,  or  on  the  top  of  a  stump,  but  always  near 
the  ground  ;  and  a  cedar-cutter  whom  I  met  in  the  brushes  informed 
me  that  he  had  once  found  a  nest,  which  was  built  like  that  of  a 
magpie,  adding  that  it  contained  but  one  e.'g'g.  The  natives  state 
that  the  eggs  are  two  in  number,  of  a  light  colour,  freckled  with 
spots  of  red.  The  nest  seen  by  myself,  and  to  which  my  attention 
was  drawn  by  my  black  companion,  Natty,  was  placed  on  the  pro- 
rninent  point  of  a  rock,  in  a  situation  quite  secluded  from  observa- 
tion behind,  but  affording  the  bird  a  commanding  view  and  an  easy 
retreat  in  front ;  it  was  deep  and  shaped  like  a'basin,  and  had  the 
appearance  of  having  been  roofed  ;  was  of  a  large  size,  formed  out- 
wardly of  sticks,  and  lined  with  inner  bark  of  trees  and  fibrous  roots." 
The  Menura  equals  a  common  Pheasant  in  size,  but  its  limbs  are 


longer  m  proportion,  and  its  feet  much  larger  ;  the  toes  arc  armed 
with  large,  arched,  blunt  claws ;  the  hind-toe  is  as  long  as  arc  the 
fore-toes  (the  length  of  these  being  nearly  equal),  but  its  claw  is 
larger  than  that  of  any  of  the  others  ;  the  scales  of  the  tarsi  and  toes 
are  large  bole  plates,  and  their  colour  is  glossy  black  ;  the  head  is 
small,  the  beak,  as  Cuvier  has  described  it,  is  triangular  at  the  base, 
pointed  and  compressed  at  the  tip;  in  the  male  the  feathers  of  the 
head  are  elongated  into  a  crest ;  the  wings  are  short,  concave,  and 
rounded,  and  the  quill-feathers  are  lax  and  feeble  ;  the  general 
plumage  is  full,  deep,  soft,  and  downy.  The  tail  is  modified  into  a 
beautiful  long  plume-like  ornament,  representing,  when  erect  and 
expanded,  the  figure  of  a  lyre,  whence  the  name  of  Lyre-Bird.  This 
ornamental  tail  is,  however,  confined  to  the  male.  In  the  female  the 
tail  is  long  and  graduated,  and  the  feathers  are  perfectly  webbed  on 
both  sides  of  the  shaft,  although  their  texture  is  soft  and  flowing. 
In  the  male  the  tail  consists  of  sixteen  feathers :  of  these  (see 
Fig.  1 149),  the  outer  one  on  each  side  is  broadly  but  loosely  webbed 
within,  its  outer  web  being  narrow  ;  as  it  proceeds  it  curves  out- 
wards, bends  in,  and  again  turns  boldly  outwards  and  downwards, 
both  together  resembling  the  framework  of  an  ancient  lyre,  of  which 
the  intermediate  feathers  are  the  strings  ;  these  feathers,  except  the 


Fig.  1 149. — Tail-feathers  of  the  Lyre-Bird. 

two  central,  which  are  truly  but  narrowly  webbed  on  the  outer  side, 
consist  each  of  a  slender  shaft,  with  long  filamentous  barbulcs,  at  a 
distance  from  each  other,  and  spring  out  alternately.  The  appear- 
ance of  these  feathers,  the  length  of  which  is  about  two  feet,  is 
peculiarly  graceful  ;  their  colour  is  umber-brown,  but  the  two  outer 
tail-feathers  are  grey  tipped  with  black,  edged  with  rufous,  and 
transversely  marked  on  the  inner  web  with  transparent  triangular 
bars.  The  general  plumage  of  the  Menura  is  umber-brown  above, 
tinged  with  olive,  and  merging  into  rufous  on  the  wings,  and  also 
on  the  throat.  The  under  parts  are  ashy  grey. 
We  next  turn  to — 

The  Nuthatches— Sub-family  Sittince. 

The  Nuthatches  form  the  sub-family  SiflincE.  They  have  the 
toes  very  long  and  slender,  furnished  with  long,  compressed,  curved 
claws.  The  outer  toe  is  longer  than  the  inner  one,  and  is  united  to 
the  middle  toe,  as  far  as  the  first  joint.  The  inner  toe  is  also  slightly 
united  at  the  base. 

The  Nuthatch  {Siila  euro;pa:a).—1\\\%  is,  in  all  probability,  the 


444 


THE  NUTHATCHES— THE  TRUE  CREEPERS. 


Sitte  (SiVri;)  of  the  Greeks,  and  Sitta  of  the  Latins.  It  is  the  Ziolo, 
Picchio  grigio,  Raparino,  and  Picchio  formicajo  of  the  Italians  ; 
Muratore  of  Savi ;  Torchepot  and  Pic-ma^on  of  the  French  ;  Kleiber 
and  Blauspecht  of  the  Germans  ;  Notwacka  and  Notpacka  of  the 
Swedes ;  Spoett-merse  of  the  Danes ;  Nat  Bake  of  Brunnich  ; 
Klener,  Nusszhacker,  of  Kramer  ;  and  Delor  y  cnau  of  the  ancient 
British.     (See  Fig.  1150.) 


Fig.  1 150. —The  Nuthatch. 

The  Nuthatch  is  found  throughout  Europe  generally,  and  in  the 
central  wooded  countries  it  is  tolerably  abundant ;  it  inhabits  many 
parts  of  our  island,  but,  according  to  Selby,  is  not  seen  farther  north 
than  the  banks  of  the  Wear  and  Tyne  :  Montagu  observes  that  it  is 
not  to  be  met  with  in  Cornwall. 

The  habits  of  the  Nuthatch  are  partly  those  of  the  Creeper,  and 
partly  of  the  Woodpeckers,  yet  differing  in  several  particulars.  The 
tail  affords  no  support  to  this  Bird,  yet  it  climbs  well,  not  only 
ascending  and  winding  round  the  trunks  of  trees,  but  descending 
with  the  utmost  facility  head  foremost,  which  neither  the  Creeper 
nor  the  Woodpecker  attempts  ;  and  on  flying  from  tree  to  tree,  it 
usually  alights  with  the  head  downwards,  and  in  that  position  works 
at  the  shell  of  the  nut  it  is  endeavouring  to  break.  We  had  once  an 
opportunity  of  observing  a  small  colony  of  these  interesting  Birds, 
in  a  limited  wood  (if  it  deserved  the  name)  of  very  old  trees,  near  Mac- 
clesfield in  Cheshire  ;  the  underwood  consisted  of  wild  raspberries  and 
hazel.  These  Birds  were  constantly  in  motion  flying  from  tree  to 
tree,  and  travelling  round  the  thick  branches,  or  about  the  gnarled 
and  prominent  bark  surrounding  holes  formed  by  decay,  ever  and 
anon  uttering  a  clear  whistling  note  ;  we  observed  them  take  Insects 
and  search  for  them  in  the  fissures  of  the  bark  ;  but  neither  saw  nor 
heard  them  hammering  at  nuts  ;  for  these,  the  season  being  spring 
or  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  were  not  matured.  Nuts,  however, 
form  a  portion  of  their  diet,  and  the  strokes  made  by  the  Bird  while 
endeavouring  to  extract  the  kernel  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable 
distance.  It  fi.xes  them  in  some  chink  or  cleft,  and  splits  the  shell 
with  repeated  blows.  Mr.  Selby  says  that,  "in  autumn,  many  of 
these  broken  nut-shells  may  be  seen  in  the  open  bark  of  old  trees, 
in  places  where  the  birds  abound,  as  they  return  repeatedly  to  the 
same  spot  for  this  purpose." 

The  Nuthatch  breeds  in  the  holes  of  time-worn  trees,  and  oc- 
casionally selects  the  deserted  habitation  of  a  Woodpecker.  Accord- 
ing to  Colonel  Montagu  and  other  observers,  if  the  hole  be  too  large, 
the  Bird  plasters  up  a  part  with  mud,  so  as  to  reduce  the  aperture  to 
the  needful  size,  thus  preventing  the  intrusion  of  larger  Birds,  or 
perhaps,  as  a  writer  has  suggested,  forming  a  sort  of  guard,  so  as 
to  hinder  the  impatient  nestlings  from  falling  out,  and  being  killed 
on  the  spot.  This  habit  of  plastering  is  alluded  to  in  one  of  the 
French  names  for  the  Nuthatch — viz.,  Pic-ma^on.  The  female  makes 
a  nest  of  a  few  dry  leaves,  and  lays  from  five  to  seven  eggs  of  a  grey 
white,  spotted  with  reddish-brown ;  she  defends  her  young  with 
determined  courage,  hissing,  and  striking  violently  with  her  bill. 

The  Nuthatch  is  a  bold  Bird,  of  almost  untameable  disposition, 
and  will  not  endure  confinement.  An  instance  of  its  perseverance 
and  spirit  is  recorded  in  the  "  Magazine  of  Natural  History :" — One 
of  these  Birds,  which  had  been  winged  by  a  sportsman,  was  put  into 
a  small  cage,  made  of  oak  and  wire.     During  a  night  and  day  he 


never  ceased  firom  his  efforts  to  escape,  except  to  devour  food, 
which  he  did  voraciously,  regarding  those  about  with  fearless  famili- 
arity. This  unfortunate  Bird  sank  at  the  close  of  the  second  day 
under  the  combined  effects  of  his  vexation,  assiduity,  and  voracity. 
The  Rev.  T.  L.  Bree  mentions  one  which  he  caught  in  a  common 
brick  trap  :  when  the  Bird  w^as  found,  the  bill  appeared  to  be  truncated, 
and  he  inferred  that  it  had  been  fairly  ground  down  to  about  two-thirds 
of  its  original  length  by  the  pecking  of  the  Bird  at  the  bricks. 

The  plumage  of  the  Nuthatch  above  is  of  a  fine  blue  grey.  The 
quills  and  base  of  tail-feathers,  except  the  two  middle  ones,  black  ; 
the  outer  tail-feather  on  each  side  with  a  black  spot  near  the  tip. 
A  black  band  passes  from  the  bill  through  the  eye  down  the  sides 
of  the  neck,  ending  abruptly  near  the  shoulders  ;  throat  whitish ; 
rest  of  plumage  below  rufous  brown  blending  into  chestnut  on  the 
flanks  :  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  hazel.     Sexes  alike. 

Numerous  species  of  Nuthatches  occur  in  the  United  States,  &c. 
But  their  habits  are  all  similar  to  that  of  the  cemmon  Nuthatch, 
above  described,  and  none  of  them  possess  any  song.  Several 
specimens  of  the  Sittince,  from  Europe,  North  America,  &c.,  may  be 
seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  True  Creepers— Sub-family  CerthincB  or  Certhianm. 

The  Certhina,  or  True  Creepers,  are  distinguished  by  having 
the  toes  very  long  and  slender  ;  the  outer  toe,  which  is  longer  than 
the  inner  one,  united  to  the  middle  toe 
beyond  the  first  joint,  and  the  inner  one 
as  far  as  the  first  joint.  The  hind-toe  is 
very  long  and  slender,  and  all  the  claws 
are  long,  much  compressed,  and  curved. 
The  bill  is  usually  very  slender,  and 
considerably  curved  ;  the  wings  are  long, 
and  rather  rounded,  and  the  tail  is  usually 
pretty  long.  The  toes,  in  many  cases,  ex- 
hibit an  extraordinary  degree  of  mobility  ; 
the  hind-toe  may  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  its  ordinary  position,  and 
all  the  toes  may  be  twisted  so  as  to  reverse  the  position  of  the  claws. 
This  arrangement  is  of  great  ser\'ice  to  the  Birds  in  their  continual  run- 
ning upon  the  bark  of  trees,  on  which,  like  the  Birds  of  the  preceding 
groups,  they  search  for  the  Insects  which  constitute  their  principal 
food.     The  species  are  not  numerous,  but  they  occur  in  both  hemi- 


Fig.  1151. — Foot  of  the 
Brown  Creeper. 


Fig.  1152.— Wing  of  the  Brown  Creeper. 

spheres,  althoi;gh  the  greater  part  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  the  Old 
World.  One  species  is  found  in  this  country — the  Brown  Creeper 
{Certhia  familia}-is),  of  which  the  following  is  a  description. 

The  Creeper  {^Certhia  familiaris'). — Common  Creeper,  Tree- 
Creeper,  Tree-climber ;  probably  the  K«p6ioc  of  Aristotle  ;  le  Grim- 
pereau  of  the  French  ;  Picchio  piccolo,  Pichietto,  and  Rampichino 
of  the  Italians  ;  Baumlaufer,  Kleinere  Grau-specht,  and  Kleinste 
Baum-hacker  of  the  Germans;  Krypare  of  the  "Fauna  Suecica;" 
and  y  Grepianog  of  the  ancient  British.      (See  Fig.  1152.) 

The  Creeper  is  very  common  in  our  island,,  and  appears  to  have  a 
wide  range  through  the  Old  World:  an  allied  species  {Certhia 
americatia),  once  considered  as  identical  with  tlie  European,  is 
found  in  the  western  and  northern  regions  of  America.  The  Creeper 
is  a  fearless  little  Bird,  common  in  groves  and  orchards,  where  it 
may  be  observed  spirally  running  up  the  stems  of  trees  like  a  Mouse, 
and  using  the  sharp  shafts  of  its  tail-feathers  as  a  prop  or  aid  in  its 
ascent ;  it  is  searching  for  food,  and  if  closely  watched  may  be  seen 
probing  with  its  slender  bill  the  various  chinks  and  crevices  of  the 
bark,  whence  it  extracts  the  lurking  Insect.  Having  finished  its 
examination  of  the  stem  of  one  tree,  the  upper  part  of  which  it  has 
rapidly  attained,  it  does  not  attempt  to  descend,  but  flits  away  to 
the  next,  and  clinging  to  the  bark,  re-commences  its  scrutiny  and 
spiral  ascent.  The  note  of  this  Bird  is  weak  and  monotonous,  and 
is  frequently  repeated,  especially  during  flight  from  tree  to  tree,  or 
while  stationary.  This  interesting  little  Bird,  one  of  the  smallest  of 
our  native  feathered  race,  breeds  early  in  the  spring  ;  its  nest  is 
placed  in  the  hole  of  some  decayed  tree,  and  is  composed  of  dried 
grass  and  fibres  of  bark,  lined  with  feathers ;  the  eggs  are  from 
seven  to  nine  in  number,  ash-coloured  with  dusky  spots.  The 
Creeper  has  the  shafts  of  the  tail-feathers  prolonged  and  stiff;  and 
this  character  is  still  more  developed  in  the  American  ^cuMsDc/idro- 
colaptes,  but  is  lost  in  the  genus  Tichodroma. 


THE  TRUE  CREEPERS. 


445 


The  V^  k\.'L-C'?.v.^ve.v.[Tkhodroma  muraria  ;  T.  j)hcBtiicoptera, 
Temm.) — T.  miiraria,  Bonap.  ;  Certhia  fuuraria,  Linn.;  Grim- 
pereau  de  muraillo,  and  Pic  do  muraillc,  Ternier,  and  Eschclctte  of 
the  French  ;  Picchio  muraiolo  and  Piccliio  di  muro  of  the  Italians  ; 
Mauer  Baum-laufer  of  tlie  Germans. 

This  elegant  Bird  is  a  native  of  the  mountain  districts  of  middle 
and  southern  Europe,  but  is  not  indigenous  in  our  island.  It 
frequents  the  bold  precipitous  rocks  of  the  Alps,  the  Apennines,  and 
Pyrenees  ;  the  hoary  ruins  of  castles  and  other  buildings  which  top 
the  frowning-  heights  of  Alpine  scenery  are    attractive   localities; 


Creepers  and  Nest. 


there  it  flits  from  crag  to  crag,  from  crevice  to  crevice,  not  creeping 
Mouse-like,  as  does  our  little  Certhia,  up  the  bark  of  trees,  tut 
taking  short  flights  from  point  to  point ;  assiduous  in  quest  of  Insects, 
and  especially  Spiders  and  their  eggs,  which  are  stated  to  be  a 
favourite  food.  From  the  difference  in  habits  between  this  Bird  and 
our  Creeper,  we  can  at  once  account  for  the  absence  of  stiff  springy 


Fig.  1 154.— The  Wall-Creeper. 

shafts  in  the  feathers  of  the  tail.  This  Bird  is  rather  a  dinger  than  a 
climber  ;  it  flits  from  projection  to  projection,  securing  itself  by  its 
claws,  which  are  remarkably  large  and  powerful,  Temminck  says 


that  what  the  Creeper  docs  on  trees,  this  Bird  docs  against  the  pre- 
cipitous faces  of  rocks,  where  it  firmly  fi.xes  itself,  but  without 
mounting  or  descending  by  creeping. 

The  Wall-Creeper  breeds  in  the  cliffs  of  inaccessible  rocks,  or  in 
the  crevices  of  ruins  which  beetle  above  the  tremendous  precipice 

The  general  colour  of  this  Bird  is  delicate  grey ;  the  shoulders 
and  larger  wing-coverts  being  lively  crimson,  as  are  also  the  inner 
edges  of  the  secondary  quill-feathers;  the  rest  of  the  quill-feathers 
are  black,  as  is  the  tail,  whicli  is  marked  at  the  extremity  with 
white.  In  the  male,  the  throat  during  the  spring  acquires  a  deeo 
black  colour,  lost  at  the  autumnal  moult.  The  beak  is  long  gcnllv 
arched,  and  pointed  ;  the  wings  are  rounded.  Length  si.x  inches  and 
a-half.     (See  Fig.  11 54.) 

The  Curve-billed  Creeper  {Dcndrocolaptes  ^mcurvus, 
Temm.)— 1  his  Bird,  as  the  character  of  the  claws  and  the  stiff-pointed 
shafts  of  the  tail-feathers  sufficiently  indicate,  is  a  decided  climber 
It  is  a  native  of  the  forests  of  Brazil.  The  bill  is  about  an  inch  and 
three-quarters  long,  rather  strong,  and  considerably  curved  •  the 
claws  are  hooked  and  channelled  ;  the  tongue  is  short  and  carti- 
laginous. In  size  this  Creeper  equals  a  common  Blackbird.  The 
general  colour  is  cinnamon-brown,  with  a  tinge  of  grey  about  the 
head,  which,  as  well  as  the  neck,  is  spotted  with  white.  (See  Fi-^ 
1155.)  It  forms  the-type  of  the  sub-i^mWy  DcndrocolaMineB,  of  whidi 
there  is  another  species  called  Xyphorynclms. 


Fig.  1 1 55- — The  Curve-billed  Creeper. 

The  tail-feathers  are  also  frequently  pointed  in  another  sub-family, 
that  of  XheSynaUaxhicB,  in  which  the  outer  toe  is  longer  than  the 
inner  one,  and  united  to  the  middle  toe  nearly  as  far  as  the  first 
joint.  The  inner  toe  is  slightly  united  at  the  base,  the  hind-toe  is 
long  and  strong,  and  the  claws  are  strong  and  curved.  The  bill  is 
not  very  long,  slender,  compressed,  and  pointed  ;  and  the  tail  is 
usually  long  and  pointed.  These  Birds  are  found,  like  the  Dendro- 
colapimcc,  only  in  the  forests  of  Tropical  America,  where  they  capture 
Insects  upon  the  trees  and  bushes,  and  frequently  also  visit  the 
ground  in  search  of  Worms,  small  Snails,  &c.  They  are  remarkable 
for  the  large  size  of  their  nests,  that  of  one  species  measuring  three 
or  four  feet  in  length.  It  is  placed  in  low  trees  or  bushes,  and 
composed  externally  of  small  sticks,  so  that,  at  a  little  distance,  it 
looks  like  a  twisted  mass  of  stalks  which  have  been  accidentally 
thrown  into  this  position.  Internally,  it  is  divided  by  a  partition 
into  two  chambers,  one  of  which  serves  as  an  entrance-hall,  the 
eggs  being  laid  upon  a  lining  of  feathers  in  the  inner  one.  Numerous 
specimens  of  the  Synanaxincs,  from  South  America,  may  be  seen 
in  the  British  Museum. 

The  last  sub-family  is  that  of  the  FurnarincB,  or  Oven-Birds,  in 
w^hich  the  outer  toe  is  but  little  longer  than  the  inner,  and  only 
slightly  united  at  the  base  ;  the  inner  toe  is  entirely  free.  This 
group  of  small  Birds  is  very  generally  distributed  over  the  continent 
of  South  America,  and  some  species  occur  in  the  West  Indian 
islands.  In  their  general  habits,  the  species  resemble  the  Synal- 
laxiiKX,  seeking  their  food,  which  consists  principally  of  Insects, 
both  upon  trees  and  bushes  and  on  the  ground,  where  they  run  and 
walk  with  great  ease.  They  also  occasionally  feed  on  seeds.  The 
species  of  the  genus  Cine/odes,  inhabiting  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  frequent  the  sea-shore,  where  they  feed  partly  on  small 
Crabs  and  Mollusca.  Mr.  Darwin  says  they  are  sometimes  seen  on 
the  floating  leaves  of  the  Fucus  gigantciis,  at  some  distance  from 
the  shore.  A  species  of  this  genus,  described  by  Lesson  under  the 
name  ai  Ficrnariiis  fttliginosus,  is  said  to  be  so  tame,  that  it  may 
be  almost  touched  by  the  hand ;  and  Pernerty,  a  French  voyager, 
slates  that  it  will  almost  come  and  perch  upon  the  finger:  he  adds, 
that  in  less  than  half-an-hour  he  had  killed  ten  of  them  with  a  little 


446 


THE    OVEN-BIRDS. 


stick,  and   also  without  changing  his  position.     Fig.  1 156  represents 
this  Oven-Bird. 

The  typical  Furnaria,  to  which  the  name  of  Oven-Birds  is  pro- 
perly applied,  build  a  very  remarkable  nest.  It  is  constructed  of 
clay,  straw,  and  dried  herbage  of  different  kinds,  in  the  form  of  an 
oven,  about  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  with  walls  about  an 
inch  thick.  The  entrance  is  placed  on  one  side,  and  the  interior  is 
divided  into  two  chambers  by  a  partition,  the  eggs  being  laid  in  the 
inner  one.  This  curious  nest  is  usually  placed  in  a  very  exposed 
situation— as,  for  instance,  on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  the  top  of  a 
paling. 


Fig.  1 156. — The  Oven-Bird. 

Several  species  of  Oven-Birds  have  been  discovered  ;  and  numer- 
ous specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Climacteris  {Climacte7-is pkumfiws). — This  genus  holds 
also  a  doubtful  place  among  the  CcrtliiadcB.  It  is  thus  characterised 
by  Temminck  : — Bill  short,  weak,  very  much  compressed  through- 
out its  length,  but  little  curved,  oval-shaped ;  mandibles  equal, 
pointed  ;  nostrils  basal,  lateral,  covered  by  a  naked  membrane. 
Feet  robust ;  tarsi  of  the  length  of  the  middle  toe,  which,  as  well  as 
the  hallux,  are  extraordinarily  long ;  claws  large  and  curved, 
channelled  on  the  sides,  subulate,  very  much  hooked  ;  external  toe 
united  up  to  the  second  articulation,  the  internal  toe  as  far  as  the 
first ;  lateral  toes  very  unequal.  Wings  moderate  ;  first  quill  short, 
second  shorter  than  the  third,  which  last  and  the  fourth  are  the 
longest. 

Of  this  genus  two  species  were  at  first  known,  C.  ^icuinmis  and 
C.  scaiideiis ;  but  others  have  been  added.  All  are  natives 
of  Australia.  They  are  excellent  climbers,  traversing  the  hollow 
limbs,  or  spouts,  as  they  are  usually  termed,  of  aged  Eucalypti, 
and  the   rugged  bark  of  decayed     trees,   in   quest  of   Insects,   on 


Fi^-   1157. — The  Climacteiis, 

which  they  prey.     They  incubate  in  the  holes  of  trees,  and  the  eggs 
are  white.     (See  Fig.  1 157.) 

The  Climacteris  picuinnus  is  a  native  of  the  north  coast  of 
Australia,  Timor,  and  the  Celebes.  Its  colouring  is  as  follows: — 
Summit  of  the  head  deep  grey  ;  nape  and  neck  bright  grey  ;  wings 
and  two  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  brown  ;  a  large  nankeen-coloured 
band  passes  nearly  through  the  middle  of  the  quills.     Tail-feathers 


black,  except  at  their  origin  and  extremity.  Throat  and  cheeks  dirty 
white.  Breast  grey.  Feathers  of  the  lower  parts  white  in  the  middle, 
bordered  with  brown.  Lower  coverts  of  the  tail  Isabella-colour, 
marked  with  transverse  brown  spots.     Length   six  inches  six  lines. 

The  Spine-tailed  Orthonyx  [Orthonyx  spinicaudatus, 
Temm.)  Orthonyx  tcmmi7ickii,  Vigors,  "  Linn.  Trans. " — The 
Orthonyx  appears  to  be  closely  related  to  the  Climacteris ;  but 
though  its  tail  be  spine-tipped  (the  stiff  shafts  passing  beyond  the 
broad  part  of  the  feathers),  it  is  far  less  arboreal  in  its  habits  than 
that  species ;  its  claws,  indeed,  though  large  and  strong,  are  but 
slightly  curved,  and  therefore  but  little  adapted,  upon  the  principle 
of  grappling-irons,  for  clinging  tenaciously  to  the  bark  of  trees. 
The  Orthonyx  is  in  fact  a  ground-climber  :  it  frequents  rough  banks, 
broken  plots  of  ground,  and  similar  localities,  which  it  explores, 
traversing  the  irregularities  of  the  ground,  and  the  mouldering 
trunks  of  fallen  trees,  in  quest  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  which  appear 
to  form  its  chief  food.  In  its  progress  it  is  greatly  assisted  by  its 
tail,  which  is  generally  found  to  be  considerably  worn,  as  in  the 
specimens  Mr.  Gould  kindly  permitted  us  to  examine.  This 
Bird  is  a  native  of  Australia. 

The  general  colour  is  a  rusty  brown  above,  lineated  with  black  ; 
the  lesser  wing-coverts  are  grey  streaked  with  brown  ;  the  tail  is 
dusky  brown,  with  the  stiff  shafts  prolonged  beyond  the  webs.  In 
the  male  the  throat  and  upper  part  of  the  breast  is  white  :  in  the 
female  rufous  orange.     The  bill  is  short  and  stout,  compressed  at 


Fig.  1 158. — The  Spine-tailed  Orthonyx — Upper  figure,  female;  lower,  male. 


THE  HONEY-EATERS. 


447 


the  sides :  the  win-s  are  rounded  ;  the  feet  large  and  strong  ;  the 
tarsi  elevated,  in  accordance  with  terrestrial  habits  ;  he  feathers  of 
the  top  of  the  head  arc  capable  of  bein-  elevated  and  depressed  at 
pleasure.  Si/e  that  of  a  Lark.  Of  the  two  figures,  the  lower  is  the 
male,  the  upper  the  female.     (See  Fig.  1158.) 

The  Honey-eaters— Family  McUpiagidce. 

In  the  MclMa^ida:,  or  Honey-caters,  the  bill  is  rather  long 
curved  acute,  and  slightly  notched  at  the  tip  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed 
in  a  larc'e  "•roove  ;  the  wings  have  the  first  three  quills  graduated  ; 
the  tailTs  long  and  broad  fthe  tarsi  short  and  stout;  and  the  toes 
eloncrated,  wi'th  the  outer  one  always  united  to  the  middle  toe  at  the 
base?  The  tongue  is  long,  protrusible,  and  terminated  by  a  little 
tuft  or  pencil  of  fibres,  which  are  of  great  service  to  the  Bird  in  extract- 
in-^  the  nectar  of  flowers.     They  arc  usually  destitute  of  any  song. 

These  small  Birds  are  for  the  most  part  peculiar  to  Australia,  but 
some  species  are  found  in  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea,  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  The  habits  of  all  the  species  are  very  uniform 
They  frequent  the  flowering  shrubs  and  trees  {Eucalyptus  especially), 
visitino-  the  flowers  for  the  sake  of  the  pollen  and  the  nectareous 
juices  secreted  by  them,  and  also  in  search  of  the  small  Insects 
which  are  attracted  to  the  same  situation  by  the  same  cause.  Some 
of  the  larger  species  also  feed  upon  fruits.  Their  nests  are  some- 
times made  in  bushes,  occasionally  suspended  from  the  extremities 
of  slender  twigs.     They  generally  lay  two  eggs. 


small  tufts  of  white  feathers  hanging  down  upon  the  sides  of  the 
neck.  These  white  tufts  have  been  compared  to  a  pair  of  clerical 
bands,  and,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  black  plumage  of  the  rest 
of  the  body,  have  obtained  for  the  Prosthcinadoa  the  name  of  the 
Parson-Bird.  It  is  a  fine  songster,  and  imitates  every  sound  that 
reaches  its  ear,  even  learning  to  speak  with  great  ease  and  fluency. 
It  is  exceedingly  lively  and  restless,  and  feeds  principally  upon  Flics 
and  small  Insects,  which  it  is  very  expert  in  catching.  It  also 
eats  Worms  and  fruits.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  delicious.  (See 
Fig.  1 160.) 


Fig.  Iij9. — New  Holland  Honey-eater. 

Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  divides  these  Birds  into  three  sub-families.  In 
one  of  these,  the  MelitIirej)ti?iCB,  the  bill  is  short  and  conical,  acute 
at  the  tip,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  slightly  curved,  and 
its  tip  usually  notched ;  and  the  wings  are  rather  long,  the  fourth  to 
the  seventh  quills  being  generally  longest.  These  Birds  are  confined 
to  the  Australian  continent. 

In  the  two  other  groups  the  bill  is  long,  slender,  curved,  and 
acute,  with  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  slightly  notched.  Of 
these,  the  typical  sub-family  of  the  Meliphagince  is  distinguished 
by  having  the  wings  rounded,  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  quills  being 
the  longest. 

These  Birds  are  found  in  all  the  localities  above  mentioned,  and 
several  of  the  New  Zealand  species  are  considerably  larger  than  the 
ordinary  run  of  the  Birds  of  this  family.  One  of  these,  the  Prosthe- 
madera  7iovcs  selandics,  the  Poe-Bird,  or  Tui  of  New  Zealand,  is 
about  the  size  of  a  Thrush,  of  a  fine,  glossy,  black  colour,  with  two 


Fig.  1160— The  Poe-Bird. 

Another  species  peculiar  to  New  Zealand  is  the  Pogonnrnis  cincfa, 
which  is  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the  tufts  of  feathers  oyer 
the  cars  ;  these  are  erected  when  the  Bird  is  alarmed,  and  give  it  a 
very  singular  appearance.  t.-  ^   it    j.-j 

A  remarkable"  Australian  species  is  the  Friar-Bird  {Trop^do- 
rkytichus  corniculatus),  which  has  the  head  and  neck  bare  of 
feathers,  and  a  curious  tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  Its  voice  is 
loud  and  very  singular,  some  of  its  notes  having  a  certain  degree  ot 
resemblance  to  particular  words  ;  and  several  of  its  colonial  names 
such  as  Poor  Soldier,  Pimlico,  and  Four  o'Clock,  have  been  derived 
from  these  notes.  Its  name  of  Friar-Bird  alludes  to  its  bare  head, 
and  the  same  character  has  obtained  for  it  the  denominations  of  the 
Monk  and  the  Leather-head.  .     .    ,■  •         r  „  •- 

Our  illustrations  represent  two  common  Australian  species  of  thib 


Fig.  1 161, — The  WaltlcJ  Honey-eater  of  Australia — Male  and  Female. 


448 


THE  HUMMING-BIRD. 


group — the  New  Holland  or  Australian  Honey-eater  (Aleh'Ji^iaga 
novcs  hollandice,  Fig.  1159),  and  the  Wattled  Honey-eater,  or  Brush 
Wattle-Bird  {Ajithochccra  carii7icu!ata,  Fig.  1161).  The  latter 
Bird  frequents  the  Banksias,  when  these  are  in  flower  ;  and  as  the 
occurrence  of  these  trees  is  a  sign  that  the  land  is  not  good  for  much , 
Mr.  Gould  observes  that  the  note  of  the  Wattle-Bird  may  warn  the 
settler  from  making  a  barren  purchase.  This  note  is  described  as 
very  harsh  and  disagreeable,  resembling  the  noise  made  by  a  person 
vomiting;  the  native  name,  Goo-gwar-ruck ,  is  said  to  be  an  imita- 
tion of  it. 

The  third  sub-family,  that  of  the  Myzomelincc,  or  Honey-creepers, 
is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  having  the  third  and  fourth 
quills  longest.  In  their  habits  and  mode  of  life  they  resemble  the 
true  Honey-eaters. 

In  the  British  Museum,  the  Honey-eaters  are  well  represented 
by  stuffed  specimens.  Among  these  may  be  named  the  Black 
and  Yellow  Honey-eater,  Meliphaga  ^hrygia;  the  Tuft-eared,  J/. 
acincoriiis;  the  White-eared,  1\I.  leiicotis;  the  Golden,  ]M.  chrysotis, 
with  many  others  from  Australia,  Tasmania,  Timor,  New  Zealand,  &c. 

The  Humming-BiRDS— Family  Trochilid(S. 

The  Humming-Birds  are  among  the  least  and  most  brilliant  of  the 
feathered  race.  Winged  gems,  they  glance  with  dazzling  effulgence 
as  they  dart  along  or  hover  over  the  fragrant  flowers,  draining  the 
nectary  of  its  liquid  sweets.  No  Birds  excel  them  in  powers  of 
flight  ;  their  long  and  narrow  wings  are  admirably  adapted  for 
aerial  progression.  The  quill-feathers  are  stiff,  firm,  and  elastic, 
and  furnished  with  rigid  shafts,  in  some  instances  singularly 
developed.  The  tail  is  variable.  The  plumage  is  close  and  com- 
pact, and  resembles  an  arrangement  of  fishes'  scales,  glittering,  in 
the  males,  with  metallic  lustre.  The  tarsi  are  very  small  and  short  : 
and  the  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  are  very  delicate.  The 
ground  is  never  their  resting-place  ;  they  perch  on  slender  twigs, 
but  arc  mostly  on  the  wing.     If  we  look  at  the  tiny  skeleton   of  one 

of  these  Birds  (Fig.  1162),  we  shall 
be  struck  by  the  great  depth  and 
extent  of  the  keel  of  the  breast- 
bone, the  length  of  the  scapulae, 
and  the  comparative  insignificance 
of  the  legs.  The  whole  muscular 
force  is,  in  fact,  concentrated  upon 
the  organs  of  flight ;  the  pectoral 
muscles,  in  comparison  with  the 
size  of  the  Bird,  exceed  in  volume, 
perhaps,  those  of  any  other  of  the 
feathered  race  ;  and  all  the  other 
muscles  for  working  the  wings  are 
in  just  accordance.  Looking  at 
the  skeleton  alone,  the  comparative 
anatomist  would  say  the  greatest 
portion  of  the  life  of  these  Birds,  all  their  active  existence,  is  passed 
on  the  wing.  The  primary  quill-feather  is  always  the  longest.  The 
beak  is  long  and  slender,  but  very  variable  in  its  form,  being  straight, 
curved,  and,  in  some  species,  even  turned  up.  The  tongue  is  long, 
bifid,  or  split  into  two  filaments,  tubular,  and  capable  of  being  darted 
out  to  a  considerable  distance.  As  in  the  Woodpeckers,  it  is  the 
principal  instrument  by  means  of  which  they  obtain  their  food — viz.. 
Insects  of  various  kinds  and  the  nectar  of  flowers  ;  and  it  is  protruded 
by  the  same  arrangement  of  the  cartilaginous  continuation  of  the 
OS  hyoides  winding  round  the  skull  to  the  forehead.  With  respect 
to  the  tongue  itself.  Lesson  describes  it  as  composed  of  two  musculo- 
fibrous  cylinders,  soldered  to  each  other  so  as  to  resemble  in  some 
degree  a  double-barrelled  gun  :  but  these  tubes  towards  the  tip 
become  separated  and  enlarged,  each  presenting  a  little  blade, 
which  is  concave  within  and  convex  externally.  Sir  W.  Jardine 
confirms  the  account  given  by  Lesson,  as  does  also  Brisson,  as  far  as 
he  was  enabled  to  discover  by  an  examination  of  the  parts  moistened 
with  water,  after  having  been  dried  ;  but  he  adds,  that  it  appeared 
to  him,  on  investigating  the  structure  of  the  tongue  of  the  Trochtlus 
vioschatus  thus  relaxed,  that  its  tip  presented  a  fimbriated  opening, 
having  the  exterior  margin  of  each  fork  set  with  recurved,  sharp- 
pointed,  pliable  spines,  as  if  to  assist  its  viscidity  in  securing  any 
substance  seized  by  them.  Fig.  1163  represents  the  bill  and  tongue 
of  the  Humming-Bird,  after  Lesson  :  a,  the  head  profile,  the  tongue 
protruded  from  the  bill,  and  showing  its  bifurcation  ;  the  two  branches 
of  the  OS  Jiyoides  seen  surrounding  the  cranium  ;  b,  the  same  seen  from 
above,  the  two  branches  of  the  os  hyoides  uniting  at  a  pointed  angle 
in  front  ;  c,  the  same  seen  from  below  ;  d,  the  tongue  much  magni- 
fied, with  some  of  the  soft  parts  dissected  away,  but  adhering  to  the 
OS  hyoides  and  its  branches,  as  well  as  to  the  larynx  seen  from  above  ; 
c,  the  same  seen  from  below,  with  the  os  hyoides  only,  and  the  two 
lamellffi  of  its  point  separated  ;  f,  portion  of  the  tongue,  very  much 
magnified,  seen  from  above,  so  as  to  convey  the  idea  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  cylinders  that  form  it  are  united  ;  g,  the  lower  side  of 
the  same.     The  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  are  highly  acute  in  the 


Fig. 


1 162. — Skeleton  of  Ilumming- 
Bii-d. 


Humming-Birds  ;  and  so,  from  the  structure  of  the  tongue  and  its 
ofBce,  we  may  conclude  that  of  taste  to  be. 

These  gorgeous  Birds  are  all  natives  of  America.  As  we  recede 
from  the  tropics  on  either  side,  the  numbers  decrease,  though  some 
species  are  found  in  Mexico,  and  others  in  Peru,  &c.,  in  South 
America.  They  are  also  found  in  Barbadoes,  San  Domingo,  Hon- 
duras, and  various  parts  of  Central  America,  and  a  few  in  the  North 
American  continent. 

The  velocity  with  which  the  Humming-Birds  glance  through  the 
air  is  extraordinaiy,  and  so  rapid  is  the  vibration  of  their  wings,  that 
the  action  eludes  the  sight ;  when  hovering  before  a  flower,  they 
seem  suspended  as  if  by  some  magic  power,  rather  than  by  the 
vigorous  movement  of  their  rigid  pinions,  which,  however,  produce  a 
constant  murmur  or  buzzing  sound,  whence  the  English  title  by 
which  we  designate  these  Birds,  and  the  Creole  epithets  in  Cayenne 
and  the  Antilles — viz.,  Murmures,  Bourdons,  and  Frou-frous. 


Fitj.  1 163. — Bill  and  Tongue  of  Humming-Bird,  dissected. 

It  has  been  frequently  and  justly  observed,  that  in  their  mode  of 
flight  the  Humming-Birds  closely  resemble  the  Sphinx-Moths,  or  the 
Dragon-Flies.  Mr.  Darwin,  in  his  "  Journal,"  states,  that  while  at 
Bahia,  he  started  early  one  morning  and  walked  to  the  top  of  the 
Gavia,  or  Topsail  Mountain.  "The  air  was  delightfully  cool  and 
fragrant,  and  the  drops  of  dew  still  glittered  on  the  leaves  of  the 
large  filaceous  plants  which  shaded  the  streamlets  of  clear  water. 
Sitting  down  on  a  rock  of  granite,  it  was  delightful  to  watch  the 
various  insects  and  birds  as  they  flew  past.  The  humming-birds 
seem  particularly  fond  of  such  shady  retired  spots  ;  whenever  I  saw 
these  little  creatures  buzzing  round  a  flower  with  their  wings  vibra- 
ting so  rapidly  as  to  be  scarcely  visible,  I  was  reminded  of  the 
sphinx-moths  ;  their  movements  and  habits  are,  indeed,  in  many 
respects  very  similar."  There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule  ; 
Mr.  Darwin,  describing  the  Trocki/ns  gigas,  which,  as  he  observed, 
had  arrived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Valparaiso  in  numbers  a  little 
before  the  vernal  equinox,  adds — "  It  comes  from  the  parched 
deserts  of  the  north,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  breeding  in  Chile. 
When  on  the  wing  the  appearance  of  this  bird  is  singular.  Like  the 
others  of  tlie  genus,  it  moves  from  place  to  place  with  a  rapidity 
which  may  be  compared  to  a  syrphus  amongst  dipterous  insects  and 
a  sphinx  amongst  the  moths  ;  but  whilst  hovering  over  a  flower,  it 
flaps  its  wings  with  a  slow  and  very  powerful  movement,  totally 
different  from  that  vibratory  one,  common  to  most  of  the  species, 
which  produces  the  humming  noise.  I  never  saw  any  other  bird 
the  force  of  whose  wings  appeared  so  powerful  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  its  body."  These  brilliant  creatures  are  an  intrepid, 
daring  race,  and  extremely  pugnacious,  and  cannot  endure  the 
approach  of  one  even  of  their  own  species,  still  less  of  any  other  Bird 
near  their  breeding-places. 

With  respect  to  the  voice  of  the  Humming-Birds,  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  it  consists  only  of  a  shrill  cry;  such  is  Lesson's 
assertion,  who  remarks,   that  it  is  uttered  chiefly  on  the  wing,  or 


THE  HUMMING-BIRDS. 


449 


under  the  excitement  of  anger,  &c.,  and  that  they  are  most  frequently 
mute  ;  others,  however,  assert  that  they  utter  a  song,  which  state- 
ment, if  at  all  correct,  is  only  applicable  to  a  few  species.  Bullock 
speaks  of  a  minute  species  in  Jamaica,  to  which  he  listened,  in  the 
Botanical  Garden  of  that  island,  as  it  poured  forth  its  "  slight 
querulous  note." 

It  would  appear,  from  Mr.  Bullock's  statement,  that  Humming- 
Birds  often  avail  themselves  of  the  Insects  caught  in  Spiders'  webs, 
not,  however,  without  the  Spiders  endeavouring  not  to  devour,  but 
drive  them  away,  instances  of  which  he  relates.  In  sleeping, 
according  to  the  same  authority,  these  beautiful  Birds,  the  Mexican 
Star,  frequently  suspend  themselves  by  the  feet,  with  the  head 
downwards. 

The  nests  of  the  Humming-Birds  are  most  beautiful,  compact 
structures,  with  exquisite  finish  and  nicety  of  arrangement.  We 
have  seen  one  composed  of  the  finest  silky  down,  or  cotton,  of  a 
delicate  straw-yellow,  soft,  light,  and  compact,  attached  to  the  end 
of  a  twig,  and  concealed  by  leaves.  In  some  cases  the  outside  is 
formed  of  fine  moss,  lichens,  &c.,  investing  a  compact  bed  of  the 
down  of  plants,  cotton,  and  even  Spiders'  webs.  Figs.  1 164  and 
1165  are  the  nests  of  Humming-Birds  (from  Lesson.)  These  are 
covered  on  the  outside  with  bits  of  lichen,  leaves,  moss,  &c.  One 
contains  two  white  eggs  (the  usual  number  and  colour  of  the  eggs 
of  these  Birds),  of  an  elongated  form. 

In  some  districts,  undoubtedly,  the  Humming-Birds  arc  migra- 


whole  of  the  throat  and  fore-part  of  the  neck  is  of  a  deep  fiery  ruby 
tint  in  some  lights  ;  in  others,  of  a  burnished  crimson  or  orange 
glow  ;  in  others,  velvet-black  :  under  parts  greyish-white  mi.xed  with 
green.  Quills  and  tail  purplish-brown.  The  female  is  destitute  of 
the  ruby  throat,  which  is  white,  as  arc  the  under  parts  generally. 
Length  three  inches  and  a-half.  Fig.  1 166  represents  the  Female 
and  Nest. 

The  Douei.E-CRERTED  Humming-Bird  {Orniswya  chryso- 
lofha.  Lesson).  Irochilus  biloplius,  Temm.— This  is  a  most 
gorgeous  species.  Two  flattened  fan-shaped  crests,  each  com- 
posed of  six  small  feathers,  part  from  the  forehead  on  a  level  with 
the  eyes.  The  brilliancy  of  these  crests  surpasses  description, 
glistening  as  they  do  with  the  hues  of  polished  gold  and  red  copper, 
changing  into  the  gemmy  tints  of  the  ruby  and  emerald,  now  fire- 
coloured,  anon  the  purest  green,  and  presently  the  brightest  yellow. 
The  scaly  feathers  of  the  forehead  between  the  two  crests  sparkle 
with  metallic  uniform  green,  changing  to  steel  or  sapphire  blue.  A 
camail  oi  dark  changeable  violet  extends  from  the  throat  behind 
the  eyes,  and  descends  along  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  terminate  in  a 
point  of  long  feathers  before  the  breast.  This  uncertain  violet, 
graduating  into  a  non-metallic  blue,  with  its  velvety  very  dark  tint, 
is  sharply  defined  on  the  milk-white  of  the  breast,  which  extends  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  so  as  to  form  a  rather  large  white  collar. 
The  lower  part  of  the  belly  is  white  ;  but  the  middle  of  the  abdomen 
and  the  flanks   are,   like   the  back,  golden  green,  with   which  is 


Fig.  1 1 64. — Nest  of  Humming-Bird. 


Fig.  1 1 65. — Nest  of  Humming-Bird  with  Eggs. 


Fig.  1 166. — Ruby-throated  Humming-Bird  and  Nest. 


tory,  such  as  the  Northern  or  Ruby-throated  species.  Mr.  Darwin, 
after  adverting  to  two  species  common  in  Chile,  and  a  third  found 
on  the  Cordilleras  at  an  elevation  of  about  ten  thousand  feet, 
observes — "  In  Central  Chile  these  birds  are  migratory;  they  make 
their  appearance  there  in  autumn,  and  in  the  latter  end  of  the 
month  corresponding  to  our  October  they  are  very  common.  In  the 
spring  they  begin  to  disappear,  and  on  the  12th  of  what  would 
correspond  to  our  March  I  saw  only  one  individual.  As  this  species 
migrates  to  the  southward,  it  is  replaced  by  the  arrival  of  a  larger 
kind  (the  Trochilus  g/gas).  I  do  not  believe  the  small  kinds  breed 
in  Chile,  for  during  the  summer  their  nests  were  common  to  the 
south  of  that  country.  The  migration  of  the  humming-birds,  both 
on  the  east  and  west  coast  of  North  America,  corresponds  to  what 
takes  place  in  this  southern  continent.  In  both  cases  they  move 
towards  the  tropic  during  the  colder  parts  of  the  year,  and  retreat 
before  the  returning  heat.  Some,  however,  remain  during  the  whole 
year  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  ;  and  in  Northern  California  (which  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  has  the  same  relative  position  which  Tierra  del 
Fuego  has  in  the  southern),  some,  according  to  Captain  Beechey, 
likewise  remain." 

The  species  of  Humming-Bird  are  so  numerous  that  wa-  are 
compelled  to  make  a  limited  selection  embracing  the  following 
specimens.  Here  we  may  remark  that  the  word  Trochilus  is  the 
Greek  for  the  Wren.  Hence  the  term  is  applied  to  these  Birds  as 
resembling  in  some  respects  the  Wren. 

The  Ruby-throated  Humming-Bird'  {Trochilus  colubris). — 
The  Ruby-throated  Humming-Bird  usually  arrives  in  Pennsylvania 
about  the  25th  of  April,  but  in  Louisiana  it  has  been  observed  as 
early  as  the  loth  of  March.  It  has  all  the  manners  of  its  race;  it 
hovers  around  the  blossoms  of  trees  and  shrubs,  giving  preference  to 
tubular  flowers,  not  so  much  for  the  sake  perhaps  of  the  honey,  as 
of  the  Insects  which  crowd  the  nectary  to  feed  upon  its  sweets. 
That  Insects,  and  those  too  of  the  Coleopterous  order,  constitute  a 
great  portion  of  the  food  of  this  species,  has  been  proved  by  dissec- 
tion. 

The  general  colour  of  the  upper  parts  of  this  species,  including 
the  two  central  tail-feathers,  is  green  with  gold  reflexions.      The 


mingled  a  little  of  the  greyish  colour  of  the  base  of  the  feathers. 
Back  and  sides  of  the  head  behind,  back,  and  feathers  of  the  rump, 
metallic  golden  green.     Quills  brown  ;  tail  long,  narrow,  and  much 


Fig.  1 167. — The  Double-crested  lUimming-BirJ. 

graduated.     Length  four  inches  and  a-half,  including  the  long  tail 
and  bill.     (See.  Fig.  1167.) 

The  Cora  Humming-Bird  fOmismya  cora,  Less.) — This 
species  is  a  native  of  Peru,  and  especially  the  plains  of  Lima.  The 
bill  is  slender,  the  tarsi  feeble  and  short,  the  tail  graduated  with  the 

3M 


450 


THE  HUMMING-BIRDS. 


two  middle  feathers  greatly  prolonged ;  the  wings  are  purpled 
brown  :  the  general  plumage  above  bright  golden  green  ;  the  throat 
and  front  of  the  neck  sparkle  with  the  violet  tint  of  the  amethyst, 
and  a  white  gorget  marks  the  limits  of  the  scaly  feathers  ;  flanks 
and  under    parts   golden   green ;  lateral   tail-feathers   brown   with 


giving  additional  powers  to  the  wing,  which  is  of  a  sabre-shape  and 
admirably  adapted  for  rapid  flight.     (See  Fig.  1169.) 

The  Bar-tailed  Humming"-Bird  {Orm'smya  sa;ppho,  Lesson). 
Trochihis  sparganuriis,  Shaw ;  T.  chrysochloris,  Vieill. — This 
brilliant  species,  a  native  of  Eastern  Peru,  is  at  once  to  be  distin- 


Fig.  116S. — The  Cora  IIuniming-Bird. 

white  borders ;  two  central  white  with  black  tips.  Total  length 
nearly  six  inches,  of  which  the  tail  measures  three  and  a-half.  {See 
Fig.  1 168.) 


Fig.  1 170. — The  Bar-tailed  IIumming-Birtl. 

guished  by  the  shape  of  its  tail,  which  is  forked  to  the  base,  and 
thus  consists  of  two  diverging  portions,  each  containingfive  feathers, 
graduating  in  length  one  beyond  another.     Their  colour  is  of  the 


Fig.  1 169.— The  Sickle-winged  Humming-Bird. 

The  Sickle-winged  Humming-Bird  (Campylopterus  fal- 
catus). — This  species  is  a  native  of  the  Spanish  Main.  Its  colours 
are  dazzling  :  the  prevailing  tint  is'  refulgent  green  ;  the  throat  and 
breast  shining  blue  ;  the  tail  rufous  cinnamon.  The  outer  quills  of 
the  wings  are  singularly  curved,  and  have  strong  dilated  shafts, 


Fig.  1 17 1. — Gould's  Humming-Bird. 

richest  flame  or  bright  orange  red,  with  a  dazzling  metallic  lustre,  and 
a  broad  mark  of  black  at  the  tip.  The  upper  surface  is  fine  golden 
green;  the  under  surface  bright  emerald-green.     (See  Fig.  1 170.) 

Gould's  Humming-Bird  {Omisviya  goiildii.  Lesson). — The 
forehead,  throat,  and  upper  part  of  the  breast  of  this  kind  are  of  the 
most  brilliant  green,  the  feathers  being  of  a  scaly  form.  From  the 
crown  springs  a  pyramidal  crest  of  bright  chestnut  colour,  and 
capable  of  "being  raised  up  or  depressed  at  pleasure.  The 
back  and  upper  parts  are  golden  green,  crossed  upon  the  rump  with 
a  whitish  band.  The  wings  and  tail  are  brownish-purple,  the  latter 
having  the  centre  feathers  tinged  with  green.  The  sides  of  the 
neck  are  adorned  with  tufts,  producing  a  chaste  but  brilliant  effect ; 
these  tufts  consist  of  narrow  feathers,  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  fan, 
which  are  of  snowy  whiteness,  each  having  at  its  tip  a  spot  of  bright 
emerald-green  surrounded  by  a  darker  border.     (See  Fig.  1171-) 


THE  SUN.BIRDS. 


4S« 


The  Recurved-Bill  Humming-Bird  (Trochihts  reairvi- 
rostris). — In  this  species,  which  appears  to  be  a  native  of  Peru, 
the  bill  is  singularly  turned  up  at  the  point,  in  order,  it  has  been 
suggested,  to  enable  the  Bird  to  roach  the  nectaries  of  the  Bigonicc, 
whose  corollaj  are  long  and  generally  bent  in  the  tube.  The  general 
colour  is  golden  green  ;  the  throat  shining  cmerald-grecn  ;  middle 
of  the  breast  and  of  the  under  surface  black ;  lateral  tail-feathers 
beneath,  topaz.     (See  Fig.  1172.) 

Mr.  Dallas  remarks,  that  one  of  the  most  beautiful  species  is  the 
Long-tailed  Emerald  Humming-Bird  {Ti-ochiliis  ^olyfmiis),  the 
male  of  which  is  furnished  with  a  most  elegant  forked  tail,  the  two 
outer  feathers  being  greatly  prolonged,  and  very  slender.  The  whole 
lengtli  of  the  Bird  is  a  little  more  than  ten  inches,  but  about  seven 
inches  and  a-half  of  this  is  made  up  by  the  elongated  feathers  just 
mentioned.  The  head  and  the  back  of  the  neck  of  this  little  gem 
are  deep  velvet-like  black  ;  the  whole  of  the  back,  with  the  wing  and 
tail-coverts,  golden-green  ;  the  wings  and  tail  are  purplish,  or  bluish- 
black.  The  entire  lower  surface  of  the  body  is  of  a  most  gorgeous 
emerald-green  colour,  except  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent  and 
lower  tail-coverts,  which  are  black.  The  bill  is  bright  red,  tipped 
with  black,  and  the  feathers  of  the  back  of  the  head  are  elongated, 
forming  a  sort  of  crest,  which  can  be  erected  to  a  certain  extent. 
Mr.  Gosse,  who  has  denominated  this  species  "  the  gem  of  American 
ornithology,"  gives  the  following  account  of  its  appearance  in  a 
state  of  nature,  in  his  interesting  work,  entitled,  "  A  Naturalist's 
Sojourn  in  Jamaica."  "  While  I  was  up  in  a  calabash  tree,"  he 
says,  "the  beautiful  long-tailed  humming-bird  came  shooting  by 
with  its  two  long  velvet-black  feathers  fluttering  like  streamers 
behind  it,  and  began  to  suck  at  the  blossoms  of  the  tree  in  which  I 
was.  Quite  regardless  of  my  presence,  consciously  secure  in  its 
power  of  wing,  the  lovely  little  gem  hovered  around  the  trunk,  and 
threaded  the  branches,  now  probing  here,  now  there,  its  cloudy  wings 
on  each  side  vibrating  with  a  noise  like  that  of  a  spinning-wheel, 
and  its  emerald  breast  for  a  moment  flashing  brilliantly  in  the  sun's 
ray ;  then  apparently  black,  all  the  liglit  being  absorbed  ;  then,  as 
it  slightly  turned,  becoming  a  dark  olive ;  then,  in  an  instant, 
blazing  forth  again  with  emerald  effulgence.  Several  times  it  came 
close  to  me,  as  I  sat  motionless  with  delight,  and  holding  my  breath 
for  fear  of  alarming  it,  and  driving  it  away  ;  it  seemed  almost  worth 
a  voyage  across  the  sea  to  behold  so  radiant  a  creature  in  all  the 
wildness  of  its  native  freedom." 

The  smallest  species  is  the  Mellisuga  minima,  a  native  of  South 
America  and  the  West  Indian  islands,  which  measures  only  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  is  consequently  not  larger  than  many  of 
the  Bees,  and  much  smaller  than  some  of  the  Moths,  which  dispute 
with  it  the  right  of  searching  its  favourite  flowers.  Its  general 
colours  are  the  same  as  in  the  Ruby-throated  Humming-Bird, 
already  described,  but  it  wants  the  beautiful  red  throat  of  that 
species. 

The  British  Museum  possesses  some  beautiful  specimens  of 
Humming-Birds,  including  the  species  already  described,  with 
others,  from  Guiana,  New  Granada,  Brazil,  Ecuador,  &c. 

The  Sun-Birds — Family  Promerojiidce  or  Cinnyridce. 

The  PromeropidcB,  or  Sun-Birds,  have  the  bill  elongated,  slender, 
and  usually  curved  throughout  its  length  ;  the  nostrils  placed  at  the 
base  of  the  bill,  and  covered  by  a  scale  ;  the  wings  of  moderate  size, 
and  the  tarsi  short,  and  covered  with  broad  scales.  The  Prome- 
ropidcc  are  generally  magnificent  Birds,  which  inhabit  t'ne  Tropical 
regions  of  both  hemispheres.  They  form  two  sub-families,  one  of 
which  is  confined  to  the  Old,  and  the  other  to  the  New  World. 

The  former,  which  includes  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
species,  is  the  typical  sub-family  of  the  Promeropinis,  or  True  Sun- 
Birds.  In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  long,  slender,  curved  and  acute  at 
the  tip,  sometimes  finely  serrated  on  the  margins  ;  the  nostrils  are 
closed  by  a  membranous  scale  ;  the  tail  is  usually  elongat^,  and 
the  central  feathers  are  sometimes  prolonged  beyond  the  rest.  The 
Proma-opitics  are  principally  found  in  the  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  and  in  India ;  a  few  species  also  inhabit  Africa,  but 
none  occur  in  the  Temperate  regions. 

These  Birds  appear  to  take  the  place  of  the  Humming-Birds  in 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere  ;  they  rival  even  those  living  gems  in  the 
brilliancy  of  their  colours,  and  their  habits  are  very  similar.  In  the 
morning  and  evening  they  are  constantly  seen  in  great  numbers  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  flowers,  into  which  they  thrust  their  slender 
bills  in  search  of  the  minute  Insects  always  found  in  such  situations  ; 
they  will  also  pick  small  Spiders  from  their  webs,  and  Insects  from 
the  crevices  of  the  wall  and  trees.  They  are  said  also  to  subsist 
partly  on  the  juices  of  flowers,  whence  the  name  of  Sucricrs,  or 
Sugar-Birds,  applied  to  them  by  some  French  authors.  Many  of 
these  also  feed  upon  fruits  ;  and  a  Ceylonese  species  delights  in  the 
white  viscid  berries  of  a  plant  allied  to  the  Mistletoe.  Like  the 
Humming-Birds,  they  are  exceedingly  quarrelsome,  fighting  violently 
for  the  possession  of  a  flower,  the  vanquished  Bird  retreating  from 
the  spot  with  shrill  cries,  whilst  the  conqueror  takes  up  his  position 


upon  a  flower  or  stem,  and  swinging  his  little  body  to  and  fro,  pours 
out  a  note   of  triumph.     The  song  is   said  to  be   very  ajrrecable. 


cry  agreeable. 


Fig.  1 172. — The  Rcciirvcd-biU  IIiimmiiig-Bird. 

Fig.     1173     represents    the     Red-billed     Promerops     {Promerops 
rrythrorynchus),  a  native  of  Southern  Africa. 
The  CcerebincB,  or  Guitguits,  the  American  representatives  of  the 


Fig.  1173.— The  Red-billed  Promerops. 


452 


THE  HOOPOES. 


Sun-Birds,  have  the  bill  straight,  or  but  slightly  curved,  conical  and 
acute,  with  the  base  broad,  and  more  or  less  triangular  ;  the  tip  of 
the  upper  mandible  is  finely  notched.  The  nostrils  are  covered  by 
a  hard  scale,  and  the  wings  are  rather  elongated  and  pointed. 

These  Birds  are  found  in  Tropical  South  America  and  the  West 
Indian  islands.  They  closely  resemble  the  Promcropincs  in  their 
habits,  deriving  the  principal  portion  of  their  sustenance  from  the 
small  Insects  which  they  find  in  flowers.  Like  the  former,  they  are 
also  said  to  feed  upon  honey.  Their  plumage  is  exceedingly  beau- 
tiful in  colour,  but  wants  the  metallic  brilliancy  of  that  of  the 
Humming-Birns  and  Sun-Birds.  Their  nests  are  ot  various  forms, 
and  built  in  different  situations.  Some  species  suspend  their  nests 
from  the  extremities  of  twigs,  and  these  pendulous  dwellings  are 
sometimes  furnished  with  a  long  funnel,  through  which  the  Bird 
enters  the  nest ;  other  species  make  the  nest  in  a  bush  or  tree,  and 
in  this  case  it  is  usually  divided  into  two  compartments,  of  which 
the  outer  serves  as  a  vestibule,  whilst  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  inner 
one,  and  are  thus  protected  from  the  attacks  of  their  enemies. 

The  Hoopoes— Family  UptipidcB. 

The  sub-order  of  the  Tenuirostral  Birds  is  completed  by  the  family 
of  the  Upupidcs,  or  Hoopoes,  which  includes  only  a  few  species,  all 
inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere     In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  long 


and  slender,  slightly  curved  throughout,  and  with  the  tip  acute  and 
entire;  the  nostrils  arc  small  (see  Fig.  1174);' the  wings  rounded; 


Fig.  II7S- — Hoopoes. 


Fig.  1 174. — Head  of  the  Hoopoe. 

the  tail  long,  and  either  rounded  or  even  ;  the  tarsi  short  and  stout ; 

and  the  toes  long  and  strong,  the  outer  one  united  to  the  middle  toe 

at  the  base.  The  claws  are  strong  and 
curved,  and  that  of  the  hind-toe  is  par- 
ticularly powerful. 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  Upupiiice, 
or  Hoopoes,  the  nostrils  are  covered 
with  a  membranous  scale ;  the  wings 
are  long,  and  the  bill  is  keeled  at  the 
base.  The  crown  of  the  head  is  sur- 
mounted by  an  elegant  crest  of  feathers, 
which  can  be  raised  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  Bird. 

The  Hoopoe  {Upitpa  epops,  Linn.) 
— This  is  the  ivo-^  (Epops)  of  the  Greeks 
(Aristot,  "Hist.  Anim.,"  i.,  i  ;  i.x.,  11  ; 
ix.,  15,  49  ;  Aristoph.,  "Birds,"  228,  ei 
seq.  ;  Pausanias,  x.,  4) ;  Upupa  and 
Epops  of  the  ancient  Italians  (Pliny, 
"Nat.  Hist.,"  X.,  29;  XXX.,  6;  Ovid, 
"  Metam.,"  vi.)  It  is  the  Buba,  Upega, 
Gallo  del  Paradise,  Galleto  de  magio, 
Pubula,  Bubbola,  Pupita,  and  Upupa 
ot  the  modern  Italians  ;  Hope,  Huppe, 
Putput,  Huput,  and  Lupoge  of  the 
French  ;  el  Abubilla  of  the  Spanish  ; 
Wicdehopf  of  the  Germans  ;  de  Hoppe 
of  the  Netherlanders  ;  Hazfogel  of  the 
Swedes  ;  Her-fugl  of  the  Danes  ;  Smer- 
da  Kaura  of  Scopoli ;  Dung-Bird  and 
Hoopoe  of  the  modern  British  ;  y  Gop- 
pog  of  the  ancient  British. 

The  Hoopoe  is  a  Bird  of  migratory 
habits,  extending  as  far  north  in  the 
summer  as  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Russia.  It  is  common  in  many  parts  of 
Germany,  Holland,  France,  and  Spain  ; 
but  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  rare 
visitor  to  our  island,  though  instances 
have  been  known  of  its  having  bred 
in  this  country,  and  more  undoubtedly 
would  occur,  did  not  the  appearance  of 
a  pair  of  these  Birds  call  up  incessant 
attempts  at  their  destruction.  Gilbert 
White,  in  his  "  History  of  Selborne  '' 
(letter  xi.),  instances  a  pair  of  Hoopoes 
which  one  summer  visited  his  premises, 
frequenting  for  some  weeks  an  orna- 
mental piece  of  ground  adjoining  the 
garden.  "They  used  to  march  about 
in  a  stately  manner,  feeding  in  the 
walks  many  times  in  the  day,  and 
seemed  disposed  to  breed  in  my  outlet, 
but  were  frightened  and  persecuted  by 
idle  boys,  who  would  never  let  them 
be  at  rest."  The  Hoopoe  affects  moist 
and  low  situations,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  woods  and  thickets,  where  it 
finds  suitable  food. 

Pliny  has  noticed  this  species  as 
"obscaena  pastu  avis;"  and  Pennant, 
after  stating  that  it  breeds  in  hollow 
trees,  and  feeds  on  Insects,  adds  that 
the  ancients  believed  that  it  made  its 
nest  of  the  most  disgusting  materials  : 


THE   HOOPOES. 


4S3 


so  far  is  certain,  that  its  hole  is  excessively  foetid  from  llie  tainted 
food  it  brings  to  its  young. 

The  Hoopoes  breed,  generally,  in  hollow  trees,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  accounts  of  the  disgusting  materials  which  they  were 
said  to  use,  noticed  by  Aristotle  and  other  writers,  form  a  nest  of  a 
few  dried  grass-stalks  and  feathers,  laying  eggs  varj'ing  from  four  to 
seven  in  number,  of  a  pale  lavender-grey,  about  an  inch  and  a-half 
long,  and  about  eight  lines  broad. 

In  a  state  of  nature  the  Hoopoe  is  much  upon  the  ground  during 
the  day,  generally  in  moist  situations,  where  it  may  meet  with  its 
Insect  food.  Bechstein  gives  the  following  interesting  account, 
written  by  M.  von  Schauroth,  in  his  "  Cage-Birds:" — "  With  great 
care  and  attention  I  was  able  last  summer  to  rear  two  young 
hoopoes,  taken  from  a  nest  which  was  placed  at  the  top  of  an  oak- 
tree.  These  little  birds  followed  me  evervwhere,  and  when  they 
heard  me  at  a  distance,  showed  their  joy  by  a  particular  chirping, 
jumped  into  the  air,  or,  as  soon  as  I  was  seated,  climbed  upon  my 
clothes,  particularly  when  giving  them  their  food  from  a  pan  of  milk, 
the  cream  of  which  they  swallowed  greedily  ;  they  climbed  higher 
and  higher,  till  at  last  they  perched  on  my  shoulders,  and  some- 
times on  my  head,  caressing  me  very  affectionately  :  notwithstand- 
ing this,  I  had  only  to  speak  a  word  to  rid  myself  of  their  company ; 
they  would  then  immediately  retire  to  the  stove.  Generally,  they 
would  observe  my  eyes  to  discover  what  my  temper  might  be,  that 
they  might  act  accordingly.  I  fed  them  like  nightingales,  or  with 
the  universal  paste,  to  which  I  sometimes  added  insects :  they 
would  never  touch  earth-worms,  but  were  very  fond  of  beetles 
and  May-bugs  :  these  they  first  killed,  and  then  beat  them  with 
their  beak  into  a  kind  of  oblong  ball  ;  when  this  was  done,  they 
threw  it  into  the  air,  that  they  might  catch  it  and  swallow  it  length- 
wise ;  if  it  fell  across  the  throat,  they  were  obliged  to  begin  again. 
Instead  of  bathing,  they  roll  in  the  sand.  I  took  them  one  day  into 
a  neighbouring  field,  that  they  might  catch  insects  for  themselves, 


Fie 


1/6. —The  Epimadius  albus. 


and  had  then  an  opportunity  of  remarking  their  innate  fear  of  birds 
of  prey,  and  their  instinct  under  it.  As  soon  as  they  perceived  a 
raven,  or  even  a  pigeon,  they  were  on  their  bellies  in  the  twinkling  of 
an  eye,  their  wings  stretched  out  by  the  side  of  their  head,  so  that 
the  large  quill-feathers  touched  ;  they  were  thus  surrounded  by  a 
sort  of  crown,  formed  by  the  feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings,  the  head 
leaning  on  the  back  with  the  bill  pointing  upwards  ;  in  this  curious 
posture  they  might  be  taken  for  an  old  rag.  As  soon  as  ihe  bird 
which  frigiitened  them  w'as  gone,  they  jumped  up  immediately, 
uttering  cries  of  joy.  They  were  very  fond  of  lying  in  the  sun  ;  they 
showed  their  content  by  repeating,  in  a  quivering  tone  vec,  tec,  vec  ; 
when  angry,  their  notes  are  harsh,  and  the  male,  which  is  known  by 
its  colour  being  redder,  cries  hoop,  hoop.  The  female  had  the  trick 
of  dragging  its  food  about  the  room  :  by  this  means  it  was  covered 
with  small  feathers  and  other  rubbish,  which  by  degrees  formed  into 
an  indigestible  ball  in  its  stomach,  about  the  size  of  a  nut,  of  which 
it  died.  The  male  lived  through  the  winter;  but  not  quitting  the 
heated  stove,  its  beak  became  so  dry  that  the  two  parts  separated, 
and  remained  more  than  an  inch  apart :  thus  it  died  miserably." 

Mr.  Yarrell  has  recorded  the  manners  of  a  Hoopoe  formerly  alive 
in  London.  "  This  bird,"  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  "is  quite  tame,  and, 
when  unescited,  the  high  crest  falls  flat  over  the  top  of  the  head 
and  covers  the  occiput  ;  it  takes  a  meal-worm  from  the  hand  very 
readily,  nibbles  and  pinches  it  between  the  ends  of  the  mandibles, 
then  putting  it  on  the  ground,  strikes  it  several  blows  with  the  point 
of  the  beak  ;  when  the  insect  is  apparently  dead,  or  disabled,  it  is 
again  taken  up,  and  by  a  particular  motion  of  the  head,  which  is 


thrown  backward,  and  the  beak  open,  the  meal-worm  drops  into  the 
gape  of  the  mouth  and  is  swallowed.  The  call  for  another  is  a 
sharp  note  ;  but  it  also  utters  at  times  a  sound  closely  resembling  the 
word  hoop,  hoop,  hoop,  but  breathed  out  so  softly,  yet  rapidly,  as  to 
remind  the  hearer  of  the  note  of  the  dove.  This  bird  constantly 
rubs  himself  in  the  sand  with  which  the  bottom  of  his  large  cage  is 
supplied,  dusting  himself  like  the  larks,  but  takes  great  care  to 
shake  off  any  sand  or  gravel  that  may  adhere  to  his  food,  which  is 
raw  meat,  chopped,  and  boiled  c^^.  He  hides  superfluous  food, 
and  resorts  to  his  hoard  when  hungry.  When  allowed  to  come  out 
of  his  cage,  he  takes  short  flights  about  the  room  ;  but  would  not  be 
considered  a  bird  of  great  power  upon  the  wing  ;  yet  the  Bishop  of 
Norwich  has  recorded  that  '  one  approached  a  vessel  in  the  middle 
of  the  Atlantic,  and  kept  company  with  it  a  good  way,  but  did  not 
settle  on  board,  which  it  probably  would  have  done  had  it  been 
tired.' 

"  At  the  moment  of  settling  on  the  floor  of  the  room,  the  bird  bends 
the  head  downwards  till  the  point  of  the  beak  touches  the  floor  ;  after 
which,  as  well  as  occasionally  at  other  times,  the  long  feathers  form- 
ing the  crest  are  alternately  elevated  and  depressed  in  a  slow  and 
graceful  manner,  the  bird  assuming  an  appearance  of  great  vivacity, 


Fig.  1 177. — The  Superb  Epimachus. 

running  on  the  ground  with  a  very  quick  step.  M.  Necker,  in  his 
'  Memoir  on  the  Birds  of  Geneva,'  savs  hoopoes  fight  desperately, 
and  leave  the  ground  covered  with  their  feathers." 

The  male  Hoopoe  in  full  plumage  may  be  thus  described  : — Head 
beautifully  crested  ;  two  parallel  rows  of  long  feather-s  form  an 
arched  crest,  extending  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  occiput ; 
these  feathers  are  of  a  ruddy  buff  colour,  terminated  with  black  : 
head,  neck,  and  breast  vinous  buff;  upper  part  of  the  back  vinous 
grey  ;  on  the  back  a  large  transversal  band  ;  wings  and  tail  black  ; 
on  the  \vings  are  five  transversal  bands  of  yellowish-white,  and  on 
the  tail  is  a  very  large  white  band,  about  the  middle  of  the  feathers  ; 
at  about  three-fourths  of  the  length  of  the  quills  is  a  large  white  band  ; 
abdomen  white,  with  some  longitudinal  spots  on  the  thighs  ;  bill 
flesh-colour  at  its  base  and  black  towards  the  point  ;  feet  and  iris 
brown.  Length,  I2i  inches.  Tail-feathers  only  ten  in  number. 
Female  less  than  the  male,  her  crest  shorter,  and  the  tints  of  her 
plumage  less  vivid.     (See  Fig.  11 750 


454 


DENTIROSTRAL  BIRDS. 


The  young,  when  they  leave  the  nest,  have  the  bill  short,  nearly 
straight,  and  slightly  cylindrical  towards  the  point;  the  feathers  of 
the  crest  short  and  often  terminated  with  black,  without  the  white 
spot  which  is  immediately  below  it  in  the  adult ;  the  white  band  of 
the  tail  nearer  to  the  rump  ;  the  plumage  washed,  as  it  were,  with 
ash-colour;  the  bands  on  the  wings  less  distinct  and  more  yellowish, 
and  a  greater  quantity  of  longitudinal  spots  upon  the  belly  and 
thighs. 

The  sub-family  of  the  Epanachitic?.,  or  Plumed  Birds,  approaches 
the  Birds  of  Paradise  in  some  respects,  and  several  of  the  species 
have  been  described  as  belonging  to  the  Paradiseidcc.  Like  these, 
the  Epimachiucr.  have  the  nostrils  partly  clothed  with  velvet-like 
plumes,  and  placed  in  a  broad  basal  groove  ;  the  wings  are  "short, 
the  tarsi  rather  long,  and  the  toes  long  and  strong. 

The  species  are  very  few,  and  almost  confined  to  New  Guinea  and 
the  adjacent  islands  ;  one  species  is  found  in  New  Zealand,  and  two 
in  Australia.  They  are  e.\ceedingly  beautiful  Birds,  some  of  them 
rivalling  the  Birds  of  Paradise  in  the  splendour  of  their  plumage  ; 
and  others  of  the  species  are  also  furnished  with  long  plumes, 
similar  to  the  well-known  ornaments  of  the  Birds  of  Paradise.  The 
species  here  figured  {Epimachus  albus.  Fig.  1176)  is  of  a  fine  me- 
tallic violet  black  colour,  with  a  broad  collar  of  feathers,  margined 
with  emerald  green,  at  the  base  of  the  neck.  The  plumes  spring 
from  the  backhand  rump  ;  they  are  of  a  white  colour,  and  very  long, 
with  long,  silky,  distant  barbs,  and  twelve  of  the  lower  plumes  are 
terminated  by  long  filiform  continuations  of  the  shafts,  which  are 
curved,  and  blackish  towards  the  extremity ;  these  formerly  ob- 
tained for  the  Bird  the  name  of  the  twelve-threaded  Bird  of  Paradise. 

The  Superi!  Epimachus  {Epimachus  tnagniisj'isihus  described 
by  Sonnerat : — "  There  does  not  perhaps  exist  a  more  extraordinary 
bird  than  the  grand  Promerops  of  New  Guinea.  It  is  four  feet  in  length 
from  the  extremity  of  the  bill  to  that  of  the  tail.  Its  body  is  delicate, 
slender,  and,  although  it  is  of  an  elongated  form,  appears  short  and 
e.xcessively  small  in  comparsion  with  the  tail.  To  add  to  the  singu- 
larity of  tills  bird,  nature  has  placed,  above  and  below  its  wings, 
feathers  of  an  extraordinary  form,  and  such  as  one  does  not  see  in 


other  birds  ;  she  seems,  moreover,  to  have  pleased  herself  in  paint- 
ing this  being,  already  so  singular,  with  her  most  brilliant  colours. 
The  head,  the  neck,  and  the  belly  are  glittering  green ;  the  feathers 
which  cover  these  parts  have  the  lustre  and  softness  of  velvet  to  the 
eye  and  to  the  touch  ;  the  back  is  changeable  violet ;  the  \yings  are 
of  the  same  colour,  and  appear,  according  to  the  lights  in  vvhich 
they  are  held,  blue,  violet,  or  deep  black,  always,  however,  imitat- 
ing velvet.  The  tail  is  composed  of  twelve  feathers ;  the  two 
middle  are  the  longest,  and  the  lateral  ones  gradually  diminish  :  it 
is  violet  or  changeable  blue  above,  and  black  beneath.  The  feathers 
which  compose  it  are  as  wide  in  proportion  as  they  are  long,  and 
shine  both  above  and  below  with  the  brilliancy  of  polished  metal. 
Above  the  wings,  the  scapulars  are  very  long  and  singulariy  formed  ; 
their  barbs  are  very  short  on  one  side  and  very  long  on  the  other. 
These  feathers  are  of  the  colour  of  polished  steel,  changing  into 
blue,  terminated  by  a  large  spot  of  brilliant  green,  and  forming  a 
species  of  tuft  or  appendage  at  the  origin  of  the  wings.  Below  the 
wings  spring  long  curved  feathers  directed  upwards :  these  are 
black  on  the  inside,  and  brilliant  green  on  the  outside.  The  bill 
and  feet  are  black.     (See  Fig.   1177.) 

The  Australian  Rifle  Birds  {Ptiloris),  of  which  a  few  species  are 
known,  are  also  exceedingly  beautiful  Birds ;  in  fact,  Mr.  Gould 
regards  the  commonest  species  {Pf/lon's  paradisaes)  as  the  most 
gorgeous,  in  its  plumage,  of  the  Australian  Birds.  It  is  of  a  rich 
velvet-black,  with  the  head  and  neck  of  a  most  brilliant  bluish-green. 
The  feathers  of  the  lower  surface  are  bordered  with  rich  olive-green, 
and  the  two  central  tail-feathers  are  metallic  green.  The  female 
is  dull  and  sombre  in  its  colours.  This  Bird  is  found  in  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  Australia,  where  it  climbs  upon  the  trunks  of  trees 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Creepers  {CerfhtnasJ,  which  it  rescmblcr, 
in  its  general  habits.  Little  is  known  of  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
other  species. 

This  family  completes  the  sub-order  of  Tenuirostral  or  Slender- 
billed  Birds.  The  next  sub-order,  Dentirostres,  will  present  more 
specimens  familiar  to  us  than  has  the  one  now  concluded.  It  in- 
cludes many  of  our  favourite  Song-Birds. 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

CLASS  II.-AVES.  OR  BIRDS;  SUB-ORDER  DENTIROSTRES,  OR  TOOTH-BILLED  BIRDS. 

they  appear  only  rarely  to  feed  on  seeds.  They 
are  all  furnished  with  the  singing  apparatus  at 
the  lower  larynx.  It  is,  indeed,  to  this  group  that 
our  sweetest  and  most  favourite  Bird-songsters 
belong.  They  are  generally  divided  into  five  fami- 
lies— viz.,  the  Laniada;  or  LaniidcB,  or  Shrikes  ; 
the  AmpelidcB,  or  Chatterers  ;  the  Muscicapido', 
or  Flycatchers  ;  the  Turdidcc,  or  Thrushes  ;  and 
the  Syk'idcv  or  Syhiadce,  or  Warblers. 

In    the   first   family,  that  of  the  Lanh'da,   or 
Shrikes,   the  bill  is  elongated,   strong,   straight, 
and  compressed,  with  the  tip   of  the  upper  man- 
dible more  or  less  hooked,   and  armed    on  eacli 
side  with  a  tooth  (Fig.  1178) ;  the  base  of  the  bill 
is  usually  as  high  as  it  is  broad,  and   the  gape 
is    furnished  with   bristles,    of   w'hich  about  five 
spring  from  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible.     The  wings     are    of  moderate     size, 
sometimes    pointed,   occasionally    rounded,    and 
the   first   primary  quill-feather  is   usually   much 
shorter  than   the  second.     The  tail  is  long  and 
rounded.     The  tarsi  are  stout,  usually  elongated  ;  the  hind-toe  long, 
broadly  padded  beneath  ;  and  the  claws  are  long,  curved,  and  very 
acute. 

The  strong  hooked  bill  and  curved  claws  of  these  Birds  give  them 
a  very  well-marked  resemblance  to  the  Raptorial  Birds,  and  this 
similarity  is  almost  equally  striking  in  the  habits  of  many  of  the 
species.  They  not  only  prey  upon  the  Insects,  Worms,  and 
Molluscs,  which  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the  animal  food  of 
most  of  the  Passerine  Birds,  but  also  frequently  attack  and  destroy 
small  Birds  and  Quadrupeds.  This  resemblance  led  Cuvier  to  place 
the  Shrikes  at  the  head  of  the  Passeres,  close  to  the  Raptorial 
Birds  ;  and  Linnzeus  and  some  other  authors  went  still  further,  and 
included  these  Birds  with  the  Hawks  and  Owls  in  a  single  order. 

The  La?2iida2  form  only  two  sub-families — the  Laniitice,  or 
Shrikes,  and  the  Thamnophilincs,  or  Bush  Shrikes.  The  former 
are   distinguished   principally  by   having  the   ridge   of  the  upper 


'KNTIROSTRES  is  a  term  applied  to 

Birds   whose  leading  characteristic  is 

the  presence   of  a   distinct   notch  on 

each    side    of    the    extremity  of    the 

upper  mandible,  which  is  also,  as  a 

rule,    more    or    less    hooked.     The    tarsi    are 

usually  slender,  and  covered  with  broad  scales  ; 

as  are  also  the  toes,  which  are  generally  long, 

and   frequently  armed  with  curved  and  acute 

claws.     The  outer  toe  is  always  more  or  less 

united  with   the  middle  one,  and  this  is  also  the  case, 

in  some  instances,  with  the  inner  toe. 

The  Dentirostres  are  amongst  the  most  predaceous  of 
the  Passeres.  The  nourishment  of  the  greater  portion  of 
them  consists  principally  of  Insects,  and  several  feed  on  small  Verte- 
brated  Animals.    Berries  and  fruits  constitute  a  part  of  their  food  ;  but 


THE  SHRIKES,    OR  BUTCHER-BIRDS. 


4SS 


mandible  more  or  less  curved  ;  whilst  in  the  Thai7inophilincB  it  is 
straight,  and  only  arched  at  the  tip ;  the  bill  is  also  shorter  and 
stouter  in  the  Laiiiincc. 

The  Laiiiina,  or  True  Shrikes,  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  In  the  Old  World  they  are  very  g-cnerally 
distributed,  and  some  of  the  species  have  a  very  wide  geographical 
rantre. 


Fig.  1178.— Head  of  the  Red-backed  Slirlke. 

The  Butcher-Bird,  or  Gray  Shrike  {Lanius  cxciibifor). — 
This  is  the  Castrica  palombina  and  Averla  maggiore  of  the  Italians  ; 
the  Pie  Grieche  grise  and  Pie  grisatre  of  the  French  ;  Torn-Skade 
of  the  Danes  ;  Warfogel  of  the  Swedes  ;  Klavert  of  the  Norwegians  ; 
the  Bcrg-Aelster,  Grossere  Neuntoder,  and  Gemeine  Wiirger  of  the 
Germans  :  Greater  Butcher-Bird  or  Mattagess  of  Willughby,  Moun- 
tain Magpie,  Murdering  Pie,  Great  Gray  Shrike,  Shreek,  and  Shrike 
of  the  modern  British,  and  Cigydd  Mawr  of  the  ancient  British. 

This  Bird  is  only  an  occasional  visitor  to  the  British  Islands. 
Mr.  Selby  observes,  that  by  most  British  ornithologists  it  has  been 
mentioned  as  arriving  in  spring,  and  departing  in  autumn,  which 
would  imply  that  it  breeds  in  this  country,  and  is  a  regular  peri- 
odical visitant :—  "  From  this  view  of  its  habits  I  must  be  permitted 
to  dissent ;  all  the  specimens  that  have  come  under  my  observation 
having  been  killed   in  the  months   of  November,   December,   and 


January. 


We  know  not  how  to  reconcile  this  with  the  following 


Fig.  1179. — Nest  of  the  Butcher-Bird.  ^ 

passage  (by  J.  Rennie,  Esq.,  A.M.)  in  the  "  Library  of  Entertaining 
Knowledge — Architecture  of  Birds,"  p.  3  : — "  A  gentleman,  who  was 
fond  of  reading  Buffon,  and  similar  works  on  natural  history,  but 
who  seldom  looked  into  the  great  book  of  nature  itself,  expressed  to 
us  his  doubts  of  the  account  originally  given  by  Heckwclder  of  the 
butcher-bird  sticking  insects  on  the  point  of  a  thorn,  as  a  bait  to 
allure  small  birds  within  its  reach.  He  never  thought,  however,  of 
disproving  or  ascertaining  the  circumstance,  and  was  surprised 
beyond  measure  to  be  informed  that  at  least  one  species  of  the 
butcher-bird  [Lanius  collurio)  was  as  common  in  his  immediate 
neighbourhood  as  the  song-thrush,  and  therefore  opportunities  of 
observing  its  manners  could  not  be  wanting.  To  satisfy  ourselves, 
as  well  as  to  settle  the  doubts  of  our  friend,  we  undertook  to  watch 
the  proceedings  of  the  species  just  named,  as  also  of  the  great 
butcher-bird  [Lam'us  cxciihitor),  both  of  which  are  so  common 
that  we  found  half-a-dozen  of  the  nests  of  each  within  five  miles  of  Lee, 
in  Kent.  We  discovered  that  near  those  nests  large  insects,  such 
as  humble  bees,  and  also  that  the  unfledged  nestlings  of  small  birds. 


were  stuck  upon  thorns."  Fig.  1179  represents  the  nest.  Forourselves 
we  have  never  seen  the  Laniiis  cxciihitor  in  a  state  of  nature,  nor 
indeed  were  we  aware  that  it  was  anything  common  in  England,  or  that 
it  bred  here.  In  France  and  the  middle  and  southern  districts  of 
Europe  it  is  tolerably  abundant,  and  does  not  appear  to  be  a  Bird  of 
true  migratory  habits.  The  Butcher-Bird  feeds  upon  Mice,  Shrews, 
small  Birds,  Frogs,  Lizards,  and  large  Insects.  Its  larger  victims 
it  kills  by  striking  them  on  the  head  with  its  beak,  and  then  either 
holding  them  in  its  sharp  claws  and  pulling  them  to  pieces,  in  the 
manner  of  Hawks,  or,  as  is  most  usual,  fixing  them  on  a  thorn  ;  it 
does  the  same  with  Insects,  not,  however,  to  allure  Birds,  but  to 
secure  its  prey.  Mr.  Selby  says—"  I  had  the  gratification  of  wit- 
nessing this  operation  of  the  shrike  upon  a  hedge-sparrow  {Ac- 
centor viodularis)  which  it  had  just  killed,  and  the  skin  of  which, 
still  attached  to  the  thorn,  is  now  in  my  possession.  In  this  instance, 
after  killing  the  bird,  it  hovered,  with  the  prey  on  its  bill,  a  short 
time  over  the  hedge,  apparently  occupied  in  selecting  a  thorn  fit  for 
its  purpose.  Upon  disturbing  it  and  advancing  to  the  spot,  I 
found  the  Accentor  firmly  fixed  by  the  tendons  of  the  wings  to  the 
selected  twig."  When  kept  in  a  cage  the  Butcher-Bird  acts  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  twists  his  victim  in  the  wires,  so  as  to  secure  it 
while  he  tears  it  to  pieces.  We  have  seen  the  New  Holland  Butcher- 
Bird  (  Vanga  destructor)  in  captivity  act  in  the  same  manner,  and 
after  strangling  a  Mouse,  or  crushing  its  skull,  double  it  through 
the  wires  of  its  cage,  and  with  every  demonstration  of  savage  triumph 
proceed  to  tear  it  limb  from  limb,  and  devour  it.  By  way  of  digres- 
sion we  may  here  observe  that  this  Bird  had  the  talent  of  imitation, 
and  had  learned  to  sing  several  bars  of  airs  with  a  full-toned 
musical  voice.  It  executed  the  first  part  of  "  Over  the  Water  to 
Charlie"  with  a  spirit  that  would  have  gone  to  the  heart  of  an  old 
Jacobite. 

The  term  cxaibifor,  or  sentinel,  was  given  to  the  Butcher-Bird  by 
Linnaeus,  from  its  vigilance  in  watching  against  Hawks  and  other 
Birds  of  that  tribe,  whose  approach  it  is  ever  the  first  to  perceive, 
uttering  at  the  same  time  a  querulous  chattering,  indicative  no 
doubt  of  fear  and  dislike.  Hence  on  the  continent  it  is  used  by 
persons  engaged  in  the  capture  of  the  Peregrine  Falcon. 

The  nest  is  generally  built  on  trees,  and  is  framed  of  grass-stalks, 


Fig.  1 1  So. —The  Eutcher-Bird. 

roots,  and  moss,  with  a  lining  of  down  or  wool.  The  eggs,  from 
four  to  six,  or,  according  to  Temminck,  from  five  to  seven,  are  bluish 
or  greyish-white,  spotted  on  the  larger  end  with  light  brown  and 
ash. 

The  colouring  of  the  adult  male  is  as  follows: — Head,  nape,  and 
back  fine  bright  ash  ;  a  large  black  band  passing  beneath  the  eyes 
and  covering  the  orifices  of  the  ears  ;  lower  part  pure  white  ;  wings 
short,  black  ;  origin  of  the  quills  and  extremity  of  the  secondaries 
pure  white  ;  two  external  tail-feathers  white  ;  the  third  black  towards 
the  centre,  the  fourth  terminated  by  a  great  white  space,  and  the 
fifth  by  a  less  extensive  space  ;  the  two  middle  ones  entirely  black  ; 
bill  and  feet  deep  black.  Length  nine  or  ten  inches.  The  young 
male  resembles  the  female. 

Female  :— Upper  parts  less  bright  ash  ;  lower  parts  whitish,  each 
breast-feather  terminated  by  a  crescent  of  bright  ash  ;  less  white  at 
the  extremity  of  the  secondaries,  and  more  black  on  the  origin  of 
the  tail-feathers.     Total  length,  nine  inches.     (See  Fig.  1 180.) 

Three  species  of  Shrikes,  "including  the  Gray  Shrike  already  de- 
scribed, are  found  in  Britain  ;  but  of  these,  only  one,  the  Red-backed 
Shrike  {Lanius  collurio),  occurs  in  any  abundance.  It  is  a  Bird  of 
passage  in  our  climate,  passing  the  winter  in  Africa,  arriving  in 
England  about  the  latter  end  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  and 


4^6 


THE  SHRIKES,   OR  BUTCHER-BIRDS 


quitting  us  again  in  the  month  of  September.  It  is  generally  seen  in 
pairs,  frequenting  the  sides  of  woods  and  hedge-rows,  where  it 
perches  on  the  topmost  twigs  of  the  bushes  to  look  out  for  prey.  It 
is  in  these  situations  also  that  it  builds  its  nest,  which  is  of  consider- 
able size  in  proportion  to  the  Bird,  composed  of  the  stalks  of  plants, 
moss,  and  fibrous  roots,  and  lined  with  fine  bent  and  hair. 

The  third  British  species,  the  Woodchat  (Lanius  riitihisj,  is 
about  the  same  size  as  the  common  species  ;  but  both  it  and  the 
Gray  Shrike  are  only  occasional  visitors  to  this  country. 

One  or  two  other  nearly  allied  species  occur  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  at  least  two  in  North  America  ;  one  of  those  inhabit- 
ing the  latter  region  resembles  the  European  Gray  Shrike  so  closely, 
that  it  has  been  described  as  the  same  species.  In  their  habits 
they  are  all  exactly  similar. 

The  East  Indies  possess  several  species  of  Shrikes,  which  appear 
to  agree  closely  in  all  their  habits  with  our  British  species.  The 
Australian  species  belong  to  three  particular  genera.  Of  these,  the 
species  of  the  genus  Fakunculus  feed  principally  on  Insects,  in 
search  of  which  they  strip  the  bark  from  the  trees  with  their  strong 
bills.  The  Orcoica  cristala,  another  Australian  species,  hops 
about  upon  the  ground  more  than  most  species  of  the  group.  It  is 
remarkable  for  the  peculiar  character  of  its  voice,  which  commences 
with  very  low  notes,  sounding  as  though  the  Bird  was  at  a  consider- 
able distance,  and  then  gradually  increases  in  power,  until  the 
sounds  seem  to  come  from  immediately  over  the  head  of  the  hearer, 
the  Bird  having  been  very  likely  all  the  time  perched  upon  a  branch 
within  a  few  feet  of  him,  but  so  motionless  that  its  discovery  is  al- 
most impossible. 


Gmelin  ;  Pie-grieche  grise  de  Cayenne  of  Buffon.  Bill  large,  thick 
sub-cylindrical :  tip  abruptly  bent,  and  notched.  Head  large,  and 
depressed  ;  wings  long.  The  examples  of  the  genus  Psaris 
(Cuvier)  are  all  South  American  ;  the  present  species  is  common  in 
Cayenne,  and,  according  to  Cuvier,  its  manners  are  those  of  our 
European  Butcher-Bird.  General  colour,  fine  ashy-grey;  head, 
wings,  and  tail  black.     (See  Fig.  1 183.) 


Fig.  llSl. — Vigors's  Bush-Shrike. 

ViGORS's  Bush-Shrike  {Thamnophilus  vigorstij.—ihe  Birds 
of  this  genus  are  natives  of  South  America,  and  tenant  wooded 
districts,  lurking  and  prying  among  thick  bushes  and  underwood, 
in  quest  of  Reptiles,  Nestlings,  small  Birds,  and  Mammals  ;  the 
beak  is  strong,  and  the  upper  mandible  curved  at  the  tip  ;  the  tarsi 
are  long  ;  and  in  one  division  of  the  genus  the  tail  is  produced  to  a 
considerable  extent  beyond  the  wings.  To  this  belongs  the  Thatn- 
7Wphilus  vigorsii^a.  species  of  large  size  and  predatory  habits. 
The  rounded  wing  and  long  tarsi  indicate  its  adaptation  to  the 
localities  it  frequents,  while  its  robust  and  hooked  and  compressed 
bill  announces  the  nature  of  its  food.  This  species  is  about  thirteen 
inches  in  length  :  in  the  male,  the  back,  wings,  and  tail  are  black, 
broadly  banded  with  fulvous,  and  the  under  part  of  the  body  is  of  a 
dirty  whitish-brown  ;  on  the  head  is  a  rufous  crest  tinged  with  black 
at  the  apex  ;  in  the  female  the  bands  are  whitish,  the  crest  blackish, 
and  the  under  parts  ash-colour.     (See  Fig.  iiSi.) 

The  Spotted  Bush-Shrike  {T/tamiwJ>hih/s  n(sinus). — This 
species  is  an  example  of  the  division  characterised  by  a  compa- 
ratively short  and  rounded  tail.  The  general  colour  of  the  Spotted 
Bush-Shrike  is  black  ;  the  back  being  ash-coloured  with  dashes  of 
white  anteriorly  ;  the  wings  are  variegated  also  with  white.  The 
under  parts  of  the  body  are  ash-coloured.  The  habits  of  this  Bird 
much  resemble  those  of  the  common  Butcher-Bird;  Insects  and 
small  Quadrupeds,  &c.  being  its  prey.     (See  Fig.   1182.) 

The  Cayenne  Shrike  {Psaris  cayancnsis). — Lanius  cayanus. 


:&• 


Fig.  1182— Spotted  Bush-Shiike. 

Cunningham's  Shrike  {Giibernefes  cuiiniiighann\  Vigors). — 
The  manners  of  this  Shrike  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  species  ; 
its  flight  is  quick,  and  it  preys  upon  large  insects.  Mr.  Vigors 
observes  that  this  Bird,  which  he  named  after  Colonel  Cunningham 
of  Rio  Janeiro,  appears  to  have  a  considerable  affinity  to  the  genus 


Fig.  11S3. — Cayenne  Shrike. 

Psaris  of  Cuvier  in  the  structure  of  its  bill  and  wings,  but  that  it 
differs  from  it  by  other  such  essential  characters  as  to  have  induced 
him  to  place  it  in  a  separate  genus. 

General  colour  ash-grey,  longitudinally  lineated  with  brown ; 
throat  and  rump  white  ;  a  pectoral  lunulate  band  of  purplish-brown  ; 
wings  and  tail  brownish-black.  Quill-feathers  longitudinally  banded 
with  ferruginous.     (See  Fig.   1184.) 

The  Chatterers— Family  .^w^e/zifis. 
The  second  family  of  the  Dentirostres  is  that  of  the  Ampelidcs,  or 


THE   CHATTERERS. 


4S7 


Chatterers,  in  which  the  bill  is  rather  short,  broad,  and  more  or  less 
depressed  at  the  base,  presentin.if  a  distinctly  triangular  form  when 
viewed  from  above.  The  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  is  curved,  and 
the  notches  at  the  tip  are  distinct,  though  small.  The  wings  are 
lon<'  and  rounded  ;  the  tail  usually  short ;  the  tarsi  short  and  slender  ; 
the'toes  of  moderate  length  ;  and  the  claws  curved,  grooved,  and 
acute  (Fig.  1185). 


Fig.  liSj.— Foot  of  Waxwing. 


Fig.  11S4. — Cunningham's  Bush-Shrike. 

The  Ampelidcs  are  for  the  most  part  inhabitants  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  world.  They  feed  on  fruits  and  Insects,  and  many  of 
them  are  exceedingly  beautiful  in  their  plumage.  They  may  be 
divided  into  six  sub-families,  of  which  the  DicrurincB,  or  Drongo 

Shrikes,   make     the    nearest    ap- 
nVwV  proach  to    the   Laniidcc.      These 

viMAm  Birds  have  the  ridge  of  the   upper 

')W;,\viVi\i\  mandible  keeled,  the  nostrils  con- 

cealed by  short  plumes,  the  gape 
furnished  with  strong  bristles  (see 
Fig.  11S6),  and  the  tarsi  and  toes 
short,  and  strongly  scutellated. 
The  wings  are  long,  with  the  fourth 
and  fifth  quills  longest ;  and  the 
tail  is  also  long,  and  usually  forked 
at  the  extremity.  The  Dicruri?icB 
are  only  found  in  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  and  they  are  particu- 
larly abundant  in  the  East  Indies  and  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic  Archi- 
pelago. Many  of  them  are  exceedingly  beautiful  Birds ;  their^verage 
size  is  about  that  of  a  Thrush  or  Blackbird,  and  they  appear  to 
migrate  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  with  the  monsoon. 

The  most  common  of  the  Indian  species,  the  Dicrurus  macro- 
cerciis,  has  received  the  name  of  King  Crow,  from  its  habit  of  per- 
secuting the  Crows,  which  it  follows  with  the  greatest  perseverance 
and  clamour,  pouncing  down  upon  them  every  now  and  then,  but 
apparently  seldom  striking  them.  The  principal  food  of  this  and 
most  of  the  species  consists  of  Insects,  especially  Grasshoppers,  for 
whicn  they  watch  from  some  elevated  perch,  and,  on  perceiving  one 
immediately  dart  down  upon  it.  For  this  purpose  they  not  unfrequently 
establish  themselves  on  the  backs  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Goats,  whilst 
these  animals  are  grazing.  They  fly  with  great  rapidity,  and  often 
capture  Insects  on  the  wing.  Some  of  the  species,  like  the  European 
Shrikes,  appear  only  to  have  a  harsh,  screaming  note,  but  others  are 
said  to  be  charming  songsters  ;  and  one  species,  the  Dicrurus 
paradiseus,  has  received  the  Hindoo  name  of  "  Huiar  Dustan  "  or 
•'bird  of  a  thousand  tales,"  from  a  belief  that  it  is  able  to  imitate 
the  song  of  all  other  Birds. 


11S6.— Healof  the 
Drongo  Shrike. 


The  Dicrurina;  live  in  the  jungles,  and  build  their  nests,  which 
are  composed  of  grass,  twigs,  moss,  and  lichen,  in  the  forks  of  trees. 
Their  architectural  powers  appear  to  be  very  variable,  as  the  nests  of 
some  of  the  species  are  described  as  carelessly  put  together,  whilst 
others  are  said  to  be  very  neat.  The  eggs  are  from  three  to  five  in 
number,  of  a  white  or  whitish  colour,  usually  spotted  with  reddish- 
brown. 

A  second  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Cam^ephagincB,  or  Caterpillar- 
eaters,  which,  like  the  Dkrurinff,  arc  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World,  only  the  single  genus  P///o«(7- 
goiius  being  found  in  America.  These  Birds  have  "the  bill  short,  and 
depressed  at  the  base,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  slightly 
curved,  and  the  gape  furnished  with  only  a  few  short  bristles.  '  The 
nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  exposed;  the  wings 
have  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  quills  longest,  and  the  tail  is  long 
and  rounded  ;  the  tarsi  and  toes  are  short,  the  lateral  toes  unequal, 
and  the  claws  much  curved. 

The  Campcphagincs  live  principally  in  woods  and  forests  ;  but 
some  of  the  species  are  also  found  about  hedges  and  gardens.     They 

are  seen  either  singly  or  in  small  (locks, 
hopping  about  upon  the  trees,  and  pry- 
ing most  inquisitively  into  every  part 
of  the  foliage,  in  search  of  their  food, 
which  consists  almost  entirely  of  soft 
Insects,  and  especially  of  Caterpillars. 
They  also  pick  up  Ants  and  Beetles, 
and  in  pursuit  of  these,  are  not  unfre- 
quently seen  upon  the  ground,  and 
fruits  and  berries  are  said  to  form  part 
of  the  diet  of  some  of  the  species. 
The  nest  is  built  high  up  in  trees  ;  it 
is  of  small  size,  and  composed  of 
lichens,  roots,  and  thin  stalks.  The 
eggs  are  few  in  number,  sometimes  only  two,  of  a  pale  colour,  with 
brown  streaks. 

The  third  group  is  the  sub-family  of  the  GymtwderiticB,  or  Fruit 
Crows,  consisting  of  some  remarkable  Birds,  which  have  been 
arranged  by  different  authors  amongst  the  Chatterers  and  the 
Crows.  They  have  a  stout,  straight,  depressed  bill,  with  the  ridge 
of  the  upper  mandible  curved,  and  its  tip  notched.  The  nostrils  are 
placed  in  membranous  grooves  on  each  side  of  the  bill.  The  wings 
are  long  and  pointed ;  the  tail  of  moderate  length ,  and  rounded  ;  tiie 
tarsi  are  long  ;  the  outer  toe  nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  one ;  and 
the  claws  long,  curved,  and  acute. 

The  Birds  arranged  in  this  group  are  peculiar  to  South  America. 
They  are  of  considerable  size,  some  of  the  larger  species  being  equal, 
in  this  respect,  to  our  European  Crows  ;  they  appear  to  be  strictly 
arboreal  in  their  habits,  feeding  principally  upon  fruits,  but  also 
occasionally  upon  Insects.  Some  of  the  species  are  distinguished  by 
having  the  face  orpart  of  the  neck  bare  of  feathers  {Gymiiocephalus, 
Gymnoderus) ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
species  has  the  head  adorned  with  a  beautiful  crest.  This  is  the 
Ccphahpterus  ornatus,  or  Umbrella-Bird,  a  native  of  Brazil,  of 
about  the  size  of  a  common  Crow,  and  entirely  of  a  beautiful  glossy 
black  colour,  adorned  with  bluish  metallic  tints.  "  The  crest,"  says 
Mr.  Wallace,  who  had  a  good  opportunity  of  observing  the  Bird  in 
its  native  country,  "  is  perhaps  the  most  fully-developed  and  beauti- 
ful of  any  bird  known.  It  is  composed  of  long  slender  feathers, 
rising  from  a  contractile  skin  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  shafts  are 
white,  and  the  plume  glossy  blue,  hair-like,  and  curved  outward  at 
the  tip.  When  the  crest  is  laid  back,  the  shafts  form  a  compact 
white  mass,  sloping  up  from  the  top  of  the  head,  and  surmounted  by 
the  dense  hairy  plumes.  Even  in  this  position  it  is  not  an  inelegant 
crest ;  but  it  is  only  when  fully  opened  that  its  peculiar  character  is 
developed.  The  shafts  then  radiate  on  all  sides  from  the  top  of  the 
head,  reaching  in  front  beyond  and  below  the  top  of  the  beak,  which 
is  completely  hid  from  view.  The  top  forms  a  perfect  slightly 
elongated  dome,  of  a  beautiful  shining  blue  colour,  having  a  point  of 
divergence  rather  behind  the  centre,  like  that  in  the  human  head. 
The  length  of  this  dome,  from  front  to  back,  is  about  five  inches  ; 
the  breadth  four  to  four  and  a-half  inches  ;"  and  from  this  elegant 
appendage  the  name  of  Umbrella-Bird  has  been  derived.     (See  Fig. 

This  Bird  has  another  singular  appendage,  which  is  thus  described 
by  Mr.  Wallace  : — "There  is  a  long  cylindrical  plume  of  feathers 
depending  from  the  middle  of  the  neck,  and  either  carried  close  to 
the  breast,  or  puffed  out,  and  hanging  down  in  front.  The  feathers 
lap  over  each  other,  scale-like,  and  are  bordered  with  fine  metallic 
blue.  On  examining  the  structure  of  this  plume,  it  is  found  not  to  be 
composed  of  feathers  only  growing  from  the  neck,  as  seems  to  have 
been  hitherto  supposed.  The  skin  of  the  neck  is  very  loose  ;  looser 
and  larger,  in  fact,  than  any  bird  I  know  of.  From  the  lower  part 
grows  a  cylindrical  fleshy  process,  about  as  thick  as  a  gooso-quil], 
and  an  inch  and  a-half  long.  From  this  grow  the  feathers  to  the 
very  point,  thus  producing  the  beautiful  cylindrical  plume  quite 
detached  from  the  breast,  and  forming  an  ornament  as  unique  and 
elegant  as  the  crest  itself." 

3N 


458 


THE  CHATTERERS. 


The  Umbrella-Eird  inhabits  the  islands  of  the  great  South  American 
rivers,  and  is  said  never  to  occur  on  the  main-land.  Its  food  consists 
principally  of  fruits,  and  it  ejects  the  stones  of  stone-fruit  by  the 
mouth.  Its  note  is  very  loud  and  deep  ;  and,  from  this  circumstance, 
the  natives  of  the  regions  of  the  Rio  Negro  give  it  the  name  of 
"  Ueramimbe,"  or  the  Piper-Bird. 

Another  remarkable  species  is  the  Arapunga,  or  Bell-Bird  of  Guiana 
(Arapiinga  alba),  a  Bird  about  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  of  a  pure 
white  colour.  It  is  distinguished  by  a  singular  fleshy  C)-lindrical 
appendage,  often  furnished  with  a  few  small  feathers,  which  rise 
from  the  base  of  the  bill ;  and  its  voice  is  exceedingly  peculiar, 
exactly  resembling  the  tolling  of  a  bell.  According  to  Waterton  it 
may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  nearly  three  miles,  and  it  is  almost 
the  only  Bird  that  produces  any  sound  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  for 
most  of  the  feathered  inhabitants  of  those  Tropical  forests  are  then 
hushed  in  silence. 

The  Am;pelina,  or  True  Chatterers,  have  the  gape  very  wide,  ex- 
tending in  many  instances  nearly  to  the  eyes,  but  destitute  of 
bristles  ;  the  bill  is  broad  at  the  base,  and  compressed  towards  the 
tip,  which  is  distinctly  notched  ;  and  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the 
base,  usually  of  an  oval  form,  and  more  or  less  exposed.  The  wings 
are  rather  long,  broad,  and  pointed,  with  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
quill-feathers  the  longest  ;  the  tail  is  short  and  even  at  the  end ; 
the  tarsi  are  short,  and  the  toes  rather  elongated,  with  curved,  com- 
pressed, and  acute  claws. 

These  Birds  are  found  in  both  hemispheres,  mostly  in  the  warmer 
parts  ;  but  the  genus  Ampclis  occurs  in  the  cold  northern  region  of 
both  continents.     Of  these  Birds — which  are  commonly  known  as 


Fig.  11S7.— The  Umbrella-Bird. 

Waxwings,  from  the  curious  appendages  at  the  extremities  of  some 
of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  quills,  resembling  small  pieces  of  red 
sealing-wax — one  species,  the  Common  Waxwing,  or  Bohemian 
Chatterer  [Ampelis  ga7-rula),  is  found  in  the  extreme  northern 
parts  of  both  hemispheres.  The  following  is  a  description  of  this 
Bird. 

The  Waxwing,  or  Bohemian  Chatterer  {Ampelis garrula; 
Bombycilla  bohemica). — This  elegant  species,  which  is  known  by  the 
English  name  of  the  Waxen  Chatterer,  the  Bohemian  Waxwing, 
and  Silk-tail,  is  Le  Jaseur  de  Boheme  (Buffon,  &c.).  Grand  Jaseur 
(Temminck),  and  Geay  de  Boheme  of  the  French  ;  Garrulo  di  Boemia 
of  the  Italians  ;  Rothlichgrauer  Seidenschwantz  (Meyer),  Euro- 
piiischer  Seidenschwanz  and  Der  Gemeine  Seidenschwanz  (Bechstem) 
of  the  Germans  ;  Garrulus  bohemicus  of  Gesner  ;  Bombycilla, 
Schwenck  ;  ^  ;///(?//>,  Aldrovand  ;  ^owdya/Za  of  Brisson  ;  Am;pelis 
garrulas  of  Linnreus ;  Bombyci;phora  garrula,  Brehm  ;  Bomby- 
ciphora  folioccBlia  of  Meyer  ;  Bohibycivora  garrula  of  Temminck ; 
and  Bombycilla  garrula  of  Vieillot. 

In  addition  to  the  nomenclature  above  given,  the  Bird  is  said  to 
be  named  by  the  Italians  in  some  localities  Becco-Frisone,  in  others 
Galletto  del  bosco,  and  by  the  Bird-catchers  of  Bologna,  Uccello  del 
mondo  novo  ;  by  the  Germans,  Zinzerelle,  Wipstertz,  Schnee-vogel, 
and  Schnee-Leschke  ;  and  by  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nurem- 
berg, Beemerle  and  Behemle  ;  by  the  Swedes,  Siden-swantz  ;  by  the 
Bohemians,  Brkoslaw  ;  and  by  the  Poles,  Jebwabniczka  and  Jemi- 
olucha. 


The  Bohemian  Chatterer,  or  Waxwing,  is  a  rare  and  accidental 
visitor  to  our  island,  and  that  only  during  severe  winters,  when 
sometimes  considerable  flocks  make  their  appearance  and  feed  upon 
the  hips  of  the  dog-rose,  the  haws  of  the  thorn,  the  berries  of  the 
mountain-ash,  &c.  These  migratory  visits  to  our  island  are,  however, 
irregular ;  but  on  the  continent,  in  Norway  and  Russia,  great 
numbers  are  seen  every  winter  ;  and  in  Northern  Asia  and  the  adja- 
cent parts  of  Europe  their  migrations  are  regular.  Numerous  flocks 
pass  through  Scania  in  November,  taking  a  southern  direction,  and 
return  northwards  through  the  same  region  in  spring.  In  Germany 
and  Bohemia,  according  to  Bechstein,  flocks  are  found  along  the 
skirts  of  the  extensive  forests.  In  France  the  Waxwing  is  very 
rare,  and  also  in  Italy  ;  though  occasionally  in  the  latter  country 
large  flights  have  made  their  appearance,  and,  according  to  popular 
superstition,  a  fatality  attended  their  movements. 

The  Bohemian  Chatterer  is  not  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia 
(where  it  extends  from  the  western  limits  of  the  former  to  Japan)  ;  it 
is  a  native  also  of  the  northern  regions  of  the  American  continent. 
It  is  common  on  the  Athabasca  river  near  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  has  been  killed  there  in  the  spring.  "  Specimens,"  writes  Dr. 
Richardson,  "  procured  at  the  former  place,  and  transmitted  to 
England  by  the  servants  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  were  com- 
municated by  Mr.  Leadbeater  to  the  Prince  of  Musignano,  who  has 
introduced  the  species  into  his  great  work  on  the  Birds  of  the  United 
States.  In  its  autumn  migration  southwards,  this  bird  must  cross 
the  territory  of  the  United  States,  if  it  does  not  actually  winter 
within  it ;  but  I  have  not  heard  of  its  having  been  hitherto  seen  in 
.America  to  the  southward  of  the  fifty-fifth  parallel  of  latitude." 


Fig.  1 188. — The  Bohemian  Chatterer. 

The  Bohemian  Chatterer  is  about  eight  inches  in  length,  and  in 
contour  approaches  the  Starling.  The  general  plumage  is  dull 
vinous  ash,  tinted  with  ferruginous  red  on  the  plumag-e  and  cheeks ; 
the  feathers  of  the  head  are  prolonged  into  a  beautiful  crest ;  the 
throat,  the  feathers  around  the  nostrils,  and  a  stripe  which  passes 
from  the  beak  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  are  black.  The  primary 
quill-feathers  are  brownish-black,  each  feather  having  a  yellow  line  on 
its  inner  margin  near  the  tip.  The  secondaries  are  tipped  with  white, 
each  having  the  shaft  prolonged  and  furnished  with  a  small  horny 
scarlet  appendage,  like  a  little  flattish  oval  bead  of  red  sealing-wax, 
whence  the  name  "Waxwing."  The  tail  is  black,  tipped  with  .a 
yellow  band.  Beak  and  tarsi  black.  Iridcs  reddish.  The  female 
is  generally  similar  to  the  male,  but  the  yellow  of  the  wings  is  not 
so  bright,  nor  are  the  wax-like  appendages  so  large  or  so  numerous. 
(See  Fig.  1188.) 

The  Cedar-Bird  {Ampclis  or  Bombycilla  carolinensis). — This 
species,  allied  to  the  preceding,  is  theAmpelis  garrulus,  var.  /3,  of 
the  "  Systema  Natura: ;  "  Garrulus  carolinensis,  Le  Jaseur  de 
Caroline,  the  Chatterer  of  Catesby  ;  Turdus  garrulus  carolinensis 
of  Klein ;  Coquantototl  of  Hernandez;  Avis  americana  crislata, 
Xomotl  dicta  of  Seba  ;  Chatterer  of  Carolina  of  Edwards  ;  Cedar- 
Bird,  .^^w/eZ/J  a?nericana,  of  Wilson  ;  Recollect  of  the  Canadian 
Voyageurs ;  Bombycilla  carolinetisis  of  Brisson,  Bonaparte, 
Audubon,  and  others.  It  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  whole  extent 
between  Mexico  and  Canada,  and  parties  are  said  occasionally  to 
roam  as  far  south  as  the  forests  of  Guiana.      In  the  United  States 


THE  CHATTERERS. 


4S9 


it  is  a  resident  during-  the  whole  year,  the  northern  and  middle 
States  being  its  more  usual  quarters  in  the  summer,  and  the  southern 
in  the  winter  season.  It  is  stated  that  the  Bird  has  been  found  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  America,  but  its  northern  boundary  appears 
to  fall  short  of  that  of  <!&&  Ampelis  ox  Bombycilla  bohemica  just 
described. 

The  Cedar-Birds  utter  a  feeble  lisping  sound,  and  "fly,  says 
Wilson,  "  in  compact  bodies  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  ;  and  usually 
alight  so  close  together  on  the  same  tree,  that  one-half  are  fre- 
quently shot  down  at  a  time.  In  the  months  of  July  and  August 
they  collect  together  in  flocks,  and  retire  to  the  hilly  parts  of  the 
State,  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  other  collateral  ridges  of  the  Alleg- 
hany, to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  the  Vacciniicm  uUginosum,  whortle- 
berries, which  grow  there  in  great  abundance,  whole  mountains  for 


Fig.  11S9.— The  Cedar-Bird. 

many  miles  being  almost  entirely  covered  with  them  ;  and  where,  in 
the  month  of  August,  I  have  myself  found  the  cedar-birds  numerous. 
During  the  whole  winter  and  spring  they  are  occasionally  seen  ; 
and  about  the  25th  of  May  appear  in  numerous  parties  making 
great  havoc  among  the  early  cherries,  selecting  the  best  and  ripest 
of  the  fruit."  Audubon  says  that  they  reach  Louisiana  about  the 
beginning  of  November,  and  retire  towards  the  middle  districts  in 
the  beginning  of  March.  "The  holly,"  writes  the  author  last 
quoted,  "  the  vines,  the  persimon,  the  pride  of  China,  and  various 
other  trees,  supply  them  with  plenty  of  berries  and  fruits,  on  which 
they  fatten,  and  become  so  tender  and  juicy  as  to  be  sought  by 
every  epicure  for  the  table." 

In  June,  while  cherries  and  strawberries  abound,  they  become 
extremely  fat,  and  about  the  loth  or  12th  of  that  month  disperse 
over  the  country  in  pairs  to  breed ;  sometimes  fixing  on  the  cedar 
{Ju7i!j>erus  virgin!a?ia),  but  generally  choosing  the  orchard  for  that 
purpose.  The  nest  is  large  for  the  size  of  the  Bird,  and  is  fixed  in 
the  forked  or  horizontal  branch  of  an  apple-tree,  10  or  12  'Teet  from 
the  ground ;  and  sometimes  several  nests  are  to  be  seen  in  the  same 
vicinity. 

Externally  the  nest  is  composed  of  fibres  and  coarse  dry  stalks  of 
grass  ;  the  inside  is  lined  entirely  with  very  fine  stalks  of  the  same 
material.  The  eggs  are  three  or  four,  of  a  dingy  bluish-white,  thick 
at  the  great  end,  tapering  suddenly,  and  becoming  very  narrow  at 
the  other,  marked  with  small  roundish  spots  of  black,  of  various 
sizes  and  shades  ;  and  the  great  end  is  of  a  pale  dull  purple  tinge, 
marked  likewise  with  touches  of  various  shades  of  purple  and 
black. 

Audubon  states  that  these  Birds  are  "  excellent  flycatchers, 
spending  much  of  their  time  in  the  pursuit  of  winged  insects,  but 
yet  without  much  vivacity  or  energy  of  action.  They  start  from  the 
branches  and  give  chase  to  the  insects,  ascending  after  them  for  a 
few  yards  or  moving  horizontally  toward  them,  perhaps  rather 
farther  than  when  ascending,  and  as  soon  as  the  prey  is  secured 
they  return  to  the  spot,  where  they  continue  watching  with  slow 
motions  of  the  head.     Tow^ards  evening  this  amubcment  is  carried 


on  for  half-an-hour  or  an  hour  at  a  time,  and  is  continued  longer 
at  the  approach  of  autumn,  the  berries  then  becoming  scarcer." 

The  Cedar-Bird  is  about  six  inches  and  a-half  long  ;  its  plumage  is 
soft  and  silky,  and  its  head  is  ornamented  witli  an  erectile  crest. 
General  colour  yellowish  or  fawn  brown,  fading  into  yellow  on  the 
abdomen,  and  yellowish-white  under  the  tail.  Back  and  wing- 
coverts  greyish-brown.  Throat  and  a  band  passing  from  the  fore- 
head to  the  occiput  black,  the  latter  narrowly  margined  with  white. 
Quill-feathers  brownish-black,  some  of  the  secondaries  having  the 
scarlet  waxen  appendages  ;  '.ail  brownish-black,  tipped  with  a  band 
of  pale  yellow.  The  female  is  rather  smaller  than  the  male,  and 
with  paler  colouring.     (See  Fig.  1189.) 

The  preceding  are  the  only  members  of  the  group  which  possess 
the  sealing-wax-like  ornaments  on  the  wings ;   but  many  of  the  other 


Fig.  1 190. — The  Green  Calyptomena. 

species  are  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  plumage.  Amongst 
the  most  beautiful  are  the  species  of  the  genus  Cotinga,  of  which 
several  are  found  in  South  America. 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  Pipi-incr,  or  Manakins,  the  bill  is  rather 
short,  compressed,  very  broad  at  the  base,  with  the  ridge  of  the 
upper  mandible  curved,  and  the  tip  somewhat  hooked  ;  the  nostrils 
more  or  less  concealed  by  the  frontal  plumes  ;  the  tail  is  short,  and 
even  at  the  end ;  the  tarsi  long,  and  the  outer  toe  is  united  to  the 
middle  one,  at  least  as  far  as  the  second  joint  of  the  latter. 

This  group  is  composed  of  numerous  beautiful  Birds,  mostly  of 
small  size,  of  which  the  majority  inhabit  the  Tropical  regions  of  the 
American  continent,  only  a  single  species  being  found  elsewhere. 
They  live  in  small  flocks,  in  the  hot  moist  forests  which  spread  over 
those  Tropical  countries,  and  feed  upon  Insects  and  fruits.  They 
are  exceedingly  active  in  their  movements. 

The  only  species  found  out  of  America  is  the  following : — 

The  Green  Calyptomen.\  (Calyptomena  viridisj.—ln  the 
genus  Calyptomena  the  bill  is  depressed  and  wide  at  the  base, 
curved  or  hooked  at  the  point,  and  nearly  hidden  by  the  feathers  of 
the  crest,  which  is  erect  and  compressed  ;  the  wings  are  ample  ; 
the  tail  is  short ;  the  middle  and  outer  toes  are  connected  as  far  as 
the  second  joint. 

This  beautiful  and  richly-coloured  Bird  is  about  the  size  of  a 
Thrush,  measuring  about  six  inches  and  a-half  in  length  :  it  is  a 
native  of  Singapore  and  the  interior  of  Sumatra.  The  general  colour 
is  a  brilliant  metallic  green.  The  head  is  rather  large,  and  its 
feathers  arc  directed  forwards  from  each  side,  in  such  a  manner  as 
nearly  to  conceal  the  bill,  givingthe  face  a  very  pecuharappearance. 
A  little  above  and  before  the  eyes  the  feathers  are  of  a  deep  velvet- 
black  at  their  base,  and  only  tipped  with  green,  but  crossed  on  the 
coverts  by  three  velvet-black  bands  ;  the  primary  feathers,  as  well  as 
the  whole  under-side  of  the  wings,  are  dusky,  approaching  to  black, 
with  the  exception  of  the  outer  margins  of  some  which  are  edged 
with  green.  The  tail  is  short,  rounded,  composed  of  ten  feathers, 
which  are  green  above  and  bluish-black  below.  The  whole  of  the 
under  parts  are  green  :  this  colour  is  lightest  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck  and  round  the  eyes.  The  bill  is  short,  wide,  much  depressed 
at  the  base,  deeply  cleft,  and  hooked  at  the  point.  Nostrils  oval  at 
the  base  of  the  bill,  and  concealed  by  the  filiform  feathers  that 
project  over  them.  The  eyes  are  rather  large;  the  irides  bluish. 
Legs  bluish-black  ;  a  few  feathers  come  down  over  the  upper  part  of 
the  tarsi.  Feet  gressorial  ;  outer  toe  not  much  shorter  than  the 
middle  one,  with  which  it  is  united  as  far  as  the  last  joint.     The 


460 


THE  CHATTERERS— THE  FLYCATCHERS. 


female  does  not  differ  in  appearance  from  the  male.  (See 
Fig.  1 190.)  . 

Of  the  American  species,  some  are  black,  with  orange  or  red 
heads,  whilst  others  are  adorned  with  the  most  varied  colours  ;  but 
the  head  is  usually  of  a  different  colour  from  the  rest  of  the  plumage. 
The  largest  and  most  remarkable  species  is  the  Cock  of  the  Rock, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  description. 

The  Cock  of  the  Rock  (Rupkola  aiirantia) ;  Ru^picola 
cayana,  Swainson  ;  Rupkola  elegans,'iX(i-\^\\cx\%\  Rupkola  crocea ; 
Rock  Manakin.— In  the  genus  Rupkola  the  bill  is  moderate,  robust, 
and  vaulted  above  ;  the  nostrils  are  oval,  but  hidden  by  an  elevated 
fan-like  crest,  which  covers  the  top  of  the  head ;  the  wings  are 
moderate  and  rounded  ;  the  tail  .short  and  square. 

The  Cock  of  the  Rock  is  a  native  of  South  America,  tenanting 
the  rocky  districts  along  the  rivers  of  Cayenne,  Surinam,  &c.,  and 
is  probably  to  be  found  along  the  river   Amazon  and  most  of  its 


Fig.  1191.— The  Cock  of  the  Rock. 

tributary  branches.  Latham  states  that  it  is  nowhere  so  frequent  as 
on  the  mountain  Luca,  near  the  river  Oyapok,  in  Guiana,  and  on 
the  mountain  Courouraye,  near  the  river  Aprouack,  where  it  builds 
in  cavernous  hollows  and  dark  recesses :  the  nest  is  made  of  twigs 
and  dry  herbage,  and  the  eggs  are  two  in  number,  of  a  white  colour, 
and  are  equal  in  size  to  those  of  a  Pigeon. 

In  its  habits  and  manners  this  beautiful  Bird  is  shy  and  recluse, 
resorting  to  silent  glens  and  rocky  ravines,  where  it  appears  to  pass 
an  undisturbed  existence.  Its  flight  is  rapid  ;  its  food  consists  of 
berries  and  the  smaller  wild  plants.  Waterton  informs  us  that  it  is 
found  in  the  woody  mountains  of  Macousia,  a  tract  on  the  Apoura- 
poura— one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Essequibo  from  the  south — and 
inhabited  by  the  Macoushi  (or  Macusi)  Indians,  celebrated  for  their 
skill  in  preparing  the  urari,  or  deadly  vegetable  poison  with  which 
they  smear  the  points  of  their  arrows.  This  Bird,  he  says,  retires  to 
hide  in  the  day-time  amongst  the  darkest  rocks,  and  comes  out  to 
feed  only  just  before  sunrise  and  at  the  hour  of  sunset.  Its  disposi- 
tion is  gloomy  and  unsocial,  and  it  never  joins  company  with  other 
Birds  of  the  forest.  The  Cock  of  the  Rock  is  about  the  size  of  a 
Pigeon ;  the  general  plumage  is  of  a  bright  orange  yellow  or  rich 
saffron  ;  a  compressed  crest,  like  that  of  a  Greek  helmet,  surmounts 
the  head,  and  is  varied  along  the  summit  with  brown  and 
yellow.  The  secondary  quill-feathers  and  the  tail-coverts  are 
square,  as  if  cut  at  the  ends  with  a  pair  of  scissors.  The  feathers 
of  the  back  and  the  wing-coverts  are  elongated  into  loose  flowinr^ 
plumes;  the  tail  is  brown,  tipped  with  yellow;  the  bill  and  tarsi 
rosy-white.  The  female  is  rather  smaller  than  the  male,  with  a  less 
elevated  crest,  and  of  a  uniform  bistre  brown.     (See  Fig   iigi  ) 

The  Peruvian  Cock  of  the  Rock  [Rupkola  peruviana); 
Chiachia  lacca  of  the  Mexicans. — This  Bird  appears  to  be  a  native 
of  the  interior  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  and  specimens  have  been 
brought  to  Europe  from  Lima.  For  some  time  this  species  was  re- 
garded as  a  variety  of  the  Rupkola  aura?itia,  from  which,  however 
it  is  perfectly  distinct,  being  a  larger  Bird,  with  a  longer  tail  in  pro- 
portion. Its  crest  is  not  compressed,  nor  are  the  feathers  of  the 
back  and  wing-coverts  plumose  and  filiform,  as  in  the  former  species. 
It  differs  also  in  colouring.  The  general  tint  is  bright  orange,  but 
the  quill  and  tail-feathers  are  deep  black,  and  the  middle  wing- 
coverts  are  bright  ash-grey.  The  crest  is  of  a  uniform  tint,  wantincr 
the  deeper-coloured  semicircular  line  edging  the  helmet-like  crest  of 
the  preceding.     (See  Fig.  1 192.) 


The  PachycephalincB,  or  Thick-heads,  are  very  closely  allied  to 
the  Manakins,  but  differ  from  these  in  the  structure  of  tlie  feet,  the 
outer  toe  being  only  united  to  the  middle  one  at  the  base.  They  are 
found  in  both  hemispheres,  but  appear  to  be  most  abundant  in  Aus- 
tralia and  Polynesia.  They  inhabit  the  woods  and  forests,  and  feed  on 
fruits,  seeds,  buds,  and  Insects.  Like  the  Manakins,  they  are  gene- 
rally of  very  small  size,  and  often  adorned  with  beautiful  colours. 

The  species  of  the  typical  genus,  Pachycephala,  occur  in  Australia. 
New  Guinea,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands.  They  build  their  nests 
amongst  the  branches  of  trees,  forming  it  of  small  twigs  and  fibrous 
roots.  The  Eopsaltria  auslralis,  which  is  also  an  Australian 
species,  is  known  to  the  colonists  of  New  South  Wales  as  the  Ytllovj 
Robin.  Its  nest  is  also  built  amongst  the  branches,  and  formed  of 
strips  of  bark,  mixed  with  fibrous  roots,  held  together  by  cobwebs, 
and  ornamented  externally  with  pieces  of  lichen.  The  species  of  the 
genus  Pardalotus,  which  is  peculiar  to  Australia  and  Van  Diemen's 


Fig.  II 92. — The  Peruvian  Cock  of  the  Rock. 

Land,  generally  build  in  holes  of  trees  ;  and  one  of  them  (the  Par- 
dalotus putzciatus)  is  said  to  excavate  a  horizontal  passage  of  two 
or  three  feet  in  length  in  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  at  the  end  of  this  to 
form  a  chamber,  in  which  the  nest,  which  is  composed  of  strips  of 
bark  from  the  Gum-trees  {Eucalyptus),  is  built.  Another  species  of 
this  genus,  however,  the  Pardalotus  affints,  builds  a  dome-shaped 
nest,  with  a  small  entrance-hole  ;  it  is  composed  of  grasses,  and 
lined  with  feathers.  This  little  Bird  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  where  it  not  only  frequents  the  Gum-trees  in  the 
country,  but  even  approaches  the  habitations  of  man,  creeping  about 
the  trees  in  gardens  and  shrubberies,  and  inspecting  every  leaf  in 
search  of  Insects. 

Several  species  of  this  group,  belonging  to  the  genus  Leiothrix, 
are  found  abundantly  in  India,  especially  in  the  more  northern  dis- 
tricts. They  feed  principally  on  Insects  in  all  their  stages;  and,  in 
search  of  these,  make  such  a  diligent  inspection  of  the  opening  buds 
of  the  trees,  that,  according  to  Mr.  Hodgson,  they  might  be  denomi- 
nated "  Bud-hunters."  They  also  eat  berries  and  seeds.  Their 
nests  are  usually  built  in  small  bushes,  and  composed  of  grass  and 
hair  ;  the  eggs  are  said  to  be  "  black,  spotted  with  yellow." 

The  Flycatchers — Family,  Musckapidce. 

In  the  interestingfamily  of  the  Flycatchers,  or  Musckapid(e,-'^\vic\\ 
closely  resemble  the  Shrikes  in  their  general  habits,  the  bill  is  generally 
straight,  broad,  and  depressed  at  the  base,  with  the  gape  wide,  and 
furnished  with  long  stout  bristles  springing  from  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible.  The  wings  and  tail  are  long,  and  the  legs  short  and  weak, 
with  the  toes  more  or  less  elongated.  The  Flycatchers  are  small  Birds, 
none  of  them  equalling  our  common  Jackdaw  in  size.  They  feed  for  the 
most  part  upon  Insects,  which  they  take  upon  the  wing,  establishing 
themselves  in  some  elevated  position,  whence  they  dart  off  after  their 
prey,  and  return  again  to  their  post  to  swallow  it.  The  larger  species, 
however,  like  the  Shrikes,  are  not  content  with  such  small  game,  but 
make  war  upon  the  smaller  Vertebrate  Animals. 

Of  the  five  sub-families  into  which  this  group  is  divided,  the  first 
is  that  of  the  Greenlots  ( Vircom'na;),  a  group  of  small  American 
Birds,  of  which  the  general  plumage  is  usually  more  or  less  tinted 
with  green  or  olive.  They  have  a  short  straight  bill,  and  the  bristles 
of  the  gape  are  short  and  weak ;  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed, 
and  the  toes  of  moderate  size,  the  lateral  ones  being  about  equal, 


THE  FLYCATCHERS. 


461 


Fig.  1 1 93. — Head  of  the  Spotted 
Flycatcher. 


and  both  more  or  less  united  to  the  middle  one  at  the  base.  These 
Birds  are  all  of  small  size,  the  lars^est  being  not  more  than  seven 
inches  in  length.  They  migrate  from  the  Tropical  regions  of  America, 
Brazil,  Guiana,  and  the  West  Indian  Islands,  to  the  United  States, 
arriving  in  the  latter  country  about  the  month  of  May,  breeding  there 
in  the  summer,  and  returning  southwards  in  August  and  September. 

Some  of  them  have  an  exceed- 
ingly sweet  warbling  note,  whilst 
the  song  of  others  appears  to 
have  little  merit.  One  of  them, 
the  Red-eyed  Flycatcher  (  Vireo 
olivaceus),  is  well  known  in 
Jamaica  by  the  name  of ' '  Whip- 
Tom-Kelly,"  from  a  supposed 
resemblance  of  its  notes  to  these 
words  ;  and  Wilson  says,  that, 
"  on  attentively  listening  for 
some  time  to  this  bird,  in  his  full 
ardour  of  song,  it  requires  but 
little  of  imagination  to  fancy  that  you  hear  it  pronounce  these  words, 
'Tom-Kelly,  whip-Tom-KcUy!' very  distinctly."  Mr.  Gosse,  however, 
is  of  a  different  opinion,  and  states  that  its  notes  bear  a  very  close 
resemblance  to  the  syllables  "  John-to-whit,"  pronounced  with  an 
einphasis  on  the  last  syllable. 

The  VireontJics  feed  almost  entirely  upon  Insects,  some  apparently 
preferring  Beetles  and  other  hard-skinned  species ;  whilst  others  prin- 
cipally devour  the  small  Insects  which  they  take  on  the  wing ;  and 
others,  again,  appear  to  have  a  predilection  for  Caterpillars,  for  which 
they  search  the  leaves  of  the  trees.  They  also  occasionally  eat  berries. 
They  build  their  nests  sometimes  in  trees,  sometimes  in  thick  bushes, 
forming  them  of  dry  leaves,  grass,  fibrous  roots,  moss,  and  lichens;  but 
the  materials  vary  somewhat  in  the  different  species  ;  one  of  them,  the 
White-eyed  Flycatcher  (  Vireo  noveboracensis),  being  noted  for  always 
introducing  fragments  of  paper  into  the  construction  of  its  nest ;  and 
these,  according  to  Wilson,  are  so  constantly  pieces  of  newspapers, 
that  some  of  his  friends  proposed  to  call  the  Bird  the  Politician. 

The  Red-eyed  Flycatcher  ( Vireo  olivaceus),  to  which  we  have 
already  referred,  builds  a  neat  pensile  nest,  which  is  generally  sus- 
pended between  two  twigs  of  some  small  tree  or  bush,  rarely  at  a 
greater  height  than  four  or  five  feet  from  the  ground  (see  Fig.  1195). 
In  addition  to  the  materials  already 
enumerated,  this  nest  usually  includes  pieces 
of  Hornets'  nests,  flax,  and  pieces  of  paper ; 
and  the  whole  is  glued  together,  accord- 
ing to  Wilson,  with  the  silk  of  Caterpillars 
and  the  saliva  of  the  Bird.  These  nests 
are  very  durable ;  and  Wilson  mentions 
his  having  found  a  nest  of  the  Yellow- 
Bird  {Cardiielis  irisfis),  built  in  the  last 
year's  nest  of  the  Red-eyed  Flycatcher. 
The  Mice,  also,  frequently  take  possession 
of  them  after  their  owners  have  taken 
their  departure.  The  White-eyed  Fly- 
catcher (  Vireo  noveboracensis)  also  makes 
a  pendulous  nest.  Most  of  these  Birds  pro- 
duce two  broods  of  young  in  the  course  of  the 
season,  each  laying  consisting  of  four  or 
five  eggs  ;  these  are  of  a  white  colour,  more 
or  less  spotted  with  brown  or  black.  Their 
nests  are  often  selected  by  the  Cowpen- 
Bird  {Molothrus  J>ecoris)  for  the  reception 
Fig.  1 194. —Head  and  Foot  ^f  Jtg  eggs. 

of  Spotted  Flycatcher.  j^  general,  when  the  Birds  of  this  sub- 
family have  established  themselves  in  some 
suitable  situation,  they  exhibit  great  jealousy  of  any  intruder 
upon  their  domain  ;  and  some  of  them  vituperate  any  passer- 
by in  a  most  extraordinary  fashion.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable in  this  respect  is  the  Yellow-breasted  Chat  ■of  Wilson 
{Icferia  viridis),  of  which  that  author  gives  the  following  curious 
account.  He  says,  they  commence  "  scolding  every  passenger  as 
soon  as  they  come  within  view,  in  a  great  variety  of  odd  and  uncouth 
monosyllables,  which  it  is  difficult  to  describe,  but  which  may  be 
readily  imitated,  so  as  to  deceive  the  bird  himself  and  draw  him 
after  you  for  a  furlong  at  a  time,  as  I  have  sometimes  amused  my- 
self in  doing,  and  frequently  without  once  seeing  him.  On  these 
occasions  his  responses  are  constant  and  rapid,  strongly  expressive 
of  anger  and  anxiety  ;  and  while  the  bird  itself  remains  unseen,  the 
voice  shifts  from  place  to  place,  among  the  bushes,  as  if  it  proceeded 
from  a  spirit.  First  is  heard  a  repetition  of  short  notes,  resembling 
the  W'histling  of  the  wings  of  a  duck  or  teal,  beginning  loud  and 
rapid,  and  falling  lower  and  lower,  till  they  end  in  detached  notes  ; 
then  a  succession  of  others,  something  like  the  barking  of  young 
puppies,  is  followed  by  a  variety  of  hollow,  guttural  sounds,  each 
eight  or  ten  times  repeated,  more  like  those  proceeding  from  the 
throat  of  a  quadruped  than  that  of  a  bird  ;  which  are  succeeded  by 
others  not  unlike  the  mewing  of  a  cat,  but  considerably  hoarser.  All 
these  are  uttered  with  great  vehemence,  in  such  different  keys,  and 


with  such  peculiar  modulations  of  voice,  as  sometimes  to  seem  at  a 
considerable  distance,  and  instantly  as  if  just  beside  you  ;  now  on  this 
hand,  now  on  that ;  so  that  from  these  manoeuvres  of  ventriloquism, 
you  are  utterly  at  a  loss  to  ascertain  from  what  particular  spot  or 
quarter  they  proceed."  The  Bird  that  makes  all  this  fuss,  although 
one  of  the  largest  m  the  group,  is  only  about  seven  inches  in  length. 


Fig.  1 1 95. — Nest  of  the  Flycatcher. 

The  second  sub-family,  which  includes  a  great  number  of  species, 
is  that  of  the  Muscicapincs,  or  True  Fly-catchers.  In  the  form  of 
the  bill  they  closely  resemble  the  Vireonincz ;  but  this  organ  is 
rather  longer,  and  has  the  ridge  slightly  flattened  at  first,  but  curved 
towards  the  tip.  The  gape  is  furnished  with  bristles  ;  the  wings  arc 
long  and  pointed,  and  the  toes  are  short,  the  outer  lateral  toe  being 
longer  than  the  inner  one. 

These  Birds,  which  exhibit  the  characteristic  habits  of  the  family 
in  their  greatest  perfection,  are  pretty  generally  distributed  over 
both  hemispheres,  but  more  especially  in  the  Tropical  regions. 
The  species  which  occur  in  Europe  and  the  temperate  and  colder  re- 
gions in  general,  are  summer  Birds  of  Passage  ;  the  European  species 
arrive  in  April  and  May,  and  leave  again  for  their  southern  winter 
quarters  about  the  month  of  October.  Only  two  species  occur  in 
Britain.  The  most  abundant  of  these  is  the  Spotted  Flycatcher 
{Muscicajia  griseola,  see  Fig.  1 196,  a),  a  small  Bird  about  six  inches 
in  length,  of  a  brownish  tint  above,  with  a  few  dark  spots  on  the 
top  of  the  head  ;  beneath,  dull  white ;  with  brown  streaks  on  the 
throat  and  breast.  This  Bird  arrives  in  England  very  regularly  in 
the  month  of  May,  and  commences  building  its  nest  immediately 
on  its  arrival.  For  this  purpose  it  often  selects  most  singular 
situations ;  a  pair  have  been  known  to  build  on  the  head  of  a 
garden-rake,  which  had  been  accidentally  left  standing  near  a 
cottage ;  another  pair  built  in  a  bird-cage  ;  but  the  most  curious 
instances  of  caprice  in  this  matter,  are  those  of  two  pairs  of  these 
Birds  which  selected  street  lamp-posts  for  the  purpose  of  nidification. 
One  of  these  is  recorded  by  Atkinson  as  having  occurred  in  Leeds  ; 
the  nest  was  built  on  the  angle  of  a  lamp-post,  and  the  parents 
succeeded  in  rearing  their  young.  In  the  other  instance,  w-hich  is  re- 
ferred to  by  Mr.  Jesse,  the  nest  was  made  in  the  ornamental  crown  011 
the  top  of  one  of  the  lamps  in  Portland  Place  ;  it  contained  five  eggs, 
which  had  been  sat  upon  ;  and  Mr.  Yarrell  states  that  he  saw  the 
nest,  in  its  curious  receptacle,  at  the  Office  of  Woods  and  Forests. 
In  general,  the  nest  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  a  wall,  in  a  faggot-stack, 
or  an  out-building  ;  but  the  branches  of  trees  trained  against  a  wall 
are  sometimes  selected  for  its  reception.  The  nest  is  cup-shaped, 
generally  composed  of  moss,  and  lined  with  fine  grass,  sometimes 
having  also  feathers  and  horsehair  ;  it  is  beautifully  made,  and  the 
female  is  supposed  to  be  the  architect.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in 
number,  of  a  bluish-white  colour,  spotted  with  red. 

These  Birds  appear  to  feed  entirely  upon  Insects,  which  they 
capture  on  the  wing ;  and  when  on  the  look-out  for  food,  may  be 
seen  standing  upon  the  top  of  a  post,  or  the  top  rail  of  a  fence,  from 
which  they  dart  off  the  moment  they  perceive  an  Insect  within  their 
reach,  and  usually  return  nearly  to  the  same  spot  to  look  out  for 
fresh  prey.  They  are  very  common  in  gardens  and  orchards  ;  and 
from  their  being  often  seen  in  such  situations  at  the  season  when 
cherries  and  raspberries  are  ripe,  they  have  been  accused  oi  eating 
these  fruits  ;  but  Mr.  Yarrell  states,  that  the  stomachs  of  Flycatchers 
killed  under  these  circumstances,  have  been  found  to  contain  no 
remains  of  fruit,  so  that  it  is  more  probable  that  they  only  resort  to 


462 


THE  FLYCATCHERS. 


the  neighbourhood  of  the  trees  for  the  sake  of  the  Insects  which  are 
attracted  there  by  the  ripe  fruit.  The  Spotted  Flycatcher  is  found 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  as  far  north  as  Norway  and  Sweden  ; 
and  it  occurs  in  Africa,  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  other  British  species  is  the  Pied  Flycatcher  {l\Iuscicaj>a 
atricajyiUa;  M.  h/cfuosa,  Fig  1196,  b),  which  visits  this  country 
in  April,  and  leaves  it  again  for  the  south  in  September.  It  is  far 
less  abundant  than  the  preceding  species,  and  onlj'  occurs  plenti- 
fully in  particular  localities,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland.  In  its  general  habits  it 
closely  resembles  the  Spotted  Flycatcher,  but  builds  its  nest  in  the 
holes  of  trees,  and  sometimes  lays  as  many  as  eight  eggs.  It  is 
also  said  to  have  a  pleasing  song,  whilst  the  other  British  species  is 
only  able  to  produce  a  chirping  note.  The  Pied  Flycatcher  occurs 
in  most  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Several  species  of  this  group  also  occur  in  North  America.  They 
resemble  their  European  relatives  in  their  habits,  and,  like  these, 
are  summer  Birds  of  Passage.  Some  of  them  are  said  to  feed 
occasionally  upon  berries.     One  of  the  most  elegant  and   singular 


1 196. — a,  the  Spotted  Flycatcher;  b,  the  Pied  Flycatcher. 


of  the  exotic  species  is  the  Paradise  'SXyca.tcher  {Tckiirca  jiaradisi), 
which  is  generally  distributed  over  the  continent  of  India,  living 
principally  in  the  dense  bamboo  jungles.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
great  length  of  the  tail,  which  is  considerably  more  than  twice  as 
long  as  the  body  ;  the  latter  measuring  only  about  six  inches  in  length, 
whilst  the  tail  is  thirteen  or  fourteen  inches.  The  head  is  also  adorned 
with  a  crest.  Like  the  common  species  it  catches  its  Insect  food  in 
the  air,  but  also  occasionally  picks  it  off  the  branches  of  the  trees  ; 
and  Colonel  Sykes  says  that  it  feeds  on  the  ground.  Some  nearly 
allied  species  are  found  in  India  and  Africa. 

Many  other  species  of  this  sub-family  are  found  in  India,  Australia, 
and  Africa  ;  but  they  all  appear  to  be  very  similar  in  their  habits. 
Some  seldom  or  never  take  their  food  otherwise  than  on  the  wing ; 
whilst  others  pick  Caterpillars  and  other  Insects  from  the  leaves 
and  branches  of  the  trees,  and  some  even  settle  upon  the  ground  to 
capture  their  prey.  Many  of  the  species  have  merely  a  chirping  or 
chattering  note  ;  whilst  the  song  of  others  is  described  as  sweet  and 
pleasing. 

Closely  allied  to  the  True  Flycatchers  are  the  Tifyri7l(r,  or  Becards, 
a  small  group  of  Birds  peculiar  to  South  America  and  the  West 


Indian  Islands.  These  Birds  have  the  bill  short,  broad  at  the  base, 
and  suddenly  compressed  towards  the  tip  ;  the  nostrils  rounded  and 
exposed ;  the  wings  long  and  pointed ;  and  the  tail  short.  The 
tarsi  are  short,  covered  with  narrow  scales,  and  the  lateral  toes  arc 
nearly  equal  in  length.  The  Tityriiia;  are  small  Birds,  which 
closely  resemble  the  Flycatchers  in  their  habits,  perching  on  an 
elevated  place  to  look  out  for  Insects,  which  they  take  on  the  wing, 
and  then  return  to  their  resting-place. 

The  Tyra>!7!incs,  or  Tyrant  Flycatchers,  are  also  very  closely 
allied  to  the  MuscicapincB,  from  which,  in  fact,  they  differ  princi- 
pally in  having  the  tip  of  the  bill  more  strongly  hooked.  The  bill 
Itself  is  larger  than  in  the  True  Flycatchers,  very  broad  at  the  base, 
and  gradually  compressed  to  the  tip  ;  the  gape  is  usually  furnished 
with  long  bristles,  and  the  nostrils  arc  generally  of  small  size,  and  con- 
cealed by  the  frontal  plumes.  These  Birds  are  all  inhabitants  of 
America,  and  principally  of  the  Tropical  parts  of  that  continent. 
They  resemble  the  Shrikes  a  good  deal  in  their  habits,  preying  not 
only  upon  Insects,  but  also  upon  small  Vertebrate  Animals,  includ- 
ing even  Fishes.     They  also  feed  on  berries. 

Two  or  three  species  of  this  group  are  well  known  in  the  United 

States  of  North  America,  where, 
however,  they  are  only  summer 
visitors.  The  best  known  is  the 
King-Bird,  or  Tyrant  Flycatcher 
(Tyrantius  t}itrepidus),  a  Bird 
about  eight  inches  in  length,  of  a 
dark  slaty  ash  colour  above,  and 
white  beneath ;  the  feathers  of 
the  crown  of  the  head  are  of  a 
brilliant  orange  colour,  and 
capable  of  being  erected  so  as 
to  form  a  sort  of  crest,  which  has 
been  compared  with  a  crown  or 
diadem.  From  this,  and  the 
tyrannical  authority  which  the 
Bird  exercises  over  all  its  neigh- 
bours during  the  breeding  season, 
its  common  names  of  King-Bird 
and  Tyrant  are  derived. 

The  King-Birds  arrive  in  small 
parties  in  the  United  States  in 
the  month  of  April  ;  and  about 
the  beginning  of  May  they  pair, 
and  begin  to  build  their  nests. 
The  nest  is  built  in  a  tree,  fre- 
quently in  orchards  ;  it  is  com- 
posed externally  of  twigs,  and 
similar  materials,  finely  woven 
together  with  tow  and  wool,  and 
lined  with  fine  grass  and  horse- 
hair. The  Birds  lay  five  eggs, 
and  generally  breed  twice  in  a 
season.  At  their  first  arrival 
in  the  United  States  they  are 
particularly  quiet ;  but  with  the 
commencement  of  the  breeding 
season,  a  complete  change  comes 
over  the  spirit  of  the  male  Bird. 
"At  that  season,"  says  Wilson, 
who  has  given  an  admirable  his- 
tory of  this  Flycatcher,  "  his  ex- 
treme affection  for  his  mate,  and 
for  his  nest  and  young,  makes  him 
suspicious  of  every  bird  that  hap- 
pens to  pass  near  his  residence, 
so  that  he  attacks,  without  dis- 
crimination, every  intruder.  In  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  part  of 
July,  his  life  is  one  continued  scene  of  broils  and  battles,  in  which,  how- 
ever, he  generally  comes  off  conqueror.  Hawks  and  crows,  the  bald 
eagle,  and  the  great  black  eagle,  all  equally  dread  a  rencounter 
with  this  dauntless  little  champion,  who,  as  soon  as  he  perceives 
one  of  these  last  approaching,  launches  into  the  air  to  meet;  him, 
mounts  to  a  considerable  height  above  him,  and  darts  down  on  his 
back,  sometimes  fixing  there  to  the  great  annoyance  of  his  sovereign, 
who,  if  no  convenient  retreat  or  resting-place  be  near,  endeavours, 
by  various  evolutions,  to  rid  himself  of  his  merciless  adversary. 
But  the  king-bird  is  not  so  easily  dismounted.  He  teases  the  eagle 
incessantly,  sweeps  upon  him  from  right  to  left,  remounts,  that  he 
may  descend  upon  his  back  with  the  greater  violence,  all  the  while 
keeping  up  a  shrill  and  rapid  twittering,  and  continuing  the  attack 
sometimes  for  more  than  a  mile,  till  he  is  relieved  by  some  other  of 
his  tribe  equally  eager  for  the  contest."  Occasionally  the  King- 
Bird  meets  with  his  match  in  the  Purple  Martin  {Prague piirj>i(rca) 
of  America,  which,  from  his  great  rapidity  of  flight,  is  enabled, 
with  impunity,  to  tease  his  quarrelsome  neighbour,  and  even  some- 
times to  drive  him  to  seek  safety  in  flight,    "ihe  Red-headed  Wood- 


THE    THRUSHES. 


463 


pecker,  also,  has  been  seen,  by  Wilson,  amusing  himself  by 
dodging-  his  impetuous  assailant  round  the  rail  of  a  fence — a  pro- 
ceeding whch  appeared  to  irritate  the  little  warrior  exceedingly. 
With  the  close  of  the  breeding  season  all  this  turbulence  ceases, 
and  the  King-Bird  becomes  as  mild  and  peaceable  as  any  other 
Biid. 

The  food  of  the  King-Bird  consists  principally  of  Insects,  which 
he  captures  sometimes  in  the  manner  of  the  European  Flycatchers, 
by  watching  for  them  from  the  top  of  a  post  or  fence,  and  sometimes 
by  hovering  slowly  over  the  fields  and  rivers,  like  a  Hawk.  In  this 
manner  he  destroys  vast  multitudes  of  noxious  Insects  ;  but  unfortu- 


Fig.  1 197. — Foot  and  Head  of  the  Crested  Tyrant, 

nately  he  has  a  habit  which  causes  him  to  be  regarded  with  some 
little  disfavour ;  he  is  exceedingly  partial  to  Bees,  and  may  be  con- 
stantly seen  perched  upon  a  fence  near  the  hives,  and  dashing  down 
upon  the  industrious  little  Insects  as  they  pass  to  and  from  their 
homes.  This  bad  habit  is  often  the  cause  of  his  death ;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  truth  of  Wilson's  statement,  that,  for  any 
damage  he  does  to  the  Bees,  he  compensates  fifty-fold  in  the  de- 
struction of  other  Insects  which  would  have  injured  produce  of  far 
greater  importance. 

Another  North  American  species  is  the  Crested  Tyrant  {Tyra?i>nis 
criiiitics.  Fig.  1197),  a  Bird  a  little  larger  than  the  King-Bird,  of  a 
greenish-olive  colour  above,  and  sulphur-yellow  beneath,  with  the 
throat  and  the  upper  part  of  the  breast  ash  colour.  The  feathers  of 
the  head  are  centred  with  dark  brown,  and  form  a  sort  of  crest. 
This  Bird,  in  most  of  its  habits,  resembles  the  King-Bird,  but  it  is 
destitute  of  the  courage  which  prompts  the  latter  to  enter  into  such 
unequal  contests.  It  generally  inhabits  the  woods,  and  builds  in 
holes  of  trees.  The  nest  is  remarkable  for  the  materials  of  which  it 
is  composed.  These  consist,  accordingto  Wilson,  of  "  hay,  feathers, 
hogs'  bristles,  pieces  of  cast  snakes'  skins,  and  dog's  hair;"  and 
he  adds,  "  snakes'  skins,  with  this  bird,  appear  to  be  an  indispen- 
sable article,  for  I  have  never  yet  found  one  of  his  nests  without  this 
material  forming  part  of  it." 

The  last  group  of  this  family  is  the  sub-family  of  'Csxt  AlcctrtirincB, 
or  Alectrures,  in  which  the  bill  is  broad  and  depressed  at  the  base, 
convex  towards  the  point,  which  is  more  or  less  hooked  ;  the  nostrils 
are  rounded  and  exposed ;  the  tail  is  elongated,  compressed,  and 
capable  of  being  raised  in  a  very  singular  manner,  which  has  caused 
the  Birds  to  be  compared  to //'///e  Coc/'j;  and  the  scientific  name 
oi  Alectmriis,  applied  to  the  typical  genus,  may,  perhaps,  be  trans- 
lated Cock-tail.  The  tarsi  are  slender,  and  the  toes  armed  with 
long,  curved,  and  acute  claws. 

These  Birds  are  peculiar  to  South  America,  and  in  their  general 
habits  resemble  the  ordinary  Flycatchers.  Many  of  them  perch  upon 
trees  and  bushes,  and  thence  dash  off  into  the  air  in  pursuit  of 
Insects  on  the  wing  ;  others  are  never  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
woods,  but  appear  to  prefer  fields  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  where 
they  rest  on  the  rushes  and  other  aquatic  plants.  It  is  in  the  male 
only  that  the  great  development  of  the  tail  above  alluded  to  is  seen, 
and  the  feathers  of  this  part  exhibit  several  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture. The  two  external  feathers  have  the  barbs  much  broader  on 
one  side  than  on  the  other,  and  the  two  central  feathers,  which 
are  the  most  elongated,  frequently  have  the  barbs  decomposed, 
and  the  termination  of  the  shaft  naked.  They  are  small  Birds,  the 
typical  species  {Alectriirus  tricolor)  being  only  about  six  inches  in 
length. 


The  Thrushes— Family  Turdidcc. 

The  Thrushes,  family  TiirdidcB,  include  many  of  the  most  es- 
teemed songsters  of  various  parts  of  the  world.  In  these  Birds  the 
bill  is  usually  of  a  moderate  length,  rather  stout,  and  compressed 
towards  the  end.  The  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  is  keeled 
and  slightly  convex  ;  its  tip  is  rather  acute,  and  furnished  with  a 
small  notch  or  tooth  on  each  side.  At  the  base  of  the  upper  man- 
dible, on  each   side  of  the  gape,  there  is  a  row  of  bristles,  which, 


Fig.  1 198 Wing  of  the  Blackbird. 

however,  never  attain  the  same  dimensions  as  in  the  preceding  family; 
and,  in  some  cases,  are  so  small  as  to  escape  observation,  unless 
carefully  examined.  The  nostrils  are  situated  on  each  side  of  the 
base  of  the  bill,  generally  oblong  in  form,  and  partially  protected  by 
a  membranous  scale.  The  wings  (Fig.  1198)  are  tolerably  long, 
broad,  and  either  rounded  or  pointed  at  the  end,  with  the  first  quill 
very  small.  The  legs  are  usually  rather  short,  and  moderately  stout ; 
the  tarsi  are  compressed,  and  covered  in  front  with  seven  shields, 
several  of  which,  however,  are  frequently  amalgamated  into  a  single 
plate  (Fig.  1199). 


Fi" 


1199.- 


-Foot  of  the  Blackbird. 


In  their  general  form,  these  Birds  present  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  smaller  species  of  Crows  and  Starlings ;  but  they  are 
usually  more  slender  than  these,  and  inferior  to  them  in  size  ;  our 
common  Blackbirds  and  Thrushes  being  amongst  the  largest 
species.  They  feed  indifferently  upon  Insects,  Worms,  and  fruits  ; 
but  appear  rarely  to  take  their  Insect  food  upon  the  wing,  like  the 
Flycatchers.  On  the  ground,  unlike  the  Crows  and  Starlings,  they 
move  by  hopping  with  both  feet  at  once  ;  but  their  flight  is  less 
undulating  than  that  of  the  generality  of  the  smaller  Passerine  Birds. 
The  species  are  generally  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Of  the  five  sub-families  into  which  this  great  group  is  divided,  the 
first  is  that  of  the  Pyciio?ioti?icu,  or  Bulbuls,  which  are  all  exotic 
Birds,  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  They  have  the  bill 
short  and  compressed,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  curved, 
and  the  gape  furnished  with  bristles  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  in  a 
short  membranous  groove  ;  the  tarsi  are  not  longer  than  the  middle 
toe,  and  usually  covered  by  a  single  plate,  and  the  outer  toe  fre- 
quently longer  than  the  inner  one. 

These  Birds  are  found  abundantly  in  the  East  Indies,  and  some 
species  also  inhabit  Africa.  They  are  the  Bulbuls  of  the  former 
country,  where  several  of  the  species  are  greatly  admired  as  song- 
sters. They  inhabit  w^oods,  jungles,  and  gardens,  and  feed 
principally  on  fruits  and  seeds,  but  also  occasionally  on  Insects, 
which  they  capture  on  the  ground.  The  sprightliness  of  these 
Birds  renders  them  favourites  with  the  natives  of  India ;  and  one 
species,  the  Pyctionotus  jocosus,  which  is  very  easily  tamed,  is 
taught  to  sit  upon  its  master's  hand ;  and  great  numbers  thus 
carried  may  be  seen  in  the  Indian  bazaars.  Another,  the  Pycrio- 
notus  hccmorrJwus,  is  kept  in  the  Carnatic  for  the  purpose  of  fight- 
ing, which  it  does,  according  to  Dr.  Jerdon,  with  some  spirit.  The 
under  tail-coverts  are  red,  and  it  is  said  that  the  combatants 
endeavour  to  seize  and  pull  out  these  feathers.    The  nests  of  these 


464 


THE  ORIOLES. 


Birds  are  made  of  twigs,  the   stalks  of  plants,  fibrous  roots,  moss, 
lichen,  &c.,  frequently  lined  with  hair  or  down.     Their  eggs  are  | 
usually  three  or  four  in  number,  of  a  whitish  colour,  with  dark  spots 
or  blotches.  . 

A  single  specimen  of  a  South  African  species  of  this  group,  the 
Gold- vented  Thrush  {Pycnonottis  atirigaster),  has  been  killed  near 
Waterford ;  but  whether  it  had  strayed  so  far  from  its  ordinary 
home,  or  had  escaped  from  confinement,  it  is  of  course  impossible  to 
say.  Temminck  states  that  another  species,  which  he  Z3\\%  Ixos 
obscurus,  and  which  is  common  in  the  north  of  Africa,  has  been 
found  in  Andalusia.  ~.  .  .        ,     ,  ■„ 

In  the  second  sub-family,  that  of  the  Oriolin(S,  or  Orioles,  the  bill 
is  rather  long,  strong,  nearly  straight,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper 
mandible  slightly  cur\'ed,  and  its  sides  sloping  at  the  base.  The 
bristles  of  the  gape  are  very  small,  so  as  not  to  be  readily  observable  ; 
the  wings  are  rather  long  ;  the  tail  moderate,  straight,  and  rounded 
at  the  extremity ;  the  tarsi  are  short,  covered  with  seven  scales  in 
front ;  the  toes  moderate,  the  anterior  ones  united  at  the  base,  and 
all  furnished  with  curved,  acute  claws. 

The  Orioles  are  all  confined  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  They 
were  formerly  included  in  the  same  group  with  the  Troopials,  which 
now  form  the  sub-families  Qiiiscalina  and  IctcrincE,  amongst  the 
Sturnidce;  and  this  approximation  was  probably  owing  entirely  to 
a  certain  resemblance  in  the  colour  of  the  plumage,  for  the  characters 
of  the  Birds  are  very  different.  The  True  Orioles  live  in  woods  and 
shrubby  places,  usually  in  pairs,  suspending  their  nests,  which  are 
beautifully  constructed,  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches  of  trees. 
The  males  are  generally  beautiful  Birds,  a  golden  yellow  being  the 
predominant  colour  in  their  plumage.  They  live  on  Insects  and 
fruits.  These  Birds  are,  for  the  most  part,  inhabitants  of  Tropical 
countries  ;  but  a  single  species,  the  Golden  Oriole  {Orwius galbula), 
migrates  into  Europe,  in  the  southern  parts  of  which  it  is  abundant, 
although  it  is  only  occasionally  that  specimens  visit  this  island. 
The  following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  this  Bird. 

The  Golden  Orioi.-e.  {Orwhts  galbula). — This  is  supposed  by 
Belon  and  others  to  be  the  x^wpiwi'  of  the  Greeks  :  Galgulus,  Vireo, 
and  Oriolus,  Lat.,   and  the  Picus  of  which  Pliny  (book  x.,  c.  33) 


Fig.  1200.— The  GolJen  Oriole. 

speaks  as  suspending  its  nest  on  a  twig  of  the  topmost  brancnes  of 
a  tree,  after  the  manner  of  a  cup.  It  is  the  Becquafiga,  Brusola, 
Galbedro,  Garbella,  Giallone,  and  Gravolo  gentile  of  the  modern 
Italians  ;  and  Rigogolo  commune  of  the  "  Stor.  degl.  Ucc.  ;"  Turiol 
of  the  Spanish  ;  Loriot,  Compere  Loriot,  and  Orio  of  the  French ; 
Gelbe  Rache,  Gelber  Pirol,  der  Pyrold,  Wiedewal,  &c.,  of  the  Ger- 
mans and  Netherlanders  ;  Goutmerle  of  the  Low  Dutch  ;  Witwall 
of  Willoughby  and  Ray ;  and  y  Fwyalchen  felen  of  the  ancient 
British. 

In  the  genus  Oriolus  the  beak  is  broad  at  the  base,  notched  and 
somewhat  bent  at  the  tip.  Wings  rather  long  ;  tarsi  short.  The 
species  are  all  natives  of  the  Old  World,  where  they  tenant  the 
recesses  of  woods  in  pairs,  building  most  artful  nests. 

The  Golden  Oriole,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  the 


genus,  is  only  an  occasional  visitor  to  aur  islands,  making  its  ap- 
pearance in  April ;  it  has  been  found  in  Hampshire,  Devonshire, 
Cornwall;  near  Manchester;  near  Lancaster;  near  Walton  in 
Surrey,  and  near  Godalming;  at  Cheshunt  (Herts) ;  nearSaxmund- 
ham  in  Suffolk ;  in  Norfolk  ;  at  Tynemouth  in  Durham  ;  and  in 
South  Wales.  It  has  been  seen,  though  rarely,  in  Ireland,  but 
never,  as  far  as  we  can  learn,  in  Scotland.  On  the  continent  it 
advances  as  high  northwards  as  Sweden,  where  it  occasionally 
breeds  ;  it  also  visits  some  of  the  districts  of  Russia,  and  is  found 
in  Germany  and  Holland,  but  more  plentifully  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy,  everywhere  being  a  Bird  of  Passage.  The  Prince  of  Canino 
says  that  it  arrives  near  Rome  in  the  spring,  and  departs  in  autumn. 
It  is  found  in  Malta  and  Greece,  and  along  the  whole  of  the 
northern  line  of  Africa.  An  allied,  but  distinct  species  is  common 
in  India. 

The  Golden  Oriole  is  a  shy  and  suspicious  Bird,  haunting  lonely 
groves  and  thickets  on  the  skirts  of  wood.s,  excepting  in  the  fruit 
season,  when  it  always  frequents  orchards,  to  the  no  small  loss  of 
the  owner.  It  is  difficult  to  get  near  these  Birds,  though  they  are 
sometimes  approached  by  the  sportsman,  under  the  deception  of  his 
imitative  whistle  ;  but  it  requires  great  accuracy  both  of  lips  and 
ear  to  perform  this  fraud,  for  the  least  mistake,  or  one  false  note, 
will  send  the  Bird  off  at  once.  The  food  consists  of  Insects  and 
their  larvee,  berries,  and  fruits,  among  which  figs,  grapes,  and 
cherries  are  favourites.  The  cup  or  rather  saucer-shaped  nest  is 
formed  of  wool  and  slender  grass-stems,  and  placed  in  the  fork 
of  a  tall  branch,  usually  towards  its  extremity.  The  eggs  are 
generally  four  or  five,  purplish-white  with  a  few  ash-grey  and  claret 
spots,  and  the  female  watches  over  them  with  such  maternal  care, 
that  it  is  said  she  will  suffer  herself  to  be  taken  rather  than  abandon 
them.  In  this  country  nests  have  been  taken  in  Suffolk  and  Norfolk. 
Fig.  1201  represents  the  nest  of  this  species.  The  Golden  Oriole 
gets  very  fat  after  its  summer  feed  of  fruits.  Willoughby  saw  many 
of  them  in  the  poulterers'  shops  at  Naples,  and  says  that  "  it  hath 
very  delicate  flesh,  and  yields  wholesome  nourishment." 

Description. — Male  : — Golden     yellow,    a    blackish-brown     spot 
between  the  eye  and  the  bill ;  wings  and  tail  black ;  a  yellow  spot 


Fig.  1201. — Nest  of  the  Golden  Oriole. 

on  the  quills,  not  far  from  the  middle  of  the  wing  when  closed  ;  and 
the  tail-feathers  terminated  with  yellow  ;  bill  reddish-maroon  ;  iris 
red;  feet  bluish-grey.  Length,  rather  more  than  ten  inches.  Mr. 
Hoy  agrees  with  Mr.  Yarrell  that  the  male  does  not  obtain  its 
brillian"t  yellow  and  black  till  the  third  year.  Female  :— Greenish- 
olive  above  ;  greyish-white  with  a  yellowish  tint  below,  where  the 
plumage  is  marked  with  somewhat  distant  greyish-brown  short 
stripes  or  dashes  disposed  longitudinally;  wings  brown,  bordered 
with  olivaceous  grey ;  tail  olivaceous  tinged  with  black  ;  yellowish 
beneath  with  a  brownish-black  mark  somewhat  in  the  form  of  an 
irregular  Y  ;  no  dark  streak  behind  the  bill  and  the  eye.  The  young 
of  the  year  resemble  the  female  ,  but  the  longitudinal  stripes  of  the 
lower  parts  are  more  numerous  and  deeper  in  colour;  bill  blackish- 
grey  and  iris  brown.  The  upper  figure  represents  the  female,  the 
lower  the  male.     (See  Fig.  1200.) 

The  voice  of  the  Golden  Oriole  is  loud,  and  has  been  compared  to 
the  sound  of  a  flute  ;  Bechstcin  says  it  resembles  the  word  puhlo. 
The  names  applied  to  the  Bird  in  different  European  languages,  are 
also  supposed  to  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  imitations  of  its  note.  These 
have  already  been  given  at  the  head  of  this  article.  The  Italian 
peasantry  are  said  to  believe  that  the  Bird  kindly  indicates  the 
ripening  of  the  figs,  pronouncing  notes  in  which  they  recognise  the 
words  Contadino  e  matiiro  lo  fico ;  it  would  seem  more  natural,  how- 
ever, that  the  Oriole  should  take  advantage  of  his  knowledge  of  this 
fact  for  his  own  benefit,  without  troubling  about  informing  his  human 
neighbours  of  it.    The  note  of  some  of  the  Indian  species  is  described 


THE  TRUE  THRUSHES. 


4C5 


by  different  observers  as  very  similar  to  that  attributed  by  Bechstcin 
to  the  European  Bird.  A  very  nearly  allied  species,  the  Mango-Bird, 
or  Golden  Oriole  of  India  {Oriolus  kitndoo),  is  said  by  Dr.  Jerdon  to 
have  "  a  loud,  mellow,  plaintive  cry,  somethina;-  rescmblinjr  pecho  ;  " 
and  Mr.  Pearson  says  of  the  Black-headed  Oriole  (O.  mcIa?ioccpha- 
lits),  which  is  exceedingly  common  in  Bengal,  that  it  has  a  mono- 
tonous, low  note,  resembling  "one  lengthened  full-toned  note  on  the 
flute,"  which  is  so  constantly  repeated  during  the  spring,  that  it  is  a 
positive  nuisance. 

Most  of  the  foreign  species  of  the  group  resemble  the  Golden 
Oriole,  both  in  characters  and  habits;  but  one  species,  the  Regent- 
Bird,  or  King  \\oncy-e3.\.ci  {Scn'cu/us  chrysoceJ>/ialiis),  of  Australia, 
is  remarkable  from  its  having  the  tip  of  the  tongue  terminated  by  a 
pencil  of  fine  filaments  like  that  of  the  Honey-eaters  {Me/ijt/iagiiia:), 
amongst  which  this  Bird  has  indeed  been  placed  by  some  authors. 
The  male  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Australian  Birds ;  its 
plumage,  which  is  very  glossy  and  satin-like,  is  variegated  with  two 
colours,  deep  black  and  brilliant  yellow,  the  latter  tinged  with  orange 
in  some  places.  The  female  is  dingy  in  its  appearance.  The 
Regent-Birds  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Australian  conti- 
nent, where  they  inhabit  the  recesses  of  the  forests,  and  appear  to  be 
exceedingly  shy.     They  feed  upon  fruits  and  seeds. 

The  third  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Tima!i)i(B,  or  Babblers,  a  group 
of  Birds  confined  to  India,  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  Australia. 
They  have  the  bill  usually  elongated,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper 
mandible  much  curved  throughout,  and  the  tip  entire,  or  but  slightly 
notched.  The  nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible, 
usually  in  an  oval  groove,  and  have  the  aperture  more  or  less  exposed  ; 
the  wings  are  rounded  ;  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth,  and  sometimes 
the  sixth  and  seventh  quills  being  longest  ;  the  tail  is  graduated  ; 
the  tarsi  are  elongated  and  stout,  usually  covered  in  front  by  a  single 
plate  ;  and  the  toes  moderate,  or  long  and  strong,  furnished  with 
stout,  compressed,  curved,  and  acute  claws,  of  which  that  on  the 
hinder  toe  is  usually  much  longer  than  its  fellows. 

The  Birds  composing  this  group  are  of  small  size,  and,  like  the 
Cori'ida,  which  they  resemble  in  their  noisy  habits,  are  gregarious. 
They  frequent  the  forests  and  woods  exclusively;  but  except  for  the 
purpose  of  nidification  and  roosting,  they  rarely  perch  upon  the  trees, 
their  food  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  Insects,  which  they  pick  up 
on  the  ground,  and  in  search  of  which  they  often  scratch  in  the  earth 
with  their  bills  and  feet,  in  the  manner  of  the  Rasorial  Birds.  They 
are  commonly  seen  upon  the  roads  and  pathways  which  lead  through 
the  forests,  attracted  there  by  the  Insects  which  come  to  seek  the  dung 
of  passing  animals  ;  but  on  some  occasions,  when  their  ordinary 
food  is  scarce,  they  appear  to  seek  Caterpillars  upon  the  trees,  and 
sometimes  feed  on  fruits,  which  also  appear  to  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  some  species.  They  build  their  nests  usually  in  the 
lower  branches  of  trees,  forming  them  of  twigs,  roots,  grass,  moss, 
and  lichens.  Their  eggs  are  usually  from  two  to  four  in  number, 
and  vary  greatly  in  colour — -those  of  some  species  being  blue  or  green  ; 
those  of  others  pure  white,  or  white  with  brown  blotches. 

Many  of  the  species  have  a  sweet  song,  and  others  are  excellent 
imitators  of  other  Birds.  Some  are  noted  for  a  singular  cry,  which 
resembles  a  loud  human  laugh,  and  this  peculiarity  has  obtained  for 
two  or  three  of  the  species  the  names  of  the  Laughing  Crow  and 
Laughing  Thrush,  from  the  Europeans  in  India.  The  cry  of  the 
Laughing  Thrush  {Pte?-ocycliis  cachinjiatis)  is  said  by  Dr.  Jerdon  to 
be  a  peculiar  "  sort  of  cracked  Punch-and-Judy  laugh,"  which  is  no 
sooner  commenced  by  one  than  several  others  take  up  the  chorus. 
The  Garrulax  leucolophus,  or  Laughing  Crow,  is  also  said  to  pro- 
duce a  sound  closely  resembling  the  human  laugh. 

In  confinement,  these  Birds  are  easily  tamed,  and  appear  to  be 
rather  amusing  pets.  Mr.  R.  W.  G.  Frith  has  given  the  following 
account  of  a  specimen  of  the  Black-faced  Thrush  of  \'c\^\3.{Garriilax 
sinensis),  which  he  kept  for  some  time.  "  The  bird,"  he  says,  "  was 
excessively  tame  and  familiar,  and  delighted  (like  a  cockatoo)  in  be- 
ing caressed  and  tickled  by  the  hand,  when  it  would  spread  out  its 
wings,  and  assume  very  singular  attitudes.  It  was  naturally  a  fine 
songster,  and  a  most  universal  imitator.  Whenever  chopped  meat 
or  other  food  was  put  into  its  cage  it  always  evinced  the  propensity 
to  deposit  the  bits  one  by  one  between  the  wires  ;  and  when  a  bee  or 
wasp  was  offered,  this  bird  would  seize  it  instantly,  and  invariably 
turn  its  tail  round,  and  make  the  insect  sting  this  several  times  suc- 
cessively before  eating  it.  A  large  beetle  it  would  place  before  it  on 
the  ground,  and  pierce  it  with  a  violent  downward  stroke  of  the  bill  ; 
a  small  snake  (about  a  foot  long)  it  treated  in  like  manner,  trans- 
fixing the  centre  of  the  head  ;  it  afterwards  devoured  about  half  the 
snake,  holding  it  by  one  foot,  while  it  picked  it  with  the  bill,  as  was 
its  common  mode  of  feeding." 

One  of  the  Indian  species,  the  Malacocercus  malcolmi,  appears  to 
be  a  Bird  of  great  courage  ;  for  although  its  flight,  like  that  of  the 
other  members  of  the  group,  is  by  no  means  strong,  yet  if  a  small 
Hawk  be  flown  at  a  flock  of  the  species  they  will  immediately  mob 
the  Hawk,  endeavouring  to  compel  it  to  release  the  one  it  has 
seized. 

The  Spotted  Ground-Thrush  of  Australia  {Cinclosoma  ;punctatH-)n') 
is  another  species  of  this  sub-family.     It  inhabits  the  eastern  part  of 


Australia  and  Van  Diomen's  Land,  and  its  habits  appear  to  be  mora 
decidedly  terrestrial  than  those  of  any  other  of  the  group.  According 
to  Mr.  Gould  It  frequents  low  stony  hills  and  rocky  gullies,  especially 
those  covered  with  shrubs  and  grasses.  Its  power  of  flight  is  very 
small,  and  rarely  exercised,  except  for  passing  from  one  bush  to 
another  ;  but  on  the  ground  it  runs  with  great  swiftness.  The  nest 
IS  carelessly  made  of  leaves  and  the  bark  of  trees,  and  placed  on  the 
ground,  under  the  shelter  of  a  large  stone,  the  stump  of  a  tree,  or  a 
tuft  of  grass.  The  eggs  arc  generally  two  in  number,  white,  with 
large  olive-brown  blotches.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  deli- 
cate ;  and  in  Hobart  Town  it  is  frequently  sold  in  the  market  with 
other  small  Birds ;  it  is  there  called  the  Ground  Dove. 

In  the  Turdiiicc,  or  True  Thrushes,  the  bill  is  of  moderate  length 
usually  about  as  long  as  the  head,  tolerably  stout  and  compressed! 
with  the  upper  mandible  notched  at  the  tip,  and  its  ridge  curved  •' 
the  gape  is  furnished  with  bristles,  and  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the 
base  of  the  bill,  with  their  opening  exposed.     The  wings  are  rounded, 


"wm 


Fig.  1202.— Head  of  the  Missel  Thrush. 

with  the  first  quill  very  short,  the  third  and  fourth  longest ;  the  tarsi  are 
rather  long,  sometimes  covered  with  seven  shields  in  front,  but 
more  frequently  either  with  a  single  long  plate,  or  with  three  or  four 
shields  and  a  plate  ;  the  toes  are  long  and  stout,  the  outer  one  longer 
than  the  inner,  and  united  to  the  middle  toe  at  the  base,  and  all  fur- 
nished with  curved  and  acute  claws. 

The  TurdiiKZ  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  generally  fre- 
quenting fields  and  pastures  in  search  of  food,  but  retiring  to  the 
woods  and  thickets  for  security  when  roosting,  and  during  the  breed- 
ing season.  Their  nests  are  usually  very  neatly  made,  comprised  of 
grasses,  tvvigs,  and  moss,  frequently  lined  with  a  thin  layer  of  mud, 
within  which  is  another  layer  of  soft  vegetable  substances  for  the 
reception  of  the  eggs.  The  latter  are  usually  five  or  six  in  number ; 
variable  in  colour,  but  commonly  freckled  with  dark  spots.  The  food 
of  the  Thrushes  consists  both  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters, 
such  as  Insects  and  their  larva;,  Worms,  Snails,  fruits,  and  seeds. 


Fig.  1203.— Nest  of  the  Song-Thrush. 

Several  species  have  been  found  in  Britain,  of  which  one,  which 
has  been  described  under  the  name  of  White's  Thrush  {Turdus 
-luhitei)  only  visits  Europe  occasionally,  and  appears  to  be  positively 

30 


^66 


THE   TRUE  THRUSHES. 


identical  with  a  Japanese  species,  which  again  is  very  closely  allied 
to  a  species  from  Java,  described  by  Dr.  Horsfield  under  the  name  of 
Tardus  variiis.  Indeed,  by  some  authors,  the  Tardus  w'hitei  has 
been  regarded  as  identical  with  Dr.  Horsfield's  species.  Of  the 
remaining  species,  three — namely,  the  Blackbird  {I'urdas  incrula], 
the  Missel  Thrush  {T.  viscivoras.  Fig.  1202),  and  the  Song-Thrush 
(T.  inusicus) — are  permanent  residents  ;  whilst  the  others  are  regu- 
lar visitors  ;  two  of  them,  the  Fieldfare  [T. pilaris)  and  the  Redwing 
(7".  iliacus),  in  winter,  and  one,  the  Ring  Ouzel  {T.  torquatus),  in 
summer. 
The  Song-Thrush  {Tardus  t>iasicus).—CnxQ  and  Petite  Grive 


Fig.  1204. — Group  of  British  Birds, 
the  Meadow  Pipit ;  li,  the  Tree  Pipit ;  c,  the  Thrash  ;  d,  the  Blackbird  ; 


of  the  French  ;  Tordo  and  Tordo  Botaccio  of  the  Italians ;  Sing- 
drossel  and  Weiss-drossel  of  the  Germans  ;  Throstle  or  Mavis,  pro- 
vincial English  ;  Adcryn  Bronfraith  of  the  ancient  British.  (See  c 
in  group  of  British  Birds.) 

This  splendid  songster  is  common  over  the  greater  portion  of 
Europe,  being  migratory  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  the  northern  dis- 
tricts, but  stationary  in  our  island,  and  in  France,  Italy,  and  other 
parts  of  the  south.  As  the  winter  advances,  flights  of  Thrushes  arrive 
in  Great  Britain  with  a  north  or  north-cast  wind;  and,  after  staying 
a  few  days  to  recruit,  move  southwards. 


The  Thrush  is  a  hardy  Bird,  and  begins  to  enliven  the  woods  and 
glens  with  his  rich-toned  notes  even  as  early  as  the  month  of 
January  if  the  season  be  temperate  ;  and  pairs  and  commences  the 
work  of  nidification  in  March.  The  nest  is  generally  in  a  thick  bush, 
amidst  clustering  ivy,  or  closely-tangled  bowers  of  dog-roses,  in 
woods,  or  in  full  evergreens,  as  the  Portugal  laurel  or  holly. 
Externally,  it  is  composed  of  bent  twigs,  moss,  and  grass  closely 
interwoven,  being  plastered  within  with  a  very  thin  smooth  layer  of 
rotten  wood,  cemented  by  glutinous  saliva,  and  laid  as  a  coating,  or 
fine  cement,  upon  a  thick  layer  of  cow-dung,  scarcely  carried  so  high 
as  the  brim  of  the  nest.     This  lining  is  w^aterproof  and  tough,  and 

well  calculated  for  protecting  the 
eggs  or  young  from  the  keen 
winds  of  early  spring.  Fig.  1203 
represents  the  nest  of  the  Song- 
Thrush.  Two  broods  are  pro- 
duced yearly.  It  may,  perhaps, 
be  fancy,  but  we  think  that  we 
have  heard  a  great  difference  in 
the  power,  variety,  and  richness  of 
the  notes  of  different  individuals 
of  this  species :  the  notes  of  those 
that  frequent  the  wooded  rocks 
bordering  the  Bakewell  Road, 
near  Buxton,  have  always  ap- 
peared to  excel  those  of  any 
others  to  which  we  ever  listened ; 
but  perhaps  this  superiority  was 
owing,  in  some  measure,  to  the 
nature  of  their  locality,  the  rocks 
reverberating  the  sound. 

Worms,  Snails,  Slugs,  Insects, 
and  berries  constitute  the  food  of 
the  Thrush.  The  common  Gar- 
den-Snail {Helix  hortensis)  and 
the  Wood-Snail  {Helix  ?ie/no- 
ralis)  are  greedily  devoured, 
the  Bird  beating  the  shell  against 
a  stone  till  it  is  completely  broken, 
and  the  contents  are  disengaged. 
The  Missel  Thrush  {T.  vis- 
civorus). — This  is  the  largest  of 
our  species,  and  one  of  the  largest 
Birds  in  the  group,  measuring 
about  eleven  inches  in  length. 
It  is  not  a  very  abundant  Bird  ; 
but  is  pretty  generally  distri- 
buted, frequenting  small  woods 
and  copses,  and  occasionally 
trees  in  hedges.  It  breeds  early 
in  the  spring,  usually  in  April, 
and  the  song  of  the  male,  which 
resembles  that  of  the  Blackbird, 
is  sometimes  commenced  as  early 
as  February.  During  the  breed- 
ing season,  the  Missel  Thrush  is 
very  quarrelsome,  driving  all  the 
smaller  Birds  away  from  its 
neighbourhood  ;  hence,  accord- 
ing to  Pennant,  the  Welsh  have 
given  it  the  name  of  Fcnn  y 
llwyn,  or  the  Master  of  the  Copse. 
It  feeds,  to  a  great  extent,  upon 
berries,  and  is  said  to  be  particu- 
larly addicted  to  those  of  the 
mistletoe,  from  which  its  common 
name  is  derived  ;  in  this  manner 
it  is  supposed  to  perform  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  diffusion  of 
that  singular  plant.  Its  head 
has  been  already  illustrated  in 
Fig.  1202,  ante;  and  Fig.  1205 
represents  the  nest. 

The  Wood-Thrush  {Tiir- 
das  muslelitnis,  Gmel.);  Tawny 
Thrush,  Pennant;  Tardus  tne- 
lodus,  Wilson. — In  the  woods  of 
North  America,  this  species  represents  our  British  songster  ;  it  is  of 
shy,  retiring  habits,  preferring  the  most  secluded  places,  where  the 
foliage  of  lofty  trees  overhangs  murmuring  streamlets,  and  forms  a 
dense  shade.  Its  song,  though  composed  of  but  few  notes,  is 
powerful,  distinct,  clear,  and  mellow,  and  is  continued  after  sunset, 
various  rivals  endeavouring,  as  it  would  seem,  to  excel  each  other. 
The  nest  of  this  species  is  usually  placed  in  a  low  horizontal  branch 
of  the  dogwood  tree,  and,  according  to  Audubon,  is  composed 
externally  of  dry  leaves,  to  which  succeeds  a  layer  of  intertwined 
grasses,  then  a  layer  of  mud,  lined  internally  with  fmc  fibrous  roots. 


the  Skylark, 


THE  THRUSHES. 


46jr 


Description  : — General  colour  above  bright  cinnamon  brown,  inclin- 
ing to  olive  on  the  rump  and  tail  ;  beneath,  whitish,  thickly  marked 
with  pencil-shaped  dusky  spots.  Length  eight  inches.  (See  Fig. 
1206.) 

The  Red-breasted  Thru.sh  [Tiirdics  erythrogastcr). — This 
species  is  a  native  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  and  is  figured  by  Mr. 
Gould  in  his  "  Century  of  Birds."     The  male  is  bluish-grey  above  ;• 


Fig.  1205.— Nest  of  the  Missel  Thrush. 

with  the  cheeks,  sides  of  the  neck,  and  quill-feathcrs,  black  ;  the 
breast,  under  parts,  and  rump  red.  The  female  differs  in  being  of  a 
bluish-brown  above,  and  having  the  under  parts  reddish-white, 
marked  with  transverse  undulations  of  brown.  The  lower  fig'urc 
regresents  the  female.     (Sec  Fig.  1207.) 


Fig.  1206.— The  Wood  Thrush. 

The  Fieldfare  {I'urdtis  ■pilaris).  La  Litorne,  Cuffon  ;  Merle 
Litorne,  Temminck  ;  Wachholder-drossel,  Bechstein. — This  species 
is  a  native  of  the  cold  regions  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Laf  land,  and 
other  northern  countries,  whence,  as  winter  sets  in,  it  migrates 
southwards.  It  seldom  visits  our  island  before  the  latter  part  of 
November,  and  departs  again  northwards  late  in  May.  It  breeds  in 
pine  or  fir  trees,  and  the  eggs  are  bluish-green,  spotted  with  reddish- 
brown.  During  its  winter  sojourn  with  us  the  Fieldfare  associates  in 
flocks,  which,  as  long  as  the  weather  is  open,  frequent  meadows  and 
pasture-grounds,  feeding  upon  Worms,  Slugs,  and  the  larvae  of 
Insects,  but  resorting  in  severe  frosts  to  hedges,  copses,  and  planta- 
tions for  the  sake  of  the  berries  of  the  hawthorn,  the  holly,  and  the 
mountain-ash.  The  Fieldfare  is  shy  and  wary,  and  not  easily 
approached  within  gun-range,  and  consequently  gives  some  trouble 
to  the  sportsmen,  unless  when,  pressed  by  hunger,  it  be  too  much 
engaged  in  satisfying  its  appetite  to  attend  to  what  passes  around  it. 
This  species  is  about  ten  inches  long.  The  head  and  hind  part  of 
the  neck  are  of  a  greyish  colour,  the  former  spotted  with  black  ;  the 
bill  is  yellowish-black  at  the  point  ;  the  back  and  lesser  wing-coverts 
chestnut ;  the  breast  and  sides  reddish-yellow  ;  tail  blackish  ;  legs 
black.     (See  o,  Fig.  1208.) 


The  Redwing  {Turdus  tiiacus).  Merle  mauvis,  Temminck; 
Roth-drossel,  Bechstein. — Like  the  Fieldfare,  this  species  is  a 
native  of  Norway,  Sweden,  &c.,  and  visits  our  island  about  the  latter 
part  of  October,  associating  in  flocks,  which,  witli  those  of  the 
Fieldfare,  should  the  weather  be  severe,  continue  their  migration 
still  farther  southwards.  Yet  it  often  happens  that,  during  deep 
snows,  numbers  both  of  this  species  and  of  the  Fieldfare  perish  from 
hunger  and  cold. 


Fig.  1207. — Red-breasted  Thiushes. 

The  Redwing  is  very  similar  to  the  Throstle  or  Common  Tlirush, 
with  which  it  is  often  seen  among  the  hawthorn-trees  and  ivy-bushes, 
or  roaming  over  the  meadows  in  search  of  food  ;  but  it  is  less  in  size, 
and  has  a  white  streak  over  the  eye,  which  in  that  Bird  is  wanting. 
It  is  about  eight  and  a-half  inches  in  length,  and  of  the  average  weight 
of  two  and  a-half  ounces.  The  bill  is  of  a  dusky  colour,  except  at  the 
base  of  the  upper  mandible,  which  partakes  of  a  yellowish  hue  ;  the 
back  and  upper  parts  are  brown,  the  lower  part  of  the  breast  is 
white,  marked  with  dusky  lines,  the  body  under  the  wings  reddish- 
orange,  and  the  legs  pale  brown.  There  is  also  to  be  noticed  the 
whitish  streak  over  the  eye,  mentioned  above. 

The  song  of  the  Redwing,  when  heard  in  its  native  woods,  has 
such  a  charming  effect,  heightened  by  the  rough  character  of  most 
of  the  other  woodland  sounds  of  the  northern  country,  that  the  Bird 
has  been  called  the  Nightingale  of  Norway.  With  us,  however,  it 
does  not  appear  to  exert  its  vocal  powers  with  such  effect.  lis 
common  note  is  rather  a  harsh  scream,  though  it  has  been  compared 
by  Mr.  Slaney  to  "  a  sort  of  inward  deep-drawn  sigh,  like  an  attempt 
at  ventriloquism."  In  fine  weather,  however,  we  may  often  hear 
them,  while  perched  high  on  the  trees,  singing  with  a  subdued  voice 
in  a  very  pleasing  manner.  The  Redwing  is  known  in  different  parts 
of  England  by  the  names  of  the  Red-sided  Thrush,  the  Wind-Thrush, 
and  the  Swine-pipe.     (See  b,  Fig.  1208.) 

The  Blackbird  [Tterdus  merula;  Merula  vulgaris).  Merle 
noir,  Temminck  ;  Schwartz-drossel,  Bechstein. — This  beautiful 
songster,  with  yellow  bill  and  jet-black  plumage,  is  too  well  known 
to  need  minute  description.  It  is  a  shy  Bird,  frequenting  hedge 
rows,  thickets,  shrubberies,  and  large  gardens,  and  when  disturbed 
or  surprised  escapes  into  the  covert  of  dense  foliage,  uttering  a  loud 
sharp  cry  of  alarm.  Its  song  is  clear  and  melodious,  but  not  so 
varied  as  that  of  the  Thrush.  Like  that  Bird,  it  feeds  upon  Slugs, 
shelled  Snails,  and  Insects,  and  also  upon  currants,  cherries,  peas, 
cSrc,  often  making  much  havoc  in  the  garden,  as,  indeed,  does  the 
Thrush  ;  but  they  both  compensate  for  this  by  the  destruction  of 
Snails  and  Slugs,  and  by  their  melody. 

Early  in  spring  the  Blackbird  begins  its  nest ;  a  thickset  hedge- 
row, an  insulated  bush  of  some  dense  evergreen,  or  a  bower  of  ivy, 
are  all  favourite  places.  The  outer  frame-work  of  the  nest  consists 
of  moss,  small  sticks,  grasses,  and  fibres,  with  an  inner  coat  of  mud 
plaster,  over  which  is  a  lining  of  fine  dry  grass  (see  Fig.  1209,  the 
nest  of  the  Blackbird).  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  of  a 
bluish-green,    variegated    with   darker  markings  (see  Fig.     1210.) 


468 


THE  THRUSHES. 


Two  or  even  three  broods  are  hatched  and  reared  during  the  spring 

and  summer.  ,     ,      •.  iv     u        <■ 

The  female  of  this  species  is  brownish-black  above,  the  breast 
bein<^  pale  umber  brown,  the  margin  of  each  feather  passmg  into 
OT-eyTsh-white.  Bill  and  legs  blackish-brown.  The  young  arc 
timilar  to  the  females,  and  the  males  do  not  acquire  their  glossy 
black  and  orange  yellow  bill  till  after  the  second  moult.  White,  and 
cream-white  varieties,  albinos  in  fact,  are  sometimes  met  with,  (.bee 
Fig.  I21I.) 


1208. — a,  the  Fieldfare  ;  b,  the  Redw: 


The  Mocking-Bird,  or  Polyglot  Thrush  {Mimas  j>oly- 
glottiis ;  Orp/ieits  ^olyglottus ;  Turdus  ^o/yg/ottusJ.—VcchsL^s 
this  celebrated  Bird,  if  it  be  not  over-praised,  stands  unrivalled 
in  powers  of  song  :  it  is  a  native  of  both  North  and  South  America, 
having  been  traced  from  the  United  States  to  Brazil,  and  also  among 
many  of  the  adjacent  islands.  They  are,  however,  much  more 
numerous  in  those  States  south  than  those  north  of  the  river  Dela- 


Fig.  1209. — Nest  of  the  Blackbird. 


ware  being  generally  migratory  in  the  latter,  and  resident  (at  least 
many  of  them)  in  the  former.  A  warm  climate,  and  low  country  not 
far  from  the  sea,  seem  most  congenial  to  their  nature  ;  the  species  is 
accordint^ly  found  to  be  less  numerous  to  the  west  than  east  of  the 
srreat  range  of  Alleghany,  in  the  same  parallels  of  latitude.  In 
these  re<rions,  the  berries  of  the  red  cedar,  myrtle,  holly,  many 
species  of  smilax,  together  with  gum-berries,  gall-bernes,  and  a 
profuse  variety  of  others,  abound,  and  furnish  them  with  a  perpetual 
feast.     Winged  Insects,  also,  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  which 

they  are  very  expert  in  catch- 
ing, are  there  plentiful,  even 
in  the  winter  season.  (See 
Fig.  1212.) 

The  nest  varies  a  little,  ac- 
cording to  the  conveniency  of 
collecting  suitable  materials. 
Generally  it  is  composed  of, 
first,  a  quantity  of  dry  twigs 
and  sticks,  then  withered  tops 
of  weeds  of  the  preceding  year, 
intermixed  with  fine  straw,  hay, 
pieces  of  wood,  and  tow  ;  and, 
lastly,  a  thick  layer  of  fine 
fibrous  roots,  of  a  light  brown 
colour,  lines  the  whole.  The 
female  sits  fourteen  days,  and 
generally  produces  two  broods 
in  the  season,  unless  robbed  of 
her  eggs,  in  which  case  she 
will  even  build  and  lay  the 
third  time.  She  is,  however, 
very  jealous  of  her  nest,  and 
very  apt  to  forsake  it  if  much 
disturbed.  During  the  period 
of  incubation,  neither  Cat, 
Dog,  animal,  nor  man  can 
approach  the  nest  without 
being  attacked.  The  Cats,  in 
particular,  are  persecuted 
whenever  they  make  their  ap- 
pearance, till  obliged  to  re- 
treat. But  his  whole  venge- 
ance is  more  particularly 
directed  against  that  mortal 
enemy  of  his  eggs  and  young, 
the  Black  Snake. 

The  plumage  of  the  Mock- 
ing-Bird is  soberly  coloured, 
but  the  figure  of  the  Bird  is 
very  graceful,  and  well  propor- 
tioned. The  ease,  elegance, 
and  rapidity  of  its  movements, 
the  animation  of  his  eye,  and 
the  intelligence  which  he  dis- 
plays in  listening  and  laying  up 
lessons  from  almost  every  species  of  the  feathered  race  within  his 
hearing,  are  really  surprising,  and  mark  the  peculiarity  of  his  genius. 
To  these  qualities  may  be  added  that  of  a  full  voice,  strong,  and 
musical,  and  capable  of  almost  every  modulation,  from  the  clear 
mellow  tones  of  the  Wood-Thrush  to  the  savage  scream  of  the  Bald 

Eagle.  In  measure  and  accent  he 
faithfully  follows  his  originals ;  in 
force  and  sweetness  of  expression  he 
greatly  improves  upon  them.  In  his 
native  groves,  mounted  on  the  top  of 
a  tall  bush  or  half-grown  tree,  in  the 
dawn  of  the  morning,  while  the  woods 
are  already  vocal  with  a  multitude  of 
warblers,  his  admirable  song  rises 
pre-eminent  over  every  competitor. 
His  own  native  notes  are  bold  and 
full,  and  varied  seemingly  beyond  all 
limits.  They  consist  of  short  expres- 
sions of  two,  three,  or,  at  the  most,  five  or  six  syllables,  generally 
interspersed  with  imitations,  and  all  of  them  uttered  with  great 
emphasis  and  rapidity,  and  continued  with  undiminished  ardour  for 
half-an-hour  or  an  hour  at  a  time.  While  thus  exerting  itself,  a 
bystander,  destitute  of  sight,  would  suppose  that  the  whole  feathered 
tribes  had  assembled  together  on  a  trial  of  skill,  each  striving  to 
produce  his  utmost  effect.  He  often  deceives  the  sportsman,  and 
sends  him  in  search  of  Birds  that  are  not,  perhaps,  within  miles  of 
him,  but  whose  notes  he  exactly  imitates  :  even  Birds  themselves 
are  frequently  imposed  upon  by  this  admirable  mimic,  and  are 
decoyed  by  the  fancied  calls  of  their  mates,  or  dive  with  precipita- 
tion into  the  depth  of  thickets  at  the  scream  of  what  they  suppose  to 
be  the  Sparrow-Hawk. 

The  INIocking-Bird  loses  little  of  the  power  and  energy  of  his  song 


Fig.   1210.  — Egg  of  the  Black- 
bird, 


THE    ANT-THRUSHES. 


469 


by  confinement.  In  his  domesticated  state,  -when  he  commences  his 
career  of  song-,  it  is  impossible  to  stand  by  uninterested.  Ho 
whistles  for  the  Dog ;  Cssar  starts  up,  wags  his  tail,  and  runs  to 


Fig.  12 1 1. — Blackbirds. 

meet  his  master.  He  squeaks  out  like  a  hurt  Chicken,  and  the  Hen 
hurries  about  with  hanging  wings  and  bristled  feathers,  chuckling  to 
protect  its  injured  brood.  The  barking  of  the  Dog,  the  mewing  of 
the  Cat,  the  creaking  of  a  passing  wheelbarrow,  are  followed  with 
great  truth  and  rapidity.  He  repeats  the  tune  taught  him  by  his 
master,  though  of  considerable  length,  fully  and  faithfully  ;  he  runs 
over  the  quaverings  of  the  Canary,  and  the  clear  whistlings  of  the 
Virginian  Nightingale,  or  Red-Bird,  with  such  superior  execution  and 
effect,  that  the  mortified  songsters  feel  their  own  inferiority,  and 
become  altogether  silent,  while  he  seems  to  triumph  in  their  defeat 
by  redoubling  his  exertions. 

This  excessive  fondness  for  variety,  however,  in  the  opinion  of 
some,  injures  his  song.  His  elevated  imitations  of  the  Brown 
Thrush  are  frequently  interrupted  by  the  crowing  of  Cocks  ;  and  the 
warblings  of  the  Blue-Bird,  which  he  exquisitely  manages,  are 
mingled  with  the  screaming  of  Swallows  or  the  cackling  of  Hens. 
Amidst  the  simple  melody  of  the  Robin,  one  is  suddenly  surprised  by 
the  shrill  reiterations  of  the  Whip-poor- Will,  while  the  notes  of  the 
Kildeer,  Blue  Jay,  Martin,  Baltimore,  and  twenty  others,  succeed 
with  such  imposing  reality,  that  the  auditors  look  round  for  the 
originals,  and  with  astonishment  discover  that  the  sole  performer  in 
this  singular  concert  is  the  admirable  Bird  now  before  us.  During 
this  exhibition  of  his  powers,  he  spreads  his  wings,  expands  his  tail, 
and  throws  himself  around  the  cage  in  all  the  ecstasy  of  enthusiasm, 
seeming  not  only  to  sing,  but  to  dance,  keeping  time  to  the  measure 
of  his  own  music.  Both  in  his  native  and  domesticated  state, 
during  the  stillness  of  the  night,  as  soon  as  the  moon  rises,  he 
begins  his  delightful  .solo,  making  the  whole  neighbourhood  resound 
with  his  inimitable  medley. 

The  Mocking-Bird  is  about  nine  inches  and  a-half  long.  The 
general  colour  of  all  the  upper  parts  is  a  dark-brownish  ash.     The 


quill-feathers  and  coverts  are  brownish-black,  the  former  white  at 
their  base,  and  covered  there  by  the  white  feathers  of  the  spurious 
wing,  which  have  a  black  spot  at  the  tips  ;  the  latter  slightly  tipped 

with  white.  The  two  middle  tail- 
feathers  dusky  black,  the  rest  more 
or  less  extensively  white  on  their  inner 
vane,  except  the  outermost  on  each 
side,  which  is  wholly  white ;  under 
parts  generally  pale-greyish  brown : 
iris  yellow,  inclining  to  a  pale  gold- 
colour.  Bill  and  legs  black.  The 
plumage  of  the  female  is  duller  than 
that  of  the  male.  In  hot  climates, 
the  Turdiiicc  appear  generally  to 
inhabit  the  mountainous  districts. 
Some  of  the  Indian  species  are  found 
at  an  elevation  of  5,000  or  6,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  Some  of  them, 
belonging  to  the  genera  Pctrocincla 
and  Orocctes,  inhabit  rocky  places, 
and  build  in  the  holes  of  rocks. 

Numerous  specimens  of  the  Thrushes 
may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Formicari/io',  or  Ant-Thrushes, 
constituting  the  last  group  of  this 
family,  closely  resemble  the  Thrushes 
in  their  characters,  but  have  the  wings 
and  tail  much  shorter.  In  the  form 
of  the  bill  they  are  very  similar  to  the 
True  Thrushes  ;  but  the  tip  is  often 
slightly  hooked,  and  the  nostrils  are 
placed  in  a  membranous  groove.  The 
tarsi  are  long,  occasionally  covered  in 
front  with  several  scales  (Fig.  12 13), 
sometimes  with  a  single  long  plate 
(Fig.  12 14).  They  are,  for  the  most 
part,  inhabitants  of  the  Tropical  re- 
gions of  both  hemispheres,  where 
they  live  in  the  forests  and  thickets, 
sometimes  perching'  upon  bushes  and 
the  lower  branches  of  trees,  or  living 
principally  upon  the  ground.  Their 
food  consists  almost  entirely  of  Insects, 
principally  Coleoptera  and  Ants  ; 
and  from  the  great  numbers  of  the 
latter  Insects  which  they  destroy  in 
some  localities,  especially  the  Tropical 
forests  of  South  America,  the  name 
of  Ant-Thrushes,  commonly  given  to 
these  Birds,  is  derived. 

From  the  shortness  of  their  wings, 
these  Birds  generally  fly  very  indiffer- 
ently ;  and  Mr.  Hodgson  remarks  of 
one  species,  the  Pttta  nipaUnsis, 
that  its  flight  is  so  bad  that  he  has 
seen  it  taken  by  a  man.  Dr.  Hors- 
field  established  the  genus  Brachyptcryx  for  a  Javanese  species 
of  this  group  {B.  montana),  in  which  the  abbreviation  of  the  wings 
appears  to  be  carried  to  its  extreme.  He  says  that  it  is  quite  unable 
to  undertake  long  or  elevated  flights,  and  that  its  movements  are 
always  made  with  great  exertion.  This  Bird,  like  most  of  the 
other  members  of  the  group,  makes  its  nest  upon  the  ground. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Pitta  are  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere. These  Birds  are  generally  adorned  with  beautiful  colours,  a 
brilliant  azure  blue  being  a  very  prevalent  tint.  The  numerous  South 
American  species  of  Ant-Thrushes,  belonging  to  the  genus  Formi- 
cari'us  and  its  allies,  are  more  sober  in  their  tints,  their  plumage 
exhibiting  various  shades  of  brown  and  white. 

Only  one  genus  of  this  group  is  found  beyond  the  Tropics.  It  is 
that  of  the  Cincliis,  to  which  the  common  Dipper,  or  Watcr-Ouzci 
of  this  country  belongs,  and  of  which  the  following  is  a  description. 

The  Water-Ouzel,  or  Dipper  [ductus  aqiiaticiis). — Lerli- 
chirollo  and  Merlo  acquatico  of  the  Italians  ;  Torda  de  Agua  of  the 
Spaniards  ;  Merle  d'Eau,  Aguasiere  a  gorge  blanche  of  the  Freiicli  ; 
Watnstare  of  the  Swedes ;  Fosse-fald,  F'osse-kald,  Qua^rn-kald 
Stroem-stajr,  and  Baskke  Engl  of  the  Norwegians  ;  Wasser-anisel 
and  Der  Hochkopfige  mittlere'und  Nordische  \Vasserschw;itzer  of  the 
Germans ;  Waterspreecud  of  the  Netherlands  ;  Mwyalchen  y  divir 
of  the  ancient  British;  Water-piet,  Dipper,  and  Bessy-ducker, 
provincial  English. 

This  species  is  spread  over  the  greater  portion  of  Europe,  but  is 
more  rare  in  the  northern  regions  than  in  our  islands  and  the  south. 
Specimens  have  been  received  from  India  and  Japan.  It  is  amidst 
romantic  and  picturesque  scenery,  where  mountain  streams  and 
rivulets,  winding  through  glens  and  rock-girt  dales,  sparkle  over  a 
rocky  bed,  that  this  elegant  and  active  Bird  is  to  be  sought  for.  It 
is  common  in  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  the  hilly  parts  of 


470 


ANT-THRUSHES. 


England.  It  is  active,  restless,  and  full  of  animation  ;  its  movements 
are  all  quick  and  alert,  and  it  flits  from  stone  to  stone,  flying  low  and 
rapidly  over  the  bubbling  water.  Often  may  it  be  seen  perched  on  a 
portion  of  rock  jutting  out  of  the  water  in  the  centre  of  the  stream  ; 
and  there,  conspicuous  by  its  snowy  breast,  contrasted  with  the 
deep  russet  brown  of  the  rest  of  its  plumage,  it  will  remain  for  a 
short  time  dipping  its  head  and  jerking  its  tail  in  an  odd  sort  of 
manner,  reminding  us  of  the  Wren.  In  an  instant  it  will  disappear, 
diving  beneath  the  water,  and,  emerging  at  a  considerable  distance, 


Fig.  I2I2.— Mocking-Bird. 

again  settle  on  some  stone  or  crag,  and  utter  a  low,  but  very  sweet 
and  pleasing  strain.  Again  it  will  dive  or  fly  off  to  another  resting- 
place,  jerk  its  tail,  and  sing,  dipping  and  moving  its  head,  and 
again  start  off  to  a  more  attractive  pedestal.  We  have  heard  its 
song  in  bright  mornings  during  winter,  as  well  as  in  the  spring 
and  summer;  and  it  exhibits  equal  animation,  entering  the  water, 
and  flitting  from  stone  to  stone,  in  the  cold  and  in   the   warmer 


Fig.  1213. — Head  and  Foot  of  Pitta  Bengalensis. 

months.  How  this  Bird  manages  to  keep  itself  submerged  and 
proceed  at  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  is  not  very  well  understood. 
Mr.  Thompson  says — "On  the  26th  of  September,  a  pair  of  water- 
ouzels  at  the  upper  pond  of  Wolfhill  (near  Belfast)  plunged  several 
times  into  the  water,  which  was  some  feet  deep,  and  remained 
moving  about  in  it,  with  only  their  heads  above  the  surface  ;  twice 
one  of  them  disappeared  altogether  for  a  few  seconds  ;  they  then 
pursued  each  other  round  the  pond  and  alighted,  when  one  of  them 
sang,  and  they  repeated  over  again,  several  times,  all  these 
mancEuvrcs."  In  these  aquatic  habits  wc  are  reminded  of  the 
Water-Rail. 


The  food  of  the  Water-Ouzel  consists  of  Insects,  aquatic  larvae, 
minute  fresh-water  shelled  Snails,  and  the  fry  of  Fishes.  The  nest  of 
this  Bird  is  most  artfully  concealed  ;  we  have  seen  it  in  the  fissure 
of  a  low  jutting  crag  overhanging  the  rushing  and  bubbling  current ; 
and  also  between  the  green  damp  stones  of  a  rude  bridge.  The 
structure  itself  is  composed  of  intertwined  mosses,  and  is  of  large 
size,  and  domed,  with  a  small  lateral  aperture  leading  to  the  interior 
chamber,  which  is  lined  with  a  few  dried  leaves.  Sometimes  it  is  so 
placed  that  the  sheet  of  v^rater  falling  from  an  elevated  rock,  and 


Fig.  1214. — Wing  and  Foot  of  the  Watei-Ouzel. 

forming  a  cascade,  completely  screens  it ;  but,  wherever  situated,  it 
blends'  with  the  rest  of  the  moss  and  lichen,  which  fills  up  every 
chink,  and  spreads  over  the  face  of  the  humid  rocks  in  great  luxuri- 
ance, and,  unless  the  Bird  be  watched  to  its  retreat,  would  never  bo 
detected.     Fig.  1215  represents  the  nest  of  the  Water-Ouzel.     The 


Fig.  1215. — Nest  of  the  Water-Ouzel. 

eggs,  five  in  number,  are  white.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  fledged 
they  accompany  their  parents,  following  them  in  all  their  movements, 
playfully  sporting,  diving,  flitting  from  stone  to  stone,  and  per- 
forming the  most  amusing  evolutions.  On  the  continent  the  Water- 
Ouzel  is  very  common  in  Switzerland,  and  in  the  rocky  parts  of  Italy. 
Several  pairs  are  always  observable  about  the  fall  of  Velino,  near 
Temi. 

The  genus  Cinchis  is  characterised  by  the  beak  being  straight 
and  somewhat  turned  up,  compressed  laterally,  and  blunt  at  the  tip  ; 
the  wings  rounded ;  the  tarsi  long ;  the  feet  large.  Besides  the 
European  species  there  are  two  Indian,  and  one  a  native  of  America. 
The  Water-Ouzel  is  about  seven  inches  in  length;  the  upper  parts 
are  of  a  deep  brown  ;  the  throat  and  chest  white,  the  under  parts 
rusty  ;  iris  pearl  grey ;  bill  black ;  legs  horn-coloured.  In  the 
young  Bird  the  plumage  above  is  clouded  with  blackish  undulations, 
and  the  white  feathers  of  the  chest  are  finely  varied  with  brown  and 
ash-colour.     The  lovi'er  figure  (Fig.  12 16)  is  that  of  a  young  Bird. 

The  habits  of  this  curious  Bird  are  further  described  by  Mr.  Dallas, 
in  the  "  Circle  of  Sciences,"  in  the  following  terms  : — 

"  The  Dipper  is  always  found  in  the  imm.ediate  vicinity  of  water, 
especially  on  the  banks  of  the  clear  streams  and  lakes  of  mountainous 


THE  DIPPERS. 


471 


districts.  Tliis  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  other  species  of  the 
group,  but  none,  except  the  members  of  the  genus  Cinclus,  however 
close  they  may  go  to  the  margin,  ever  venture  into  the  water.  Our 
Common  Dipper,  however, — and  tlic  otlier  species  of  the  genus  are 
said  to  have  the  same  habits, — plunges  into  the  water  without  the 
least  hesitation,  dives  to  the  bottom  with  ease,  and  progresses  in 
that  remarkable  situation  with  considerable  rapidity.  It  was  long 
asserted  that  the  Bird  walked  into  the  water,  and  having  surrounded 
himself  with  a  coating  of  air  to  serve  in  place  of  a  diving-bell,  pro- 
ceeded deliberately  to  promenade  the  pebbly  bottom.  This,  however, 
is  evidently  impossible,  as  the  Dipper's  feet  are  not  formed  for 
walking,  even  on  land  ;  and  the  lightness  of  its  body  would  infallibly 
bring  it  to  the  surface  if  it  attempted  to  hop  there.     According  to 


Fig.  1216. — Water-Ouzels. 

Mr.  Macgillivray  the  diving  and  progression  under  water  is  effected 
in  much  tlie  same  way  as  by  many  of  the  web-footed  Natatorial 
birds,  by  the  action  of  the  wings,  so  that  the  bird  may  really  be  said 
to  fly  under  water.  In  this  manner  it  makes  way  even  against  a 
strong  current,  but  evidently  by  dint  of  considerable  c-xertion  ;  and 


as  soon  as  this  is  relaxed  it  rises  to  the  surface  like  a  cork.  On 
coming  up  to  the  surface  it  swims  with  ease,  or  can  dive  again  from 
that  position  without  any  necessity  for  visiting  the  shore.  Its  object 
in  these  sub-aquatic  excursions  is  to  procure  its  food,  which  consists 
of  small  aquatic  mollusca  and  insects.  To  these  articles  of  diet 
some  authors  add  small  fish  and  tlie  spawn  of  fish  ;  and  from  a 
belief  that  the  Dippers  destroy  the  ova  of  salmon  and  trout  they  are 
in  many  places  exposed  to  a  considerable  amount  of  persecution, 
although  It  appears  rather  uncertain  whether  they  are  really  guilty  of 
the  offence  imputed  to  them." 

"  Their  nests  are  formed  of  moss,  firmly  matted  together,  and  arc 
completely  domed  over,  with  only  a  hole  in  one  side  for  the  entrance 
and  exit  of  the  birds.  Within  this  there  is  a  second  nest  composed 
of  grasses  and  lined  with  leaves.  The  nest  is  placed  on  the  bank  of 
the  stream,  sometimes  amongst  the  roots  of  a  tree,  in  a  crevice  of  a 
rock,  or  in  a  hole  in  the  brickwork  of  a  bridge.  The  eggs  are  five  or 
six  in  number,  and  of  a  pure  white  colour.  The  birds''have  two  or 
even  three  broods  in  a  season. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  there  are  numerous 
specimens  of  the  Ant-Thrushes,  including  the  following :— The 
Negro-Ant-Thrush,  F.  domicclla ;  the  Scaly,  F.  squamata;  the 
Long-tailed, /•'.  ca«(/rt/(j: ;    the   King-Tlirush,  Grallaria  rex;  with 


Fis 


12 17. — The  King-Tlirush. 


numerous  specimens  of  the  genus  Pitla.  The  localities  from  which 
these  various  specimens  are  derived,  include  Brazil  and  other  |)arts  of 
South  America,  Borneo,  Java,  India,  Australia,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  China,  Africa,  and  various  countries  in  Europe.  The 
above  is  an  illustration  of  the  King-Thrush  {Gral/aria  rex),  a 
native  of  Guiana  and  Brazil. 


47^ 


DENTIROSTRAL  BIRDS-THE    WARBLERS. 


CLASS  II.- 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

-AVES,  OR  BIRDS:  ORDER  PASSERES,  OR  PERCHING  BIRDS;   SUB-ORDER 
DENTIROSTRES-FAMILY  SYLVIAD^,  OR  WARBLERS. 

generally  distributed  in  all  latitudes  ;  but  many 
of  them  migrate  regularly  from  the  temperate 
to  the  -narmer  parts  of  the  world  on  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  and  the  majority  appear  to 
change  their  residence,  more  or  less,  accord- 
ing to  the  season.  Nine  species  occur  in 
Britain,  three  of  which  belong  to  the  typical 
genus  MotaciUa.  The  following  describes 
some  of  the  most  interesting  species. 

The  Pied  \Y hOTM-Lf MotaciUa yarreniij. 
— Mr.  Gould  was,  perhaps,  the  first  to  discover 
that  the  Pied  Wagtail  of  England  is  a  distinct 
species  from  the  Pied  or  White  Wagtail,  so 
common  in   France  and   other    parts    of    the 
continent,  and  which  is,  perhaps,  the  true  Jil. 
alba   of  Linnjeus ;    certainly    of   the   modern 
continental  ornithologists.      Mr,  Gould   states 
that   the   Pied   Wagtail  of   England  is  some- 
what   more    robust    in    form    than    the  Con- 
tinental Bird,  and  when  in  full  summer  dress, 
has  the  whole  of  the    head,  chest,  and  back 
while  in   the  White  Wagtail   of  France,   at  the 
same  season,  the  throat  and  head  alone  are  of  this  colour,  the  upper 
surface  being  light  ash-grey.     In  winter  the  two  species  more  nearly 
assimilate  in  their  colouring,  and  this  circumstance  is  more  probably 
the  cause  of  their  having  hitherto  been  considered  identical ;  the 
black  back  of  M.yarreUii  being  grey  at  this  season,  although  never 
so  light  as  in  M.  alba.     (See  Fig.  1220.) 

The  British  Pied  Wagtail  is  incessantly  in  motion,  running  about 
in  quest  of  prey,  and  ever  and  anon  moving  from  place  to  place  by 
short  undulating  flights,  uttering  a  lively  note,  and,  on  gracefully 
alighting,  rapidly  vibrating  its  tail,  which  seems  as  if  hung  on 
tremulous  springs.  It  frequents  grass-plots,  commons,  and  the 
borders  of  sheets  of  water,  and  will  wade  in  search  of  Aquatic 
Insects  ;  nor  are  even  small  Fishes  safe  from  its  attacks.  W.  Rayner, 
Esq.,  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Yarrell,  quoted  in  his  "  History  of  British 
Birds,"  states  that,  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1837,  he  had  in  his 


J  YLVIAD.E,  or  S\lvid.t;,  as  a  family  of 

Dentirostrals,  includes  some  of  our  most 

interesting  songsters,  as  the  Nightingale, 

the  Robin,   and  many   others.     In   these 

Birds    the    bill    is    usually    of    moderate 

length,  rather  slender,  generally  broad  at 

the  base,  and  tapering  towards  the  extremity,  with 

the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  more  or  less  curved 

downwards,  and  slightly  notched.     (See  Fig.  1 2 18.) 

The  nostrils  are  situated  at  the  base  of  .the  bill,  in 

a  membranous  groove,  with  the  opening  uncovered  ; 

the  wings  are  long,    the    tarsi   usually   long  and 

slender,  and  the  toes  variable  in  length,  the  outer 

one  united  at  the  base. 

This  family  includes  a  great  number  of  species. 
They  are  all  small  Birds,  and  generally  of  sober 
colours,  although  many  of  them  are  of  great 
beauty.  They  are  divided  into  five  sub-families, 
of  four  of  which  we  have  British  representatives. 

The  first  of  these,  the  sub-family  of  the 
Motacillince,  or  Wagtails,  exhibits  a  certain 
resemblance  to  the  Larks,  and,  indeed,  includes  some  species  which 
have  been  placed  with  these  Birds  by  various  authors.  The 
Motacillinai  have  the  bill  moderately  long,  straight,  and  slender, 
much  compressed,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  straight  to 
the  tip,  and  then  slightly  curved ;  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is 
notched.  The  wings  (Fig.  12 19)  are  long  and  pointed;  the  second- 
aries are  frequently  notched  at  the  end  ;  and  the  tertiaries  very  long 
and  pointed— a  character  in  which  these  Birds  resemble  the  Larks. 
The  tail  is  long,  sometimes  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  body ; 
and  it  is  to  the  remarkable  jerking  motion  of  this  organ  that  these 
Birds  are  indebted  for  their  common  name  of  Wagtails.  The  tarsi 
are  long  and  slender,  covered  in  front  by  about  eight  scales,  of 
which,  however,  only  the  four  lower  ones  are  usually  to  be  recognised 
distinctly ;  the  toes  are  rather  short,  the  outer  one  generally  longer 

than  the  inner,  and  slightly 
united  at  the  base  to  the  mid- 
dle one,  and  all  the  toes  are 
armed  with  slightly  curved  and 
acute  claws,  of  which  that  on 
the  hinder  toe  is  sometimes 
very  long.  The  MotacilliticB 
live  in  meadows  and  pastures, 
frequently  by  the  sides  of 
streams  and  pools  of  water ; 
they  run  swiftly,  and  have 
an  exceedingly  graceful,  buoy- 
ant, rapid,  and  undulating 
flight.  On  alighting  upon  the 
ground,  they  usually  spread  the 
Fig.  1218.— Head  of  the  Grey  Wagtail,    tail  ;  and,  whilst  running  along, 

they  are    constantly  vibrating 

the  body  and  tail  in  a  very  singular  manner.     Their   food  consists 

entirely    of  Insects;    and  the  nests  are   made  upon    the  ground, 

amongst  herbage  or  stones  ;  they  lay  from  four  to  six  spotted  eggs. 

These   Buds   are    found   in   both    hemisplieres,   and    are    pretty 


of  a   deep  black  ; 


Fig.  1219. — Wing  of  the  Pied  Wagtail. 

aviary  several  Wagtails,  the  pied  and  yellow,  "both  of  which  were 
very  expert  in  catching  and  feeding  on  minnows  which  were  in  a 
fountain  in  the  centre  of  the  aviary.  These  birds  hover  over  the 
water,  and  catch  the  minnow  as  it  approaches  the  top,  in  the  most 
dexterous  manner.  I  was  also  much  surprised  at  the  wariness  and 
cunning  of  some  blackbirds  and  thrushes  in  watching  the  wagtails 
catch  the  minnows,  and  immediately  seizing  the  prize  for  their  own 


Fig.  1220.— Head  of  the  Pied  Wagtail  in  summer  and  winter  plumage. 


THE    WAGTAILS. 


473 


dinner."  The  nest  of  the  British  Pied  Wagtail  is  composed  of 
fibres  of  roots,  withered  grass,  and  moss,  lined  with  hair  and  a  few 
feathers  :  it  is  generally  placed  near  water,  on  a  bank,  or  in  the  hole 
of  a  wall,  or  crevice  between  stones,  among  logs  of  woods,  or  in  the 
thatch  of  an  outbuilding  or  cart-shed.  The  eggs  are  white,  spotted 
with  ash-colour.  This  species  may  be  often  seen  running  about 
close  to  Cows  reposing  in  their  pasture-land,  busily  engaged  in 
collecting  the  Flies  that  settle  on  the  sides  or  limbs  of  the  placid 
Ruminants,  orfiit  about  them.     Fig.  1221  represents  this  Bird. 


Fig.  I22I.— The  Pied  Wagtail. 

The  White  Wagtail  {Moiactlla  alba). — La  Bergeronette 
grise  and  Lavandiere  of  the  French  ;  Cotremolo,  Codetta,  Codetta 
di  Pecore,  Ballarina,  Monachina,  and  Cuttretola  of  the  Italians  ; 
Die  Weisse  Bachstelze  and  Weisse  und  Schwartze  Bachstelze  of  the 
Germans.  This  species  is  common  throughout  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  inhalsits  the  Highlands  of  India,  extending  also  into 
Africa  :  its  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  our  British  Pied  Wagtail. 
(See  Fig.  1222.) 


Fig.  1222.— The  White  Wagtail  of  the  Continent 

The  Grey  Wagtail  [M.  boarula),  whose  head  is  represented  by 
?"ig.  1220,  anfe,  is  of  a  bluish-grey  colour  above,  with  the  rump  and 
the  lower  surface  yellow ;  in  the  summer  the  throat  has  a  black 
patch.  These  Birds  produce  two  broods  of  young  in  the  course  of 
the  summer. 


Two  other  British  species,  the  Buclylcs  /lava  and  Ji.  rayi,  stand 
in  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  the  Pied  and  White  Wagtail 
just  referred  to  :  the  Budytcs  rayi  is  the  common  yellow  Wagtail 
of  this  country,  and  was  long  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
common  species  of  the  continent  ;  but  the  two  species  have  lately 
been  found  to  bo  distinct.  They  resemble  the  Motacilla  in  their 
habits. 

There  are  numerous  species  of  the  Wagtails  in  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum,  including  those  already  mentioned  and  the 
following  -.—M.  gularia,  from  Egypt ;  M.  luxorioisis,  from  Nepaul 
and  Java ;  M.  iiidica,  from  the  East  Indies  ;  M.  7iigricapella, 
from  Dal-.natia.     M.  melanoccphala,  Athens,  with  many  others. 

The  Pipits,  genus  An  thus,  make  a  near  approach  to  the  True 
Larks,  and  are  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  Titlarks.  They 
closely  resemble  the  True  Wagtails  in  their  habits,  walking  and 
running  upon  the  ground  in  search  of  the  Insects  which  form  the 


Fig.  1223.— The  Tree-Pipit. 

principal  part  of  their  food.  They  also  feed  upon  seeds.  The  com- 
monest species  in  this  country  is  the  Meadow  Pipit,  or  Titlark 
(Anthtts prate)isisj,\A\\c\\  is  found  abundantly  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  generally,  as  its  name  implies,  in  meadows ;  it  is  a 
permanent  resident  in  Britain.  Another  species,  the  Shore  or  Rock 
Pipit  {A.  fetrosus),  frequents  the  sea-shore,  and  follows  the 
retreating  tide,  in  company  with  the  smaller  Wading-Birds,  in  search 
oi  small  Jlfollusca  and  Crustacea.  The  Tree  Pipit  (A.  arborcus), 
which  is  a  summer  visitor  to  these  islands,  inhabits  wooded 
districts,  and  perches  upon  trees  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  its 
congeners.  The  following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  two  of 
the  species. 

The  Tree-Pipit  {Anthus  arboreus). — This  species,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  analogue  of  the  Woodlark  [Alauda  arborca), 
differs  from  the  Meadow  Pipit  in  being  rather  larger ;  with  the  beak 
stouter,  the  spots  on  the  breast  fewer  and  longer,  and  the  claw  of 
the  hind-toe  much  shorter  and  thicker  (see  foot.  Fig.  1224,  a).     Its 
habits  are  also  different.     It  is  only  a  summer  visitor  to  our  island, 
arriving  towards  the  end  of  April,  and  taking  up  its  abode  in  copses 
and  well-wooded  enclosures.     The  male  then  commences  his  song  of 
invitation,  which  is  superior  to  that  of  the  Meadow  Pipit  in  compass, 
variety,  and  sweetness.   This  he  utters  either  perched  on  the  top  of  a 
tree,  or  in  the  air;  in  the  latter  case  he  rises  on  quivering  wings  to 
an  elevation  about  as  high  again  as  the  tree  whence  he  started ; 
and  then,  at  this  altitude,  poises  his  wings,  spreads  and  elevates  his 
tail,  and  slowly  descends  (singing  all  the  while)  to  the  station  from 
which  he  had  previously  arisen,     louring  his  ascent  he  never  sings, 
but  sometimes  utters  a  chirp.     Rarely  does  this  species  alight  upon 
the  ground   without   previously    perching  on   a   tree ;    and,   after 
leaving  the  ground,  it  wings  its  way  to  a  tree  before  commencing  a 
more  lengthened  flight.     The  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,   and  is 
formed  of  moss,  fibres,  and  withered  grass,   lined  with  bents  and. 
hairs.     The    eggs  are    generally  of  a  greyish-white,   clouded   and 
spotted  with  purple-brown  or  purple-red,  but  their  colour  is  variable. 
The  winter  quarters  of  the  Tree-Pipit  are  probably  the  noithcrn  and 
western   portions  of  Africa ;    it  is  found   in   Madeira,    and  also  in 
Japan,  having  a  wider  range  of  habitat. 

3  P 


474 


TITMICE. 


The  Meadow  Pipit  {A?ifhus  ■pratensis). — The  Pipits — often 
termed  Titlarks,  from  a  small  yet  well-characterised  group  of 
Sylviada,  having  the  plumage  and  long  hind-claws  of  the  True 
Larks,  but  the  slender  bills  of  the  Wagtails— have  only  a 
remote  affinity  to  the  Larks,  which  belong  to  the  Coniroscral 
tribe  ;  for  though,  as  Mr.  Swainson  observes,  they  are  the  analogues 
of  the  latter  in  the  Dentirostral  tribe,  we  are  not  prepared  to  admit 
that  this  analogy  becomes  transmuted  into  positive  relationship. 

The  Meadow  Pipit  may  be  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the 
Skylark,  and  like  that  Bird  it  p'ours  out  its  song  at  a  great  elevation 
in  the  air,  rising  on  tremulous  wings,  and  then  descending  smoothly 
to  the  ground,  or  to  the  top  of  some  low  bush,  to  its  mate,  for  whose 
gratification  its  strains  were  uttered.  Sometimes  the  Meadow  Pipit 
sings  on  the  earth,  but  generally  utters  its  soft  musical  notes  in  the 
air.     This  Bird  is  very  extensively  distributed  over  Europe,  and  is 


Fig.  1224. — The  Meadow  Pipits. 

common  in  the  British  Islands,  remaining  with  us  throughout  the 
year.  It  frequents  hilly  districts,  open  commons,  meadows,  and 
even  marsh  lands,  and  runs  over  the  grassy  turf  with  great  celerity  ; 
when  on  a  clod  or  stone,  it  fi-equently  vibrates  the  tail  in  the 
manner  of  the  Wagtail,  and  likewise  gives  chase  to  Insects,  on 
which  it  feeds,  as  well  as  on  Slugs  and  Worms.  In  September  and 
October,  after  the  general  moult,  these  Birds  associate  in  small 
flocks,  resorting  to  turnip-fields ;  and  in  severe  weather  to  the 
shelter  of  hedge-banks  and  low  pastures.  The  nest  is  made  on  the 
ground,  under  the  covert  of  a  tuft  of  grass,  and  is  composed  of  dried 
bents  and  fibres,  with  a  lining  of  finer  materials  and  hairs.  The 
eggs,  five  or  six  in  number,  are  of  a  reddish-brown,  spotted  with 
darker  markings. 

The  Meadow  Pipit  is  about  six  inches  in  length.  The  hind-claw 
(Fig.  1224,  a)  is  long  and  slender.  The  general  colour  of  the 
plumage  is  dark  olive-green,  with  the  centre  of  every  feather  brownish- 
black  ;  under  parts  yellow  ash-white,  spotted  with  dark  brown  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck  and  breast,  and  streaked  with  the  same  on  the 
flanks. 

Numerous  specimens  of  the  Pipits  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum— f.^.,  Anthus  australis,  from  Australia  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land  ;  A .  arbor  ens,  Sweden,  &c.  The  MnwtilUtKs, 
or  Bush  Creepers,  form  the  second  sub-family  of  the  Sylviada. 
They  have  a  moderately  long,  acutely  conical  bill,  with  the  ridge  of 
the  upper  mandible  nearly  straight,  and  its  tip  slightly  notched. 
The  wings  are  long,  and  usually  pointed,  and  the  tail  of  moderate 
length  :  the  tarsi,  which  are  covered  with  scales  in  front,  are  usually 
longer  than  the  middle  toe — sometimes  nearly  twice  as  long  ;  and  the 
toes  are  long  and  slender,  the  outer  one  usually  longer  than  the 
inner. 

These  Birds  are  found  in  both  hemispheres,  principally  in  the 
warmer  regions  ;  but  several  of  the  species,  especially  the  American, 
migrate  from  the  warm  to  the  more  temperate  climates.  In  their 
habits  they  appear  to  be  very  uniform,  residing  principally  in  thickets 
and  woods,  and  feeding  on  Insects,  Spiders,  and  Worms.  In  search 
of  Insects  and  their  larvse,  and  Spiders,  these   Birds,  which  arc 


usually  of  diminutive  size,  creep  about  upon  the  bushes  with  much 
agility,  examining  every  leaf  with  great  care,  and  even  poking  their 
heads  into  flowers  to  capture  the  minute  Insects  which  seek  shelter 
amongst  the  petals.  Thus  Dr.  Jerdon  mentions  that  one  of  the 
common  Indian  species  {ZosU'rops  palpcbrosics)  is  often  seen  with 
its  forehead  powdered  with  pollen,  picked  up  during  its  inspection 
of  flowers. 

They  are  sociable  little  Birds,  generally  keeping  in  small  flocks, 
which  are  sometimes  associated  with  those  of  of  other  species  of 
Insectivorous  Birds.  Some  of  them  build  on  the  ground,  in  the 
centre  of  a  thicket  of  bushes  ;  others  in  bushes  and  trees.  The  nest 
is  sometimes  arched  over,  with  a  small  hole  in  the  side  for  the 
entrance  and  exit  of  the  Birds,  occasionally  cup-shaped,  and  either 
placed  in  the  fork  of  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  suspended  upon  the 
twigs.  The  same  species  sometimes  appears  to  build  in  any  of  the 
three  last-mentioned  positions  ;  for  the  little  Zosterops  palpebrosus, 
already  referred  to,  is  said  by  Mr.  Layard  to  construct  its  nest  "  in 
the  fork  of  two  branches;"  whilst  Captain  Hutton  describes  the 
Bird  as  building  in  thick  bushes  of  Hibiscus,  or  suspending  its  nest 
from  the  twigs  of  trees.  He  says  the  nest  "is  not  placed  on  a 
branch,  but  is  suspended  between  two  thin  twigs,  to  which  it  is 
fastened  by  floss  silk,  torn  from  the  cocoons  of  Bombyx  hiittoni 
(Westwood),  and  by  a  few  slender  fibres  of  the  bark  of  trees,  or  hair, 
according  to  circumstances.  So  slight  and  fragile  is  the  little  oval 
cup,  that  it  is  astonishing  the  mere  weight  of  the  parent  Bird  does 
not  bring  it  to  the  ground  ;  and  yet,  within  it,  their  young  ones  will 
safely  outride  a  gale  that  will  bring  the  weightier  nests  of  jays  and 
thrushes  to  the  ground."  These  Birds  have  no  regular  song,  but 
merely  a  feeble  twittering  note,  which  is  constantly  emitted  whilst 
they  are  engaged  in  their  search  for  food. 

The  sub-family  of  the  Parincc,  or  Titmice,  consists  of  a  number 
of  diminutive,  sprightly  Birds,  found  in  both  hemispheres.  In  these 
Birds  the  bill  is  short,  straight,  and  tapering,  with  the  upper 
mandible  quite  destitute  of  the  usual  notches  at  the  tip.  The  nostrils 
are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  usually  concealed  by  the  re- 
curved feathers  of  the  forehead.  The  wings  are  short,  and  the  tail 
long ;  the  tarsi  rather  long  and  slender,  distinctly  scutellated  in 
front ;  the  inner  toe  is  the  shortest,  and  all  the  toes  are  furnished 
with  strong,  curved  claws. 

These  little  Birds,  several  species  of  which  are  well  known  in 
England  under  the  names  of  Tits,  Titmice,  and  Tomtits,  are  active, 
lively,  and  courageous,  and  many  of  them  are  adorned  with  exceed- 
ingly beautiful  colours.  They  are  found  principally  in  wooded 
countries,  where  they  feed  upon  Insects  and  larvae,  which  they 
capture  both  upon  the  bark  and  leaves  of  the  trees  and  shrubs.  In 
search  of  these  they  may  be  seen  clinging,  in  every  variety  of 
attitude,  to  the  branches  and  twigs  ;  and  when  thus  engaged,  from 
the  sprightliness  of  their  whole  behaviour,  they  are  exceedingly 
pleasing  objects.  They  are  often  seen  engaged  in  this  manner  in 
gardens,  where  they  climb  about  the  fruit  trees  in  every  direction, 
and  often  destroy  a  good  many  buds  in  their  search  for  Insects 
contained  in  them.  The  following  is  a  more  particular  description 
of  some  of  the  species. 

In  Fig.  1225  there  is  illustrated  a  group  of  British  Titmice. 
The  Great  Tit  {Panes  tnajor)  ;  Mesange  charbonniere, 
Temm.  ;  Great  Titmouse  or  Ox-eye,  "  British  Zool." — This  beautiful 
Bird  frequents  gardens,  orchards,  and  copses,  v.-here  in  spring  may 
be  frequently  heard  its  harsh  note,  aptly  compared  to  the  sound 
producedonsharpeningthe  teeth  of  a  saw  bythe  file.  This  note  is 
only  heard  during  the  pairing  season,  and  ceases  when  the  Bird  has 
a  nest.  Its  ordinary  cry  is  a  loud  chirp  followed  by  a  harsh  clatter, 
remarkably  strong  for  so  small  a  Bird,  as  it  may  be  heard  at  a  con- 
siderable distance.  It  uses,  however,  a  great  variety  of  calls,  or 
notes,  of  which  one  resembles  the  call-note  of  the  Chaffinch,  soundino- 
like  the  \yord. pi?ik.     (See  group  of  British  Titmice,  a,  Fig.  1225.) 

The  Great  Titmouse  feeds  upon  Insects  and  their  larva:,  which  it 
digs  out  of  crevices  in  the  bark  of  trees,  or  extricates  from  buds  in 
which  they  have  made  a  lodgment.  In  autumn  and  during  winter 
it  subsists  upon  grain  and  seeds,  preferring  such  as  are  of  an  oily 
quality.  It  will  also  pick  bones,  and  is  partial  both  to  the  flesh  and 
fat,  which  it  greedily  devours.  It  will  also  disarrange  the  thatch  of 
outhouses  and  other  buildings  in  quest  of  torpid  Insects.  "  The 
great  titmouse  (says  Gilbert  White),  driven  by  stress  of  weather, 
much  frequents  houses ;  and  in  deep  snows  I  have  seen  this  bird, 
while  it  hung  with  its  back  downwards,  to  my  no  small  delight  and 
admiration,  draw  straws  lengthwise  from  the  eaves  of  thatched 
houses,  in  order  to  pull  out  the  flies  that  were  concealed  between 
them,  and  that  in  such  numbers  that  they  quite  defaced  the  thatch, 
and  gave  it  a  ragged  appearance."  It  is  capable  of  piercing  the 
shells  of  nuts,  of  the  kernels  of  which  it  is  fond.  Mr.  Slancy  says, 
"  We  have  often  in  winter  heard  a  humming  noise,  which  appeared 
to  be  caused  by  this  bird,  and  throwing  a  stone  smartly  at  him  he 
dropped  something  which  proved  to  be  hazel-nut  a  little  perforated 
at  the  smaller  end  by  repeated  strokes  of  his  bill.  We  often  after- 
wards watched  him  at  work,  and  found  under  his  workshop  many 
shells  from  which  the  nuts  had  been  extricated,  and  some  split  into 
halves.     It  is  said  that  if  a  nut  be  suspended  at  the  end  of  a  string. 


TITMICE. 


475 


the  titmouse  will  fix  himself  on  this  nut,  and  follow  all  its  oscilla- 
tions without  ceasing  to  hack  it  with  his  bill." 

Mr.  Rcnnie  observes  that  "  this  species,  when  going  to  sleep,  rolls 
itself  into  a  round  ball,  erecting  every  feather  so  as  not  to  separate 
its  point  from  the  adjoining  ones.  The  quantity  of  non-conducting 
surface  is  by  this  means  increased  to  the  depth  of  nearly  half  an  inch 
more  than  it  is  when  the  feathers  are  laid  Hat  and  smooth  ;  and  as 
the  feathers  of  the  belly  are  at  the  same  time  spread  over  the  feet, 
the  little  creature  is  admirably  protected  from  the  cold." 

The  Great  Titmouse  breeds  in  the  holes  of  ruins,  walls,  and  build- 
ings, or  in  the  holes  of  decayed  trees,  which  it  either  makes  or 
enlarges  with  its  hard  pointed  bill,  and  rapidly  accomplishes  its  task. 
The  nest  is  placed  in  an  enlarged  space  at  the  bottom,  and  is  com- 
posed of  moss,  hair,  and  feathers.  The  eggs  are  si.x  or  eight  in 
number,  of  a  white  colour  spotted  with  reddish-brown. 

The  colours  of  this  beautiful  species  are  well  contrasted.  The 
head,  throat,  and  lower  part  of  the  neck  are  black  ;  the  cheeks  and 
ear-coverts  white.     On  the  nape  of  the  neck  is  a  spot  of  white ;  back 


Fig.  1225.— A  Group  of  British  Titmice. 
a,  the  Greater  Tit  ( Parus  major)  ;  h,  the  Blue  Tit  r^,„-„.  c.n.lan) ;  c,  the  Cole-Tit,  or  Coal-Tit  (Par.s  aUr)  ■ 


o  ive-green,  passmg  at  the  lower  part  into  bluish-grey.  Wing-coverts 
blu.sh-grey  tipped  with  white.  Quill-feathers  greenish-grey  alare 
those  of  the  tail.  Under  parts  sulphur  yellowfwith  a  bTack  central 
stripe  continued  from  the  throat.     Bill  black  ;  legs  bluisl™      fn 

ThTrm  .^  tVx''  ^""^  '"z?  ''"'^-     ^'^"-'h  about ''si.x  inches?    ^ 
Bluecap    Hfckw.r"i?n  ^^J-^r^'f^it"^)-   Provincial,  Tomtit,  Nun, 
i5uecap,  liickwall,   Billy-biter ;  Le  Mesange  a  tete  bleue   Cuvier  • 

and"tnn"'',M'^"''"='"-'^'"^  '^'^^"''f"'  little  "species  is  very  common' 
dens  ^n7    '  ^T"  '°i^'='=^  ^  ^^'^^^^^  description.     It  frequennarl 


has  known  twenty  of  these  Birds  caught  in  a  morning,  by  means  of 
snap  Mouse-traps  baited  with  suet ;  we  have  ourselves  often  captured 
it  in  a  common  brick  trap  baited  with  bits  of  meat  and  bread  and 
butter.     It  is  partial  to  oleaginous  seeds,  and  will  feed  on  those  of 
the  sunflower,  and  also,  as  White  asserts,  pick  holes  in  apples  left 
on  the  ground.     Like  the  preceding  species,  it  will  disturb  the  thatch 
of  buildings  in  quest  of    Insects,  and  will  even  attack  other  small 
Birds.     In  winter  the  Blue  Titmouse  resorts  to  stack-yards,  where  it 
finds  both  food  and  shelter,  nestling  at  night  in  holes  about  the  sides 
or  under  the  thatching  of  hay  or  corn-stacks,   and   pufling  up  its 
feathers  so  as  to  resemble  a  ball  of  down.    This  species  lives  in  holes 
of  trees  or  walls,  and  forms  its  nest  of  mosses  lined  with  feathers  and 
hair  ;  its  eggs,   from  si.x  to  eight  in   number,  are  white  spotted  with 
brown,  especially  at  the  larger  end.     They  resolutely  defend  their 
nest  against  intruders,  and  if  an  attempt  be  made  upon  it,  bite  with 
great  severity,  ruffling  up  their  soft  full  plumage,  and  hissing  like  a 
Snake  or  angry  Kitten,  thereby  often  deterring   the  schoolboy  from 
carrying  his  intentions  into  effect.     The   call-notes  of  the  Blue  Tit- 
mouse are  confined  to  a  weak 
chirp  and  kind  of  harsh  chatter. 
(See  group  of  British  Titmice,*.) 
The    Coal    or    Coi.E-Tir 
{Pants  atcr,   Colemouse)  ;  La 
Petite   Charbonniere,    BuiTon ; 
Tannemeise,   Bechstein. — The 
Cole-Tit,  or  Coal-Tit,  is  spread 
oyer  Europe,  particularly  where 
pine-foresis  abound  ;  in    Eng- 
land it    is   comparatively  rare, 
but   in    Scotland  is  very  com- 
mon, frequenting  the  extensive 
woods  and  plantations  of  pine, 
fir,   &c.,    which    seem     every- 
where to  be  its  favourite  if  not 
exclusive    habitat.       In    these 
woods  it  finds  a  secure  retreat, 
and  abundance    of  food,    con- 
sisting  of    Aphides     and    the 
larvar:  of  Insects,  as  well  as  of 
seeds     and     berries.      In     its 
quick  abrupt    movements,    its 
restlessness,     and     its      ever- 
changing  attitudes,    this   Bird 
resembles    the  Blue  Titmouse  ; 
and  it  seeks  for  its  food  among 
the  branches  with     the    same 
address.     Its  call-note   in  the 
spring,  which    resembles   that 
of  the  Great  Titmouse,  except- 
ing that  it  is  shriller,  may  be 
heard  incessantly  through  the 
solitudes  of  the  woods  till  the 
labour     of    nidification      com- 
mences;    the    Bird     is     then 
silent.     The  nest  is  built  in  the 
hollow   of  some  decayed  tree, 
and   is    neatly  formed  of  moss 
and  wool  with  a  lining  of  hair. 
The   eggs   are   from    six   to 
eight  in   number,    of  a   white 
colour    spotted  with    reddish- 
brown.     It   is  very  similar    to 
the  Blue  Titmouse  in  form,  but 
is  even  less  in  size,  being  about 
four  inches  in  length  ;  the  bill 
is  black,  as  are  the  crown  and 
nape   of  the   neck,  the   latter 
having  a  white  central   spot ; 
the  throat   and   under  part  of 
the  neck  are  also  black;  the 
back  is  greenish-grey,  passing 
on  the  lower  part  into  yellowish- 
grey  ;    the  wings  and  tail  arc 
grey ;       under-parts     rreyish- 
1225,  group  of  British  Titmice,  c. 


legs  bluish-grey.    (Sec  Fig. 


white ; 
above. 

miLT.  ^^''''^"■T"  (^'"v«  ^alusMs) ;  Mdsange  nonnette,  Tem- 
"^'"'^'i'  .S^pipfmeise,  Beclistein.-The  Marsh-Tit  is  very  like  the 
Colc-Tit  in  form  and  colouring,  but  is  larger,  and  has  no  white  mark 
on  the  riape  of  the  neck.  It  is  common  in  the  northern  parts  of 
England,  but  is  seldom  seen  in  Scotland  above  Fifeshire,  and  scarcely 
ever  so  far  south  as  London.  Although  it  may  be  sometimes  met  with 
in  the  woods  of  dry  districts,  it  is  more  frequently  to  be  met  with 
among  the  reeds  in  low  marshy  tracts,  where  it  makes  its  nest 
.generally  choosing  some  decayed  willow  for  a  foundation.  Its  food 
IS  chiefly  Insects,  but  in  winter  it  feeds  on  seeds,  and  is  often 
tempted  to  visit  the  farm-yard  for  pieces  of  meat,  which  it   eats  with 


476 


TITMICE. 


much  avidity  ;  indeed  its  appetite  is  so  great,  that  it  has  been  known 
to  consume  more  than  half  its  own  weight  of  food  per  day.  The 
Marsh-Tit  is  also  known  provincially  as  the  smaller  Ox-eye,  Willow- 


Fig.  1226. — The  Black-cap  Titmouse. 

biter,  Joe  Bent,  &c.  When  their  haunts  can  be  approached  so  as 
to  witness  their  movements  (which  is  not  always  an  easy  matter,  as 
they  generally  select  some  long   tract   of  marshy  country  on  the 


Fij.  1227. — Lon^-tailed  Titmice  and  their  Nest. 


banks  of  rivers,  &c.),  the  observer  will  be  repaid  by  a  very  interest- 
ing sight.  They  dwell  together  in  considerable  numbers,  and  are 
perpetually  in  motion,  going  in  and  out  of  their  nests,  feeding  their 
young,  flying  off  in  search  of  food,  or  seeking  for  it  in  the  crevices 
of  the  neighbouring  trees.  It  is  truly  gratifying  to  witness  their 
sprightly  gambols,  and  the  entertaining  positions  into  which,  as  it 
were  in  very  exuberance  of  spirit,  they  are  continually  throwing 
themselves.    (See  group  of  British  Titmice,  d.  Fig.  1225,  ante.) 

This  Bird  is  very  common  in  Holland.  The  nest  is  composed  of 
moss,  mixed  with  the  seed-down  of  the  willow,  and  lined  with  a 
warm  coating  of  the  same  material.  The  eggs,  six  or  eight  in 
number,  are  spotted  with  reddish-brown,  particularly  at  the  larger 
end.  Head,  nape  of  neck,  and  throat  ink  blaclc ;  upper  parts 
yellowish-grey ;  wings  and  tail  bluish-grey  edged  paler ;  cheeks 
yellowish-white  ;  breast  and  under  parts  white,  tinged  with  pale 
yellowish-brown  ;  legs  bluish-grey. 

The  Tits  we  have  hitherto  described  are  very  generally  to  be 
found  in  England  ;  but  the  Crested  Tit  [P.  cristatiis)  is  a  Bird  but 
seldom  seen  in  this  country,  and  very  rare  throughout  Europe.  It  is 
distinguishable  from  the  other  Tits  by  its  crest,  formed  by  its  occipital 
feathers  being  elongated,  pointed,  and  slightly  recurved.  It  is  in 
length  about  four  inches  and  a-half,  of  a  dusky  colour,  with  a  black 
band  round  the  neck;  breast  pinkish-white;  feet  of  a  leaden  colour; 
and  forehead  black.  It  is  common  in  the  woods  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  middle  division  of  Scotland,  but  in  the  other  parts  of  Great  Britain 
it  is,  as  we  have  said,  very  rare.  In  North  America,  however,  it  is 
more  frequently  found.  It  is  very  solitary,  very  courageous  in  de- 
fending itself  and  its  nest,  and  is  very  difficult  to  tame.  Though 
not  strictly  migratory,  it  often  shifts  its  quarters,  and  in  severe 
winters  visits  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

The  Black-cap  Titmouse  of  America  {Parus  atricapillus) ; 
Mesange  a  tete  noire  de  Canada,  Buffon. — Many  ornithologists,  and 
among  them  Temminck,  have  considered  this  Bird  to  be  identical 
with  the  Marsh-Titmouse  of  Europe.  It  is  now,  however,  universally 
agreed  that  the  two  Birds,  though  nearly  allied,  are  distinct  species. 
The  Black-cap  Titmouse  is  termed  Peechehkeeskajshees  by  the 
Cree  Indians,  and,  according  to  Nuttall,  Chicadee  by  the  European 
colonists.  It  ranges  through  the  whole  width  of  the  American  con- 
tinent from  latitude  65°  to  the  southern  districts  of  the  United 
States,  being  stationary  throughout  the  year.     It  is  one  of  the  most 

common  Birds  in  the  fur- 
countries,  a  small  family  in- 
habiting every  thicket.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  univer- 
sally distributed. 

Their  diet  varies  with  the 
season.    In  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember they  leave  the  woods 
and   assemble    familiarly    in 
orchards   and    gardens,  and 
even  enter  the  thronging  cities 
in  quest  of  that  support  which 
their  native  forests  now  deny 
them.     Large  seeds  of  many 
kinds,  particularly  those  which 
are  oily,  as  the  sun-flower,  and 
pine,  and  spruce-kernels,  are 
nowsought  after.  These  seeds, 
in  the   usual   manner  of  the 
genus,  are  seized  in  the  claws 
and  held  against  the  branch 
until  picked  open  by  the  bill 
to  obtain  their  contents.     Fat 
of  various  kinds  is  also  greed- 
ily eaten,  and  they  regularly 
watch  the  retreat  of  the  Hog- 
killers,  in  the  country,  to  glean 
up    the    fragments    of    meat 
which   adhere   to   the  places 
where    the     carcasses    have 
been   suspended.      At   times 
they  feed   upon    the  wax   of 
the      candle  -  berry      myrtle 
(  Myrica      cerifera)  ;     they 
likewise  pick  up  crumbs  near 
the  houses,   and    search   the 
weather-boards  and  the  win- 
dow-sills familiarly  for   their 
lurking  prey,  and  are  particu- 
larly fond  of  Spiders  and  the 
eggs  of  destructive  Moths,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  Canker- 
worm,    which    they    greedily 
destroy  in   all   its   stages  of 
existence.     Their  roost  is  in 
the  hollows  of  decayed  trees, 
where  they   also   breed,  lay- 


TITMICE. 


477 


ing  their  eggs  merely  in  the  dry  rotten  wood,  without  any 
attempt  at  a  nest ;  these  are  from  six  to  twelve  in  number,  white 
with  specks  of  brown-red.  The  young,  as  soon  as  fledged,  have  all 
the  external  marks  of  the  adult  ;  the  head  is  equally  black,  and 
they  chatter  and  skip  about  with  all  the  agility  and  self-possession 
of  their  parents,  who  appear,  nevertheless,  very  solicitous  for  their 
safety.  From  this  time  the  whole  family  continue  to  associate  to- 
gether through  the  autumn  and  winter. 

The  colouring  of  the  Black-cap  Tit  is  as  follows  : — Top  of  the  head, 
back  of  the  neck,  and  the  throat  velvet  black  ;  a  white  line  from  the 
nostrils  through  the  eye  spreads  out  on  the  side  of  the  neck  ;  back 
lead-coloured,  glossed  with  yellowish-grey  ;  quill  and  tail-feathers 
blackish-grey  edged  with  greyish-white  ;  under  plumage  brownish- 
white  ;  bill  black  ;  legs  bluish.  Total  length  five  inches  and  a-half. 
(See  Fig.  1226.) 

The  Long-tailed  Titmouse  {Mccistura  ;  or  Oritcs  caudafa, 
Mcehr ;  Pariis  caitdatus,  Ray). — This  species  is  the  Pendolino, 
Paronzino,  Codibugnolo,  and  Paglia  in  culo  of  the  Italians ;  Me- 
sange  d  la  longue  queue  and  Perd  sa  queue  of  the  French  ;  Lan- 
schwanzige  Meise,  Schwanzmoise,  and  Belzmeise  Pfannenstiel  of 
the  Germans;  Staartmees  of  the  Netherlanders ;  Alhtita  of  the 
Swedes  ;  Jenga  of  the  Japanese  ;  Bottle  Tit,  Bottle  Tom,  Long- 
tailed  Farmer,  Long-tail  Mag,  Long-tail  Pie,  Poke-Pudding,  Huck- 
muck,  and  Mum-rufiin  of  the  modern  British;  and  Y  Benloyn 
gnyffonhir  of  the  ancient  British. 

The  Long-tailed  Titmouse  is  distributed  throughout  Europe  and 
the  middle  districts  of  Asia  to  Japan.  It  inhabits  the  British 
Islands.  The  food  of  this  pretty  Bird  consists  of  Insects,  their 
eggs  and  larvae,  for  which  it  is  in  constant  search  among  the 
branches,  displaying  the  greatest  alertness  and  address,  hanging 
in  every  attitude  from  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  and  creeping  Mouse- 
like round  the  thicker  branches.  It  is  not  often  that  this  Bird  is 
seen  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  houses  ;  and  this  circumstance  did 
not  escape  the  notice  of  Gilbert  White,  who  states  that  it  never 
retreats  for  succour  in  the  severest  seasons  to  houses  and  their 
neighbourhood.  This  does  not  arise  from  any  peculiar  shyness; 
and  though  it  may  not  resort,  like  the  Blue  Titmouse,  to  the  haunts 
of  man  for  food  and  shelter  in  winter,  it  does  not  positively  avoid 
them  in  summer.  Pennant  well  describes  its  appearance  in  flight 
when,  after  stating  that  the  young  follow  the  parents  the  whole 
winter,  he  says,  "  From  the  slimness  of  their  bodies  and  great  length  of 
tail,  they  appear  while  flying  like  so  many  darts  cutting  the  air. 
They  are  often  seen  passing  through  our  gardens,  going  progres- 
sively from  tree  to  tree,  as  if  on  their  road  to  some  other  place,  never 
making  any  halt."     This  progression  is  remarkable. 

The  nest  of  the  Long-tailed  Titmouse  is  a  most  beautiful  and 
elaborate  piece  of  workmanship,  "  combining  beauty  of  appearance 
with  security  and  warmth.  In  shape  it  is  nearly  oval,  with  one  small 
hole  in  the  upper  part  of  the  side,  by  which  the  bird  enters.  I  have 
never  seen  more  than  one  hole.  The  outside  of  this  nest  sparkles 
with  silver-coloured  lichens  adhering  to  a  firm  texture  of  moss  and 
wool,  the  inside  profusely  lined  with  soft  feathers.  The  nest  is 
generally  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  thick  bush,  and  so  firmly  fixed 
that  it  is  mostly  found  necessary  to  cut  out  the  portion  of  the  bush 
containing  it,  if  desirous  of  preserving  the  natural  appearance  and 
form  of  the  nest.  The  female  is  the  nest-maker,  and  is  known  to 
have  been  occupied  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  in  completing  her 
habitation.  In  this  she  deposits  from  ten  to  twelve  eggs  ;  but  a 
larger  number  are  occasionally  found  :  they  are  small  and  white, 
with  a  few  pale  red  specks,  frequently  quite  plain.  The  young 
family  of  the  year  keep  company  with  the  parent  birds  during  their 
first  autumn  and  winter,  and  generally  crowd  close  together  on  the 
same  branch  at  roosting-time,  looking,  when  thus  huddled  up,  like 
a  shapeless  lump  of  feathers  only.  These  birds  have  several  notes, 
on  the  sound  of  which  they  assemble  and  keep  together :  one  of 
these  call-notes  is  soft  and  scarcely  audible  ;  a  second  is  a  louder 
chirp  or  twitter  ;  and  a  third  is  of  a  hoarser  kind."  Fig.  1227  repre- 
sents the  Birds  and  their  nest. 

The  colouring  of  this  species  is  as  follows: — Hsad,  neck,  throat, 
and  breast  pure  white  ;  the  back  and  the  six  middle  tail-feathers 
deep  black  ;  scapulars  reddish  ;  belly,  sides,  and  abdomen  reddish- 
white  ;  quills  black  ;  greater  wing-coverts  bordered  with  pure  white  ; 
lateral  tail-feathers  white  on  their  external  barbs  and  at  their  end  ; 
tail  very  long  and  wedge-shaped.  Length  five  inches  seven  or  eight 
lines. 

The  Bearded  Titmouse  {Calamophihcs  biarmicus;  Pa- 
rus  biarmicus). — This  is  the  Mesange  Barbue  ou  Moustache  of  the 
French  ;  Bartmeise  of  the  Germans  ;  Least  Butcher-Bird  of  Edwards  ; 
Reed  Pheasant  (provincial)  of  the  modern  British  :  and  Y  Barfog  of 
the  Welsh. 

M.  Temminck  remarks  that  the  Zahnschablige  Bartmeise  of 
Brehm  is  a  species  or  sub-species  founded  only  on  individuals  which 
have  been  long  caged,  such  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Dutch  markets, 
where  numbers  are  sold.  Some  of  these  captives  come  to  London, 
where  they  may  be  bought  for  some  four  or  five  shillings  a  pair. 
The  iris  and  bill  in  the  living  Bird  are  of  a  delicate  orange- 
colour. 


The  Bearded  Titmouse  is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Europe  ;  having, 
however,  a  partial  distribution,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  affecting 
reed-beds  and  marshes.  Hence  it  is  abundant  in  Holland,  and  in  the 
marshes  of  Ostia  Italy.  It  occurs  along  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  In  our  island  it  has  been  found  in  reed-beds  in  Surrey, 
Sussex,  Essex,  Kent,  along  the  banks  of  the  Thames  between  London 
and  Oxford,  and  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire,  Cambridgeshire,  Suffolk, 
and  Norfolk.  The  food  of  this  Bird  consists  of  Insects,  the  seeds  of 
various  grasses,  and  especially  of  small  Froshwatcr-shcUed  Snails ; 


Fig.  122S. — Bearded  Titmice. 

and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  sides  of  the  stomach  in  this  Bird  arc 
thick  and  muscular,  and  formed  into  a  gizzard,  which  is  not  the  case 
in  the  True  Tits,  whence  is  afforded  the  power  of  breaking  down 
the  shells  of  the  Testaceous  MoUusks,  Sticcinea  amphibia  3Si6.  Pujia 
muscorum,  which  are  greedily  devoured. 

According  to  Mr.  Hoy  the  Bearded  Tit  begins  building  towards 
the  end  of  April,  and  the  nest  is  composed  on  the  outside  of  dead 
leaves  of  the  reed  and  sedge,  intermixed  with  a  few  pieces  of  grass, 
and  lined  with  the  top  of  the  reed.  He  describes  it  as  generally 
placed  in  a  tuft  of  coarse  grass  or  rushes  near  the  ground  on  the 
margin  of  the  dikes,  in  the  fens  ;  and  sometimes  is  fixed  among  the 
reeds  that  are  broken  down,  but  never  suspended  between  the  stems. 
Their  food,  he  says,  is  principally  the  seed  of  the  reed  ;  and  so  intent 
were  they  in  their  search  for  it,  that  he  had  taken  them  with  a  bird- 
limed  twig  attached  to  a  fishing-rod.  When  alarmed  by  any  sudden 
noise,  or  the  passing  of  a  Hawk,  they  uttered  their  shrill  musical 
notes,  and  concealed  themselves  among  the  thick  bottoms  of  the 
reeds  ;  but  they  soon  resumed  their  station,  climbing  the  upright  stems 
with  the  greatest  facility. 

Mr.  Dykes  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  three  specimens,  and 
he  found  their  crops  completely  filled  with  the  Succiiiea  ampJiibiaxw 
a  perfect  state,  the  shells  unbroken  and  singularly  closely  packed  to- 
gether. The  crop  of  one,  not  larger  than  a  hazel-nut,  contained  twenty 
Succitiea,  some  of  them  of  a  good  size,  and  four  Pupa  muscorum, 
with  the  shells  also  entire.  The  stomach  was  full  of  small  fragments 
of  shell  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  decomposition.  Numerous 
sharp  angular  fragments  of  quartz  which  had  been  swallowed  had, 
with  the  action  of  the  stomach,  effected  the  comminution  of  the 
shells. 

Two  nests  obtained  by  Mr.  Yarrell  from  the  village  of  Hornsey  were 
sustained  only  an  inch  or  two  above  the  ground  by  the  strength  of 
the  stems  of  the  coarse  grass  on  which  they  were  fixed.  Each  was 
composed  entirely  of  dried  bents,  the  finer  ones  forming  the  lining  ; 
others  increasing  in  substance  made  up  the  exterior.  Mr.  Yarrell 
states  the  number  of  eggs  at  from  four  to  six,  rather  smaller  than 
those  of  the  Great  Titmouse,  and  less  pointed  ;  eight  lines  and 
a-half  long  by  six  lines  and  a-half  in  breadth ;  white,  and  sparingly 
marked  with  pale  red  lines  or  scratches. 

Description. — Male.— Black  between  the  bill  and  the  eye  ;  and 
these  black  feathers  are  very  long  and  prolonged  on  each  side  on  the 
lateral  part  of  the  neck  :  head  and  occiput  bluish-ash  ;  throat  and 
front  of  the  neck  pure  \\\\\W,  which  blends  wi  the  breast  and  middle 


478 


TITMICE— R  OB  INS. 


of  the  belly  into  a  rosy  hue  ;  nape,  back,  rump,  feathers  of  the  middle 
of  the  tail  and  sides  fine  rust-colour;  great  coverts  of  the  wings 
deep  black,  bordered  with  deep  rusty  on  the  external  barb,  and  red- 
dish-white on  the  internal  barb  ;  quills  bordered  with  white  ;  feathers 
of  the  under  part  of  the  tail  deep  black  ;  lateral  tail-feathers  bordered 
and  terminated  with  grey  ;  tail  long,  much  graduated  ;  bill  and  iris 
fine  yellow.  Length  six  inches  and  two  or  three  lines.  (See  Fig. 
1228.)  ^ 

_  Female.-— No  black  moustaches  ;  throat  and  front  of  the  neck  tar- 
nished white  ;  upper  parts  of  the  neck  and  body  rusty,  shaded  with 
brown  ;  on  the  middle  of  the  back  some  longitudinal  black  spots  ; 
under  tail-coverts  bright  rusty. 

Young  at  their  leaving  the  nest,  and  before  their  first  moult,  with 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  plumage  of  very  bright  reddish  ;  a  good  deal 
of  black  on  the  external  barbs  of  the  quills  and  tail-feathers ;  on  the 
middle  of  the  back  a  very  large  space  of  deep  black.  After  the 
first  moult  nothing  of  the  deep  black  of  the  back  remains  but  some 
longitudinal  spots. 

The  Penduline  Titmouse  {^githalus  fenduUiius ;  Pa- 
riis  ;pcndulin!isj.  Remiz  or  Mesange  de  Pologne  of  the  French  ; 
Bentelmeise  of  the  Germans. — This  Bird  is  principally  confined  to 


Fig.  1229. — Penduline  Titmice  and  Nest. 

the  southern  and  eastern  provinces  of  Europe;  Poland,  Hungary, 
the  south  of  France,  Italy,  &c.  It  breeds  along  the  Danube.  The 
Penduline  Titmouse,  both  in  habits  and  in  the  choice  of  its  food,  has 
many  points  in  common  with  the  species  above  described.  Like  the 
Bearded  Tit,  the  Penduline  Titmouse  haunts  the  reedy  banks  of 
rivers,  or  the  margins  of  "wide-watered  "  shores,  and  its  food  con- 
sists not  only  of  the  seeds  of  the  reeds,  but  of  Aquatic  Insects  and 
Mollusks.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  pensile,  purse-like,  or  flask- 
like nest,  generally  suspended  at  the  end  of  some  willow  twig  or  other 
flexible  branch  of  an  aquatic  tree.  This  skilfully-wrought  cradle  is 
woven  from  the  cotton-like  wool  or  down  of  the  willow  or  poplar,  with 
an  opening  in  the  side  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  artificers  and 
their  young,  and  mostly  overhangs  the  water;  sometimes,  however, 
it  is  interwoven  among  the  reed  stems.  The  eggs  are  six  in  number 
and  of  a  pure  white  marked  with  spots  of  red. 

In  the  male  the  colouring  is  as  follows  :— Bill  black,  straight,  a 
little  elongated  and  pointed  ;  tail  short ;  top  of  the  head  and  nape 
pure  ash-colour  ;  forehead,  space  between  the  eye  and  the  bill,  region 
of  the  eyes,  and  feathers  of  the  orifices  of  the  ears  deep  black;  back 
and  scapulars  reddish-grey :  rump  ash-colour ;  throat  white,  the 
other  lower  parts  whitish,  with  rosy  tints  ;  coverts  of  the  wings  chest- 
nut, bordered  and  terminated  with  whitish-rusty  and  white ;  wings 


and  tail_  blackish,  bordered  with  whitish-rusty ;  tail-feathers  termi- 
nated with  white ;  iris  yellow.      Length,  four  inches  three   or  four 
lines.     The  female  is  rather  smaller,  and  has  the  tints  less  decided 
(See  Fig.  1229.) 

The  Black  Titmouse  {Parus  niger).  Partes  leitcopterus , 
Swainson.  — This  species  is  abundant  in  the  Caffre  country,  South 
Africa,  and  has  been  received  also  from  Senegal.  In  general 
form  and  size  it  approaches  the  Parus  major  of  Europe,  but  the 
bill  is  shorter  and  more  arched  above ;  the  feet  are  smaller,  and  the 
claws  shorter,  broader,  and  more  curved.  According  to  Le  Vaillant, 
the  note  of  the  Black  Titmouse,  or  Mesange  noire,  is  the  same  as 
that  of  our  Greater  Titmouse  ;  and  the  nest,'  he  says,  is  made  in  the 
hollow  trunks  of  trees,  where  the  Bird  also  roosts.    The  eggs  are  from 


Fig.  1230. — Black  Titmice. 

six  to  eight  in  number,  and  of  a  pure  white.  The  general  colour  of 
this  species  is  a  deep  uniform  glossy  black  with  a  slight  bluish  re- 
flexion in  certain  lights  ;  the  lesser  and  greater  wing-coverts  and 
base  of  the  quill-feathers  are  of  a  snowy  white,  in  admirable  contrast 
with  the  black.  Total  length,  nearly  six  inches,  (See  Fig.  1230.) 
Numerous  specimens  of  British  and  other  Titmice  may  be  seen  in 
the  collection  of  the  British  Museum. 

The  Robins— Sub-family  Erythacin<2. 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  EryikactncB,  or  Robins,  the  bill  is  rather 
short,  slender,  tapering,  somewhat  conical,  and  depressed  at  the 
base,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  nearly  straight,  slightly 
decurved  at  the  tip,  which  is  very  indistinctly  notched.  The  gape 
is  more  or  less  distinctly  furnished  with  bristles.  The  nostrils  are  of 
an  oblong  form,  placed  in  the  anterior  part  of  a  membranous  groove, 
the  basal  portion  of  which  is  feathered.  The  tarsi  are  usually  long 
and  slender,  compressed  and  covered  in  front  with  a  single  long 
plate,  in  which,  however,  the  divisions  of  the  scutella  are  often  dis- 
tinctly perceptible ;  and  the  toes  are  of  moderate  size  (the  hind-toe 
and  claw  being  usually  the  largest),  covered  with  scutella;,  and  armed 
with  rather  large,  curved,  compressed,  and  acute  claws. 

The  Robins  are  for  the  most  part  inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, in  all  parts  of  which  they  occur.  They  feed  principally  upon 
Insects  and  Worms,  for  which  they  search  in  every  direction,  some 
seeking  their  food  mostly  upon  the  ground,  amongst  stones,  fallen 
leaves,  &c.  ;  whilst  others  frequent  woods,  and  find  their  Insect  prey 
upon  the  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Several  of  them  often  pursue 
Insects  on  the  wing.  They  also  feed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  upon 
fruits,  and  even  upon  seeds  ;  and  in  severe  weather  many  of  the 
species  approach  the  abodes  of  man,  and  pick  up  indiscriminately  any 
fragments  of  food  that  may  fall  in  their  way.  Their  nests  are  large, 
and  carefully  lined  with  soft  materials  ;  their  eggs  are  generally  of 
a  pale-blue  colour.     (See  Fig.  1231.) 


THE  ROBINS. 


M<i 


Nine  species  of  this  group  have  been  found  in  Britain,  of  which 
three  are  permanent  residents  in  this  country  ;  three  visit  us  to  pass 
the  summer,  and  three  are  found  here  only  as  occasional  visitors.  1  ho 
most  familiarly-known  of  all  the  species— the  charming  httle  Red- 
breast {Erythaciis  rubccula,  see  d.  Fig.  1232,  in  Group  of  British 

Warblers) belongs,  as  is  well  known,  to  the  first-mentioned  series  ; 

but  in  the  more  northern  countries  of  Europe  it  is  a  summer  visitor. 
It  is  a  permanent  resident  in  all  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  and 


Fig 

occurs  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  north  of  Africa.  In  all  European 
countries  it  is  a  universal  favourite,  and  its  familiar  names  in  most 
languages  are  expressive  of  the  affection  with  which  it  is  regarded. 
The  principal  cause  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  boldness  with  which 
the  Redbreast  approaches  human  habitations  :  of  all  the  small  Birds 
he  certainly  exhibits  the  least  dread  of  man  ;  and  when  a  severe  winter 
renders  his  chances  of  obtaining  food  in  the  open  country  rather  pre- 
carious, he  seems  to  lay  aside  all  fear,  and,  with  very  little  encou- 
ragement, will  enter  the  cottage,  and  pick  up  the  crumbs,  without 
appearing  irf  the  least  discomposed  by  the  presence  of  the  cottager's 
family.  The  appearance  of  the  Robin  is  also  greatly  in  his  favour  ; 
his  air  and  movements  are  exceedingly  sprightly ;  his  eye  is  very 
beautiful ;  and  when  he  ventures  into  close  quarters  with  his  human 
friends,  he  eyes  them  with  a  peculiar  turn  of  the  head,  and  a  mixture 
of  confidence  and  doubt  in  his  whole  aspect  which  are  exceedingly 
amusing. 

This  boldness  and  confidence  in  man  attends  the  Robin  even 
during  the  breeding  season.  In  general  the  nest  is  built  on  a  bank 
amongst  bushes,  or  in  a  hole  of  a  wall  or  decayed  tree  ;  but  several 
instances  are  on  record  in  which  the  Birds  have  built  and  brought 
up  their  young  in  outbuildings,  which  were  constantly  visited  by 
their  owners  ;  and  during  the  completion  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at 
Sydenham,  in  1854,  several  Robins  lived  in  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing, and  made  their  nests  in  the  holes  of  the  large  roots  which  were 
employed  in  the  formation  of  the  banks  at  the  south  end,  notvvith. 
standing  the  constant  passing  and  repassing  of  the  workmen,  and 
the  almost  deafening  noise  that  was  continually  going  on.  The 
nest  is  composed  externally  of  moss,  dead  leaves,  and  dry  grass, 
and  lined  with  hair,  and  occasionally  feathers.  The  eggs  are 
usually  five  or  six  in  number,  white,  with  pale  reddish-brown  spots. 

As  a  general  rule,  and  especially  during  the  biT^eding  season,  the 
Robin  is  a  most  pugnacious  little  fellow,  attacking  and  driving  off 
all  small  Birds  from  the  neighbourhood  of  his  favourite  resort.  He 
has  even  been  known  to  assault  Cats  when  they  have  approached 
too  near  his  home.  He  sings  very  sweetly  ;  and,  according  to 
White,  through  the  whole  of  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn.  He 
is  also  said  to  sing  even  in  dull,  rainy  weather,  when  almost  all 
other  Song-Birds  are  silent. 

The  Hedge  Warbler,  or  Hedge  Sparrow  {Accentor  modu- 
laris). — This  is  an  exceedingly  abundant  and  generally  distributed 
species,  which  is  constantly  found  about  hedgerows  and  in  gardens. 
Like  the  Robin,  this  Bird  also  approaches  the  houses  in  winter  in 
search  of  food,  and  it  appears  to  be  a  gentle  and  interesting  little 
creature.  It  has  none  of  the  pugnacity  of  its  red-breasted  relative  ; 
and  when  the  two  come  into  collision,  which  is  not  unfrequently  the 
case,  the  Hedge  Sparrow  is  always  forced  to  give  way  before  its 
impetuous  assailant.  It  builds  its  nest  of  green  moss,  fine  roots,  and 
wool,  and  lines  it  with  hair,  generally  placing  it  low  down  in  a 
bush  or  hedge.     It  is  one  of  the  first  Birds  that  builds  in  this  country. 


its  nest  being  generally  completed  early  in  March ;  and  as  thn 
hedges  at  that  season  arc  usually  bare  of  leaves,  the  nest  is  very  easily 
discovered,  and  frequently  becomes  the  booty  of  some  birds'-ncst- 
ing  boy  ;  indeed,  as  Mr.  Knapp  observes,  the  eggs  of  this  Bird  are 
always  found  in  such  numbers  on  the  strings  of  these  young  robbers, 
that  it  is  a  wonder  the  species  is  not  altogether  extirpated.  The 
eggs,  which  are  usually  four  or  five  in  number,  arc  of  a  delicate 
greenish-blue  colour,  without  any  spots,  and  the  Birds  generally 
rear  two  broods  in  the  season.  The  song  of  the  Hedge  Sparrow  is 
sweet,  but  weak  and  short,  exhibiting  very  little  variety ;  it  is 
continued  nearly  all  the  year  round.  A  larger  species,  the  Alpine 
Accentor  {Accentor  alpimcs),  which  is  common  over  a  consider- 
able portion  of  Southern  Europe,  has  also  occurred,  but  very  rarely, 
in  this  country.  It  is  terrestrial  in  its  habits,  passing  the  summer 
in  high  mountain  districts,  where  it  builds  its  nest  amongst  stones, 
or  in  cavities  of  the  rocks,  and  only  descending  into  the  valleys 
when  the  storms  of  winter  render  its  longer  sojourn  in  its  elevated 
home  impossible.     (See  Fig.  1233.) 

The  Stonechat  (Saxicola  ricbicola). — Traquet  rubicole  of  the 
French  ;  Saltabastone,  Zomva-cardi,  and  Saltinpalo  of  the  Italians  ; 
Schwarzkehliger  Steinschmatzer  of  the  Germans  ;  Clochder  y  cerrig 
of  the  ancient  British ;  Stonechatter,  Stonesmith,  Moor-titling,  &c., 
provincial  English. 

Selby  states  that,  unlike  the  Whinchat  and  the  Wheat-car,  the 
Stonechat  is  stationary  in  our  country  throughout  the  year ;  but  this 
is  not  quite  correct ;  for  though  some  few  individuals  may  remain 
through  the  winter  months,  the  general  body  quit  the  British  islands 
in  autumn,  and  return  in  spring.  Moorlands,  wide  commons,  and 
open  tracts  are  their  favourite  haunts  ;  and  they  flit  from  stone  to 
stone,  or  bush  to  bush,  without  intermission,  giving  chase  to  Insects, 
and  continually  uttering  a  clicking  note,  compared  by  Buffon  to  the 
word  "Ouistrata."  The  male  sings  a  short  but  agreeable  strain, 
generally  while  on  the  wing,  hovering  over  the  furze  or  brambles. 
The  nest,  which  is  of  large  size,  is  placed  under  the  covert  of  a 
bush  or  tuft  of  herbage  ;  and  is  composed  of  moss  and  grass,  lined 
with  bents,  hairs,  and  feathers.  The  eggs  are  of  a  pale  blue,  with  a 
slightly  grey  tint,  and  finely  dotted  at  the  large  end  with  pale 
reddish-brown. 

This  species  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  temperate  Europe,  and  is 
found  also  in  India  and  Africa.  The  male  has  the  head  and  throat 
black ;  the  sides  of  the  neck,  the  upper  part  of  the  wings,  and  rump 
white ;  breast  orange-brown  ;  the  rest  of  the  under  surface  white 
tinged  with  yellow :  the  back  black,  the  feathers  edged  with 
yellowish-brown ;  wings  brownish-black,  the  feathers  with  paler 
edges  ;  bill  and  legs  black.  In  winter  the  black  eathers  of  the 
head  and  throat  are  edged  with  yellowish-brown,  which  disappears 
as  the  spring  advances.  In  Fig.  1234,  the  lower  figure  is  a  male, 
the  upper  a  female. 

The  Whinchat  {Saxicola  riibetra).  Grand  Traquet,  Traquet, 
Groulard,  Tarier,  Thyon,  Semel  (in  Lorraine),  of  the  French ; 
Grosser  Fliegenfanger,  Gestettenschlager,  and  Braunkchliger- 
Steinsmiitzar  of  the  Germans ;  Salta-bastone  con  la  gola  bianca 
and  Stiaccino  of  the  Italians ;  Furze-chat,  provincial  English  ; 
and  Clocher  yr  eithin  of  the  ancient  British. — This  Bird  is  dispersed 
during  summer  throughout  Europe,  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  temperate  Russia  ;  it  passes  the  winter  in 
Northern  Africa,  and  has  been  observed  during  that  season  in 
Smyrna.  It  arrives  in  our  island  in  April,  and  departs  at  the  latter 
end  of  autumn.  Commons,  wide  open  fields,  and  heaths  are  its 
favourite  places  of  residence.  In  some  countries  it  is  very  abundant, 
and  its  well-known  cry,  u-tick,  ic-tick,  may  be  heard  as  the  Bird 
flits  from  bush  to  bush,  perching  on  the  topmost  twigs.  It  utters 
this  cry  with  a  singular  jerk  of  the  tail,  repeating  the  last  syllable 
two  or  three  times  in  succession,  and  immediately  flits  off  to  the 
next  bush,  repeating  its  cry  as  before.  Small  shelled  Snails,  Slugs, 
and  Coleopterous  Insects  constitute  its  food,  and  we  have  seen  it 
take  Insects  on  the  wing,  darting  at  them  from  its  perch,  and 
passing  onwards  after  seizing  them.  The  nest  is  usually  placed 
under  the  shelter  of  furze  or  brushwood  on  the  ground,  and  is 
formed  of  dry  stalks  of  grass  lined  with  finer  bents  and  fibres  ;  the 
eggs  are  five  in  number,  of  a  bluish. green,  with  a  few  small  reddish- 
brown  specks.  The  song  of  this  active  sprightly  Bird  is  a  trifling 
but  not  unpleasant  warble,  and  is  sometimes  uttered  late  in  the 
evening.  Mr.  Sweet  states  that  when  caught  young  it  may  be  taught 
any  tune,  and  will  learn  the  song  of  any  Bird  it  hears. 

The  whole  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  male  \\'hinchat  is  of  a 
yellowish-brown,  each  feather  having  a  central  dash  of  brownish- 
black  ;  a  large  spot  of  white  occupies  the  centre  of  each  wing.  A 
broad  stripe  of  white  passes  above  the  eyes,  while  the  cheeks  and 
car-coverts  are  black.  The  throat,  tlie  sides  of  the  neck,  and  the 
basal  half  of  all  the  tail-feathers,  except  the  two  middle,  are  also 
white,  the  rest  of  the  tail  being  black  ;  the  chest  is  fine  light  rufous. 
The  female,  our  upper  figure,  w^ants  the  black  on  the  cliceks  and 
the  white  on  the  wing  ;  and  the  general  colours  of  the  plumage  are 
much  more  distinct  and  pure.      (See  Fig.  1255.) 

The  Wheat-ear  {Saxicola  cL'nant/ie).—Uoteuy:,  Vitrec,  and  Cul- 
blanc  of  the  French  ;  Codo  bianco,    Fornarola,   I'ctragnola,  Culbi- 


48o 


THE   WHEAT-EAR. 


anco,  and  Codetta  d'estate  of  the  Italians;  Steinschwatzer,  Stein- 
schnapperl,  Grauriickiger,  Steinschmatzer,  and  Weissehwanz  of  the 
Germans  ;  Tapuit  of  the  Netherlanders  ;  Steng-uetta  of  the  Swedes  ; 
Steendolf,  Steensg-uette,  and  Steengylpe  of  the  Norwegians  ;  Fallow- 
Finch,  Fallow-Chat,  White-tail,  Stone-chacker,  &c.,  provincial  Eng- 
lish ;   Tinwyn  y  cerrig  of  the  ancient  British. 

The  Wheat-ear  is  a  Bird  of  Passage,  widely  spread,  during  the 
spring  and  summer,  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  from  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  to  Lapland,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Iceland.  Every- 
where it  resorts  to  wide  open  downs,  sheep-pastures,  and  cornrnons, 


soft  sweet  warble,  which  is  often  uttered  while  on  the  wing.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Sweet,  the  Wheat-ear  confined  in  an  aviary  sings  by 
night  as  well  as  by  day,  and  in  winter  as  well  as  through  the 
summer  months,  the  notes  being  at  that  season  the  most  varied. 

The  nest  of  this  species  is  composed  of  dried  roots,  grasses, 
feathers,  and  fur,  and  is  concealed  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  be 
easily  detected  ;  it  is  sometimes  placed  under  the  shelter  of  a  turf 
or  stone,  among  the  fissures  of  old  walls  or  stone-quarries,  in  the 
deep  crevices  of  rocks,  or  in  deserted  Rabbit-burrows.  The  eggs, 
five  or  si.x  in  number,  are  of  a  pure  bluish-green.     On  visiting  the 


h^:i^kr^m^^^ 


Fig.  1232. — Group  of  British  Warblers. 
a,  the  Nightingale  ;  h,  the  Black-cap  ;  c,  the  Wren  ;  d,  the  Redbreast  ;  e,  the  Sedge-Warbler ;  /,  the  Whitethroat. 


scattering  in  pairs  over  the  countr>',  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  and 
collecting  in  vast  flocks  during  the  autumn,  which  gradually  mi- 
grate southwards.  In  our  island  it  makes  its  appearance  early 
in  March,  and  the  numerous  specimens  which  we  have  seen  killed 
durino-  that  month  around  London,  had  their  stomachs  filled  with 
the  fragments  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  and  were  so  loaded  with  fat, 
that  in  many  instances  the  plumage  was  spoiled  by  its  oozing  from 
the  perforations  made  by  the  shot. 

The  Wheat-ear  trips  along  over  the  grass  with  great  alertness, 
and  its  flight,  which  is  low,  is  smooth  and  rapid :  the  male  has  a 


down  and  open  lands  of  Kent  and  Sussex  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber, we  cannot  fail  to  observe  the  vast  numbers  of  these  Birds 
which  are  drawn  thither  and  collected  from  all  the  more  northern 
districts  of  our  island,  previously  to  their  departure  ;  day  after  day 
brings  a  fresh  influx.  At  this  season  multitudes  are  caught  for  the 
table,  their  flesh  being  esteemed  a  great  delicacy. 

In  the  male,  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  back 
are  of  a  fine  o-rey  ;  a  white  line  passes  from  the  beak  above  the  eye, 
succeeded  by  a  black  band  which  surrounds  the  eye,  and  spreads 
over  the  ear-coverts.    The  lower  part  of  the  back  and  basal  half  of 


THE  REDSTART. 


481 


the  tail-feathers  (the  two  middle  excepted)  are  white,  the  rest  black. 
The  wings  are  black  ;  the  chest  is  of  a  delicate  fawn  colour  fadinjj 
into  white.  The  female  wants  the  white  superciliary  stripe,  and 
the  black  band  is  e.xchan,£fed  for  one  of  a  dull  brown  ;  the  general 
plumage  is  less  pure  and  bright ;  the  wings  are  brownish  ;  and  the 
chest  reddish  passing  into  white  below.     The  lower  figure  represents 

the  male.    (See  Fig.  1236.) 

The  Redstart  {Ruticilla 
■ph(cnicura).  This  is  the  Co- 
rossolo,  Codrisso,  and  Culo- 
rossoofthe  Italians;  Rossignol 
de  murailles  of  the  French ; 
Schwarzkehliger  Sanger  of  the 
Germans ;  Gekraagde  Rood- 
start  of  the  Netherlanders ; 
Rodstjert  of  the  Swedes ; 
Roedstiert  of  the  Danes  ;  Blod- 
fugl  of  the  Norwegians;  Rhonell 
Fig.  1233.— Head  of  the  Ileilge  Sparrow,  goch  of  the  ancient  British.— 

This  Bird,  which  is  generally 
dispersed  over  Europe,  is  one  of  our  summer  visitors,  arriving  in  our 
island  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  leaving  early  in  September. 

The  Redstart  is  sprightly  in  its  movements,  and  beautiful  in  its 
form  and  colouring,  the  black,  white,  grey,  and  flame  colours  which 
ornament  its  plumage  being  conjoined  with  a  graceful  contour.  It 
darts  at  passing  Insects  with  great  address,  accompanying  every 


Fig.  1234.  — Stonecliats. 

action  with  a  vibrating  motion  of  the  tail,  which  is  continued  for 
several  seconds  on  alighting.  In  its  habits  it  is  by  no  means  recluse 
or  shy  :  it  frequents  gardens,  orchards,  and  groves,  building  in  a 
hole  of  the  wall,  between  the  branch  of  a  fruit-tree  and  the  wall, 
under  the  cover  of  luxuriant  ivy  in  a  tool-shed,  or  other  outbuilding. 
The  nest  consists  of  moss,  lined  with  hairs  and  feathers ;  the  eggs 
are  greenish-blue.  The  male  utters  a  soft  sweet  warble,  while 
sitting  on  some  low  branch  or  other  perch,  his  tail  vibrating  at  the 
same  time ;  and  neither  this  vibration  nor  his  song  ceases  as  he  flits 
off  to  a  more  attractive  station.  In  captivity  the  Redstart  is  said  to 
become  very  tame. 

The  colouring  of  the  male  is  as  follows  : — Forehead  pure  white  ;  a 
small  band  on  the  root  of  the  bill  ;  space  between  that  and  the  eye, 
the  throat,  and  upper  part  of  the  neck,  deep  black  ;  head  and  upper 
part  of  the  back  bluish-ash  ;  quill-feathers  blackish  ;  the  breast, 
sides,  rump,  and  lateral  tail-feathers  brilliant  ruddy  or  flame-red ; 
two  middle  tail-feathers  brown  ;  abdomen  whitish.  The  female  is  of 
a  uniform   greyish-brown,   with  the  exception  of  the  tail,  which  is 


dull  rufous.      Lower  tigure,  a  male ;    upper,  a  temale.     (Sec  Fig. 
1236). 

The  exotic  species  of  this  group  appears  to  be  most  abundant  in 
Asia,  and  a  great  number  are  found  in  India.  One  of  these,  the 
ICiitacincla  inacroura,  is  described  as  a  most  splendid  songster, 
almost,  if  not  quite,  equal  to  the  European  Nightingale  ;  in  fact,  it 


Fi^.  1235. — Whinchats. 

is  denominated  the  Indian  Nightingale  by  some  naturalists.  It 
inhabits  the  recesses  of  the  forests,  and,  like  the  Nightingale,  sings 
during  the  night.  Mr.  Blyth  states  that  many  thousands  of  these 
Birds,  which  are  called  Shainas  by  the  Bengalese,  are  kept  in  cages 
in  Calcutta,  and  that  it  is  the  universal  practice  to  darken  their 
cages  by  wrapping  them  round  with  several  folds  of  cloth,  enough, 
as  he  observes,  "to  stifle  the  luckless  captives  in  this  climate, 
though,  it  must  be  confessed,  they  sing  most  vigorously  while  thus 
circumstanced,"  He  adds—"  It  is  a  practice  of  the  rich  natives  to 
employ  servants  to  carry  about  their  Shamas  and  other  birds  ;  and 
the  number  which  are  thus  borne  about  the  streets  of  Calcutta  is 
astonishing :  the  poor  birds  are  shut  out  from  all  light  and  air,  like  Ma- 
hommedan  ladies  enjoying  their  evening  drive  ;  but  they  nevertheless 
sing  forth  most  lustily  and  melodiously. "  Mr.  Tickell  also  describes 
the  song  of  the  Bird,  when  heard  in  its  native  forests,  as  wonderfully 
beautiful.  He  says — "  The  strains  sweep  with  a  gush  of  sweetness 
through  the  enchanting  solitudes  which  this  Bird  makes  its  favourite 
resort,  at  times  when  other  birds  are  silent  in  rest  ;  and  in  unison 
with  the  surrounding  scenery,  in  which  nature  seems  to  have 
lavished  every  fantastic  invention  of  beauty,  the  effect  produced  upon 
the  mind  and  ear  can  alone  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  wit- 
nessed the  magnificence  of  a  Tropical  forest." 

Another  Indian  species,  which  has  a  beautiful  song,  is  the  Dayal 
{Copsychus  saiclaris),  which,  according  to  Mr.  Layard,  is  called  the 
Magpie  Robin  by  the  English  residents  in  Ceylon,  where  it  is  re- 
garded with  the  same  interest  accorded  in  Europe  to  itsred-breasled 
relative.  In  India  it  is  constantly  caged,  both  for  the  sake  of  its 
song  and  for  another  quality,  in  the  possession  of  which  it  also  re- 
sembles our  Robin— its  pugnacity.  Fighting  the  Tame  Birds, 
according  to  Mr.  Hodgson,  is  a  favourite  amusement  of  the  rich  ; 
and  he  adds,  that  no  Gamc-Cocks  can  contend  with  more  energy  and 
perseverance  than  these  little  Birds.  The  same  author  states,  that 
the  professional  bird-keepers  take  advantage  of  this  pugnacious  dis- 
position in  their  pets  to  make  them  instrumental  in  the  capture  of 
their  wild  brethren.  During  the  spring,  it  appears,  the  male  Birds 
are  continually  challenging  each  other;  and  as  soon  as  one  has 
uttered  his  note  of  defiance,  it  is  answered  by  another,  and  these 
altercations  usually  end  in  a  battle.  The  bird-keeper  accordingly 
carries  a  tame  male  on  his  hand  to  the  nearest  garden  or  grove, 
when  the  Bird  at  his  bidding  utters  his  challenge;   and  it  this  is  an- 

3Q 


48;! 


THE  NIGHTINGALE. 


swered  by  a  Wild  Bird,  the  tame  one  is  immediately  slipped,  and  a 
desperate  combat  commences,  in  the  course  of  which  the  man  easily 
secures  the  Wild  Bird,  the  tame  one  actually  assisting  in  the  act  by 
holding-  his  opponent  with  his  bill  and  claws. 

Another  species,  the  ThanDwbia  fulicata,  or  Indian  Robin,  even 
exceeds  his  European  representative  in  boldness  and  familiarity  ;  it 


Fig.  1236. — Wheat-ears. 

is  always  found  about  houses,  which  it  frequently  enters,  and  is  a 
great  favourite  both  with  the  natives  and  the  European  residents. 

Of  the  few  American  species  we  need  only  notice  the  Blue  Bird  of 
the  United  States  {Siaii'a  sialt's),  which,  in  its  general  form  and 
habits,  closely  resembles  our  own  Robin,  whose  place  he  appears 
to  take  in  the  affections  of  the  country-people  in  America.  The 
Blue  Bird  is  essentially  a  summer  Bird  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
winter  a  considerable  portion  of  the  species  appears  to  migrate 
southwards,  as  at  this  season  it  is  very  common  in  the  West  Indian 
islands  and  the  Tropical  parts  of  America.  That  some  do  not 
undertake  such  a  distant  pilgrimage,  however,  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  a  few  generally  make  their  appearance  in  their  summer  haunts 
whenever  any  days  of  mild  weather  occur  in  the  course  of  the  winter. 
The  song  of  the  Blue  Bird  is  described  as  being  sweet  and  pleasing, 
and  appears  to  be  greatly  admired  in  the  States.  It  builds  in  the 
holes  of  trees,  and  similar  situations,  and  lays  five  or  si.K  eggs  of  a 
pale-blue  colour.  Its  food  consists  for  the  most  part  of  Insects  and 
Spiders  ;  but  occasionally,  especially  in  the  autumn,  this  diet  is  varied 
with  fruits  of  different  kinds. 

The  True  Warblers— Sub-family  Sylvtncs. 

The  typical  sub-family  of  the  Sykn'nce,  or  True  Warblers,  presents 
a  very  close  resemblance  in  its  general  characters  to  the  preceding 
group.  The  bill  is  of  the  same  form,  but  generally  a  little  longer, 
and  less  depressed  at  the  base,  and  the  notch  in  the  upper  mandible 
is  usually  rather  more  distinct.  (See  Fig.  1238.)  The  nostrils  are 
basal,  placed  in  a  membranous  groove,  and  frequently  furnished 
with  an  opercular  scale.  The  tarsi  are  rather  long  and  slender, 
covered  in  front  with  distinct  scales.  In  their  general  form  these 
Birds  are  less  robust  than  the  Erythacincs,  which,  however,  they 
resemble  in  many  respects.  They  are  active,  lively  Birds,  generally 
inhabiting  trees  and  bushes,  where  they  seek  for  the  Insects  which 
constitute  their  principal  food.  These  they  not  unfrequently  take  on 
the  wing,  in  the  manner  of  the  Flycatchers.  (See  p.  461,  ajite.) 
They  also  feed  upon  fruits,  and  some  of  the  species  eat  small  r.eeds. 


Their  nests  are  very  neatly  constructed,  and  generally  cup-shaped  ; 
their  eggs  usually  vary  from  five  to  eight  in  number,  and  they  rear 
two  broods  in  the  season.  They  are  mostly  gifted  with  great  power 
of  song;  some  of  them,  such  as  the  celebrated  European  Nightin- 
gale {Philomela  luscinia),  being  pre-eminent  in  this  respect.  Like 
the  majority  of  Insectivorous  Birds,  those  which  occur  in  the  tem- 
perate and  colder  climates  are  generally  migratory  in  their  habits  ; 


Fig.  1237. — Redstarts. 

the  English  species,  with  the  exception  of  two,  arriving  with  us  in 
the  spring,  and  leaving  us  again  in  the  autumn  for  the  more  genial 
regions  of  the  south.     They  are  found  in  both  hemispheres. 

We  shall  be  compelled  only  to  notice  a  very  few  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  numerous  species  belonging  to  this  group,  of  which 
no  less  than  fifteen  have  been  recorded  as  British.  And  first 
amongst  these  we  must  refer  to  the  Nightingale. 


Fig.  1238. — Head  of  the  Nightingale. 

The  Nightingale  {Philomela  luschiia).  aii^uv  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  ;  Luscinia  and  Philomela  of  the  Latins  ;  Rossignuolo,  Rusig- 
nuolo,  and  Usignuolo  of  the  modern  Italians  ;  Rossignol  of  the 
French  ;  Ruisenor  of  the  Spanish  ;  Nachtigall  of  the  Germans  ;  Nach- 
tergahl  of  the  "Fauna  Suecica  ;"  Nattergale  of  Brunnich  ;  and  Eos 
of  the  ancient  British.  It  is  the  Luscinia  oi  Gesner,  Aldrovandus, 
Wlllughby,  Ray,  and  Brehm ;  Motacilla  luscinia  of  Linnaeus ; 
Sylvia  luscinia  of  Latham  and  others  ;  Curruca  luscinia  of 
Flemino-;  Philomela  luscinia  oi%Ahy,  Gould,  and  Swainson ;  and 
the  Lu'scinia Philomela  of  Bonaparte.     (See  Fig.  1239.) 

This  deservedly  celebrated  songster  is  a  summer  visitor  to  our 
island  and  the  European  continent,  migrating  in  winter  into  Egypt 
and  Syria,  and  the  northern  districts  of  Africa.  On  the  continent  it 
extends  its  range  as  far  northwards  as  Sweden;  but  in  our  island, 
strange  to  say,  its  distribution  is  limited.  It  is  stated  to  be  tolerably 
common  about  Doncastcr,  iu  Yorkshire  ;    but  though  this  may  be 


THB    WARBLERS. 


4«3 


the  case,  it  is  certainly  of  rare  occurrence  in  Lancashire,  Cheshire, 
and  Derbyshire.  It  does  not  visit  Cornwall  or  the  western  parts  of 
Devonshire,  nor  (though  Dyer,  in  his  "  Gronsjar  Hill,"  makes  this 
Bird  the  companion  of  his  Muse  in  the  Vale  of  Towcy)  is  it  heard  in 
Wales,  excepting,  perhaps,  on  the  border-line  of  South  Wales,  and 
that  very  rarely.  It  has  never  been  known  to  visit  Ireland  ;  nor  is  it 
known  in  the  Channel  Islands,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  &c.  In  the  south- 
eastern counties  it  is  abundant ;  and  especially  in  Surrey,  Sussex, 
Hampshire,  Dorsetshire,  Essex,  Middlesex,  Berkshire,  &c.  The 
causes  of  this  partial  distribution  have  not  hitherto  been  satisfactorily 
explained.     On  the  continent  it  is  nowhere  more  abundant  than  in 


Fig.  1239. — The  Nightingale. 

Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy,  where,  however,  as  in  England,  it  is  migra- 
tory, leaving  those  countries  on  the  setting  in  of  winter.  The  islands 
of  the  Greek  Archipelago  are  visited  by  this  Bird  ;  it  is  found  also  in 
Judea,  and  Mr.  Strickland  observed  it  at  Smj'rna  on  the  5th  of  April. 
Mr.  Gould  states  that  he  has  "received  specimens  from  Northern 
Africa,  but  never  obtained  any  from  the  central  or  southern  parts  of 
that  portion  of  the  globe  ;  it  would  appear,  therefore,  that  its  distri- 
bution over  that  vast  continent  is  very  limited." 

The  Nightingale  haunts  close  shrubberies,  copses,  and  dense 
coverts,  in  low  humid  situations,  and,  as  it  has  been  observed,  more 
especially  where  the  cowslip  grows  plentifully.  To  these  favourite 
spots  the  males,  which  precede  by  about  ten  days  the  females,  on 
their  visit  to  our  shores,  immediately  make  their  way,  and  begin  their 
rich  strains  of  invitation,  striving,  as  it  would  seem,  to  excel  each 
other  in  the  fulness  of  their  notes  and  the  luxuriance  of  their  modu- 
lations. This  Bird,  as  its  name  implies,  sings  at  night,  and  its 
strains,  heard  by  calm  moonlight  when  all  is  silent  around,  are 
very  pleasing.  But  it  is  not  only  at  night  that  this  songster  pours  out 
his  melody;  he  sings  also  during  the  day;  but  his  strain,  mingled 
with  the  voices  of  other  Birds,  is  less  effective,  less  captivating  than 
when  uttered  during. the  moonlit  hour,  and  listened  to  amidst  the 
shadowy  stillness  of  its  embowered  retreat. 

It  is  only  prior  to  the  work  of  incubation,  and  the  labours  of  rearing 
the  young  brood,  that  the  notes  of  the  Nightingale  are  poured  forth 
in  their  fullest  melody;  and  at  the  latter  end  of  the  season,  before 
leaving  our  shores,  the  voice  of  song  is  changed  into  a  hoarse  kind  of 
croak. 

The  Nightingale  breeds  in  the  thickest  covei^ts  ;  and  so  artfully 
constructed  and  so  well  concealed  is  the  nest,  that  it  is  not  to  be 
discovered  without  great  difficulty.  It  is  generally  placed  low  in  a 
thick  bush,  or  on  the  ground  among  intertangled  stems.  The  outside 
is  composed  of  withered  leaves,  or  grass,  or  of  the  skeleton  leaves 
which  accumulate  under  hedges  and  thickets  ;  internally  it  is  lined 
with  fine  fibres  of  roots  and  hair.  The  eggs  are  five  in  number,  and 
of  an  olive-brown.  The  young  are  fed  with  soft  Caterpillars,  which, 
with  Insects  and  berries,  constitute  the  diet  of  the  adults. 

The  Nightingale  measures  about  seven  inches  in  length ;  its  general 
plumage  above  is  of  a  rich  brown,  the  lower  part  of  the  back  and 
tail  having  a  reddish  tinge  ;  the  under  parts  are  ash-colour.  Closely 
allied  to  the  Nightingale  are  three  species  peculiar  to  the  continent : 
the  Curruca  -philomela  {Philomela  turdoidcs,  Blyth)  ;  C.  sericea  ; 
and  C.  orphea.  The  song  of  the  first  is  loud,  but  far  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Nightingale. 

The  Black-cap  (0^/-;-«(:(a:  atricapilla). — This  species,  scarcely 
inferior  to  the  Nightingale  in  its  musical  powers,  arrives  in  our  island 
about  the  middle'of  .-Vpril,  and  leaves  at  the  end  of  September.     It  is 


the  Fauvettc  a  tCte  noire  of  the  French  ;  der  Monch  of  the  Germans  ; 
the  Caponera  gentile,  or,  from  its  fondness  for  ivy-berries,  Caponera 
d'edera  of  the  Italians,  who  class  it  under  the  Birds  called  Beccafico, 
so  prized  for  the  table.  The  Black-cap  is  very  shy  and  retired,  con- 
cealing Itself  amidst  the  foliage  of  trees,  while  it  pours  forth  at  inter- 
vals its  varied  fiute-like  tones,  which,  like  the  Nightingale,  it  continues 
"  when  eventide  is  ended."  Not  only  has  it  its  own  peculiar  strain, 
but  it  has  also  the  power  of  imitating  the  voices  of  various  other 
Birds,  and  so  admirably  as  to  deceive  the  listener. 

"When  the  black-cap,"   says   Mr.   Sweet,   "first  arrives  in  this 
country,  its  chief  food  is  the  eariy-ripcncd  berries  of  the  ivy,  and 


Fig.  1241.— Egg  of 
I31ack-cap. 


Fig.  1240. — The  Black-cap. 

where  those  are,  there  the  black-caps  are  first  to  be  heard  singing 
their  melodious  and  varied  song.  By  the  time  the  ivy-berries  are 
over,  the  little  green  larvffi  of  the  small  moths  will  be  getting  plen- 
tiful, rolled  up  in  the  young  shoots  and  leaves:  then  is  this  their 
chief  food  until  the  strawberries  and  cherries  become  ripe  :  after  that 
there  is  no  want  of  fruit  or  berries  till  their  return,  and  there  is  no 
sort  of  fruit  or  berry  that  is  eatable  or  wholesome  that  thev  will  refuse. 
After  they  have  cleared  the  elder-berries  in  autumn  they  immediately 
leave  us." 

Woods,  thickets,  and  orchards  are  the  favourite  haunts  of  this 
species ;  and  there,  among  .dense  bushes  and  brambles,  it  builds  its 
nest,  which  is  composed  of  dried  stalks  of 
goose-grass,  a  little  moss  or  wool,  and  lined 
with  fibrous  roots  and  a  few  hairs.  The  eggs 
are  five  in  number,  of  a  reddish-brown,  with 
spots  of  a  darker  tint,  intermixed  with  others 
of  an  ashy  grey.  Fig.  1241  represents  the 
i^Z?,  °f  ^^^  present  Bird.  The  male  Black- 
cap measures  nearly  six  inches  in  length  ; 
crown  and  occiput  t)lack  ;  neck  and  breast 
grey.  Upper  parts  grey  tinged  with  olive- 
green  ;  under  parts  ashy  grey.  (See  Fig.  1240.)  In  the  female, 
which  exceeds  the  male  in  size,  the  crown  of  the  head  is  umber 
brown  ;  and  the  general  tints  of  the  plumage  are  darker  and  more 
decidedly  washed  with  green. 

The  Black-cap  is  widely  dispersed  as  a  summer  visitant  through 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  extending  as  high  as  Lapland.  Tem- 
minck  says  that  it  is  rare  beyond  the  Apennines  and  Pyrenees.  In  Ma- 
deira it  is  a  common  and  a  permanent  resident,  as  it  is  also  in  the 
environs  of  Rome,  and  Southern  Italy.  The  Sylvia  melanocephala 
(Latham),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Spain,  and  *.VcS.sarda  of  Mar- 
mora, are  allied  but  distinct  species. 

The  Garden  Warbler,  or  Greater  Pettichaps  {Curritca 
horfe!!sis).—TW\s  Bird  is  the  Beccafico,  or  Fig-eater  of  the  Italians  ; 
the  Becfigue  of  the  French  ;  Ficedula  of  the  Latins;  ^vKaWi  of  the 
Greeks  ;  but  this  name  Fig-eater,  as  is  well  observed  by  Prince  C.  L. 
Bonaparte,  in  his  "  Specchio  Comparative,"  is  applied  to  different 
kinds  of  Sylvan  Warblers,  whenever  they  are  fat  and  in  a  good  st^ite 
for  the  table.  These  arc  generally  fruit-eaters  in  the  season.  I  he 
true  Beccafico,  however,  with  its  "  carne  squistia,"  is,  according  to 
the  Prince,  this  species,  the  Sylvia  {curruca')  hor/oisis. 

This  Bird,  which  in  many  districts  is  far  from  being  rare,  was  first 
described  as  a  British  species  by  Latham  ;  it  arrives  in  April,  and  de- 
parts eariy  in  September  ;  and,  according  to  Selby,  extends  its  range 
not  only  throughout  most  parts  of  England,  but  the  greater  part  of 
Scotland,  particularly  where  lakes  and  rivers  are  bordered  by  wooded 
extent  of  country.  It  is  abundant  over  tne  south  of  Europe.  I  he 
Greater  Pettichaps  is  little  inferior  to  the  Nightingale  in  song,  and 
sometimes  utters  his  varied  notes  after  sunset.    Some  of  the  notes  are 


l84 


THE    WARBLERS. 


peculiarly  mellow,  and  closely  approach  those  of  the  Blackbird, 
while  others  are  quick,  shrill,  and  lively.  During  the  performance  of 
its  strain  the  Bird  is  seldom  seen,  for,  like  the  rest  of  its  tribe,  it  is 
shy  and  recluse,  lurking  in  the  shadiest  coverts,  amidst  the  foliage  of 
some  close  thicket ;  but  sometimes  may  be  observed  warbling  from  the 
upper  light  branches  of  a  tree.  Lewin  says  that  it  makes  its  nest  for 
the  most  part  with  fibres  and  wool,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of 
green  moss,  often  in  the  neighbourhood  of  gardens,  which  it  frequents, 
with  the  White-throat  and  Black-cap,  for  the  sake  of  currants  and 
other  fruits.  IMontagu,  who  has  recorded  this  habit,  which  we  can 
personally  verify,  states  also  that  it  inhabits  thick  hedges,  where  it 
makes  a  nest  near  the  ground,  composed  of  goose-grass  [Galium 
aparine,  Linn.)  and  other  fibrous  plants,  fhmsily  put  together,  like 
that  of  the  common  White-throat,  with  the  addition  sometimes  of  a 
little  green  moss  externally.    Selby  gives  much  the  same  description. 


Fig.  1242. — The  Garden  Warbler. 

It  lays  four,  r.ometimes  five  eggs,  about  the  size  of  a  Hedge-Sparrow's 
or  Hedge-Warbler's,  of  a  dirty  white,  blotched  with  light-brown 
(Selby  says  wood-brown),  the  blotches  being  most  numerous  at  the 
larger  end.  Its  alarm-call,  according  to  Selby,  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  White-throat  ;  and  C.  Bonaparte  notes  it  as  common 
near  Rome  in  the  autumn. 

The  whole  of  the  upper  parts  olive-green,  with  a  shade  of  ash-grey. 
On  each  side  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  is  a  patch  of  ash-grey. 
Breast  and  flanks  yellowish-grey,  inclining  to  wood-brown.  Throat 
and  under  parts  greyish-white.  Orbits  of  the  eyes  white  ;  irides 
brown  ;  bill  wood-brown.  Legs  and  claws  bluish-grey.  (See  Fig. 
1242.)  The  female  is  similar  in  plumage  to  the  male  Bird.  Total 
length  about  six  inches. 

The  White-throat  {Curruca  chierea).  Fauvette  grise,  or 
Grisette,  of  the  French  ;  Fahle  Grasmiicke  of  Bechstein — This,  like 
the  two  former  species,  is  a  migratory  Bird,  visiting  our  island  and  the 
middle  and  northern  districts  of  the  European  continent  during  the 
summer.  It  frequents  tall  hedgerows  and  copses,  and  possesses  a 
pleasing  but  hurried  and  feeble  song,  which  it  frequently  utters  upon 
the  wing  as  it  suddenly  rises  from  the  spray  upon  which  it  had  been 
perched,  to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  and  then  slowly 
descends  to  the  same  spot  whence  it  had  taken  its  departure.  In 
executing  this  movement  its  flight  is  peculiarly  quivering,  and 
cannot  have  been  unobserved  by  those  who  are  accustomed  to 
observe  the  habits  of  Birds  in  a  state  of  nature.  (Seey,  in  Group  of 
British  Warblers,  Fig.  1232,  page  480,  ante.) 

Besides  Insects  and  their  larvje,  the  White-throat  feeds  on 
currants,  and  other  garden  fruit  which  ripens  during  the  summer. 
The  nest  of  this  species  is  built  among  brushwood,  nettles,  or 
brambles,  and  is  composed  of  the  withered  stems  of  goose-grass 
intermixed  with  hair.  The  eggs  are  five  in  number ;  of  a  greyish- 
white  speckled  with  wood-brown  and  grey. 

The  White-throat  is  about  five  inches  and  a-half  in  length  :  the 
general  colour  above  is  brown  ;  the  top  of  the  head  being  tinged 
with  soot-black.  The  quill-feathers  and  coverts  are  blackish-brown 
margined  with  light  reddish-brown  ;  the  flanks  and  chest  are  ash- 
grey  tinged  with  red  ;  the  throat  and  middle  of  the  abdomen  are 
white.  An  allied,  but  smaller  and  darker-coloured  species,  the  Lesser 
White-throat  [Cvri-uca  garriila,  or  sylviella),  is  not  uncommon 
in  some  districts  (we  have  seen  it  round  London,  and  specimens 
have  been  killed  in  the  fields  about  Hammersmith);  but  from  its 
extremely  recluse  habits,  tenanting  the  thickest  hedges,  it  escapes 
ordinary  observation. 

The  Dartford  Warbler,  Furzeling,  or  Furze  Wren  {MeH- 
zophilus provincialis ;  M.  dartfordiensis). — Pette-chou  de  Provence 
of  the  French  ;  Magnanini  of  Cavi ;  and  Provenser  Sanger  of  Meyer. 


This  Warbler  is  found  in  the  countries  of  Europe  bordering  the 
;Mediterranean.  It  is  comparatively  rare  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
In  England  it  is  a  permanent  resident,  but  not  generally  diffused. 
It  is  frequent  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London  ;  and  occurs  in  Berk- 
shire, Cornwall,  and  Devonshire.  It  was  first  noticed  as  a  British 
Bird  by  Dr.  Latham  in  the  year  1773,  who  procured  a  pair  from 
Bexley  Heath,  near  Dartford  in  Kent,  whence  its  trivial  English 
name.  The  Dartford  Warbler  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  Wren  in 
the  bulk  of  its  body,  but  appears  superior  in  size  from  the  great 
length  of  its  tail.  In  its  habits  and  manners  it  is  extremely  shy  and 
recluse,  concealing  itself  in  thick  furze-brakes  and  tangled  heath  : 
and  well  does  it  know  every  labyrinth  and  every  hiding-place  of 
each  bush  or  bed  of  furze  on  the  breezy  common  where  it  takes  up 
its  abode.  Mr.  Gould  observes  that  its  form  closely  allies  it  to  the 
Superb  Warblers  (Alahirus)  of  Australia,  while  its  relationship  to 
the  common  White-throat  is  strikingly  apparent.  With  reference 
to  its  secluded  habits,  the  same  author  observes  that  in  the  spring 
it  becomes  more  lively  and  frequently  visible,  rising  on  quivering 
wing  above  the  tops  of  the  furze,  and  uttering  a  hurried  babbling 
song  much  after  the  manner  of  the  White-throat ;  at  these  times 
it  erects  the  feathers  of  the  head  into  a  crest,  and  distends  the 
throat,  exhibiting  many  attitudes  and  gesticulations. 

Its  nest,  which  is  concealed  in  the  very  heart  of  a  thick  furze-bush 
not  far  from  the  ground,  consists  of  grass,  fibres,  and  fine  roots  ; 
the  eggs  are  greenish-white,  with  brown  speckles  and  greyish- 
spots. 


Fie;.  1243. — Dartford  Warblers. 

All  the  upper  parts  of  the  plumage  are  fine  deep  grey  ;  tail 
blackish-brown,  the  outer  feathers  tipped  with  white  ;  throat,  breast, 
and  sides,  of  the  colour  of  red-wine-lees  ;  abdomen  white.  Quill- 
feathers  ash-coloured  externally,  but  with  inner  barbs  black. 
Length  five  inches.  The  tints  of  the  female  are  duller  than  those  of 
the  male,  and  the  throat  is  much  more  spotted.  The  lower  figure  a 
male,  the  upper  a  female.     (See  Fig.  1:^43.) 

The  Sedge-Warbler  [Calamodyta  ;pahistris;  or  Salicaria 
phragmitis). — This  species,  which  is  one  of  our  summer  visitors, 
resorts  to  marshes,  and  the  banks  of  lakes  or  rivers,  wherever 
extensive  reed  or  osier  beds  afford  it  shelter.  In  such  situations  it 
may  be  heard,  while  concealed  from  view,  uttering  its  varied  song, 
which  is  continued  through  the  greater  part  of  the  night.  Amongst 
its  notes  may  be  distinguished  imitations  of  those  of  the  Swallow, 


THE   TAILOR  BIRDS. 


48s 


Lark  Sparrow,  and  Linnet,  mingled  with  guttural  intonations,  the 
whole  delivered  confusedly  and  with  great  rapidity.  Several  may  be 
often  heard  in  chorus.  (See  e,  m  Group  of  British  Warblers,  tig. 
12,2,  p.  480,  anie.)  ,        ,  .  ^, 

This  species  generally  attaches  its  nest  to  the  stems  of  three  or 
four  reeds  growing  close  together,  or  to  twigs  of  osiers.  It  >s  com- 
posed of  grasses  and  a  little  moss,  with  a  hning  of  hair  and  fine 
^  ^  dried  grass.     The  eggs   are   of  a  pale 

brown  with  darker  spots.  This  species 
is  abundant  on  the  continent;  it  is 
allied  to  the  Reed  Wren,  or  Reed 
Warbler  {Calainodyia  or  Salicaria 
aruiidinacea),  but  is  smaller,  and  is 
distinguished  by  a  yellowish-white 
streak  above  the  eye.  The  general 
colour  above  is  brown  or  yellowish- 
brown;  the  feathers  of  the  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  back  being  washed 
in  the  centre  with  dusky  black.  Under 
parts  generally  pale  yellowish-white. 
The  Golden-crested  Wren  or 
Kinglet  {Rcguhis  cristatus).—Th.\%,  the  most  diminutive  of 
our  native  Birds,  is  also  a  member  of  the  group.  It  is  about  three 
inches  and  a-half  in  length,  of  a  yellowish  olive-green  colour 
above,     and    yellowish-grey     beneath ;    and    the     crown     of    the 


Fig.  1244. — Head  of  the 
Golden-crested  Wren. 


Fig.  1245. — Nest  of  the  Golden-crested  Wren. 

head  is  adorned  with  a  beautiful  orangfe-yellow  crest,  which  is 
bordered  on  each  side  with  black.  This  charming  little  Bird 
is  a  permanent  resident  in  this  country,  to  which,  indeed,  it 
even  appears  to  migrate  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  winter, 
from  the  cold  countries  of  the  north  of  Europe.  It  is  generally 
found    in   fir    woods,  and  is    exceedingly  sociable    in   its  habits, 


associating  not  only  with  its  own  species,  but  'with  several  other 
Insectivorous  Birds,  such  as  the  Tits  (Parincc)  and  Creepers 
(Ccrthina).  In  its  manners  it  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to 
the  Tits,  exhibiting  great  liveliness,  hopping  from  branch  to  branch, 
and  clinging  to  the  twigs  in  various  positions,  sometimes  even  back 
downwards,  whilst  searching  for  the  small  Insects  which  constitute  its 
principal  food.  Its  nest  is  an  elegant  little  cup-shaped  structure  of 
moss,  frequently  lined  with  feathers  ;  it  is  suspended  from  three  or 
four  twigs  of  the  fir-trees,  amongst  which  the  Bird  generally  lives, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  branch  serves  to  shelter  the  opening. 
The  female  lays  from  six  to  ten  eggs,  and  while  sitting  on  them  she  is 
exceedingly  bold,  allowing  herself  to  be  looked  at  without  quitting 
the  nest.  When  the  young  are  hatched  she  scill  retains  her  con- 
fidence ;  and  Colonel  Montagu  found,  that  on  keeping  a  nest  with 
eight  young  ones  in  a  room,  the  female  tended  them  with  great 
assiduity,  whilst  the  male  would  not  venture  into  the  room.  His 
partner,  however,  would  feed  the  young  ones  whilst  the  nest  was 
held  in  the  hand  ;  and  the  number  of  visits  which  she  made  to 
them  in  the  course  of  the  day  was  very  extraordinary  ;  she  came 
once  in  a  minute  and  a-half  or  two  minutes,  or  at  about  an  average  of 
thirty-six  times  in  an  hour ;  and  this  for  fully  sixteen  hours  in  the 
day.  The  song  of  this  little  Bird  is  soft  and  pleasing,  not  unlike 
that  of  the  common  Wren.  Two  other  species  of  Kinglet  have 
been  found,  but  only  occasionally  in  this  country. 

The  Tailor  Birds.— These  Birds,  which  belong  for  the  most  part 
to  the  genera   Orthotomus  and  Prima,  usually  pick  up  the  dead 
leaf  of  a  tree,  and  regularly  sew  it  to  a  living  leaf 
by  the  edges,  thus  forming  a  sort  of  pendulous 
pouch,  which  is  of  course  supported  by  the  foot- 
stalk of  the  leaf  still  attached  to  the  parent  tree. 
In  some  cases,   however,   they  employ   two  con- 
tiguous living  leaves.     The   thread  employed  in 
tliis  operation  is    in  some   cases  spun  from  raw 
cotton   by  the    Bird ;  in   others  common   cotton 
thread   is   made  use  of;  and  some  nests  exhibit 
both   these   materials.     The   pouch   thus   formed 
is  left  open  at  the  top,  and  the  bottom  is  occu- 
pied by   the   nest  itself,   which    is   usually  com- 
posed of  cotton  and  flax,  neatly  woven  together 
and  lined  with   horse-hair.     (See  Fig.  1246.)     In 
these  ingenious  little  cradles  the  Tailor  Birds  lay 
their  eggs  and  bring  up  their  young,  secure,  from 
the  slenderness  of  their   communication  with  the 
tree  that  supports  them,  from    the     attacks    of 
the     Monkeys,     Snakes,      and     other     enemies, 
who    would    otherwise     frequently    destroy  their 
hopes.     Their  food  consists   of    Insects,   which 
they  capture  either  upon  the  bark   and  leaves   of 
trees,  or  upon  the  ground.     The   Dryrnokcs  are 
also    remarkable    for  the    construction    of  their 
nests  ;  they  live  in  corn-fields,  and  amongst  other 
Fig.  1246.— Nest  of  tall  graminaceous  plants,  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
the  Tailor  Bird,     which   they   sew   together  with     threads   formed 
of  different   materials.     One  of  these  Birds,    the 
Drymoica  cursitans,  is  abundant  in  India  ;  and  another,  the  Dry- 
moica  cysticola,  inhabits  the  south  of  Europe.     The  Tailor  Birds, 
and  Drymoica,  belong  to  the  sub-family  MaluruicB  of  Mr.   G.  R. 

The  collection  of  the  British  Museum  has  a  large  number  of 
specimens  of  the  Warblers,  or  Syk'iadce,  collected  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  India,  Africa,  Australia,  &c. 


486 


CONTROSTRAL  BIRDS. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

CLASS  II.— AVES,  OR  BIRDS ;   ORDER  PASSERES,  OR  INSESSORES ;   SUB-ORDER  CONIROSTRES. 


HE  Conirostral  Birds  (a  term  derived 
from  coitus,  a  cone,  and  rostrum,  a  beak) 
have  the  bill  of  a  more  or  less  conical 
form,  sometimes  sliort,  very  thick  at  the 
base,  and  rapidly  diminishing  to  the  tip  ; 
in  other  cases  it  is  more  elongated  and 
tapering,  and  sometimes  slightly  curved. 
The  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is  usually 
entire,  but  occasionally  there  is  a  slight 
tooth  on  each  side,  near  the  extremity. 
The  wings  are  generally  longish  and 
pointed  ;  the  tarsi  long,  and  the  toes  of 
moderate  length,  the  outer  one  being 
frequently  united  at  its  base  to  the  middle  one. 

This  group  includes  the  essentially  Granivorous  Birds  ; 
but  a  considerable  number  of  the  species  referred  to  it 
are  not  confined  to  a  grain  diet ;  many  of  them  feed  upon 
■fruits  and  Insects,  and  larvaj  also  form  a  portion  of  the 
nourishment  of  most  of  the  species.  Some,  such  as  the 
Crows  and  their  allies,  appear  to  feed  upon  almost  any 
animal  or  vegetable  substances  that  come  in  their  way  ; 
and  these  constitute  the  greater  part  of  Temminck's 
order  of  Omnivores,  which  includes  no  less  than  five  of 
the  families. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Conirostres  form  eight 
families,  of  which  the  first  seven,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Musophagida  and  ColiidcB,  form  the  order  Omnivores  of  M. 
Temminck,  a  group  which  has  not  been  adopted  by  any  subsequent 
naturalists.  The  first  family,  that  of  the  Buccrida,  or  Hornbills, 
like  the  Toucans,  is  distinguished  by  the  great  size  of  the  bill.  The 
following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  these  Birds. 

The  Hornbills— Family  Buceridce. 

These  strange-looking  Birds,  characterised  by  the  enormous 
development  of  the  beak,  are  natives  of  India  and  Africa.  Not 
only  is  the  beak  of  immense  magnitude,  but  the  upper  mandible  is 
furnished  with  projecting  appendages,  adding  greatly  to  its  entire 
dimensions,  and  in  some  species  encroaching  over  the  top  of  the 
head.  These  appendages  increase  with  age ;  in  young  Birds  the)- 
are  very  small,  and  their  figure  is  undefined,  and  it  is  gradually  that 
they  acquire  their  enormous  dimensions.  The  immense  beak,  thus 
furnished,  seems  to  be  heavier  than  it  is  (and  it  is  by  no  means  light), 
for  the  additional  appendage  is  cellular  internally  ;  the  edges  of 
both  mandibles  are  roughly  notched.  The  structure  of  the  toes 
and  the  shortness  of  the  tarsi  of  the  Hornbills  indicate  arboreal  habits. 
The  middle  and  outer  toes  are  united  as  far  as  the  second  joint,  and 
the  under  surface  of  the  whole  is  flat  and  palm-like  in  order  to  give 
a  firm  close  hold  upon  the  branch  (see  Fig.  1247,  the.  head  and  foot 
oi  Biiccros  rhinoceros ;  and  Fig.  1248,  a  section  of  the  skull).  In 
their  food  these  Birds  appear  to  be  omnivorous,  fruits,  eggs,  young 
Birds,  Reptiles,  and  even  carrion  forming  their  diet.  Of  the  fruit  of 
the  Ficus  indica  and  of  the  Banyan,  they  are  said  to  be  very  fond, 
and  also,  according  to  Bontius,  of  nutmegs,  which  impart  an 
aromatic  flavour  to  the  flesh,  which  is  delicate  :  this  account  applies 
more  exclusively  to  the  Biiceros  liydrocorax,  Linnffius  ;  for  respect- 
ing the  Buceros  rhitwceros  he  says,  "  It  lives  on  the  carcasses  and 
intestines  of  animals,  and  waits  upon  the  hunters  who  kill  wild 
cattle,  boars,  and  stags,  to  gorge  itself  with  the  entrails  of  the  slain 
beasts." 

M.  Lesson  sums  up  the  habits  of  the  Hornbills  thus  : — Those  of 
Africa  live  on  carrion :  those  of  the  East  Indies  seek  for  fruits,  es- 
pecially nutmegs,  and  their  flesh  thence  acquires  a  delicious  flavour. 
Their  flight  is  performed  by  repeated  strokes  of  the  wings,  and  the 
air  which  they  displace,  joined  to  the  clattering  of  their  mandibles, 
occasions  a  great  and  very  disquieting  noise  in  the  forests  when  the 
cause  is  unknown.  This  noise,  capable  of  inspiring  terror,  does  not 
ill  resemble  those  flaws  of  rough  and  sudden  winds  ("  grains  de  vent 
brusques  et  subits")  which  arise  so  unexpectedly  between  the  Tropics, 
and  blow  so  violently.  The  Europeans  established  at  the  Moluccas 
think  that  the  furrows  which  are  seen  on  the  bill  of  the  Hornbills  are 
the  result  of  age,  and  that  each  furrow  signifies  a  year  ;  whence  the 
name  of  Jerarvogel,  which  they  give  to  these  Birds.  Mr.  Swainson 
remarks  that  the  Hornbills  are  gregarious  noisy  Birds,  generally 
of  a  very  large  size,  and  are  restricted  to  the  Old  World  ;  that  they 
are  omnivorous,  feeding  both  on  animals  and  vegetables  ;  that  some, 
however,  seem  only  to  partake  of  the  latter  food  ;  while  others,  upon 
the  authority  of  Le  Vaillant,  feed  upon  carrion.  The  Buceros 
cavatus  dissected  by  Pr.  Owen  was  observed  to  be  more  attached 


to  animal  than  to  vegetable  food,  and  would  quit  any  other  substance 
if  a  dead  Mou^e  was  offered  to  it.  This  it  would  swallow  entire, 
after  squeezing  it  twice  or  thrice  with  the  bill ;  and  no  castings  were 
noticed.  Pr.  Owen,  however,  adds  that  Petiver  has  borne  testimony 
to  its  rerrurgitating  habits. 


Fig.  1247. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Rhinoceros  Hornbill. 

The  progressive  motion  of  these  Birds  on  the  ground  is  by  hop- 
ping or  jumping  along.  Major-General  Hardwicke  expresses  sur- 
prise at  this,  and  at  their  perching  with  such  security,  as  their  feet 
are  formed  for  walking,  and  better  suited  to  the  ground  than  the 
trees — an  error  which  a  consideration  of  the  form  and  shortness  of 
the  tarsi,  the  structure  of  the  toes,  and  the  general  contour  of  the 
Birds  might,  one  would  think,  have  prevented. 

Active  and  alert,  notwithstanding  the  magnitude  of  their  beaks, 
these  Birds  lightly  traverse  the  branches  of  the  forest,  and  leap  from 
one  to  another  till  the  highest  is  attained  :  they  then  often  stop  and 
utter  a  loud  roaring  sound,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable 
distance,  and  is  alarming  to  those  who  do  not  know  whence  it 
proceeds.     The  noise  thus  uttered,  and  which  is  most  probably  their 


Fig.  124S. — Section  of  Head  of  the  Rhinoceros  Hornbill. 

call-note,  throws  a  light  upon  the  design  of  the  hollmv  protuberance 
surmounting  the  bill  ;  it  acts  as  a  sounding-board,  increasing  the 
reverberation  of  the  air.  With  regard  to  the  huge  beak  itself,  many 
conjectures  have  been  entertained  as  to  its  peculiar  uses.  It  has 
been  suggested,  as  a  reason  for  its  development,  that  it  perhaps  con- 
stitutes a  necessary  weapon  of  defence  against  Monkeys,  and  other 


HORNBILLS—PLANTAIN-EA  TERS. 


487 


animals  which  may  seek  to  assail  its  nest ;  while  some  have  sup- 
posed that  it  might  be  emplo)-cd  in  dragging-  Snakes  and  Lizards 
from  their  lurking-places,  oryoung  Birds  and  eggs  from  the  recesses  of 
the  trunks  of  aged  trees.  The  tongue  is  short,  triangular,  and  smooth. 
The  Rhinoceros  Hornbill  {Buccros  rhinoceros). — This  species 
is  a  native  of  India  and  the  Indian  Islands,  and  is  to  be  seen  in 
most  museums,  specimens  being  often  brought  to  Europe.  Though 
there  may  be  some  variety  from  age  and  circumstances,  the  bill  will 
be  generally  found  to  be  about  ten  inches  long  and  of  a  yellowish- 
white  ;  the  upper  mandible  red  at  the  base,  the  lower  black.  The 
horn,  or  casque,  varied  with  black  and  white.  The  body  black,  of 
a  dirty  white  below  and  posteriorly ;  tail  about  twelve  inches,  the 
feathers  white  at  the  base  and  tip,  black  in  the  middle  ;  feet  and 
claws  obscure  grey.  The  feathers  of  the  cheeks  and  back  of  the 
neck  are  loose  and  hair-like.     (See  Fig.  1249.) 


Fig.  1249. — The  Rhinoceros  Hornbill. 

The  Concave  Hornbill  {Buceros  cavafiis). — This  large  species 
is  a  native  of  India,  the  Himalaya  range,  Java,  and  most  of  the 
islands  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  It  is  figured  in  the  "Century" 
by  Mr.  Gould,  who  thus  describes  it: — "  Throat,  ear-coverts,  circle 
round  the  eye,  and  a  narrow  band  at  the  occipital  edge  of  the  protu- 
berance of  the  beak,  black  ;  neck  dirty  straw-colour,  the  feathers  of 
the  back  of  the  neck  elongated  ;  the  body  and  wings  black,  greater 
coverts  and  quill-feathers  tipped  with  white  ;  thighs,  upper  and 
under  tail-coverts,  white,  as  is  the  tail  also,  with  the  exception  of  a 
broad  black  band  about  three  inches  from  the  tip  ;  beak  yellowish, 
inclining  to  scarlet  at  the  tip  ;  under  mandible  black  at  the  base ; 
tarsi  black.  The  food  of  the  Buccros  cavat us,  like  that  of  other  horn- 
bills,  consists  of  fruits,  berries,  flesh,  and  even  carrion  ;  in  short, 
it  may  be  considered  as  strictly  omnivorous."     (See  Fig.  1250.) 

We  may  add  that  this  and  the  other  species  have  the  habit  of 
throwing  their  food  up  in  the  air  with  a  jerk,  and  dexterously  catch- 
ing it,  when  they  swallow  it  at  once. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  are  numerous  specimens 
of  Hornbills,  including  the  Trumpeter  {B.  bii<Kinato7-) ;  the  Bifronted 
(5.  bicoims) ;  the  Helmet  {B.  galeatus')  ;  with  many  others  from 
various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  There  are  also  several  living  speci- 
mens to  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's 
Park,  London  ;  such  as  the  Concave-casqued  Hornbill  (^Buccros  bi- 
cornis) ;  the  Rhinoceros  Hornbill  (B.  rhiiwceros) ;  the  Lunated  Horn- 
bill  {B.  lunatics)  \  and  the  Ground  Hornbill  {Bucorvus  abyssinicus). 

The  Plantain-eaters— Family  MusopmgidcB. 

This  family  contains  the  genera  Corythaix,  Chizcerhis  or 
Sc/iizar/u's,  and  JMusophaga.  In  these  genera  the  bill  is  serrated, 
and  the  outer  of  the  anterior  toes  capable  of  being  directed  obliquely 
backwards. 

The  genus  Coj-ythaix  is  thus  characterised  : — Bill  short,  high 
and  greatly  compressed,  with  the  ridge  arched;  head  crested, 
the  frontal  feathers  reposing  over  the  nostrils ;  wings  short 
and     rounded;     tail    long,    broad,    and    rounded;     feet    strong; 


claws  short  ;  plumage  lustrous  and  silky.  The  Touracos  arc 
most  beautiful  Birds,  and  feed  principally  on  soft  fruits,  display- 
ing great  address  among  the  branches  of  the  trees.  They  are  natives 
of  Africa,  and  tenant  the  forests,  perching  on  the  highest  branches, 
often  out  of  the  reach  of  gun-shot  :  their  voice  is  sonorous.  They 
breed,  like  Toucans,  in  hollow  trees.  In  captivity  they  appear  very 
gentle,  and  soon  become  familiar.  Their  size  exceeds  that  of  our 
common  Jay  ;  the  prevailing  colour  of  the  plumage  is  green,  diversi- 
fied with  violet,  purple,  and  red.      In  tlie  "  Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc," 


Fig.  1250. — The  Conc.-ive  Hornbill. 

'834.  p.  3,  will  be  found  an  account  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Corythaix 
;porpliyreolopha,  by  Professor  Owen  :  and  in  the  "  Proceeds."  for 
1836,  p.  32,  an  account  of  the  dissection  of  the  Corythaix  buffotiii. 
The  Senegal  Touraco  [Turacus,  or  Corythaix se7iegalensis). — 
In  this  species  the  crest  consists  of  long  silky  feathers  which  sweep 
backwards  over  the  top  of  the  head  :  when,  however,  the  Bird  is 
excited,  the  crest  is  elevated,  and  assumes  a  compressed  sub-conical 
shape,  giving  to  the  head  a  helmeted  appearance.  Fig.  1251  re- 
presents the  head  of  this  species,  and  well  displays  the  form  of  the 


'""        //,///</^ 


Fig.  1251. — Head  of  the  .Senegal  Tour.i(-o. 

beak,  the  extent  of  naked  skin  around  the  eye,  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  plumes  of  the  crest.     Fig.  1252  represents  the  Bird  itself. 

The  Fire-crested  Touraco  [Corythaix  crythrolophas).  C. 
igiiiccps.  Lesson  ;  Musophagapaulina,  Temminck. — In  this  species 
the  silky  crest  is  erect,  compressed,  and  of  a  red  colour;  the  sides 
of  the   head  and  throat  are  white;    the  general  plumage  is  green. 


488 


THE  TOUR  A  GOES. 


inclining  to  bluish  on  the  under  parts  ;  the  quill-feathers  are  rich 
purple-violet;  the  bill  is  yellow  ;  the  feet  dusky  ;  eyes  large,  red  and 
brilliant.  Fig.  1253  represents  the  head,  which  may  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  Senegal  Touraco. 

In  the  "Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc,"  June  14,  18^1,  is  the  description  of 
the  C.  porphyreolopha.  Vigors  ;  and  in  the  "  Proceeds."  for  1839,  p. 
34,  the  description  of  a  new  species,  the  C.  fnacrorhynchus,  Fraser. 


Fig.  1252. — The  Senegal  Touraco. 

Specimens  of  each  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  It  was  in 
pursuit,  we  believe,  of  the  Corythaix  biiffonii  that  Le  Vaillant  met 
with  an  accident  that  might  have  terminated  the  enthusiastic 
traveller's  adventures.  Havmg  succeeded  in  bringing  a  Touraco  to 
the  ground  from  its  lofty  perch,  he  could  not  immediately  find  it, 
and  stamping  in  his  ve.xation  at  the  loss,  little  aware  of  what  was 


Fig.  1253. — Head  of  Fire-crested  Touraco. 

beneath  him,  broke  through  into  one  of  the  covered  pits  which  the 
Hottentots  dig  for  the  purpose  of  catching  Buffaloes,  Elephants,  &c. 
Fig.  1254  represents  the  Bird. 

The  Variegated  Touraco  {Chizcerhis  variegata).~to\xx?ico 
huppe6-col  of  Le  Vaillant ;  Phasiattus  a/ricanus,  Latham  ;  Muso- 
Ipliaga  variegata ,  Vieillot. 

The  genus  Chizisrhis,  or  Schizirrhis,  differs  from  Corythaix  in 
the  greater  size  and  sharpness  of  the  bill,  in  the  lengthened  form  of 
the  wings,  and  in  the  nostrils  being  unobscured  by  feathers  ;  habits, 
those  of  the  Touracoes  in  general.  The  present  Bird  is  a  native  of 
Africa.  Its  colour  is  light  grey  above,  a  blackish  stripe  down  each 
feather  ;  top  of  the  head  and  throat,  as  far  as  the  breast,  chestnut- 
brown  ;  under  plumage  beyond  the  breast  white,  each  feather  having 
a  dark  central  stripe;  quill-feathers  blackish,  with  a  spot  of  pure 
white,  varying  in  size  at  the  middle  of  the  inner  webs;  tertiaries  and 


middle  tail-feathers  grey,  tipped  with  black  ;  lateral  feathers  black  ; 
bill  yellov/ ;  legs  grey  ;  crest  placed  on  the  back  of  the  head.  Total 
length,  twenty  inches.     (See  Fig.  1255.) 

The  Violet  Plantain-eatek  {Corythaix,  or  Miisophaga  vio- 
lacea).—  In  this  genus  the  bill  resembles  that  of  Chizcerhis,  but  the 
base  enormously  dilated  so  as  to  spread  like  a  casque  or  helmet  over 
the  fore-part  of  the  head  as  far  as  the  crown,  where  its  thickened  sides 


Fig.  1254. — The  Fire-crested  Touraco. 


form  a  semicircle;    nostrils  naked,  oval,  open,  and  pierced  in  the 
middle  of  the  bill  ;  wings,  feet,  and  tail,  as  in  Corytliaix. 

This  richly-coloured  and  magnificent  Bird  is  a  native  of  the  Gold 
Coast  and  Senegal.  Its  description  is  as  follows  : — Bill  rich  yellow, 
passing  into  crimson  orbits  and  crimson  ;  feathers  of  the  crown  close 
and  fine,  and  of  a  rich  crimson  ;  a  white  mark  beginning  below  the 
eye  extends  above  the  ear  ;  secondary  and  part  of  the  primary  quills 


Fig.  1255.— Variegated  Touraco, 


THE  CROW  FAMILY. 


489 


carmine,  with  lilac  reflexions  margined  and  tipped  with  blackish 
vioiet,  "hich  is  the  general  colour  of  the  plumage,  only  that  it 
changes  to  a  very  deep  green  on  the  under  parts,  and  is  very  rich  on 
the  tail ;  legs  strong  and  black.    (See  Fig.  1256.) 


Fig.  1256. — The  Violet  Plantain-eater. 

The  third  family  of  the  Conirostres,  that  of  the  O;pisthocomid<s, 
closely  resembles  the  preceding  in  most  of  its  characters,  and  is,  in 
fact,  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  as  a  sub-family  of  that  group  ;  it 
differs,  however,  in  the  incapability  of  the  outer  toe  to  be  turned 


Fig.  1257.— The  Senegal  Coly. 


backwards.  It  includes  only  a  single  species,  the  Hoatzin  {Opistfio- 
counts  o-isfaius),  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  where  it  lives  in 
large  flocks  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  creeks,  and  feeds  almost 
entirely  on  the  leaves  of  a  particular  tree,  the  A  nan  arbor escc lis  of 
Linnffius.  It  is  also  called  the  Crested  Pheasant,  and  two  specimens 
of  it  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  It  nidificates  in  the  lower 
parts  of  ;trces  ;  its  nest  is  composed  of  twigs,  and  lined  witli  soft 
materials,  and  the  female  lays  three  or  four  eggs  of  a  dirty-white 
colour,  with  scattered  red  spots.  Both  the  Bird'  and  its  flesh  are 
tainted  with  a  peculiar  odour,  which  prevents  its  being  used  as 
food. 

The  position  of  this  singular  Bird  has  always  been  a  matter  of 
doubt  with  ornithologists.  Linnaeus  describes  it  as  a  Pheasant,  and 
several  other  authors  have  placed  it  amongst  the  Gallinaceous  Birds  ; 
but  it  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  true  Passerine  Bird.  It  is 
nearly  as  large  as  a  Peacock,  which  it  also  resembles  in  its  walk. 
The  bill  is  thick,  short,  convex,  and  bent  down  at  the  tip  ;  the  base 
is  furnished  with  diverging  bristles,  and  the  nostrils  are  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  bill.  The  head  is  adorned  with  a  tuft  of  long, 
narrow  feathers. 

Another  small  family,  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  J/z^o- 
^hagidcB  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray,  although  its  type  has  generally  been 
regarded  as  a  member  of  the  family  FringillidcB,  is  that  of  the 
Co/iidcB,  or  Colics,  a  group  of  small  Birds,  in  which  the  bill  is  short 
and  stout,  elevated  at  the  base,  with  the  nostrils  placed  in  the  middle 
of  a  large  membranous  groove.  The  wings  are  short,  the  tail 
elongated,  and  the  true  hinder  toe  is  directed  forwards.  The  Colies 
are  found  in  Africa  and  India.  Their  plumage  is  soft  and  silky,  and 
usually  of  a  grey  colour,  whence,  according  to  Le  Vaillant,  they  are 
called  Mouse-Birds  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  live  in  troops, 
feeding  on  fruits  and  the  buds  of  trees,  and  climbing  about  the 
branches  with  great  agility,  using  their  bills  in  the  same  way  as  the 
Parrots,  They  make  a  large,  rounded  nest,  and  lay  five  or  six  eggs. 
Le  Vaillant  states  that,  when  sleeping,  they  suspend  themselves 
with  the  head  downwards  ;  and  in  cold  weather  they  are  often  found  in 
the  morning  so  completely  benumbed,  that  they  may  be  taken,  one 
after  the  other,  by  hand.  Their  flesh  is  said  to  be  delicate.  Fig. 
1257  is  a  specimen  of  the  Senegal  Coly  {Coitus  senegalettsis, 
Latham.)  It  has  the  bill  short,  conical,  slightly  compressed,  with 
the  upper  mandible  somewhat  arched,  and  the  edges  of  both  ser- 
rated ;  wings  long  ;  tail  very  long  and  graduated  ;  feet  well  formed 
for  clinging;  the  eye  is  surrounded  by  a  naked  reddish  skin  ;  the 
general  plumage  is  pearl-grey  with  greenish  reflexions,  excepting 
the  forehead,  which  is  yellow,  and  the  abdomen,  which  is  ruddy. 

The  Crows— Family  Corvidce. 

The  fifth  family  of  the  Conirostral  Birds  is  that  of  the  Corvidce,  or 
Crows.  In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  long,  strong,  and  compressed, 
with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  more  or  less  curved,  and  tlie 
tip  more  or  less  notched  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base,  and 
concealed  by  the  basal  plumes  ;  the  wings  are  usually  long,  and  the 
tarsi  and  toes  of  moderate  length — the  former  being  covered  in  front 
with  broad  plates. 

These  Birds  may  be  regarded  as  the  typical  examples  of  Tem- 
minck's  order  Omtiivores,  as  they  feed  not  only  upon  grain  and 
fruits,  but  also  upon  animal  substances,  and  even  upon  carrion. 
They  walk  and  run  with  greater  facility  than  any  others  of  the 
Passerine  Birds,  but  are  also  perfectly  at  home  in  the  trees,  and 
generally  fly  well.  They  all  form  a  large  nest  of  sticks,  lined  w^ith 
soft  materials ;  and  their  eggs,  which  vary  from  three  to  seven  in 
number,  exhibit  dark  spots  upon  a  pale  bluish,  greenish,  or  white 
ground.  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  divides  these  Birds  into  six  sub-families, 
three  of  which  possess  representatives  in  the  British  Fauna. 

The  Stre;peri)icB,  or  Piping  Crows,  a  group  of  rather  large  Birds, 
which  inhabit  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  are 
distinguished  from  the  other  CoruidcB  by  the  form  of  the  nostrils, 
each  of  which  consists  of  a  long  narrow  slit  in  the  substance  of  the 
bill,  and  is  usually  completely  exposed.  The  bill  itself  is  long  and 
compressed,  broad  at  the  base,  where  the  ridge  projects  upon  the 
forehead,  and  the  tip  is  more  or  less  notched.  Unlike  the  ordinary 
members  of  their  family,  these  Birds  have  a  peculiar  musical  note. 

The  Piping  Crow  [Gymnorkina,  or  Barita  tii/ce/t). —The 
Piping  Crow  is  common  in  New  South  Wales,  inhabiting  the  Blue 
Mountains  in  small  flocks,  and,  as  Caley  informs  us,  on  the  authority 
of  the  natives,  building  in  trees,  its  nest  consisting  of  sticks  lined 
with  grass.  It  is  said  to  make  a  loud  whistling  noise  when  perched 
high  on  the  trees  early  in  the  morning,  and  not  to  be  migratory.  In 
captivity  it  is  very  amusing,  from  its  powers  of  mimicry ;  it  imitates 
the  voices  of  men  and  animals,  and  easily  learns  to  whistle  tunes, 
its  notes  being  clear  and  powerful. 

This  species  is  less  than  the  common  Crow  in  size  ;  the  back  of 
the  neck,  the  back  and  shoulders,  and  the  bases  of  the  wing-coverts 
are  greyish-white  ;  there  is  some  pure  white  at  the  base  of  the  tail; 
the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  deep  black  ;  legs  dusky ;  bill  bluish  at 
the  base  and  black  at  the  tip. 

A  second  group  is  the  sub-family  of  the   Garru/ifiep,  or  Jays, 

3  R 


490 


THE  JAYS. 


which  have  also  a  slight  notch  near  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible, 
but  the  nostrils  are  concealed  under  the  frontal  plumes  ;  their  wings 
are  of  moderate  size,  and  rounded,  and  their  tarsi  and  toes  strongly 
scutellated. 


Fig.  125S.— The  Piping  Crow. 

The  Common  European  Jay  {Garruhts  glandarius). — This 
is  an  exceedingly  handsome  Bird,  about  the  size  of  a  Pigeon,  of  a 
light  reddish-brown  colour,  with  the  primary  wing-coverts  bright 
blue,  elegantly  banded  with  black.  The  feathers  of  the  fore-part  of 
the  head  are"  whitish,  spotted  with  black,  and  elongated  so  as  to 
form  a  crest,  which  the  Bird  can  erect  at  pleasure  ;  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  wings  and  tail,  and  a  streak  on  each  side  of  the  chin,  are 
black.     (See  Fig.  1259.) 


Fig.  1259. — Head  of  the  Jay. 

The  Jay  is  a  common  Bird  in  England  and  the  southern  parts  of 
Scotland  ;  it  inhabits  thick  woods,  and  is  shy  in  its  habits.  It  feeds 
to  a  great  extent  upon  vegetable  matters,  such  as  acorns  and  beech- 
mast,  and  in  summer  often  visits  gardens,  tempted  by  the  cultivated 
fruits.  It  also  feeds  on  Insects  and  Worms.  Its  nest  is  formed  in 
tall  bushes,  or  in  the  lower  branches  of  trees,  but  always  well  con- 
cealed amongst  the  leaves.  It  is  cup-shaped,  formed  of  small 
sticks,  and  lined  with  finer  materials,  such  as  small  roots  and  grass  ; 
the  eggs  are  five  or  six  in  number.     (See  Fig.  1260.) 

The  natural  note  of  the  Jay  is  a  harsh  grating  sound ;  but  its 
powers  of  imitation  are  exceedingly  great ;  and  even  in  a  state  of 
nature  it  has  been  known  to  mimic  the  voices  of  other  animals  so 
exactly,  that  it  was  difficult  to  believe  that  the  animals  personated 
were  really  absent.  Montagu  says,  that  in  the  spring  the  Jay  will 
sometimes  utter  a  sort  of  song,  which  he  describes  as  soft  and 
pleasing,  but  into  which  it  introduces  at  intervals  the  bleating  of  a 
Lamb,  the  mewing  of  a  Cat,  the  note  of  a  Kite  or  Buzzard,  the  hoot- 
ing of  an  Owl,  and  even  the  neighing  of  a  Horse,  with  similar  sounds. 
In  confinement,  of  course,  a  wider  field  is  opened  for  the  Bird's 
talents  for  mimicry  ;  and  it  usually  takes  advantage  of  its  position 
to  pick  up  and  repeat  every  sound  with  which  it  is  familiar.  Thus, 
Bewick  mentions  a  Jay  that  imitated  "  the  sound  of  a  saw  so  exactly, 
that,  though  it  was  on  a  Sunday,  we  could  hardly  be  persuaded  that 
there  was  not  a  carpenter  at  work  in  the  house." 

Mr.  Yarrell  also  refers  to  one  of  these  Birds,  in  the  possession  of  a 
surgeon  in  Berkshire,  which,  before  it  was  twelve  months  old,  imi- 
tated the  ordinary  household  sounds  with  astonishing  accuracy.  He 
would  give  what   might  oe   called   a   Poultry-yard    entertainment, 


imitating  the  calling  of  the  Fowls  to  feed,  and  all  the  noises  of  the 
Fowls  to  perfection  fbut  the  crowing  of  the  Cock  was  not  managed 
well.  The  barking  and  noises  of  the  House-Dog  were  imitated  to 
perfection. 


Fig.  1260. — Nest  of  European  Jay. 

The  American  Blue  ]Kv{Cya9?iirtcs,  or  Garrulus  cristahis). — 
Our  European  Jay,  just  described,  is  a  very  beautiful  Bird,  but  not 
to  be  compared  with  the  Blue  Jay  of  America.  This  elegant  species, 
arrayed  in  blue  varied  with  purple  and  white,  and  barred  on  the 
wings  and  tail  with  black,  is  a  native  of  the  woods  of  North 
America,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  noisy  chattering,  its  variety  of 
tones,  its  screams,  cries,  and  squalling.  It  is  a  shy  recluse  Bird, 
tenanting  the  recesses  of  the  forest  with  its  mate,  but  in  the  months 
of  September  and  October  uniting  into  flocks  of  forty  or  fifty,  which 
straggle  irregularly  through  the  woods  in  search  of  food,  acorns  and 
berries.  During  this  season  they  lose  part  of  their  shyness,  and 
keep  chattering  to  each  other  in  a  variety  of  strange  and  querulous 
notes. 

The  Blue  Jay  builds  a  large  nest,  frequently  in  the  cedar,  some- 
times in  an  apple-tree,  and  lines  it  with  dry  fibrous  roots.    The  eggs, 


Fig.  1261 The  American  IJlue  Jay. 

five  in  number,  are  of  a  dull  olive,  spotted  with  brown.  The  male  is 
particularly  careful  of  not  being  heard  near  the  place,  making  his 
visits  as  silently  and  secretly  as  possible.  His  favourite  food  is 
chestnuts,  acorns,  and  Indian  corn  ;  he  occasionally  feeds  on  the 
Caterpillars,  and  sometimes  pays  a  plundering  visit  to  the  orchard, 
cherry-row  and  potato  patch.     He  also  plunders  the  nests  of  small 


THE  TRUE  CROWS. 


491 


Birds  of  their  eggs  and  young,  tearing  the  callow  brood  by  piece- 
meal, and  spreading  alarm  and  sorrow  around  him.  Sometimes  he 
will  assault  and  kill  full-grown  Birds,  as  Warblers  and  Finches,  and 
devour  them. 

To  Owls  and  Hawks  the  Blue  Jay  manifests  the  most  inveterate  anti- 
pathy, and  joins  with  others  to  make  a  train  of  persecutors,  which 
daringly  annoy  and  torment  the  common  enemy,  till  the  Hawk, 
singling  out  the  foremost,  darts  at  it,  and  bears  it  off  in  triumph, 
when  in  confusion  and  terror  the  crowd  take  flight  in  different 
directions. 

In  captivity  the  Blue  Jay  soon  becomes  familiar,  and  readily  learns 
to  utter  words  and  sentences  ;  but,  like  all  its  race,  it  pilfers  every- 
thing it  can  carry  away,  hiding  the  stolen  effects  in  various  holes  and 
corners.     Fig.  1261  represents  the  Bird. 

A  species  nearly  allied  to  the  above  Bird  is  found  in  Canada.  It 
is  the  Pensorcus  canadensis.  It  is,  however,  far  inferior  in  beauty 
to  the  Blue  Jay. 

The  Tree  Crows  {Callaatincc)  form  a  third  sub-family.  In 
these  the  upper  mandible  is  not  toothed  at  the  tip ;  the  bill  is  short, 
with  the  ridge  much  elevated  at  the  base,  and  considerably  curved  ; 
the  wings  are  short  and  rounded,  the  tail  long,  the  tarsi  covered 
with  transverse  scales,  and  the  two  lateral  toes  are  unequal.  These 
Birds  are  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  of  which  they  gene- 
rally inhabit  the  warmer  regions.  The  typical  species,  Callrsas 
cinerea,  sometimes  called  the  New  Zealand  Crow,  is,  as  its  name 
implies,  an  inhabitant  of  our  Antipodes.  In  its  habits  it  resembles 
the  ordinary  Crows,  feeding  on  fruits.  Insects,  and  occasionally  on 
small  Birds ;  its  general  colour  is  a  greenish-black  ;  and  on  each 
side  of  the  head  there  is  a  small  wattle  of  a  bright  blue  tint. 

The  True  Crows— Sub-family  CorvincB. 

We  now  pass  to  the  sub-family  of  the  True  Crows  {Corvina:),  to 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  British  species  of  Corvidcs  belong. 
These  Birds,  like  the  preceding,  are  destitute  of  the  teeth  at  the  tip 
of  the  upper  mandible,  the  ridge  of  which  is  more  or  less  curved  ; 
the  wings  are  long  and  very  slightly  rounded,  the  tail  variable  in 
form,  the  tarsi  long  and  covered  with  transverse  scales,  and  the  two 
lateral  toes  are  equal. 

The  Birds  of  this  sub-family  are  undoubtedly  the  most  intelligent 
of  the  feathered  races.  In  a  state  of  nature  they  are  exceedingly 
wary,  and  appear  not  only  to  have  an  instinctive  perception  of  the 
approach  of  peril,  but  also  to  know  the  extent  of  the  danger  to  which 
they  are  likely  to  be  exposed.  Thus,  some  of  them  will  allow  an 
unarmed  man  to  come  very  near  them  without  appearing  at  all 
alarmed  at  his  approach  ;  but  it  requires  the  greatest  caution  to  get 
within  gun-shot  of  them  when  the  intruder  is  furnished  with  fire-arms. 


Fig.  1262 Head  and  Foot  of  the  Raven. 

When  taken  young  they  are  very  docile,  and  may  be  taught  to 
repeat  a  few  words,  although  their  elocutionary  powers  are  far 
inferior  to  those  of  the  Parrots.  Their  cunning  and  apparent 
drollery  of  disposition,  however,  often  render  them  very  amusing 


pets  ;  although  it  must  be  confessed  that,  like  Autolycus,  they  have  a 
knack  of  picking  up  "  unconsidorcd  trifles,"  which  may  occasionally 
lead  to  disagreeable  results.  In  the  abstraction  and  concealment 
of  the  articles  which  they  appropriate  in  this  manner— usually 
trinkets  and  other  metallic  and  glittering  prizes— which  can  be  of  no 
possible  use  to  the  Bird,  they  exhibit  the  most  extraordinary  slyness; 
and  it  is  generally  with  considerable  difficulty  that  the  concealed 
treasury  of  one  of  these  Corvine  pets  can  be  discovered.  For  want 
of  other  things  to  hide,  they  will  often  stow  away  portions  of  their 
meat ;  but  this  is  sometimes  done  with  a  view  to  preserve  it  for  a 
future  occasion.  Mr.  Macgillivray  mentions  an  instance  of  the 
accurate  memory  of  a  Carrion  Crow  {Corvus  cor  one)  with  regard  to 
the  place  in  which  he  had  stored  some  food.  One  Monday  morning, 
after  a  full  meal,  he  picked  up  a  dead  Mole,  and  buried  it  in  his 
owner's  garden,  covering  it  over  so  neatly  with  the  earth,  that, 
although  he  had  been  watched  during  the  operation,  the  precise 
spot  could  not  be  discovered.  He  was  prevented  from  going  into 
the  garden  during  the  whole  of  the  following  week  ;  but  on  Saturday 
evening,  the  door  being  left  open,  he  got  in,  went  directly  to  the 
spot  where  he  had  buried  the  Mole,  and  brought  it  out  immediately. 
Numerous  instances  of  the  sagacity  of  the  Crow  family  are  related 
in  works  on  their  natural  history,  to  which  we  must  refer  our  readers. 

The  Raven  {Corvus  corax).  Head  and  Foot.  Le  Corbeau  of 
the  French  ;  Kolkrabe  of  the  Germans. — The  genus  Corvus,  con- 
taining the  Raven,  Rook,  Crow,  Jackdaw,  &c.,  presents  us  witn  the 
typical  forms  of  the  Corvidcc,  and  is  widely  spread,  some  of  the 
species  being  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.     (See  Fig.  1262.) 

The  Raven  is  common  over  the  whole  of  Europe  and  a  great  por- 
tion of  Asia  :  few  Birds  have  obtained  a  greater  share  of  notoriety. 
Among  the  Romans  it  was  a  bird  of  augury,  and  its  flight,  its  hoarse 
croak,  and  actions,  were  regarded  as  the  presages  of  good  or  evil. 
It  was  the  military  standard  of  the  Danes,  an  omen  indeed  of  ap- 
proaching desolation  ;  and  adopted,  perhaps,  in  compliance  with 
popular  superstition,  which  rendered  the  Bird  itself  an  object  of 
dread — the  foreboder  of  calamity,  disease,  and  death.  Thus  in 
"Macbeth"— 

"The  raven  himself  is  hoarse 
That  croaks  the  fatal  entrance  of  Duncan 
Under  my  battlements." 

The  Raven  is  a  bold,  hardy,  powerful  Bird,  of  omnivorous  habits, 
feeding  on  carrion,  and  attacking  Ducks,  Chickens,  and  small 
Quadrupeds,  which  its  strong  pointed  beak  enables  it  to  despatch 
with  a  few  strokes.  It  even  assaults  young  Lambs  and  sickly  Sheep, 
picking  out  their  eyes,  and  leaving  them  to  a  miserable  lingering 
death.  In  addition  to  these,  eggs,  grain.  Grubs,  Reptiles,  and 
shelled  Molluscs  are  among  the  articles  of  its  bill  of  fare.  It  some- 
times visits  the  sea-shore  in  search  of  putrid  Fish  and  animal  exuviae. 
The  favourite  resorts  of  this  Bird  are  bold  mountain  precipices, 
where,  in  some  inaccessible  ledge — or,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the 
branches  of  some  stunted  yew-tree,  starting  as  it  were  out  of  the 
rifts  of  the  tremendous  precipice — it  builds  its  nest,  occupying  the 
same  spot  for  a  long  succession  of  years.     In  districts  where  the 


Fig.  1263. — The  Royston  Crow. 

character  of  the  scenery  is  different,  it  makes  its  nest  in  tall  trees, 
which  it  annually  visits  for  the  same  purpose.  The  nest  is  composed 
of  sticks  and  lined  with  wool.     The  eggs,  from  five  to  seven  in  num- 


492 


THE  CROW  FAMILY. 


ber,  are  of  a  dark  green,  blotched  with  black.  Ravens  are  generally 
seen,  like  the  Crow,  in  pairs,  but  sometimes  during  the  winter  in 
small  companies  of  eight  or  ten  ;  their  flight  is  high,  and  they  often 
wheel  and  tumble  in  the  air.  This  Bird,  arrayed  in  glossy  blue- 
black  plumage,  is  often  kept  tame,  and  soon  becomes  very  familiar  ; 
often  indeed  mischievously  so,  from  its  propensity  to  secrete  glitter- 
ing articles,  as  keys,  glass,  silver,  and  the  like  ;  nor  are  eggs  or  the 
poultry  of  the  yard  quite  secure  from  its  incursions.  It  is  very  daring 
in  self-defence.  Mr.  Thompson  states  that  one  which  lived  in  the 
yard  attached  to  the  chief  inn  at  Antrim  for  about  fifteen  years,  had 
occasional  encounters  with  Game-Cocks,  brought  thither  to  engage 
it ;  and  bets  were  pending  on  the  issue.  The  Raven  in  every 
instance  proved  the  victor ;  it  avoided  the  blows  of  the  Cock,  and 
acted  only  on  the  defensive  until  it  could  manage  to  lay  hold  of  the 
Cock's  head,  which  was  in  an  instant  crushed  in  its  powerful  beak, 
its  antagonist  falling  lifeless  on  the  ground.  The  length  of  the 
Raven  is  twenty-si.x  inches. 

The  Royston,  or  Hooded  Crow  {Corvus  coriiix) ;  Grey 
Crow.  It  is  the  Corneille  mantelee  of  the  French  ;  Kraka  of  the 
Swedes  ;  Grau  Krahe  of  the  Germans  ;  Mulacchia,  Cornacchia,  and 
Corvo  palumbino  of  the  Italians. — This  species  is  widely  spread 
over  Europe,  being  migratory,  except  in  Italy,  according  to  the 
Prince  of  Canino  ;  and  in  Ireland,  as  Mr.  Thompson  assures  us, 
and  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  Scotland.  It  was  found  at 
Smyrna  by  Mr.  Strickland,  and  it  inhabits  the  Grecian  Archipelago, 
the  countries  between  the  IBlack  and  Caspian  Seas.  Latham  states 
that  it  is  common  in  some  parts  of  India. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  England  the  Hooded  Crow  is  a  winter 
visitor,  departing  northwards  in  April ;  though  there  are  instances 
of  its  remaining  during  the  summer  to  breed.  In  the  north  and 
west  of  Scotland,  and  in  the  Hebrides,  Orkney,  and  Shetland  Isles, 
it  is  very  common  ;  and  also  in  Ireland,  frequenting  the  sea-shore 
and  the  banks  of  tidal  rivers  ;  but  it  is  also  to  be  seen  far  inland. 
It  builds  on  rocks,  as  well  as  in  tall  trees,  the  beech  or  pine  being 
usually  selected.  Molluscs,  Crabs,  and  the  dead  animal  matters 
left  by  the  retiring  tide  are  its  common  articles  of  diet  ;  and  it  has 
been  often  observed  to  soar  aloft,  and  drop  a  Shell-fish  on  the  rocks 
from  its  elevation,  in  order,  as  is  asserted,  to  obtain  the  included 
delicacy.  During  the  breeding  season  it  is  very  destructive,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Selby,  to  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  Red  Grouse, 
and,   like   the   Raven,   will  frequently   attack   Lambs   and  weakly 


Sheep.  It  is  generally  seen  in  pairs,  but  sometimse  in  small  flocks. 
The  plumage  of  this  species  is  of  a  fine  ash-grey,  excepting  the  head, 
throat,  wings,  and  tail,  which  are  black,  with  blue  and  green  re- 
flexions.    Length  twenty-two  inches.     (See  Fig.  1263.) 

The  Rook  {Corvics  frugilegus),  Head  and  Foot.— Graye,  GroUe, 
Freux,  and  Frayonne  of  the  French  ;  Schwartze  Krahe  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Roka  of  the  Swedes  ;  Cornacchia  nera  and  Cornacchione  of 
the  Italians;  Ydfran  of  the  ancient  British.     (See  Fig.  1264.) 


Fig.  1265. — A  Rookery. 


Fig.  1264. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Rook. 

The  Rook  is  spread  over  the  greater  portion  of  Europe,  wherever 
suitable  districts  invite  its  colonisation.  Wooded  and  cultivated 
tracts  of  country  are  its  favourite  haunts,  and  in  our  island  it  is  par- 
ticularly abundant.  In  its  habits  it  is  eminently  gregarious,  asso- 
ciating in  flocks,  which  scatter 
themselves  over  fields  and  corn- 
lands  in  quest  of  food.  They 
follow  the  track  of  the  plough 
or  the  harrow,  clearing  the  soil 
of  Grubs,  the  larvse  of  the 
Chaffer- Beetle  {Melolatitha 
vulgaris)  and  of  the  Harry- 
long-legs  {Tipula  oleracea), 
which  are  particularly  destruc- 
tive to  the  roots  of  grain  and 
clover.  The  service  they  render 
the  farmer  in  this  respect  is 
very  great,  and  far  counter- 
balances the  mischief  they  may 
do  in  fields  where  the  young 
blades  of  wheat  are  just  start- 
ing above  the  ground,  or  by 
picking  up  the  newly-planted 
"  cuttings  "  of  potatoes,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  crop.  The 
Rook  does  not,  in  fact,  deserve 
the  name  of  Corn-eater  or 
Corn-gatherer  ffrugilegus) ; 
and  Mr.  Selby  asserts,  that 
wherever  its  extirpation  has 
been  eflfected,  the  most  serious 
injury  to  the  corn  and  other 
crops  has  invariably  followed, 
from  the  unchecked  devasta- 
tion of  the  Grub  and  Cater- 
pillar. In  orchards  and  gar- 
dens the  Rook  occasionally 
does  mischief,  from  its  pai- 
tiality  to  ripe  cherries,  pears, 
and  walnuts,  soon  stripping 
the  trees  of  their  produce. 
But  all  the  injury  which  this 
Bird  commits  may  be  easily 
obviated  by  attentive  watching 
at  the  proper  time,  and  its  ser- 
vices thus  secured  unalloyed. 
While  engaged  on  their  forag- 
ing expeditions,  these  Birds 
display  much  cunning  and  pre- 
caution ;    they   have    sentinels 


THE  CROW  FAMILY. 


493 


scattered  around  the  main  body,  upon  whose  cry  of  alarm  they  all 
rise  upon  the  wing  and  sail  away.  The  very  sight  of  a  gun  is  sufB- 
cient  to  disturb  them,  and  hence  it  is  often  said  that  "rooks  smell 
powder."  As  evening  approaches,  long  strings  of  these  Birds,  at  a 
considerable  elevation,  may  be  seen  wending  their  way  to  their  roost- 
ing-place.  In  the  early  spring,  the  Rooks  arc  all  on  the  alert,  busy  in 
their  Rookery,  repairing  the  old  nests  and  constructing  new  ones  ;  all 
is  noise  and  bustle,  and  many  are  the  squabbles  about  the  right  of 
sticks  and  wool,  till  the  nests  are  all  ultimately  completed.  When 
the  females  begin  to  lay,  they  are  fed  by  the  males,  and,  as  Gilbert 
White  says,  receive  their  bounty  with  a  fond  tremulous  voice  and  flut- 
tering wings,  and  all  the  little  blandishments  that  are  e.^pressed  by  the 
young  in  a  helpless  state.  This  gallant  deportment  of  the  males  is 
continued  during  the  whole  season  of  incubation.  Fig.  1265  represents 
a  Rookery.  The  partiality  of  these  Birds  to  their  accustomed  breeding- 
places  is  notorious,  so  that  though  their  trees,  once  in  the  fields, 
become  in  process  of  time  encircled  by  buildings,  they  still  remain 
inhabited  by  the  colony.  There  were  formerly  Rookeries  in  different 
parts  of  the  metropolis. 

Around  the  base  of  the  Rook's  bill  is  a  space  denuded  of  feathers, 
which  does  not  appear  till  the  Bird  is  adult,  and  which  is  by  some 
attributed  to  the  habit  of  the  Bird  in  thrusting  its  beak  into  the 
earth  in  quest  of  Grubs  and  Worms,  and  by  which  means  the  feathers 
are  worn  away.  Whether  it  results  from  this  cause,  or  is  a  specific 
character  (for  it  occurs  in  other  Birds),  and  indicative  of  maturity,  is 
a  question  not  settled. 

The  Jackdaw  {Corvus  monedula). — This  is  another  and  well- 
known  British  species  of  the  True  Crows.  It  is  gregarious  in  its  habits, 
and  the  food  consists  chiefly  of  Worms,  Insects,  and  larvae.  Fig.  1266 
illustrates  the  head  of  the  Jackdaw.  This  Bird  usually  chooses  ele- 
vated buildings,  such  as  church  towers,  &c.,  where  it  maybe  seen  in 
the  heart  of  cities,  while  the  Rooks  prefer  trees  for  their  nests. 


Fig.  1266. — Head  of  the  Jackdaw. 

The  Bald  or  Bare-headedICrow  {Picathartes  gymnocepha- 
lus,  Lesson). — This  extraordinary  species  {Corvus  gymnocephalus 
of  Temminck),  the  native  country  of  which  is  West  Africa,  constitutes 
the  type  of  Lesson's  genus  Picathartes. 

In  some  respects  it  reminds  one  of  the  Vultures  of  the  genus  Ca- 
thartes ;  but  of  its  habits  we  are  entirely  ignorant.  The  bill  is  mode- 
rate, the  base  without  hairs,  and  furnished  with  a  cere  ;  nostrils  in  the 
middle  of  the  bill,  oval  and  open  ;  head  naked  ;  tarsi  long ;  claws 
feeble  ;  wings  short  and  rounded ;  tail  long  and  graduated.  (See 
Fig.  1267.) 

The  following  is  Temminck's  description  of  the  species: — "The 
naked  parts  of  the  head  offer  a  particular  character.  The  whole  of 
the  auditory  meatus  is  completely  destitute  of  feathers,  and  even  of 
hairs.  A  small  border  or  rudiment  of  membrane  forms,  below  the 
orifice  of  the  ear,  a  sort  of  external  concha,  but  little  apparent,  it  is 
true,  in  the  stuffed  specimen,  but  the  extent  of  which  must  be  re- 
markable in  the  living  Bird.  All  this  part  of  the  organ  of  hearing,  as 
well  as  a  part  of  each  side  of  the  occiput,  is  covered  by  a  black  skin 
with  a  slightly  projecting  orbicular  border,  and  forming  a  rounded 
plaque.  The  cere  which  envelops  the  bsrse  of  the  bill  is  also  black. 
All  the  rest  of  the  naked  parts  of  the  head,  the  mesial  line  of  the 
occiput,  which  separates  the  black  plaques  of  the  temples,  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  top  of  the  neck,  appear  to  me  to  have  been  red  or 
rosy  in  the  living  subject  ;  a  slight  tint  of  rosy-yellow  covers  these 
parts  in  those  before  us.  The  whole  of  the  nape  is  covered,  clearly, 
by  a  whitish  and  very  short  down.  The  front  of  the  neck  and  all  the 
other  parts  are  white  ;  the  back,  well  covered  with  thick-set  feathers, 
is  of  an  ashy-black  ;  all  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  bistre-brown  ;  the 
feet  are  yellow,  and  the  bill  is  black.     Length  fifteen  inches." 

The  Magpie  {Ptca  caudata.  Pica  melaiioleuca,  Vieillot ;  Cor- 
vus pica,  Linnaeus.) — The  Magpie  is  a  native  of  Europe  generally, 
and  is  common  in  our  island,  where  it  is  noted  for  its  destructiveness 
among  the  young  broods  of  feathered  game,  as  Pheasants,  Partridges, 
&c.  Nothing,  in  fact,  comes  amiss  to  its  voracious  appetite — eggs, 
carrion.  Frogs,  Mice,  Insects,  fruits,  and  grain,  are  all  acceptable  ; 
and  it  is  hated  alike  by  the  farmer  and  the  gamekeeper.  It  must, 
however,  be  confessed  that,  plunderer  as  it  is,  it  is  an  interesting 


Bird.  It  is  active,  daring,  animated,  and  intelligent ;  it  is  the  first 
to  give  shrill  warning  of  the  approach  of  the  skulking  Fox,  the  Cat, 
the  Hawk,  and  the  Owl,  and  no  Bird  harasses  the  intruder  with 
greater  pertinacity.  Resolutely  does  it  defend  its  nest,  but  it  is  too 
ready  to  attack  those  of  other  species,  which  it  mercilessly  despoils; 
sometimes,  however,  meeting  with  a  signal  defeat. 


Fig.  1267. — The  Bald-headed  Crow. 

The  Magpie  is  generally  seen  in  pairs  ;  but  very  early  in  the  spring, 
as  we  have  often  witnessed,  several  assemble  together,  and  in  some 
retired  field,  or  on  the  skirts  of  a  wood  or  coppice,  appear  to  hold  a  sort 
of  conference,  during  which  they  utter  a  clamorous  chattering.  On 
being  suddenly  disturbed  they  take  to  flight  in  different  directions. 

The  nest  of  this  Bird  is  a  substantial  edifice,  generally  placed  in 
the  top  of  a  tall  tree,  or  amidst  the  dense  branches  of  an  elevated  old 


Fig.  126S. — Nest  of  Magpie. 

hawthorn.  It  consists  of  an  external  basket-work  of  sticks,  mostly 
thorns,  well  united  together,  those  forming  the  foundation  being 
mixed  with  turf  and  clay.  The  inside  of  this  basket-work,  which  is 
in  the  form  of  a  circular  cup,  is  lined  with  a  thick  layer  of  well- 


494 


THE  CROW  FA  MIL  Y. 


■wrought  clay,  over  which  is  arrans^ed  an  inner  layer  of  pliable  roots 
and  fibres  neatly  interwoven.  The  whole  is  then  covered  with  an 
elevated  dome  composed  of  intertwined  sticks  of  the  thorn  or  the 
blackthorn  ;  this  is  evidently  intended  as  a  frame-work  of  defence  • 
an  aperture  is  left  in  the  side  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  Bird. 
The  whole  mass  is  of  large  size,  and  on  the  open-topped  elm  crash, 
near  the  farm  or  cottage  of  the  labourer,  the  dark  ball  is  a  conspicuous 

object.  (See  Fig.  1268.)  The 
eggs  are  of  a  greenish-white 
mottled  with  brown.  In  cap- 
tivity the  Magpie  is  very  amus- 
ing from  its  archness  and 
cunning  ;  it  is  fond  of  stealing 
slily  behind  people,  and  sud- 
denly pecking  their  heels,  and 
then  rapidly  hopping  away. 
Glittering  things  attract  its 
curiosity  and  e.xcite  its  cupi- 
dity ;  and  many  a  lost  article 
is  often  recovered  from  the 
hiding-place  to  which  it  is  in 
the  habit  of  carrying  its  plun- 
der, and  which  by  watching  its 
1269  represents  the  head  of  the 


Fig.  12 


-Head  of  the  Magpie. 
Fig. 


movements  may  be  detected. 
Magpie. 

The  Nutcracker  (Nucifagra  caryocatacies). — Corvus  caryo- 
catactes,  Linnaeus  ;  Casse-noix  of  the  French ;  Nocciolaja  of  the 
Italians  :  Kurz  und  Langschnabliger  Nussknacker  of  Brehm  : 
Tanner  Heher  (Pine  Jay)  or  Turkischer  Hobzschreyer  of  Frisch  : 
Notwecka,  Notkraka,  of  the  Swedes ;  Noddekrige  of  the  Nor- 
wegians ;  Aderyn  Crau  of  the  ancient  British. 

Among  the  Birds  which  prove  how  difficult  it  is  to  frame  a 
system  illustrative  of  natural  affinities  may  be  enumerated  the 
present.  The  Nutcracker,  in  its  general  habits  and  manners, 
resembles  the  Jay,  but  in  many  particulars  it  approximates  to  the 
Woodpeckers ;  it  climbs  about  the  branches,  using  its  tail  as  a 
support,  the  feathers  of  which  are  often  much  worn  ;  it  bores  the  bark 
in  search  of  Insects,  and  it  nestles  in  the  hollow  of  trees.  Ornitho- 
logists have,  however,  almost  universally  referred  it  to  the  CorvidcB, 
between  which  and  the  Woodpeckers  it  forms  a  link  of  union. 

This  species  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  our  island,  being  only  a 
casual  visitor,  but  is  abundant  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  parts  of  Germany,  and  in  some  districts  is  a  Bird  of 
Passage.  It  is  found  also  abundantly  in  Russia  and  Northern  Asia. 
The  food  of  the  Nutcracker  consists  of  the  seeds  of  the  pine,  berries, 
and  nuts,  which  latter  it  breaks  by  repeated  strokes  of  the  bill ;  it 
also  devours  Insects  and  their  larvse,  in  quest  of  which  it  climbs 
about  the  trunk  and  branches,  tapping  the  bark  with  its  bill, 
and  inserting  it  into  the  crevices.  It  is  mostly  seen  in  flocks,  which 
allow  of  a  near  approach,  especially  while  busily  engaged  with  the 
cones  of  the  pine-trees.  The  holes  of  decayed  trees  are  the  places 
selected  by  this  Bird  for  nidification,  and  frequently  enlarges   the 


Fig.  1270.— The  Nutcracker. 

cavity  with  its  bill.  The  eggs  are  of  a  yellowish-grey  colour,  with  a 
few  spots  of  bright  grey-brown.  Temminck  states  that  the  Nut- 
cracker sometimes  devours  young  Birds  and  eggs,  like  the  Jay. 

In  size  the  Nutcracker  equals  a  Jackdaw,  but  the  tail  is  longer, 
and  the  form  more  slender.  The  plumage  is  reddish  umber-brown  : 
the  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  head  and  rump,  being  dappled 
with  large  white  spots,  which  occupy  the  centre   of  each  feather ; 


wings  and  tail  blackish  shot  with  green — the  feathers  of  the  latter, 
except  the  two  middle  ones,  tipped  with  white  ;  the  plumage  of  the 
female  is  less  lively  ;  the  bill  is  longer  than  the  head,  and  conical ; 
the  nostrils  are  concealed  by  hairs  directed  forwards  ;  and  of  the 
anterior  toes,  the  two  outer  ones  are  united  at  their  base.  (See  Fig. 
1270.) 

Several  of  the  exotic  species  of  this  group  are  adorned  with  fine 
colours.  But  in  their  general  habits  they  resemble  the  above.  One 
of  these,  the  Bare-headed  Crow  {Picathartes  gymnocephalus),  has 
been  already  described. 

The  last  sub-family  of  Crows  is  that  of  the  PyrrJiocoradno!,   or 

Choughs,  which  differ  from 
the  True  Crows  in  having 
the  bill  slightly  notched  at  the 
tip,  and  the  wings  long  and 
pointed.  The  bill  is  long, 
slender,  and  curved  ;  the  tail  is 
long ;  the  tarsi  short,  rather 
stout,  and  either  scaled  or 
nearly  covered  with  a  single 
long  plate  (Fig.  1271),  and  the 
lateral  toes  are  equal. 

These  Birds,  in  their  general 
habits,  closely  resemble  the 
Crows,  and  especially  the  com- 
mon Jackdaws.  Like  these, 
they  are  gregarious,  and  build 
Fig.  I27r.— Foot  0!  the  CornishChough.  their   nests  in    rocks    and   the 

crevices  of  towers,  steeples,  &c. 
They  feed  principally  upon  Insects,  Worms,  fruits,  and  seeds. 

Two  species  only  occur  in  Europe,  and  of  these  one  is  found  in 
Britain.  This  is  the  Cornish  Chough  {Fregilus  graciihts,  Fig, 
1272),  so  called  from  its  being  of  common  occurrence  in  the  county 
of  Cornwall,  to  which  it  was,  at  one  time,  supposed  to  be  peculiar  ; 
it  has  since  been  met  with  in  many  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  but 
generally  on  the  coast.  On  the  continent,  however,  it  inliabits  the 
mountainous  districts  at  a  distance  from  the  sea.  This  Bird  exhibits 
all  the  curiosity  and  love  of  mischief  so  characteristic  of  the  family 
of  Crows ;    but   appears   to   be   somewhat  inferior   to   the   rest  in 


Fig.  1272. — Head  of  the  Cornish  Chough. 

sagacity.  At  a  little  distance,  the  Chough  bears  a  considerable  re- 
semblance to  the  Rook  ;  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  that  Bird 
by  its  red  legs  and  bill.  From  the  former  of  these  characteristics, 
it  has  been  called  the  Red-legged  Crow. 

The  other  European  species,  the  Alpine  Crow  fPyrrhocorax 
alpimcs),  exactly  resembles  the  common  Chough  in  its  habits  ;  but 
lives  entirely  upon  the  bare  face  of  the  highest  mountains,  close  to 
the  line  of  eternal  snow.  In  the  winter,  these  Birds  descend  into 
the  valleys  in  large  flocks  in  search  of  food.  Several  other  species 
are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

In  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  large  collection  of  specimens  of 
Jays,  Ravens,  and  other  members  of  the  family  of  Corvidcs,  collected 
from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Birds  of  Paradise— Family  Paradiseidce. 

Among  the  feathered  glories  of  creation  the  Birds  of  Paradise 
take  the  first  rank.  Nature  has  lavished  on  them  the  most  attractive 
graces  of  plumage  and  the  most  effulgent  tints.  When  first  brought 
to  Europe  they  were  regarded  with  the  utmost  admiration,  and 
romantic  credulity  threw  an  additional  air  of  interest  around  them. 
They  were  regarded  as  agrial  sylphs,  whose  home  was  the  bright 
e-xpanse  of  sky,  where  all  the  functions  of  life  were  carried  on,  their 
only  mode  of  rest  being  that  of  suspending  themselves  occasionally 
from  the  branches  by  the  filamentous  feathers  of  the  tail ;  legs  they 
had  none,  and  they  never  touched  the  earth  ;  their  food  was  the 
morning's  dew.  This  tissue  of  fiction  did  not,  however,  originate 
with  the  traveller  who  first  introduced,  as  is  supposed,  the  Bird  of 
Paradise  (P.  apoda)  into  Europe — viz.,  Antonio  Pigafetta,  who 
accompanied  Magalhaens  in  his  expedition,  and  returned  to  Seville 
in  1522.  This  voyager  distinctly  notes  the  fact  of  the  legs,  which  are 
strong  and  large,  being  cut  off  by  the  natives  previously  to  their 
selling  the  skins.     Marcgravc,  John  dc  Lacl,  Clusius  Wormius,  and 


BIRDS    OF    PARADISE. 


BIRDS  OF  PARADISE. 


495 


Bontius  attested  to  the  same  fact.  Yet  the  celebrated  Aldrovandus, 
having-  only  seen  mutilated  specimens,  accused  Pigafetta  of  false- 
hood. Scaliger  believed  the  Bird  to  be  footless,  as  did  Jonston 
(1657);  and,  last,  Count  de  Buffon,  who  adorning  errors  in  the 
graces  of  polished  diction,  paints  them  as  Birds  "  qui  ne  marchent  ni 
ne  nagent,  et  ne  peuvent  prendre  de  mouvement  qu'en  volant." 
This  fable  Linnaeus  has  commemorated  in  the  appropriation  of  the 
term  Apoda  to  one  of  the  most  remarkable  species. 

The  Birds  of  Paradise  are  natives  of  New  Guinea  and  the  adjoin- 
ing islands. 

The  Incomparable  {Asf/-apia  gtdaris.)  Pie  de  Paradis. — This 
Bird  "  is  distinguished  by  a  tail  three  times  longer  than  the  body, 
a  double  crest  on  the  head,  and  by  incomparable  magnificence 
of  plumage,"  which  glitters  a  blaze  of  iridescence.  It  is  a  native 
of  New  Guinea,  but  is  by  no  means  common.  The  female  is  not 
crested,  and  her  colours  are  less  brilliant  than  those  of  her  gorgeous 
mate.     (See  Fig.  1273.) 


Fig.  1273. — The  Incomparable. 

The  King-Bird  of  Paradise  {C/ncinnurus  reghis ;  Paradisea 
regia,  Linn.)  Le  Manucode  of  ISuffon. — This  rare  species,  one  of 
the  smallest  of  the  group,  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  Sparrow.  Its  upper  plumage  is  intense  purplish  chest- 
nut :  a  zone  of  golden  green  e.xtends  across  the  chest  ;  from  each 
side  under  the  shoulder  springs  a  fan-like  plume  of  si.x  or  seven  dusky 
feathers,  tipped  with  the  richest  golden-green  ;  from  the  tail-coverts   I 


spring  two  long  slender  shafts,  each  elegantly  terminating  in  a 
broad  emerald  web,  rising  from  one  side  only  of  the  shaft,  and  dis- 
posed into  a  flat  curl  ;  under  parts  of  body  white.  In  its  habits  this 
species  is  said  to  be  solitary,  feeding  on  fruits  and  berries.  (See 
Fig.  1274.) 


Fig.  1274. — The  King-Bird  of  Paradise. 

The  Superb  Bird  of  Paradise  {Lo^horina  superba;  Paradisea 
superba,  Linn.)  Le  Superbe,  Buffon. — In  this  species  the  scapulary 
feathers  form  a  long  spreading  plume  capable  of  being  elevated  at 
pleasure,  and  there  are  two  pointed  lappets  on  the  chest  ;  with  the 
exception  of  these  latter,  which  are  of  the  most  brilliant  burnished 
steel-green,  the  colour  of  the  plumage  is  velvet-black,  iridescent 
with  green  and  violet.     Length  nine  inches.     (See  Fig.   1275.) 


Fig.  1275. — The  Superb  Bird  of  Paradise, 

The  Golden  Bird  of  Paradise  {Parotia  sexsetacea  ;  Paradisea 
aurea,  Linn.)  Le  Sifilet,  Buffon.— The  general  colour  of  this 
species  is  velvety-black  ;  the  top  of  the  head  is  clothed  with  a  greyish 
crest,  and  each  side  of  the  occiput  is  ornamented  with  three  long 
slender  shafts,  ending  in  a  small  oval  vane  ;  back  of  the  neck 
changeable  golden-green  ;  flanks  covered  with  black,  loose,  long 
feathers,  covering  the  wings  and  hiding  the  tail,  and  capable  of 
being  raised  up  obliquely.  Feathers  of  the  throat  large  and  scale- 
shaped,  bordered  with  iridescent  green  and  gold ;  tail-feathers 
velvety,  with  some  long  floating  filaments.  Length  about  eleven 
inches.     (See  Fig.  1276.)  * 

The  Magnificent  Bird  of  Txrabk^  {Samalia  magnifica; 


496 


BIRDS  OF  PARADISE. 


Paradisea  niag-ni/ica,  Linn.)  Le  Mag-nifique  of  Buffon. — This 
beautiful  Bird  is  of  an  orang-e-chestnut  above,  deeper  on  the  top  of 
the  head  and  back,  and  sometimes  inclining  to  purple  ;  the  tips  of 
the  wings  and  the  tail  are  brown ;  the  throat  is  blackish,  with  a 


Fig.  1276.— The  Golden  Bird  of  Paradise. 

purple  gloss ;  the  breast  and  under  parts  are  covered  with  scale-shaped 
feathers  of  a  deep  changeable  golden  green,  with  a  blue  reflexion 
down  the  breast.  From  the  back  of  the  neck  springs  a  double  ruff,  com- 
posed of  slender  plumes,  with  slightly  dilated  extremities  ;  the  first 
series  are  short  and  orange-coloured,  with  a  black  spot  at  the  end  of 
each  feather ;  the  others  are  longer  and  pale  yellow.  The  wing-coverts 
are  orange-coloured,  with  transverse  blackish  crescents  ;  from  the  tail- 
coverts  spring  two  long  slender  shafts  of  golden  green.  (See  Fig.  1277.) 


Fig.  1277. — The  Magnilicent  Bird  of  Paradise. 

The  Emerald  or  Great  Bird  of  Paradise  {Paradisea  a;poda). 
— Body  above,  breast,  and  abdomen,  maroon-brown  ;  front  covered 
with  close-set  feathers  of  a  velvety-black,  shot  with  emerald-green  ; 
top  of  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  citron-yellow ;  upper 
part  of  the  throat  golden  green  ;  front  of  the  neck  violet-brown  ; 
flanks  adorned  with  bundles  of  very  long  plumes,  with  loose  bar- 
bules  of  a  yellowish-white,  slightly  spotted  towards  the  extremity 
with  purpled-red  :  these  plumes  extend  far  beyond  the  tail-feathers. 
Two  long  horny  shafts,  furnished  with  stiff  hairs,  take  their  rise  on 
each  side  of  the  rump,  and  extend  somewhat  circularly  to  a  length 
of  nearly  two  feet.  Beak  horn-colour;  feet  lead-colour;  length 
from  the  end  of  the  beak  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail-feathers,  thirteen 
inches.     (See  Fig.  1278.) 


Female. — Front  and  fore-part  of  the  neck  of  a  deep  maroon- 
brown  ;  head,  neck,  and  back  reddish-yellow  ;  wings  and  tail  of  a 
deep  and  brilliant  maroon-colour ;  belly  and  breast  white ;  no 
floating  plumes.     (Fig.  1279.) 


Fig.  127S The  Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise — Male. 

This  species,  which  is  not  so  common  as  the  Little  Emerald  {Para- 
disea papuensts,  Latham),  inhabits  the  islands  of  Arou,  Tidor,  and 
Wagiou,  as  well  as  New  Guinea. 

We  owe  the  best  account  of  these  Birds  in  a  state  of  nature  to 
M.  Lesson,  who,  though  he  deeply  laments  his  short  stay  at  New 
Guinea  (only  thirteen  days),  appears  to  have  made  the  best  use  of  his 
time. 


Fig.  1279. — The  Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise — Female. 

"The  Birds  of  Paradise,"  says  M.  Lesson,  "or  at  least  the 
emerald  {Paradisea  apoda,  Linn.),  the  only  species  concerning  which 
we  possess  authentic  intelligence,  live  in  troops  in  the  vast  forests 
of  the  country  of  the  Papuans,  a  group  of  islands  situated  under  the 
equator,  and  which  is  composed  of  the  islands  Arou,  Wagiou,  and 
the  great  islands  called  New  Guinea.     They  are  birds  of  passage, 


BIRDS  OF  PARADISE. 


497 


changing  their  quarters  according  to  the  monsoons.  The  females 
congregate  in  troops,  assemble  upon  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees  in 
the  forest,  and  all  cry  together  to  call  the  males.  ■  These  last  arc 
always  alone  in  the  midst  of  some  fifteen  females,  wliich  compose 
their  seraglio,  after  the  manner  of  the  gallinaceous  birds. 

"  The  Manucode  presented  itself  twice  in  our  shooting  excursions, 
and  we  killed  the  male  and  female.  This  species  would  seem  to  be 
monogamous,  or  perhaps  it  is  only  separated  into  pairs  at  the  period 
of  laying.  In  the  woods  this  bird  has  no  brilliancy  ;  its  fine-coloured 
plumage  is  not  discovered,  and  the  tints  of  the  female  are  dull.  It 
loves  to  take  its  station  on  the  teak-trees,  whose  ample  foliage 
shelters  it,  and  whose  small  fruit  forms  its  nourishment.  Its  irides 
are  brown,  and  the  feet  are  of  a  delicate  azure.  The  Papuans  call 
it  Saya. 

"  Soon  after  our  arrival  on  this  land  of  promise  (New  Guinea)  for 
the  naturalist,  I  was  on  a  shooting  excursion.  Scarcely  had  I  walked 
some  hundred  paces  in  those  ancient  forests,  the  daughters  of  time, 
whose  sombre  depth  was  perhaps  the  most  magnificent  and  stately 
sight  that  I  had  ever  seen,  when  a  Bird  of  Paradise  struck  my  view  : 
it  flew  gracefully  and  in  undulations  ;  the  feathers  of  its  sides  formed 
an  elegant  and  aerial  plume,  which,  without  exaggeration,  bore  no 
remote  resemblance  to  a  brilliant  meteor.  Surprised,  astounded, 
enjoying  an  inexpressible  gratification,  I  devoured  this  splendid 
bird  with  my  eyes  ;  but  my  emotion  was  so  great  that  I  forgot  to 
shoot  at  it,  and  did  not  recollect  that  I  had  a  gun  in  my  hand  till  it 
was  far  away. 

"  One  can  scarcely  have  a  just  idea  of  the  Paradise-birds  from 
the  skins  which  the  Papuans  sell  to  the  Malays,  and  which  come  to 
us  in  Europe.  These  people  formerly  hunted  the  birds  to  decorate 
the  turbans  of  their  chiefs.  They  call  them  Mambefore  in  their 
tongue,  and  kill  them  during  the  night  by  climbing  the  trees 
where  they  porch,  and  shooting  them  with  arrows  made  for  the 
purpose,  and  very  short,  which  they  make  with  the  stem  of  the 
leaves  of  a  palm  (latanier).  The  Campongs,  or  villages  of  Mappia  and 
of  Emberbakene,  are  celebrated  for  the  quantity  of  birds  which  they 
prepare,  and  all  the  art  of  their  inhabitants  is  directed  to  taking  off 
the  feet,  skinning,  thrusting  a  little  stick  through  the  body,  and  drying 
it  in  the  smoke.  Some,  more  adroit,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Chinese 
merchants,  dry  them  with  the  feet  on.  The  price  of  a  Bird  of  Para- 
dise among  the  Papuans  of  the  coast  is  a  piastre  at  least.  We 
killed,  during  our  stay  at  New  Guinea,  a  score  of  these  birds,  which 
I  prepared  for  the  most  part.     *    •    •    * 

"The  emerald,  when  alive,  is  of  the  size  of  the  common  jay:  its 
feet  and  beak  are  bluish  ;  the  irides  are  of  a  brilliant  yellow;  its 
motions  are  lively  and  agile  ;  and,  in  general,  it  never  perches  except 
upon  the  summit  of  the  most  lofty  trees.  When  it  descends,  it  is 
for  the  purpose  of  eating  the  fruits  of  the  lesser  trees,  or  when  the 
sun  in  full  power  compels  it  to  seek  the  shade.  It  has  a  fancy  for 
certain  trees,  and  makes  the  neighbourhood  re-echo  with  its  piercing 
voice.  This  cry  indicated  to  us  the  movements  of  these  birds.  We 
were  on  the  watch  for  them,  and  it  was  thus  that  we  came  to  kill 
them  ;  for  when  a  male  Bird  of  Paradise  has  perched,  and  hears  a 
rustling  in  the  stillness  of  the  forest,  he  is  silent  and  does  not  move. 
His  call  is  voike,  voike,  voike,  voiko,  strongly  articulated.  The  cry 
of  the  female  is  the  same,  but  she  raises  it  much  more  feebly.  The 
latter,  deprived  of  the  brilliant  plumage  of  the  male,  is  clad  in 
sombre  attire.  We  met  with  them  assembled  in  scores,  on  every 
tree,  while  the  males,  always  solitary,  appeared  but  rarely. 

"  It  is  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  that  the  Bird  of  Para- 
dise goes  to  seek  its  food.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  it  remains 
hidden  under  the  ample  foliage  of  the  teak-tree,  and  comes  not 
forth.  It  seems  to  dread  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  and  to  be 
unwilling  to  expose  itself  to  the  attacks  of  a  rival.     *    •    »    * 

"  In  order  to  shoot  Birds  of  Paradise,  travellers  who  visit  New 
Guinea  should  remember  that  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  ship  early 
in  the  morning,  to  arrive  at  the  foot  of  a  teak-tree  or  fig-tree,  which 
these  birds  frequent  for  the  sake  of  the  fruit — (our  stay  was  from  the 
26th  of  July  to  the  9th  of  August) — before  half-past  four,  and  to 
remain  motionless  till  some  of  the  males,  urged  by  hunger,  light 
upon  the  branches  within  range.  It  is  "indispensably  requisite  to 
have  a  gun  which  will  carry  very  far  with  effect,  and  that  the  grains  of 
shot  should  be  large  ;  for  it  is  very  dilEcult  to  kill  an  emerald  outright  ; 
and  if  he  be  only  wounded,  it  is  very  seldom  that  lie  is  not  lost  in 
thickets  so  dense  that  there  is  no  finding  the  way  without  a  com- 
pass. 

_"  The  little  emerald  Paradise-bird  {Paradisea  fapuensis)  feeds, 
without  doubt,  on  map.y  substances  in  a  state  of  liberty.  I  can 
affirm  that  it  lives  on  the  seeds  of  the  teak-tree,  and  on  a  fruit 
called  amihou,  of  a  rosy  white,  insipid  and  mucilaginous,  of  the  size 
of  a  small  European  fig,  and  which  belongs  to  a  tree  of  the  genus 
Ficus" 

M.  Lesson  then  goes  on  to  state  that  he  saw  two  Birds  of  Para- 
dise which  had  been  kept  in  a  cage  for  more  than  six  .months  by  the 
principal  Chinese  merchant  at  Amboyna.  They  were  always  in 
motion,  and  were  fed  with  boiled  rice,  but  they  had  a  special  fond- 
ness for  Cockroaches  {Blaiics). 

Bennett,  in  his  "Wanderings,"  gives  the  following  account  of  a 


Bird  of  Paradise  [Paradisea  apoda)  which  he  found  in  Mr.  Scale's 
aviary  at  IMacao,  where  it  had  been  confined  nine  years,  exhibiting 
no  appearance  of  age  : — 

"  This  elegant  creature  has  a  light,  playful,  and  graceful'manner, 
with  an  arch  look  ;  dances  about  when  a  visitor  approaches  the 
cage,  and  seems  delighted  at  being  made  an  object  of  admiration  ; 
its  notes  are  very  peculiar,  resembling  the  cawing  of  the  raven,  but 
its  tones  are  by  far  more  varied.  During  four  months  of  the  year, 
from  May  to  August,  it  moults.  It  washes  itself  regularly  twice 
daily,  and,  after  having  performed  its  ablutions,  throws  its  delicate 
feathers  up  nearly  over  the  head,  the  quills  of  which  feathers  have  a 
peculiar  structure,  so  as  to  enable  the  bird  to  effect  this  object.  Its 
food  during  confinement  is  boiled  rice,  mixed  up  with  soft  egg,  together 
with  plantains,  and  living  insects  of  the  grasshopper  tribe  ;  these 
insects,  when  thrown  to  him,  the  bird  contrives  to  catch  in  his  beak 
with  great  celerity  ;  it  will  eat  insects  in  a  living  state,  but  will  not 
touch  them  when  dead. 

"The  sounds  uttered  by  this  bird  are  very  peculiar;  that  which 
appears  to  be  a  note  of  congratulation  resembles  somewhat  the 
cawing  of  a  raven,  but  changes  to  a  varied  scale  of  musical  grada- 
tions, as  he,  hi,  ho,  hazv,  repeated  rapidly  and  frequently,  as  lively 
and  playfully  he  hops  round  and  along  his  perch,  descending  to  the 
second  perch  to  be  admired,  and  congratulate  the  stranger  who  has 
made  a  visit  to  inspect  him  ;  he  frequently  raises  his  voice,  sending 
forth  notes  of  such  power  as  to  be  heard  at  a  long  distance,  and  as  it 
could  scarcely  be  supposed  so  delicate  a  bird  could  utter  ;  these 
notes  are  whock,  lahock,  whock,  whock,  uttered  in  a  barking  tone, 
the  last  being  given  in  a  low  tone  as  a  conclusion. 

"  One  of  the  best  opportunities  of  seeing  this  splendid  bird  in  all 
its  beauty  of  action,  as  well  as  display  of  plumage,  is  early  in  the 
morning,  when  he  makes  his  toilet  ;  the  beautiful  subalar  plumage 
is  tlien  thrown  out,  and  cleaned  from  any  spot  that  may  sully  its 
purity  by  being  passed  gently  through  the  bill ;  the  short  chocolate- 
coloured  wings  are  extended  to  the  utmost,  and  he  keeps  them  in 
a  steady,  flapping  motion,  as  if  in  imitation  of  their  use  in  flight,  at 
the  same  time  raising  up  the  delicate  long  feathers  over  the  back, 
which  are  spread  in  a  chaste  and  elegant  manner,  floating  like  films 
in  the  ambient  air.     *     *     *     * 

"  His  prehensile  power  in  the  feet  is  very  strong,  and,  still  retain- 
ing his  hold,  the  bird  will  turn  himself  round  upon  the  perch.  He 
delights  to  be  sheltered  from  the  glare  of  the  sun,  as  that  luminary 
is  a  great  source  of  annoyance  to  him  if  permitted  to  dart  its  fervent 
rays  directly  upon  the  cage.  The  iris,  frequently  expanding  and 
contracting,  adds  to  the  arch  look  of  this  animated  bird,  as  he 
throws  the  head  on  one  side  to  glance  at  visitors,  uttering  the  cawing 
notes  or  barking  loud.  *  *  *  Having  concluded,  he  jumps  down 
to  the  lower  perch  in  search  of  donations  of  living  grasshoppers. 

"The  bird  is  not  at  all  ravenous  in  its  habits  of  feeding,  but  it 
eats  rice  leisurely,  almost  grain  by  grain.  Should  any  of  the  insects 
thrown  into  his  cage  fall  upon  the  floor,  he  will  not  descend  to  them, 
appearing  to  be  fearful  that  in  so  doing  he  should  soil  his  delicate 
plumage  ;  he  therefore  seldom  or  never  descends,  except  to  perform 
his  ablutions  in  the  pan  of  water  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  cage 
expressly  for  his  use." 

In  the  "Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc,"  1840,  p.  13,  will  be  found  an 
account  of  the  same  individual  by  Mr.  G.  T.  Lay,  which  embodies 
the  same  facts  as  those  detailed  by  Mr.  Bennett,  excepting  that  he 
explains  more  clearly  the  song  or  "  serenade  "  of  the  Bird,  the  notes 
of  which  are  repeated  in  harmonic  progression,  thus  :— 


P 


fc 


=g= 


^ 


"  The  first  four  notes  are  very  exactly  intonated,  very  clear,  and  very 
sweet;  the  last  three  are  repeated  in  a  kind  of  caw,  a  very  high 
refinement  of  the  voice  of  a  daw  or  a  crow,  yet  possessing  a  striking 
resemblance  ;  and  this  suggests  a  lively  afiSnity  between  the  crows 
and  the  Paradise-birds.  While  this  serenade  is  uttered,  the  black 
pupil,  encircled  by  a  golden  iris,  waxes  or  wanes  as  the  creature 
wishes  to  contemplate  more  distinct  or  nearer  objects." 

The  following  engraving  (Fig.  1280  )  illustrates  a  variety  of  Birds 
of  Paradise,  including  the  Emerald,  the  Golden,  the  Incom,parable, 
the  Cloudy,  and  the  Superb. 

The  Starlings — Family  Shermda;. 

We  come  now  to  the  family  of  the  Sturnida;,  or  Starlings,  of 
which  our  common  Starling  is  a  well-known  example.  In  these 
Birds  the  bill  is  elongated  and  compressed,  with  the  ridge  almost 
straight  to  near  the  tip,  where  it  is  curved  or  convex.  Theedge  of 
the  upper  mandible  is  usually  slightly  notched.  The  wings  are 
lonc',  and  more  or  less  pointed,  the  tarsi  stout,  covered  in  front 
with  broad  scales  ;  and  the  toes  are  long  and  strong,  especially  the 
hind  one,  which  is  stouter  than  either  of  the  lateral  toes.  The  outer 
toe  is  united  to  the  middle  one  as  far  as  the  third  joint.     In  their 

3s 


498 


THE  STARLINGS. 


habits  and  food  these  Birds  approach  very  closely  to  the  smaller 
species  of  Corvine  Birds.  They  are  generally  gregarious,  and  feed 
upon  Worms,  Insects,  fruits,  and  seeds.  They  are  docile  m  cap- 
tivity, when  thty  exhibit,  on  a  small  scale,  a  good  deal  of  the 
peculiar  sagacity  of  the  Crows,  and  may  be  taught  to  repeat  a  few 
words,  and  to  whistle  short  tunes. 


India,  Australia,  and  the  intervening  islands  ;  but  Africa  also  pos- 
sesses a  few  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Jiiida.  They  inhabit 
the  hot  regions  of  that  continent,  where  they  fly  in  large  flocks, 
feeding  principally  on  fruits,  and  often  attacking  the  gardens  and 
vineyards,  to  which  they  do  great  damage.  They  also  devour 
Irisects  and  Worms,  and  are  sometimes  seen  perched  on  the  backs  of 

Cattle,  searching  for  the  Parasitic 
Insects  amongst  their  hair.  The 
yuidcB  are  generally  showy  Birds, 
with  a  metallic  lustre  upon  their 
plumage,  being  rather  larger  than 
our  common  Starling,  and  with  a 
much  longer  tail.  They  nestle  in 
rocks  and  holes  of  trees,  and  lay 
five  or  six  eggs. 


Fig.  12S0. — Group  of  Birds  of  Paradise, 

Of  the  numerous  sub-families  into  which  iVTr.  G.  R.  Gray  divides 
these  Birds,  one  of  the  most  interesting  is  that  of  the  Ptilo7io7-hyn- 
ckmcc,  or  Glossy  Starlings,  to  which  the  singular  Bower-Bird  of 
Australia  belongs.  The  Birds  of  this  group  have  the  bill  stout  and 
compressed,  with  the  ridge  curved,  and  the  tip  notched  :  the  wings 
are  of  moderate  length,  and  pointed ;  the  tarsi  strong,  and  all  tlae 
toes  long  and  robust,  the  lateral  ones  being  unequal. 

These  Birds  are  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  Heinisphcro,  of  wliich 
they  generally  inhabit  the  hotter  parts.     The  majority  are  found  in 


Fig.  12S1. — fleail  of  the  Starling. 

The  Bower  Bird. — The  sin- 
gular Bower- Birds  of  Australia 
belong  to  the  genera  Ptiloiior- 
hytichus  2lxvA.  Chlat?iydcra.  These 
Birds  are  remarkable  for  the  habit 
of  making  a  sort  of  bower,  which 
has  nothing  to  do  with  their  nidifi- 
cation,  but  merely  serves  as  a  sort 
of  playing-ground,  in  and  around 
which  the  Birds  assemble  for 
amusement.  They  inhabit  the 
forests  of  Australia,  and  the  bower 
is  placed  under  the  shelter  of  some 
large  tree.  Mr.  Gould  describes 
the  construction  and  use  of  that 
of  the  Satin  Bower-Bird  {Pfi'/o- 
norhy7ickiis  holoscricais)  in  the 
following  words: — "  The  base  con- 
sists of  an  extensive  and  rather 
convex  platform  of  sticks  firmly 
interwoven,  on  the  centre  of  which 
the  bower  itself  is  built ;  this, 
like  the  platform  on  which  it  is 
placed,  and  with  which  it  is  inter- 
woven, is  formed  of  sticks  and 
twigs,  but  of  a  more  slender  and 
flexible  description,  the  tips  of 
the  twigs  being  so  arranged  as  to 
curve  inwards,  and  nearly  meet  at 
the  top ;  in  the  interior  of  the 
bower  the  materials  are  so  placed 
that  the  forks  of  the  twigs  are 
always  presented  outwards,  by 
which  arrangement  not  the  slight- 
est obstruction  is  offered  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  birds.  For  what  pur- 
pose these  curious  bowers  are  made 
is  not  yet,  perhaps,  fully  under- 
stood ;  they  are  certainly  not  used 
as  a  nest,  but  as  a  place  of  resort 
for  many  individuals  of  both  sexes, 
which,  when  there  assembled,  run 
through  and  around  the  bower  in 
a  sportive  and  playful  manner,  and 
that  so  frequently  th.it  it  is  seldom 
entirely  deserted."  A  still  more 
extraordinary  structure  of  the  same 
description  is'  formed  by  the 
Spotted  Bower- Bird  {Chlaniydera 
tnaculafa),  an  inhabitant  of  the 
interior  of  Australia.  It  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Gould.  The 
bowers  "  are  considerably  longer  and  more  avenue-like  than  those 
of  the  satin  bower-bird,  being,  in  many  instances,  three  feet  in 
length.  They  are  outv/ardly  built  of  twigs,  and  beautifully  lined 
with  tall  grasses,  so  disposed  that  their  heads  nearly  meet :  the 
decorations  are  very  profuse,  and  consist  of  bivalve  shells,  crania  of 
small  Ma})imalia,  and  other  bones.  Evident  and  beautiful  instances 
of  design  are  manifest  thioii;^hout  the  bower  and  decorations  formed 
by   this  species,  particularly  in  the  manner  in  which  the  stones  are 


THE  STARLINGS. 


499 


placed  within  the  bower,  apparently  to  keep  the  grasses,  with  which 
it  is  lined,  fixed  firmly  in  their  places  :  these  stones  diverge  from  the 
mouth  of  the  run  on  each  side,  so  as  to  form  little  paths  ;  while  the 
immense  collection  of  decorative  materials,  bones,  shells,  &c.,  are 
placed  in  a  heap  before  the  entrance  of  the  avenue,  this  arrange- 
ment being  the  same  at  both  ends."  Mr.  Gould  adds,  in  evidence 
of  the  labour  that  must  be  bestowed  by  the  Birds  upon  the  construc- 
tion of  these  apparently  useless  assembly-rooms,  that  he  frequently 
found  them  at  a  distance  from  any  river,  so  that  the  shells  and  small 
stones  employed  in  their  fabrication  must  have  been  transported 
from  a  considerable  distance.  It  appears  also  that  the  Birds  only 
collect  bones  which  have  been  bleached  in  the  sun  ;  and  it  is  certain 
that  as  the  Birds  feed  almost  entirely  upon  fruits  and  seeds,  these 
remains  of  other  animals  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  debris  of  their 
victims.  Figures  of  these  Birds,  with  their  bowers,  will  be  found  in 
Mr.  Gould's  valuable  work  on  ihc  Birds  of  Australia.  (See  Fig. 
1282.) 


Fig.  12S2.  — The  Satin-Bird. 

The  second  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Grakles  {Grac7c!zn(S),  a 
group  of  Birds  found  only  in  the  jungles  of  India  and  the  Indian 
islands.  In  these  the  bill  is  broad  at  the  base,  and  slightly  notched 
at  the  tip,  with  the  ridge  a  little  curved  ;  the  nostrils  are  rounded, 
placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  more  or  less  covered  by  the  frontal 
plumes  ;  the  wings  are  long,  with  the  third  and  fourth  quills  longest ; 
the  tail  short,  the  tarsi  short,  and  the  toes  long.  The  typical 
species  of  this  group  is  the  Gracula  religiosa  of  Linnaeus,  which 
inhabits  Java,  Sumatra,  and  some  of  the  other  large  islands  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  It  is  two  or  three  inches  in  length ;  its 
plumage  is  of  a  deep  velvet-like  black  colour,  with  a  white  mirror 
upon  each  wing  ;  and  the  bill  and  feet  are  yellow.  Behind  each  eye 
there  are  some  caruncles  of  a  bright  yellow  colour.  It  lives  on 
fruits  and  Insects,  and  may  he  domesticated  with  facility,  when  it 
soon  learns  to  whistle  and  speak  admirably.  M.  Lesson  mentions 
that  he  saw  a  specimen  in  Java  which  pronounced  whole  sentences 
in  the  Malay  language.  The  other  species  appear  to  resemble  this 
in  their  habits.  Several  specimens  of  these  IBirds  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum,  together  with  those  of  the  Jiiida  and  Bower- 
Rirrls  already  described.  Of  the  latter,  live  specimens  may  be  seen 
in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society,  at  their  Gardens  in 
Regent's  Park,  London. 

Africa  possesses  another  peculiar  group  of  these  Birds,  which, 
from  their  remarkable  habits,  have  received  the  name  of  Buphagince, 
or  Ox-peckers.  They  have  a  stout  bill,  with  the  ridge  somewhat 
depressed  and  curved  at  the  tip,  which  has  no  notches  ;  the  nostrils 
are  small,  and  partly  closed  by  a  membrane  ;  the  wings  long  and 
pointed  ;  the  tail  long,  with  the  end  of  each  feather  pointed  ;  the 
tarsi  and  toes  are  robust,  the  latter  armed  with  compressed,  curved, 
acute  claws. 

This  group  includes  only  a  very  few  species  of  Birds,  belonging  to 
a  smgle  genus,  inhabiting  the  warmer  parts  of  Africa.  The  best 
known  species  is  the  Du^haga  afrkana,  the  common  O-K-peckcr 


or  Beef-eater,  so  called  from  its  singular  habit  of  perching  on  the 
backs  of  Cattle,  and  extracting  the  larva;  of  the  Bot-Flics  {CEsirida;), 
by  which  these  Quadrupeds  are  commonly  infested.  Singular  as 
this  diet  may  seem,  it  is  said  to  constitute  the  principal  nourishment 
of  these  Birds  ;  and  the  bill  is  certainly  peculiarly  adapted  for  gently 
squeezing  the  parasites  out  of  the  tumours  caused  by  their  presence. 
The  Cattle  are  said  to  allow  the  Birds  to  perch  upon  them  without 
any  signs  of  unwillingness.  The  common  Ox-pecker  is  a  small 
Bird,  about  eight  or  nine  inches  in  length  ;  its  plumage  is  reddish- 
brown  above,  and  yellowish-white  beneath  ;  the  legs  arc  brown,  and 


Fig.  12S3.— The  Red-billed  Ox-pecker. 

the  bill  yellowish,  with  the  tips  of  both  mandibles  red.  It  is  generally 
seen  associated  in  small  flocks  of  seven  or  eight  individuals,  and  is 
exceedingly  shy.     Fig.  1283  represents  the  Red-billed  Ox-pecker. 

The  True  Starlings— Sub-family  Slumina. 

We  come  now  to  the  typical  group,  the  sub-family  of  the  Sfurin'ntr, 
or  True  Starlings,  to  which  our  British  species  belong.  In  these 
Birds  the  bill  is  usually  elongated,  rather  slender  and  tapering,  with 
the  ridge  very  slightly  curved  or  straight,  and  the  tip  obtuse,  some- 
what flattened,  and  furnished  with  a  very  indistinct  notch  on  each 
side  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  in  a  membranous 
groove  ;  the  wings  and  tail  are  rather  short ;  the  tarsi  long  and 
stout,  as  are  also  the  toes,  which  are  furnished  with  strong  acute 
claws. 

These  Birds  are,  for  the  most  part,  inhabitants  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  in  the  warmer  regions  of  which  they  are  tolerably  abun- 
dant ;    only  one  genus  {Sturnella)  is  found  in  America. 

The  only  species  generally  distributed,  and  permanently  resident 
in  Europe,  is  the  common  Starling  [Sfuriius  vulgaris) ;  a  second 
species,  the  Sturnus  unicolor,  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  Sardinia ; 
and  a  third,  the  Rose-coloured  Pastor  (/-"^j/or  rosciis),  which  inhabits 
the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  is  a  regular  visitor  of  some 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  stragglers  have  occurred  in  the 
British  Isles. 

The  Starling. — The  common  Starling  {Sturnus  vulgaris)  is  a 
well-known,  handsome,  and  sprightly  Bird,  which  is  very  generally 
distributed  in  this  country,  living  in  flocks  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  and  separating  only  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
Starling  builds  in  the  holes  of  rocks  and  buildings,  or  in  hollow  trees. 
The  nest  is  composed  of  twigs,  straws,  dry  grass,  and  roots ;  the 
eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  of  a  delicate  pale  blue  tint.  When  the 
young  are  hatched,  both  parents  attend  to  their  wants  with  the  ut- 
most care  ;  and  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  leave  the  nest,  the  whole 
family  join  company  with  others  of  the  same  species,  usually 
forming  large  flocks,  which  feed  and  roost  in  society.  Numerous 
flocks  appear  often  to  seek  the  same  roosting-place  night  after  night, 
and  the  numbers  wliich  frequent  some  favourite  spot  for  this  purpose 
are  sometimes  astonishing.  Mr.  Yarrell  states  that,  during  sum- 
mer and  autumn,  the  Birds  roost  by  thousands  amongst  the  reeds  in 
the  fenny  districts,  often  crushing  the  plants  down  to  the  water's 
edge  in  large  patches,  like  grain  after  a  storm.  The  same  author 
gives  two  other  instances  of  enormous  multitudes  of  these  Birds  resort- 
ing constantly  to  particular  spots.  One  of  these  localities  was  an  ever- 
green plantation  of  Arbutus,  Laurustinus,  &c.,  covering  some  acres, 
to  which  the  Birds  repair  every  evening  almost  by   "millions,"  ac' 


500 


THE  STARLINGS. 


cording  to  Mr.  Yarrell's  informant,  from  the  low  grounds  about  the 
Severn.  The  evergreens  are  completely  stripped  of  their  leaves,  and 
the  Pheasants,  for  whose  benefit  the  plantation  was  intended,  have 
been  driven  quite  away  from  the  ground.  The  noise  and  stench  of  the 
Birds  are  described  as  something  unbearable  ;  and  even  during  their 
absence  in  the  day-time,  the  odour  of  the  place  is  exceedingly  dis- 
agreeable. The  other  roosting-places  mentioned  by  Mr.  Yarrell,  is  a 
mass  of  thorn-trees  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Dublin;  in  which, 
according  to  Mr.  Ball,  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
thousand  Starlings  slept  every  night  from  the  end  of  October  to  the 
end  of  March.  During  the  winter  the  Starlings  frequently  roost  in 
Pigeon-houses ;  and,  according  to  some  observers,  they  occasionally 
perform  a  sort  of  migration  in  severe  winters,  passing  in  large  flocks 
into  the  mild  regions  of  the  south-west  of  England,  the  counties  of 
Devon  and  Cornwall. 

The  Starling  feeds  principally  upon  Worms,  Insects,  and  Snails, 
but  also  frequently  upon  fruits  of  different  kinds,  in  search  of  which 
it  often  frequents  gardens.  In  hard  winters  it  is  said  to  visit  the 
coast  in  search  of  Marine  Animals,  which  it  finds  by  turning  over 
the  stones  with  a  jerk,  immediately  seizing  whatever  may  be  under- 


neath.   This  Bird  appears  to  be 


Fig.  12S4.- 


-Ilead  and  Foot  of  the 
Starling. 


very  generally  distributed  over  the 
whole  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 
In  the  north  it  extends  to  Scan- 
dinavia and  the  Faroe  Islands  ; 
and  in  the  south  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  It  is  found  in 
China  and  Japan,  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Asia,  and  in  the 
small  islands  of  the  Western 
Ocean.  In  many  of  the  countries 
where  it  occurs,  it  is  regarded  with 
considerable  favour  ;  and  in  Eng- 
land and  elsewhere  it  is  frequently 
domesticated,  as  it  possesses  much 
of  the  sagacity  of  the  Crows,  and 
may  be  taught  to  whistle  tunes, 
and  even  to  repeat  a  few  words. 
A  fine  male  Starling  is  an  exceed- 
ingly handsome  Bird  ;  his  plu- 
mage is  black,  tinged  with  metallic 
purple  and  green,  and  spotted 
with  buff.  The  female  is  far  less 
brilliant.  Fig.  1284  represents 
the  Head  and  F"oot  of  the  Starling. 
The  Rose-coloured  Pastor  {Pastor  roseus),  which  is  generally  dis- 
tributed in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  is  also  of  common 
occurrence  in  the  south  of  Europe,  especially  in  Russia;  in  the 
western  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  it  is  rare,  and  only  a  few 
individuals  are  recorded  as  having  reached  this  country.  It  is  a 
beautiful  Bird  ;  the  head  and  neck,  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings  and 
tail,  and  the  extremities  of  the  tibia;  are  black,  with  a  violet  gloss, 
the  feathers  of  the  top  of  the  head  being  elongated  so  as  to  produce 
a  sort  of  crest ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  of  a  delicate  rose-colour, 
and  the  legs  and  bill  are  yellowish.  Like  the  True  Starlings,  these 
Birds  associate  in  large  flocks,  and  feed  to  a  great  extent  upon 
grain.  They  are  also  great  destroyers  of  Insects,  and  in  some  places 
are  regarded  almost  as  sacred,  from  their  devouring  great  quantities 
of  Locusts.  Like  the  Starling,  also,  they  have  a  great  predilection 
for  the  company  of  Cattle  and  Sheep,  constantly  walking  about  in 
their  neighbourhood,  and  often  mounting  on  their  backs  to  search 
for  Insects  amongst  their  hair. 

A  nearly  allied  species,  the  Pastor  tristis,  which  closely  resembles 
the  preceding  in  its  habits,  is  still  more  celebrated  as  an  enemy  to 
Locusts  of  all  kinds.  It  was  transported  from  the  Philippine  Islands 
to  the  Mauritius,  in  order  to  rid  that  island  of  the  Locusts  by  which 
it  was  overrun  ;  and  has  increased  so  rapidly  under  the  protection  of 
the  government,  that,  according  to  Bory  de  Saint  Vincent,  it  has 
completely  "ruined"  the  entomology  of  the  island. 

The  Sturnclla  ludoviaana  of  North  America,  sometimes  known 
under  the  name  of  the  Meadow  Lark,  is  very  generally  distributed 
over  the  whole  of  that  continent,  from  Upper  Canada  to  New 
Orleans  and  Florida.  It  is  about  two  inches  longer  than  our  British 
species,  which  it  appears  to  resemble  in  its  general  habits,  although 
it  diifers  materially  in  the  position  which  it  selects  for  its  nest  ;  this, 
according  to  Wilson,  being  "generally  built  in,  or  below,  a  thick  tuft 
or  tussock  of  grass."  The  nest  is  composed  of  dry  grass,  lined  with 
fine  bent,  and  has  an  arched  entrance  level  with  the  ground.  Its  food 
consists  of  Insects  and  seeds  ;  and  its  note  is  said  by  Wilson  to  be 
surpassed  by  that  of  none  of  the  American  warblers  in  sweetness  and 
tenderness  of  expression.  They  are  constantly  brought  to  market  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  their  flesli  is  considered  equal 
in  delicacy  to  that  of  the  American  Quail.  Its  plumage  is  very 
beautiful,  being  principally  variegated  with  yellow  and  black. 

The  remainder  of  the  Sturiiida  are  all  inhabitants  of  America. 
They  form  two  sub-families.  The  Birds  composing  one  of  these,  the 
QtdscalincB,  are  distinguished  by  the  curious  form  of  their  tails,  which 
arc  long  and  graduated,  with  the  sides  curved  upwards — whence  the 


name  of  Boat-tails  has  been  given  to  them.  They  have  a  long, 
straight  bill,  with  the  nostrils  placed  in  triangular  grooves  on  each 
side  of  the  base  ;  the  wings  are  pointed,  and  the  hind-toe  is  long,  and 
armed  with  a  strong  curved  claw.  From  the  interior  of  the  upper 
mandible  a  sharp  bony  process  descends  into  the  mouth,  which  has 
been  compared  to  the  broken  blade  of  a  penknife  :  its  use  is  probably 
to  assist  in  breaking  up  the  food. 

These  Birds  are  found  both  in  North  and  South  America,  where 
they  live  in  troops  like  the  Starlings,  and  feed  upon  Worms,  Insects, 
and  seeds.  They  often  commit  extensive  depredations  upon  the 
grain-fields  in  the  United  States,  where  two  species,  the  Qutscalus 
ferrugineus,  and  Q^.  versicolor,  occur  in  great  abundance.  They 
migrate  from  south  to  north  in  the  spring,  returning  again  to  their 
winter  quarters  in  the  autumn  ;  and,  on  their  first  arrival  in  the  more 
Northern  States,  which  takes  place  in  the  month  of  March,  they  feed 
principally  on  Worms,  Insects,  and  Grubs,  "  of  which  "  says  Wilson, 
"  they  destroy  prodigious  numbers,  as  if  to  recompense  the  husband- 
man, beforehand,  for  the  havoc  they  intend  to  make  among  his  crops 
of  Indian  corn."  Their  attention  to  this  valuable  plant  com- 
mences with  its  first  appearance  above  the  ground  ;  and,  according 
to  the  distinguished  ornithologist  just  quoted,  it  is  hailed  by  the  Birds 
with  screams  of  peculiar  satisfaction  ;  they  immediately  descend  upon 
the  fields,  and  pull  up  and  devour  the  seed,  scattering  the  young 
green  blades  in  every  direction.  They  return  again  to  the  charge 
about  the  beginning  of  August,  when  the  young  ears  are  in  their 
milky  state — a  period  which  appears  to  be  selected  by  most  of  the 
feathered  enemies  of  the  Indian  corn  for  their  most  violent  attacks 
upon  it.  With  the  greatest  dexterity  they  strip  off  the  voluminous 
outer  covering  of  the  ear,  and  leave  nothing  behind  that  can  be  of 
the  least  use  to  the  farmer.  So  extensive  is  the  injury  thus  done  to 
the  crops,  that,  as  Wilson  tells  us,  the  farmers  of  some  parts  of  the 
United  States  generally  allow  one-fourth  to  the  Blackbirds,  amongst 
which,  the  Qiiiscalus  versicolor  plays  a  most  important  part.  Late 
in  the  autumn  these  Birds  collect  into  immense  flocks,  and  wing 
their  way  to  the  warm  Southern  States,  where  they  pass  the  winter, 
congregated  together  in  vast  multitudes.  Wilson  describes  his  coming 
upon  one  of  these  "  armies  of  Grakles,"  as  he  calls  them.  He  says, 
"  They  rose  from  the  surrounding  fields  with  a  noise  like  thunder,  and, 
descending  on  the  length  of  road  before  me,  covered  it  and  the  fences 
completely  with  black  ;  and  when  they  again  rose,  and,  after  a  few 
evolutions,  descended  on  the  skirts  of  the  high-timbered  woods,  at 
that  time  (January)  destitute  of  leaves,  they  produced  a  most  sin- 
gular and  striking  effect  ;  the  whole  trees,  for  a  considerable  extent, 
from  the  top  to  the  lowest  branches,  seeming  as  if  hung  in  mourning 
— their  notes  and  screaming,  the  meanwhile,  resembling  the  distant 
sound  of  a  great  cataract." 

The  Qidscalus  versicolor ,  which  is  the  commonest  of  the  North 
American  species,  is  called  the  Crow-Blackbird  by  the  farmers  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  about  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  entirely 
of  a  black  colour  ;  but  its  plumage,  in  certain  lights,  reflects  beautiful 
blue,  violet,  and  coppery  tints,  which  has  caused  Wilson  to  give  it 
the  name  of  the  Purple  Grakle.  It  nestles  in  society  usually  on  pine 
and  cedar  trees.  The  nest  is  composed  of  mud,  with  stems  and  roots 
of  grass,  and  lined  with  fine  bent  and  horsehair.  The  female,  which 
is  of  different  shades  of  brown,  lays  five  eggs,  of  a  bluish-olive  colour, 
with  dark  streaks  and  spots.  In  captivity  it  is  readily  tamed  ;  and, 
like  the  European  Starling,  may  be  taught  to  repeat  a  few  words. 
The  Q:  ferrugineus  is  smaller,  measuring  only  about  nine  inches  in 
length  ;  the  male  is  greenish-black,  and  the  female,  as  in  the  larger 
species,  brownish. 

The  IcterincB  form  a  second  group  of  American  Starlings,  which, 
like  the  preceding,  have  a  nearly  straight  bill.  The  tail  is  elongated, 
and  usually  wedge-shaped,  and  the  wings  long  and  pointed ;  the 
tarsi  are  not  longer  than  the  middle  toe,  and  the  toes  are  of  moderate 
size  and  strength.  The  bill  is  acute  at  the  tip.  The  majority  of  these 
Birds  are  found  in  Tropical  America ,  but  several  species  are  met 
W'ith  in  the  northern  division  of  that  continent.  They  resemble  the 
Starlings  in  their  gregarious  habits,  whence  the  name  of  troupiale, 
applied  to  them  by  the  French,  which  has  been  modified  into  troopial 
by  the  English.  Most  of  them  build  pendulous  nests  ;  and  the 
process  by  which  the  Baltimore  Oriole  {Yphaiites  baltimore)  con- 
structs its  pouch-like  nest,  is  thus  described  by  Wilson.  Few  of  the 
Orioles,  he  says,  "  equal  the  Baltimore  in  the  construction  of  these 
receptacles  for  their  young,  and  in  giving  them,  in  such  a  superior 
degree,  convenience,  warmth,  and  security.  For  these  purposes  the 
male  bird  generally  fixes  on  the  high,  bending  extremities  of  the 
branches,  fastening  strong  strings  of  hemp  or  flax  round  two  forked 
twigs,  corresponding  to  the  intended  width  of  the  nest :  with  the  same 
materials  mixed  with  quantities  of  loose  tow,  he  interweaves  or  fabri- 
cates a  strong  firm  kind  of  cloth,  not  unlike  the  fabric  of  a  hat  in  its 
raw  state,  forming  it  into  a  pouch  of  six  or  seven  inches  in  depth, 
lining  it  substantially  with  various  soft  substances,  well  interwoven 
with  the  outward  netting  ;  and  lastly,  finishes  with  a  layer  of  horse- 
hair ;  the  whole  being  shaded  from  the  sun  and  rain  by  a  natural 
pent-house  or  canopy  of  leaves.  Sometimes  the  opening,  which  is  at 
the  top  of  the  nest,  is  partly  closed  by  a  horizontal  cover.  Although 
the  nest  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole  is  usually  composed  of  the  materials 


THE  TROOPIALS. 


SOI 


mentioned  above,  he  is  by  no  means  particular  about  appropriating 
any  article  which  appears  to  him  to  be  applicable  to  his  purpose  ; 
and  during  the  breeding  season,  thread  put  out  to  bleach,  or  skeins 
of  silk,  if  not  taken  care  of,  will  frequently  find  their  w-ay  into  the 
dwelling  of  this  ingenious  little  architect."     (See  Fig.  1285.) 

In  many  cases,  the  Birds  of  this  sub-family  will  build,  or  rather 
weave,  their  nests  in  societies  of  considerable  number  upon  the  same 
tree.  No  less  than  forty-five  nests  of  two  species,  the  Caa'ciis  ictcr- 
onotus  and  /icsmorrhoits,  were  seen  by  Rlr.    Edwards   during  his 


oppressed  her,  and  proceeds  back  to  the  flock  she  had  so  reluctantly 
forsaken.  If  the  egg  be  deposited  in  the  nest  alone,  it  is  uniformly 
forsaken  ;  but  if  the  nursing-parent  have  any  of  her  own,  she  imme- 
diately begins  to  sit.  The  red-eyed  flycatcher,  in  whose  beautiful 
basket-like  nests  I  have  observed  these  eggs,  proves  a  very  aflfcclion- 
ate  and  assiduous  nurse  to  the  uncouth  foundling." 


Fig.  12S5. — The  Baltimore  Oriole  and  Nest. 

voyage  up  the  Amazon,  in  one  small  tree  ;  the  nests  were  nearly  two 
feet  in  length,  with  an  opening  near  the  top,  and  were  woven  with 
grass,  often  depending  from  one  another,  and  so  completely  conceal- 
ing the  tree,  that  only  a  few  of  the  uppermost  leaves  were  visible. 
The  Orchard  Oriole  of  the  United  States  [Icterus  spurius)  also 
weaves  its  nest  of  grass.  This  Bird  sometimes  chooses  the  weeping 
willow  to  build  on,  taking  several  twigs  of  the  tree  into  its  fabric, 
which  is  then  concealed  by  the  leaves. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  in  a  group  distinguished  for  the  ingenuity 
displayed  in  the  construction  of  the  nests,  one  species  should  be 
found  which,  like  the  Cuckoos,  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other 
Birds,  and  leaves  the  business  of  incubation,  and  the  care  of  the 
young,  to  strange  foster-parents.  This  is  the  Cowpen-Bird  {Molothriis 
pccoris),  which  is  also  a  native  of  the  United  States.  A  description 
of  this  Bird  will  be  presently  given. 

All  these  Birds  appear  to  be  of  a  migratory  disposition  ;  and 
those  which  occur  in  the  United  States,  regularly  pass  the  winter  in 
the  warm  regions  of  the  south,  and  proceed  to  the  Northern  States  in 
the  spring.  As  they  come  in  vast  flocks,  and  share  with  the  Purple 
Grakle  (already  referred  to)  in  its  fondness  for  grain  of  all  kinds, 
especially  Indian  corn  in  the  milky  state,  they  are  regarded  w'ith  no 
great  favour  by  the  American  farmers  ;  and  one  species  especially, 
the  Red-winged  Starling  {Agelaius  phaiiiccus),  is  celebrated  for  the 
havoc  it  makes  in  the  grain-fields.  The  males  of  most  of  the  species 
are  adorned  with  exceedingly  brilliant  colours — orange,  scarlet,  and 
black  being  the  prevailing  tints.  One  of  the  commonest  species,  the 
Baltimore  Oriole — which  derives  its  name  from  the  circumstance  that 
its  colours,  black  and  orange,  were  those  of  the  livery  of  Lord  Balti- 
more, formerly  proprietary  of  Maryland — has  received  the  name  of 
Fire-Bird  from  the  fiery  effect  of  the  bright  orange  when  seen  dash- 
ing through  the  trees.  It  is  also  called  the  Golden  Robin.  The 
females  are  far  more  sober  in  their  tints. 

The  Cow  Troopial  (Alolothrus ,;pecoris).  Icterus  pccoris, 
Temminck  ;  Etnberha  pecoris,  Wilson  ;  Cowpen-Bird,  Cow-Black- 
bird, and  Cow-Bun  tinsr  of  the  Americans. — We  have  previously  alluded 
to  tills  Bird,  which,  like  our  Cuckoo,  prepares  no  nest,  but  selects 
those  of  other  Birds,  distributing  an  a^'g  to  each,  and  leaving  it  to  be 
hatched  and  the  Nestling  to  be  reared  by  foster-parents. 

The  Birds  whose  nests  it  chiefly  selects  appear  to  be  those  of  the 
Red-eyed  and  White-eyed  Flycatchers,  and  the  Maryland.  Yellow- 
throat;  but  those  of  the  Blue-Bird,  the  Indigo-Bird,  the  Chipping- 
Sparrow,  the  Blue-eyed  Yellow  Warbler,  the  Blue-grey  Flycatcher, 
the  Golden-crowned  Thrush,  and  Wilson's  Thrush  are  also  used  for 
this  purpose.  According  to  Nuttall,  "When  the  female  is  disposed 
to  lay,  she  appears  restless  and  dejected,  and  separates  from  the 
unregarding  flock.  Stealing  through  woods  and  thickets,  she  pries 
into  the  bushes  and  brambles  for  the  nest  that  suits  her,  into  which 
she  darts  in  the  absence  of  the  owner,  and  in  a  few  minutes  is  seen 
to  rise  on  the  wing,  cheerful  and   relieved  from  the  anxiety   that 


Fig.   1286. — Cow-Troopials. 

The  sameauthor,  in  1831,  sawahen  Red-eyed  Flycatcher  sitting  on 
two  eggs  and  one  of  the  Cow- Bird  ;  and  he  adds  that  this  species, 
Vireo  olivaceus  and  Vircosylva  olwacca  of  Bonaparte,  Muscicapa 
olivacea,  Linn.,  appears  to  be  its  most  usual  nurse.  He  has  known 
this  Vireo  begin  her  incubation  with  only  an  egg  of  each  kind, 
whilst  in  other  nests  he  has  observed  as  many  as  three  belonging  to 
the  Vireo,  as  well  as  that  of  the  intruder  ;  and  he  suggests  that, 
from  the  largeness  of  the  ^gg,  the  nest  probably  immediately  feels 
full  to  the  incubating  Bird,  so  as  to  induce  her  to  sit  directly,  when 
the  larger  &gg,  being  brought  nearer  to  the  body  of  the  nurse  than 
her  own,  is  first  hatched,  generally,  as  he  believes,  on  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  day.  The  legitimate  eggs  are  hatched  about  a  day  later, 
and  the  young  are  often  stifled  by  the  superior  size  of  the  stranger, 
which  is  affectionately  nursed  by  the  poor  dupe  of  a  dam  ;  when  the 
young  are  dead,  they  are  conveyed  to  a  distance  by  the  parent  and 
dropped;  but  they  are  never  found  immediately  below  the  nest,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  they  w-ere  ejected  by  the  young  Cow-Bird,  as  is 
done  by  the  young  Cuckoo.  "Indeed,"  continues  Mr.  Nuttall,  "as  far 
as  I  have  had  opportunity  of  observing,  the  foundling  shows  no  hos- 
tility to  the  natural  brood  of  his  nurses  ;  but  he  nearly  absorbs  their 
whole  attention,  and  early  displays  his  characteristic  cunning  and 
self-possession.  When  fully  fledged,  they  quickly  desert  their 
foster-parent,  and  skulk  about  in  the  woods,  until  at  length  they 
instinctively  join  company  with  those  of  the  same  feather  ;  and  now 
becoming  more  bold,  are  seen  in  parties  of  five  or  six  in  the  fields 
and  lanes,  gleaning  their  accustomed  subsistence.     They  still,  how- 


502 


THE  FINCHES. 


ever,  appear  shy  and  watchful,  and  seem  too  selfish  to  study  any- 
thing more  than  their  own  security  and  advantage." 

The  Cow-Bird  is  but  a  poor  songster.  It  is  a  migratory  species, 
appearing  in  the  middle  and  northern  States  of  the  Union  at  the 
beginning  of  April,  and  retiring  southwards  on  the  approach  of 
winter.  The  male  has  the  head  and  neck  blackish-brown,  the  rest 
of  the  plumage  glossy  black,  with  greenish  reflexions  on  the  upper 
parts,  and  a  violet  lustre  on  the  breast.  The  female  is  sooty-brown 
above  and  pale  beneath,  as  are  also  the  young,  with  the  breast 
spotted.  The  foremost  of  the  upper  figures  is  the  male,  the  other 
the  female  ;  the  lower  a  young  Bird.    (See  Fig.  1286.) 

An  allied  species  (Le  Troupiale  Commun  of  Azara),  seen  by 
Darwin  in  large  flocks  near  Maldonado,  is  said  to  have  the  same 
habit  with  regard  to  its  eggs  as  the  Molothrus  ^ecoris. 

The  Finches — Family  Fringillidts. 

The  great  group  of  Conirostral  Birds  is  concluded  by  the  vast 
family  of  the  Finches,  or  Friiigillida,  a  group  which  includes  an 
immense  number  of  species,  exhibiting  a  great  variety  of  structure 
and  habit.  They  are  characterised  by  having  a  short,  stout,  conical 
bill,  with  an  acute  tip,  of  which  th.e  upper  mandible  has  no  notch  at 
the  extremity.     The  tongue  is  rather  fleshy,  with  the  tip  horny,  and 

usually  more  or  less  slit.  The 
oesophagus  forms  a  small  crop, 
and  the  stomach  a  powerful  giz- 
zard, indicating,  with  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  bill,  that  the  food  of 
the  Birds  consists  principally  of 
grain.  The  tarsi  are  compressed 
and  slender,  usually  covered  in 
front  with  seven  scutella  (Fig. 
1287),  but  sometimes  with  a  single 
shield  ;  and  the  toes  are  of  mode- 
rate length,  armed  with  long  curved 
claws,  that  of  the  hinder  toe 
being  often  longer  than  the  rest.  The  wings  are  rather  short,  and 
somewhat  pointed  at  the  extremity  (Fig.  1288),  and  the  tail  is  com- 
posed of  twelve  feathers. 

These  Birds  are  active  on  the  wing,  their  flight  being  usually 
effected  by  a  series  of  jerks  or  undulations.  On  the  ground  they 
generally  progress  by  hopping  with  both  legs  at  once.  They  always 
pair,  and  their  nests  are  usually  beautifully  constructed ;  some  of 
them,  in  fact,  are  most  elaborate  and  elegant  fabrics. 


Fig.  12S7. — Foot  of  a  Finch. 


Fig.  1288.— Wing  of  the  Chaffinch, 

The  multitude  of  species  included  in  this  family  has  given  rise  to 
numerous  sub-divisions,  and  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  divides  the  Fringillidcs 
mto  no  less  than  nme  sub-families.  The  first  of  these,  that  of  the 
Floceifzcs,  or  Weaver-Birds,  includes  some  of  the  most  ingenious  of 
feathered  architects.  These  Birds  have  a  strong  conical  bill,  with 
the  base  of  the  ridge  projecting  upon  the  forehead;  the  wings  are 
rounded,  with  the  first  quill  very  short  ;  and  the  legs  and  feet  are 
robust,  with  the  hind-toe  nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  one. 

The  majority  of  these  small  Birds  are  inhabitants  of  Africa  ;  but  a 
few  species  are  found  in  India  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
Their  food  consists  of  Insects  and  seeds,  and  the  species  of  the 
genus  Textor  accompany  the  Buffaloes,  and  perch  on  their  backs, 
for  the  purpose  of  picking  off  the  Parasitic  Insects  which  infest 
them.  The  following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  some 
species  of  Weaver-Birds. 

Nests  of  the  Pensile  Weaver-Bird.— Barrow,  in  his  "  Travels 
in  Africa,"  notices  clusters  of  suspended  nests,  attached  to  slender 
twigs,  fabricated  by  a  species  of  Loxia,  which  unfortunately  he 
neither  names  nor  describes.  These  nests  usually  overhang  a  river 
or  pool  of  water,  and  are  shaped  like  a  chemist's  retort,  with  a 
body  and  long  neck,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  aperture,  close  over 
the  surface  of  the  water;  the  neck  leads  to  a  snug  chamber,  in 
Vvhich  the  young  are  reared  ;  the  structure  is  composed  of  inter- 


woven grass.  Though  not  capable  of  identifying  the  species,  we 
suspect  it  to  be  the  Melicourvi,  Loxia  [Ploceus)  ^ensMs  of  Son- 
nerat.  We  have  seen  nests  of  a  similar  form,  constructed  of  wiry 
elastic  grass,  and  attached  to  the  leaves  of  palms,  brought  from  Ceylon 
and  the  continent  of  India — perhaps  the  work  of  the  Ploceus 
{Euplectes)  ■philippcnsis.  Colonel  Sykes  observes  that  this  Weaver- 
Bird  "is  very  common  in  Dukhun,  and  there  are  few  wells  over- 
hung by  a  tree  where  their  nests  are  not  seen  pendent ;  they 
live  in  small  communities,  and  are  very  noisy   in   their  labours." 


Fig.  1289. — Nests  of  Pensile  Weaver-Birds. 

Pringle  describes  the  South  African  nest  as  woven  of  a  kind  of 
tough  grass,  the  cylindrical  passage  being  twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
in  length  ;  and  twenty  or  more  often  hang  from  a  single  tree. 

The  Sociable  Weaver-Bird  {Ploceus  socius,  Cuvier). — 
PhilcBleriis  lepidus.  Smith  ;  Euplectes  lepidus,  Swainson  ;  Loxia 
soci'a,  Latham  ;    Ploceus  pater sonii.  Lesson. 

According  to  Dr.  Smith,  the  banks  of  the  Orange  River  constitute 
the  southern  limits  of  the  range  of  this  species,  which  was  only 
obtained  in  great  abundance  in  the  districts  around  Latakoo  far 
from  water.  The  most  striking  peculiarity,  adds  Dr.  Smith,  "ob- 
served in  this  species  is  the  extraordinary  manner  in  which  a 
number  of  individuals  associate  and  build  their  nests  under  a 
common  roof.  When  a  nesting-place  has  been  selected,  and  the 
operation  of  building  is  to  be  commenced  ab  initio,  the  community 
proceed  conjointly  to  construct  the  general  covering  which  interests 
them  all :  that  being  accomplished,  each  pair  begin  to  form  their 
own  nest,  which,  like  the  roof,  they  construct  of  coarse  grass ;  these 
are  placed  side  by  side  against  the  under  surface  of  the  general 
covering,  and  by  the  time  they  are  all  completed,  the  lower  surface 
of  the  mass  exhibits  the  appearance  of  an  even  horizontal  surface, 
freely  perforated  by  small  circular  openings.  They  never  use  the 
same  nests  a  second  time,  though  they  continue  for  many  years 
attached  to  the  same  roof.  With  the  return  of  the  breeding  season 
fresh  nests  are  formed  upon  the  lower  surface  of  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  which  then  form  an  addition  to  the  general  covering.  In 
this  manner  they  proceed  year  after  year,  till  at  last  the  weight 
often  becomes  such  as  to  cause  the  destruction  of  its  support,  upon 
which  a  new  building  is  commenced.  They  appear  to  prefer  con- 
structing these  nests  upon  large  and  lofty  trees  ;  but  where  such  do 
not  occur,  they  will  even  condescend  to  form  them  upon  the  leaves  of 
the  Arborescent  A\oe  (Aloe  arborescens),  as  occasionally  happens 
towards  the  Orange  River.  The  commencement  of  the  roof  is  firmly 
interwoven  with  the  branches  of  the  trees  to  which  it  is  intended  to 


WFA  VER-BIRDS. 


503 


be  suspended,  and  often  a  great  part  of  the  principal  branch  is 
actually  included  within  its  surface.  Each  female  lays  from  three 
to  four  eggs,  of  a  bluish-white  colour,  freely  mottled  towards  the 


Fig.  1290. — Nests  of  the  Socisble  Weaver-Birds. 

large  end  with  small  brown  dots."  Paterson  and  Le  Vaillant  give 
a  somewhat  similar  account  of  these  nests,  some  of  which  they  saw 
of  enormous  size ;  the  latter  traveller  mentions  one  which  had  320 


Fig.  1291.— The  Sociable  Weaver-Bird. 


inhabited  cells,  each  cell  being  the  property  of  a  pair  of  Birds. 
The  grass  used  is  a  wiry  kind,  called  Boschman's  grass.  Thus, 
then,  do  these  Weaver-Birds  found  a  republic,  and  cluster  together 
under  one  roof  their  separate  homesteads  ;  the  labour  of  each  busy 
artificer  contributing  to  the  general  good.  Fig.  1290  shows  the  nests 
of  this  Bird  apparently  just  finished,  or  but  little  added  to.  The 
general  colour  of  the  Sociable  Weaver- Bird  is  brown,  varying  in  its 
shades  ;  the  feathers  of  the  back  edged  with  pale  buff,  which  is  the 
general  tint  of  the  under  parts.  Total  length  about  five  inches. 
(See  Fig.  1291.) 

The  Yellow-crowned  Weaver-Bird  fPloceus  spilonohts). 
P.flaviceps,  Swains.  ;  P.  stictonotus,  A.  Smith. — This  species,  of 
which  the  male  has  the  plumage  varied  with  yellow  and  brown,  is  a 
native  of  the  districts  bordering  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Africa ; 
but,  according  to  Dr.  Smith,  is  not  found  to  the  west  of  Caffreland. 
It  is  rare,  and  frequents  the  banks  of  rivers,  suspending  its  nest, 
which  is  of  a  kidney  shape  and  composed  of  closely  interwoven 
grass,  from  the  branch  of  a  tree  overhanging  the  water.  The  eggs 
are  three  or  four,  of  a  delicate  greenish-blue.  The  length  of  the 
Bird  is  about  seven  inches.     (See  Fig.  1292.) 


Fig.  1292. — The  Yellow-crowned  Weaver-Bird. 

The  Taha  Weaver-Bird  {Euplcctcs  taha,  Smith).— According 
to  its  original  describer,  Dr.  Smith,  this  species  is  a  native  of  Africa, 
but  does  not  extend  its  range  south  of  26°.  In  districts  north  of  this 
degree  it  was  common,  and  large  flocks  were  often  observed  among 
the  trees  near  the  banks  of  rivers  ;  but,  according  to  information 
gained  from  the  natives,  the  Birds  leave  the  trees  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  breeding  season  for  the  reeds  which  skirt  the  rivers, 
and  from  which  they  suspend  their  nests.  These  and  other  allied 
species  are  very  destructive  to  gardens  and  corn-lands,  and  the 
natives  are  obliged  to  watch  the  crops  to  prevent  the  grain  from 
being  devoured.  The  plumage  of  the  male  (upper  figure)  is  mingled 
yellow,  grey,  and  brownish-black  ;  in  winter  ycllowish-brown 
above,  dashed  with  brownish-black;  under  parts  greyish-white, 
tinged  sienna-yellow  on  the  chest.  The  female  (lower  figure)  re- 
sembles the  male  in  his  winter  dress.     (See  Fig.  1293.) 

The  Mahali  Weaver- Bird  (Pliopasscr  mahah,  Smith).— 
This  Bird  was  seen  for  the  first  time  by  Dr.  Smith  upon  a  tree  on  the 
bank  of  one  of  the  tributaries  to  the  Orange  River  ;  but  he  met  with 
small  and  occasionally  large  flocks  as  far  north  as  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn,  the  species  being  disposed  to  congregate.  Twenty  or 
thirty  nests  were  to  be  seen  on  one  tree.  Insects  and  seeds  are  the 
food  of  this  species,  and  in  search  of  these  the  Bird  passes  much 
time  upon  the  ground.  If  disturbed  while  feeding,  the  whole  iiock 
take  wing,  and  settle  in  a  neighbouring  tree,  where  they  remain  till 
they  see  the  way  clear  for  their  return. 

The  nests,  observes  Dr.  Smith,  in  figure  and  texture,  had  many  of 
the  characters  of  those  of  Ploccics,  but  resembled  those  of  some  of  the 
South  African  PyrgifcB  (Sparrows)  in  the  manner  in  which  they  w^ere 
armed.  The  walls  of  each  nest  were  entirely  composed  of  stalks  of 
grass,  the  thickest  ends  of  which  were  so  placed  as  to  protrude 
externally  for  several  inches  beyond  the  compact  structure  destined 
to  contain  the  eggs.  Thus  each  nest  appeared  armed  w^ith  numerous 
projecting  spines,  and  bore  considerable  resemblance  to  the  body  of  a 
porcupine  with  its  spines  partially  erected.  The  design  is  to  oppose  an 
obstacle  to  the  advance  of  Snakes  towards  the  eggs  and  young.  The 
plumage  is  varied  with  different  tints  of  brown,  and  with  white,  the 
chest  and  under  parts  being  cream-yellow  ;  the  throat  and  under  tail- 
coverts  white.     Length  six  inches  and  a-half.     (See  Fig.  1294.) 


.';o4 


TP-EA  VER-BIRDS. 


The  Red-billed  Weaver-Bird  (Textor  erythrorhyiichus. 
Smith).— This  species  inhabits  Southern  Africa,  north  of  the  25th 
degree  of  latitude  ;  and,  as  Dr.  Smith  states,  is  never  seen  where 
herds  of  Buffaloes  are  scarce.     Whenever  discovered,  it  was  always 


Fig.  1293. — Taha  Weaver-Birds. 


in  attendance  upon  these  animals,  flying  over  them  or  perched  on 
their  back,  busily  employed  in  coUectiug  Insects  from  the  hide,  and 
passing  rapidly  from  one  part  to  another,  the  huge  beast  paying  no 
attention  to  its  movements.  Sometimes  numbers  of  these  Birds 
were  seen  associated  with  the  Builaloes,  and  sometimes  only  one  or 
two.  Their  food  consists  of  Parasitic  Insects,  at  least  in  part,  such 
havmg  been  found  by  Dr.  Smith  in  the  stomachs  of  those  specimens 
which  he  examined. 

This  Bird,  besides  being  of  service  to  its  bulky  associates  by 
ridding  them  of  the  Parasitic  Insects  which  infest  their  hides, 
performs  for  them  another  important  service.  On  observing  any 
unusual  appearance,  the  attention  of  the  Bird  is  immediately 
directed  to  it ;  and  if  it  sees  anything  to  excite  alarm,  the  Bird  flies 
up,  whereupon  all  the  Buifaloes  instantly  raise  their  heads,  and 
endeavour  to  discover  the  cause  which  led  to  the  sudden  departure 
of  their  sentinel.  If  their  apprehension  is  confirmed,  they  take  to 
flight  in  a  body,  accompanied  by  their  winged  and  serviceable 
friends,  which,  as  soon  as  the  herd  halts  to  feed,  return  to  their 
avocation. 

Dr.  Smith  never  observed  this  Bird  attaching  itself  to  any 
Quadruped  but  the  Buffalo  ;  while  two  species  of  BiTphaga  visit  the 
Rhinoceros.  The  general  colour  of  the  Red-billed  Weaver-Bird  is 
blackish-brown ;  the  primaries  are  marked  largely  with  white  ; 
bill  yellowish-red,  with  a  purplish  tinge  on  the  sides.  (See  Fig. 
1295.) 

Some  species  of  this  group,  forming  the  genus  Vidua,  are  remark- 
able for  the  great  development  of  some  of  the  tail-coverts  in  the 
male,  which  often  considerably  exceed  the  body  in  length  :  these 
beautiful  plumes,  which  lend  so  much  grace  to  the  appearance  of  the 
Bird,  only  exist,  however,  during  the  breeding  season.  The  following 
affords  a  description  of  two  of  the  species. 

The  Paradise  Whidah-Bird  (F"/rfz^<z  ^«ra<f2!s-efl,Cuv.)— These 
Birds,  also  termed  Widow-Birds,  les  Veuves  of  the  French,  constitute 


a  small  but  interesting  group  of  the  Finches,  remarkable  for  the 
development  of  long  caudal  plumes  in  the  males,  characteristic  of 
the  breeding  season,  and  subsequently  lost.  With  respect  to  the 
name  Widow  (Veuve,  Vidua),  the  author  of  the  "  Gardens  and  Mena. 


Fig.  1294. — The  Mahali  Weaver-Bird. 

gerie  Delineated  "  informs  us  that  "  Edwards,  the  first  modem  writer 
by  whom  this  interesting  bird  (the  present  species)  was  figured  and 
described,  having  happened  to  say  that  the  Portuguese  called  it  the 
Widow  from  its  colour  and  long  train,  Brisson  took  the  hint,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Veuve  in  French,  Vidua  in  Latin.  The  French 
naturalist,  had,  however,  overlooked  the  fact  that  Edwards  had  him- 
self corrected  the  mistake,  for  such  it  was,  in  the  following  terms  : — ■ 
'  In  my  description  of  this  bird  I  have  said  that  it  is  called  the  Widow 
by  the  Portuguese  :  but  I  am  since  better  informed  that  it  is  called 
the  Whidah-bird,  because  it  is  brought  frequently  to  Lisbon  from  the 
kingdom  of  Whidah  on  the  coast  of  Africa.'     The  name  thus  acci- 


Fig.  1295.— The  Red-billed  Weaver-Bird. 

dentally  given  has  now,  however,  been  universally  adopted  both  in 
popular  and  scientific  language."     (See  Fig.  1296,  a.) 

The  present  species  is  a  native  of  Western  Africa,  from  Senegal  to 
Angola,  and  in  all  its  habits  is  a  true  Finch.  "  In  captivity,  which 
these  birds  endure  without  much  appearance  of  constraint,  they  are 
lively  and  active,  jumping  from  perch  to  perch,  and  alternately  raising 
and  depressing  their  long  tails  with  great  vivacity.  They  are  usually 
fed  upon  grain,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  green  herbs,  and  are 


THE  GROSBEAKS. 


505 


fond  of  bathing  in  the  water  which  is  placed  in  their  cage.  Twice 
a  year  they  are  subject  to  changes  of  plumage,  which  alter  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  male  especially,  to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  recognise  in  him  the  same  bird.  The  long  feathers  which 
are  his  peculiar  attribute  fall  off  towards  the  end  of  autumn,  and, 
with  the  other  changes  that  take  place  in  its  plumage,  leave  him 
little  to  distinguish  him  during  the  winter  months  from  his  plainer 
mate.  But  in  spring  he  recovers  his  long  feathers,  his  more  brilliant 
hues,  and  his  sharp  but  agreeable  and  varied  note  :  the  change  being 
usually  completed  by  the  beginning  of  June.  It  is  said  they  live  for 
twelve  or  fifteen  years."  The  colour  of  the  male  in  full  plumage  is  of 
a  bright  black,  with  the  exception  of  an  orange  rufous  band  round 
the  neck,  spreading  over  the  chest,  and  gradually  falling  into  dull 
white  on  the  under  parts.  The  tail  is,  as  usual,  composed  of  twelve 
feathers,  of  which  the  four  middle  are  elongated  and  vertical ;  two 
being  flowing  and  pendent,  and  two  (the  middle)  broad,  with  a  shaft 
projecting  like  a  slender  filament  beyond  the  end.  Size,  that  of  a 
.Sparrow.  After  the  autumnal  moult  the  colours  are  rusty  brown  and 
white. 

The  Red-billed  Whidah-Bird  ( Vidua  erythrorhynchd). — This 
species  inhabits  the  same  regions  as  the  preceding,  but  is  of  less  size. 
Of  the  four  middle  and  greatly  elongated  tail-feathers  two  are  convex, 


Fig.  1296.— Whidah  Birds. 

and  two  (one  within  the  other)  concave,  so  that  when  all  four  are 
closed  they  form  a  sort  of  cylinder,  and  but  for  their  extremities  ap- 
pear at  first  sight  as  one. 

The  general  colour  of  the  male  in  full  plumage  is  glossy  blue-black, 


with  a  white  collar  and  white  wing-coverts  and  scapularies,  of  which 
hue  are  also  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  the  throat,  the  chest,  and 
under  parts.  In  habits  it  agrees  with  the  other  species.  (See 
tig.  1296,  /;.) 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding,  and  perhaps  uniting  these  with  the 
Irue  finches,  is  the  sub-family  of  the  Grosbeaks  [Coccofhrausfi/ics). 
In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  very  large,  broad,  and  thick,  with  the  man- 
dibles nearly  equal ;  the  wings  are  rather  long  and  pointed  ;  the  tail 
short:  the  feet  and  legs  stout  and  strongly  scaled;  the  tarsi  not 
longer  than  the  middle  toe,  and  the  hinder  toe  rather  shorter  than 
the  mner  one.  In  the  common  European  Grosbeak  {Coccothraus/cs 
vulgaris,  Fig.  1297  represents  its  head),  some  of  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  wing  exhibit  a  remarkable  conformation  (Fig.  1298).  Five  of 
the  secondary  quills,  and  the  two  innermost  primaries,  arc  truncated 
at  the  end,  as  though  they  had  been  clipped  straight ;  and  the  four 
following  primaries,  proceeding  towards  the  outer  edge  of  the  wing, 
are  broad,  and  notched  at  the  extremity,  with  the  outer  angle  turned 
outwards. 

These  Birds  generally  inhabit  the  woods  of  mountainous  countries 
and  appear  to  be  very  shy  in  their  nature.     They  feed  upon  seeds  and 
truits,  and  are  exceedingly  fond  of  the  kernels  of  stone  fruit   which 
their  powerful  bills  enable  them  to  crack  with  great  facility      The 


Fig.  1297.— Head  of  the  Common  Grosbeak. 

only  British  species  is  the  Common  Grosbeak  {Coccothraustes  vul- 
garis), or  Hawfinch,  as  it  is  frequently  called— a  Bird  which  is  very 
common  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  was  long  sup- 
posed to  be  only  an  occasional  winter  visitor  to  our  islands  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  description  of  this  Bird. 


Fig.  1298.— Wing  of  the  Common  Grosbeak. 

The  Grosbeak,  orHawfiaxh  {Coccothraustes  vulgaris).— 'Ine. 
present  species  is  the  Haw  Grosbeak  and  Grosbeak  of  the  modern 
British  ;  Gylfinbraff  of  the  ancient  British  ;  le  Grosbek  and  Pinson 
Koyal  of  the  French  ;  Frogione,  Froccione,  Frosone,  Frisone  Frig- 
gione,  of  the  Italians  ;  Kernbeisser,  Kirsch  Kernbeisser,  Kerschfink. 
INusbeisser  of  the  Germans ;  Appelvink  of  the  Netherlanders  ;  Loxia 
coccothraustes  of  Lmnajus ;  Frugtlla  coccothraustes  of  Temminck  : 
Coccothraustes  vulgaris  of  Brisson. 

The  Hawfinch  is  plentiful  in  some  districts  of  France  ;  permanent 
and  not  uncommon  in  Italy ;  common  in  Germany,  Sweden,  and  part  of 
Kussia.  In  Mr.  Selby's  "Illustrations," and  indeed  in  most  other  Eng- 
lish works,  the  Hawfinch  is  noted  as  an  occasional  visitant.  Dr.  La- 
thamsays  that  "  the  hawfinch  visits  us  chiefly  in  winter,  but  one  was 
shot  in  the  summer  months  near  Dartford  in  Kent."  He  goes  on  to  re- 
mark that  \\hite  records  another  instance  at  the  same  season,  and 
says  that  it  had  the  kernels  of  damsons  in  its  stomach.  "  These,"  con- 
tinues Dr.  Latham,  "  might  possibly  have  bred  here,  though  we  have 
no  authority  for  its  ever  being  the  case."     "The  hawfinch,"  says 

u"i  r  '^*^^^'  "  '^  "°'  migratory,  but  remains  with  us  during  the 
whole  of  the  year. ' '  This  observer  sufliciently  accounts  for  the  rarity 
of  its  appearance—"  Its  shy  and  retiring  habits  leading  it  to  choose 
the  most  secluded  places  of  the  thickest  and  more  remote  parts  of 
woods,  and  when  disturbed  it  invariably  perches  on  the  tallest  tree 
of  the  neighbourhood." 

Hard  seeds  and  kernels  form  the  principal  food  of  the  Hawfinch 

3T 


5o6 


THE  TRUE  FINCHES. 


but  it  feeds  also  on  the  berries  of  the  hawthorn  (whence  its  name)  ; 
so  that  it  is  probable  that  the  soft  part  of  fruits  is  not  disagreeable 
to  it,  although  the  bill  is  evidently  formed  for  cracking  the  stony 
kernel.  Willughby  states  that  it  breaks  the  stones  of  cherries  and 
even  of  olives  with  expedition.  The  stomach  of  one  which  he  dis- 
sected in  the  month  of  December  was  full  of  the  stones  of  holly- 
berries.  The  majority  of  ornithologists  give  the  Hawfinch  credit  for 
forming  a  nest  beautifully  constructed  of  lichens  and  vegetable  fibres, 
with  a  lining  of  feathers  and  other  soft  materials.  But  according  to 
Mr.  Doubleday,  who  has  thrown  much  light  on  the  history  of  this 
Bird,  and  discovered  it  breeding  in  Epping  Forest  in  May  and  June, 
the  nest,  which  is  made  in  some  instances  in  bushy  trees  at  the  height 
of  five  or  six  feet,  and  in  others  near  the  top  of  firs  at  an  elevation  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet,  is  remarkably  shallow  and  carelessly  put  to- 
gether, being  scarcely  deeper  than  that  of  the  Dove.  In  materials 
it  resembles  that  of  the  Bullfinch,  but  is  not  to  be  compared  with  it 
in  neatness  and  compactness  of  construction.  Eggs,  from  four  to  six 
in  number,  of  a  pale  greenish-white,  varying  in  intensity,  spotted  and 
streaked  with  greenish-grey  and  brown.  Mr.  Gould  states  that  he 
has  known  the  Bird  to  breed  near  Windsor,  and  a  few  other  places, 
but  certainly  nowhere  so  abundantly  as  near  Penshurst,  Kent. 

Mr.  Selby  remarks  that  in  the  pairing  season  it  probably  utter.s  a 
superior  song,  as  Montagu  says  that  even  in  winter,  during  mild 
weather,  he  has  heard  it  sing  sweetly  in  low  and  plaintive  notes. 

The  colours  of  the  plumage  are  as  follows : — rump,  head,  and  cheeks 
red-brown  ;  edging  round  the  bill,  space  between  that  and  the  eye, 
a  line  beyond  the  eye  and  throat,  deep  black ;  a  large  ash- 
coloured  collar  just  below  the  nape  ;  back  and  greater  part  of  the 
wings  deep  brown,  but  there  is  an  oblique  white  stripe  upon  the  wing, 
and  beyond  it  a  considerable  space  of  a  light  whitish  colour  going 
off  into  chestnut ;  secondary  quills  as  if  cut  off  square  at  the  ends, 
or,  as  Edwards  says,  with  justice,  like  the  figures  of  some  of  the 
ancient  battle-axes,  glossed  with  rich  blue,  less  conspicuous  m  the 
female  ;  tail-feathers  white  within,  of  a  blackish  brown  on  the  external 
barbs  ;  lower  parts  of  the  Bird  vinous  red  ;  iris  pale  red  (according  to 
Temminck) ;  feet  and  bill  greyish-brown.  Length  seven  inches.  (See 
Fig.  1299.)  The  female  resembles  the  male,  but  the  colours  are  much 
less  brilliant, 


Fig.  1299. — The  Hawfinch. 

The  other  species  of  this  group  are  generally  distributed  in  both 
hemispheres.  Many  of  them  are  beautiful  Birds,  and  some  are 
celebrated  as  fine  songsters.  One  of  the  finest  species  is  the  Car- 
dinal Grosbeak  [Cardinalis  virginianus),  a  common  North  Ameri- 
can species,  the  general  colour  of  the  male  of  which  is  a  fine  bright 
red.  The  head  of  this  Bird  is  also  adorned  with  a  pointed  crest, 
which  it  can  raise  at  pleasure  into  a  perpendicular  position,  giving 
it  an  air  of  great  sprightliness.  It  is  about  an  inch  longer  than  the 
European  species. 

Some  singular  little  Birds  belonging  to  this  group  were  discovered 
in  the  Galapagos  Islands  by  Mr.  Darwin,  and  have  been  described 
by  Mr.  Gould  under  the  generic  name  of  Geospiza.  Unlike  the  rest 
of  the  group,  these  Birds  seek  their  food  upon  the  ground,  frequent- 
ing, according  to  Mr.  Darwin,  "  the  rocky  and  extremely  arid  parts 
of  the  land,  sparingly  covered  with  almost  naked  bushes,  near  the 
coasts ;  for  here  they  find,  by  scratching  in  the  cindery  soil  with 
their  powerful  beaks  and  claws,  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  other  plants, 
which  rapidly  spring  up  during  the  short  rainy  season,  and  as 
rapidly  disappear."  They  dig  up  roots  and  seeds  from  a  depth  of 
six  inches  in  the  soil,  and  are  in  consequence  very  destructive  to 
vegetationj  During  the  dry  season  they  often  eat  portions  of  a 
cactus,  the  Opicntia  galapageia,  which  grows  in  those  islands, 
probably  for  the  sake  of  the  moisture  which  it  contains.  Two  or 
throe  other  nearly  allied  genera  are  found  in  the  Galapagos  group  ; 
but  one  of  these  [Cacforiu's)  is  strikingly  distinguished  from  Geospiza 
by  the  form  of  its  bill,  which,  instead  of  being  very  short  and   thick, 


as  in  the  latter  genus,  is  considerably  elongated,  and  bears  some 
resemblance  to  that  of  a  Starling.  The  species  Cactornis scandens, 
as  its  name  implies,  climbs  about  upon  the  cactus  just  referred  to, 
the  fruit  constituting  a  great  part  of  its  food  ;  but  its  also  descends 
to  the  ground,  and  searches  for  seeds  in  the  manner  of  the  Geospiza. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  are  numerous  specimens 
of  the  Grosbeak,  including  some  from  Java,  South  Africa,  Malacca, 
Tenasserim,  and  Malabar. 

The  third  sub-family  of  the  Fringillida  is  that  of  the  TanagrincB, 
or  Tanagers,  a  group  of  splendidly-coloured  Birds  which  are  pe- 
culiar to  America,  and  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  southern 
division  of  that  continent.  The  Tanagers  are  distinguished  from 
the  Finches  in  general  by  the  possession  of  notches  in  the  upper 
mandible,  a  character  that  induced  Cuvier,  and  several  other 
naturalists,  to  place  them  amongst  the  Dentirostral  Birds.  The 
bill  is  usually  triangular  at  the  base,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper 
mandible  more  or  less  arched ;  the  wings  are  rather  short  and 
pointed,  and  the  feet  short  and  slender.  The  hind-toe  is  elongated 
and  strong,  and  all  the  toes  are  armed  with  stout,  curved  claws. 
The  tarsi  are  usually  covered  with  transverse  scales  ;  but,  in  some 
cases,  these  give  place  to  a  single  long  plate,  which  occupies  nearly 
the  whole  length  of  the  tarsus. 

These  beautiful  little  Birds,  as  already  stated,  are  principally 
found  in  the  warmer  regions  of  South  America.  Of  222  species 
which  Mr.  Sclater  refers  to  the  group,  193  belong  to  the  South 
American  continent ;  and  the  remainder,  with  but  few  exceptions, 
are  from  Central  America  and  the  southern  parts  of  Mexico.  A  few 
species  are  found  in  the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  three  are  summer 
visitors  to  the  United  States.  The  Tanagers  feed  upon  fruits  and 
Insects,  and  usually  collect  in  considerable  troops.  Their  nests  arc 
built  upon  the  branches  of  trees,  and  are  mostly  of  a  rather  slight 
texture.  In  the  hot  climates  they  are  said  to  produce  two  broods 
in  the  year,  but  the  species  which  visit  North  America  appear  only 
to  breed  once. 


fig.  1300. — Organist  Tanager. 

Most  of  these  Birds  have  a  pleasing  song,  and  some  of  them  are 
remarkable  for  their  musical  powers ;  the  genus  Eupho7iia  receives 
its  name  from  this  circumstance.  The  typical  species  of  this  genus, 
the  Euphonia  ?>iusica,  or  Organist  Tanager  (see  Fig.  1300),  is  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies  ;  it  is  about  four  inches  in  length,  and  the 
plumage  of  the  male  is  beautifully  varied  with  black  and  orange. 
Orange,  scarlet,  and  black  are  in  fact  prevalent  colours  in  this 
group  of  Birds,  and  their  appearance  amongst  the  trees  of  their 
native  woods  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  brilliant.  The  British 
Museum  contains  an  excellent  series  of  specimens  from  Brazil, 
Bogota,  British  Guiana,  Jamaica,  Demerara,  Colombia,  Bolivia, 
Ecuador,  &c.,  including  that  beautiful  Bird  the  Red-headed  Tanager 
(Pipranga  rubiceps). 

The  True  Finches— Sub-family  Fringillma:. 

The  sub-family  of  the  Friiigillina;,  or  True  Finches,  is  a  most 
extensive  and  generally  distributed  group  of  Birds,  many  of  which 
are  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  whilst  others  are 
amongst  our  most  esteemed  Singing-Birds.  They  have  usually  a 
short,  conical  bill,  which  is  broad  at  the  base,  and  gradually  slopes 
to  the  extremity  ;  the  upper  mandible  is  very  rarely  notched.  The 
wings  are  elongated  and  pointed  ;  the  tail  variable  in  length  and 
form  ;  the  toes  and  tarsi  slender,  the  latter  being  about  the  same 
length  as  the  middle  toe,  and  the  former  generally  armed  with  long, 
curved,  and  acute  claws. 

When  the  breeding  season  is  over,  these  Birds  usually  collect  into 
large  flocks,  and  fly  in  company  in  search  of  food.  This  consists 
principally  of  the  seeds  of  various  plants,  and  some  of  the  species  will 
also  attack  fruit.  During  the  breeding  season  they  capture  great 
numbers  of  Insects  for  the  nourishment  of  their  young,  but  at  other 


THE  FINCHES. 


vn 


J.    dSm'  Zdslg,'  Bechild,.    (S«  sroup  of  Fmche.,  c.  d.  l.g. 


'^Anlon.  out  Nali.e  Finches  oono  ocecds  the  Goldfinch  ih  beauty 


"t„°r"cmnrorL:NNETTlV««/.  ..««.*"-)■  Greater  Redpole, 
GrlvLinn't  Brown  Linnet,  of  authors.  La  Linottc  ordma,  c, 
Button  ;Bluthan.fling,  Bechstcin.  (See  a,  b.  group  of  Fmches,  F.g. 
1301.) 


Fig,  ,301.— Group  of  Finches.— (7,  b,  the  Comni 

and  docility;  hence  it  is  frequently  kept  in  '^aS"'^"^  taught  to 

draw  up  a  little  bucket    of  water  when  thirsty    and  other  tricks 

wWch  ndther  good  taste  nor  proper  feeling  would  sanction      The 

sonc^  of  this  species  is  a  twitter,  soft  and  pleasing,  bu    of  no  power. 

n"fs  na'ttafstate  the  Goldfineh  breeds  in  o-^ards   large  gardens 

plantations,  &c.,  often  selecting  some  denst.  ^""^'S^^lX^^^l %fm^°l 

its  nest,  which  is  an  elegant  piece  of  ^^'°'-k™f"^'"Pl.^^\"|;.uT^Tr 

externally  of  moss,  lichens,  dry  grass,  and  wool,  and  lined  )vith  hair 

and  seed-down  of  the  coltsfoot  or  the  down  of  the  ^^   '°^;^;^  J^'l^f-^ 

are  of  a  bluish-white,  marked  at  the  larger  end  with  o""fe-t'™^™ 

spots.     The  food  of  this  species   consists  of    he  seeds  of  yanous 

plants,  among  which  we  may  mention  those  of  the  thistle,  dandelion, 

c-roundsel,  burdock,  &c.  .     „„^Kor 

^  In  winter  it  associates  in  small  flocks  of  ten  or  twdve  in  number, 

which  flit  about  the  hedges  or  old  orchards  in  quest  of  food.   1  he  uoia- 


,on  Linnet  ;  r,  d,  the  Goldfinch  ;  e,  f.  the  .Siskin. 


Owin.^  to  the  difference  between  the  winter  '-^"'^^^""^'^^^^^P'd'^fnt 
of  this  Bird,  naturalists  have  multiplied  ''%^>'"^°^"n'hcirwa  first 
under  the  head  of  two  d>stmctspec.es-an  error  wlnc^ 

pointed  out  by  Montagu,  whose  OP'^'O"  ^^s  o'^^^^^  ^he  observa- 
Llby  and  other  ornithologists  "  --"Jd  ^PPe--^^  *^,7  ^^mer  plu- 
tions  of  the  latter  author   that  Birds  ^^ptureo^  ^^ 

mage  with  the  top  and  breast  of  a  fine  carmine  r     .  .^ 

that  dress  at  the  period  of  the  .a"^';;^"^\i'^°^'Shis  accounts  for 
while  caged,  but  «tain  their  plain  brown  hvc^^^^^^^      ^^^^.^^  ^^^ 

the  assertion  of  some  observers,  that  tne  urcy 
same  in  its  plumage  at  all  seasons.  n      and   is   common 

The   Linnet   is  found   over    Europe   general  y,  Orkneys. 

throughout  the  British  If  "^s   extending  as    ara^^^   ^^^  ^^^y^_ 

?;^^el  plr^d^:i?h\r'He;"canar;:^  °Cgh?ommonf  and  neglected 


5o8 


THE   FINCHES. 


pasture  lands  are  its  favourite  localities,  where  various  plants  furnish 
it  with  food  ;  it  is  very  partial  to  the  seed  of  the  flax,  thistle,  dande- 
lion, and  of  cruciform  plants.  The  nest  of  the  Linnet  is  generally 
built  in  some  low  bush,  the  thick  spiny  furze  being  preferred  ;  it 
is  composed  of  moss,  stalks  of  grass,  and  wool,  lined  with  hair  and 
feathers ;  the  eggs  are  of  a  bluish-white  speckled  with  purplish 
red. 

In  the  winter  these  Birds  congregate  in  large  flocks,  and  visit  the 
rocky  shores  of  the  sea,  where  they  flit  about  active  and  industrious 
in  search  of  food,  ever  and  anon  uttering  a  lively  call.  In  the 
spring  they  separate,  and  pair  and  revisit  their  upland  haunts. 
Allied  to  the  common  Linnet  arc  the  Twite  {Liiwfa  viontana), 
found  in  the  hilly  districts  of  our  island,  and  abundant  in  Norway 
and  Sweden,  and  the  Lesser  Redpole  {Linota  linaria),  resident 
throughout  the  year  in  Scotland  and  the  northern  counties  of  Eng- 
land, but  a  winter  visitor  to  the  southern  counties.  It  is  taken  in 
great  abundance  by  the  Bird-catchers  late  in  autumn,  and  is  the 
smallest  British  species  of  the  group. 


Fig.  1302,— Nest  of  the  Goldfinch. 

The  Chaffinch  {Fringilla  calebs). — The  nest  of  this  Bird  is  a 
most  artful  and  beautiful  structure,  composed  externally  of  moss, 
fine  wool,  lichen,  the  scales  of  bark,  and  often  Spiders'  webs,  all 
neatly  felted  together,  and  presenting  a  smooth  and  carefully-finished 
exterior ;  internally  it  is  delicately  lined  with  wool  and  hairs.  It  is 
securely  attached  to  the  supporting  stems  by  bands  of  moss,  felted 
with  wool,  which  are  twined  round  them  and  worked  into  the  mass  of 
materials  composing  the  nest.  The  elm,  oak,  hawthorn,  and  thick 
tall  bushes  are  generally  selected.  We  have  seen  the  nest  in  a 
dense  holly,  and  also  on  old  apple-trees  overgrown  with  moss  and 
lichens  ;  sometimes  it  is  shrouded  among  the  luxuriant  ivy  encircling 
the  trunks  of  elms  or  other  trees.  The  eggs  are  bluish-white, 
tinged  with  pink,  and  marked  with  streaks  of  purplish-red. 

The  Chaf&nch  is  a  handsome  Bird,  almost  equalling  the  Goldfinch 


Fig.  1303. — Nest  of  the  Chaffinch. 


in  the  elegance  and  sprightliness  of  his  appearance  ;  and  although 
his  song  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  species  already  referred  to,  yet, 
from  its  being  an  indication  of  the  approach  of  spring,  it  is  heard 
with  pleasure  by  most  people.  The  Bird  is,  in  fact,  a  favourite  with 
every  one  except  the  gardeners,  for  whose  radish-seed  he  entertains 
a  most  extraordinary  predilection. 

The  Canary  Bird. — Of  the  exotic  species,  the  best  known  is  the 
common  Canary  Bird  (Carduclis  canan'a),  a  native  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  where,  and  in  Madeira,  it  is  still  found  wild.  The  wild 
Bird  is  very  different  in  appearance  from  the  domesticated  varieties 
with  which  we  are  familiar,  being  of  a  greyish  colour;  but  it  is  said 
by  Dr.  Hcinekin  to  be  a  beautiful  songster.  Like  the  other  Finches, 
it  builds  a  nest  with  root's,  moss,  and  feathers,  usually  in  tall  bushes 
and  trees ;  it  lays  from  four  to  six  eggs,  and  is  said  to  breed  five  or 
six  times  in  the  season. 

This  favourite  Cage-Bird  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  has  since  always  been  highly  prized.  It  is  now 
bred  in  great  quantities  in  large  establishments  in  Germany, 
whence  the  greater  part  of  Europe  is  supplied  with  Canary  Birds. 

Several  other  exotic  species  are  also  brought  to  this  country.  Of 
these,  the  commonest  are  the  Amadavade  {Fringilla  amandavd), 
and  the  Rice-Bird,  or  Java  Sparrow  (Oryzornis  ory~ivora).  The 
former  is  a  very  small  Bird,  scarcely  four  inches  in  length,  of  a 
brownish  colour  above,  paler  beneath,  and  spotted  with  white  ;  the 
rump  is  red,  and  the  quill-feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings  black.  The 
bill  is  also  of  a  fine  red  colour.  This  elegant  little  Bird  is  common 
in  most  parts  of  Southern  Asia,  whence  it  is  imported  into 
Europe  in  great  quantities.  The  Java  Sparrow  is  a  considerably 
larger  Bird  than  the  preceding,  and  of  a  delicate  bluish  colour,  with 
the  top  of  the  head  black,  the  cheeks  and  the  bill  red.  It  is  a  native 
of  Java  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  where  it  appears  to  be  exceedingly 
abundant;  it  feeds  to  a  great  extent  on  rice.     (See  Fig.  1,30,1.) 


Fig.  1304. — Java  Sparrows. 

The  Sparrow  (Passer  domesticus). — Any  description  of  this 
Bird  would  be  simply  superfluous.  It  is  a  constant  visitor  to  our 
houses  throughout  the  year,  and  "  as  familiar  as  household  words." 
It  builds  in  the  niches  of  masonry  ;  in  the  fissures  and  crevices  of 
walls,  bams,  or  houses  ;  in  ivy  or  other  foliage  against  the  side  df  a 
house,  and  also  in  trees.  The  nest  consists  of  hay,  straw,  feathers, 
and  other  materials,  and  in  snug  crevices  and  under  the  eaves  of 
houses  is  loosely  put  together,  its  shape  varying  according  to  that  of 
the  site,  but  it  is  usually  domed ;  in  trees  it  is  large,  firmly  con-- 
structed  of  well-intertwined  materials,  and  completely  domed,  with  a^ 


THE  BUNTINGS  AND  LARKS. 


S09 


lateral  aperture,  and  lined  with  featlicrs  and  other  soft  materials. 
It  is,  however,  a  shapeless  and  inartificial  structure,  destitute  of 
that  t'rimncss  and  compactness  so  remarkable  in  the  nest  of  our 
Finches  generally,  as  the  Goldfinch  and  Chaffinch.  A  specimen  of 
the  nest  of  the  House-Sparrow  in  a  tree  is  represented  by  Fig.  1305 


Fig.  1305. — Nest  of  House  Sparrow, 

The  Siskin,  or  Aberdevine  [Fringilla  sfitius).  Le  Tarin, 
Buffon.— Norway,  Sweden,  and  the  north  of  Germany  are  the  native 
regions  of  this  pretty  little  Bird,  whence  in  severe  winters  it  migrates 
southwards,  occasionally  visiting  our  islands  in  immense  flocks, 
which  resort  to  birch  and  pine  woods,  and  alders  along  the  margin 
of  streams,  often  in  company  with  the  Lesser  Redpole. 

Though  the  Siskin  must  be  regarded  rather  as  a  winter  visitor 
than  a  permanent  resident  in  the  British  Islands,  still  there  are  not 
wanting  examples  of  its  breeding  within  our  shores.  Mr.  Selby 
assures  us  that  it  is  ascertained  to  breed  in  some  of  the  pine-woods 
in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  "Near  Killin,"  he  adds,  ''these 
birds  were  observed  by  Sir  W.  Jardine  and  myself  to  be  in  pairs  in 
the  month  of  June,  inhabiting  a  wood  of  very  old  and  lofty  pines, 
but  we  were  unable  to  procure  the  nests  from  the  height  and  inacces- 
sible nature  of  the  trees."  In  captivity,  the  Siskin,  judging  by  one 
which  we  kept  for  a  length  of  time,  soon  becomes  familiar ;  its  song 
is  a  trifling  though  not  unpleasing  twitter ;  it  is  said  to  pair  readily 
with  the  Canary-Finch ;  but  in  this  particular  our  endeavours  to 
procure  a  mule  breed  altogether  failed. 

The  male  in  our  possession  was  coloured  as  follows  : — Top  of  the 
head  black  ;  ear-coverts  dusky  ;  a  line  above  the  eye,  sides  of  neck, 
throat,  and  chest,  lemon-yellow;  back  and  shoulders  dark  olive- 
green  with  obscure  dusky  dashes  ;  quills  brown,  with  an  oblique 
yellow  bar,  and  another  above,  produced  by  the  yellow  edging  of  the 
greater  coverts.  Flanks  dusky  with  a  few  brown  dashes  ;  rump 
yellow,  slightly  washed  with  green  ;  two  middle  tail-feathers  dark 
brown  ;  the  rest  yellow  tipped  with  brown,  the  outermost  having  the 
external  vane  of  this  colour  also.  Bill  and  legs  horn-colour.  Length 
four  inches  and  three-quarters  ;  tail  short  and  forked.  The  female 
is  less  brightly  and  decidedly  marked.  The  eggs  are  of  a  bluish- 
white  speckled  with  purplish-red.  (See  e,  f,  in  group  of  Finches, 
Fig   1301,  ante.') 

The  BtJNTiNGS. — The  Etnberizmcs,  or  Buntings,  approach  very 
closely  to  the  Finches.  They  have  a  conical,  acute  bill,  with  the 
ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  nearly  sffaight,  and  its  margins  sinuated 
and  inflectpH,  nr  turnpH  in.  (See  Fig-.  1306.)  The  palate  is  furnished 
with  a  knob  ;  the  wings  are  of  moderate  size;  the  tarsi  are  about 
equal  in  length  to  the  middle  toe ;  the  hind-toe  is  longer  than  the 
inner  one,  and  the  claws  are  slender,  These  Birds  are  very  generally 
distributed  in  both  hemispheres.  They  are  more  terrestrial  in  their 
habits  than  the  FringillincB,  generally  feeding  on  the  ground,  and 
building  their  nests  either  in  low  bushes  or  in  tufts  of  grass.  Like 
the  Finches,  they  collect  into  large  flocks  in  the  winter,  and  frequent 
the  open  fields.  Their  food  consists  of  seeds  and  Insects ;  in  the 
course  of  the  autumn  they  pick  up  large  quantities  of  grain  in  the 
stubble-fields,  and  become  quite  fat,  when  some  of  the  species  are 
regarded  as  great  delicacies.  One  of  these  is  the  Ortolan  [Emberiza 
hortulana),  a  very  abundant  Bird  in  the  South  of  Europe,  where 
they  are  caught  in  great  numbers  at  the  commencement  of  autumn, 
and  fattened  for  the  table  upon  oats  and  millet-seed.  To  facilitate 
the  process  of  fattening  they  are  kept  in  a  dark  room.    The  Ortolan 


occurs  occasionally  in  Britain,  with  five  other  species  of  the  genus 
Emberiza;  and  two  species  o\  Plccfrophanes,  ox  Lark-Runtings, 
also  make  their  appearance  here  in  the  winter,  but  breed  in  the 
colder  regions  of  both  Europe  and  America. 

The  Larks— Sub-family  Alaudinm. 

The  Alaudinm,  or  Larks,  are  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
FringillidcB  by  the  great  length  and  straightness  of  the  claw  of  the 
hind-toe — a  character  which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  Pipits 


Fig.  1306. — Head  of  the  Corn  Dunting. 

{Anthiis)  amongst  the  Dcntirostrcs  (see  Fig.  1307).  The  bill  is 
rather  short  and  conical ;  the  upper  mandible  is  not  notched  at  the 
tip,  and  the  wings  exhibit  a  remarkable]charactcr — the  tertiary  quills 
are  much  elongated,  usually  as  long  as  the  primaries  (Fig.  1308). 

The  position  of  these  well-known  Birds  is  indeed  somewhat  pro- 
blematical, as  they  exhibit  a  combination  of  the  characters  of  several 
very  distinct  groups  of  Birds.  Thus  the  Pyrrlndauda;,  or  Finch- 
Larks,  appear  to  lead  directly  to  the  True  Finches  ;  and  the  genus 


Fig.  1307.— Foot  of  the  Skylark. 

Plectrophatics,  amongst  the  Buntings,  also  serve  to  connect  the 
Larks  with  the  other  members  of  the  present  family  ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Pipits  agree  so  closely  with  them  in  the  size  and 
form  of  the  hinder  claw,  and  the  great  development  of  the  tertiary 
quills,  that  they  appear  almost  to  form  a  single  group.  But  the 
Pipits  are  evidently  allied  to  the  Motacillis,  which '  are  Dentirostral 
Birds.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  as  though  these  Birds  stood  on 
the  confines  of  the  two  groups,  with  their  affinities  about  equally 
balanced. 


Fig.  1308.— Wing  of  the  Skylark. 

The  Larks  are  generally  distributed  throughout  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, and  one  species  also  occurs  in  North  America.  Five 
species  have  been  found  in  Britain,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the 
Skylark. 

The  Skylark  {Alauda  arvensis).  Alouette  des  Champs,  Tem- 
minck  ;  Feld  Lerche,  Bechstein. — This  delightful  songster  is  spread 
generally  over  Europe,  several  parts  of  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
Its  favourite  localities  are  extensive  arable  lands  and  open  meadows  ; 
but,  according  to  IVIr.  Thompson,  in  Ireland  the  wild  mountain  pas- 
ture is  equally  its  abode.  Occasionally  the  Lark  sings  while  resting 
on  a  clod  of  earth,  but  generally  while  in  the  air :  rising  spirally 
on  quivering  wings,  it  trills  forth  its  animated  and  varied  lay,  mount- 
ing higher  and  higher,  till  it  seems  a  mere  speck  in  the  clear  blue 
sky.    Its  descent  is  oblique,  and  at  first  gradual,  till  within  twenty 


Sio 


THE  BULLFINCHES. 


Fig.  1309. — Ilcnd  of  the  Skylark. 


or  thirty  yards  of  the  ground,  when,  ceasing  its  strain,  it  sweeps  down 
suddenly  to  join  its  mate.  The  Lark  breeds  in  April,  or  early  in  May, 
constructing  a  nest  of  vegetable  stalks  and  dried  grasses,  lined  with 
fine  fibres,  upon  the  ground,  amongst  corn  or  other  herbage  :  the 
eggs  are  of  a  greenish-white  spotted  with  brown  :  two  broods  are 
reared  annually,  the  latter  in  July  or  August.  The  ordinary  flight  of 
the  Lark  is  easy  and  undulating,  and  on  the  ground  it  trips  along 
with  great  facility,  its  feet,  and  especially  the  elongated  slender  hind- 
claw,  expressly  adapting  it  for  the  grassy.'surface  of  the  field.  Its  food 
consists  of  Insects,  Worms,  grain  and  other  seeds,  the  leaves  of  the 
clover,  &c.     (See  e,  Fig.  1304,  p.  466,  ante.) 

On  the  approach  of  w^inter 
Larks  begin  to  collect  in  im- 
mense flocks,  increased  as  the 
severity  of  the  weather  sets  in 
by  foreign  arrivals  :  they  fre- 
quent stubble-fields,  turnip- 
fields,  and  similar  situations, 
and  being  accounted  a  delicacy 
for  the  table,  multitudes  arc 
captured  at  this  season  by 
means  of  nets  and  sent  to  the 
London  market.  Fig.  1309  re- 
presents the  head,  and  Fig. 
13 10,  the  &^^  of  the  Lark. 

The  Woodlark  {Alaitda 
arborca).  Le  Lulu,  I'Alouette 
dcs  Bois,  or  le  cujelier  of  the  French  ;  Baumlerche  or  Waldlerche  of 
the  Germans.  This  species  is  found  over  every  part  of  Europe,  as  high 
northwards  as  Sweden;  in  the  colder  countries  it  is  migratory,  but 
not  in  the  more  temperate.  In  our  island  it  is  most  abundant  in  the 
midland  and  southern  districts,  frequenting  well-cultivated  and 
woody  scenery ;  its  song  is  very  sweet, 
though  less  thrilling  and  varied  than  that 
of  the  Skylark.  It  is  generally  uttered 
on  the  wing,  and  is  often  continued  for  an 
hour  without  intermission,  the  Bird  describ- 
ing a  series  of  widely  extended  circles. 
Sometimes  it  pours  out  its  strains  while 
Fig.  1310.— Egg  of  Lark,  perched  on  the  branch  of  a  decayed  tree. 
It  breeds  in  April :  its  nest,  placed  under 
the  shelter  of  a  low  shrub  or  tuft  of  herbage,  is  formed  of  dried 
stalks  and  grass,  lined  with  fibres  and  hair  ;  the  eggs  are  of  a  pale 
wood-brown,  marked  with  blotches  of  grey  and  dark  brown.  The 
Woodlark  does  not  associate  in  flocks  during  the  winter,  like  the 
Skylark,  but  merely  in  small  families  of  five  or  seven  individuals, 

which  separate  on  the  approach 
of  spring  or  soon  after  Christmas, 
when,  if  the  weather  be  mild,  the 
males  begin  to  utter  their  song. 
Fig.  131 1  represents  the  head  of 
the  Woodlark. 

The  Shore-Lark  {Otocoris 
alpestris)  is  rare  in  Britain.  It  is 
the  only  species  of  the  group  found 
in  America,  m  the  northern  parts 
of  which  continent  it  breeds  dur- 
ing the  summer  months,  proceed- 
ing southwards  in  the  winter,  some- 
times as  far  as  Virginia  and 
Carolina.  It  breeds  on  the  rocky 
Fig.  1311.  — Head  of  the  Woodlavk.  coasts   of  Labrador,  and   on   the 

shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  In 
Labrador,  the  nest  is  made  upon  a  patch  of  lichen,  which 
the  Bird  resembles  so  closely  in  its  tint,  that  when  sitting,  she 
will  remain,  trusting  to  this  for  concealment,  until  the  intruder's  foot 
is  almost  upon  her.  ^Vllen  danger  approaches  very  near,  however, 
the  Bird  immediately  flutters  away,  feigning  lameness  with  so  much 
art,  that  one  unaccustomed  to  the  habits  of  the  species  would  infal- 
libly be  deceived.  The  other  two  species  are  of  exceedingly  rare 
occurrence. 

In  the  British  Museum  numerous  specimens  of  Larks  may  be  seen, 
including  the  following,  with  many  others  : — Short-toed,  A.  brachy- 
dachyta.  Naples  ;  Black,  Melianocorypha  tartarica,  Asia  ;  Mongo- 
lians, of  China,  with  specimens  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,'Erze- 
roum,  N.  America  (the  Shore-Lark  above  described),  the  Crested 
Lark,  &c.,  &c. 

The  Bullfinches — Sub-family  Pyrrhuhtice. 

The  PyrrhulmcB,  or  Bullfinches,  forming  the  next  sub-family, 
greatly  resemble  the  Grosbeaks  in  many  of  their  characters,  especially 
in  the  large  size  of  the  head,  and  the  stoutness  of  the  bill  (Fig.  1312), 
which  is  compressed,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  convex. 
The  wings  are  rounded,  the  tarsi  short,  and  the  lateral  toes  are  usually 
unequal. 
,   The  Bullfinches  are  principally  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  re- 


gions of  the  world,  very  few  species  being  found  between  the  Tropics. 
They  occur  in  both  hemispheres,  and  feed  principally  upon  seeds, 
the  hardest  envelopes  of  which  are  unable  to  resist  the  action  of  their 
powerful  bills.  They  also  devour  berries  of  different  kinds.  They 
generally  live  in  wooded  districts. 

The  Bullfinch  {Pyrrhula  vulgaris).  Bouvreuil  of  the  French ; 
Fringuello  morino,  Ciufolotto,  Suffuleno,  Monachino,  of  the  Italians  ; 
Dom-pape  of  the  Danes  and|Norwegians  ;  Dom-herre  of  the  "  Fauna 
Suecica;"  Bulfinck,  Rothburstiger  Gimpel,  and  der  Gimpel  of  the 
Germans  ;  de  Goudvink  of  the  Netherlanders  ;  y  Chwybanydd  and 
Rhawn-goch  of  the  ancient  British. 

In  the  Bullfinches  the  bill  is  short, 
hard,  conico-convex,  thick,  swollen 
at  the  sides,  compressed  at  the  point, 
with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible 
advancing  on  the  forehead,  and 
arched.  Tarsi  short.  (See  Fig. 
1312.)  The  common  Bullfinch  is  a 
native  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  is  only  known  in  the  more 
southern  provinces  as  a  Bird  of 
Passage;  in  our  island  it  is  station- 
ary. In  the  mountain  forests  of 
Germany  it  is  very  common. 

This    beautiful    Bird  tenants    the 

wooded  districts,  and   is   retiring  in 

its  habits  ;  during  the  winter  it  associates  in  families  of  five  or  six 

individuals,   the  brood  of  the  year,  which  separate  in  spring;  when 

they  pair,  and  commence  nidification. 

The  native  song  of  this  Bird  is  low,  soft,  and  pleasing,  but  inaudible 
at  a  short  distance  ;  it  has,  however,  the  imitative  faculty  in  great 
perfection,  and  can  be  taught  to  whistle  musical  airs  with  great  ac- 
curacy. In  Germany  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  their  instruc- 
tion, which  requires  nine  months  of  continued  and  regular  teaching 
before  they  can  execute  an  air  with  firmness  and  precision  ;  which 
should  be  delivered  in  a  flute-like  tone.  Birds  well  instructed  sell 
at  a  high  price,  and  are  as  interesting  from  their  docility  and  affec- 
tionate disposition  as  from  their  voice.  The  common  call-note  of 
the  Wild  Bullfinch  is  a  plaintive  whistle. 


Fig.  1312.- 


-Head  of  the  Bull- 
finch. 


Fig.  1313- 


-The  Eulllinch. 


Its  food,  during  summer  and  autumn,  consists  of  various  seeds,  but 
in  the  winter  and  spring  it  subsists  chiefly  on  the  buds  of  various  trees 
and  shrubs,  as  the  thorn,  larch,  birch,  the  plum  and  other  fruit-trees, 
and  is  frequently  from  this  cause  very  injurious  to  gardens  ;  the  buds 
are  not  swallowed  whole,  but  minced  to  pieces  by  the  edges  of  the 
powerful  mandibles  of  the  bill. 

The  Bullfinch  builds  in  low  thick  bushes  or  underwood,  or  on  the 
flat  foliage  of  a  spruce  pine  or  silver  fir.  It  consists  of  a  foundation 
of  birch-twigs  or  other  slender  sticks,  upon  which  is  intertwined  a 
basket  of  flexible  fibrous  roots,  the  whole  forming  a  shallow  nest.  The 
eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  of  a  bluish-white  spotted  with  pale 
orange-brown.  Fig.  13 14  represents  the  nest  of  this  species.  Caged 
Birds  often  become  quite  black,  an  effect  resulting  from  their  being 
fed  too  profusely  with  hemp-seed.  We  knew  a  Black  Bullfinch, 
which,  on  its  spring  moult,  recovered  its  natural  dress. 


THE  CROSSBILLS. 


511 


The  male  Bullfinch  has  the  head,  wings,  and  tail  velvet  black,  with 
a  tinge  of  purple  ;  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  back,  fine  bluish-grey  ; 
rump  white  ;  cheeks,  throat,  chest  and  sides,  roseate  ;  the_  greater 
wing-coverts  margined  with  pinkish-white.  The  female  is  much 
duller  in  plumage,  and  the  chest  has  only  a  faint  tinge  of  the  roseate 
hue. 


Fig.  1314. — Nest  of  Bullfinch. 

Another  species,  of  which  a  few  specimens  have  been  shot  in  this 
country,  is  the  Pine  Grosbeak,  or  Pine  Bullfinch  {^Pinicola  enuclea- 
ior),  which  is  an  e.xceedingly  abundant  Bird  in  the  Arctic  portions 
of  both  continents,  but  appears  to  be  only  a  rare  visitor  to  the  more 
temperate  regions  of  Europe,  although  in  America  it  performs  pretty 
regular  migrations  from  the  Arctic  regions,  where  it  breeds  during 
the  summer,  to  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  considerably  larger  than  our  common  Bullfinch,  measuring 
between  eight  and  nine  inches  in  length,  but  resembles  it  closely  in 
its  general  form,  although  the  colours  are  very  different.  The  head, 
the  neck,  the  fore-part  of  the  breast,  and  the  rump,  are  all  of  a 
bright-red  colour  ;  the  back  is  greyish-brown  or  black,  with  the 
feathers  edged  with  red,  and  the  lower  parts  light  grey.  The  wings 
and  tail  are  dusky,  but  many  of  the  feathers  in  the  former  are  tipped 
and  margined  with  white,  so  as  to  produce  two  more  or  less  distinct 
white  bands.  In  its  habits,  the  Pine  Grosbeak  closely  resembles  the 
common  Bullfinch,  and  its  food  appears  to  be  of  the  same  nature. 
In  its  Arctic  residence,  it  is  said  to  feed  principally  on  the  buds  of 
the  birch-willow.  In  the  more  temperate  regions  which  it  visits, 
it  generally  haunts  the  pine  forests,  and  is  rarely  met  with  in  any 
place  where  these  do  not  exist.  In  Russia  it  is  said  to  be  taken 
and  brought  to  market  in  great  quantities,  as  its  flesh  is  con- 
sidered very  good.  It  is  also  described  as  a  most  agreeable  song- 
ster. Several  other  species  are  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  both 
hemispheres,  but  the  habits  of  all  are  very  similar. 

Numerous  specimens  of  the  Bullfinches  may  be  seen  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  British  Museum. 

The  Crossbills — Sub-family  Loxi?ie8. 

The  Crossbill  {Loxia  ciirvirostra). — In  the  genus  Loxia,  sub- 
family Loxina,  we  find  the  beak  compressed  and  elongated,  with 
the  mandibles  bent  in  contrary  directions,  so  that  their  points  cross 
each  other  (see  Head  of  the  Crossbill,  Fig.  1315),  while  the  tongue 
is  furnished  at  its  top  with  a  homy  sfoop.  The  tarsi  are  short,  and 
the  feet  are  formed  for  grasping  tightly,  as  the  Birds  cling  in  various 


positions  to  the  twigs  while  procuring  food.  The  use  of  this  sin- 
gular bill  will  be  easily  deduced  from  the  following  observations  : — 
The  seed  of  the  cones  of  the  pine  is  the  principal  "food  of  the  Cross- 
bill ;  and  to  obtain  this  the  Bird  fi.\es  itself  across  the  cone,  and  then 
brings  the  point  of  each  mandible  together ;  and  in  this  position  it 
is  enabled  to  insert  them  under  the  scales  of  the  cone ;  this  done, 
the  beak  is  opened,  not  in  the  usual  way,  but  by  the  lower  mandible 
being  drawn  sideways  (a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  muscles  effect- 
ing the  action),  and  the  scale  is  consequently  raised  up,  the  tongue 
is  at  the  same  time  brought  forward,  and  its  scoop  directed  beneath 
the  seed,  which  is  dislodged  and  carried  to  the  mouth.  At  Fig. 
13 1 6  is  shown  the  skull  of  the  Crossbill  dissected,  so  as  to  illustrate 
its  structure,  the  arrangement  of  the  muscles,  and  the  peculiarity  of 


Fig-  1315. — Head  of  the  Common  Crossbill. 


Fig.  1316.— Skull  of  the  Crossbill,  dissected. 

the  tongue  :— A,  Skull  of  Crossbill,  side  view  :   a,  temporal  muscle  ; 

b,  great  pyramidal  muscle,  b.  Head  viewed  from  below  :  h,  great 
pyramidal  muscle;  c,  c,  pterygoid  muscles;  d,  d,  graciles muscles. 
C,  Head  viewed  from  the  side  :  a,  pterygoid  process  ;  h,  os  omoidcum  ; 

c,  OS  quadratum  ;  d,  d,  os  jugale.  D,  Head  viewed  from  behind; 
a,  right  temporal  muscle  ;  b,  great  pyramidal  muscle.  E,  Lower 
jaw,  side  view  :  a,  cavity  for  articulation  ;  b,  b,  coronoid  processes. 

F,  Tongue  seen  from  above  :  a,  horny  scoop  ;  b,  b,  extensor  muscles. 

G,  Tongue,  side  view :  a,  horny  scoop ;  b,  e.xtensor  muscles  ;  c, 
flexor  muscle. 

The  Common  Crossbill  is  the  Becco  incroce,  Crocione,  and 
Crosiero  of  the  Italians  ;  Bee  croise  of  the  French  ;  Fichten  Kreuz- 
schnabel  of  the  Germans  ;  Kruisvink  of  the  Netherlanders  ;  Mindre 
Korsnab  of  the  Scandinavians  ;  and  Gylfingroes  of  the  ancient 
British.  This  species  certainly  breeds  in  the  British  Islands,  and 
we  may  specify  the  Holt  Forest  in  Surrey,  and  various  fir  or  larch 
plantations  in  Gloucestershire,  as  determined  localities.  (See  "  Mag. 
Nat.  Hist.,"  May,  1830,  p.  236,  and  June,  1830,  pp.  310,  311,  for 
interesting  communications  on  the  subject  by  Messrs.  Brown  and 
Long.)  It  appears  that  they  breed  in  April,  commencing  their  nest 
in  ]\iarch.  This  is  placed  on  the  topmost  boughs  of  the  fir  or  pine, 
and  consists  of  slender  twigs  of  fir,  then  a  layer  of  coarse  grass,  lined 
with  finer  grass  and  a  few  long  hairs.  The  eggs  are  of  a  slightly 
bluish-white,  sparingly  speckled  with  red.  The  male  has  an  agree- 
able song.  It  is,  however,  in  the  vast  pine-forests  of  Nora-ay,  Sweden, 
Germany,  &c.,  that  this  Crossbill  is  the  most  abundant.  ^  In  those 
gloomy  solitudes  it  finds  a  congenial  residence  and  food  in  abund- 
ance. While  at  work  upon  the  fir-cones,  extricating  the  seeds,  or 
while  climbing  in  flocks  of  ten  or  twenty  among  the  branches, 
using,  like  a  Parrot,  their  beaks  and  feet,  these  Birds  utter  a  con- 
tinuous gentle  twitter,  different  from  the  song  of  the  male,  which  is 
poured  out  principally  during  the  breeding  season.  At  various 
times  vast  flocks  from  the  continent  visit  different  parts  of  our  island 
in  the  winter,  evidently  driven  southwards  by  the  severity  of  the 


512 


THE  CROSSBILLS. 


season ;  they  seek  the  shelter  of  fir-woods,  and  some  perhaps  re- 
main altogether. 

Besides  the  seeds  of  the  fir,  hemp-seed  and  the  seeds  of  apples  are 
eagerly  devoured,  and  they  arc  said  to  divide  with  ease  an  apple  in 
halves,  in  order  to  procure  the  kernels.  Crossed  as  their  bill  is, 
these  Birds  can  pick  up  the  smallest  seeds,  and  shell  or  husk  thern  ; 
they  can  also  open  the  shell  of  an  almond,  first  picking  a  hole  in  it, 
and  then  inserting  the  bill  and  wrenching  off  pieces  by  the  lateral 
motion  of  the  under  mandible.  The  following  narrative  of  the  habits 
of  the  Crossbill  in  confinement  is  very  interesting  : — "  My  friend  Mr. 
Morgan,"  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  "  kept  a  pair  of  these  birds_  for  some 
time,  and  had  opportunities  for  observing  their  curious  habits.  They 
were  impatient  under  confinement,  and  restless,  climbing  over  the 
wires  of  their  cages,  by  the  use  of  their  beak  and  claws,  like  parrots. 
One  of  their  principal  occupations  was  twisting  out  the  ends  of  the 
wires  of  their  prison,  which  they  accomplished  with  equal  ease  and 
dexterity.  A  short,  flat-headed  nail  that  confined  some  strong  net- 
work was  a  favourite  object  on  which  they  tried  their  strength  ;  and 
the  male,  who  was  usually  pioneer  in  every  new  exploit,  succeeded 
by  long-continued  efforts  in  drawing  the  nail  out  of  the  wood,  though 
not  wkhout  breaking  off  the  point  of  his  beak  in  the  experiment. 
Their  unceasing  destruction  of  cages  at  length  brought  upon  them 
sentence  of  banishment.  During  the  period  of  their  captivity  a  com- 
plete change  took  place  in  the  colour  of  their  plumage,  without  the 
shedding  of  a  single  feather." 

The  permanent  colour  of  the  plumage  of  this  species  is  spotted 
olive-green  ;  but  the  male  of  the  year  acquires  in  the  autumn  a  gen- 
eral roseate  tint.     (See  Fig.  1317.) 


Fig.  1317. — Crossbills. 

Mr.  Gould  ("Birds  of  Europe")  observes  that  in  the  minds  of  many 
naturalists  some  doubts  still  exist,  and  that  they  existed  in  his  own,  as 
to  whether  the  rich  rosy-red  colouring  assumed  by  this  Bird  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  breeding  season,  or  the  permanent  livery  of  the  adult 
male.  He  states  that  during  his  visit  to  Vienna  he  had  an  opportunity 
of  observing  both  sexes  in  every  stage,  an  examination  of  which 
afforded  him  abundant  proofs  that  the    red   plumage   is    acquired 


during  the  first  autumn,  for  he  saw  many  lately  fledged  that  had  their 
plumage  thickly  spotted  ;  others  that  had  partially  lost  their  spotted 
appearance,  and  had  partly  assumed  the  red  covering  ;  and  others 
that  had  their  feathers  entirely  tinted  of  this  colour  ;  while  the  adults, 
as  most  ornithologists  have  stated,  were  characterised  by  a  plumage 
of  olive-green,  which  appears  to  be  permanent. 

The  same  naturalist  saw  Crossbills,  Swallows,  Martins,  and  various 
small  Birds  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets,  for  the  purpose  of  the 
table. 

Besides  the  present  species,  the  Parrot-Crossbill  {Loxia  feiyo^sit- 
tacus)  is  found  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  the  White- winged  Crossbill 
{Lox2a  leucopterd)  occasionally  occurs  in  the  North  ;  the  latter,  and 
a  species  nearly  resembling  the  common  Crossbill  (Z,.  americana,) 
are  natives  of  North  America. 

The  last  group  of  the  Finch  family  is  that  of  the  PhytofomiiicE,  or 
Plant-cutters,  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  by  having  the  margins 
of  their  mandibles  finely  serrated.  The  bill  is  short,  conical,  and 
stout,  as  in  the  Bullfinches.  These  Birds  are  found  only  in  the  tempe- 
rate regions  of  South  America  :  the  typical  species,  Phytoma  rara,  is 
a  native  of  Chili.  (See  Fig.  1318.)  They  frequent  the  wooded  parts 
of  the  country,  and  feed  upon  buds,  fruits,  and  herbage,  which  they 
cut  away  with  their  bills,  and  thus  often  do  great  damage  when  they 
visit  the  cultivated  grounds.  The  amount  of  the  injury  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  circumstance  that  the  Birds  mischievously  cut  off 
quantities  of  buds,  fruits,  &c.,  for  the  mere  pleasure  of  throwing 
them  down  ;  and,  for  this  reason,  the  peasants  wage  a  constant  war 


Fig.  1318.— The  Chilian  riant-culter. 

with  them,  which,  according  to  Molina,  was  rapidly  diminishing  llicir 
numbers.  They  also  occasionally  feed  on  Insects.  Their  cry  is  said 
to  be  very  disagreeable,  resembling  the  noise  made  by  grating  the 
teeth  of  two  saws  together :  Molina,  the  original  describerof  the  typi- 
cal species,  says  that  its  native  name,  rara,  is  an  imitation  of  its  note. 
In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  their 
Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  the  following  species  may  be  seen  alive  :  — 
The  Concave-casqued  Hornbill  {Buceros  bicornis)  ;  the  Rhinoceros 
Hornbill  {B.  rhiiwccros)  ;  the  Lunatcd  Hornbill  {B.  lunalus) ; 
the  Ground  Hornbill  {Bucorvus  abyssinicus). 


SCANSORIAL  OR  CLIMBING  BIRDS. 


SI? 


CHAPTER    XXX. 


INCLUDING  CUCKOOS,  PARROTS,  Etc. 


CLASS  IL-AVES,  OR  BIRDS .  ORDER  SCANSORES,  OR  CLIMBING  BIRDS. 

the  wings  long  and  pointed  ;  the  tarsi 
short,  and  partly  clothed  with  feathers, 
and  the   outer    toe     capable    of    being 


^^>r^^<7=^r^. 


^\i 


I  ■■ 


'^-^?>^3^ 


■--^^ 


/ 


OOLOGY  presents  so  many  mat- 
ters of  interest  that  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  point  out  one  which  has  not 
a   special  claim.     Possibly,  how- 
ever, the  subjects  included  in  the  present 
chaptermay,  to  many  readers,  become  of 
chief  interest,  as  they  deal  with  one  of  our 
most   favourite   songsters  in   the   woods— the 
Cuckoos,  the  harbingers  of  spring,  and  the 
Parrots,  which   rank  high  among  our  do- 
mestic pets.  The  principal  character  by  which 
the  Scansorial  Birds  are  distinguished  from  the 
Passeres,  with  which  it  must  be  confessed  they 
are  very  closely  allied,  consists  in  the  peculiar 
arrangement   of  the   toes,   of  which   two  are 
always  directed  forwards,  and  two  backwards 
(Fig.    1319-)       This   disposition   of  the   toes 
enables  these  Birds  to  climb  with  great  facility ; 
some  of  them,  as  the  Parrots,  by  grasping  the 
smaller  branches,  and  using  the   feet  in  the 
manner  of  hands  ;  whilst  others,  such  as  the 
Woodpeckers,  and  their  allies,  may  rather  be 
considered   to   run   upon   the    surface   of  the 
trunks  and  larger  branches  in  every  direction. 
The  feet  are  almost  invariably  clothed  with 
shields,   rarely  reticulated,  and  the  tarsi  are 
never   covered   with   a   single   long   anterior 
plate.  . 

In  the  form  of  the  bill,  and  the  mode  of  life, 
there  is  but   little  agreement  amongst  these 
Birds  ;  the  bill  in  some  being  short  and  strong, 
with  the   upper  mandible  much  hooked  ;    in 
others  straight,  with  the  extremity  either  point- 
ed  or  truncated ;   the  former  live  principally 
upon  fruits  and  seeds  ;  the  latter  upon  Insects. 
In  most  cases,  however,  the  wings  are  rather 
ous.     This  order  includes  four 
families-the  Cuculidce,  or  Cuckoos";  the  Fjctda  ov  Woodpeckers  ; 
Uic  riittaaacB,  or  rarrots  ;  and  the  Ji/tamJ>hashdcB,  or  ioucans. 


n 


^ 


J: 


short,  and  the  flight  by  no  means  vigorous. 


The  Cuckoos— Family  Cuculidcs. 

In  the  Cuculidce  the  bill  is  usually  slender  and  compressed,  with 
the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  arched,  and  its  margin  notched  near 
the  tip  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  in  a  membranous  groove  ;  the  tail  long 
and  rounded,  and  the  toes  long  and  unequal.  These  Birds,  which 
are  very  numerous,  are  generally  distributed  over  the  globe,  but  are 
most  abundant  in  the  Tropics.  They  are  divided  into  several  sub-fami- 
lies, of  the  first  of  which  our  common  Cuckoo  is  the  type.  This  is  the 
sub-family  of  the  Cuculina;,  or  True  Cuckoos,  in  which  the  bill  is 
broad,  and  rather  depressed  at  the  base,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper 
mandible  curved ;    the  nostrils   are  membranous  (see  Fig.    1320)  ; 


^ 


^^^^3 


:>ji 

i(^« 


outer  toe 
directed  either  forwards  or  backwards, 
at  pleasure.  The  Cuciilinca  are  exclu- 
sively inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, in  the  warmer  parts  of  which 
they  are  tolerably  abundant ;  but  only 
occur  as  summer  visitors  in  the  colder 
regions. 

The  Cuckoo  {Ciiaihis  canorus). — 
This  species  is  an  example  of  of  the 
typical  group  of  the  Cuculidce  as  already 
stated.  The  Cuckoo  is  the  kokkv?  of 
the  Greeks;  Cuculus  and  Coccy.x  of 
the  Latins ;  Cucculo,  Cucco,  Cuco, 
Cucho,  Cuccii,  of  the  modern  Italians  ; 
Cocou,  Coucou,  Cocqu,  of  the  French; 
Kukuk  and  Kuckuck  of  the  Germans  ; 
Gjok  of  the  Fauna  Suecica  ;  Gjoeg  of  the 
Danes  ;  Gouk  of  the  Norwegians  ;  Cog 
of  the  ancient  British  ;  Gowk,  Provin- 
cial English.     (See  Fig.  1321.) 

This  well-known  Bird  arrives  in  our 
islands  early  in  spring :  in  White's  ' '  Naturalist's  Calendar' '  it  is  noted 
as  being  first  heard  April  the  7th  ;  and  in  Markwick's  April  the  I5lh, 
and  last  heard  June  the  28th.  By  the  first  of  July  it  has  generally 
taken  its  departure  for  Northern  Africa.  In  Ireland,  according  to  Mr. 
Thompson,  the  Cuckoo  is  usually  heard  from  the  iDth  to  the  20th  of 
April,  and  departs  at  the  end  of  June  ;  but  he  adds  that,  m  the  year 
1838,  the  stay  of  the  Cuckoo  was  remarkably  prolonged,  and  the 
period  of  its  arrival  later  than  ordinary,  and  that  one  was  heard  at 
the  Falls  near  Belfast  on  the  7th  of  July.  "The  young  birds  of  the 
year  generally  remain  till  towards  the  end  of  August,  so  late^as  the 
27th  of  which  month  they  have  been  observed  in  Antrim."     The 


Fig.  1319.— Foot  of  the  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker. 

Bishop  of  Norwich,  in  his  "  Familiar  History  of  Birds,"  records  an 
instance  of  about  forty  Cuckoos  being  congregated  in  a  garden  in 
the  county  of  Down,  from  the  i8th  to  the  22nd  of  July,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  two  which  were  smaller  than  the  rest,  taking  their 
departure  at  that  time.     These  were  no  doubt  all  young  Birds  of  the 


Fig.  1320.— Head  of  the  Cuckoo. 

„  and  it  is  probable  that  the  two  smallest  were  never  able  to 
follow  the  others,  but  remained  to  perish.  Of  such  a  character  were 
the  benumbed  denuded  Birds  which  have  been  occasionally  found 


year. 


514 


7HE    CUCKOOS. 


in  hollow  trees  or 
crept  for  shelter 
and  others. 


)r  the  thickest  part  of  furze-bushes,  whither  they  had 
,  and  which  have  been  noticed  by  Willughby,  Bewick, 


Fig.  1321. — The  Cuckoo. 

The  Cuckoo  is  insectivorous  in  its  diet,  and  will  sometimes  feed 
upon  the  wing.  Gilbert  White  says,  "  In  July  I  saw  several  cuckoos 
skimming  over  a  large  pond,  and  found,  after  some  observation,  that 


Fig.  1322. — A  Young  Cuckoo  m  the  Hedge-Sparrow's  Nest. 


they  were  feeding  on  the  Libellula;,  or  dragon-fiies,  some  of  which 
they  caught  as  they  settled  on  the  weeds,  and  some  as  they  wore  on 
the  wing."  The  favourite  food  of  this  Bird,  however,  are  the  hairy 
Caterpillars  of  some  of  the  Lepidoptcrous  order ;  these  it  kills  by 
passing  them  through  the  sharp  edges  of  its  mandibles  ;  it  then  nips 
off  the  hinder  end  of  the  Caterpillar,  and  with  a  jerk  or  two  clears 
the  body  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  immediately  swallows  it  whole. 
With  the  hairs  of  these  Caterpillars  the  stomach  is  often  completely 
coated.  In  a  communication  by  Mr.  Thompson  to  the  Zoological 
Society  in  1834,  he  states  that  in  three  Cuckoos,  examined  in  1833, 
the  stomach,  with  the  exception  of  some  small  sharp  gravel,  was 
entirely  empty  and  coated  closely  over  with  hair. 

"  Attention  was  called  to  this,  that  the  hair  with  which  it  is  lined 
might  be  observed.  From  its  close  adhesion  to  the  inner  surface  of 
the  stomach,  and  from  the  regularity  with  which  it  is  arranged,  Mr. 
Thompson  was  at  first  disposed  to  consider  this  hair  as  of  spontaneous 
growth  ;  but  part  of  the  stomach  being  subjected  to  maceration  in 
water,  and  afterwards  viewed  through  a  microscope  of  high  power, 
the  hairs  proved,  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  Mr.  Owen  and  himself, 
to  be  altogether  borrowed  from  the  larvae  of  the  tiger-moth  {Arctia 
caja),  the  only  species  found  in  the  stomach  of  several  cuckoos, 
from  different  parts  of  the  north  of  Ireland,  which  were  examined  by 
Mr.  Thompson  in  the  months  of  May  and  June,  1833,  and  whose 
stomachs  were  similarly  coated."  ("  Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc,"  1839,  p. 
29.) 

The  well-known  notes  of  the  Cuckoo  are  confined  only  to  the  male, 
the  female  making  only  a  chattering  noise. 

The  singular  habit  of  the  Cuckoo  in  depositing  its  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  other  Birds  is  too  well  substantiated  to  admit  of  a  doubt  ; 
the  nests  usually  chosen  are  those  of  the  Hedge-Sparrow,  Titlark, 
White-throat,  Wagtail,  &c.  The  &gg  is  very  small  in  comparison 
with  the  size  of  the  Cuckoo,  scarcely  exceeding  that  of  the  common 
Chaffinch  :  when  the  young  Cuckoo  is  hatched,  and  acquired  a  little 
strength,  guided  by  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  it  dislodges  all 
its  weaker  companions  by  insinuating  itself  under  them,  and  with  a 
sort  of  jerk  forcing  them  overboard.  Thus  it 
secures  to  itself  the  exclusive  attention  of  its 
dupes  of  foster-parents.  Gilbert  White  men- 
tions a  young  Cuckoo  found  in  the  nest  of  a 
Titlark,  which  he  describes  as  being  very 
fierce  and  pugnacious,  pursuing  his  finger 
as  he  teased  it  for  many  feet  from  the  nest, 
and  sparring  and  buffeting  with  its  wings  like 
a  Game-Cock  ;  and  Selby  alludes  to  the  same 
bold  and  pugnacious  disposition. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  keep 
the  Cuckoo  alive  in  captivity,  and  several 
have  lived  with  care  to  the  middle  of  winter, 
when  they  have  died.  Mr.  Thompson,  how- 
ever, instances  two  exceptions  :  one  of  these 
lived  for  more  than  a  year  at  Cranmore,  near 
Belfast,  the  residence  of  John  Templeton, 
Esq.  :  it  was  procured  on  the  26th  of  July,  1820; 
and  died  in  consequence  of  an  accident  on 
January  the  loth,  1822.  It  was  originally 
taken  from  a  Titlark's  nest.  Its  engaging 
manners,  says  Mr.  Templeton,  were  the  de- 
light of  the  whole  family  and  the  admiration 
of  strangers.  "  It  was  generally  fed  on  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  and  occasionally  with  caterpillars  ; 
it  would  sometimes  eat  forty  or  fifty  at  a  time 
of  those  of  the  Pa^pilio  brassica: ;  it,  however, 
showed  a  decided  preference  for  rough  ones, 
as  those  of  the  Pa^ilio  nrticce ;  a  seeming 
treat  was  a  little  mouse  about  one  quarter 
grown,  which  it  would  hold  in  its  bill  and  beat 
against  the  ground,  or  anything  hard,  until 
the  animal  Ijecame  soft,  when  it  exhibited 
great  powers  of  extending  its  throat  and  swal- 
lowing. What,  however,  was  most  extra- 
ordinary, it  was  never  known  to  drink  ;  thougli 

when    presented    with    a    drop    of  water   at  the 

end  of  a  finger  or  straw  it  would  sip  it,  and  it 
seemed  to  delight,  when  seated  on  its  mistress's 
or  other  person's  hand,  to  put  its  bill  into 
their  mouths  and  sip  saliva.  It  delighted 
very  much  in  heat  and  sitting  in  the  sunshine, 
and  its  feathers  were  so  much  broken  by  its 
striking  them  agrinst  the  furniture,  that  it 
could  fly  but  very  imperfectly,  and  was  appa- 
rently very  thankful  to  any  person  who  would 
help  it  upon  the  first  sash  of  the  window. 
At  other  times  it  sat  upon  the  fender,  turning 
itself  in  various  directions,  and  spreading  it's 
wings  and  feathers  to  receive  the  heat,  of  which 
it  could  bear  a  temperature  equal  to  100  de- 
grees, for  a  considerable  time,  with  seeming 


THE  CUCKOOS. 


satisfaction.  During  cold  weather  it  slept  at  its  mistress's 
bedside,  covered  with  a  piece  of  flannel,  which  was  well  warmed 
previous  to  its  going-  to  rest.  With  this  attention  it  generally 
remained  quiescent  till  morning;  but  on  feeling  cold,  some- 
times presumed  so  far  as  to  creep  under  the  bed-clothes.  It 
was  only  to  those  from  whom  it  had  received  some  hurt  or  persecu- 
tion that  it  expressed  dislike  or  fear,  which  it  did  by  raising  its  neck- 
feathers  and  putting  itself  in  an  attitude  of  defence.  It  never 
uttered  the  cry  of  the  male,  cuckoo;  but  sometimes,  when  persons 
were  in  the  room  laughing,  it  would  apparently  join  and  emit  a  noise 
somewhat  like  the  barking  of  a  little  dog.  At  other  times  the  only 
sound  it  made  was  a  kind  of  low  chattering  e.xpressive  of  pleasure 
when  it  got  into  a  warm  place,  or  on  seeing  its  mistress  after  she 
had  been  absent  some  hours.  It  received  the  unlucky  tramp  which 
finally  killed  it,  from  having  lost  too  much  the  apprehension  of 
injury."     ("  Ann.  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,"  1842,  p.  223.) 

Fig.  1322  represents  a  young  Cuckoo  in  the  nest  of  the  Hedge- 
Sparrow. 


Fig.  1323. — A  Young  Cuckoo. 

The  young  Cuckoo  (Fig.  1323)  differs  greatly  in  colouring  from 
the  adult,  and  is  of  more  rufous  tint,  transversely  barred  with  dusky 
black.  In  length  the  adult  male  is  about  14  inches  ;  weight  about 
4^  ounces.  Bill  black,  yellowish  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  : 
inside  of  mouth  red.  Irides  yellow.  Head  and  whole  upper  part  of 
the  Bird  dark  ash-colour.  Throat,  under  side  of  the  neck,  and 
upper  part  of  the  breast  pale  ash,  the  latter  sometimes  inclining  to 
rufous-brown ;  lower  part  of  the  breast  and  belly  white  with 
transverse  undulating  black  lines.  Quills,  dusky  ;  inner  webs  barred 
with  white  oval  spots.  Tail-feathers  ten,  of  unequal  length  ;  two 
middle  ones  black,  dashed  with  ash  and  tipped  with  white  ;  the  rest 
black,  with  white  spots  on  each  side  of  the  shaft.  The  lateral 
feathers  in  some  have  white  spots  only  on  the  interior  webs,  but  all 
are  tipped  with  white. 

The  Cuciiliiicc  are  widely  distributed.  They  are  found 
during  the  summer  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  even  as  far  north  as 
Lapland,  and  the  most  northern  parts  of  Asia.  Southwards  they 
extend  over  all  the  Tropical  parts  of  Asia,  and  to  the  southern 
e.xtremity  of  Africa.  One  species,  the  Great  Spotted  Cuckoo 
{Coccystes glanda7-ius),v^''d\<:\\  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
Africa,  is  frequently  to  be  seen  in  Southern  Europe,  and  a  single 
specimen  has  found  its  way  to  Ireland. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  are  numerous  specimens 
of  the  Cuckoos,  obtained  from  Jamaica,  Brazil,  Cayenne  and  other 
parts  of  South  America,  Me.xicb,  Australia,  Java,  India,  South 
Afiltii,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  Burneo,  &c. 

In  the  second  sub-family,  that  of  the  Crotophaginm,  or  Anis,  the 
bill  is  compressed,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  curved,  and 
the  nostrils  placed  at  the  base,  and  pierced  in  the  substance  of  the 
bill ;  the  wings  are  usually  short  and  rounded,  the  tarsi  long,  and 
the  two  outer  toes  longer  than  the  others.  These  Birds  are  all  in- 
habitants of  the  Tropical  regions,  where  they  live  in  the  forests, 
feeding  principally  upon  Insects  and  fruits.  The  typical  genus, 
Crotophaga,  is  confined  to  South  America  ;  it  has  the  bill  much 
compressed,  and  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  dilated  into  a  keel. 
The  CrotophagcB,  or  Anis,  are  usually  about  the  size  of  a  Black- 
bird, or  a  little  larger ;  they  are  generally  distributed  in  South 
America,  where  they  live  in  bands,  principally  on'  the  borders  of 
woods,  especially  in  swampy  places.  They  feed  upon  Insects  and 
their  larva;,  small   Reptiles,  and  some    fruits  and  seeds.     Several 


S^S 

fw  w.Y''  'hi  '°  ''""^  ^'T''  'S:,?s  in  a  sort  of  common  nest,  where 
hey  hatch  and  bnng  up  their  young  in  company.     They  are  so  bold, 
hat  when  some  members  of  their  band  have  been  shot,  the  rest  of 
the  troop  will  settle  again  at  a  very  short  distance 

The  other  Birds  of  this  group  are  all  found  in  the  Old  World  and 
pnncipally  m  Ind.a  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  ArchipPlag" 
A  single  species,_  the  Cl,annel-b>ll  {Scythrops  novcc  hnlland)ce  Fie 
1324,,  is  found  in  Austraha,  where  it  is  a  Bird  of  Passage.  It  is 
abou  the  size  of  a  Crow,  but  has  the  tail  so  long  that  its  total 
length  IS  upwards  of  two  feet.  Its  b.U  is  very  stout,  and  has  two 
narrow  channels  close  to  the  ridge  of  the   upper  mandible     Ac 


Fig.  1324.— The  Channel-bill. 

cording  to  Mr.  Gould,  it  feeds  principally  on  P/zs^w/^fe  and  Coleop- 
tcra ;  but  other  observers  ascribe  to  it  frugivorous  habits,  and  its 
diet  probably  consists  both  of  fruits  and  Insects.  It  is  found  not 
only  in  Australia,  but  also  in  many  of  the  Eastern  Islands,  and  its 
name  in  the  Island  of  Celebes  is  said  to  indicate  a  belief,  on 
the  part  of  the  natives,  that  its  appearance  presages  rain.  Some 
of  the  other  species  are  described  as  entirely  frugivorous. 

A  third  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Coccyzince,  in  which  the  bill  is 
more  or  less  elevated  at  the  base,  with  the  ridge  of  the  upper  man- 
dible arched,  and  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  linear,  and  partly  closed 
by  a  scale  ;  the  wings  are  of  moderate  size,  and  more  or  less 
rounded ;  the  tail  elongated ;  the  tarsi  long,  and  covered  with 
broad  scales ;  and  the  toes  and  claws  unequal  in  size. 

These  Birds  are  also,  for  the  most  part,  inhabitants  of  Tropical 
regions  ;  but,  unlike  the  True  Cuckoos,  they  occur  in  both  hemi- 
spheres. They  also  want  the  parasitic  habits  of  the  True  Cuckoos, 
as  they  build  a  nest,  and  bring  up  their  young  in  the  usual  way  ; 
although,  it  is  said,  their  eggs  may  occasionally  be  found  in  the 
nests  of  other  Birds. 

The  best  known  species  is  the  Coccyztes  americanus,  or  American 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  which  is  also  called  the  Cow-Bird  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  United  States,  from  the  resemblance  of  its  note 
to  the  word  cou),  frequently  repeated.  This  Bird  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  as  far  north  as  Canada,  migrating 
from  south  to  north  in  the  months  of  April  and  May.  It  feeds 
principally  upon  Caterpillars,  and  is  said  to  be  particularly  partial 
to  some  which  infest  apple-trees  ;  it  also  eats  berries  of  different 
kinds,  and  is  charged  with  the  crime  of  sucking  the  eggs  of  its 
neighbours.     (See  Fig.  1325.) 

The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoos  pair  early  in  May,  when  severe  com- 


5^6 

bats  take  place  amongst  the  males.  They  build  their  nests  upon 
the  horizontal  branches  of  trees  ;  frequently  selecting  apple-trees 
for  th.s  purpose.  The  nests  are  constructed  with  a  few  twigs  and 
sticks,  intermixed  with  green  weeds,  and  are  almost  flat.  They  lay 
four  or  five  eggs,  upon  which  the  female  sits  with  great  assiduity, 
almost  allowing  herself  to  be  seized  before  she  will  quit  the  nest  ; 
and  when  compelled  to  do  so,  she  falls  to  the  ground  and  flutters 
along,  feigning  lameness  like  the  Lapwing,  in  order  to  draw  the 
intruder  away  from  her  treasures.  Four  specimens  of  this  Bird 
have  occurred  in  Britain,  and  it  appears  so  improbable  that  these 
could  have  migrated  across  the  Atlantic,  that  some  ornithologists 
have  e.xpressed  a  belief  that  the  Bird  may  yet  be  found  in  the  north 
of  Europe.  There  does  not  seem,  however,  to  be  any  good  founda- 
tion for  this  opinion. 


THE   WOODPECKERS. 


The  Woodpeckers— Family  Picidce. 

The  second  family  of  the  Scansorial  Birds  is  that  of  the  Pictdcs, 
or  Woodpeckers.  In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  elongated  and  straight 
— much  compressed  towards  the  tip,  which  is  usually  obtuse  or 
truncated  ;  and  the  sides  are  generally  furnished  with  a  more  or  less 
distinct  ridge.  The  typical  species  forming  the  sub-family  Pici?i(B, 
which  are  distinguished  by  the  great  prominence  of  the  lateral  ridges 
on  the  bill,  are  distributed  in  all  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  but  are 
more  especially  abundant  in  the  warmer  regions.  They  are  the  well- 
known  Woodpeckers,  of  which  some  species  are  found  in  Britain. 
They  live  in  woods  and  forests,  and  run  with  great  activity  upon  the 
trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  often  ascending  the  trunks  in  a  spiral 
line,  and  continually  tapping  the  surface  with  their  bills.  The 
object  of  this  action  is  the  discovery  of  soft  rotten  places,  in  which 
they  may  e.xpect  to  find  Insects  or  larvs  ;  and  when  they  hit  upon  a 
spot  of  this  description,  they  immediately  dig  into  it  with  great  energy 
until  they  arrive  at  the  concealed  dainty.  Fig.  1327  represents  the 
skeleton  of  the  Woodpecker,  the  Bird  being  engaged  in  climbing 


Fig.  1325.— The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 

Another  species  of  this  group  is  found  in  North  America,  but  the 
remainder  are  confined  to  the  Tropics.  Those  of  the  genus  Centra- 
;ptis,  inhabiting  Africa,  India,  and  the  Eastern  islands,  are  called 
Lark-heeled  Cuckoos,  from  their  having  the  claw  of  the  hind-toe 
much  elongated,  as  in  the  Larks  ;  they  are  also  known  as  Pheasant- 
Cuckoos,  from  the  great  length  of  their  tails.  These  Birds,  and 
many  others  belonging  to  the  group,  seek  their  food  upon  the 
ground,  and  some  of  them  even  devour  small  Reptiles. 

The  Saur other ina,  or  Ground  Cuckoos,  are  very  neary  allied 
to  the  preceding  group  ;  but  are  distinguished  by  the  greater 
length  and  straightness  of  the  bill,  the  upper  mandible  being  curved 
only  at  the  tip.  They  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  Tropical  parts  of 
America,  and  live  principally  on  the  ground  amongst  bushes,  feeding 
upon  seeds.  Worms,  and  Insects,  especially  Caterpillars,  and  even 
frequently  swallowing  small  Snakes,  Lizards,  Frogs,  young  Rats, 
and  small  Birds.  The  best  known  species  is  the  Saurotkeravetu/a, 
ari  inhabitant  of  the  West  Indies,  especially  Jamaica  and  St.  Do- 
mingo, and  measures  about  fifteen  inches  in  length. 

The  last  sub-family  of  the  Cticulidce  is  that  of  the  Indkatorittcs, 
or  Honey-guides,  a  group  of  small  Birds,  inhabiting  the  forests  of 
Africa,  India,  and  Borneo.  In  these  Birds,  the  bill  is  short,  broad 
at  the  base,  and  arched  above,  with  the  nostrils  placed  close  to  the 
ridge  of  the  upper  mandible ;  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed, 
the  tarsi  very  short,  and  the  outer  anterior  toe  is  the  longest.  At 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  they  were  first  discovered,  these 
Birds  received  the  name  of  Honey-guides,  from  their  actions  fre- 
quently indicating  to  the  natives  the  places  in  which  the  Wild  Bees 
had  made  their  nests,  and  stored  their  honey.  By  the  older  natu- 
ralists, from  the  time  of  Sparmann,  it  was  said  that  the  Indicators 
actually  led  the  human  honey-seekers  to  the  nests  of  the  Bees  by 
fluttering  before  them,  and  constantly  uttering  a  peculiar  cry  ;  and 
that  the  Hottentots,  on  obtaining  possession  of  the  honey,  always 
left  a  portion  for  their  feathered  guides.  It  appears  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  Birds,  in  endeavouring  to  get  at  the  sweet  booty, 
betray  their  object  by  their  cries,  and  that  the  natives  are  guided 
to  the  place  by  this  means.  '  Their  skin  is  said  to  be  so  tough,  that 
the  Bees  in  vain  endeavour  to  sting  them  when  engaged  in  their 
work  of  pillage  ;  although  they  sometimes  succeed  in  destroying 
their  enemy  by  attacking  his  eyes.  The  common  Honey-guides  of 
the  Cape  (hidicator  7najor  and  mitwrj,  construct  a  bottle-shaped 
nest,  with  filaments  of  bark  woven  together  ;  the  nest  is  pendent, 
with  the  narrow  part  downwards,  in  which  is  the  opening. 


Fig.  1326. — Head  of  the  Great  Black  Woodpecker. 

the  tree,  and  seeking  for  its  food  beneath  the  bark.  In  running 
upon  the  trees,  the  Woodpeckers  constantly  make  use  of  the  stiff 
tail-feathers,  to  assist  them  in  maintaining  their  position  ;  and  the 
feathers  are  pointed  at  the  extremity,  and  usually  more  or  less  worn 
(Fig.  1328). 


Fig.  1327. — Skeleton  of  the  Woodpecker. 

Although  these  Birds  feed  occasionally  upon  fruits  and  seeds,  the 
greater  part  of  their  nourishment  consists  of  Insects  and  larvs,  which 
they  not  only  procure  by  digging  into  the  decayed  parts  of  trees, 
but  also  pick  off  the  surface  of  the  bark.  To  enable  them  to  take  up 
small  Insects,  the  tongue  has  undergone  a  very  beautiful  modifica- 
tion cf  structure.  It  is  constantly  covered  with  a  mucous  substance, 
secreted  by  very  large  glands,  placed  on  each  side  of  the  throat,  and 
is  capable  of  being  protruded  to  a  considerable  extent  beyond  the 
bill.  Thus  any  small  Insect,  of  course,  adheres  to  its  glutinous  cover- 
ing, and  is  drawn  into  the  mouth  by  the  retraction  of  the  tongue. 


THE    WOODPECKERS. 


S17 


This  power  of  extrusion  and  retraction  is  conferred  upon  the 
tongue  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  hyoid  bone,  which  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Yarrell.  He  says— "  The  great  extensibility  of 
the  tongue  is  obtained  by  the  elongation  of  the  two  posterior 
branches,  or  cortiua,  of  the  bone  of  the  tongue,  which,  extending 
round  the  back  of  the  head  and  over  the  top,  have  the  ends  of  both 
inserted  together  into  the  cavity  of  the  right  nostril.  These  elonga- 
tions, forming  a  bow,  are  each  accompanied  throughout  their  length 
by  a  slender  slip  of  muscle,  by  the  contraction  of  whii.,h  the  bow  is 
shortened,  and  the  tongue  pushed  forward;  another  pair  of  muscles 
folded  twice  round  the  upper  part  of  the  trachea,  and  from  hence 
passing  forward,  are  attached  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  tongue,  and 


Fig.  1328.— Tail  of  the  Woodpecker. 

by  their  contraction  bring  the  tongue  back  again."  The  gland, 
secreting  the  glutinous  matter,  communicates  with  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth  by  a  long  duct,  which  opens  at  the  point  where  the  two  bones 
of  the  lower  mandible  unite  together,  so  that  the  tongue,  when  re- 
tracted, is  necessarily  indued  with  a  fresh  supply  of  this  secretion. 
The  tongue  itself  is  horny  at  the  tip,  where  it  is  also  barbed  with 
several  small  filaments  directed  backwards,  the  office  of  which  is 
supposed  to  be  the  securing  of  larva,  or  Insects,  whose  size  would 
prevent  their  being  captured  by  adhesion.  (See  Fig.  1329.)  Mr. Yarrell 
states  that  the  Green  Woodpecker  (Gecitius  viridis)  feeds  to  a 
great  extent  upon  Ants,  and  that  he  has  "  seldom  had  an  opportunit) 


Fig.  1329. — Head  and  Tongue  of  Woodpecker — a,  tongue  ;  ^,  hyoid  bone. 

of  examining  a  recently  killed  specimen,  the  beak  of  which  did  not 
indicate,  by  the  earth  adhering  to  the  base,  and  to  the  feathers 
about  the  nostrils,  that  the  bird  had  been  at  work  at  an  ant-hill,  and 
this  species  is  therefore  more  frequently  seen  on  the  ground  than 
any  other  of  our  woodpeckers  ;  it  is  also  said  to  be  a  great  enemy  to 
bees." 

One  of  our  British  species,  the  Great  Spotted  Woodpecker  {Dryo- 
bates  major),  is  said  to  have  a  peculiar  habit,  which  would  seem  to 
evince  a  considerable  amount  of  reflective  power.  This  Bird, 
according  to  Pennant's  "  British  Zoology,"  "  by  putting  the  point  of 
its  bill  into  a  crack  of  the  limb  of  a  large  tree,  and  making  a  quick 
tremulous  motion  with  its  head,  occasions  a  sound  as  if  the  tree  was 
splitting,  which  alarms  the  insects,  and  induces  them  to  quit  their 
recesses  :  this  it  repeats  every  minute  or  two  for  half-an-hour,  and 
will  then  fly  off  to  another  tree,  generally  fixing  itself  near  the  top 
for  the  same  puiposc.  The  iioisc  may  be  distinctly  heard  for  half  a 
mile." 

The  Woodpeckers  roost  at  night  in  the  holes  of  trees,  and  the 
females  lay  their  eggs  in  similar  situations,  generally  enlarging  a 
natural  hole  with  their  bills  for  this  purpose.  When  thus  engaged, 
they  are  said  to  carry  the  chips  to  a  distance,  in  order  that  their 
presence  may  not  betray  the  proximity  of  the  nest ;  but  a  portion  of 
the  chips  remains  in  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  and  upon  these  the 
eggs  are  deposited. 

Mr.  George  R.  Gray  divides  the  True  Woodpeckers  into  three 
sub-families,  characterised  principally  by  the  position  of  the  lateral 
ridge  of  the  bill.  Thus,  in  the  true  P'ki7icB,  this  ridge  rises  from  the 
middle  of  the  base,  bends  down  on  each  side  towards  the  margin, 
and  then  rises  a  little  to  the  apex  :  in  the  Gecinincs,  of  which  our 
Green  Woodpecker  is  an  example,  the  ridge  is  placed  close  to  the 
dorsal  ridge  of  the  bill ;  and  in  the  Melancr^iiice,  it  is  about  half- 


way between  the  dorsal  ridge  and  the  margin.  The  Birds  of  the 
last-mentioned  group  are  entirely  confined  to  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, in  all  parts  of  which  they  arc  tolerably  abundant.  The 
typical  species  is  the  Red-headed  \s'00&x,ftcV.&x{Melancrpeserytho- 
cephahis),  which  is  common  in  the  United  States,  where  it  not 
only  feeds,  like  its  European  relatives,  upon  the  Insects  which  it 
finds  upon  or  under  the  bark  of  trees,  but  also  commits  considerable 
depredations  in  the  orcliards  and  corn-fields— to  such  an  extent,  in 
fact,  that  according  to  Kalm,  a  price  was  formerly  set  upon  'its 
head.  The  following  affords  a  description  of  some  of  the  species  of 
Woodpeckers  in  greater  detail  than  already  given. 
The  Great  Black  Woodpecker  {Picus  martins).  Dryocopus 
martins,  Boie  ;  Le  Pic  noir,  Buffon. — This  fine  Bird  is  the 
largest  of  its  European  congeners,  being  in  length  about  seven- 
teen inches.  In  England  it  is  of  very  rare  occurrence,  barely 
claiming  a  place  in  the  catalogue  of  our  British  Fauna.  Its  native 
regions  are  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Europe,  as  far  as 
Siberia.  In  the  forests  of  Russia  and  some  parts  of  Germany 
it  is  common.  It  breeds,  like  the  rest  of  its  race,  in  the  deep 
holes  of  trees,  which  are  hewed  out  by  the  power  of  its  bill,  some- 
times even  in  the  solid  undecayed  wood.  The  eggs  are  three  or 
four  in  number,  and  white.  The  whole  of  the  plumage  is  glossy 
black,  with  the  exception  of  the  crown,  which  in  the  male  is  rich 
vermilion.  The  female  is  duller,  and  has  no  vermilion  on  the 
head,  or  only  a  small  patch.    (See  Fig.  1330.) 


Fig.  1330.— The  Great  Black  Woodpecker. 

The  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker  fPicus  principalis ;  Cam- 
pepkilus  principalis,  G.  R.  Gray.)— The  Ivorj'-billed  Woodpecker 
is  a  native  of  North  America.  Wilson  says  that  in  strength  and 
magnitude  it  stands  at  the  head  of  the  ^vhole  class  of  Woodpeckers 
hitherto  discovered  :  but  he  was  not  aware,  when  he  wrote,  of  the 
existence  of  a  species  in  California,  which  "as  far  exceeds  the  ivory- 
billed  woodpecker  of  the  United  States,  as  the  latter  does  the  great 
black  woodpecker  of  Europe."  This  Bird  is  described  by  Mr. 
Gould,  in  the  "Proceeds.  Zool.  Soc,"  1832,  pp.  139,  140,  under  the 
term  of  Picus  impcr talis :  it  is  two  feet  in  length  ;  while  the  Ivory- 
billed  Woodpecker  does  not  exceed  20  or  21  inches. 


Si8 


THE  WOODPECKERS. 


It  is  in  the  swampy  forests  of  the  southern  districts  of  the  United 
States  that  the  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker  is  to  be  found ;  in  the 
middle  districts  there  are  no  woods  suitable  to  its  remarkable  habits. 
"  Descending-  the  Ohio,"  says  Audubon,  "  we  meet  with  this  splen- 
did bird  for  the  first  time  near  the  confluence  of  that  beauti- 
ful river  and  the  Mississippi ;  after  which,  following  the  windings 
of  the  latter,  either  downwards  towards  the  sea  or  upwards  in 
the  direction  of  the  Missouri,  we  frequently  observe  it.  On  the 
Atlantic  coast,  North  Carolina  may  be  taken  as  the  limits  of  its 
distribution,  although  now  and  then  an  individual  of  the  species 
may  be  accidentally  seen  in  Mar)-land.  To  the  westward  of  the 
Mississippi,  it  is  found  in  all  the  dense  forests  bordering  the  streams 
which  empty  their  waters  into  that  majestic  river,  from  the  very 
declivities  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  lower  parts  of  the  Caro- 
linas,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  and  Mississippi,  are,  however, 
the  most  favourite  resort  of  this  bird ;  and  in  those  States  it  con- 
stantly resides,  breeds,  and  passes  a  life  of  peaceful  enjoyment, 
finding  a  profusion  of  food  on  all  the  deep,  dark,  and  gloomy  swamps 
dispersed  throughout  them." 

Beetles,  larvae,  and  large  grubs  constitute  the  chief  diet  of  this 
species,  and  for  these  it  attacks  the  bark  and  wood  of  decayed  trees, 
its  strokes  resounding  far  through  the  gloomy  wilds.  "Wherever 
he  frequents,"  says 'Wilson,  "he  leaves  numerous  monuments  of 
his  industry  behind  him  ;  we  there  see  enormous  pine-trees  with 
cart-loads  of  bark  lying  around  their  roots,  and  chips  of  the  trunk 
itself  in  such  quantities  as  to  suggest  the  idea  that  half-a-dozen  axe- 
men had  been  at  work  there  for  the  whole  morning.  The  body  of 
the  tree  is  also  disfigured  with  such  numerous  and  so  large  e,x- 
cavations,  that  one  can  hardly  conceive  it  possible  for  the  whole  to 
be  the  work  of  a  woodpecker."  Audubon  says  he  has  seen  it  de- 
tach pieces  of  bark  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length  at  a  single  blow, 
busy  in  quest  of  Insects,  all  the  while  sounding  its  loud  notes  as  if 
highly  delighted.  Sound  and  healthy  trees,  however,  are  never 
thus  attacked  e.xcepting  for  the  purpose  of  nidification.  The  tree 
selected  for  this  purpose  is  either  an  ash  or  a  hagberry  ;    and  at  a 


Fig.  1331. — The  Ivor)'-bnied  Wooclpcckor. 

great  elevation,  the  pair,  relieving  each  other  by  turns,  begin  their 
operations.  They  generally  select  a  spot  under  the  junction  of  a 
large  branch  with  the  trunk,  as  a  defence  against  rain  :  they  first 
e.\cavate   horizontally  for  a  few  inches,  and  th.en  downwards,  the 


extent  of  the  cavity  varying  from  a  foot  to  three  feet  downwards 
into  the  core  of  the  tree  ;  the  diameter  is  about  seven  inches,  but  the 
aperture  will  only  just  admit  the  Bird.  The  eggs,  generally  six,  are 
white.  Two  broods  are  usually  reared  each  summer.  Besides 
Insects,  this  Woodpecker  devours  wild  grapes,  persimons,  and  hag- 
berries.  The  flight  of  this  species  is  very  graceful,  though,  as 
Audubon  says,  seldom  prolonged  to  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards 
at  a  time,  unless  when  it  has  to  cross  a  large  river,  which  it  does  in 
deep  undulations ;  but  the  transit  from  tree  to  tree  is  performed  by 
a  single  sweep.  It  seldom  utters  any  sound  while  on  the  \ying,  but 
as  soon  as  it  alights  its  voice  is  heard,  the  notes  resounding  to  a 
considerable  distance,  and  may  be  represented  by  the  monosyllable 
^ait,  ;pait,  ;paif,  in  tone  like  the  false  high  note  of  a  clarionet. 

The  head  and  bill  of  this  species  are  held  in  great  esteem,  as  a 
sort  of  charm  or  amulet,  by  many  of  the  tribes  of  America,  who 
ornament  their  belts  with  them  ;  and  Europeans  purchase  them  as 
beautiful  curiosities.  When  wounded,  this  Bird  generally  ascends 
the  nearest  tree  in  a  spiral  direction,  till  it  attains  the  top  branches, 
where  it  hides  ;  but  if  intercepted  and  laid  hold  of,  it  defends  itself 
both  with  its  beak  and  claws,  inflicting  severe  lacerations. 

The  general  colour  of  the  plumage  of  the  present  species  is  black 
with  violet  reflexions  ;  the  head  is  ornamented  with  a  crest  of  long 
slender  feathers  capable  of  being  raised  or  depressed,  and  in  the 
male  of  a  rich  carmine  ;  a  stripe  of  white  passes  down  each  side  of 
the  neck,  and  terminates  on  the  scapulars  ;  the  primary  quills,  ex- 
cept the  five  first,  are  tipped  with  white,  and  the  secondaries  are 
wholly  white  ;  the  bill  is  ivory-white.  The  female  resembles  the 
male,  except  in  the  colour  of  the  crest,  which  is  black. 

The  Red-head  Woodpecker  {Mclanerpe^,  or  Picus  eryfhro- 
cephahis). — This  beautiful,  active,  and  lively  Bird,  type  of  the  sub- 
family of  the  Mela)ierpina:,  is  a  native  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  is  a  migratory  species,  retiring  to  southern  lati- 
tudes on  the  approach  of  winter,  though  many  continue  during  that 
season  in  the  States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  and  especially 
Carolina.  In  the  summer  this  species  abounds  in  the  woods,  and 
even  close  to  the  precincts  of  towns  and  cities,  and  seems  to  be  but 
little  afraid  of  man.  "  When  alighted  on  a  fence-stake  by  the  road 
or  in  a  field,  and  one  approaches  them  (says  Audubon),  they 
gradually  move  sideways  out  of  sight,  peeping  now  and  then  to 
discover  your  intention  ;  and  when  you  are  quite  close  and  opposite, 
lie  still  until  you  are  passed,  when  they  hop  to  the  top  ot  the  stake,  and 
rattle  upon  it  with  their  bill,  as  if  to  congratulate  themselves  on  the 
success  of  their  cunning.  Should  you  approach  within  arm's  length, 
which  may  frequently  be  done,  the  woodpecker  flies  to  the  first 
stake  or  the  second  from  you,  bends  his  head  to  peep,  and  rattles 
again,  as  if  to  provoke  you  to  continuance  of  what  seems  to  him 
excellent  spojt.     He  alights  on  the  roof  of  the  house,  hops  along  it, 


Fig.  1332.— The  Red-head  Woodpecker. 

beats  the  shingles,  utters  a  cry,  and  dives  into  your  garden  to  pick  the 
finest  strawberries  he  can  discover. ' '  No  Birds  are  more  destructive 
in  gardens  ;  they  devour  fruit  of  all  kinds  as  it  ripens,  completely 
stripping  the  trees  ;  they  carry  away  to  their  retreat  apples,  peaches, 
chemes?  strawberries,  cS:c. ;  and  as  they  visit  the  garden  in  scores, 
or  even  hundreds,  they  soon  clear  it.  They  attack  the  Indian-corn 
while  in  its  succulent  milky  state  ;  and  also  rob  the  nests  ot  small 
Birds  of  their  eggs.  To  this  luxurious  bill  of  fare  may  be  added 
Insects,  for  which  they  search  with  singular  dexterity  and  intelh- 


THE   WOODPECKERS. 


S19 


gence,  drawing  them  from  their  retreats  in  the  crevices  of  old  trees 
and  beneath  the  mouldering  bark.  "  No  sooner  have  they  satisfied 
their  hunger,  than  small  parties  of  them  assemble  on  the  tops  and 
branches  of  decayed  trees,  from  which  they  ch.ase  different  insects 
that  are  passing  through  the  air,  launching  after  them  for  eight  or 
ten  yards,  at  times  performing  the  most  singular  manoeuvres ;  and 
on  securing  their  victim  return  to  the  tree,  where  immediately  after 
a  continued  cry  of  exultation  is  uttered.  They  pursue  each  other 
on  the  wing  in  a  very  amicable  manner,  in  long  beautifully  curved 
sweeps,  during  which  the  remarkable  variety  of  their  plumage  be- 
comes conspicuous,  and  is  highly  pleasing  to  the  eye.  When  pass- 
ing from  one  tree  to  another,  their  flight  resembles  the  motion  of  a 
great  swing,  and  is  performed  by  a  single  opening  of  the  wings, 
descending  at  first,  and  rising  towards  the  spot  on  which  they  are 
going  to  alight,  with  ease  and  in  the  most  graceful  manner." 

Like  the  rest  of  this  tribe,  the  Red-head,  as  it  is  generally  called, 
breeds  in  the  holes  of  trees  which  it  has  worked  out,  and  to  which 
the  pair  resort  year  after  year,  making  it  only  a  little  deeper.  It  is 
not,  however,  in  hard  living  trees  that  this  species  often  attempts  to 
make  its  breeding-chamber.  Audubon  says  he  does  not  remember 
even  a  single  instance  of  such  an  occurrence. 

Wilson  observes,  that  terrible  enemy  of  the  feathered  race  in 
North  America,  the  Black  Snake  {Coliibra  constrictor),  destroys 
numbers  of  the  young  of  this  Bird.  "  It  glides  up  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  and,  like  a  skulking  savage,  enters  the  woodpeckers'  peaceable 
apartment,  devours  the  eggs  or  helpless  j'oung,  in  spite  of  the  cries 
orflutterings  of  the  parents,  and,  if  the  place  be  large  enough,  coils 
himself  up  in  the  spot  they  occupied,  where  he  will  sometimes  re- 
main for  several  days."  The  plumage  of  this  lively,  "  frolicsome 
bird  "  is  very  beautiful.  The  head  and  neck  are  bright  crimson  ; 
back,  wing-coverts,  primaries,  and  tail-feathers  black,  with  blue 
reflexions;  rump  and  secondaries  white,  the  shafts  of  the  latter 
black  ;  breast  and  under  parts  white  tinged  with  yellowish-brown  ; 
an  irregular  transverse  band  of  black  between  the  crimson  of  the 
neck  and  the  white  of  the  breast.  Length  nine  inches.  (See  Fig. 
1332.) 

The  Great  Spotted  Woodpecker  {Dryobates  ox  Pktis  7>iajor). 
Le  Pic  varie,  and  Pic  Epeiche,  Buffon  ;  Die  Bunt-specht,  Becht, 
Bechstein. 

This  species  is  one  of  our  British  Birds,  and,  though  not  very 
abundant,  is  found  in  all  our  wooded  districts.  In  Ireland  it  is  rare. 
On  the  continent  it  is  widely  diffused,  and  in  the  northern  latitudes 
is  most  probably  migratory.  Mr.  Selby  says  that  in  Northumberland 
there  is  an  influx  of  these  Birds,  as  he  suspects,  from  Norway  and 
Sweden  ;  they  arrive  with  the  Woodcock,  generally  after  stormy 
weather,  from  the  north  or  north-east.  In  its  habits  the  Great 
Spotted  Woodpecker  resembles  the  rest  of  his  race,  feeding  on 
Insects,  berries,  and  fruits  ;  it  rarely  descends  to  the  ground,  but 
traverses  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees  with  the  greatest  address, 
and  excavates  a  deep  hole  for  the  purpose  of  incubation.  During 
the  spring,  and  throughout  the  breeding-season,  this  Bird  utters  a 
jarring  noise,  the  call  both  of  the  males  and  females  to  each  other. 

The  colouring  is  as  follows  : — Forehead  greyish-white  ;  crown  of 
the  head  black  ;  occiput  fine  crimson  ;  cheeks  and  ear-coverts  white  ; 
general  colour  of  the  upper  surface  black,  proceeding  from  a  streak 
running  from  each  corner  of  the  lower  mandible,  and  arching  for- 
wards on  the  chest,  inclosing  a  patch  of  white  on  each  side  of  the 
back  of  the  neck  ;  scapulars  and  part  of  the  adjoining  wing-coverts 
white  ;  quills  barred  with  white  ;  the  four  middle  tail-feathers  black, 
the  rest  more  or  less  white,  and  spotted  near  the  tip  with  black  ; 
under  surface  white.  The  female  wants  the  red  occipital  band. 
The  young  on  quitting  the  nest  have  the  crown  of  the  head  red  and 
the  occiput  black,  in  which  state,  as  Mr.  Selby  states,  they  have 
been  mistaken  for  the  Pkus  medius,  a  species  not  found  in  England. 
(See  Fig.  1333.) 

The  Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker  {Dryobates  or  Pi'cus  minor  J. 
Le  Petit  Epeiche,  Buffon.  Pic  Epeichette,  Temminck  ;  Grass-pecht, 
Bechstein. — In  all  its  habits  and  manners  this  beautiful  little  species 
is  a  true  Woodpecker.  It  is  generally  diffused  through  Europe,  and 
in  Germany  gives  preference  tQ.the  forests  of  fir-trees.  In  our 
island  it  is  partially  distributed,  being  in  some  places  very  common  ; 
But  m  the  northern  counties  it  is  rare. 

"  In  England,"  says  Mr.  Gould,  "  it  is  far  more  abundant  than  is 
generally  supposed :  we  have  seldom  sought  for  it  in  vain  wherever 
large  trees,  particularly  the  elm,  grow  in  sufScient  numbers  to  invite 
its  abode  :  its  security  from  sight  is  to  be  attributed  more  to  its 
habit  of  frequenting  the  topmost  branches  than  to  its  rarity.  Near 
London  it  is  very  common,  and  may  be  seen  by  an  attentive  observer 
in  Kensington  Gardens,  and  in  any  of  the  parks  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. Like  many  other  birds  whose  habits  are  of  an  arboreal 
character,  the  lesser  spotted  woodpecker  appears  to  perform  a 
certain  daily  round,  traversing  a  given  extent  of  district,  and  return- 
ing- to  the  same  spot  whence  it  began  its  route.  Besides  the  elm,  to 
which  it  is  especially  partial,  it  not  unfrequently  visits  orchard-trees 
of  large  growth,  running  over  their  moss-grown  branches  in  quest 
of  the  larva;  of  insects,  which  abound  in  such  situations.     In  its 


actions  It  IS  very  lively  and  alert.  Unlike  the  large  woodpecker, 
which  prefers  the  trunks  of  trees,  it  naturally  frequents  the  smaller 
and  more  elevated  branches,  which  it  traverses  with  the  utmost  ease 
and  celerity  :  should  it  perceive  itself  noticed,  it  becomes  shy,  and 
retires  from  observation  by  concealing  itself  behind  the  branch  on 
which  It  rests  ;  if,  however,  earnestly  engaged  in  the  extraction  of  its 
food,  Its  attention  appears  to  be  so  absorbed  that  it  will  allow  itself 
to  be  closely  approached  without  suspending  its  operations.  When 
spring  commences,  it  becomes  clamorous  and  noisy,  its  call  being 
an  oft-repeated  note,  so  closely  resembling  that  of  the  wryneck  as  to 
be  scarcely  distinguishable  from  it.  At  other  times  of  the  year  it  is 
mute,  and  its  presence  is  only  betrayed  by  the  reiterated  strokes 
which  it  makes  against  the  bark  of  trees."     ("  Birds  of  Europe.") 

The  forehead  is  greyish-white  ;  the  crown  of  the  head  is  rosy'red  ; 
streak  over  the  eye,   occiput,  and  nape  of  the  neck  black ;  checks 


Fig.  1333. — Great  Spotted  Woodpeckers. 

and  sides  of  the  neck  white  ;  from  the  corners  of  the  lower  mandible 
a  black  streak  proceeds  downwards  towards  the  shoulder ;  upper 
part  of  the  back  and  lesser  wing-coverts  glossy  black  ;  middle  of 
the  back  and  scapulars  white  barred  with  black  ;  quills  black 
spotted  with  white  ;  tail-coverts  and  four  middle  tail-feathers  black  ; 
upon  the  rest  the  black  decreases  to  the  outer  feather,  which  is  white, 
except  a  black  spot  near  the  tip  ;  under  parts  greyish-white,  with  a 
few  dusky  spots  upon  the  sides  of  the  breast.  In  the  female  the 
crown  of  the  head  is  white.     (See  Fig.  1334-) 


520 


THE  WOODPECKERS; 


The  Green  Woodpecker  {Gecinus  or  Picus  viridis).  Gecinus 
•viridis,  Boie  :  le  Pic  vert  Buffon  ;  Grunspecht,  Bechstein  ;  Wood- 
spite,  Rain-Bird,  Hew-hole,  Yappingall,  Yaffer,  Popinjay,  Provincial 
English.;    "Type  of  the  Gecttiina. 

Of  our  limited  number  of  British  Woodpeckers  this  is  certainly 
the  most  common ;  it  is,  however,  very  doubtful  whether  it  extends 
to  Ireland.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  it  is  widely  spread,  inhabit- 
ing forests  and  wooded  districts,  where  its  loud  cry  may  be  often 
heard,  the  Bird  itself  unseen.  This  cry,  when  frequently  uttered,  is 
commonly  supposed  to  foretel  the  approach  of  rainy  weather ;  hence 
one  of  its  English  provincial  names.  In  some  of  its  habits  this 
species  differs  from  the  Woodpeckers  generally,  especially  in  often 
leaving  the  trunks  of  the  trees  for  the  ground,  where  it  searches  for 
Ants'  nests,  being  extremely  partial  to  these  Insects  and  their  larvae. 


Fig.  1334.— Lesser  Spotted  Woodpeckers. 

which  it  picks  up  very  dexterously  by  means  of  its  long  tongue.  In 
this  respect  it  agrees  with  the  Golden-winged  Woodpecker  of  America 
{^Colaptes  aura f us),  a  most  beautiful  and  interesting  species,  re- 
garded by  Mr.  Vigors  as  the  type  of  the  Ground  Woodpeckers,  to  be 
presently  noticed.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  Green 
Woodpecker  seeks  its  food  only  on  the  ground  ;  it  searches  for 
Insects  on  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in  the  decaying  wood,  which  it  shivers 
easily  by  blows  with  its  strong  wedge-shaped  bill.  It  scales  the 
trunks  with  great  rapidity,  ascending  either  straight  up  or  in  a 
spiral  manner ;  it  also  readily  descends,  not,  however,  head-fore- 
most, but  tail  foremost,  moving  as  it  were  backwards.  Its  flight  is 
rapid  and  undulating,  the  wings  being  opened  and  shut  at  every 
stroke  ;  and  in  flying  from  trunk  to  trunk,  if  the  trees  are  not  very 
far  apart,  it  takes  only  a  single  sweep. 

The  Green  Woodpecker  works  out  a  deep  excavation,  either  in  a 
tree  undergoing  the  process  of  decay,  or  in  one  of  the  softer  kinds  of 
wood,  carrying  it  often  to  a  considerable  depth.  The  aspen, 
according  to  Mr.  Selby,  is  often  selected.  When  engaged  at  its 
laborious  task,  the  strokes  are  so  rapid,  and  repeated  with  such  velo- 
city, that  the  head  appears  in  an  incessant  vibration,  while  the  strokes 
resound  to  a  considerable  distance.  The  eggs,  five  in  number,  are 
of  a  bluish-white. 

In  the  spring  this  species  utters  a  jarring  sound,  which  appears  to 
be  the  call  of  the  sexes  to  each  other.  The  feathers  round  the  base 
of  the  bill,   and  round  the  eyes,  black  ;  crown  of  the  head  and  a 


moustache-mark  from  the  root  of  the  bill  blood-red,  the  base  of  the 
feathers  being  bluish-grey  ;  upper  surface  generally  green,  passing 
on  the  rump  into  gamboge-yellow  ;  under  parts  yellowish-grey  with 
a  tinge  of  green  ;  quills  barred  with  dusky  black  and  yellowish-grey  ; 
tail  blackish-brown  barred  with  green.  In  the  female  the  red  on 
the  head  is  less  conspicuous,  and  the  moustaches  are  mostly  black. 
(See  Fig.  1335.) 


Fig.  1335. — Green  Woodpeckers. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  PicincB  are  the  Colapthics,  or  Ground  Wood- 
peckers, already  alluded  to,  in  which  the  bill  is  destitute  of  lateral 
ridges,  or  nearly  so,  and  has  the  dorsal  ridge  curved  to  the  tip, 
which  is  somewhat  acute.  These  Birds  are  found  in  both  hemi- 
spheres, but  are  far  less  arboreal  in  their  habits  than  the  common 
Woodpeckers,  seeking  for  the  greater  part  of  their  food  upon  the 
ground,  in  Ants'  nests,  and  amongst  the  dung  of  animals.  They 
are,  however,  by  no  means  exclusively  terrestrial,  but  are  frequently 
seen  seeking  food  upon  trees ;  and,  like  the  True  Woodpeckers, 
they  nidificate  in  hollows  excavated  by  themselves  in  the  trunks  of 
trees.  They  also  feed  more  or  less  upon  fruits,  and,  like  the  Red- 
headed Woodpeckers,  often  attack  the  Indian  corn-fields  when  the 
grain  is  in  its  milky  state. 

The  nearest  approach  to  the  Cuckoos  is  made  by  the  Wrynecks, 
or  Yu}ici?icB,  in  which  the  bill  is  short,  straight,  and  pointed  ;  the 
wings  pointed ;  the  tail  rounded,  and  composed  of  soft  feathers. 
This  sub-family  includes  only  a  fow  species  of  Birds,  of  which  one 
is  the  Wryneck. 

The  Wryneck  (F«;;-r  torquilla).—'^^  Torcol,  Buffon:  Die 
Wendehals,  Bechstein  ;  Long-tongue,  Emmet-hunter,  Snake-Bird, 
and  Cuckoo's-mate,  Provincial  English. 

This  Bird  is  one  of  our  summer  visitors,  and,  though  common  in 
the  southern  and  eastern  counties  of  our  island,  is  very  scarce  in 
the  north  and  west.  In  Ireland,  we  believe,  it  is  never  seen.  It 
arrives  in  April,  a  few  days  before  the  appearance  of  the  Cuckoo, 
and  its  loud  cry  oi peep,  peep,  peep,  monotonously  repeated,  is  first 
heard  when  the  elm-tree-leaves  are  as  large  as  a  silver  sixpence. 
Groves,  orchards,  and  woods  are  the  resorts  of  this  elegant  Bird, 
and  also  the  lines  of  tall  beech-trees  along  hedgerows.  Ants  are 
its  favourite  food,  and  in  quest  of  them  it  traverses  the  trunks  of 
trees,  though  its  tail  is  not  used  as  an  assistant  in  climbing,  examin- 
ing every  crevice,  and  picking  them  up  by  means  of  its  long  vermi- 


THE  PARROTS. 


521 


form  tong-ue  covered  with  a  glutinous  secretion.  It  also  visits  the 
ground  for  the  same  purpose,  where  it  hops  and  walks  with  con- 
siderable facility,  searching  for  the  nests  of  these  Insects  ;  and  it  is 
astonishing  to  see  with  what  rapidity  it  devours  them,  launching  its 
long  tongue  at  them,  and  withdrawing  it  so  rapidly  that  the  eye  can 
scarcely  follow  the  motion.  This  tongue  is  evidently  endowed  with  a 
high  degree  of  sensibility,  and  perhaps  of  taste  ;  we  have  frequently 
seen  the  Wryneck  in  captivity  launch  it  forth  when  any  substance 
has  been  presented  as  food,  and  touch  the  morsel  with  it,  keep- 
ing it  at  the  time  in  a  state  of  quivering  vibration  ;  it  reminded  us 
of  the  tongue  of  the  Dasypus  peba.     In  Fig.  1336,  the  head  and 


Fig.  1336. — Head  and  Tongue  of  the  Wryneck. 

tongue  of  the  Wryneck  are  well  delineated.  White  ("  Nat.  Hist. 
Selborne")  says — "  These  birds  appear  on  the  grass-plots  and  walks  ; 
they  walk  a  little,  as  well  as  hop,  and  thrust  their  bills  into  the  turf, 
in  quest,  I  conclude,  of  ants,  which  are  their  food  :  while  they 
hold  their  bills  on  the  grass,  they  draw  out  their  prey  with  their 
tongues,  which  are  so  long  as  to  be  coiled  round  their  heads." 
Colonel  Montagu  informs  us,  that  having  captured  a  female,  which 
he  confined  for  some  days  in  a  cage,  he  was  enabled  to  watch  its 
manners  very  minutely.  "  A  quantity  of  mould,  with  emmets  and 
their  eggs,  was  given  it ;  and  it  was  curious  to  observe  the  tongue 
darted  forth  and  retracted  with  such  velocity  and  such  unerring  aim 
that  it  never  returned  without  an  ant  or  an  &^%  adhering  to  it,  not 
transfi.xed  by  the  horny  points,  as  some  have  imagined,  but  retained 
by  a  peculiar  tenacious  moisture  provided  for  that  purpose.  While 
feeding,  the  body  is  motionless,  the  head  only  is  turned  to  every  side, 
and  the  motion  of  the  tongue  is  so  rapid,  that  an  ant's  e.^^,  which  is 
of  a  light  colour  and  more  conspicuous  than  the  tongue,  has  some- 
what the  appearance  of  moving  to  the  mouth  by  attraction  as  a 
needle  flies  to  a  magnet.  The  bill  is  rarely  used  except  to  remove 
the  mould  in  order  to  get  more  readily  at  these  Insects  ;  where  the 
earth  is  hollow,  the  tongue  is  thrust  into  all  the  cavities  to  rouse  the 
ants,  and  for  this  purpose  the  horny  appendage  is  extremely  service- 
able as  a  guide  to  the  tongue.  We  have  seen  the  green  woodpecker 
take  its  food  in  a  similar  manner."  The  Wryneck  breeds  in  the 
holes  of  decayed  trees,  but  does  not  excavate  a  chamber,  like  the 
Woodpecker,  the  strength  of  the  beak  being  inadequate  for  that 
purpose.  The  eggs,  nine  or  ten  In  number,  and  of  a  pure  trans- 
parent white,  are  laid  upon  the  bare  wood.  When  surprised  upon 
her  eggs,  the  Wryneck  defends  herself  with  great  spirit,  erectmg 
the  feathers  of  the  top  of  the  head,  and  hissing  like  a  Snake.  The 
young  if  molested  also  hiss,  and  turn  their  heads  in  various  directions. 
The  name  Wryneck  is  indeed  given  to  this  Bird  from  its  singular 
habit  of  twisting  and  writhing  its  neck  with  odd  contortions  when 
alarmed  or  irritated. 

The  Wryneck  leaves  our  island  early  in  autumn,  retiring  south- 
wards, and  most  probably  passing  the  winter  in  Africa  ;  specimens, 
indeed,  have  been  received  from  that  continent  and  from  India.  In 
Europe  the  Wryneck  is  very  generally  spread  during  summer,  being 
found  even  as  far  north  as  Sweden  ;  but,  according  to  Temminck,  it 
is  rare  in  Holland.  Though  the  colours  of  this  Bird  are  not  gaudy, 
they  are  scarcely  to  be  exceeded  for  simple  beauty  and  propriety  of 
arrangement.  The  upper  parts  are  brown  and  grey  exquisitely 
dotted,  and  chequered  with  spots,  dashes,  zigzag  bars,  and  lines  of 
black  and  rufous,  difficult  to  describe  and  difficult  for  the  artist  to 
copy.  The  throat  is  yellowish-white,  with  transverse  black  bars ; 
the  breast  and  under  parts  are  white,  with  arrow-head  spots  of  black. 
Length  seven  inches.     (See  Fig.  1337.) 

The  characters  of  the  genus  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : — bill 
short,  straight,  conical  and  depressed,  the  ridge  rounded,  mandible 


sharp  ;  tongue  long,  vermiform,  armed  at  the  tip  with  a  horny  but 
unbarbed  point  ;  feet  zygodactyle,  the  two  anterior  toes  united 
together  at  their  base  ;  tail-feathers  ten,  soft,  and  flexible  ;  wings 
moderate.     The  species  are  limited  in  number. 

The  two  remaining  sub-families  of  the  PicicicBurs  entirely  confined 
to  the  Tropics.  The  Picumnina:,  or  Piculets,  have  a  short,  straight, 
compressed  bill,  rather  acute  at  the  tip,  rounded  wings,  and  a  short 
tail,  with  the  feathers  broad,  and  rounded  at  the  extremity.  They 
are  small  Birds,  which  closely  resemble  the  Woodpeckers  in  their 
habits,  except  that  they  never  appear  to  use  their  tails  as  a  point  of 
support.  They  inhabit  the  forests  of  the  warm  parts  of  both  conti- 
nents—South America,  India,  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago. Like  the  Woodpeckers,  they  nidificate  in  holes  of  the 
trunks  of  trees,  which  they  enlarge  with  their  bills ;  they  are  said 
only  to  lay  two  eggs. 

The  last  sub-family  is  that  of  the  CapitonincB,  or  Barbets,  in  which 
the  bill  is  stout  and  conical,  more  or  less  inflated  at  the  sides,  and 
furnished  at  the  base  with  numerous  stiffbristles  projecting  forwards 
Their  wings  and  tail  are  short  ;  the  latter  is  usually  even  at  the  endj 
where  its  feathers  are  broad  and  rounded.     These  Birds,  which  are 


Fig.  1337. — Wrynecks. 

united  by  many  authors  with  the  Buccom'iKr,  are  all  inhabitants  of 
the  Tropics,  where  they  feed  upon  Insects  and  fruits.  The  species 
of  the  typical  genus  Capita  are  confined  to  .South  America  ;  the  re- 
mainder are  found  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  They  are  said  to  be 
dull  and  solitary  Birds. 

The  Parrots— Family  PsiUacidcs. 

These  favourite  domestic  pets  form  one  of  the  most  interesting 
groups  of  Birds,  and  exceed  most  others  in  intelligence  and  beauty. 

In  the  Parrot  tribe,  the  modification  of  the  bill  is  very  remarkable. 
(See  head  of  a  Cockatoo,  Fig.  1338.)  In  many  Birds  the  upper 
mandible  is  more  or  less  movable  at  its  junction  with  the  forehead,  for 
where  there  is  no  trace  of  a  suture,  the  bone  is  often  slightly  elastic. 
In  the  Parrots  this  mobility  is  carried  out  to  its  fullest  extent,  a 
sort  of  hinge  uniting  the  upper  mandible  to  the  forehead  (see  Fig. 
1339),  while  the  slender  bones  connecting  the  upper  mandible  to  the 
base  of  the  skull  yield  to  every  movement.  Across  the  horny  palate 
of  the  beak  is  a  sort  of  notch  (see  Fig.  1340),  against  which  the 
front  margin  of  the  lower  beak  works  ;  and  this  margin,  chisel-like,  is 
sharp  and  thin  ;  while  the  articulation  of  the  lower  mandible  is  as 
loose  as  possible.  Hence,  aided  by  the  thick  fleshy  tongue,  a  Parrot, 
as  we  have  often  seen,  will  by  means  of  its  beak  clear  the  inside  of  a 
fresh  pea  from  the  outer  skin,  rejecting  the  latter;  and  perform  the 
whole  process,  not  only  with 'facility,  but  with  the  greatest  delicacy  of 
manipulation,  if  this  term  be  allowable.     In  all  Birds,  as  a  rule,  the 

3X 


S22 


THE  PARROTS. 


margin  of  the  orbit  is  incomplete.  In  the  Pjrrot  the  bony  ring,  vary- 
ing in  breadth,  is  complete,  and  below  it  runs  the  slender  bone  con- 
necting the  uppper  mandible  with  the  os  quadratum  (see  Fig.  1339, 


F'g-  I339-— Skull  of  the  Macaw. 

\Ve  need  not  say  that  Birds  have  no  teeth  ;  yet  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire, 
in  his  "  Theory  of  Analogues,"  says  that  though  it  maybe  considered 
a  piece  of  pleasantry  to  assert  that  Fowls  have  teeth,  he  finds  proofs 
that  such  is  the  fact,  notwithstanding  the  weight  of  authority  against 
him.     To  this  opinion  he  was  led  in  the  first  instance  by  e.xamining 


Fig.  1340. — Palate  of  the  Blue  Macaw. 

the  beaks  of  two  Chicks  of  the  Ring  Parrakeet  {Palcsorm's  torqtia- 
ius),  which,  though  matured,  had  not  been  able  to  breakthrough  the 
egg-shell.  In  the  beaks  of  these  younglings  he  observed  a  regular 
set  of  toothlike  projections,  or,  as  he  states,  teeth,  represented  at 
Fig.  1341.  a,  a  lateral  view  of  both  mandibles,  showing  the  teeth  ; 
b  and  c,  the  upper  and  under  mandible  viewed,  the  first  from  beneath, 
the  latter  from  above  ;  d,  the  serrations  or  teeth  on  the  beak  of  the 
Blue  Macaw,  which  M.  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  subsequently  observed, 
and  \yhich  are  more  fully  represented  at  Fig.  1342.  a,  the  upper 
mandible  ;  b,  the  lower  insection  to  show  the  teeth  ;  c,  a  portion  of 
the  beak,  showing  the  serrations  worn  down  by  use.  In  the  instance 
of  the  Parrakeet  Chicks,  M.  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  could  trace  nerves 
and  blood-vessels  running  towards  each  toothlet ;  but  in  the  adult 


Macaw,  the  tube  in  which  these  had  apparently  lain  while  the  Bird 
was  a  nestling  was  filled  with  a  cartilaginous  substance.  The  fact 
is  that  these  are  not  real  teeth,  but  only  indications  of  a  structure 
much  more  amply  developed  in  the  beak  of  the  Duck  tribe,  which  is 
furnished  with  a  series  of  horny  laminse  acting  as  strainers,  and  per- 


Fig.  133S. — Head  of  a  Cockatoo. 

skull  of  the  Macaw).  The  lower  mandible  is  light,  thin,  and  deep. 
The  tongue  is  thick,  muscular,  and  in  constant  requisition  ;  it  is 
covered  with  papilla?,  is  moistened  with  saliva,  and  possesses  both 
taste  and  great  mobility.  (See  Fig.  1340.)  In  the  Lorikets,  however, 
which  feed  on  the  nectar'of  the  flowers  of  the  Eucalypti  in  Australia,  it 
is  furnished  with  a  brush  of  delicate  close-set  filaments. 


Fig.  1341.— Teeth  of  the  Tarrakeel. 

haps  as  feelers,  and  which  are  part  and  parcel  of  the  horny  sheath 
of  the  osseous  mandible  (see  Fig.  1343).  a,  the  upper  mandible  of 
the  Shoveller-Duck  ;  b,  the  lower  mandible  of  the  common  Duck. 
These  appendages  in  the  Duck  are  rather  the  analogues  of  the 
baleen  plates  of  the  Whale,  than  of  teeth  ;  and  in  the  Parrot,  as  from 
e.\amination  we  can  testify,  they  seem  rather  to  indicate  the  pro- 
gressive growth  of  the  horny  beak  in  the  upper  mandible,  and  evi- 


Fig.  1342. — Teeth  of  the  Blue  Macaw. 

dence  the  passage  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels  to  the  edge  of  the 
lower.  We  have  before  us  the  skulls  of  several  Macaws  and  Par- 
rots, adult,  of  which  the  lower  mandible  has  its  horny  edge  very 
clearly  marked ;  while  the  hooked  palatal  part  of  the  upper,  anterior 


Fig.  1343. — Beak  of  Shoveller-Duck. 

to  the  notch,  is  marked  with  lines  obliquely  running  from  a  central 
line,  like  arrow-heads  repeated,  the  apex  of  each  pointing  backwards. 


thus 


-W^ 


The  nostrils  in  the  Parrots  arc  seated  in  a  mem  ■ 


branous  cere  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible. 

Often,  as  in  the  Macaws  (see  Fig.  1344),  the  cheeks  are  covered 
with  naked  skin. 

The  foot  of  the  Parrot  is  completely  zygodactyle  and  prehensile 
(see  Fig.  1345)  ;  the  tarsus  is  short,  but  stout,  and  the  limb  muscu- 
lar ;  the  toes  are  long  and  furnished  with  strong  claws,  and  are 
formed  expressly  for  holding  or  grasping  an}'  object  which  they  can 
enclose.  In  climbing,  the  Parrot  uses  its  hooked  beak,  as  well  as 
its  feet  ;  and  in  feeding,  it  rests  on  one  foot,  holding  the  food  to  its 
beak  with  the  other.  Compare  the  foot  of  the  Parrot  with  that  of  the 
Fowl,  and  of  a  Water-Bird  (Fig.  1346),  and  the  difference  will  at  once 
be  appreciated.    The  plumage  of  the  Parrots  is  in  general  richly 


THE    COCKATOOS. 


.'!23 


tinted,  and  some  species  are  superb  ;  in  all,  and  particularly  in  the 
Cockatoos,  the  skin  tlirows  off  a  mealy  powder,  which  saturates  the 
feathers,  and  communicates  to  them  somewhat  of  a  greasy  feel  ;  this 
is  the  case  with  other  Birds  also,  as  Eagles  and  Herons.  The  Par- 
rots are  a  noisy  race,  associating-  together  in  flocks,  and  feeding 
upon  fruits,  buds,  seeds,  &c. ;  they  sleep  crowded  together,  and  are 
fond  of  pruning  each  other's  plumage  ;  they  are  monogamous,  the 
pairs  forming  lasting  associations  ;  and  they  breed  in  the  hollows 
of  trees.  With  respect  to  powers  of  flight,  they  vary  considerably  ; 
some  fly  slowly,  but  others  wing  their  way  with  the  greatest  rapidity, 
and  for  a  long  continuance.  It  is  to  the  warmer  climates  more 
particularly  that  these  Birds  are  confined  ;  and  they  are  abundant 
in  the  inter-tropics.  In  the  southern  hemisphere,  however,  they 
occur  in  temperate  latitudes,  while  in  the  northern  hemisphere  they 


Fig.  1344. — Head  of  the  Macaw. 

are  rare  beyond  the  Tropic  of  Cancer ;  the  Carolina  Parrot,  in 
America,  and  some  of  the  genus  Palceor?u's  in  India,  however,  are 
extra-tropical.  On  the  contrary.  Parrots  occur  in  the  southern 
extremity  of  America,  throughout  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand, 
and  even  in  Macquarrie  Island,  in  the  fifty-second  degree  of  south 
latitude. 

Of  all  Birds,  Parrots  are  the  most  susceptible  of  being  rendered 
tame  and  familiar  ;  and  towards  their  protectors  they  often  manifest 
great   attachment,  courting  their  notice  and  caresses :  they  are 


Fig.  1345. — Foot  of  the  Macaw. 

decidedly  the  most  intelligent  of  the  feathered  race  ;  and  are  quick 
in  learning  to  repeat  words,  sentences,  and  tunes  :  they  mimic  the 
voices  of  other  animals,  the  barking  of  Dogs,  the  mewing  of  Cats, 
and  the  crowing-  of  poultry  ;  their  memory  is  retentive,  and  their  ear 
is  accurate.  Individuals,  however,  differ  in  their  qualifications,  and 
some  species  are  superior  to  others  in  the  facility  with  which  they 
learn  their  lessons,  the  Grey  Parrot  of  Africa  {Psittacus  erythacus) 
being  pre-eminent. 

In  the  classical  writings  of  antiquity  we  have  several  references  to 
these  Birds,  -which  appear  to  have  been  great  favourites  and  in 
general  request.  Aristotle  well  described  their  tongue  as  resembling 
that  of  man,  whence,  as  he  conjectured,  arose  the  facility  with  which 
they  pronounced  words  or  sentences.  The  Greeks  were  the  first 
of  European  nations  who  became  acquainted  with  Birds  of  the 
Parrot  tribe — viz.,  some  of  the  species  of  the  Indian  genus  Palcsornis 
(Parrakeets);  these,  from  all  accounts,  -were  introduced  into  Europe 
from  India,  at  the  time  of  the  iVEacedonian  conquest ;  and  having 
been  once  brought  into  Greece,  the  great  demand  for  them,  and  the 
high  prices,  for  which  they  sold,  rendered  the  importation  of  them  a 
profitable  speculation. 


From  Greece  the  Parrot  soon  found  its  way  to  Rome,  and  became 
extravagantly  admired.  It  was  kept  in  cages  of  the  most  costly 
materials,  nor  was  any  price,  however  inordinate,  deemed  beyond  its 
value.  Until  the  time  of  Nero,  the  Romans  were  not  acquainted 
with  the  Parrots  of  Africa  ;  but  as  that  country  became  more  known, 
these  Birds,  with  other  natural  productions,  were  sent  to  Italy;  and, 


Fig.  1346. — Foot  of  Parrot  and  of  the  Water-Bird. 

most  probably,  it  -was  from  that  quarter  that  the  numbers  of  the 
Parrot  race  were  imported,  which  at  a  subsequent  period  supplied 
the  luxury  of  Heliogabahis.  Among  other  articles  in  the  bill  of  fare 
detailed  by  jElian  as  entering  into  the  feasts  of  this  emperor,  are  the 
combs  of  Fowls,  the  tongues  of  Peacocks  and  Nightingales,  the 
brains  of  Flamingoes  and  Thrushes,  the  heads  of  Parrots  and 
Pheasants  ;  and  it  is  reported  that  with  the  bodies  of  the  two  latter  he 
fed  his  beasts  of  prey. 

In  captivity  the  Parrot  lives  long ;  instances  are  on  record  of  indi- 
viduals attaining  the  age  of  eighty  or  one  hundred  years.  We  have 
seen  a  Green  South  American  Parrot  said  to  have  been  ninety  years 
in  the  family. 

The  Parrots  form  several  sub-families.  Of  these,  one,  the  Strigo- 
^incB,  includes  only  a  single  species,  the  Stn'gops  habroptiliis,  of 
New  Zealand,  where  it  is  called  the  Kakapo  by  the  natives.  At 
first  sight  this  Bird  appears  to  be  intermediate  between  the  Parrots 
and  the  Owls,  and,  like  the  latter,  it  is  strictly  nocturnal  in  its  habits, 
passing  the  day  in  holes  under  the  roots  of  trees,  and  in  similar 
places.  Its  wings  are  very  short,  and  its  powers  of  flight  very 
limited  ;  it  lives  principally  on  the  ground,  and,  according  to  the 
statements  of  Mr.  Lyall,  forms  tracks  of  about  a  foot  wide,  which  so 
closely  resemble  footpaths  made  by  men,  that  when  first  seen,  they 
gave  rise  to  an  expectation  that  natives  were  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Its  food,  according  to  the  same  authority,  consists  partly  of  roots — 
the  beak  being  usually  covered  with  dirt  and  mud — and  partly  of  the 
leaves  and  tender  shoots  of  plants. 

The  Kakapo  breeds  in  February,  laying  its  eggs  in  the  holes 
which  it  ordinarily  frequents,  without  any  nest  except  the  rotten  wood 
which  already  exists  there.  The  eggs  are  usually  two  in  number  ; 
very  rarely  three.  The  cry  of  the  Kakapo  is  a  hoarse  croak  ;  and  the 
natives  say  that,  during  the  winter,  great  numbers  of  these  Birds 
assemble  together  in  large  caves  ;  and  that  on  their  collecting,  and 
again  on  dispersing  for  the  summer,  they  make  a  perfectly  deafening 
noise. 

The  Cockatoos — Sub-family  Cacafui/tcs. 

A  second  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Cockatoos  {Cacahiincs),  in 
which  the  tail  is  broad  and  even,  and  the  head  adorned  with  a  crest 
which  is  capable  of  being  elevated  and  depressed  at  pleasure.  These 
fine  Birds  (Fig.  1347,  i,  2)  are  confined  to  the  Eastern  Archipelago 
and  Australia  ;  but  in  the  latter  country  they  occur  in  great  abund- 
ance. They  feed  principally  upon  fruits  and  seeds,  and  often 
commit  great  depredations,  sometimes  destroying  considerably  more 
than  they  consume.  They  also  eat  Insects  and  larva;.  They  make 
their  nests  in  holes  of  trees,  which  they  adapt  to  their  purpose  by 
working  at  them  with  their  powerful  bills.  When  taken  young  they 
are  very  docile,  and  some  of  them  will  learn  to  speak  very  dis- 
tinctly ;  although,  as  a  general  rule,  their  accomplishments  in  this 
respect  extend  no  further  than  to  repeating  their  own  name,  their 
ordinary  voice  being  nothing  but  an  abominable  scream. 

The  best  known  species  aie  white,  with  yellow  crests  ;  and  of 
these,  two  or  three  are  commonly  brought  to  this  country.  The 
commonest  are  the  Great  and  Small  Sulphur-crested  Cockatoos 
{Cacatua  galerita  and  sulphurea);  the  former  (Fig.  1347,  i)  a 
native  of  Australia,  and  the  latter  of  the  Moluccas.  Amongst  the 
finest  Birds  of  this  group  are  the  species  of  the  genus  Calypto- 
rkynchus  {Yig.  1348,  the  Banksian  Cockatoo),  of  which  several  species 
occur  abundantly  in  Australia.  The  general  colours  of  these  large 
Birds  are  black  or  brown,  variegated  with  red  or  orange  spots  ;  and 
these  colours  form  broad  bands  upon  tlie  quill-feathers  of  the  tail. 

The  natives  of  those  parts  of  Australia  which  abound  with  Cock- 
atoos, take  a  singular  method  of  killing  these  Birds,  of  which  an 
interesting  account  is  given  by  Capt.  Grey,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Aus- 
tralia." He  says — "  Perhaps  as  fine  a  sight  as  can  be  seen  in  the 
whole  circle  of  native  sports  is  the  killing  cockatoos  with  the  kiley, 


524 


THE  PARROTS. 


or  boomerang.  A  native  perceives  a  large  flight  of  cockatoos  in  a 
forest  which  Incircles  a  lagoon  ;  the  expanse  °f  ^^ater  affords  an 
open  clear  space  above  it,  unencumbered  with  trees  but  which  raise 
their  gigantic  forms  all  around,  more  vigorous  in  their  growth  from 


^'g-  1347- — Group  of  Australian  Parrots. 
I.  The  Great  Sulphur-crested  Cockatoo  (Coi-a/'JWiWtvvV.!).— 2.  The    Galeated 
Cockatoo  {Callocephalon  galcatum). — 3.  Barraband's  Parrakeet  (Pauvornis 
barrabandi). — 4.  Ground  Parrakeet  {Pezoportis  formosus). 

the  damp  soil  in  which  they  flourish.  In  their  leafy  summits  sits  a 
countless  number  of  cockatoos,  screaming  and  flying  from  tree  to 
tree,  as  they  make  their  arrangements  for  a  night's  sound  sleep. 
The  native  throws  aside  his  cloak,  so  that  he  may  not  have  even 
this  slight  covering  to  impede  his  motions — draws  his  kiley  from  his 
belt,  and,  with  a  noiseless,  elastic  step,  approaches  the  lagoon, 
creeping  from  tree  to  tree,  and  from  bush  to  bush,  and  disturbing 
the  birds  as  little  as  possible.  Their  sentinels,  however,  take  the 
alarm  ;  the  cockatoos  farthest  from  the  water  fly  to  the  tree  near  its 
edge,  and  thus  they  keep  concentrating  their  force  as  the  native 
advances  ;  they  are  aware  that  danger  is  at  hand,  but  are  ignorant 
of  its  nature.  At  length  the  pursuer  almost  reaches  the  edge  of  the 
water,  and  the  scared  cockatoos,  with  wild  cries,  spring  into  the 
air ;  at  the  same  instant  the  native  raises  his  right  hand  high  over 
his  shoulder,  and,  bounding  forward  with  his  utmost  speed,  to  give 
impetus  to  his  blow,  the  kiley  quits  his  hand  as  if  it  would  strike  the 
water  ;  but  when  it  has  almost  touched  the  unruffled  surface  of  the 
lake,  it  spins  upwards  with  inconceivable  velocity,  and  with  the 
strangest  contortions.  In  vain  the  terrified  cockatoos  strive  to 
avoid  it ;  it  sweeps  wildly  and  uncertainly  through  the  air — and  so 
eccentric  are  its  motions,  that  it  requires  but  a  slight  sketch  of  the 
imagination  to  fancy  it  endowed  with  life — and  with  fell  swoops,  in 
rapid  pursuit  of  the  devoted  birds,  some  of  whom  are  almost  certain 
to  be  brought  screaming  to  the  earth.  But  the  wily  savage  has  not 
yet  done  with  them.  He  avails  himself  of  the  extraordinary  attach- 
ment which  these  birds  have  for  one  another ;  and  fastening  a 
wounded  one  to  a  tree,  so  that  its  cries  may  induce  its  companions  to 
return,  he  watches  his  opportunity,  by  throwing  his  kiley  or  spear, 
to  add  another  bird  or  two  to  the  booty  he  has  already  obtained." 

The  True  Parrots— Sub-family  PsittacincB. 

Of  this  group  of  the  Parrot  family  a  general  description  has  al- 
ready been  given  ;  but  the  following  additional  particulars  will  be  of 
interest:  they  are  afforded  by  Mr.  Dallas  in  "The  Circle  of  the 
Sciences." 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  True  Parrots  {PsittacincE),  the  tail  is  also 
short  and  sanare  ;    but  the  head  is  destitute  of  a  crest,  and  the 


lateral  margins  of  the  bill  are  toothed  or  crenated.  The  Birds  of 
this  group  are  amongst  the  best  known  of  the  family  of  Parrots,  as  to 
it  belong  the  grey  and  green  species,  so  commonly  brought  to  Europe 
as  pets.  Many  of  them  are  exceedingly  beautiful  Birds,  and  they 
are  the  most  docile  of  Parrots  ;  their  conversational  powers  are  also 
great,  the  Grey  Parrot  {Psittactts  crythacus)  especially,  learning  to 
repeat  many  words,  and  even  phrases,  with  great  facility.  This 
power  of  pronouncing  words  distinctly,  which  the  Parrots  possess  in 
a  far  greater  degree  than  any  other  Birds,  has  rendered  them  great 
favourites  in  all  ages,  and  numerous  stories  are  related  of  absurdly 
apposite  speeches  made  by  these  Birds.  Indeed,  it  would  very  often 
appear  that  the  Birds  had  some  notion  of  the  meaning  of  the  phrase 
they  pick  up  ;  and  this,  in  some  places,  seems  to  have  given  rise  to 
a  popular  opinion,  that  a  well-trained  Parrot  is  capable  of  giving  an 
account  of  its  thoughts  and  observations.  Most  of  our  readers  will 
probably  remember  a  story,  related  in  the  "  Arabian  Nights,"  of  a 
jealous  husband  who  purchased  a  Parrot  as  a  spy  upon  the  actions 
of  his  wife,  with  the  course  adopted  by  the  lady  to  get  rid  of  such  an 
unpleasant  inmate  ;  and  although  this  may  be  rather  too  much  for 
our  belief,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  Birds,  by  blurting  out 
expressions  which  they  have  heard,  in  the  presence  of  those  for 
whose  ears  they  were  never  intended,  may  have  given  rise  to  eclair- 
cissemerJs  of  an  equally  disagreeable  nature. 

Some  of  the  more  genuine  anecdotes  of  the  speeches  of  these 
Birds  are,  however,  sufficiently  ludicrous.  One  of  the  best  is  that 
related  by  Gesner,  concerning  a  Grey  Parrot  belonging  to  King 
Henry  VIII.  This  Bird,  which  was  kept  in  the  king's  palace  at 
Westminster,  "  by  the  river  Thames,  had  picked  up  many  words  from 
hearing  the  passengers  talk  as  they  happened  to  take  water.  One 
day,  sporting  on  its  perch,  the  poor  bird  fell  into  the  river ;  and 
then  very  seasonably  remembering  the  words  it  had  often  heard 
some,  whether  in  danger  or  in  jest,  use,  cried  out  amain,  'A  boat  ! 
a  boat!  twenty  pounds  for  a  boat!'  A  waterman  who  happened 
to  be  near,  hearing  the  cry,  made  to  the  place  where  the  Parrot  was 
floating,  and,  knowing  to  whom  it  belonged,  restored  it  to  its  royal 
master,  in  the  full  expectation,  as  the  bird  was  a  great  favourite, 
of  receiving  the  promised  reward.  The  king,  however,  preferred 
appealing  to  the  Parrot  himself  to  determine  the  sum,  which  being 
consented  to  by  the  waterman,  the  bird  immediately  cried  out, 
'Give  the  knave  a  groat !' "  Of  a  somewhat  similar  nature,  but 
perhaps  rather  more  probable,  is  the  old  story  of  the  two  Parrots, 
belonging  to  a  serious  old  lady,  one  of  which  (a  recent  acquisition) 
having  bestowed  some  hearty  forecastle  curses  upon  his  mistress, 
the  other,  whose  education  had  been  better  attended  to,  immediately 
followed  with  the  pious  response,  "  We  beseech  thee  to  hear  us,  good 
Lord." 

The  PsiftacincB  are  found  abundantly  in  the  luxuriant  forests  of 
the  Tropics,  where  they  climb  about  upon  the  branches  with  the 
help  of  their  bill  and  feet,  and  feed  principally  upon  fruits  and  seeds. 
The  well-known  Grey  Parrot,  already  referred  to,  which  was  pro- 
bably the  first  to  be  imported  into  Europe,  is  a  native  of  the  hottest 
parts  of  Africa.  The  commonest  of  the  Green  Parrots  is  the  Ama- 
zonian Parrot  [Psiitacus  amazonicus),  which  is  rather  larger  than 
the  grey  species,  of  a  shining  green  colour,  with  a  blue  band  across 
the  forehead  ;  the  cheeks,  throat,  and  part  of  the  wings,  yellow  or 
red.  It  is,  as  its  name  implies,  an  inhabitant  of  the  banks  of  the 
great  South  American  river  Amazon  ;  but  it  is  also  found  in  various 
parts  of  South  America,  and  is  said  to  do  considerable  damage  in 
plantations. 

_  The  Lories  (sub-family  Lorina:)  have  a  rather  large  but  slender 
bill,  which  is  sometimes  sinuated,  or  slightly  notched  at  the  margin  ; 
the  wings  are  rather  short,  and  the  tail  is  short,  more  or  less 
graduated,  and  either  pointed  or  rounded.  These  Birds,  which, 
although  most  of  them  are  of  small  size,  are  amongst  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  Parrots,  are  inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
New  Guinea,  Borneo,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Many  of  them 
exhibit  a  peculiar  structure  of  the  tongue,  that  organ  being  furnished 
with  a  tuft  of  bristles,  that  is  said  to  be  employed  by  the  Bird  in 
sucking  the  sweet  juices  of  flowers,  upon  which,  and  berries,  the 
Lories  subsist.  There  are  specimens  living  in  the  Gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park,  London  ;  including  the  Ornamental 
l^oxy  (Trichoglosszis  ornatusj.a.  native  of  the  Moluccas;  the  Blue, 
breasted  (Eos  indica),  also  a  native  of  the  Moluccas ;  the  Green-naped 
[Trichoglossus  cyainis  gamc7izts),  &c.  This  sub-family  is  also  well 
represented  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum. 

The  Macaws— Sub-family  Ar attics. 

The  sub-family  ^r<z/«ig  includes  the  gorgeous  Macaws  of  South 
America,  with  some  other  species  inhabiting  the  Western  continent. 
In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  of  great  size  and  strength,  with  the  upper 
mandible  much  arched  from  the  base,  almost  in  a  semicircle,  and 
forming  a  long  point  which  hangs  down  in  front  of  the  lower  jaw; 
the  lower  mandible  is  short,  and  very  deep.  The  cheeks  are 
frequently  naked,  and  the  tail  very  long  and  graduated.  (See  Fig 
1349O 


THE  MACAWS. 


52s 


The  True  Macaws,  forming  the  genus  Macrocercus,  or  Ara,  are 
pre-eminent  both  in  size  and  magnificence  of  plumage,  even 
amongst  the  beautiful  family  of  Parrots.  They  are  confined  to  the 
hottest  regions  of  America,  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  the  West  India 
Islands,  where  they  inhabit  the  borders  of  the  forests,  keeping  almost 
entirely'upon  the  trees,  and  rarely  visiting  the  ground.  Their  food 
is  entirely  of  a  vegetable  nature,  consisting  of  fruits  and  seeds  ; 
and  the  hardest  rind  is  insufficient  to  preserve  the  kernel  from  the 


Fig.  134S. — Banksian  Cockatoo. 

attacks  of  theirtreniendouslypowerful  bills.  They  are  distinguished 
by  having  the  cheeks  completely  denuded  of  feathers,  or  furnished 
only  with  a  few  lines  of  minute  plumes.  The  name  Ara,  applied  to 
the  genus  by  Kuhl,  is  derived  from  one  of  the  Indian  names  of  the 

Birds,   which   is   an   imitation  of 
their   ordinary   note.       They    lay 


number ;  and 
they  are  said  to  breed  twice  in  the 
year.  Both  sexes  take  part  in  the 
duties  of  incubation. 

One  of  the  finest  species  is  the 
Scarlet,  or  Red  and  Blue  Macaw 
{Macrocercus  viacao),  which  at 
times  measures  as  much  as  three 
feet  from  the  bill  to  the  extremity 
,of  the  tail.  The  greater  part  of 
the  body  is  of  a  fine  bright-red 
colour;  the  rump,  vent,  and  tail- 
coverts,  blue  ;  the  quill-feathers  of 
the  wings  are  of  a  fine  blue  ;  and 
the  wing-coverts  greenish-blue 
and  yellow.  The  tail,  which, 
when  in  fine  condition,  constitutes 
about  two-thirds  of  the  total 
length,  is  variegated  with  deep 
blue  and  crimson.  The  upper 
mandible  is  whitish  ;  the  lower 
one  blackish  or  dusky ;  and 
the  skin  of  the  cheeks  is  white 
and  wrinkled.  This  magnificent 
Bird  was  formerly  common  in 
the  West  Indian  Islands,  but 
it  has  now  become  exceedingly 


Fig.  1349.— The  Macaw. 


rare  in  those  localities.  It  is,  however,  still  found  on  the  con- 
tinent of  America,  and  specimens  are  frequently  brought  to 
Europe. 

The  Blue  and  Yellow  Macaw  {Macrocercus  araraiuta).— 
The  Blue  and  Yellow  Macaw  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  Guiana,  and 
Surinam,  tenanting  the  swampy  forests  along  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  generally  living  in  pairs,  though  sometimes  they  assemble  in 
large  flocks.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  principally  of  the 
fruit  of  a  kind  of  palm  abundant  in  humid  or  marshy  places. 
On  the  wing  the  Blue  and  Yellow  Macaw  is  rapid,  dis- 
playing great  address  and  ease  in  its  atrial  movements,  and 
is  often  seen  skimming  over  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  trees, 
the  highest  branches  of  which  it  selects  for  its  roosting-place. 
Like  the  Parrots  generally,  this  Bird  lays  two  white  eggs  in  the 
hollow  of  a  decayed  tree  :  both  sexes  attend  to  the  duty  of  in- 
cubation, and  to  the  labour  of  rearing  the  young.  Two 
broods  are  said  to  be  produced  annually. 

The  colouring  of  this  species  is  as  follows  :— Bill  black, 
cheeks  naked,  white,  with  three  narrow  lines  of  black  velvety 
feathers  passing  obliquely  across.  Beneath  the  under  man- 
dible is  a  broad  black  band,  extending  some  distance  under 
the  naked  cheeks.  General  colour  above,  rich  blue,  passing 
into  green  on  the  forehead,  some  of  the  wing-coverts,  and  rump. 
Greater  quills  and  tail  nearly  violet;  wings  and  tail  beneath, 
yellow ;  under  parts  generally  of  a  rich  saffron  tint ;  iris 
yellowish  ;  legs  dusky.  Length  about  thirty-nine  inches,  of 
which  the  long  graduated  tail  measures  about  twenty-four 
inches.     (See  Fig.  1349.) 

A  small  species,  the  Green  Macaw,  or  Maracana  {Macro- 
cercus severus),  which  is  about  tlie  size  of  a  Pigeon,  is  ex- 
ceedingly abundant  in  Brazil  and  Guiana,  where  it  is  said  to 
visit  the  coffee  plantations  in  immense  flocks,  committing 
terrible  depredations  by  devouring  the  berries. 

Some  of  the  other  species  of  this  group  have  the  head  entirely 
covered  with  feathers,  except  a  small  circle  round  the  eyes. 
These  form  [the  genus  Psittacara,  so  called  from  their  ap- 
parently uniting  the  True  Parrots,  or  Psittaci,  with  the 
Macaws  or  Aras.  They  are  smaller  than  the  Macaws, 
but  their  plumage  is  generally  exceedingly  beautiful,  and 
they  learn  to  speak  with  greater  ease.  Le  Vaillant  states 
that  he  saw  a  specimen  of  the  Psittacara  guiancnsis,  or 
Guiana  Parroquet,  which  could  say  the  Lord's  Prayer  in 
Dutch,  and  whilst  engaged  in  this  exercise,  would  lie  upon 
its  back,  and  fold  its  feet  together  in  the  attitude  of  prayer. 
In  Guiana,  this  species  is  said  to  be  very  destructive  in  the 
coffee  plantations. 

The  Carolina  Parroquet  {Conurus  carolinensis).-^ 
Nearly  allied  to  the  last-mentioned  Bird  is  the  Carolina  Par- 
roquet, the  only  species  of  this  group  that  occurs  in  North 
America.  It  is  found  in  the  United  States  as  far  north  as 
Lake  Michigan  (lat.  42°  N.),  but  on  the  east  coast  it 
does  not  extend  beyond  Maryland.  It  is  singular  that  a 
Bird,  belonging  to  a  group  which  appears  to  be  otherwise  so 
exclusively  confined  to  the  hottest  regions  of  the  Tropics,  should  be 
found  at  such  a  distance  from  the  natural  home  of  its  race  ;  but 
although  the  range  of  this  species  extends  from  the  hot  countries  of 
Mexico  to  the  very  temperate  region  above  mentioned,  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  a  Bird  of  Passage  ;  and  indeed,  Wilson  says  that  he 
has  himself  seen  these  Parrots  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  in  February, 
flying  about  like  Pigeons,  in  the  midst  of  a  snow-storm.  The  cause 
to  which  Wilson  ascribes  the  occurrence  of  the  Carolina  Parrot  at  a 
higher  latitude,  in  the  centre  of  the  continent  than  on  the  coast,  is 
not  the  prevalence  of  a  milder  climate  in  those  parts,  so  much  as  the 
existence  of  "  certain  peculiar  features  of  country  to  whicJi  these 
birds  are  particularly  and  strongly  attached ;  these  are  low,  rich, 
alluvial  bottoms  along  the  borders  of  creeks,  covered  with  a  gigantic 
growth  of  sycamore  trees  or  button-wood — deep  and  almost  impene- 
trable swamps,  where  the  vast  and  towering  cypresses  lift  their  still 
more  majestic  heads — and  those  singular  salines,  or,  as  they  are 
usually  called,  licks,  so  regularly  interspersed  over  that  country,  and 
which  are  regularly  and  eagerly  visited  by  the  parroquets."  Their 
occurrencf,  also,  appears  to  depend  even  still  more  upon  the  presence 
of  their  favourite  articles  of  food — namely,  the  seeds  of  a  plant  called 
the  cockle-burr,  with  those  of  the  cypress  and  hackberry,  and  beech- 
nuts. These  fruits  are  by  no  means  common  in  Pennsylvania  and 
the  States  further  to  the  north  along  the  coast,  but  they  are  abun- 
dant in  the  whole  of  the  country  already  referred  to  as  inhabited  by 
the  Parrots.  • 

These  Birds  are  exceedingly  sociable  in  their  habits,  always  flying 
in  large  flocks,  and  roosting  in  companies  of  thirty  or  forty  together 
in  the  inside  of  a  hollow  tree.  They  are  greatly  attached  to  each 
other,  nestling  close  together,  and  scratching  one  another's  heads 
in  a  most  affectionate  manner.  They  manifest  this  attachment  in 
an  equally  striking  manner  when  any  of  their  companions  fall  into 
misfortune.  In  illustration  of  this  we  may  quote  the  following 
passage  from  Wilson's  "  American  Ornithology  :" — ^"  At  Big  Bone 
Lick,  thirty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  Kentucky  River,"  he  says, 


526 


THE  PARRAKEETS. 


"  I  saw  them  in  great  numbers.  They  came  screaming  through  the 
woods  in  the  morning,  about  an  hour  after  sunrise,  to  drink  the  salt 
water,  of  whicli  they,  as  well  as  the  pigeons,  are  remarkably  fond. 
When  they  alighted  on  the  ground,  it  appeared  at  a  distance  as  if 
covered  with  a  carpet  of  the  richest  green,  orange,  and  yellow  ;  they 
afterwards  settled,  in  one  body,  on  a  neighbouring  tree,  which  stood 
detached  from  any  other,  covering  almost  every  twig  of  it ;  and  the 
sun,  shining  strongly  on  their  gay  and  glossy  plumage,  produced  a 
very  beautiful  and  splendid  appearance.  Here  I  had  an  opportunity 
of  observing  some  very  particular  traits  of  their  character :  having 


Fig.  1350. — The  Blue  and  Yellow  Macaw. 

shot  down  a  number,  some  of  which  were  only  wounded,  the  whole 
flock  swept  repeatedly  around  their  prostrate  companions,  and  again 
settled  on  a  low  tree,  within  twenty  yards  of  the  spot  where  I  stood. 
At  each  successive  discharge,  though  showers  of  them  fell,  yet  the 
affection  of  the  survivors  seemed  rather  to  increase  ;  for  after  a  few 
circuits  around  the  place,  they  again  alighted  near  me,  looking 
down  on  their  slaughtered  companions  with  such  manifest  symptoms 
of  sympathy  and  concern,  as  entirely  disarmed  me."  In  captivity, 
the  Carolina  Parrot  is  docile  and  sociable,  and  soon  becomes  very 
familiar.  Like  the  other  members  of  the  group,  it  deposits  its  eggs 
in  hollow  trees,  but  is  said  to  carry  its  sociable  habits  even  into  the 
business  of  incubation,  several  couples  usually  breeding  in  the  same 
cavity. 

The  Parrakeets— Sub-family  PeioporintB. 

The  Alexandrine  Parrakeet  {Palaortiis  alexaiidri).~l\ift 
last  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Parrakeets,  or  Parroquets,  embracing 
the  genus  Palaornis,  &c.  The  genus  contains  a  number  of  beautiful 
and  interesting  species,  and  is  confined,  or  nearly  so,  to  India  and 
its  islands  :  Australia  being  just  within  the  geographical  range  of  the 
group.  It  was  with  some  of  the  Indian  species  of  this  group  that 
the  ancients  became  first  acquainted.  Mr.  Vigors  ("  ZooL  Journal," 
vol.  ii.),  who  observes  that  the  ancient  writers  unanimously  affirm 
that  the  Parrots  known  in  their  times  came  exclusively  from  India, 
adds  : — "  It  is  not  easy  to  decide,  although  we  may  form  a  tolerable 
conjecture  on  the  subject,  how  many  and  which  of  the  species  of 
PalcBor7iis  were  known  to  the  ancients.  yElian  (De  Nat.  Anim., 
xvi.  2),  tells  us  that  they  were  acquainted  with  three  species  :  but 
as  some  of  the  more  common  species  approach  each  other  most 
closely  in  their  specific  characters,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
differences  between  them  might  have  been  passed  over  by  observers 
who  were  so  little  accustomed,  and  had  so  little  occasion  to  pay 
attention  to  minute  distinctions,  and  that  four  or  five  species  at 
least  were  familiar  to  antiquity.     The  birds   that   came  from  the 


remoter  Indian  islands,  P.  ;papuensis,  malaccenst's,  and  xantho- 
sonius  in  particular,  are  in  all  likelihood  among  the  number  of 
those  that  have  been  known  only  in  recent  times  :  to  these  we  may 
add  the  newly  characterised  species  from  New  Holland,  the 
P.  barrabandi.  The  beautiful  blossom-headed  species  also,  P. 
erythrocephaliis,  and  P.  bengalaisi's,  which  are  even  now  more 
rarely  met  with  than  the  neighbouring  species,  most  probably  did 
not  come  under  the  observations  of  the  ancients,  for  it  is  impossible 
that  they  should  have  passed  over  without  notice  the  lovely  and 
changeable  roseate  colour  of  the  head,  which  casts  into  the  shade 
even  the  collar  round  the  neck  (so  frequently  alluded  to  by  them),  if 
either  of  these  birds  had  been  before  them.  The  poets,  at  least, 
would  have  seized  upon  a  character  which  involved  so  truly  poetic 
an  image,  and  Ovid  or  Statins  would  have  woven  it  up  among  the 
most  conspicuous  wreaths  of  their  beautiful  elegiac  garlands.  The 
species  which  we  can  imagine  to  have  been  best  known  to  former 
times,  are  the  P.  j>o7idiceriaiitiszx\AJlavitorqtcts,  which  are  diffused 
over  the  whole  of  the  Indian  continent,  the  former  species  more 
particularly,  which  is  now  found  dispersed  over  a  great  extent  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  P.  s/e.i-^wa'rz' appears  to  have  been  the  bird 
sent  from  Ceylon  to  the  Macedonian  warrior  from  whom  it  derives  its 
specific  name;  Ceylon,  or  the  ancient  Taprobana,  being  the 
principal  resort,  even  down  to  the  present  moment,  of  that  species. 
It  is  probable  also  that  the  Romans,  particularly  in  later  times, 
received  a  great  number  of  the  same  species  from  that  island.  If  to 
these  birds  we  add  the  P.  torqiiatus,  which  is  the  species  that 
agrees  most  intimately  with  the  descriptions  of  Pliny,  and  after  him 
of  Apuleius,  which  is  generally  scattered  over  the  Indian,  as  well  as 
the  African  continent  on  the  eastern  side,  we  shall  probably  have 
before  us  all  the  species  known  to  the  ancients  of  this  classical 
group."  The  Alexandrine  Parrakeet  is  a  beautiful  Bird  ;  its  general 
plumage  is  green  ;  a  vermilion  collar  adorns  the  neck  ;  the  throat  and 
a  band  between  the  eyes  are  black ;  a  mark  of  purple  red  ornaments 
the  shoulders.     (See  Fig.  1351.) 


Fig.  1 35 1. — The  Alexandrine  Parrakeet. 

The  Rose-ringed  Parrakeet  {Pa!ceor?iis  torqitattis). — This 
beautiful  species  is  probably  that  described  by  Solinus  as  "  colore 
viridi,  torque  puniceo  ;"  its  colour  is  green,  with  a  roseate  collar, 
and  the  bill  deep  ruby.  Besides  being  found  in  India,  it  is  said  to 
be  abundant  on  the  coast  of  Senegal.  In  captivity  it  is  a  gentle 
engaging  Bird,  and  soon  learns  to  utter  sentences  with  considerable 
distinctness.     (See  Fig.  1352.) 

These  species  of  Palczornis  are  tolei-ably  abundant  in  India, 
associating  in  large  flocks,  and  doing  considerable  damage  to  the 
crops  of  fruit  and  grain.     It  seems  that,  as  the  grain-crops  ripen, 


THE  TOUCANS. 


S2> 


they  frequent  the  trees  in  the  neighbourhood,  whence  they  make 
descents  on  the  fields,  retiring  again  to  the  trees  with  the  heads  of 
the  grain-plants,  which  they  then  eat  at  their  leisure.  They  breed  in 
holes  of  trees  and  buildings,  and  lay  three  or  four  eggs. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  Birds  of  this  sub-family  have  the 
tarsi  elongated,  to  adapt  them  for  running  with  ease  upon  the 
ground.  The  most  thoroughly  terrestrial  species  appears  to  be  the 
'Pczoporiis  for7>iosiis,  or  Ground  Parrakeet  of  Australia,  a  beautiful 
little  Bird,  measuring  about  a  foot  in  length,  including  the  tail, 
which  is  regularly    banded    with   green   and   black ;    the   general 

plumage  is  also  variegated 
with  the  same  colours,  each 
feather  having  a  blackish- 
brown  band.  This  Bird  lives 
entirely  upon  the  ground ; 
and  Mr.  Gould  states  that 
he  never  saw  it  perching, 
nor  was  he  ever  able  to  drive 
it  to  take  shelter  in  a  tree. 
He  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  its  habits: — "It 
usually  frequents  either 
sandy  sterile  districts, 
covered  with  tufts  of  rank 
grass  and  herbage,  or  low 
swampy  flats  abounding  with 
rushes  and  the  other  kinds 
of  vegetation  peculiar  to 
such  situations.  It  is  gene- 
rally observed  either  singly 
or  in  pairs  ;  but,  from  its 
very  recluse  habits  and  great 
powers  of  running,  it  is  sel- 
dom or  ever  seen  until  it  is 
flushed,  and  then  only  for  a 
short  time,  as  it  soon  pitches 
again,  and  runs  off  to  a 
place  of  seclusion,  often 
under  the  covert  of  the 
grass-tree  {Xanthorrhaa), 
which  abounds  in  the  district 
it  frequents."  Its  eggs  are 
laid  on  the  ground. 

In  reference  to  these  Birds 
we  make  the  following  addi- 
tions : — ]\Ir.  W.  S.  Dallas,  in  the  "  Circle  of  the  Sciences,  "remarks,  in 
respect  to  the  Grass-Parrakeets,  that  they  are  inhabitants  of 
Australia,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  terrestrial  in  their  habits  ; 
but  less  so  than  the  Bird  just  described.  One  of  the  most  charming 
of  these,  and,  indeed,  of  all  the  Parrots,  is  the  dimmutive  Warbling 
Grass  or  Zebra  Parrakeet  {ilelopsittacus  undnlatits),  which  is  found 
abundantly  over  the'i  vast  central  plains  of  Australia,  but  is  scarcely 
ever  seen  in  the  districts  between  the  mountain  chains  of  that 
singular  country  and  the  coast.  They  feed  in  large  flocks  upon  the 
seeds  of  the  grasses  which  abound  in  the  plains,  but  rest  during  the 
heat  of  the  day  upon  the  branches  of  the  gum-trees  [Eucalyptus),  in 
the  hollows  of  which  they  also  lay  their  eggs,  and  bring  up  their 
young.  Upon  these  trees  they  also  collect  in  crowds  before  starting 
in  search  of  water.  In  captivity  these  diminutive  creatures  are 
amongst  the  most  pleasing  of  the  Parrots  ;  for  they  are  not  only 
elegant  in  their  forms,  and  lively  in  their  movements,  but,  instead  of 
the  horrible  screeching  noise,  which  renders  so  many  of  their  larger 
and  more  brilliant  brethren  exceedingly  disagreeable  neighbours, 
they  have  a  soft  warbling  note,  which  is  very  pleasant.  Several 
other  species  of  Grass  Parrakeets,  belonging  to  the  genus  EuJ>kema, 
are  also  found  in  Australia,  and  they  are  all  exceedingly  elegant 
little  creatures. 

The  following  observations  on  the  Grass-Parrakeets  are  extracted 
from  the  last  edition  of  the  "Guide  to  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London  :  " — 

"  The  Zebra  Grass-ParrA5^eet  {Melopsiiiacus  utidulaius), 
just  mentionecl,  more  genornlly  known  by  the  native  name  of 
' Betcherrygah'  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  breast  of  lovely 
green,  and  back  delicately  banded  with  black  and  yellow.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  universally  diffused  species  of  the  Australian  Parrots,  and 
makes  periodical  visits  to  all  the  settled  districts,  probably  when  the 
droughts  of  the  interior  render  its  usual  haunts  untenable  from  the 
scarcity  of  water.  This  exquisite  little  bird  differs  essentially  from 
all  other  Parrots  in  its  faculty  of  song  ;  it  warbles  a  low,  continuous, 
and  not  unlively  melody,  something  like  the  strain  of  the  English 
Whitethroat.  The  natural  breeding-place  of  the  Zebra  Parrakeet  is 
the  hollow  arm  of  some  decaying  tree  ;  but  it  accommodates  itself  to 
circumstances  with  great  facility,  and  if  turned  loose  in  a  room  will 
soon  excavate  a  nesting-hole  in  a  brick  wall.  It  breeds  in  confine- 
ment very  readily,  if  properly  treated  ;  and  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  interesting,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  beautiiul,  cage-birds 
hitherto    known.     The  first    living    specimen    was    brought    from 


Fig.  1352.— The  Rose-ringed  Parrakeet. 


Australia  by  Mr.  Gould,  on  his  return  to  England  in  1840 ;  but  since 
that  period  a  thousand  pairs  have  sometimes  been  landed  in  a  single 
venture. 

"  The  Crested  Grass-Parrakeets  {Calopsiita  nova  hoi- 
la?!dicB),  also  breed  in  this  Aviary,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  doubt  that 
all  the  species  which  inhabit  the  cooler  parts  of  Australia  would 
reproduce  as  certainly  as  those  which  are  here  mentioned,  wherever 
space  and  congenial  treatment  can  be  afforded." 

A  large  number  of  living  specimens  of  the  Parrakeet  group  will  be 
found  at  the  Zoological  Society's  Garden,  London  ;  such  as  the 
Ring-necked  Pala;or?i!s  torquatus.  Pennant's  Platycerus  -pcn- 
naiitl,  the  King-Parrakeet,  the  Pale-headed,  Barnard's,  the  Gray- 
breasted,  the  Crimson-winged,  Yellow-collared,  Crested  Ground, 
Alexandrine,  &c.  ;  and  stuffed  specimens  of  these  and  many  others 
are  contained  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum.  The  Tropical 
portions  of  Asia,  and  South  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
&c.,  are  fully  represented  in  these  collections  in  respect  to  the 
Parrakeets. 

The  Toucans — Family  Rham-phastidce. 

These  richly-coloured  Birds  are  at  once  remarkable  for  the 
magnitude  and  figure  of  the  bill,  which  was  known  in  Europe  before 
the  Birds  themselves.  Belon  (a.d.  1555),  in  the  28th  chapter  of  the 
third  book,  ' '  De  la  Nature  des  Oyseaux  vivants  le  long  des  rivieres 
ayant  le  pied  plat,  nommez  en  Latin  Palinij>cdes  aves,"  gives  a 
figure  of  the  bill  of  the  Toco  Toucan,  which  he  describes  as  belong- 
ing to  a  Bird  of  the  New  World  (terres  neufues),  and  as  being  half  a 
foot  in  length  ;  pointed  and  black  at  the  tip  ;  white  elsewhere  ; 
slightly  notched  along  the  edges ;  hollow  within ;  and  so  finely 
delicate  that  it  is  thin  and  transparent  as  parchment;  its  beauty,  he 
observes,  has  caused  it  to  be  kept  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious. 
He  further  observes  that  he  has  not  seen  the  Bird  itself,  but  suspects 
it  to  be  one  of  those  "  de  pied  plat,"  and  therefore  places  it  among 
the  River-Birds.  The  same  writer,  in  the  "Portraits  d'Oyseaux," 
again  figures  the  bill  as  belonging  to  a  Water-Bird  with  this 
description:  "Bee  d'un  oyseau  aquatique,  apporte  des  terres 
neufues."  Belon's  error  may  be  readily  pardoned :  such  a  beak  as 
that  of  the  Toucan,  seen  for  the  first  time  when  Ornithology  was  not 
a  science,  would  puzzle  any  naturalist. 

For  upwards  of  a  century  after  the  date  of  Belon's  works  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  Birds  themselves  had  found  their  way  to 
England  ;  the  beak,  however,  of  one  species  was  in  the  collection  of 
John  Tradescant,  and  was  described  in  the  "  Museum  Tradescan- 
tium  "  as  that  of  the  Ara9ari  of  Brazil  (a.d.  1656),  and  it  is 
probable  that  Tradescant  had  acquired  correct  information  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  the  Bird  to  which  it  belonged,  if  indeed  he  had 
not  seen  a  specimen.  Petiver  (1702)  gives  a  figure  of  the  Toucan, 
which,  though  rude,  as  were  all  the  engravings  of  objects  of  Natural 
History  at  that  day,  is  substantially  correct,  even  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  toes. 

WiUughby  figures  the  Toucan  {Rhaiti;phastos  toco?)  under  the 
name  of^the  Brazilian  Pie  of  Aldrovandus,  the  Toucan  of  Marcgrave 
and  others,  the  Xochitenacatl  of  the  Mexicans.  In  this  figure  the 
toes  are  incorrect,  owing  to  a  mistake  of  the  artist,  for  WiUughby 
was  evidently  aware  of  their  zygodactyle  character. 

The  beak  of  the  Toucan  (Figs.  1353  and  1354)  is,  as  Belon  well 


Fig.  1353.— Head  and  Tongue  of  the  Toucan 

observed,  of  large  size,  with  serrated  margins,  but  of  light  structure. 
being  cancellous  within.  Its  proportionate  size  to  the  head  may  be 
appreciated  by  comparing  it  with  the  beaks  of  other  Birds  which 
have  this  organ  well  developed,  as  the  Rook  and  Crow  (tig.  1355). 


528 


THE  TOUCANS. 


The  osseous  portions  of  the  mandibles,  observes  Professor  Owen, 
are  disposed  in  a  manner  adapted  to  combine  with  the  great  bulk  of 
those  parts  a  due  degree  of  strength,  and  remarkable  lightness  ; 
consequently  the  bony  structure  is  of  the  most  beautiful  and  delicate 
kind.  "  The  external  parietes  are  extremely  thin,  especially  in  the 
upper  mandible  ;  they  are  elastic,  and  yield  in  a  slight  degree  to 
moderate  pressure,  but  present  considerable  resistance  if  a  force  be 
applied  for  the  purpose  of  crushing  the  back.  At  the  points  of  the 
mandibles  the  outer  walls  are  nearly  a  line  in  thickness ;  at  other 
parts  in  the  upper  mandible  they  are  much  thinner,  varying  from 
one-thirtieth  to  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  ;  in  the  lower  they 


Fig.  1354. — Head  of  the  Toucan. 

are  from  one-twentieth  to  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  On 
making  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  upper  mandible,  its  base  is  seen 
to  include  a  conical  cavity  about  two  inches  in  length  and  one  inch 
in  diameter,  with  the  apex  directed  forwards.  The  walls  of  this  cone 
consist  of  a  most  beautiful  osseous  network  intercepting  irregular 
angular  spaces,  varying  in  diameter  from  half  a  line  to  two  lines. 
From  the  parietes  of  this  cone  a  network  of  bony  fibres  is  continued 
to  the  outward  parietes  of  the  mandible,  the  fibres  which  immediately 
support  the  latter  being  almost  invariably  implanted  at  right  angles 
to  the  part  in  which  they  are  inserted.  The  whole  of  the  mandible 
anterior  to  the  cone  is  occupied  with  a  similar  network,  the  meshes 
of  which  are  largest  in  the  centre  of  the  beak,  in  consequence  of  the 
union  which  takes  place  between  different  small  fibres  as  they  pass 


I^'g-  I355-— Heads  of  the  Rook  and  Crow. 

from  the  circumference  inwards.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  principle 
of  the  cylinder  is  introduced  into  this  elaborate  structure ;  the 
smallest  of  the  supporting  pillars  of  the  mandibles  are  seen  to  be 
hollow  or  tubular  when  examined  with  the  microscope.  The 
structure  is  the  same  in  the  lower  mandible,  but  the  fibres  composing 
the  network  are  in  general  stronger  than  those  of  the  upper 
mandible."  The  nostrils  are  situated  at  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible,  where  it  rises  above  the  level  of  the  skull,  and  conse- 
quently they  have  a  backward  aspect,  and  are  secured  from  any 
injury.  The  tongue  is  long,  slender,  flat,  and  horny,  and  furnished 
on  each  side  with  a  series  of  short  processes  like  the  barbs  of  a 
feather.     It  is  soft  at  its  base. 

Figure  1356  represents  the  structure  of  the  head  and  beak  of  the 
Toucan,  as  investigated  by  Professor  Owen  :  a.  Section  of  the  upper 
mandible  of  Rham;phastos  toco,  a,  The  cancellated  structure  of 
the  beak  ;  b,  the  cavity  at  the  base  ;  c,  branches  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
nerves  ;  d,  d,  external  orifices  of  the  nostrils  ;  e,  e,  osseous  parietes 
of  the  nasal  passages  ;  f,  osseous  tubes  protecting  the  olfactory 
nerves ;  g,  pituitary  membrane  exposed,  and  branches  of  the  ol- 
factory nerves  radiating  from  it ;  k,  superior  semicircular  canals 
of  the  internal  ear ;  ?',  i,  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  ;  A-,  the  cere- 
bellum. B,  Vertical  longitudinal  section  of  the  head.  The  same 
letters  indicate  the  same  parts  as  in  the  upper  figure  ;  /,  the  tongue  ; 
9n,  the  glottis ;  71,  the  internal  aperture  to  the  nostrils  ;  o,  the  os 
hyoides  ;  ^,  the   trachea ;  q,  the  oesophagus ;  r,  the  beginning  of 


the  spinal  cord ;  s,  articulating  surface  of  occipital  bone  ;  i,  the 
nasal  septum  or  partition  ;  11,  the  air-cell  anterior  to  the  orbit,  from 
which  the  air  passes  into  the  mandible  ;  v,  the  cancellated  structure 
of  the  lowerjaw. 


Fig.  1356. — Internal  Structure  of  Beak  and  Head  of  the  Toucan. 

Figure  1357  shows  thh  upper  surface  of  the  tongue  ;  /,  the  fringed 
or  feathered  portion  ;  jn,  the  orifice  of  the  larynx  ;  ti,  the  orifice  of 
the  pharynx  ;  o,  cornua  of  os  hyoides  ;  p,  trachea  or  windpipe  ;  q, 
gullet.     (Owen.) 


Fig.  1357. — Upper  surface  of  the  Toucan's  Tongue. 

Fig.  1358  conveys  a  clear  idea  of  the  zygodactylous  arrangement 
of  the  toes  in  the  Birds  of  the  present  family. 

Those  who  wish  to  enter  minutely  into  the  anatomy  of  the  Toucan, 
we  refer  to  Professor  Owen's  elaborate  paper,  in  Mr.  Gould's 
"  Rhamphastidae. " 

The  Rhamphastidm  are  all  natives 
of  Tropical  America,  where  they  live 
retired  in  the  deep  forests,  mostly  in 
small  companies ;  their  flight  is 
straight  but  laborious,  and  while  on 
the  wing  the  beak  is  raised  and 
directed  forwards  so  as  to  offer  as 
little  resistance  as  posible  to  the  air. 
Among  the  branches  of  the  trees  their 
movements  are  easy  and  active  ;  they 
appear  to  glide  from  branch  to  branch, 
and  in  this  manner  ascend  to  the  very 
summits,  D'Azara  states  that  the 
Toucans  are  to  a  certain  extent  omni- 
vorous, living  a  great  part  of  the  year 
on  fruits,  but  during  the  breeding 
Fig.  135S.— Foot  of  the  Toucan,    season  attacking  the  smaller  Birds  in 

their  nests,  and  devouring  their  eggs 
or  their  young.  Even  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  Macaws  and 
other  large  Birds  often  fall  victims  to  their  carnivorous  propen- 
sities. 

Mr.  Swainson,  who  had  seen  the  Toucans  in  their  native  forests, 
was  led  to  suspect  the  same  fact,  and  informed  Mr.  Broderip  that 
he  had  frequently  observed  them  perched  on  the  tops  of  lofty  trees, 
evidently  watching  the  departure  of  Birds  from  their  nests  ;  besides 
which,  the  remains  of  food  found  in  the  stomachs  of  such  as  were 
shot,  proved  that  eggs  and  young  Birds,  as  well  as  fruit,  constituted 
their  diet.  He  never,  however,  observed  them  in  the  act  of  de- 
struction. 

Dr.  Such  stated  that  he  had  seen  these  Birds  in  Brazil  feeding  on 
the  Toucan-berry,  and  had  frequently  observed  them  engaged  in 
quarrels  with  the  Monkeys,  and  that  he  was  certain  that  the  Toucans 
fed  also  on  eggs  and  nestlings.  Mr.  Gould,  in  his  "  Monograph  of 
the  Rhamphastidffi,"  divides  them  into  two  great  sections  :  i.  Rham- 
■phastos,  with  the  bill  smooth,  the  nostrils  concealed  and  placed  at 
the  edge  of  the  thickened  frontlet  of  the  bill ;  the  wings  short  and 


THE  TOUCANS. 


529 


rounded ;  the  tail  square  ;  the  g-eneral  ground-colour  black  ;  the 
throat,  chest,  and  tail-coverts  being  of  a  lively  or  brilliant  hue — red 
or  yellow.  2.  Pteroglosstis  [Aracaris),  with  the  bill  more  con- 
tracted in  its  dimensions,  more  solid,  with  the  edges  more  decidedly 
serrated,  the  nostrils  vertical,  naked,  and  round  upon  the  upper 
edge  of  the  frontlet  of  the  beak  ;  the  tail  long  and  graduated  ;  the 
predominant  colour  olive-green,  varied  with  red,  yellow,  &c.  In 
both  groups  the  skin  round  the  eyes  is  naked  and  richly  tinted. 


Fig.  1359. — Group  of  Toucans. 

We  may  here  appropriately  introduce  the  description  by  Mr. 
Broderip  of  the  habits  and  manners  of  a  Toucan  in  captivity ;  the 
species  was  the  R.  erythrorhyncus : — Mr.  Vigors  stated  that  the 
Bird  had  been  fed  on  a  vegetable  diet ;  but  that  the  proprietor  had 
told  him  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  young  Canary-Bird  having  es- 
caped and  gone  near  to  the  Toucan,  the  latter  appeared  more  than 
usually  excited  ;  that  thereupon  the  barrier  between  them  was  re- 
moved, and  that  the  Toucan  instantly  seized  and  devoured  the 
Canary-Bird.  On  the  next  day  Mr.  Broderip  went  to  the  place 
where  the  Toucan  was  exhibited,  and  thus  describes  what  he  saw  :  — 


"  After  looking  at  the  bird  which  was  the  object  of  my  visit,  and 
which  was  apparently  in  the  highest  state  of  health,  I  asked  the 
proprietor  to  bring  up  a  little  bird,  that  I  might  see  how  the  toucan 
would  be  affected  by  its  appearance.  He  soon  returned,  bringing 
with  him  a  goldfinch,  a  last  year's  bird.  The  instant  he  introduced 
his  hand  with  the  goldfinch  into  the  cage  of  the  toucan,  the  latter, 
which  was  on  a  perch,  snatched  it  with  his  bill.  The  poor  little 
bird  had  only  time  to  utter  a  short  weak  cry  ;  for  within  a  second  it 

was    dead,   killed  by    compres- 
sion on  the  sternum  and  abdo- 
men, and  that  so  powerful  that 
the  bowels  were  protruded  after 
a  very  few  squeezes  of  the  tou- 
can's bill.     As  soon  as  the  gold- 
finch    was     dead,     the     toucan 
hopped  with  it,  still  in  his  bill, 
to  another  perch,  and  placing  it 
with   his  bill   between   his  right 
foot   and    the    perch,    began    to 
strip  off  the  feathers  with  his  bill. 
When  he  had  plucked  away  most 
of  them,   he  broke  the  bones  of 
the  wings  and  legs  (still  holding 
the  little  bird  in  ^he  same  posi- 
tion) with  his  bill,  taking  the  limbs 
therein,  and  giving  at  the  same 
time    a    strong   lateral    wrench. 
He    continued    this    work    with 
great  dexterity  till  he  had  almost 
reduced  the  bird  to  a  shapeless 
mass ;  and  ever  and  anon  he  would 
take  his  prey  from  the  perch  in  his 
bill,  and  hop  from  perch  to  perch, 
making    at    the    same    time    a 
peculiar  hollow  clattering  noise  ; 
at  which  times  I   observed  that 
his  bill  and  wings  were  affected 
with  a  vibratory  or  shivering  mo- 
tion, though  the  latter  were  not 
expanded.    He  w^ould  then  return 
the  bird  to  the   perch   with    his 
bill,   and  set  his  foot  on  it.     He 
first  ate  the  viscera,    and    con- 
tinued pulling  off  and  swallow- 
ing   piece   after    piece,    till  the 
head,  neck,  and  part  of  the  back 
of  the    sternum,    with  their  soft 
parts,    were    alone    left :     these, 
after   a    little    more   wrenching, 
while    they    were    held    on    the 
perch,    and    mastication,    as   it 
were,  while  they  were  held  in  the 
bill,    he  at   last   swallowed,    not 
even  leaving  the  beak  or  legs  of 
his  prey.    The  last  part  gave  him 
the  most  trouble  ;  but  it  was  clear 
that    he   felt    great   enjoyment ; 
for  whenever  he  raised  his  prey 
from    the   perch  he  appeared  to 
exult,   now  masticating  the  mor- 
sel  with   his    toothed    bill    and 
applying  his  tongue   to   it,   now 
attempting  to  gorge  it,  and  now 
making   the   peculiar   clattering 
noise  accompanied  by  the  shiver- 
ing   motion     above    mentioned. 
The    whole   operation,   from  the 
time  of  seizing  his  prey  to  that 
of    devouring    the     last    morsel, 
lasted  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
He  then  cleansed   his  bill  from 
the  feathers  by  rubbing  it  against 
the    perches     and    bars    of  the 
cage.     While  on  this  part  of  the 
subject  it  may  be  as  well  to  men- 
tion  another    fact,     which     ap- 
peared  to  me   not  unworthy   of 
notice.     I  have  more  than  once 
seen  him  return  his  food  some  time  after  he  had  taken  it  to  his  crop, 
and,    after   masticating   the  morsel   for   awhile   in   his   bill,    again 
swallow   it ;    the   whole   operation,    particularly   the    return   of  the 
food  to  the  bill,   bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  analogous 
action  in  ruminating  animals.     The  food  on  which  I   saw  him  so 
employed  was  a  piece  of  beef,  which  had  evidently  been  macerated 
some  time  in  the  crop.     While  masticating  it,  he   made  the  same 
hollow  clattering  noise  as  he  made  over  the  remains  of  the  goldfinch. 
Previous  to  this  operation  he  had  examined  his  feeding-trough,  in 
which  there  was  nothing  but  bread,  which  I  saw  him  take  up  and 

3  Y 


530 


THE  TOUCANS. 


reject ;    and   it   appeared  to  me  that   he  was   thus   reduced  from 
necessity  to  the  abo\-e  mode  of  solacing  his  palate  with  animal  food. 

"  His  food  consists  of  bread,  boiled  vegetables,  eggs,  and  flesh,  to 
which  a  little  bird  is  now  added  about  every  second  or  third  day. 
He  shows  a  decided  preference  for  animal  food,  picking  out  all 
morsels  of  that  description,  and  not  resorting  to  the  vegetable  diet 
till  all  the  former  is  exhausted. 

"  It  is  said  that  the  nerves  are  very  much  expanded  within  the 
internal  surface  of  the  bill  in  these  birds  ;  and  independently  of  the 
sensual  enjoyment  which  the  toucan  above  mentioned  appeared  to 
derive  from  palating  his  prey,  I  have  observed  him  frequently 
scratching  his  bill  with  his  foot,  which  maybe  considered  as  furnish- 
ing additional  evidence  of  the  sensibility  of  this  organ.  While 
taking  his  prey  he  never  used  his  foot  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  it 
either  to  his  bill  or  elsewhere.  The  bill  was  tlie  sole  vehicle  and 
the  organ  actively  emploj'ed ;  the  foot  merely  confined  the  prey  on 
the  perch. 

"  But  there  is  yet  another  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  bird  which 
cannot  be  passed  over  in  silence,  When  he  settles  himself  on  the 
roost,  he  sits  a  short  time  with  his  tail  retroverted,  so  as  to  make 
an  acute  angle  with  the  line  of  his  back  ;  he  then  turns  his  bill  over 
his  right  shoulder,  nestling  it  in  the  soft  plumage  of  the  back  (on 
which  last  the  under  mandible  rests),  till  the  bill  is  so  entirely 
covered  that  no  trace  of  it  is  visible.  When  disturbed,  he  did  not 
drop  his  tail,  but  almost  immediately  returned  his  bill  to  the  com- 
fortable nidus  from  which  on  being  disturbed  he  had  withdrawn  it. 

"  He  broke,  a  short  time  ago,  some  of  his  tail-feathers,  and  the 
proprietors  informed  me  that  before  that  accident  the  bird  when  at 
roost  retroverted  his  tail  so  entirely  that  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tail-feathers  lay  over  and  came  in  contact  with  the  plumage  of  the 
back  ;  so  that  the  bird  had  the  appearance  of  a  ball  of  feathers,  to 
which  indeed,  when  I  saw  him,  he  bore  a  very  considerable  resem- 
blance. The  proprietor  informs  me  that  he  always  roosts  in  the 
same  wa}'." 

The  Toucan  {Rhamphasfos  toed). — This  species  is  the  most  com- 
mon in  museums,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  first  with  which 
European  naturalists  became  acquainted.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of 
its  family,  measuring  twenty-seven  inches  total  length,  of  which  the 
bill  is  seven  inches  and  a-half,  and  the  tail  seven  :  it  is  at  once 
distinguished  by  the  black  oval  mark  at  the  tip  of  the  beak.  This 
Bird  is  distributed  throughout  the  whole  of  wooded  districts  from  the 
river  Plata  to  Guiana.     (See  Fig.  1360.) 


Fig.  1360. — The  Toco  Toucan. 


CuviER's  Toucan  [Rkamphasios  cuvierl).— This  rare  species  is 
a  native  of  the  wooded  borders  of  the  Amazon.  (See  Fig.  1361.) 
The  beak  is  brownish-black  on  the  sides,  with  a  large  basal  belt  and 
culminal  line  of  greenish-yellow,  the  basal  belt  being  bounded 
behind  by  a  narrow  line  of  black,  and  before  by  a  broader  one  of 
deep  black,  which  is  only  apparent  in  certain  lights  ;  the  top  of  the 
head  and  whole  of  the  upper  surface  black,  with  the  exception  of 
the  upper  tail-coverts,  which  are  bright  orange-yellow ;  cheeks, 
throat,  and  chest  white,  with  a  tinge  of  greenish-yellow,  terminated 
by  a  band  of  scarlet ;  under  surface  black ;  under  tail-coverts 
scarlet.    Total  length  24  inches  ;  bill  ■jl,  wings  9,  tail  6i,  tarsi  2. 


The  Curl-crested  Aracari  {Pferoglossus  ulocomus,  Gould.)— 
This  rare  species,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  its  tribe,  was  first 
figured  and  described  by  Mr.  Gould,  in  his  monograph  of  the  present 
family.  Two  examples  formed  part  of  a  collection  of  Birds  brought 
to  this  country  from  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Of  these  Mr.  Gould  was  so 
fortunate  as  to  obtain  the  tincst,  apparently  a  male,  now  in  the 
museum  of  the  Zoological  Society  ;  anotheris  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  native  country  of  this  species  is  probably  the  dense  forest-belt 
along  the  river  Amazon ;   but   we   have   no   details   respecting   its 


Fig.  1361. — Cuvier's  Toucan. 

history.  The  beak  of  this  Ara5ari  is  lengthened,  both  mandibles 
being  edged  with  thickly-set  white  serratures ;  the  upper  has  the 
culmen  of  an  orange  colour,  bordered  by  a  longitudinal  stripe  of  dull 
blue  extending  nearly  to  the  tip,  below  which  the  sides  of  the 
mandible  are  fine  orange-red  ;  a  white  line  surrounds  the  apertures 
of  the  nostrils  ;  the  under  mandible  is  straw-colour,  becoming 
orange  at  the  tip  ;  a  narrow  band  of  rich  chestnut  encircles  both 
mandibles  at  their  base.  The  crown  of  the  head  is  covered  with  a 
crest  of  curled  metal-like  feathers  without  barbs  and  of  an  intense 
glossy  black  ;  as  they  approach  the  occiput  these  singular  feathers 
lose  their  curled  character  and  become  straight,  narrow,  and 
spatulate.  It  is,  as  Mr.  Gould  observes,  impossible  for  the  pencil  to 
do  justice  to  the  brilliancy  of  these  curiously  curled  appendages,  the 
structure  of  which  appears  to  consist  in  a  dilatation  of  the  shaft  of 
each  feather,  or  perhaps  an  agglutination  of  the  web  into  one  mass. 
The  feathers  on  the  cheeks  have  the  same  form  as  those  on  the 
occiput,  but  are  more  decidedly  spatulate,  being  of  a  yellowish-white 
colour,  tipped  at  the  extremity  with  black.  The  occiput  and  upper 
tail-coverts  are  of  a  deep  blood-red ;  the  chest  is  delicate  yellow, 
with  slight  crescent-shaped  bars  of  red  ;  the  back,  tail,  and  thighs 
are  olive  green  ;  the  quills  brown  ;  the  tarsi  lead-coloured.  Total 
length  18  inches;  bill  4,  tail  7J.     (See  Fig.  1362.) 

The  Many-banded  Aracari  {Ptcroglossus  ;plurictnctus). — 
This  beautiful  Bird  is  a  native  of  Brazil.  In  the  male  of  this  kind 
a  broad  band  of  black  advances  from  the  nostrils  along  the  whole  of 
the  culmen,  and  forms  a  narrow  belt  down  the  sides  of  the  upper 
mandible  at  its  base  ;  the  elevated  basal  margin  of  the  bill  is  yellow  ; 
the  sides  of  the  upper  mandible  beautiful  orange-yellow,  fading  into 
yellowish-white  towards  the  tip  ;  under  mandible  wholly  black  with  a 
yellow  basal  ridge  ;  head,  neck,  and  chest  black  ;  whole  of  the  upper 
surface,  except  the  rump,  which  is  scarlet,  dark  olive-green  ;  breast 
marked  with  two  broad  bands  of  black,  the  upper  separated  from  the 
throat  by  an  intervening  space  of  yellow  dashed  with  red  ;  a  similar 
but  broader  space  separates  the  two  bands  of  black,  the  lower  of 
which  is  bounded  by  scarlet,  advancing  as  far  as  the  thighs,  which 
are  brownish-olive  ;  under  the  tail-coverts  light  yellow;  naked  space 
round  the  eyes,  tarsi,  and  feet  dark  lead-colour.  The  female  differs 
from  the  male  in  having  the  ear-coverts  brown,  and  a  narrow  belt 
of  scarlet  bordering  the  black  of  the  throat.  Total  length  20  inches  ; 
bill  i\\,  wings  6i,  tail  8J. 


THE  TOUCANS. 


3JI 


HuiiBOLDT's  Aracari,  OR  TOUCAN  (Pleroglossus  Inimholdtii, 
Gould).— This  species  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  probably  near  the 
Amazon.  It  is  described  as  follows  by  Mr.  Gould  : — Bill  larg-e  in 
proportion  to  the  body  ;  ab.ind  of  black  occupies  the  culnien  from  the 
base  to  the  tip ;  the  remainder  of  the  upper  mandible  of  a  dull 
yellowish-orange,  with  the  exception  of  an  indefinite  mark  of  black 
which  springs  from  each  serrature,  and  a  fine  line  of  the  same  colour 
surrounding  it  near  the  base ;  lower  mandible  black,  with  the 
exception  of  the  base,  which  is  surrounded  with  pale  yellowish- 
orange;  the  head,  back  of  the  neck,  throat,  and  chest  black;  all 


the  upper  suface,  except  a  spot  of  scarlet  on  the  rump,  of  a  dull 
ohve ;  primaries  blackish-brown  ;  under  surface  pale  straw-yellow 
with  a  slight  tinge  of -green  ;  thighs  chestnut  :  naked  space  round 
the  eyes  and  tarsi  lead-colour.  Total  length  above,  1 6  to  17  inches  • 
bill  4,  wing  i\,  tail  6],  tarsi  ig.  ' 

The  omnivorous  character  of  these  Birds  affords  us  a  clue  to  the 


Fig.  1362.— Cud-crested  Ara 


trees,  where  various  Birds  habitually  nidify,  and  there  feels  for  eggs 

or  nestlings,  and  draws  them  forth  ; 
it  can  penetrate  the  basket-work  of 
nests  suspended  from  the  branches, 
or  the  more  solid  structure  of  such 
as  are  composed  of  strong  ma- 
terials. At  the  same  time  it  can 
use  this  organ  in  the  acquisition 
of  fruits,  which,  being  plucked  one 
by  one,  it  jerks  up  before  swallow- 
ing. In  its  mode  of  feeding,  its 
long,  elastic,  feathery  tongue  is  of 
great  use,  enabling  the  Bird  to  turn 
the  morsel  about,  and  co-opera- 
ting with  the  movements  of  the 
mandibles. 

The  Toucans  and  Ara9aris  breed 
in  the  hollows  of  decayed  trees, 
which  they  enlarge,  and  render 
commodious  by  means  of  the  beak, 
as  Faber  and  Oviedus  were  as- 
sured ;  and  it  would  appear  that 
from  this  habit  the  Spaniards 
have  applied  the  name  of  Carpen- 
tero  to  them,  which  the  Brazilians 
call  Tacataca,  in  imitation  of  the 
sound  made  by  chipping  the  de- 
cayed wood.  Oviedus,  in  his 
"History  of  the  West  Indies," 
observes  that  no  Bird  better  de- 
fends her  young  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Monkeys,  so  dangerous 
to  nestlings,  than  the  Toucan  ;  for 
when  she  perceives  the  approach 
of  these  enemies,  she  so  settles 
herself  in  her  nest  as  to  put  her 
bill  out  at  the  hole,  and  gives  the 
Monkeys  such  a  reception  with  its 
sharp  point,  that  they  instantly 
retreat,  glad  to  escape. 

The  Toucans  differ  from  the  Ara- 
^aris,  not  only  in  the  points  we  have 
already  enumerated,  but  also  in  the 
circumstance  that  the  females  re- 
semble the  males  in  the  colour  of 
the  plumage,  but  are  rather  less  in 
all  their  proportions  ;  while  in 
many  of  the  Ara<;aris  there  is 
considerable  difference  in  the 
colouring  of  the  two  sexes.  The 
young  of  both  genera  assume,  at 
an  early  age,  the  permanent  tints, 
but  their  bills  are  not  fully  de- 
veloped for  a  considerable  period  : 
during  life  the  colouring  of  the 
bills  is  generally  very  vivid,  but 
after  death  the  bright  hues  fade, 
and  become  sometimes  almost 
obsolete — a  fact  which  should  be 
always  borne  in  mind  by  those  who 
examine  specimens  in  cabinets  or 
museums. 

The  collection  of  stuffed  speci- 
mens in  the  British  Museum  em- 
braces, among  others,  the  follow- 
ing species  :  the  Toco  Toucan, the 
Red-billed,  Yellow-throated,  Cu- 
vier's,  Brazilian,  the  Culminated, 
&c.  There  are  also  numerous 
specimens  of  the  Ara^-ari.  In  the 
collection  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciet)',  in  their  Gardens  at  Regent's 
Park,  London,  are  two  living 
Toucans — the  R.  caritia/us  and 
the  Toco,  H.  toco. 


53» 


THE  DOVE  TRIBE. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

CLASS  II.-AVES,  OR  BIRDS  ;  ORDER  COLUMB^,   OR  DOVES. 


N  the  "  Specchio  Generale  del    Sistema 
Ornitologo,"    the    Prince    of    Canino    re- 
gards the  Pigeon  tribe  as  an  order,  under 
Uiis  title — "Order  4.   Coluinbcc ;"  but  in 
his   "Comparative   List   of    the    Birds  of 
;  Europe"  he  places  these  Birds  in  the  third 
section  of  his  Passeres,  under  the    title 
Gyrantes.     In  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray's  arrange- 
ment    they   constitute    the   fourth   order, 
termed    Columbia.       Cuvier    places   them 
at  the    end    of    the   Gallinaceous  order ; 
and  Mr.  Vigors  considered  them  to  be  an 
aberrant   family    of  the   same  order.     On 
the  contrary,    Meyer   regarded   them   as   a   distinct 
order;  Temminck  arranged  them  as  his  ninth  order  ; 
and   De    Blainville   has    also   thrown   them    into  an 
order,   which  he  calls  Spousoi-es,  ou  Ics  Columbins, 
and  which  he  places  between  the  Passeres  {Inses- 
sores)  and  the  Pheasants  and  Partridges  {Pasores). 
We  shall  treat  them  as  a  separate  order,  Cohtmla:. 

The  principal  character  by  which  the  True  Doves 
are  distinguished  from  the  Gallinaceous  Brds,  is  de- 
rived from  the  structure  of  the  bill.  The  upper  man- 
dible is  horny,  and  arched  in  its  apical  portion,  but 
the  base  is  occupied  by  a  second  convexity,  formed 
by  a  cartilaginous  plate  which  covers  the  nasal 
cavities,  and  in  the  anterior  portion  of  which 
the  nostrils  are  pierced;  this,  in  its  turn,  is  clothed  with  a  skin 
which  is  smooth  and  scurfy  in  some  species ;  whilst  in  others, 
and  even  in  particular  varieties,  it  acquires  a  fleshy  development,  and 
forms  a  warty  lump  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  (See  Fig.  1363.)  The 
cesophagus  speedily  widens  into  a  large  crop,  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  alimentary  canal ;  and  during  the  breeding  season  it  is  fur- 
nished with  numerous  glands  for  the  secretion  of  a  milky  juice.  This, 
mi.xing  with  tlie  food  in  the  crop,  softens  it  so  as  to  render  it  more 
fit  for" the  nourishment  of  the  young  Birds,  which  are  fed  for  a  con- 
siderable time  with  food  regurgitated  by 
their  parents.  The  gizzard  is  very 
pow-erful,  the  intestine  long  and  slender, 
and  the  cceca  small.  Fig.  1364  presents 
us  with  two  views  of  the  crop,  turned 
inside  outwards  and  distended  with 
spirits  : — A.  The  crop  of  a  Pigeon  when 
it  had  no  young  :  b.  The  crop  of  a  male 
Pigeon  during  the  time  of  roaring  the 
young;  a.  The  inner  surface  of  the  gullet 
or  oesophagus ;  b.  The  portion  of 
cesophagus  leading  from  the  crop  to 
the  gizzard,  with  the  glands  for  secret- 
ing gastric  juice  ;  c.  The  inner  surface  of  the  crop,  which  in  B 
displays  the  glandular  structure,  as  developed  during  the  breeding 
season,  the  glands  at  that  time  assuming  a  new  character  and 
office,  and  secreting  the  milky  fluid  in  great  abundance.  The 
analogy  between  these  glands,  their  temporary  development  for  a 
given  purpose,  and  the  mammary  glands  of  Quadrupeds,  need  not 
be  insisted  on. 

The  tarsi  are  usually  short,  rather  stout,  and  covered  with  scutella, 
but  sometimes  feathered.     The  toes  are  four  in  number,  of  moderate 


Fig.  1363.- 


-Ilead  of  the  Rock- 
Dove. 


1364. — Crop  of  the  Pigeon. 


length,  the  hind-toe  being  placed  on  the  same  plane  as  the  anterior 
ones,  which  are  not  united  by  a  membrane,  even  at  the  base,  although 
in  some  cases  the  outer  toe  is  completely  united  to  the  middle  one  at 
the  base ;  the  upper  surface  of  all  the  toes  is  covered  with  short 
scutella,  and  beneath  these  the  toes  are  considerably  flattened,  and 
clothed  with  a  papillate  skin.  The  claws  are  rather  short,  and 
cur\'ed.     (See  Fig.  1365.) 

The  quill-feathers  of  "the  wings  and  tail  are  very  uniform  in  number. 
The  former  are  generally  long  and  pointed,  and  have  ten  primary 
quills  ;  the  tail  is  almost  always  composed  of  twelve  feathers — rarely 
of  si.xteen.  The  general  plumage  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
Gallinaceous  Birds  by  the  absence  of  the  plumules,  or  accessory 
feathers,  greatly  developed  in  the  latter. 

The  CohdnbcB,  in  general,  are  arboreal  in  their  habits  ;  but  most 
of  them  seek  their  food  on  the  ground  ;  and  they  all,  notwithstanding 
the  shortness  of  their  legs,  walk  with  ease  and  considerable  celerity. 
Their  flight,  as  might'be  expected  from  the  form  and  size  of  their 
wings,  is  strong  and  sustained,  and  some  species  perform  consider, 
able  migrations.  In  this  respect  they  offer  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
heavy,  short-winged  Gallinaceous  Birds,  whose  flight  is  usually  slow, 
and  only  capable  of  being  maintained  for  a  short  distance.  In  their 
mode  of  drinking,  also,  they  diff'er  remarkably  from  all  other  Birds  ; 
for,  instead  of  taking  up  a  small  quantity  of  water  in  the  mouth,  and 
then  swallowing  it  by  raising  the  head,  they  immerse  the  bill  in  the 
water,  and  drink  without  stopping  until  they  are  satisfied.  The 
Pigeons  generally  nestle  in  trees  or  in  the  holes  of  rocks  ;  rarely  on 
the  ground.  The  young,  when  hatched,  are  quite  helpless,  and  re- 
quire to  be  fed  carefully  by  their  parents  for  some  time,  during  which 
they  remain  in  the  nest.  The  duty  of  incubation,  and  the  care  of  the 
young,  is  shared  by  both  jparents. 

These  Birds  are  found  in  all  the 
warm  and  temperate  parts  of  the 
globe  ;  but  it  is  in  the  warmer  re- 
gions that  they  occur  in  the  greatest 
abundance.  There,  also,  many  of 
the  species  attain  a  splendour  of 
plumage  which  rivals  almost  any- 
thing else  that  we  meet  with 
amongst  the  feathered  inhabitants 
of  the  air,  and  of  which  our  native 
species,  although  by  no  means 
deficient  in  beauty,  can  give  us  no 
idea.  Everywhere  the  Doves  are 
regarded  with  more  or  less  favour, 
doubtless  owing,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  their  reputation  for 
conjugal  fidelity,  and  the  peculi- 
Fig.  1365. — Foot  of  Ring-Dove  from  arly  melancholy  sound  of  their 
above  and  beneath.  voice,  which  is  universally  a  plain- 

tive cooing.  These  characters, 
coupled  with  the  continual  exhibition  of  all  the  signs  of  a  most  tender 
affection  between  the  sexes  during  the  breeding  season,  induced 
the  ancients  to  consecrate  the  Dove  to  Venus.  In  many  Christian 
countries,  also,  the  Dove  is  regarded  as  a  sacred  animal,  because, 
under  its  form,  the  Holy  Spirit  is  described  as  having  descended 
upon  our  Saviour  at  his  baptism.  The  following  cut  illustrates  a 
group  of  this  family.     (See  Fig.  1366.) 

At  what  period  man  added  the  Pigeon  to  his  list  of  domestic  re- 
tainers of  the  feathered  race  is  not  very  clear,  but  it  was  evidently  at 
a  remote  period.  We  find  abundant  references  to  it  in  the  classical 
writers,  and  we  know  that  it  was  among  the  clean  animals  according 
to  the  law  of  Moses.  In  the  East,  the  Dove,  or  Pigeon,  has  always 
been  regarded  with  favour,  and  has  been  employed,  time  immemorial , 
as  a  carrier  of  letters  or  written  messages  ;  its  rapidity  of  flight,  its 
almost  unerring  instinct  in  finding  its  way  home,  and  the  eagerness 
with  which  it  returns  to  its  dwelling,  recommending  it  for  such  a  use. 
In  Persia,  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  Pigeons  are  kept  in  multitudes 
for  the  sake  of  the  manure  produced  :  towers  are  built  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  town  for  them,  and  vast  clouds  of  these  Birds  may  be 
seen  issuing  from  them,  returning  to  them,  or  wheeling  in  the  air 
around  their  pinnacles.  The  passage  in  Isaiah  (1.x.  8),  "  Who  are 
these  that  fly  as  a  cloud,  and  as  the  doves  to  their  windows,"  is,  as 
Mr.  Morier  has  observed,  illustrated  by  reference  to  those  Pigeon- 
towers  which  he  noticed  around  the  outskirts  of  Ispahan.  W^ith  re- 
spect to  the  extraordinary  flights  of  these  Birds,  he  says,  "  Their 
numbers,  and  the  compactness  of  their  mass,  literally  looked  like  a 
cloud  at  a  distance,  and  obscured  the  sun  in  their  passage."  It  is 
probable  that  the  Jews,  requiring  Pigeons  as  they  did  for  offerings 
at  the  Temple,  built  similar  towers  :  the  Egj'ptians  certainly  did,  as 


THE  DODO. 


533 


is  proved  by  ancient  paintings  and  the  mosaic  pavement  at  Prasneste, 
where  Pigeon-towers  similar  to  those  of  Ispahan  are  represented,  but 
without  the  conical  crowns. 

Sub-divisions. — These  Birds  may  be  divided  into  five  families. 
In  the  first,  the  Didi/iicii/ida;,  the  bill  is  about  as  long  as  the  head, 
with  the  upper  mandible  much  depressed  at  the  base,  strongly  arched 
in  its  apiL:al  portion,  and  hooked  and  acute  at  the  tip  ;  the  lower 
mandible  has  the  apex  truncated,  and  three  distinct  teeth  on  each 
side,  near  the  ape.x.  The  nostrils  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
membranous  depressed  portion  of  the  base,     The  tarsi  are  stout ; 


Fig.  1366 A  Group  of  Pigeons. 

a,  the  Pouter ;  b,  the  Carrier  ;  c,  the  Jacobin  ;  d,   the  Ring-Dove,  or  Cushat  ;  e,  the  Rock-Dove  (the 
orinin  of  our  doiaestic  birds) ;  /,  the  Fan-tailed  Pigeon  ;  g,  the  Nun  ;  /;,  the  Tumbler. 

and  the  toes  long,  with  long  curved  claws.  This  family  includes 
only  a  single  species,  the  Didu/iculus  strtgirosiris,  a  Bird  a  little 
larger  than  a  Partridge,  which  inhabits  the  Navigator's  Islands. 
This  Bird  has  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  whole  lower  surface,  with 
the  exception  of  the  under  tail-coverts,  black,  glossed  with  green  ; 
the  upper  surface  and  the  lower  tail-coverts  are  chestnut-red,  and 
the  bill,  and  a  ring  of  n.aked  skin  round  the  eyes,  are  yellow.  From 
some  notes  on  this  Bird,  communicated  to  the  Zoological  Society  by 
Lieut.  Walpole,  R.N.,  it  appears  that  the  Didiinaih  remam  almost 
constantly  upon  trees,  feeding  upon  berries  and  fruits  during  the 
day,  and  roosting  at  night  amongst  the  branches.  They  fiy  pretty 
well,  and  are  generally  seen  either  in  pairs  or  small  flocks.  They 
nidificate  amongst  the  rocks  in  the  interior  of  the  islands,  and  the 
young,  like  those  of  other  Pigeons,  are  naked  and  helpless.  Their 
flesh  is  excellent.     The  natives,  according  to  Lieutenant  Walpole, 


"are  fond  of  keeping  the  Didunculi  tame,  as  pets,  either  taking 
them  from  the  nest,  or,  when  older,  with  bird-lime.  They  attach  the 
bird  by  a  long  string  fastened  round  one  leg,  to  a  stick  about  two 
feet  in  length,  with  a  fork  at  the  end,  which  is  stuck  generally  in  the 
wall  inside  the  hut,  but  sometimes  in  the  ground  outside.  Th«i 
natives,  when  they  walkj  often  carry  with  them  these  sticks  with  the 
birds  attached,  and  train  the  birds  to  leave  the  stick  occasionally, 
and  hover  over  it  till  it  is  again  presented  for  the  bird  to  perch  on — 
the  line  by  which  it  is  attached  being  long  enough  to  admit  of  this 
operation."     The  Didienctilus  is,  however,  particularly  interesting 

from  its  constituting  the  nearest 
approach,  amongst  existing  Birds, 
\o  the  singular  extinct  Bird,  the 
Podoi  the  true  position  of  which 
has  been  shown,  by  Messrs.  Strict' 
land  and  Melville,  to  be  amongst 
the  CulumbcB. 

The  Dodo— Family  Dididcs. 

The  Dodo  {Didics  irieptus). — 
Dronte,  Bontius  ;  Walgh-Vogel  of 
the  Dutch  mariners,  according  to 
Clusius )  Dod-aers  of  the  Dutchi 
and  Dod-eersen  ;  Solitario  of  th^ 
Portuguese ;  Gallus  galli7iaceui 
pe?-cgri?itts,  Clusius  ;  Cygiius  en- 
cicUatus,  Nieremberg.  It  is  the 
type  of  the  second  family  of  the 
ColiiDiba: — viz.,  Dididcs. 

Till  the  discovery,  in  1505,  of 
the  islands  now  called  Bourbon, 
Mauritius,  and  Rodriguez  (but  first 
termed  the  Mascarenhas  Islesj 
from  the  name  of  the  Portuguesd 
navigator  who  discovered  them)) 
they  appear  never  to  have  been 
occupied  as  a  residence  by  man  ; 
perhaps  no  human  foot  had  ever 
trod  their  shores,  no  human  voice 
broken  the  stillness  of  their  wood- 
land solitudes.  In  these  islands, 
for  ages,  had  the  Dodo  existed 
undisturbed,  at  least  by  the  great 
marauder,  by  whom  at  last  its 
race  was  to  be  extinguished.     (See 

Fig.  1367-) 

It  appears,  indeed,  if  the  species 
be  the  same,   that  the  Dodo  was 
at  one  time  not  confined  to  those 
islands,  and  that  it  was,  previously 
to  1505,  known  to  the  Portuguese 
mariners      under     the     name    of 
Solitario ;  for  Vasco  de  Gama,  in 
1497,  after  doubling  the   Cape  of 
Storms  (the  Cape  of  Good  Hope), 
found  an  island  near  a  bay  (Angra 
de    San    Blaz)    where    Sohtarios 
were  plentiful  ;  and  again  in  1499, 
touchmg  at  the   same  place,  the 
crew  took  a  number  of  them.    T  he 
sailors   compared   these    Birds  to 
Swans,  and  called  the  island  "  Ilha 
des   Cisnes,"     or   Isle   of  Swans. 
In  1614  Castleton  visited  Bourbon  ; 
there  he  found  the  Dodo  abundant, 
and  so  tame  as  to  allow  itself  to 
be    killed    with  sticks  or   stones. 
He  had  also  met  with  the  Bird  in 
Mauritius,  where  they  are,  as  he 
states,  in  great  plenty,  and  known 
by    the     name    of    giants.       The 
Island  of  Rodriguez,  which,  though 
previously  known,  had  perhaps  not  been  visited,  being  surrounded 
by  coral  reefs,  and  also  being  destitute  of  secure  anchorage,  was 
examined  by  Leguat  in   1691,  who,  with  several  companions,  re- 
mained some  time  with  a  view  to  colonisation.     He  there  found  the 
Dodo,   which  he  terms  Solitaire,  or  the   Solitar)',  because  it  never 
congregates  in  flocks,  though  it  is  very  abundant.     He  gives  some 
particulars  respecting  it,  which  agree  in  the  main  with  those  detailed 
in  Herbert's  "  Travels,"  published  in  1634,  and  accompanied  by  a 
figure. 

"  The  males  have  generally  a  greyish  or  brown  plumage,  the  feet 
of  the  Turkey,  and  also  the  beak,  but  a  little  more  hooked.  They 
have  hardly  any  tail,  and  their  rump,  covered  with  feathers,  is 
rounded  like  the  croup  of  a  horse.  They  stand  higher  than  the 
turkey-cock,  and  have  a  straight  neck,  a  little  longer  in  proportion 
than  it  is  in  that  bird  when  it  raises  its  head.    The  eye  is  black  and 


S34 


THE  DODO. 


lively,  and  the  head  without  any  crest  or  tuft.  They  do  not  fly,  their 
wing's  being  too  short  to  support  the  weight  of  their  bodies ;  they 
only  use  them  in  beating  their  sides,  and  in  whirling  round."  The 
females  he  states  to  be  of  a  blond  or  pale  brown  colour  ;  they  build  a 
nest  with  leaves  of  the  palm-tree  on  a  clear  spot  of  ground,  laying 
only  one  egg,  larger  than  that  of  a  Goose.  The  weight  of  the  males 
is  forty-five  or  fifty  pounds,  and  the  i5esh  is,  as  he  says,  a  delicacy. 
In  this  description  one  important  point  is  omitted  ;  that  is,  the  hooded 
character  of  the  head,  well  expressed  in  the  account  alluded  to  in 
Herbert's  "Travels."  Leguat's  figure  is  either  very  bad  or  his 
Solitaire  is  distinct  from  the  Dodo. 

In  the  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  by  Jacob  van  Neck  and  Wybrand 
van  Warwyk,  1598,  the  Dodo  is  noticed  as  inhabiting  the  Island  of 
Cerne  (Mauritius) ;  and  De  Bry,  in  his  description  of  the  Island  of 
Cerne,  says — "  Cerulean  parrots  abound  there,  as  well  as  other 
birds  ;  besides  which  is  another  kind,  of  large  size,  exceeding  our 
swans,  with  vast  heads,  and  one-half  covered  with  a  skin,  as  it  were, 
hooded.  These  birds  are  without  wings,  in  the  place  of  which  are 
three  or  four  black  feathers.  A  few  curved,  delicate,  ash-coloured 
feathers  constitute  the  tail.    These  birds  are  called  Walck-Vogel, 


Fig.  1367.— The  Dodo. 

because  the  longer  or  more  slowly  they  were  cooked,  the  worse  they 
were  for  eating.  Their  breasts  and  bellies  were  nevertheless  of  a 
pleasant  flavour,  and  easy  of  mastication  ;  but  another  cause  for  the 
appellation  we  gave  them  was  the  preferable  abundance  of  turtle- 
doves, which  were  of  a  far  sweeter  and  more  grateful  flavour."  De 
Bry  gives  a  figure  in  his  frontispiece.  Clusius,  in  his  "  E.xotica," 
1605,  gives  a  figure  of  this  Bird,  taken  from  a  sketch  ad  naturam, 
by  a  Dutch  voyager,  who  had  seen  the  Bird  in  1598.  In  the  "Voyage 
of  Jacob  Heemskirk  and  Wolfert  Harmansz  to  the  East  Indies  in 
;6oi,  1602,  1603,"  and  in  Willem  Ysbrantsz  Bontckoe  van  Hoorn's 
"  Journal  of  the  Fast  India  Voyage,  &c.,  in  1618  to  1624,"  the  Dodo 
is  noticed  as  inhabiting  the  Mauritius.  Herbert,  in  his  "  Travels," 
1634,  describes  and  figures  the  Dodo;  it  is  also  described  and 
figured  well  by  Bontius,  1658.  To  this  catalogue  of  authorities  more 
might  be  added— but  we  will  not  weary  our  readers.  Among  the 
many  descriptions  of  the  Bird  by  travellers  and  writers  of  credit,  we 
will  content  ourselves  with  that  of  Bontius.  "The  Dronte,  or 
Dod-aers,"  he  says,  "  is  for  bigness  of  mean  size  between  an  ostrich 
and  a  turkey,  from  which  it  partly  differs  in  shape  and  partly  agrees 
with  them,  especially  with  the  African  ostriches,  if  you  consider  the 
rump,  quills,  and  feathers ;  so  that  it  was  like  a  pigmy  among  them, 


if  you  regard  the  shortness  of  its  legs.  It  hath  a  great  ill-favoured 
head,  covered  with  a  kind  of  membrane  resembling  a  hood  ;  great 
black  eyes  ;  a  bending,  prominent,  fat  neck  ;  an  extraordinary  long, 
strong,  bluish-white  bill,  only  the  ends  of  each  mandible  are  of  a 
different  colour — that  of  the  upper,  black  ;  that  of  the  nether,  yel- 
lowish ;  both  sharp-pointed  and  crooked.  It  gapes  huge  wide,  as 
being  naturally  very  voracious.  Its  body  is  fat,  round,  covered  with 
soft  grey  feathers,  after  the  manner  of  an  ostrich's  ;  in  each  side, 
instead  of  hard  wing-feathers  or  quills,  it  is  furnished  with  small, 
soft-feathered  wings,  of  a  yellowish  ash-colour ;  and  behind,  the 
rump,  instead  of  a  tail,  is  adorned  with  five  small  curled  feathers  of 
the  same  colour.  It  hath  yellow  legs,  thick,  but  very  short ;  four 
toes  in  each  foot,  solid,  long,  as  it  were  scaly,  armed  with  strong 
black  claws.  It  is  a  slow-paced  and  stupid  bird,  and  which  easily 
becomes  a  prey  to  the  fowlers.  The  flesh,  especially  of  the  breast, 
is  fat,  esculent,  and  so  copious,  that  three  or  four  dodos  will  some- 
times suffice  to  fill  an  hundred  seamen's  bellies.  If  they  be  old,  or 
not  well  boiled,  they  are  of  difficult  concoction,  and  are  salted  and 
stored  up  for  provision  of  victual.  There  are  found  in  their  stomachs 
stones    of  an    ash-colour,     of     divers    figures     and     magnitudes ; 

yet  not  bred  there,  as  the  com- 
mon people  and  seamen  fancy, 
but  swallowed  by  the  bird  ;  and 
though  by  this  mark  also  nature 
would  manifest  that  these  fowl 
are  of  the  ostrich  kind,  in  that 
they  swallow  any  hard  things, 
though  they  do  not  digest 
them."  (Willughby's  Trans- 
lation.) 

There  is  some  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  a  living  Dodo  was 
exhibited  in  England  in  1638. 
(See  Sloane's  MSS.,  No.  1839, 
5,  p.  108,  Brit.  Mus.)  In  the 
British  Museum  is  preserved  a 
painting  of  this  Bird,  the  copy 
of  an  original  which  was  taken 
from  a  living  specimen  sent  to 
Holland  from  Mauritius,  while 
that  island  was  held  by  the 
Dutch.  This  copy  was  the  pro- 
perty of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  and 
afterwards  of  Edwards,  by 
whom  it  was  deposited  in  the 
Museum.  As  it  agrees  with 
other  figures — -namely,  one  in 
Clusius,  one  in  Herbert's 
"  Travels,"  and  one  in  Wil- 
lughby's "  Ornithology,"  taken 
from  Bontius,  we  have  every 
reason  to  rely  upon  it  as  an 
accurate  representation.  For- 
merly a  perfect  specimen, 
noticed  by  Ray,  existed  in  Tra- 
descant's  Museum.  This  spe- 
cimen afterwards  passed  into 
the  Ashmolean  Museum  at 
Oxford,  where  it  still  existed  as 
late  as  1700;  it  subsequently 
fell  to  decay,  the  head  and  a 
foot  alone  remaining.  A  foot 
of  this  Bird  is  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum,  and  a 
breast-bone  in  the  Museum  at 
Paris. 
We  have  seen  a  cast  of  the  head  of  that  in  the  Ashmolean  Mu- 
seum, and  a  most  extraordinary  head  it  is  ;  there  is  something 
greatly  Vulture-like  in  the  whole  of  its  conformation.  For  example, 
as  we  find  in  the  Vultures,  it  was  evidently  capable  of  being  retracted 
within  a  hood  or  duplicature  of  skin  thinly  covered  with  downy 
feathers ;  the  beak  is  stout,  deep,  and  powerful,  considerably 
elongated,  and  strongly  hooked  at  the  tip  ;  its  base  is  covered 
with  an  extensive  cere,  at  the  termination  of  which,  near  the  edge  of 
the  upper  mandible,  are  the  nostrils  ;  the  gape  is  wide,  extending 
beyond  the  eye  ;  the  skin  of  the  throat  was  loose  and  thinly  clothed  ; 
and  the  top  of  the  head  appears  to  have  been  naked,  or  only  sprinkled 
with  feathers.  The  measurements  are  as  follow  :— from  the  eye  to 
the  end  of  the  beak,  six  inches  ;  to  the  nostril,  three  inches  ;  breadth 
of  the  skull  across  the  forehead,  three  inches  and  a  quarter ;  mean 
depth  of  beak,  two  inches  and  a  quarter.  Though  we  say  the  head 
is  Vulture-like  in  its  contour,  we  would  guard  ourselves  from  the 
assertion  that  it  was  to  the  Vulture  family  the  Dodo  belonged,  as 
M.  Blainville  and  some  naturalists  contend ;  other  parts  of  its 
structure,  to  judge  from  the  painting  and  the  descriptions  of  early 
travellers,  militate  against  such  a  supposition.  Cuvier  refers  it  to  the 
Gallinaceous  order.  "Mr.  Dallas  remarks  that  the  nostrils  were  placed 


HERONS, 


THE  DODO. 


S^S 


on  the  sides  of  the  depressed  portion  of  the  bill,  which  was  covered  by 
a  naked  skin ;  the  face  was  similarly  clothed.  The  feet  were  very 
short  and  stout,  but  bore  a  considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  a 
Pigeon.  The  wings  were  also  very  short,  and  quite  incapable  of 
raising  the  Bird  into  the  air,  even  had  they  been  furnished  with  the 
ordinary  stiff  quill-feathers ;  but,  instead  of  these,  they  bore  a  few 
soft  decomposed  plumes,  like  those  of  the  Ostrich  ;  and  the  tail  was 
adorned  with  a  tuft  of  similar,  but  smaller  feathers.  This  rudimen- 
tary condition  of  the  wings  led  to  the  Dodo's  being  placed  amongst 
the  Cursorial  Birds  by  many  writers.  The  general  colour  of  the 
Dodo  was  a  blackish-grey,  but  the  plumes  of  the  wings  were  of  a 
light  ash  colour. 

In  the  little  island  of  Rodriguez,  lying  in  the  ocean  to  the  east  of 
the  Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  where  the  Dodo  abounded,  it  appears, 
from  some  bones  in  the  possession  of  the  Zoological  Society,  that 
three  species  of  wingless  Birds  formerly  existed.  One  of  these  Mr. 
Bartlett  considers  to  be  identical  with  the  Dodo  of  the  Mauritius  : 
another  was  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  Dodo  ;  whilst  the  third  was 
rather  smaller  than  that  Bird,  The  latter  is  probably  the  Solitaire, 
which  is  described  by  Leguat,  a  French  voyager,  in  the  following 
terms  (see  Fig.  1368)  : — 


Fig.  136S. — Le  Solitaire,  from  Leguat. 

"  Of  all  the  birds  in  the  island,"  says  he,  "the  most  remarkable 
is  that  which  goes  by  the  name  of  the  Solitary,  because  it  is  very 
seldom  seen  in  company,  though  there  is  an  abundance  of  them.  The 
feathers  of  the  male  are  of  a  brown-gray  colour  ;  the  feet  and  beak  are 
like  a  turkey's,  but  a  little  more  crooked.  They  have  scarce  any 
tail,  but  their  hind-part,  covered  with  feathers,  is  roundish,  like  the 
crupper  of  a  horse  ;  they  are  taller  than  the  turkeys.  Their  neck 
is  straight,  and  a  little  longer,  in  proportion,  than  a  turkey's  when 
it  lifts  up  its  head.  Its  eye  is  black  and  lively,  and  its  head  without 
comb  or  cap.  They  never  fly  ;  their  wings  are  too  little  to  support 
the  weight  of  their  bodies  :  they  serve  only  to  beat  themselves,  and 
to  flutter  when  they  c^Jl  one  another.  They  will  whirl  about  for 
twenty  or  thirty  times  together,  on  the  same  side,  during  the  space 
of  four  or  five  minutes.  The  motion  of  their  wings  makes  then  a 
noise,  very  like  that  of  a  rattle,  and  one  may  hear  it  two  hundred 
paces  off.  The  bone  of  their  wings  grows  greater  towards  the  ex- 
tremity, and  forms  a  little  round  mass  under  the  feathers,  as  big  as 
a  musket-ball.  That  and  its  beak  are  the  chief  defence  of  this  bird. 
'Tis  very  hard  to  catch  it  in  the  woods,  but  easy  in  open  places, 
because  we  run  faster  than  they,  and  sometimes  we  approach  them 
without  much  trouble.  From  March  to  September  they  are  extremely 
fat,  and  taste  admirably  well,  especially  while  they  are  young. 
Some  of  the  males  weigh  forty-five  pounds. 

"  The  females  are  wonderfully  beautiful,  some  fair,  some  brown; 
I  call  them  fair,  because  they  are  of  the  colour  of  fair  hair.  They 
have  a_  sort  of  peak,  like  a  widow's,  upon  their  breasts  (beaks  ?), 
which  is  of  a  dun  colour.     No  one  feather  is  straggling  from  the 


other  all  over  their  bodies,  they  being  very  careful  to  adjust  them- 
selves, and  make  them  all  even  with  their  beaks.  The  feathers  on 
their  thighs  are  round,  like  shells,  at  the  end,  and  being  there  very 
thick,  have  an  agreeable  effect.  They  have  two  risings  on  their 
craws,  and  the  feathers  are  whiter  there  than  the  rest,  which  livelily 
represents  the  fine  neck  of  a  beautiful  woman.  They  walk  with  so 
much  stateliness  and  good  grace,  that  one  cannot  help  admiring  and 
loving  them  ;  by  which  means  their  fine  mien  often  saves  their 
lives." 

Making  allowance  for  some  poetic  license,  which  the  gallantry  of 
the  worthy  Leguat  appears  to  have  induced  him  to  take  in  his 
description  of  the  females,  this  appears  to  be  a  trustworthy  account 
of  the  aspect  and  manners  of  a  Bird  nearly  allied  to  the  Dodo  ;  and 
in  this  case,  at  any  rate,  Leguat  is  not  deserving  of  the  censure  of 
Cuvier,  who  does  not  consider  his  testimony  of  any  great  value.  At 
all  events,  some  of  the  bones  above  referred  to  belonged  to  a  Bird 
about  the  size  attributed  by  Leguat  to  the  Solitaire,  and  recent 
authors  have  appropriated  Gmelin's  name  of  Didus  solitarius  to 
this  Bird.  To  the  third  species,  Mr.  Bartlett  gives  the  name  of 
Didics  tiazaretius,  which  was  employed  by  Gmelin  for  a  Bird  de- 
scribed by  Frangois  Coache,  many  years  ago,  under  the  name  of  the 
l)odo,  but  to  which  he  ascribes  only  three  toes.  The  occurrence  of 
at  least  three  species  of  large  Wingless  Birds  upon  these  islands, 
separated  as  they  are  by  many  miles  of  sea,  is  a  most  remarkable 
circumstance  ;  and,  as  the  Birds  could  by  no  possibility  pass  from 
one  island  to  the  other,  the  only  plausible  supposition  by  which 
their  presence  can  be  accounted  for  is,  that  these  islands  at  one 
time  formed  part  of  a  great  continent,  which  is  now  submerged  be- 
neath the  waves  of  the  great  Indian  Ocean.  As  the  Birds  were  in 
existence  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  some  naturalists  are  not 
without  expectations  that  the  same,  or  allied,  species  may  still  be 
found  in  the  neighbouring  and  almost  unexplored  island  of  Mada- 
gascar. It  will  be  exceedingly  interesting,  if  we  should  hereafter 
receive  living  specimens  of  Birds,  the  very  existence  of  which  was 
regarded  as  apocryphal  by  many  eminent  naturalists. 

The  various   figures  of  the  Dodo  here  given  are   derived  from 


Fig.  1369. — The  Dodo,  from  De  Biy. 

different  works  : — Fig.  1369,  the  Dodo,  from  De  Bry  ;  Fig.  i3;o,  the 
same,  from  Clusius  ;  Fig.  1371,  the  same,  from  Herbert;  Fig.  1372, 
the  same,  from  Bontius  ;  Fig.  1368,  le  Solitaire,  from  Leguat  ;  Fig. 
1373,  the  Head  of  the  Dodo,  from  a  cast  from  the  Oxford  specimen  ; 


Fig.  1370. — The  Dodo,  from  Clusius. 


Fig.  1374,  the  Leg  of  the  Dodo, 

Museum.        Tarsus,    four  inches 

inches  ;  middle  toe,  three  inches. 

The  third  family  is  that  of  the 


from  the  specimen  in  the  British 
and  a-half;    circumference,   four 

Gourida;,  or  Ground  Pigeons,  in 


which  the  bill  is  of  moderate  size,  slender,  straight,  and  much  arched 


536 


THE  PIGEONS. 


at  the  apex ;  the  tarsi  long  and  stout ;  and  the  toes  long,  margined 
uith  a  sort  of  membrane,  and  furnished  with  short  curved  claws. 
These  Birds  approach  more  nearly  than  any  of  the  other  members  of 
the  order  to  the  true  Gallinaceous  Birds  ;  their  tarsi  are  longer,  and 
they  generally  live  in  flocks  upon  the  ground,  where  they  seek  their 


Fig.  137 1. — The  Dodo,  from  Herbert. 

food,  consisting  of  seeds,  &c.,  and  rarely  perch  upon  trees.  They 
are  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  and  some  of  them 
attain  a  considerable  size  ;  the  type  of  the  family,  the  Crowned 
Pigeon  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  {Goiira  coronata),  being  nearly 
as  large  as  a  Turkey.  It  is  kept  in  the  poultry-yards  in  Java,  but 
does  not  breed  in  Europe.  Many  of  the  species  are  exceedingly 
beautiful;  one  of  them,  the  Nicobar  Pigeon  {CaI(Z7!as  Jiicobaricd), 
is  remarkable  not  only  in  this  respect,  but  also  for  the  resemblance 


Fig.  1372.— The  Dodo,  from  Bontius. 

in  the  arrangement  of  the  tail-feathers  to  that  of  the  Cock.  This 
Bird  is  of  a  dark  purplish,  or  nearly  black,  colour,  with  the  feathers 
of  the  neck  long,  pointed,  and  glossed  with  blue,  red,  and  gold  ; 
the  wings  are  blue  ;  the  back  brilliant  golden-green ;  and  the  tail 
white.     It  is  found  in  several  parts  of  India. 

The  True  Pigeons— Family  Columbidm. 

The  Coliimbidcs,  or  True  Pigeons,  is  the  family  to  which  all  our 
British  species  belong.  These  Birds  present  the  characters  of  the 
order  in  their  greatest  perfection.  The  bill  is  rather  slender,  horny, 
arched,  and  acute  at  the  tip,  covered  with  a  soft  tumid  skin  at  the 
base  ;  the  nostrils  are  pierced  in  the  form  of  longitudinal  slits  in 
the  front  of  the  basal  swelling ;  tarsi  are  short,  and  usually  about 
equal  in  length  to  the  hinder  toe  ;  the  anterior  toes  are  elongated. 
These  Birds  generally  live  in  wooded  places,  and  roost  in  the  trees. 
They  feed,  however,  for  the  most  part  on  the  ground,  picking  up 
seeds  of  all  kinds,  young  herbage,  and  roots.  In  the  autumn  some 
of  them  eat  large  fruits,  such  as  beech-mast  and  acorns,  which  they 
are  obliged  to  swallow  whole,  their  bills  not  being  strong  enough 
to  make  any  impression  on  them.  Some  of  them  make  their  nests 
amongst  the  branches  of  trees  ;  others  in  hollow  trees,  or  in  holes 
of  rocks  ;  and  it  appears  that,  in  Norfolk,  the  Stock- Dove  {Columba 
CBnas)  often 'lays  its  eggs  in  deserted  Rabbit-burrows,  generally 
without  a  nest.     This  Bird  also  nestles  in  thick  furze-bushes  upon 


the  heaths  in  the  same  county;  but  in  other  localities  it  is  said  to 
live  in  woody  places,  and  to  build  in  trees,  like  its  congeners.  The 
largest  of  the  British  species  is  the  Ring-Dove,  or  Cushat  {Columba 
^alunibus),  which  is  generally  distributed  in  all  the  wooded  parts 
of  the  country  ;  the  Stock-Dove,  on  the  contrary',  is  found  only  in 
the  southern  and  midland  counties  of  England  ;  and  these  are  also 
the  parts  most  frequented  by  the  Turtle- Dove  {Columba  tiirtur), 
which,  however,  is  only  a  summer  visitor  to  this  country.     A  fourth 


Fig.  1373. — Head  of  the  Dodo,  at  O.xford. 

British  species  is  the  Rock-Dove  {Columba  livia).     The  following 
gives  a  more  specific  account  of  these  and  other  species. 

The  Ring-Dove,  or  Cushat  {Colmnba  ^alumOits). — This  Bird 
is  the  largest  of  our  Wild  Pigeons,  and  is  common  in  the  wooded 
districts  of  our  island,  as  well  as  of  the  greater  portion  of  Europe.  In 
the  winter  it  assembles  in  numerous  flocks,  which  resort  to  the 
stubble-lands  in  quest  of  food.  It  devours  all  kinds  of  grain,  peas, 
beech-mast,  acorns,  berries,  and  the  green  leaves  of  the  turnip. 
During  this  season  of  the  year  its  numbers  are  often  increased  by 
the  arrival  of  flocks  from  the  more  northern  parts  of  Europe  ;  but  in 
our  island,  and  in  France  and  the  southern  countries,  it  is  not 
migratory.  No  naturalist  has  regarded  tlie  Ring-Dove  as  identical 
with  the  Domestic  Pigeon.  Its  mode  of  building  its  nest — a  flat 
platform  of  twigs  laid  crossways  on  the  fork  of  a  branch — its  size, 


Fig.  1374. — Foot  of  the  Dodo,  in  the  British  Museum. 

its  refusal  when  in  captivity  to  breed  with  the  pigeon,  and  the 
failure  of  every  attempt  to  reduce  it  to  a  state  of  domestication,  are 
of  themselves,  setting  aside  colouring,  sufficient  proofs  of  specific 
distinctness. 

The  Stock-Dove  {Columba  cBnas). — This  Bird  derives  its  name 
from  being,  as  was  presumed,  but  erroneously,  the  stock  to  which 
the  common  Pigeon  is  referable.  This  error  arose,  no  doubt,  from 
our  early  ornithologists  having  confounded  the  Stock-Dove  with  the 
Rock-Dove,  and  so  mixed  up  the  history  of  both.  Montagu,  in  his 
"  Dictionary  of  Ornithology,"  confounds  these  Birds  together, 
deeming  the  Columba  livia  and  the  C.  csnas  to  be  identical.  His 
description,  however,  refers  to  the  C.  livia  (Rock-Dove) ;  and  it 
would  seem  that  he  was  unacquainted  with  the  true  C.  anas. 

White,  in  his  "  History  of  Selborne,"  well  distinguishes  the  Stock- 
Dove  and  the  "  small  blue  rock-pigeon,"  observing,  that  "  unless  the 
stock-dove  in  winter  greatly  varies  from  itself  in  summer,  no  species 
seems  more  unlikely  to  be  domesticated  and  to  make  a  liou3c-dovc. 
We  very  rarely  see  the  latter  settle  on  trees  at  all,  nor  does  it  ever 
haunt  the  woods  :  but  the  former,  as  long  as  it  stays  with  us,  from 
November  perhaps  to  February,  lives  the  same  wild  life  with  the 
ring-dove  :  frequents  coppices  and  groves,  supports  itself  chiefly  by 
mast,  and  delights  to  roost  in  the  tallest  beeches.  Could  it  be 
known  in  what  manner  the  stock-doves  build,  the  doubt  would  be 
settled  with  me  at  once,  provided  they  construct  their  nests  on  trees, 
like  the  ring-dove,  as  I  must  suspect  they  do." 

From  this  it  appears  that  White  had  only  a  partial  degree  of  in- 
formation respecting  the  Stock-Dove.  This  Bird  is  indigenous  in 
our  island,  breeding  in  the  woods  ;  but  its  localities  are  circum- 
scribed. In  winter  the  flocks  are  increased  by  accessions  from 
the  northern  provinces  of  Europe  ;  but  these  visitants  depart  in 
spring. 

In  our  island  the  Stock-Dove  limits  its  range  almost  exclusively  to 
the  midland  counties,  and  is  common  in  Hertfordshire.     It  is  rarely 


THE    CAKRIER  PIGEON. 


S37 


seen  in  the  southern  or  western  counties,  and  still  more  rarely  in  the 
northern.  It  makes  a  nest  of  twigs,  in  the  holes  of  decayed  and 
timeworn  trees,  and  in  cavities  on  the  top  of  pollards,  but  never 
places  it  on  the  forked  or  spreading  branches  of  a  tree.  As  is  the 
case  with  all  the  Dove  tribe,  its  eg-gs  are  two  in  number. 

The  Stock-Dove  is  not  only  found  in  Europe,  but  in  the'northern 
provinces  of  Africa,  and  in  various  parts  of  Asia.  We  have  seen 
specimens  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Trebizond  and  Erzeroum,  where 
it  is  said  to  be  common. 

Selby  thus  details  the  colours  of  the  Stock-Dove  : — "  Head  and 
throat  deep  bluish-grey  ;  sides  of  the  neck  glossed,  with  different 
shades  of  green  and  purple  ;  the  feathers  shorter  and  more  distinct 
than  those  of  the  rock-dove  ;  lower  parts  of  the  neck  and  breast  pale 
lavender-purple  ;  belly,  thighs,  and  under  tail-coverts,  bluish-grey, 
with  a  slight  purplish  tinge  ;  back,  deep  bluish-grey  ;  wing-coverts 
paler,  and  some  of  the  greater  ones  spotted  and  barred  with  black, 
but  not  forming  any  defined  bar  as  in  the  above-mentioned  species. 


1375. — The  Carrier  Pigeon. 


Quills  blackish-grey,  the  outer  webs  near  the  base  of  the  feathers 
passing  inlu  bluish-^rey  ;  lower  part  of  the  back  and  tail-coverts 
bluish-grey  ;  tail  bluish-grey,  with  a  broad  black  bar  at  the  end,  and 
having  the  outermost  feathers  margined  with  white  ;  iris  brownish- 
red  ;  legs  and  toes  bright  cochineal-red." 

As  we  have  already  stated,  the  Stock-Dove  has  been  confounded 
with  the  Rock-Dove,  and  the  characters  of  the  latter  have  been  con- 
sequently given  as  those  of  the  former.  The  Rock-Dove,  however, 
is  a  totally  distinct  species,  and  its  habits  are  unlike  those  of  any 
other  of  our  Cohnnha}.  As  its  name  imports,  it  frequents  rocks  and 
precipices,  especially  along  the  sea-coast,  and  is  far  from  being  un- 
common. It  is  partial  to  deep  caverns,  in  which  it  breeds.  It  haunts 
the  caves  in  the  cliff  at  St.  Abb's  Head,  on  the  Berwickshire  coast ; 
those  in  the  Isle  of  Bass  ;  of  Caldy  Island,  South  Wales  ;  and  of  the 
wild  precipices  of  the  Orkneys.  We  have  seen  it  frequenting  the 
Steeples  of  churches  near  the  coast,  and  have  remarked  numbers  in- 


habitmg  the  holes  and  crevices  in  the  higher  parts  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral.  In  the  latter  instances  it  may  be  said  th,at  the  Birds  arc 
merely  the  emancipated  descendants  of  our  domestic  breed.  If  so, 
with  their  freedom  they  have  regained  their  genuine  colours  in  most 
instances. 

We  have  seen  many  .specimens  from  Northern  Africa  and  Western 
Asia.  Selby  states  that  it  is  numerous  in  the  rocky  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  where  it  lives  and  breeds  in  caverns  on  the  shore  ; 
in  the  island  of  Teneriffe  it  is  met  with  in  incredible  numbers. 

The   Rock-Dove   is    more   slender  than   the  Stock-Dove,  and  is 
astonishingly  rapid  in  flight.     It  may  at  once  be  distinguished  from 
the  latter  by  the  white  colour  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  the 
two  distinct  bands  of  leaden  black  across  the  wings.     These  dis- 
tinctive marks  are  found  in  our  ordinary  Dovecote  Pigeons;  and 
when  in  the  fancy  kinds  they  become,  by  the  breeder's  art,  impercep- 
tible,  they  are  ever  ready  to  return,  and  hence  one  of  the  difficulties 
of  keeping  up  a  particular  fancy  stock.     It  is,  then,  to  the  Rock- 
Dove,   a    species    almost    universally 
spread  in  its  wild  state  throughout  the; 
Old  World,  that  the  Domestic  Pigeon 
and  its  varieties  must  be  referred.    All 
these  varieties  breed  with  each  other, 
and  with  the  wild  Rock-Dove ;    and 
without  due  care,  all  soon  degenerate, 
as  it  is  termed,  and  acquire  the  origi- 
nal form  and  colouring. 

The  Carrier  Pigeon.— Of  all  our 
Domestic    Pigeons    none     equal    the 
Carrier  in  rapidity  of  wing  and  powers 
of     endurance.       It     was     originally 
brought  to  Europe  from  the  East ;  and 
Lithgow,  the  traveller,  tells  us  that  one 
of  them  would  carry    a    letter    from 
Babylon  to  Aleppo, which  is  thirty  days' 
journey,   in   forty-eight  hours.      It  is 
recorded  that  a  gentleman  of  Cologne, 
having  business  to  transact  in  Paris, 
took  with   him    two    Carrier  Pigeons 
which  had  young  at  the  time,  and  on 
arriving  in  Paris  at  ten  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  he  tied  a  letter  to  each  of 
liis  Pigeons,   and  despatched  them  at 
eleven  precisely.     One  of  them  arrived 
in  Cologne  at    five  minutes  past  one 
o'clock,  the  other  nine  minutes  later  ; 
and,  consequently,  they  had  performed 
nearly  150  miles  in  an  hour,  reckoning 
their  flight  to  have   been   in  a   direct 
ine.     The   ordinary  flight  of  this  Bird 
is  about  a  mile  a  minute.     We  need 
not  say  that   it  is  to  its  home,   from 
which  it  is  purposely   taken,  that  the 
Pigeon  maiies  its  way.     It  is  evident 
to  all  conversant  with  this  Bird,  that 
it  has  the  strongest   affection  for  its 
own  home — an  instinctive  nostalgia, 
which,  in  old  Birds,  can  scarcely  be 
eradicated  by  time  :  confined  for  weeks 
or  months — on   gaining  their  liberty, 
off  they  ily  to  the  old  "  familiar  spot," 
and  if  taken  away  again,  still  return 
on     the     first    opportunity.       Young 
Birds    are   much   more   easily  recon- 
ciled to  a  change  of  tenement,  and  soon 
learn  to  regard  the  new  place  as  their 
own.     It  is  this  desire — this  longing  for 
home,  which  impels  the  Pigeon  carried 
to  a  distant  spot  and  turned  loose,  to 
attempt  to  regain  it ;  and  regain  it  the 
Bird  does,  at  least,  in  general  ;  but  the 
query  arises— how    does   it  know    in 
what  direction  its  home  lies  ?  how  does  it  know  which  way  to  direct 
its  rapid  course  ?     If  the  distance  be  short,  we  can  easily  conceive 
that  the  Bird,  making  wide  circles  at  a  great  elevation,  may,  at  one 
part  of  the  circle,   discern  some  known  object,  which  will  at  once 
indicate  the  direction  to  be  followed.     A  circle  of  three  or  four  miles 
would  give  the  Bird  the  command  of  a  very  wide  extent  of  country  : 
and  a  tall  object,   as  a  spire,  previously  visited  voluntarily,  or  seen 
from  its  abode,   would  afford  the  desired  clue.     This  perhaps  may 
account,  in  ordinary  cases,  for  the  return  of  the  Pigeon  to  its  home  ; 
but  it  will  not  account  for  the  return  of  the  Bird  from  great  distances. 
We  hear  of  Pigeons  being  brought  from  towns  on  the  continent,  as 
Brussels,  &:c.,  and  set  at  liberty  in  London  ;  and  of  their  return  in  a 
comparatively  short  space  of  time,  few  of  their  number  failing  to  find 
their  way.      Trials  of  this  kind  have  been   often   repeated  ;    and, 
unless  the  weather  proves  misty,  or  fogs  hang  over  the  sea,  the  Birds 
cross  the  Channel  safely  and  regain  their  home.     That  they  are 

3Z 


538 


THE  DOVES. 


sometimes  dispersed  and  lost  in  foggy  weather  proves  that  they  use 
their  sight  in  pursuing  their  homeward  course  :  but  still  the  difficulty 
remains — how  is  that  course  determined  ?  The  same  difficulty  meets 
us  in  the  migration  of  the  Swallow.  Its  winter  abode  is  Western 
Africa.  It  finds  its  way  to  the  African  shores,  and  returns  again  to 
Europe  :  but,  what  is  more,  the  same  pair  will  steer  not  only  for 
England,  but  for  the  very  chimney  or  barn  which  they  habitually 
tenant  as  their  summer  breeding-place  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  they 
visit  a  determinate  spot  in  Africa.  It  is  one  of  the  facts  in  natural 
history  which  we  must  be  content  to  leave  unexplained.     (See  Fig. 

I375-) 

The  following  account  of  a  race  between  an  express  railway  tram 
and  a  Carrier  Pigeon,  which  took  place  in  1877,  will  be  read  with 
interest. 

"  Yesterday  (July  13),  an  exciting  race  took  place  from  Dover  to 
London,  between  the  Continental  mail  express  train  and  a  carrier 
pigeon  conveying  a  document  of  an  urgent  nature  for  the  French 
police.  The  rails,  carriages,  and  engine  of  the  express  train  were, 
as  might  be  expected,  of  the  best  possible  construction  forpowcrand 
speed.  The  pigeon,  which  was  bred  by  Messrs.  Hartley  and  Sons, 
of  Woolwich,  and  '  homed  '  when  a  few  weeks  old  to  a  building  in 
Cannon  Street,  City,  was  also  of  tlie  best  breed  of  homing  pigeons, 
known  as  'Belgian  voyageurs. '  The  bird  was  tossed  through  the 
railway  carriage  window  by  a  French  official  as  the  train  moved  from 
the  Admiralty  Pier,  the  wind  being  west  and  the  atmosphere  hazy, 
but  with  the  sun  shining.  For  upwards  of  a  minute  the  carrier 
pigeon  circled  round  to  an  altitude  of  about  half  a  mile,  and  then 
sailed  away  towards  London.  By  this  time  the  train  which  carried 
the  European  mails,  and  was  timed  not  to  stop  between  Dover  and 
Cannon  Street,  had  got  up  to  full  speed,  and  was  journeying  at  the 
rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour  towards  London.  The  odds  at  starting 
seemed  against  the  bird,  and  the  railway  officials,  justly  proud  and 
confident  in  the  strength  of  their  iron  horse,  predicted  the  little  aerial 
messenger  would  fail  ;  but  the  race  was  not  to  the  strong.  The 
carrier  pigeon,  as  soon  as  it  ascertained  its  bearings,  took  the  nearest 
route  in  a  direction  midway  between  Maidstone  and  Sittingbourne, 
the  distance,  as  the  crow  flies,  between  Dover  and  London  being 
seventy  miles,  and  by  rail  seventy-six  and  a-half  miles.  As  the 
Continental  Mail  Express  came  puffing  into  Cannon  Street  Station, 
the  pigeon  had  been  home  twenty  minutes,  having  beaten  the  train 
by  a  time  allowance  representing  eighteen  miles." 

The  Rock-Dove  [Columba  livia). — Le  Bisset,  and  Le  Roche- 
raye,  Coulon,  Colombe,  and  Pigeon  of  the  French;  Palombella, 
Piccione  di  Torre,  Piccione  di  Rocca  of  the  Italians  ;  Feldtaube, 
Haustaube,  Hohltaube,  Blautaube,  and  Holtztaube  of  the  Germans  ; 
Rock-Pigeon,  English;  Colommen,  ancient  British.  (See  Fig.  1376.) 


Fig.  1376.— The  Rock-Dove. 

We  have  already  stated  that  this  Bird  is  the  original  of  most  of 
our  domestic  varieties.  In  a  state  of  nature,  this  Bird,  which  is  very 
generally  distributed  over  the  northern  temperate  portion  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  lives  and  breeds  entirely  in  holes  of  rocks,  and 
is  to  be  found  abundantly  on  all  our  rocky  coasts.  It  feeds  on  grain, 
and  is  also  said  to  eat  considerable  numbers  of  several  species  of 
Snails.  It  produces  two  broods  in  the  year,  each  consisting  of  a  pair 
of  Birds.  Our  space  will,  of  course,  preclude  any  description  of  the 
numerous  varieties  of  this  Bird  produced  by  domestication,  some  of 


which  differ  so  widely  from  each  other  and  from  the  original  stock, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  they  all  belong  to  the  same  species. 
The  nearest  approach  to  the  wild  species  is  made  by  the  common 
House  Pigeon,  many  specimens  of  which  almost  exactly  resemble 
their  original  parents  in  form  and  colour ;  but  the  various  kinds  of 
fancy  Pigeons,  as  they  are  called,  exhibit  most  remarkable  differ- 
ences in  both  these  particulars.  Thus,  in  the  Tumblers,  which  in 
their  general  form  present  the  closest  resemblance  to  the  common 
Pigeon,  the  head  and  bill  are  greatly  reduced  in  size,  and  the  Birds 
have  also  acquired  the  curious  habit  of  turning  over  suddenly  in  the 
air  :  in  the  Carriers  the  head  and  bill  are  much  elongated,  and  the 
naked  skin  about  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  round  the  eyes,  is  greatly 
developed,  fleshy,  and  warty.  The  Pouters  have  an  enormously  in- 
flated crop,  which  projects  in  front  of  the  breast,  causing  the  Bird 
to  throw  its  head  back,  and  hold  itself  in  a  most  unnaturally  upright 
position  ;  and  the  Jacobins  have  the  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck 
inverted,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  sort  of  ruff,  or  hood.  The 
most  remarkable  change,  however,  is  perhaps  that  which  has  pro- 
duced the  variety  of  the  Fantails,  or  Broad-tailed  Shakers,  in  which 
the  tail,  which  is  beautifully  expanded  in  an  arched  form,  contains 
no  less  than  thirty-six  feathers,  the  normal  number  being  only 
twelve. 

I'HE  Turtle-Dove  {Turtur  aur-itus,  Ray  ;  Cohunha  tiiriur, 
Linn.) — Tourterelle  of  the  French  ;  Tortora  of  the  Italians;  Turtel- 
taube  of  the  Germans  ;  Colommen  fair  of  the  ancient  British. 

Among  our  summer  visitors  must  be  enumerated  this  interesting 
Bird,  which  arrives  in  our  island  about  the  beginning  of  May.  It  is 
when  nature  is  clad  in  her  freshest  robes  of  beauty,  when  the  wild 
flowers  garnish  our  hedgerows,  and  the  thickets  resound  with  the 
notes  of  warblers,  that  the  voice  of  the  Turtle  is  heard  in  our  land. 
In  all  ages,  and  in  all  countries  visited  by  it,  has  the  Turtle  been  .a 
favourite  ;  its  innocence,  its  beauty,  its  attachment  to  its  mate,  its 
plaintive  voice,  and  the  time  of  its  appearance,  combine  to  give  it 
interest ;  it  is  the  emblem  of  peace  and  tranquillity  ;  and  in  the  strains 
oi  poetry  its  presence  is  associated  with  quiet  rural  life  and  undis- 
turbed happiness. 

"  Hinc  alta  sub  rupe  canet  fiond.ator  ad  auras. 
Nee  tamen,  inteiea,  raucc,  tua  ciira,  palumbes, 
Nee  gemere  aeria  cessabit  turtur  ab  ulmo. " 

Virgil. 

The  winter  residence  of  the  Turtle  appears  to  be  in  Africa  :  in 
summer  it  is  spread  over  southern  and  temperate  Europe,  and  various 
parts  of  Asia.  In  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Italy  it  is  very  common. 
Mr.  Strickland  observed  it  at  Smyrna,  in  April,  1836.  In  our  island 
it  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  southern  and  eastern  counties  than 
in  those  farther  north  ;  we  have  seen  it  in  numbers  both  in  Essex, 
Kent,  and  Surrey.  Thick  copses,  wooded  parks,  dense  hedgerows, 
where  bushy  pollard  oaks  rise  up  at  inter\'als,  are  its  favourite  places 
of  resort;  and  in  secluded  retreats,  several  pairs  are  often  found  to 
form  a  sort  of  colony,  building  their  nests  in  adjacent  trees.  The 
nest  (see  Fig.  1377)  is  a  platform  of  twigs,  and  is  placed  in  the 
forked  branch  of  an  oak  or  fir-tree,  among  the  ivy-laden  boughs  of 
the  elm,  near  the  stem,  or  in  thick  pollards.  Wo  once  saw  the 
nest  of  a  pair  of  Turtles  in  a  stunted  pollard  oak,  close  to  the  gate 
of  a  farmyard  in  Essex,  and  watched  the  Birds  playfully  chasing 
each  other  in   the  air  around  the  tree.     Early  in  the  morning  the 


Fig.  1377.— The  Nest  of  the  Tmtle-Dove. 


THE  PASSENGER-PIGEON. 


539 


Turtle  wings  its  way  from  the  copse  or  park  to  the  fields  in  quest  of 
food  and  i't  repeats  its  visit  in  the  afternoon,  returning  home  on  the 
approach  of  dusk.  Various  kinds  of  grain,  as  wheat,  not  yet 
mature,  together  with  peas,  rape,  mustard-seed,  hemp-seed,  &c., 
constitute  i'ts  diet.  On  the  approach  of  autumn  the  Turtle  congre- 
gates in  small  flocks  of  ten  or  twelve,  which  scour  the  fields  during 
the  day,  and  return  to  their  roosting-placc  in  the  evening.  Early 
in  September  this  Bird  leaves  our  island  for  its  winter  abode  ;  some- 
times, however,  it  lingers  till  the  close  of  the  month  before  taking 

its  departure.  .,,„,,  ^     r 

The  Turtle  is  about  eleven  mches  in  length.  The  upper  part  ot 
the  head  and  neck  is  ashy  grey,  with  a  pearly  tinge  ;  the  back  is 
brown ;  the  wing-coverts  are  dusky-brown  in  the  centre,  with  a 
border  on  each  feather  of  reddish-brown  inclining  to  rufous  ;  quills 
brown  ;  tail-feathers  dusky-brown,  and  all,  with  the  exception  of  the 


Fig.  137S.— The  Turtle-Dove. 

two  middle,  tipped  with  white.  The  sides  of  the  neck  present  a 
patch  of  small  stiff  black  feathers  with  white  margins  ;  front  of  the 
neck  and  breast  light  vinous  ;  abdomen  white.  The  young  Birds 
are  destitute  of  the  peculiar  patch  of  feathers  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck.  (See  Fig.  1378.) 
The   Passenger-Pigeon  {Edopistes  migratoria).—T\\\i,  Bird 


^'S-  '379- — The  I'asstiigcr-rigeon. 


must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Carrier-Pigcon  already  described- 
Were  not  the  testimony  of  Wilson,  Audubon,  and  others  who  have 
described   the   habits   of  this  Bird  above  suspicion,  one   might  be 
tempted  to  think  that  their  accounts  were  somewhat  over-coloured  ; 
such,  however,  is  not  the   case.     They  narrate,  graphically,  scenes 
of   which   they   were   themselves   eye-witnesses.      The   Passenger- 
Pigeon  is  a  native  of  America  (where  it  is  generally  termed  the  Wild 
Pigeon),  and  is  celebrated  for  inundating,  in  flocks  of  thousands, 
various  districts  to  which  the  hordes  are  attracted  by  food,  their 
visits  being  irregular  and  uncertain.     The   Passenger-Pigeon  is  a 
Bird  of  extremely  rapid  flight,  propelling  itself  by  quickly-repeated 
flaps  of  the  wings  as  it  passes  along  in  a  straight  course  over  the 
country.    During  the  pairing  season,  however,  it  often  flies  in  circles, 
occasionally  clashing  its  wings  in  the  manner  of  a  domestic  Pigeon, 
which   in   its  manners   it   generally  resembles.     Speaking   of    the 
rapidity  of  the  present  species,  M.  Audubon  states  that  "  Pigeons 
have  been  killed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  York  with  their  crops 
full  of  rice,  which  they  must  have  collected  in  the  fields  of  Georgia 
and  Carolina,  these  districts  being  the  nearest  in  which  they  could 
possibly  have   procured  a  supply  of  this  kind   of  food.     As  their 
power  of  digestion  is  so  great  that  they  will  decompose  food  entirely 
in  twelve  hours,  they  must  in  this  case  have  travelled  between  300  and 
400  miles  in  six  hours,  which  shows  their  speed  to  be,  at  an  average, 
about  one  mile  in  a  minute.     (See  Fig.  1379.) 

"  This  great  power  of  flight  is  seconded  by  as  great  a  power  of 
vision,  which  enables  them,  as  they  travel  at  that  swift  rate,  to  inspect 
the  country  below,  discover  their  food,  and  thus  attain  the  object 
for  which  their  journey  was  undertaken. 

"  The  multitudes  "  (says  Audubon,  whose  account  we  follow)  "  of 
wild  pigeons  in  our  woods  are  astonishing.  Indeed,  after  having 
viewed  them  so  often,  and  under  so  many  circumstances,  I  even  now 
feel  inclined  to  pause,  and  assure  myself  that  what  I  am  going  to 
relate  is  fact.  In  the  autumn  of  1813  I  left  my  house  at  Henderson, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  on  my  way  to  Louisville.  In  passing  over 
the  Barrens  a  few  miles  beyond  Hardensburgh,  I  observed  the 
pigeons  flying  from  north-east  to  south-west,  in  greater  numbers 
than  I  thought  I  had  ever  seen  them  before  ;  and  feeling  an  in- 
clination to  count  the  flocks  that  might  pass  within  the  reach  of  my 
eye  in  one  hour,  I  dismounted,  seated  myself  on  an  eminence,  and 
began  to  mark  with  my  pencil,  making  a  dot  for  every  flock  that  passed. 
In  a  short  time,  finding  the  task  I  had  undertaken  impracticable, 
as  the  birds  poured  in  in  countless  multitudes,  I  rose,  and  counting 
the  dots  then  put  down,  found  that  163  had  been  made  in  twenty-one 
minutes.    I  travelled  on,  and  still  met  more  the  farther  I  proceeded. 

The  air  was  literally  filled  with 
pigeons  ;  the  light  of  noonday 
was  obscured  as  by  an  eclipse, 
and  the  continued  buzz  of  wings 
had  a  tendency  to  lull  me  to 
repose. 

"  Before  sunset  I  reached 
Louisville,  distant  from  Har- 
densburgh fifty-five  miles  ;  the 
pigeons  were  still  passing  in 
undiminished  numbers,  and 
continued  to  do  so  for  three 
days  in  succession.  The  peo- 
ple were  all  in  arms.  The  banks 
of  the  Ohio  were  crowded  with 
men  and  boys  incessantly  shoot- 
ing at  the  pilgrims,  which  there 
flew  lower  as  they  passed  the 
river.  Multitudes  were  de- 
stroyed. For  a  week  or  more  the 
population  fed  on  no  other  flesh 
than  that  of  pigeons,  and  talked 
of  nothing  but  pigeons.  The  at- 
mosphere during  this  time  was 
strongly  impregnated  with  the 
peculiar  odour  which  emanates 
from  the  species."  After  these 
details  M.  Audubon  proceeds 
to  reckon  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals in  a  single  flock,  and 
that  not  a  large  one,  extending 
one  mile  in  breadth,  and  180 
miles  in  length,  allowing  two 
Pigeons  to  each  square  yard. 
The  product  is  one  billion  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  milions  one 
hundred  and  thirty-six  thou- 
sand. The  flock  takes  three 
liours  in  passing  any  given  spot. 
What  must  be  the  quantity  of 
food  required  for  such  a  legion  ? 
"  As  evci-y  pigeon  daily  con- 
sumes fully  half  a  pint  of  food, 


540 


THE  PIGEON  TRIBE. 


the  quantity  necessary  for  supplying  this  vast  multitude  must  be 
eight  millions  seven  hundred  and  twelve  thousand  bushels  per  day. " 
Where  food,  such  as  beech-mast,  is  abundant,  strewing  the  ground, 
these  flocks  wheel  round  and  alight,  and  the  woods  are  filled  with 
their  numbers.  About  the  middle  of  the  day,  after  their  repast  is 
finished,  they  settle  on  the  trees  to  enjoy  rest  and  digest  their  food. 
"As  the  sun  begins  to  sink  beneath  the  horizon  they  depart  en 
masse  for  the  roosting-place,  which  not  unfrequently  is  hundreds  of 
miles  distant,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  persons  who  have  kept  an 
account  of  their  arrivals  and  departures. 

"  One  of  these  curious  roosting-places  on  the  banks  of  the  Green 
River  in   Kentucky  I   repeatedly  visited.     It  was,  as  is  always  the 
case,  a  portion  of  the  forest  where  the  trees  are  of  great  magnitude, 
and  where  there  was  little  underwood.     I  rode  through  it  upwards  of 
forty  miles,  and  found  its  average  breadth  to  be  rather  more  than 
three  miles.     My  first  view  of  it  was  about  a  fortnight  subsequent  to 
the  period  when  they  made  choice  of  it,  and  I  arrived  there  nearly 
two  hours  before  sunset.     Few  pigeons  were  then  to  be  seen,  but  a 
great  number  of  persons  with  horses  and  waggons,  guns  and  ammu- 
nition, had  already  established  encampments  on  the  borders.     Two 
farmers  from  the  vicinity  of  Russelsville,  distant  more  tiian  a  hundred 
miles,  had  driven  upwards  of  three  hundred  hogs  to  be  fattened  on 
the  pigeons  that  were  to  be  slaughtered.    Here  and  there  the  people 
employed  in  plucking  and  salting  what  had  already  been  procured 
were  seen  sitting  in  the  midst  of  large  piles  of  these  Birds.     Many 
trees  two  feet  in  diameter  I  observed  were  broken  off  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  ground  ;  and  the  branches  of  many  of  the  largest 
and  tallest  had  given  way,  as  if  the  forest  had  been  swept  by  a  tor- 
nado.    Everything  proved  to  me  that  the  number  of  Birds  resorting 
to  this  part  of  the  forest  must  be  immense  beyond  conception.     As 
the  period  of  their  arrival  approached,  their  foes  anxiously  proceeded 
to  receive  them  ;   some  were  furnished  with  iron  pots  containing  sul- 
phur— others  with  torches  of  pine-knots — many  with  poles,  and  the 
rest  with  guns.     The  sun  was  lost  to  our  view,  yet  not  a  pigeon  had 
arrived.     Everything  was  ready,   and  all  eyes  were  gazing  on  the 
clear  sky  which  appeared  in  glimpses  amid  the  tall  trees.     Suddenly 
there  burst  forth    a   general  cry  of  '  Here  they  come.'     The  noise 
which  they  made,  though  yet  distant,  reminded  me  of  a  hard  gale  at 
sea,  passing  through  the  rigging  of  a  close-reefed  vessel.     As  the 
birds  arrived  and  passed  over  me  I  felt  a  current  of  air  that  surprised 
me.     Thousands  were  soon  knocked  down  by  the  pole-men  ;    the 
birds  continued  to  pour  in  ;  the  fires  were  lighted,  and  a  most  mag- 
nificent as  well  as  wonderful  and  almost  terrifying  sight   presented 
itself.     The  pigeons  arriving  by  thousands  alighted  everywhere,  one 
above   another,   until   solid   masses   as    large   as   hogsheads  were 
formed  on  the  branches  all  round.     Here  and  there  the  perches  gave 
way  with  a  crash,  and  falling  on  the  ground  destroyed  hundreds  of 
the  birds  beneath,  forcing  down  the  dense  groups  with  which  every 
stick  was  loaded.     It  was  a  scene  of  uproar  and  confusion  ;  no  one 
dared  venture  within   the  line  of  devastation  :    the  hogs  had  been 
penned  up  in  due  time,  the  picking  up  of  the  dead  and  wounded  be- 
ing left  for  next  morning's  employment.     The  pigeons  were    con- 
stantly coming,  and  it  was  past  midnight  before  1  perceived  a  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  those  that  arrived.     Towards  the  approach 
of  day  the  noise  in  some  measure  subsided  ;  long  before  objects  were 
distinguishable  the  pigeons  began  to  move  off  in  a  direction   quite 
different  from  that  in  which  they  had  arrived  the  evening  before,  and 
at  sunrise  all  that  were  able  to  fly  had  disappeared;    iThe  bowlings  of 
the  wolves  now  reached  our  ears,  and  the  foxes,  lynxes,   cougars, 
bears,  racoons,  and  opossums  were  seen  sneaking  off,  whilst  eagles 
and  hawks  of  different  species,  accompanied  by  a  crowd  of  vultures, 
came  to  supplant  them,  and  enjoy  their  share  of  the  spoil."     The 
breeding-places  of  these  Pigeons  are  even  more  extensive  than  their 
temporary  roosting-places  ;  fifty  miles  in  length  of  forest  by  four  or 
five  in  breadth  being  colonised  by  them,  and  every  tree  crowded  with 
■nests,  varying  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  in  number.    The  breeding-time, 
according  to  Audubon,  is  not  much  influenced  by  season,  but  the  ter- 
ritory selected  is  where  food  is  most  plentiful  and  most  easily  attain- 
able, and  where  water  is  at  a  convenient  distance.     The   nests  are 
composed  of  a  few  dry  twigs  supported  on  the  forks  of  the  branches. 
The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  and,  as  is  the  case  with  our  common 
Domestic  Pigeon,  the  brood  consists  in  general  of  a  male  and  female. 
When  the  young  are  fully  grown,  but  have  not  yet  left  the  nests,  a 
scene  similar  to  that  described  as  occurring  in  their  roosting-place 
commences.    Parties  from  the  surrounding  country  throng  to  the  on- 


slaught. Trees  are  cut  down,  and  thousands  of  the  young  or 
"squabs,"  are  taken.  While  the  axemen  are  at  work,  the  forest 
presents  "  a  perpetual  tumult  of  crowding  and  fluttering  pigeons, 
their  wings  roaring  like  thunder,  mingled  with  the  frequent  crash  of 
falling  timber."  By  the  Indians,  as  Wilson  says,  a  Pigeon-roost  or 
breeding-place  is  considered  an  important  source  of  national  profit, 
and  dependence  for  the  season ;  and  all  their  active  ingenuity  is 
exercised  on  the  occasion. 

We  have  seen  several  pairs  of  the  Migratory  Pigeon  in  captivity  ; 
it  breeds  freely  in  a  suitable  aviary,  and  is  as  contented  and  tame  as 
our  ordinary  domestic  race. 

The  Migratory  Pigeon  has  the  head  small ;  the  neck  slender ;  the 
legs  short ;  and  the  tail,  which  is  composed  of  twelve  feathers, 
graduated  and  tapering.  Bill  black  ;  iris  bright  red  ;  feet  carmine 
purple ;  claws  blackish  ;  head  above  and  on  the  sides  light  blue ; 
throat,  fore-neck,  breast,  and  sides  brownish-red ;  lower  part  and 
sides  of  the  neck  reflecting  metallic  tints  of  gold,  emerald,  green,  and 
rich  crimson  ;  the  general  colour  of  the  upper  parts  is  greyish-blue  ; 
some  of  the  wing-coverts  marked  with  a  black  spot ;  quills  and 
larger  wing-coverts  blackish  ;  the  primary  quills  bluish  on  the  outer 
web  ;  the  larger  coverts  whitish  at  the  tip  ;  the  two  middle  feathers 
of  the  tail  black,  the  rest  pale  blue,  becoming  white  towards  the  end  ; 
under  parts  white.  Length  sixteen  inches  and  a-half.  The  female 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  male,  and  the  colours  of  the  plumage 
are  duller,  though  their  distribution  is  the  same.  Length  fifteen 
inches. 

The  last  family  of  the  Columbis  is  that  of  the  Treronida,  or  Tree 
Pigeons,  in  which  the  bill  is  short  and  stout,  with  both  mandibles 
nearly  equal  in  thickness,  and  equally  arched  towards  the  tip  ;  the 
tarsi  are  very  short,  and  usually  more  or  less  feathered  ;  and  the 
inner  toes  are  much  shorter  than  the  outer.  These  Birds  are  con- 
fined to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  old  continent,  their  principal 
habitation  being  in  India,  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
and  Australia.  Their  nourishment  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of 
fruits,  and  they  are  especially  arboreal  in  their  habits.  In  the  form 
of  the  bill,  however,  they  present  some  resemblance  to  the  extinct 
Dodo,  already  described.  Many  of  them  are  most  beautifully 
coloured,  rivalling,  in  this  respect,  the  Parrots  and  Pheasants. 

The  collections  of  the  Dove  family  are  rich  both  in  the  British 
Museum  and  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  at  Regent's 
Park,  London.  In  the  latter  is  a  specimen  of  the  Talpacoti  Ground  • 
Dove  fChainccpelia  talpacoti),  which  bred  in  the  Gardens  in  1878  ; 
of  the  Specious  Pigeon  (C  sj>ecwsa),  a  native  of  South  America. 
Among  others  in  the  Gardens  are  living  specimens,  the  description 
of  which  we  quote  as  follows  from  the  "Guide"  of  the  Zoological 
Society  for  1878  : — 

"  The  Wonga-Wonga  'Pigeon  {Leucosarcia  picata) ;  the  Bronze- 
wing  Pigeon  {Pliaps  chalcoptera);  the  Crested  Dove  {Ocypkaps 
lophotes).  Australia  is  rich  in  pigeons,  not  less  than  twenty-one 
species  being  figured  in  Mr.  Gould's  work.  Of  these,  the  most 
desirable  to  acclimatise  in  Europe  is  the  Wonga-Wonga,  and  the 
most  graceful  is  the  Crested  Dove.  The  latter  breeds  very  freely  in 
confinement,  when  suitably  accommodated.  The  Wonga-Wonga, 
on  the  contrary,  is,  unfortunately,  as  far  as  our  experience  goes,  a 
shy  breeder,  but  might  perhaps  do  better  in  a  more  retired  situation. 
It  would  be  well  worthy  to  have  some  pains  bestowed  upon  it,  as  it  is 
not  only  of  considerable  size,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Gould's  observa- 
tion, a  first-rate  bird  for  the  table,  possessing  a  whiteness  and 
delicacy  of  texture  in  its  pectoral  muscles,  which  are  unapproached 
by  any  other  species  of  this  widely-spread  and  useful  family. 

"  The  Crowned  Pigeon  {Goura  coronata)  ;  the  Victoria  Crowned 
Pigeon  (G.  victoriczj.  These  noble  birds,  although  natives  of  New 
Guinea  and  its  adjacent  islands,  not  only  bear  the  vicissitudes  of 
our  climate  which  the  protection  this  Aviary  affords,  but  have  fre- 
quently reproduced  in  it.  The  Victoria  Crowned  Pigeon,  from  the 
island  of  Jobie,  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  species  by  the 
beautiful  white-tipped  vane  which  surmounts  the  crest,  its  red-brown 
breast,  and  grey  wing-spot.  The  Gouras  make  a  platform-nest  like 
all  the  arboreal  pigeons,  and  go  up  to  roost  at  night,  although 
during  the  day  they  spend  the  greater  part  of  their  time  upon  tlie 
ground.  As  is  the  case  with  the  passenger-pigeon,  and  the  whole 
group  of  fruit-eating  pigeons  of  the  genus  Carpophaga,  as  far  as 
has  been  hitherto  observed,  they  lay  but  one  egg,  forming  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  rule  which  obtains  in  birds  of  this  group,  and 
which  has  caused  a  recent  writer  to  call  them  Bipositorcs." 


GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 


S4» 


CHAPTER    XXXIL 


CLASS  II.— AVES,  OR  BIRDS :  ORDER  RASORES,  OR  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS,  AS  FOWLS,  Etc. 


ERHAPS  of  all  the  orders  of  Birds,  that  of 
the  RASORES,  or  SCRAPERS,  is  the  most 
valuable  to  mankind.  It  includes  the 
numerous  species  of  Gallinaceous  Birds,  or 
those  which  agree  more  or  less  in  structure 
with  our  common  Fowl ;  and  the  name 
Rasores^  or  Scrapers,  alludes  to  the  habit 
of  scratching  in  the  ground  in  search  of 
food,  which,  as  every  one  knows,  is  so 
common  with  domestic  poultry. 

These  Birds  are  generally  of  moderate 
size,  with  the  body  rather  stout,  and  the 
neck  short,  or  of  moderate  length.  The 
head  is  rather  small,  and  the  bill,  which  is 
usually  shorter  than  the  head,  is  more  or  less  arched, 
and  has  the  upper  mandible  projecting  beyond  the 
lower  one,  both  at  the  apes  and  the  margins.  The  legs 
are  of  moderate  length,  but  usually  very  stout ;  the 
tibi,a5  are  feathered  quite  down  to  the  tip  ;  and  the 
feathers,  in  some  cases,  cover  the  tarsi,  and  even  the 
toes.  The  anterior  toes  are  always  three  in  number, 
usually  rather  short,  stout,  furnished  with  broad,  blunt 
nails,  and  frequently  more  or  less  united  by  a  web  at 
the  base  ;  the  hinder  toe  is  usually  small,  and  raised  a 
little  upon  the  back  of  the  tarsus  ;  but  in  the  species 
which  frequently  perch  upon  trees,  and  some  others, 
the  hinder  toe  is  more  elongated,  and  placed  on  the  same  level 
with  the  rest.  The  back  of  the  tarsus  is  also  frequently  furnished, 
especially  in  the  males,  with  one  or  more  spurs,  which  are  often 
of  considerable  length,  and  constitute  formidable  offensive  weapons 
in  the  combats  which  prevail  amongst  these  Birds  during  the  breed- 
ing season,  as  in  the  case  of  Game-Cocks,  which  are  specially 
bred  for  the  sport  of  Cock-fighting. 

The  plumage  is  firm,  and  the  accessory  feathers,  or  plumules,  are 
always  of  large  size.  The  Birds,  and  especially  the  males,  are  fre- 
quently adorned  with  magnificent  colours  ;  and  in  many  cases, 
particular  parts  of  the  plumage  in  this  sex  acquire  a  great  degree  of 
development,  rendering  the  appearance  exceedingly  elegant.  The 
wings  are  usually  short  and  weak,  and  the  flight  by  no  means 
powerful  or  prolonged ;  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  whirring 
sound,  which  is  almost  characteristic  of  this  order. 

The  general  conformation  of  the  digestive  organs  (Fig.  1380)  is  as 
follows ; — The  oesophagus  is  narrow,  but  is  dilated  below  the  middle 
into  a  large,  somewhat  globular  crop.  The  stomach,  or  gizzard,  is 
exceedingly  strong  and  muscular,  and  lined  with  hard,  tendinous 
plates,  by  the  action  of  which,  assisted  in  most  cases  by  stones,  or 
other  hard  substances  which  the  Birds  swallow,  the  comminution  of 
the  food  is  effected.  The  intestine  is  long,  and  furnished  with  very 
large  cceca  ;  the  latter  organs,  in  fact,  are  larger  in  these  than  in 
any  other  Birds. 

These  Birds  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  from  the  Tropics  to 
the  frozen  regions  of  the  north  ;  but  the  finest  and  most  typical 
species  are  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  and  warmer  parts  of  Asia. 
They  feed  principally  on  seeds,  fruits,  and  herbage  ;  but  also,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  on  Insects,  Worms,  and  other  small  animals. 
Their  general  habitation  is  on  the  ground,  where  they  run  with  great 
celerity  ;  but  many  of  them  roost  on  trees.  They  are  mostly  poly- 
gamous in  their  habits,  the  males  being  usually  surrounded  by  a  con- 
siderable troop  of  females  ;  and  to  these,  with  one  remarkable 
exception,  the  whole  business  of  incubation  is  generally  left.  The 
nest  is  always  plac«d  on  the  ground  in  some  sheltered  situation, 
and  very  little  art  is  exhibited  in  its  construction  :  indeed,  an 
elaborate  nest  is  the  less  necessary,  as  the  young  are  able  to  run 
about  and  feed  almost  as  soon  as  they  have  left  the  e.g'g  ;  and  at 
night,  or  on  the  approach  of  danger,  they  collect  beneath  the  wings 
of  their  mother. 

The  Rasorial  Birds  form  seven  families.  In  the  Tinamous 
CTitiamtdcsJ,  the  bill  is  rather  straight,  with  the  base  covered  with 
a  membrane,  and  the  tip  suddenly  hooked.  The  wings  are  short 
and  concave ;  the  tail  short,  or  entirely  wanting ;  the  tarsi  are 
scutellate  in  front,  and  the  toes  long — the  hinder  one  being  some- 
times wanting.  The  genus  Tinamotis,  belonging  to  this  family, 
makes  a  very  near  approach  to  the  Bustards. 

These  Birds  are  peculiar  to  South  America,  where  they  live  in  the 
fields,  or  on  the  borders  of  woods.  Their  flight  is  heavy ;  but  they 
run  with  considerable  swiftness.  They  feed  principally  upon  grain, 
visiting  the  newly-sown  fields  of  corn  and  maize  during  the  night, 


to  pick  up  the  seeds  which  have  not  been  covered  by  the  soil  The 
females  lay  about  seven  eggs,  in  tufts  of  herbage  ;  and  the  younir. 
when  hatched,  soon  disperse,  the  family  being  rarely  found  united 
into  a  flock.  Their  flesh  is  exceedingly  good  ;  and  as  they  do  not 
rise  wdhngly,  but  rather  prefer  endeavouring  to  conceal  themselves 
when  pursued,  they  are  taken  without  much  difficulty  by  means  of  a 
noose  at  the  end  of  a  stick.  They  vary  considerably  in  size,  the 
largest  species  being  about  as  big  as  a  Pheasant,  or  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches  in  length  ;  whilst  the  smallest  do  not  exceed  six 
inches. 
The  Chw7iidida  have  the  bill  rather  short  and  stout,  compressed, 


Fig.  1 3S0.— Digestive  Apparatus  of  the  Common  Fowl. 
€,  oesophagus  ;  y,  crop  ;  -js,  ventriculiis  succenturiatus  ;  ■;,  gizzard  ;  /,  pancreas  ; 
d,   duodenum  ;  co,    coeca ;  gi,  large  intestine  ;  «,  ureter ;  o,  oviduct ;  cl, 
cloaca  ;  i,  small  intestine  ;  /,  liver ;  vf,  gall-bladder ;  c,  gall-duct. 

and  much  arched  towards  the  tip  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the 
base,  and  protected  by  a  horny  sheath  or  covering.  The  wings  are 
long  and  pointed,  and  the  tail'of  moderate  size  ;  the  tarsi  are  short 
and  stout ;  the  anterior  toes  long,  united  at  the  base,  and  the  hinder 
one  small  and  elevated.  The  best  known  species  of  this  family  is 
the  White  Sheathbill  {Chiom's  alba),  a  Bird  about  fifteen  inches  in 
length,  of  a  white  colour,  with  the  feet  reddish-black.  It  frequents 
the  shores  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  other  islands  approach- 
ing the  Antarctic  ocean,  where  it  feeds  upon  MoUi<sca  and  other 
animal  matters,  resembling  some  of  the  Wading-Birds  so  closely 
in  its  habits,  that  it  has  been  placed  amongst  them  .by  many 
naturalists. 

It  is  probable  that  it  occasionally  feeds  upon  carrion,  as  Forster, 
its  original  describer,  states  that,  having  killed  some  of  them  in 
Cook's  second  voyage,  the  sailors  were  unable  to  eat  the  flesh  in 
consequence  of  its  abominable  odour ;  although,  as  he  observes, 
they  were  not,  at  that  time,  particularly  nice  in  the  choice  of  food. 
M.  Lesson,  and  Messrs.  Quoy  and  Gaimard,  however,  found  the 
flesh  particularly  good  ;  and,  in  Cook's  third  voyage,  it  is  said  to  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  Duck. 

The  Grouse — Family  Tetraonidce. 

In  the  family  of  the  Tetraonidce,  or  Grouse,  the  bill  is  rather 
short,   broad  at  the   base,    compressed   and  arched,    with   the   tip 


542 


THE    CAPERCAILZIE. 


obtuse  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  sometimes 
covered  with  feathers,  or  protected  by  a  hard  scale  ;  the  legs  are 
stout,  with  the  tarsi  usually  naked  and  scutellate,  but  sometimes 
clothed  with  feathers  to  the  toes  (Fig.  1381).     The  hind-toe  is  rarely 


Fig.  13S1 Foot  of  the  Black  Cock. 

wanting,  usually  rather  small  and  elevated.     The  wings  are  generally 
short  and  rounded,  and  the  tail  is  also  rounded  at  the  extremity. 

This  family,  which  includes  a  great  number  of  species,  is  divided 
into  four  sub-families.  The  Tetraouina,  including  the  typical 
species,  have  the  bill  short,  very  broad  at  the  base,  and  gradually 
narrowed  and  compressed  towards  the  tip  ;  the  nostrils  are  clothed 
■with  small  feathers,  as  are  also  the  tarsi,  and  sometimes  even  the 
toes.  These  Birds  live  principally  upon  the  ground,  where  they  run 
with  great  swiftness,  and  feed  almost  entirely  upon  vegetable  sub- 
stances— such  as  berries,  seeds,  and  the  buds  of  trees  and  shrubs. 
They  are  generally  found  in  mountainous  districts,  some  living  on 
open  heaths,  whilst  others  prefer  wooded  spots.  They  vary  greatly 
in  size — the  largest  being  nearly  as  large  as  a  Turkey  ;  the  smallest 
scarcely  exceeding  a  Pigeon  in  size.  The  following  affords  a 
description  of  the  most  important  species. 


Fig.  13S2. — The  Capercailzie. 

The  Capercaillie,  Capercali,  or  Capercailzie  \Tctrao 
urogalhis).~CocVi  of  the  Wood;  Cock  of .  the  Mountain.  Coq  de 
Bruyere  of  Buffon  ;  Kjader  of  the  "  Fauna  Suecica  ;"  Tjader-hona 
of  Hasselquist ;  Auer-Hahn  of  Frisch  ;  Auerwaldhuhn  of  Bechstein  ; 
Ceiliog  Coed  of  the  ancient  British. 

That  this  noble  Bird  was  once  indigenous  in  the  British  islands, 
and  formerly  lingered  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  some  districts 
of  Ireland  (viz.,  in  the  county  of  Tipperary,  1760),  has  been  clearly 
proved  ;  but  the  forests  which  once  sheltered  it  have  been  thinned  or 
cut  down,  and  from  this  cause  and  others  it  appears  to  have  been  en- 


tirely extirpated  ;  we  say  "  to  have  been,"  because  for  some  years  past 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  species  again  into 
the  woods  of  the  Highlands,  and,  we  believe,  with  little  success. 
(See  Fig.  1382.) 

The  Capercailzie  is  abundant  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia  towards 
Siberia,  the  north  of  Asia,  and  some  parts  of  Germany  and  Hungary, 
wherever  pine-forests  of  sufficient  extent  afford  it  a  home.  It  is 
found  in  several  parts  of  the  Alps.  The  male  is  equal  in  size  to  a 
Turkey,  weighing  from  eight  to  twelve  pounds,  or  even  more  ;  some 
have  exceeded  fifteen.  The  female  is  considerably  smaller.  The 
breeding  season  commences  early  in  the  spring,  before  the  snow  is  off 
the  ground ;  at  this  period  the  cock  stations  himself  on  a  pine,  and 
commences  his  call  to  the  females,  or  "  play  "  as  it  is  termed  in 
Sweden.  This,  says  Mr.  Lloyd,  "  is  usually  from  the  first  dawn  of 
day  to  sunrise,  or  from  a  little  after  sunset  until  it  is  quite  dark.  The 
time,  however,  more  or  less  depends  upon  the  mildness  of  the  weather 
and  the  advanced  state  of  the  season. 

"  During  his  play,  the  neck  of  the  capercali  is  stretched  out,  his 
tail  is  raised  and  spread  like  a  fan,  his  wings  droop,  his  feathers  arc 
rutfied  up,  and,  in  short,  he  much  resembles  in  appearance  an  angry 
turkey-cock.  He  begins  his  play  with  a  call  something  resembling 
speller,  feller,  jieller ;  these  sounds  he  repeats  at  first  at  some 
little  intervals  ;  but  as  he  proceeds  they  increase  in  rapidity,  until  at 
last,  and  after  perhaps  the  lapse  of  a  minute  or  so,  he  makes  a  sort 
of  gulp  in  his  throat  and  finishes  with  sucking  in,  as  it  were,  his 
breath. 

"  During  the  continuance  of  this  latter  process,  which  only  lasts  a 
few  seconds,  the  head  of  the  capercali  is  thrown  up,  his  eyes  are 
partially  closed,  and  his  whole  appearance  would  denote  that  he  is 
worked  up  into  an  agony  of  passion.  At  this  time  his  faculties  are 
much  absorbed,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  approach  him ;  many, 
indeed,  and  among  the  rest  Mr.  Nilsson,  assert  that  the  capercali  can 
then  neither  see  nor  hear,  and  that  he  is  not  aware  of  the  report  or 

flash  of  a  gun,  even  if  fired  imme- 
diately near  to  him.  To  this  asser- 
tion I  cannot  agree  ;  for  though  it 
is  true  that,  if  the  capercali  has 
not  been  much  disturbed  previ- 
ously, he  is  not  easily  frightened 
during  the  last  notes  of  his  play  ; 
yet,  should  the  contrary  be  the 
case,  he  is  constantly  on  the  watch, 
and  I  have  reason  to  know  that, 
even  at  that  time,  if  noise  be  made, 
or  that  a  person  exposes  himself 
incautiously,  he  takes  alarm,  and 
immediately  flies. 

"  The  play  of  the  capercali  is 
uotloud,  and,  should  there  be  wind 
stirring  in  the  trees  at  the  time,  it 
cannot  be  heard  at  any  consider- 
able distance.  Indeed,  during 
the  calmest  and  most  favourable 
weather,  it  is  not  audible  at  more 
than  two  or  three  hundred  paces. 
"  On  hearing  the  call  of  the 
cock,  the  hens,  whose  cry  in  some 
degree  resembles  the  croak  of  the 
raven,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the 
sounds  gock,gock,  gock,  assemble 
from  all  parts  of  the  surrounding 
forest.  The  male  bird  now  de- 
scends from  the  eminence  on  which 
he  was  perched  to  the  ground, 
where  he  and  his  female  friends 
join  in  company.  The  capercali 
does  not  play  indiscriminately 
over  the  forest,  but  he  has  his 
certain  stations  (Tjador-lek,  which 
may  perhaps  be  rendered  his 
playing-grounds).  These,  how- 
ever, are  often  of  some  little 
extent.  Here,  unless  very  much 
persecuted,  the  song  of  these 
birds  may  be  heard  in  the  spring 
for  years  together.  The  caper- 
cali does  not,  during  his  play, 
confine  himself  to  any  particular  tree,  as  Mr.  Nilsson  asserts  to  be 
the  case,  for,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  seldom  he  is  to  be  met  with 
exactly  on  the  same  spot  for  two  days  in  succession." 

The  female  makes  her  nest  upon  the  ground,  and  lays  from  six  to 
twelve  eggs  ;  her  brood  keep  with  her  till  the  approach  of  winter, 
but  the  cocks  separate  from  the  mother  before  the  hens.  The  food 
of  this  Bird  consists  of  the  leaves  of  the  Scotch  fir,  of  juniper-berries, 
cranberries,  blueberries,  and  occasionally,  in  winter,  of  the  buds  of 
the  birch.  The  young  are  sustained  at  first  on  Insects,  and  es- 
pecially the  larvje  of  Ants.    In  the  male  the  windpipe  makes  a  loose 


THE  GROUSE  TRIBE. 


543 


fold  of  two  curves  before  it  enters  the  chest,  gaining  by  this  contri- 
vance great  increase  of  length.  The  tarsi  are  hairy ;  the  toes  are 
rough  beneath,  with  horny  points,  enabling  the  Bird  to  rest  securely 
on  the  smooth  or  slippery  branches.  The  general  colour  of  the 
males  on  the  upper  part  is  chestnut-brown,  irregularly  marked  with 
blackish  lines  ;  the  breast  glossy  greenish-black,  passing  into  black 
on  the  under  surface  ;  elongated  feathers  of  the  throat  black  ;  tail 
black.  In  the  female,  the  head,  neck,  and  back  are  marked  with 
transverse  bars  of  red  and  black  ;  the  under  surface  is  pale  orange- 
yellow,  barred  with  black.  Professor  Nilsson  assures  us  that  the 
Capercailzie  is  often  reared  up  in  a  domestic  state  in  Sweden,  and 
is  bold  and  disposed  to  attack  persons,  like  the  Turkey-Cock  ;  and 
both  this  naturalist  and  Mr.  Lloyd  affirm  that  these  Birds  will  breed, 
with  due  care,  in  confinement ;  in  fact,  they  give  several  instances 
by  way  of  proof 

In  the  early  part  of  the  winter,  up  to  spring,  the  London  market  is 
supplied  with  the  Capercailzie  in  abundance  from  Norway,  and, 
owing  to  the  rapidity  of  steam  navigation,  the  Birds  are  almost  as 
fresh  as  if  just  shot,  keeping  well  for  many  days  ;  the  flesh  of  the 
female  is  e.xcellent. 

The  Bl.\ck  Grouse,  or  Black-Cock  {Tetrao  tetrix). — Female, 
Grey  Hen,  Lyrurus  tetrix,  Swainson.  Coq  de  Bois  of  the  French  ; 
Gallo  di  Monte,  Gallo  selvatico,  Gallo  cedrone  of  the  Italians;  der 
Birk-hahn  of  the  Germans  ;  Orrfulgl  of  the  Norwegians. 

"  The  bonny  black-cock  "  is  still  a  native  of  the  wild  districts  of 
the  British  Isles.  It  is  common  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in 
Northumberland,  some  parts  of  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire,  in 
North  Wales,  in  Surrey,  Hampshire,  Dorsetshire,  and  Devonshire, 
wherever  wild  heaths  and  pine-woods  favour  its  increase.  In  1878, 
H.R.H.  the  Prince  of  Wales  introduced  the  breed  on  his  estate  at 
Sandringham,  Norfolk.  On  the  continent  it  is  found  in  France  and 
Germany,  and  is  abundant  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Russia.  In  its  general  habits  and  manners  this  fine  species  and  the 
preceding  closely  agree,  but  the  Black-Cock  is  not  so  strictly  a 
Forest  Bird  ;  for  though  it  frequents  pine-woods,  and  the  glens  and 
ravines  among  mountain  scenery,  where  the  birch  and  alder  overtop 
an  oozy  bed  teeming  with  long  rank  herbage,  it  is  often  seen  on  the 
sides  of  the  heathy  hill,  or  amidst  the  furze,  heath,  and  willows 
covering  a  wide  extent  of  bog-land  intervening  between  the  pine- 
woods  and  the  cultivated  country.  During  winter  the  males  asso- 
ciate in  flocks,  but  separate  early  in  the  spring,  each  choosing  its 
own  station,  of  which  it  is  sole  master,  and  for  which  it  has  often  to 
engage  in  desperate  contests  with  its  rivals.  It  now  begins  its  loud 
call-note  of  invitation,  uttered  chiefly  in  the  morning,  while  it  dis- 
plays a  variety  of  attitudes ;  and  mating  with  several  females,  it 
soon  establishes  its  seraglio.  At  this  season  the  plumage  of  the 
male  assumes  the  richest  lustre,  and  the  naked  skin  over  the  eye 
becomes  of  the  deepest  scarlet.  The  female  breeds  in  May,  making- 
a  rude  nest  under  the  shelter  of  intertangled  herbage  or  brushwood, 
and  depositing  from  six  to  ten  eggs  of  a  yellowish-grey  tinge,  spotted 
with  light  brown.  The  young  of  both  sexes  have  at  first  the  same 
garb — that  of  the  female  ;  but  the  young  males  assume  their  own 
dress  in  the  autumn,  and  form  a  distinct  society  from  that  of  the 
females,  which  is  dissolved  on  the  approach  of  spring.  The  shoots 
of  heath,  various  moorland  berries,  the  buds  of  the  birch  and  alder, 
the  young  shoots  of  the  fir  tribe,  and  grain  of  various  kinds,  consti- 
tute the  food  of  this  species.  The  young  feed  abundantly  on  Insects 
and  their  larvae. 

The  Black  Grouse  is  shy  and  wary,  especially  the  old  male  ;  and 
the  sportsman  who  has  killed  several  brace  of  Poults,  or  young 
Birds,  may  perhaps  have  not  seen  above  one  or  two  full-plumaged 
cocks  during  the  whole  day's  sport.  The  adult  male  (see  Fig. 
1383),  which  exceeds  the  female  in  size,  weighs  about  four  pounds. 
The  colour  is  deep  black,  with  a  white  band  across  each  wing.  The 
upper  surface  glitters  with  brilliant  blue  and  purple  reflexions. 
Under  tail-coverts  white.  The  tail  is  forked,  and  each  part  curls 
outwardly  in  consequence  of  the  form  of  the  four  outer  feathers, 
which  are  square  at  their  ends,  with  a  semicircular  sweep  laterally, 
the  outermost  on  each  side  being  the  longest  and  most  curled.  The 
female  (see  Fig.  1384)  weighs  about  two  pounds.  Above,  orange- 
brown,  speckled,  barbed  with  black  ;  the  greater  wing-coverts  tipped 
with  white  ;  breast  chestnut-brown,  barred  with  black.  Tail  slightly 
forked,  ferruginous,  spotted  with  black :  under  tail-coverts  white, 
streaked  with  black. 

The  Dusky  Grouse  {Bonasia  or  Tetrao  obscnrzts).—\n  the 
north-western  regions  of  America,  where  the  mountain-chain 
separates  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  from  those  which  flow  to- 
wards the  Pacific,  the  Dusky  Grouse  may  be  regarded  as  taking  the 
station  of  the  Black  Grouse  of  Europe.  "The  dusky  grouse,"  says 
Bonaparte,  "is  eminently  distinguished  from  all  other  known  species 
by  having  the  tail  slightly  rounded,  and  composed  of  twenty  broad 
rounded  feathers.  This  peculiarity  of  the  extraordinary  number  of 
tail-feathers  is  only  found  besides  in  the  cock  of  the  plains,  in  which, 
however,  they  are  not  rounded,  but  very  slender,  tapering,  and 
acute."  Like  the  rest  of  the  species  of  the  genus  Tetrao  (and  sub- 
genus Bo7iasia),  the  present  Bird  is  tyrannically  polygamous,  and  the 
males  soon  desert  the  females,  indifferent  alike  to  them  and  to  their 


progeny.  The  male  of  this  species  is  entirely  dusky  black,  and 
exceeds  the  female  in  size.  The  general  plumage  of  the  latter  is 
dusky  brown,  variegated  with  ochre-yellow.     (See  Fig.  1385). 

The  Pinnated  Grouse  {Tdrao  cufiido).—U\\%  species,   cele- 
brated for  the  exquisite  flavour  of  its  flesh,   is  strictly  confined  to 


r-^^z/f^r-^"'"'"**' 


Fig.  13S3.— Black  Grouse— Male. 

certain  portions  of  North  America ;  open  dry  plains  interspersed 
with  trees  or  partially  overgrown  with  shrub-oak  being  its  favourite 
haunts.  "Accordingly,"  says  Wilson,  "we  find  these  birds  on  the 
grouse-plains  of  New  Jersey,  in  Burlington  county,  as  well  as  on  the 
bushy  plains  of  Long  Island  ;  among  the  pines  and  shrub-oaks  of 
Pocamo,  in  Northampton  county,  over  the  whole  extent  of  the 
Barrens  of  Kentucky ;    on  the  luxuriant  plains  and  prairies  of  the 


rig,  1384.— Black  Grouse— Female 


544 


THE   GROUSE  TRIBE. 


Indiana  territory,  and  on  the  vast  and  remote  plains  of  the  Columbia 
river."  In  the  bushy  thickets  of  these  localities  they  find  food  and 
shelter.  The  male  is  remarkable  for  a  naked  sacculated  appendage 
on  each  side  of  the  neck,  which  at  ordinary  times  hangs  wrinkled 
and  flaccid,  but  which,  during  the  pairing  season,  is  distended  with 
air,  and  much  resembles  in  size  and  colour  a  large  orange.  With 
this  appendage  is  evidently  connected  the  strange  noises  which  this 
Bird  utters  at  that  season,  like  the  subdued  blowing  of  a  horn  or 
conch,  consisting  of  three  notes,  each  strongly  accented.  "  While 
uttering  these  tones  the  bird  e.'ihibits  all  the  ostentatious  gesticula- 
tions of  a  turkey-cock,  erecting  and  fluttering  his  neck-wings  (or 
pointed  frills),  and  passing  before  the  female,  and  close  before  his 
fellows  as  if  in  defiance."     Now  and  then  are  heard  some  crackling 


Fig.  1385. — The  Dusky  Grouse. 

notes,  chiefly  uttered  by  the  males  while  engaged  in  fight,  on  which 
occasion  "  they  leap  up  against  each  other  exactly  in  the  manner  of 
turkeys,  but  seemingly  with  more  malice  than  effect."  The  males 
begin  their  call  before  daybreak,  and  continue  it  till  eight  or  nine  in 
the  morning,  when  the  parties  separate  to  seek  for  food. 

In  severe  weather  these  Birds  approach  barns  and  farm-houses, 
mix  with  the  poultry  to  glean  up  the  scattered  grains  of  Indian  corn, 
and  seem  almost  domesticated.  Many  are  at  this  time  taken  in 
traps,  and  the  gun  thins  their  numbers.  The  nest  of  this  species  is 
placed  under  brushwood  on  a  tussock  of  long  grass,  and  formed 
with  little  art ;  the  eggs  are  about  fifteen  in  number,  and  of  a 
brownish-white.  The  young  form  coveys  or  packs,  which  separate 
on  the  approach  of  spring. 

The  male  of  the  Pinnated  Grouse  weighs  about  three  pounds  and 
a-half.  The  neck  is  furnished  with  a  sort  of  winglet  above  each  sac, 
composed  of  eighteen  feathers,  of  which  five  are  black,  and  the  rest, 
which  are  shorter,  black  streaked  with  brown.     The  head  slightly 


crested,  and  over  each  eye   is  a  semicircular  comb  of  rich  orange. 
(See  Fig.  1386.) 

The  general  plumage  is  variegated  with  transverse  markings  of 
black,  reddish-brown,  and  white.  The  tail  is  very  short  and  of  a 
dusky  brown.  Breast  and  under  parts  brown,  transversely  marked 
with  white  ;  throat  marked  with  touches  of  reddish-brown,  white, 
and  black  ;  under  the  eye  a  dark  streak  of  brown.  The  female  is 
considerably  less  than  the  male  ;  of  a  lighter  colour,  destitute  of  the 
neck-wings,  of  the  naked  sacculated  appendages,  and  the  semi- 
circular comb  over  the  eye.  Green  lichen,  various  moorland  berries, 
clover-leaves,  the  buds  of  the  pine,  grain,  and  Insects,  constitute  the 
food  of  the  Pinnated  Grouse. 

The  Ruffed  Grouse  {Bonasia  or  Tetrao  umbellus). — This 
species,  the  Partridge  of  the  Eastern  States,  and  the  Pheasant  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Southern  States,  inhabits  an  e.xtensive  range 
of  country.  "  It  is  common  at  Moose  Fort,  on  Hudson's  Bay,  in 
lat.  50°  ;  frequent  in  the  upper  parts  of  Georgia  ;  is  very  abundant  in 
Kentucky  and  the  Indian  territory,  and  was  found  by  Captains  Lewis 
and  Clarke  in  crossing  the  great  range  of  mountains  that  divides  the 
waters  of  the  Columbia  and  Missouri,  more  than  3,000  miles  by 
admeasurement  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter.  Its  favourite  places  of 
resort  are  high  mountains  covered  with  the  balsam  pine,  hemlock, 
and  other  evergreens.  Unlike  the  Pinnated  Grouse,  it  always  prefers 
the  woods,  is  seldom  or  never  found  in  open  plains,  but  loves  the 
pine-sheltered  declivities  of  mountains  near  streams  of  water." 
This  Bird  is  solitary  in  its  habits,  being  usually  found  singly  or  in 
pairs,  and  seldom  in  coveys  of  more  than  four  or  five  together. 


Fig.  1386.— The  Pinnated  Orouse, 


Fig.  I3S7. — The  Ruffed  Grouse. 

The  male  is  remarkable  for  producing  a  drumming  noise,_princi- 
nallv  during  the  spring,  but  occasionally  at  other  seasons  ;  it  is  the 
call  of  the  cock  to  his  mate,  and  when  heard  in  the  solitudes  of  the 
woods  has  a  singular  effect.  This  noise  is  not  the  voice  of  the 
Bird,  but  is  occasioned  by  smart  strokes  of  the  wings.  "The  bird 
standing  on  an  old  prostrate  log,  generally  in  a  retired  and  sheltered 
situation,  lowers  his  wings,  erects  his  expanded  lad,  contracts  hlS 
throat  elevates  the  two  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  neck,  and  inflates  his 
whole  body  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  turkey-cock,  strutting  and 
wheeling  about  with  great  stateliness.  After  a  few  manreuvres  of 
this  kind  he  begins  to  strike  with  his  stiffened  wings  in  short  and 
quick  strokes,  which  become  more  and  more  rapid  until  they  run 
into  each  other,"  producing  a  hollow  drumming  noise,  which  may 
be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  This  is  most  commonly  per- 
formed  in  the  morning  and  evening,  but  is  repeated  at  intervals 
during  the  day,  and  guides  the  gunner  to  the  retreat  of  the  Bird, 
which  is  easily  shot.  ,.        .  .      .  •  . 

The  female  breeds  in  May,  artfully  concealing  her  nest,  which 
contains  from  nine  to  fifteen  eggs.  She  carefully  attends  her  brood, 
and,  like  the  Partridge  of  Europe,  puts  vanous  manoeuvres  into 
practice,  in  order  to  decoy  intruders  from  the  place  of  their  conceal- 
ment. 


CO 


THE  GROUSE  TRIBE. 


545 


The  Ruffed  Grouse  flies  with  great  vigour,  and  with  a  loud 
whirring  noise,  and  when  sprung,  sweeps  to  a  considerable  distance 
through  the  wood  before  alighting.  Great  numbers  are  killed  for  the 
table ;  and,  according  to  Wilson,  the  Birds  are  in  the  best  condition 
in  September  and  October,  during  which  months  they  feed  chiefly  on 
whortle-berries  and  the  little  red  aromatic  partridge-berry. 

The  general  colour  of  the  male  is  chestnut  brown,  mottled  and  un- 
dulated with  blackish-brown  and  grey  ;  tail  grey,  undulated  and 
barred  with  blackish-brown  ;  shoulder-tufts  velvet-black,  with  green 
reflexions,  and  covering  a  large  space  of  the  neck  destitute  of 
feathers.  The  female  is  paler-tinted  than  the  male ;  the  shoulder- 
tufts  are  orange-brown. 

The  Cock  of  the  Plains  {Tetraourophasianus ;  Centrocercus 
urophasianus). — This  species,  which  is  a  native  of  the  barren  arid 
plains  along  the  river  Columbia  and  the  interior  of  North  California, 
appears  to  have  been  first  recorded  by  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  has 
been  described  by  Mr.  Douglas,  who  found  it  among  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  From  the  slender  form  of  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings, 
and  those  of  the  tail,  the  flight  of  this  species  is  slow,  unsteady,  and 
accompanied  by  a  whirring  sound.  "When  startled,"  says  Mr. 
Douglas,  "the  voice,  ctcck,  Click,  c«c/{',  is  like  that  of  the  common 
pheasant.  They  pair  in  March  and  April.  Small  eminences  on  the 
banks  of  streams  are  the  places  usually  selected  for  celebrating  the 
weddings  ;  the  time  generally  about  sunrise.  The  wings  of  the  male 
are  lowered,  buzzing  on  the  ground ;    the  tail  spread  like  a  fan, 


somewhat  erect ;  the  bare  yellow  ccsophagus  is  inflated  to  a  pro- 
digious size— fully  half  as  large  as  his  body— in  marked  contrast 
with  the  scale-like   feathers  below  it  on  the  breast,  and  the  lle.xilc 


Fig.  1388.— The  Cock  of  the  Plains. 


"P^f (,./>:, 


Pig.  13S9. — A  Group  of  Game. 

a,  ihe  Capeicailzii;  ;  /',  the  Peacock  ;  c,  the  Quail  ;  d,  the  Red-legged  Partridge  ;  c,  the  Red  Grouse  ;  f,  tlie  Black 
Grouse  ;  g,  the  Plarmigan  ;  h,  the  Common  Partridge. 


silky  feathers  on  the  neck,  which 
on  these  occasions  st.ind  erect. 
In  this  grotesque  form  he  displays, 
in  the  presence  of  his  intencled 
mate,  a  variety  of  attitudes.  His 
love-song  is  a  confused,  grating, 
but  not  offensively  disagreeable 
tone, — something  that  we  can  imi- 
tate, but  have  a  difficulty  in  ex- 
pressing— Hii  rr-hu7-?--/iu  rr -}■'>■- 
r-hoo,  ending  in  a  deep  hollow 
tone,  not  unlike  the  sound  pro- 
duced by  blowing  into  a  large 
reed.  Nest  on  the  ground,  under 
the  shade  oi  Purs/iia  and  Ar/c- 
misia,  or  near  streams,  among 
Phalaris  aritndinacca,  carefully 
constructed  of  dry  grass  and  slen- 
der twigs.  Eggs,  from  thirteen 
to  seventeen,  about  the  size  of 
those  of  the  common  fowl,  of  a 
wood-brown  colour,  with  irregul.ir 
chocolate  blotches  on  the  thick 
end.  Period  of  incubation  twenty- 
one  to  twenty-two  days.  The 
young  leave  the  nest  a  few  hours 
after  they  are  hatched.  In  the 
summer  and  autumn  months  these 
birds  are  seen  in  small  troops,  and 
in  winter  and  spring  in  flocks  of 
several  hundreds." 

The  flesh  is  dark-coloured,  but 
not  particularly  good   in   point  of 
flavour.     The     sacculation  of  the 
oesophagus,  to  which  allusion  has 
been    made,    is   double,   and   the 
skin  covering  it  deep   orange-yel- 
low.    The  male   is   about  twenty- 
two  inches  in    length,  and  weighs 
from  six   to  eight    pounds.      The 
general   colour  of  the  upper  parts 
is  light  brown,  mottled  and  varie- 
gated with  dark  umber-brown  and 
yellowish-white.     Shafts  of  all  the 
feathers   of  the  breast  black  and 
rigid  ;  the  featliers  of  the  side  are 
white    and    scale-like  :  throat  and 
head  varied   with    blackish   on    a 
\vhite  ground  :  on  each  side  of  the 
protuberances,  and  higher  up  on 
the     neck,   is  a    tuft   of   feathers, 
having   the   shafts     greatly   elon- 
gated, naked,  gently  curved,    and 
tipped  with  a  pencil  of  black  barbs. 
In     the  female  these    filamentous 
feathers   arc  wanting  ;  her  size  is 
much  less  than  that  of  the  male, 
and  there  are    no    scale-like  fea- 
thers on  the  chest  and  sides.    (See 
Fig.  1388.)     The  annexed  cut  re- 
presents a  group  of  game. 

The    Ptarmigan     and    the 
Red  Grouse  {Lagopus  vulgaris 
or    fint/t/s).  —  Gelinote    blanche, 
4  A 


THE  GROUSE  TRIBE. 


of    the 
this  genus 


546    

I'Attat'es  blanc,  of  the  French;  Pernice,  alpestre  and  Lagopo 
bianco"  of  the  Italians;  Schncehuhn  and  Hassenfiissige  Wald- 
huhn  of  the  Germans ;  Rype  of  the  Norwegians  ;  Riupkarre 
(male)  the  Riupa  (female)  of  the  Icelanders  ;  Tarmachan 
Highland  Gael ;  Coriar  yr  Alban  of  the  Welsh.  In 
the  legs  and  toes  are  completely  clothed  with  hair-like  feathers  to 
the  very  claws,  and  in  winter  so  thick  and  deep  does  this  covermg 
become,  as  to  give  to  the  leg  the  appearance  of  a"  hare's  foot." 
Small  closely-set  feathers  also  invest  the  base  of  the  beak,  which 
increase,  during  the  colder  season,  till  little  more  than  the  pomt  of 
the  latter  is  visible.     A  naked  skin  rises  above  each  eye. 

The  Ptarmigan  is  a  native  of  the  dreary  mountain  regions  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  the  Alpine  districts  of  Central  Europe,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  America,  including  the  islands  lying  to  the  south- 
west of  BafBn's  Bay.  It  is  found  in  the  British  Islands,  specially  on 
the  Grampians,  where  great  granite  and  slaty  masses  afford  it  con- 
cealment It  is  found  also  in  tolerable  abundance  on  the  elevated 
summits  of  the  mountains  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  the  adjacent 
islands.  Mountain  berries  and  heath-shoots  in  summer,  buds  and 
leaves  in  winter,  constitute  the  food  of  the  Ptarmigan  ;  and  at  this 
season  the  Birds  are  often  obliged  to  burrow  under  the  snow,  partly 
perhaps  for  shelter,  but  principally  in  quest  of  food.  After  the 
breedino-  season  the  various  young  coveys  and  their  parents  asso- 
ciate in  large  flocks,  consisting  of  forty  or  fifty  individuals,  which 


Bird 


Fig.  1390. — Ptarmigans. 

separate  into  pairs  early  in  the  spring.  The  nest,  if  it  deserve  the 
name,  consists  of  a  few  twigs  and  stalks  of  grass,  loosely  arranged 
in  a  slight  depression  on  the  ground  ;  the  eggs,  fourteen  or  fifteen  in 
number,  are  of  a  pale  reddish-white,  spotted  with  dark  brown.  The 
young  run  about  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  shell,  and  are  quite  on  the 
alert,  concealing  themselves  with  great  skill  on  the  appearance  of 
danger.  The  alarm-call  of  the  Ptarmigan  is  a  strange  croaking  cry  ; 
and  so  well  do  the  mingled  colours  of  these  Birds  blend  with  the 
frao-ments  of  out-cropping  rock,  weather-stained  and  covered  by 
many-tinted  lichens  and  mosses,  that  a  person  may  pass  very  near  a 
covey  without  perceiving  them,  unless  one  utters  his  call,  or  they 
rise  suddenly  upon  the  wing. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  connected  with  the  history  of 
this  species  is  its  change  from  a  rich  and  spotted  livery,  its  summer 
dress,  to  one  of  pure  white.  In  spring,  for  example,  the  plumage  is 
varied  with  black  and  deep  reddish-yellow,  the  quill-feathers  being 
white,  with  biack  shafts.  Towards  autumn  the  yellow  gives  place 
to  greyish-white,  and  the  black  spots  become  irregularly  broken,  till 
at  last  they  disappear,  the  plumage  whitening  to  the  purity  of  snow. 
At  the  same  time  it  acquires  greater  fulness  ;  aud  the  legs  and  feet 
are  so  densely  clad  as  to  resemble  those  of  a  hare.  As  spring  re- 
turns, the  Ptarmigan  begins  to  lose  the  pure  white  of  his  plumage, 
and  regains  his  summer  dress.     (See  Fig.  1390.) 

Red  Grouse. — With  respect  to  the  Red  Grouse  (Lagopus 
scoticusj  it  is  exclusively  peculiar  to  the  British  Islands,  being  found 


in  no  part  of  the  continent.  This  beautiful  and  valued  tsira  is 
common  on  the  high  moorland  districts  of  the  northern  counties  of 
England,  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  where  the  heath  affords  it 
shelter  and  concealment.  During  the  autumn  and  winter  it  associ- 
ates in  flocks  or  packs,  which  are  often  wild  and  shy,  and  not  easily 
approached.  Early  in  the  spring  the  sexes  pair ;  the  female  lays 
her  egp-s  in  March,  making  a  rude  nest  of  sprigs  of  heath  and  grass 
upon  the  ground,  under  the  shelter  of  a  tuft  of  heath  or  of  the 
bilberry  plant  ( Vacciniian  myrtillus).  The  young  are  strong  on 
the  wincT  by  August.  The  male  takes  no  part  in  the  labour  of  incu- 
bation, but  ioins  the  female  and  the  young  brood  as  soon  as  hatched 
and  is  as  attentive  to  the  latter  as  the  female  parent.  The  Red 
Grouse  feeds  upon  the  tender  shoots  of  heath,  on  bilberries,  whortle- 
berries, and  the  berries  of  other  species  of  Vaccimum,  and  also  upon 
oats,  for  which  it  will  visit  the  stubble  lands  bordering  the  moors. 
Its  flight  is  rapid  and  powerful.  .  ,      ,  ,,•..- 

The  plumage  of  the  Red  Grouse  is  very  rich,  the  general  tint  being 
deep  chestnut,  diversified  with  zigzag  bars  and  dots  of  black  ;  the 
leers  and  toes  are  thickly  clad  with  hair-like  feathers  ;  and  a  bright 
sclrlet  fringed  skin,  largest  in  the  male,  surmounts  the  eye. 

The  OdontophorincB  are  distinguished  by  having  two  teeth  on 
each  side  of  the  lower  mandible,  near  the  point.  The  bill  is  short, 
and  arched  towards  the  'tip,  with  the  apex  of  the  upper  mandible 
prolonged  beyond  the  lower  one  ;  the  nostrils  are  situated  at  the  base 
^  '^  ■'  of  the   bill,    in   a   short    rounded 

groove,  and  covered  by  a  mem- 
branous scale  ;  the  wings  are  con- 
cave and  rounded,  the  tarsi  elon- 
gated and  slender,  and  the  toes 
long,  the  outermost  being  longer 
than  the  inner.  These  Birds  are 
inhabitants  of  America,  where  they 
take  the  place  of  the  Partridges 
and  Quails  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, and  are  generally  known 
by  the  same  names.  The  best 
known  species  is  the  American 
Quail  {Oi'tyx  -jirginiatia),  a  Bird 
about  nine  inches  in  length,  which 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  North 
America,  and  as  far  south  as  Hon- 
duras. These  Birds,  which  are  as 
much  the  objects  of  pursuit  with 
the  American  sportsmen,  as  the 
common  Partridge  with  those  of 
our  own  country,  are  generally 
found  about  the  plantations,  where 
they  feed  upon  grain.  They  oc- 
casionally seek  shelter  in  woods, 
but  usually  keep  in  the  open  fields, 
concealing  themselves  amongst 
the  briers  of  hedge-banks.  In 
May  the  females  make  a  nest  of 
dry  grass  and  herbage  on  the 
ground,  and  generally  protected 
by  a  large  tuft  of  grass.  In 
this  they  lay  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-four  eggs,  and  the  young 
■isi,  i"-"^  " '  '  quit  the  nest  as   soon   as   they  are 

hatched,  running  about  with  their 
mother  in  search  of  food.  When 
disturbed  under  these  circum- 
stances, the  mother  immediately  puts  every  artifice  in  practice  to 
lure  the  intruder  away  from  her  helpless  brood,  running  along  the 
path  before  him  with  her  wings  dragging  on  the  ground,  as  if 
severely  wounded,  and  returning  by 
danger  has  been  eluded,  to   collect 


a     circuitous   route  when  the 
the  chicks,  which,   in  obedi- 


Fig.  139 1. — The  American  Quail. 

ence  to  the  first  note  of  alarm,  have  secreted  themselves  amongst 
the   herbage.   When     the    eggs    are     hatched    under    a    common 


THE  PARTRIDGES. 


S47 


hen,  the  young  Birds  arc  perfectly  contented  with  their  captivity 
until  the  approach  of  spring  and  the  breeding  season,  when  they 
invariably  take  their  departure.  Another  species,  the  Californian 
Quail  [Ortyx  cali/ornica),  has  the  top  of  the  head  ornamented  with 
several  remarkable  curved  feathers.     (See  Fig.  1392.) 


;#^ 

'^^'"i^*. 
•^./j, 


Fig.  1392. — The  Californian  Quail. 

In  the  TernicintB,  the  bill  is  of  moderate  size,  nearly  straight,  with 
the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  slightly  overhanging  that  of  the  lower 
one  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  in  a  groove  which  e.xtends  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  bill  ;  their  aperture  is  linear,  and  furnished  with  an 
elongated  scale.  The  tarsi  are  of  moderate  length,  and  stout ;  the  toes, 
usually  three  in  number,  rather  long,  and  free  at  the  base  ;  the  wings 
short  and  rounded,  and  the  tail  nearly  concealed  by  the  dorsal  feathers. 

These  small  Birds,  which  are  pretty  generally  distributed  over  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  present  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
Bustards  in  their  general  appearance.  They  live  generally  on  barren 
deserts,  where  they  run  with  great  celerity,  and,  when  disturbed, 
generally  conceal  themselves  in  the  taller  herbage,  or  endeavour  to 
escape  by  running,  but  rarely  take  to  flight.     They  feed  upon  seeds 


Fig.  1393. — The  Common  rartridge. 


and  Insects,  and  are  said  to  be  polygamous  ;  but  little  is  known  of 
their  habits.  Only  a  single  species  'is  found  in  Europe,  the  Anda- 
lusian  Quail  {Tu>-/i!X  tachydrumiis),  and  this  is  especially  a  native 
of  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  both  in  Europe  and 
Africa.  It  is  considered  by  Tcmminck  to  be  a  Migratory  Bird,  and 
specimens  have  occasionally  strayed  so  far  to  the  north  as  to  reach 
this  country.  Several  species  are  found  in  India  and  the  islands  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago  ;  and  Mr.  Gould  has  brought  seven  or  eight 
from  Australia.  The  last-named  ornithologist  confirms  Temminck's 
opinion  as  to  the  migrations  of  these  Birds.  A  Javanese  species, 
7'ur?i!X  ^ugnax,  is  of  an  exceedingly  quarrelsome  disposition,  and 
is  much  sought  after  by  the  natives  of  that  island,  who  amuse  them- 
selves with  its  combats. 

The  Partridges— Sub-family  Perdicince. 

The  last  sub-family  is  that  of  the  PerdicincB,  including  the 
Partridges  and  Quails,  in  which  the  bill  is  short  and  compressed, 
with  the  margins  of  the  mandibles  entire,  and  the  nostrils  protected 
by  a  hard  scale ;  the  tarsi  are  elongated,  covered  in  front  with 
scales,  and  occasionally  armed  with  spurs  or  tubercles,  and  the 
hinder  toe  is  more  or  less  elevated.  The  Pcrdic!?icc  arc  very  gene- 
rally distributed  over  the  temperate  and  warmer  regions  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  Some,  like  our  common  Partridge,  are  sta- 
tionary ;  whilst  others,  such  as  the  Quails,  perform  regular  migra- 
tions. They  live  principally  upon  the  ground,  in  pastures,  especially 
in  mountainous  districts,  and  in  corn-fields ;  a  few  inhabit  rocky 
places,  and  some  are  even  found  in  woods.  They  feed  principally 
upon  seeds,  berries,  and  buds.  The  nest  is  of  a  very  simple  nature, 
and  generally  placed  on  the  ground  in  a  small  hollow ;  the  eggs  are 
numerous,  and  the  young  run  about  from  the  moment  of  their 
leaving  the  f^gg,  in  company  with  the  mother,  who  often  employs  a 
stratagem,  similar  to  that  related  of  the  American  Quail,  to  save  her 
young  from  danger. 

The  CoiiJiON  Partridge  {Perdix  cincrcd). — Perdris,  Pcrdris 
grise,  on  des  Champs,  of  the  French  ;  Perdice,  Pernisette,  Perni- 
gona,  and  Starna  of  the  Italians  ;  Rebhun  of  the  Germans  ;  Coriar 
of  the  ancient  British  ;   Pertrisen  of  the  modern  Welsh. 

The  common   Partridge  is  too  well  known  to   require  minute  de- 
scription :  it  appears  to  be  confined  within  the  boundaries  of  Europe, 
everywhere   frequenting    cultivated  districts    and    rich    corn-lands; 
hence  its   increase  is  encouraged  by  the  conversion  of  heath,  moor- 
land,  and  wood,   into  fields  of  waving  grain.     The  pairing-time  of 
these  Birds  is  about  the  beginning  of  February,  at  which  season  the 
males  engage  in  desperate  conflicts  ;  and  as  they  are  more  numer- 
ous than   the   females,  the   successful   combatant  in  one  battle  has 
often  to  renew  the  strife  with  other  rivals.    The  female  produces 
her  eggs  about  the  latter  part  of  May  or  beginning  of  June, 
depositing  them  in  a  rough  nest  or  shallow  depression  of  the 
ground,  in  a  corn-field  or  clover-field,  under  a  tuft  of  grass  in  a 
meadow,  or  amongst  whin  bushes.     They  vary  from  twelve  to 
twenty  in  number,  and  are  of  a  greenish  ash  colour.     So  close 
does  the  female  sit,  and  so  unmoved  is  she  by  apprehension 
of  danger,  that  she  frequently  falls   a  victim  to  the  mower's 
scythe   while  brooding  over  her  nest.     The  young,  after  three 
weeks'  incubation,  are  hatched  in  June,  or  from  the  beginning 
to  the  middle  of  July  ;  and  the  male  immediatelyjoins  his  mate 
in  the  care  of  the  young  brood.     From  the  earliest  times  the 
Partridge  has  been  celebrated  for  the  various  artifices  employed 
to  draw  off  the  attention  of  men  and  Dogs  from  the  young, 
which,  at  the  warning  call  of  their  parents,  have  dispersed,  and 
lie  cowering  in  the  grass  or  amidst  the  standing  corn  ;  nor  is 
this  all — they  will  fight  resolutely  in  defence  of  their  brood, 
and  have  been  known  to  engage  in  combat  with  the  Kite  and 
the  Crow,  and  accomplish  their  object.     The  feeding-time  of 
the  Partridge  occupies  two  or  three  hours  after  sunrise,  and 
again  in  the  evening  before  sunset.     The  interval  they  employ 
in  basking  and  dusting   their   plumage    in   sunny  places,   in 
preening  their  feathers,  and  in  taking  short  flights  from  one 
spot  to  another.     They  roost  at  night  upon  the   ground,  near 
the  centre  of  a   field,  in   a   bare  spot,  and   at  sunset  may  be 
heard  calling  to  each  other,  till  the  covey,  which  sits  crowded 
together,  is  complete.     (See  Figs.  1389  h,  and  1393.) 

The  Red-legged  Partridge  {Perdix  rubra),  a  species 
abundant  in  France  and  Italy,  and  a  native  also  of  the  islands 
of  Guernsey  and  Jersey,  has,  within  the  last  few  years,  been  in- 
troduced into  some  of  the  preserves  of  g'ame  in  our  island,  and 
in  various  parts  has  considerably  multiplied,  but  to  the  injury 
of  the  Common  Partridge,  which  it  fiercely  persecutes,  usurp- 
ing its  legitimate  territory.  Its  flesh  is  very  inferior  to  that 
of  the  latter ;  and  the  sportsman,  to  his  annoyance,  finds  that 
the  Birds,  instead  of  rising,  run,  soon  spoiling  the  behaviour  of 
his  best-trained  Pointers.  The  Red-legged  Partridge  is  very 
beautiful,  having  the  feathers  of  the  sides  ornamented  with  a 
series  of  crescent-shaped  bars  of  black,  white,  and  chestnut ; 
the  throat  is  white,  bordered  by  a  deep  black  band;  the 
upper  surface  is  reddish-brown  ;  the  under  surtacc  reddish-yellow. 


548 


THE  PHEASANTS. 


The  Quails. — To  our  common  Partridge,  not  only  in  plumage 
and  form,  but  in  the  spurless  condition  of  the  legs,  the  Quails 
(Coturnix)  bear  a  close  resemblance.  The  European  Quail  {Cotur- 
nix  dactylisonatis ;  the  opruS  of  Aristotle  ;  Coturnix  of  the  Latins  ; 
Quaglia  of  the  modern  Italians  ;  Caille  of  the  French  ;  and  Wachtel 
of  the  Germans)  is  known  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  World,  and 
is  a  summer  visitant,  though  not  in  great  numbers,  to  our  island. 
In  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  the  Quail  may  be  regarded  as  station- 
ary, flocks  or  bevis  remaining  during  the  winter,  but  increased  every 
spring  by  an  accession  of  visitors  from  the  parched  plains  of  Africa, 
the  winter  asylum  of  myriads,  which  make  Europe  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Asia  their  annual  summer  residence.  During  their  periodi- 
cal flights  between  Europe  and  Africa,  and  vice  versa,  the  shores 
and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  are  replete  with  myriads.  Sicily 
swarms  with  them — their  autumnal  arrival  is  looked  forward  to  with 
great  anxiety,  and  they  are  shot  and  captured  by  wholesale.  Ac- 
cording to  Baron  de  Tott,  no  country  abounds  in  Quails  more  than 
the  Crimea.  During  the  summer  these  Birds  are  dispersed  over  the 
country,  "  but  assemble  at  the  approach  of  autumn,  and  cross  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  southern  coasts,  whence  they  afterwards  transport 
themselves  into  a  warmer  climate.  The  order  of  this  emigration  is 
invariable  :  towards  the  end  of  August,  in  a  serene  day,  when  the 
wind  blows  from  the  north  at  sunset,  and  promises  a  fine  night,  they 
repair  to  the  strand,  take  their  departure  at  six  or  seven  in  the  even- 
ing, and  have  finished  a  journey  of  fifty  leagues  by  break  of  day." 
Nets  are  spread  on  the  opposite  shore,  and  persons  are  assembled 
to  capture  the  Birds  exhausted  by  their  flight.  The  migrations  of 
the  Quail  have,  in  fact,  been  noticed  by  the  ancients,  from  Aristotle  to 
Pliny ;  and  the  latter  asserts  that,  blown  by  adverse  winds  out  of 
their  course,  whole  flocks  are  often  swept  into  the  sea,  and  that 
sometimes  they  settle  on  vessels  in  such  numbers  as  to  cause  their 
sinking.  "  Advolant  *  •  *  non  sine  periculo  navigantium  cum 
appropinquavere  terris,  quippe  veils  saepe  insident,  et  semper  noctu, 
merguntque  navigia."  (Plin.  "  Hist.  Nat."  lib.  x.)  Hasselquist 
states  that  in  Egypt  amazing  flocks  of  these  Birds  arrive  in  the 
month  of  March,  when  the  wheat  ripens  there,  and  are  caught  in 
thousands  by  means  of  nets.     (See  Fig.  1389  c.) 

The  flesh  of  the  Quail  is  very  delicate.  Our  London  markets  are 
supplied  principally  from  France,  and  thousands  are  there  captured 
by  means  of  a  Quail-pipe  which  imitates  their  call ;  but,  as  Mr. 
Selby  observes,  "by  this  device  males  only  are  taken,  which  may 
account  for  the  few  female  specimens  found  amongst  the  many  hun- 
dreds kept  in  confinement  by  the  London  poulterers."  We  may 
add  that  the  males  precede  the  arrival  of  the  females  by  a  few  days. 

According  to  Pliny,  the  Romans  entertained  a  prejudice  against 
the  flesh  of  these  Birds,  in  consequence  of  their  feeding  on  the  grains 
of  the  hellebore,  and  their  being  subject  to  epilepsy.  Other  nations, 
however,  do  not  seem  to  have  partaken  of  this  prejudice.  The 
Quail  is  polygamous  ;  the  nest  consists  merely  of  a  few  dried  stalks 
in  some  convenient  receptacle  on  the  ground,  generally  in  a  field  of 
wheat :  the  eggs  are  from  twelve  to  eighteen  in  number,  of  a  light 
greenish  hue,  blotched  with  brown.  The  pugnacious  habits  of  the 
Quail  are  well  known:  "As  quarrelsome  as  quails  in  a  cage,"  was 
an  ancient  saying.  The  males  fight  with  the  spirit  and  resolution  of 
Game-Cocks  ;  hence  the  Greeks  and  Romans  kept  them  for  the  pur- 
pose of  fighting. 

The  colours  of  the  Quail  are  very  pleasing,  being  a  mixture  of 
black,  chestnut,  yellow,  and  white  ;  the  markings  vary  in  intensity,  but 
the  males  are  always  characterised  by  a  black  border  round  the  throat, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  female.     Length,  seven  inches  and  a-half. 

The  Francolins  [Francoltnus)  closely  resemble  the  Partridges, 
but  the  tarsi  of  the  males  are  armed  with  one  or  two  spurs.  They 
differ  considerably  from  the  True  Partridges  in  their  habits,  living  in 
damp  places,  in  woods  and  forests,  and  perching  constantly  upon 
trees.  One  species,  the  common  Francolin  {F.  vulgaris),  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  south  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
Like  the  common  Partridge,  which  it  resembles  in  the  form  of  its 
bill,  it  feeds  upon  Insects  and  seeds  ;  but  some  of  the  African 
species  derive  their  nourishment  from  bulbous  plants  ;  and  to  enable 
them  to  dig  these  out  of  the  ground,  the  bill,  especially  the  upper 
mandible,  is  considerably  elongated.     Their  flesh  is  very  good. 

In  the  family  of  the  Pteroclidce,  or  Sand  Grouse,  the  bill  is  rather 
short,  compressed,  nearly  straight,  and  curved  at  the  tip,  with  the 
nostrils  at  the  base,  and  half  closed  by  a  membranous  scale.  The 
tarsi  are  rather  long,  and  covered  in  front  with  small  feathers  ;  the 
toes  short,  especially  the  hinder  one,  which  is  nearly  rudimentary, 
and  placed  high  up  upon  the  tarsus.  The  wings  and  tail  are 
elongated  and  pointed,  and  in  some  species  the  two  middle  feathers 
of  the  tail  are  considerably  longer  than  the  others.  These  Birds 
live  for  the  most  part  on  the  plains  and  sandy  deserts  of  the  hot 
countries  of  the  Old  World. 

Two  species  {Pterocles  arenarius  and  P.  alchata)  are  found  in 
Europe,  but  these  frequent  only  the  most  southern  parts  of  the 
continent.  They  fly  well,  and  often  perform  long  journeys,  although 
they  cannot  be  regarded  as  Migratory  Birds;  their  food  consists 
principally  of  seeds  and  Insects.  They  nidificate  on  the  ground, 
amongst  stones  or  herbage,  and  lay  four  or  five  eggs. 


The  Pheasants— Family  Phasianidce. 

The  fifth  family,  that  of  the  Phasianidcc,  or  Pheasants,  includes 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  Rasorial  Birds  ;  indeed,  some  of  them  may 
perhaps  be  justly  regarded  as  pre-eminent,  in  this  respect,  over  all 
the  rest  of  their  class.  In  these  Birds  the  bill  is  of  moderate  size, 
and  compressed,  with  the  upper  mandible  arched  to  the  tip,  where  it 
overhangs  the  lower  one  ;  the  tarsi  are  of  moderate  length  and  thick- 
ness, usually  armed  with  one  or  two  spurs  ;  the  toes  are  moderate, 
and  the  hinder  one  short  and  elevated.'/-  The  wings  are  rather  short 
and  rounded,  and  the  tail  more  or  less  elongated  and  broad,  but 
frequently  wedge-shaped  and  pointed.  The  head  is  rarely  feathered 
all  over  ;  the  naked  skin  is  sometimes  confined  to  a  space  about  the 
eye,  but  generally  occupies  a  greater  portion  of  the  surface,  occa- 
sionally covering  the  whole  head,  and  even  a  part  of  the  neck,  and 
frequently  forming  combs  and  wattles  of  very  remarkable  forms.  In 
some  species  the  crown  is  furnished  with  a  crest  of  feathers. 

The  Birds  of  this  family  are,  for  the  most  part,  inhabitants  of  the 
Asiatic  continent  and  islands,  from  which,  however,  several  species 
have  been  introduced  into  other  parts  of  the  globe.  The  Guinea 
Fowl  of  Africa,  and  the  Turkeys  of  America,  are  almost  the  only 
instances  of  the  occurrence  of  wild  Phasianidous  Birds  out  of  Asia. 
Some  species,  such  as  the  common  Fowl,  the  Peacock,  the  Turkey, 
and  the  Guinea  Fowl,  have  been  reduced  to  a  state  of  complete 
domestication,  and  are  distributed  pretty  generally  over  the  world. 

The  PhasianidcB  constitute  four  distinct  sub-families.  In  the 
MeleagrincB,  or  Turkeys,  the  tail  is  short  and  pendent  in  repose, 
and  the  head  and  neck  are  naked,  and  covered  with  a  carunculated 
skin.  This  sub-family  includes  only  the  Turkeys  and  Guinea  Fowl 
of  America  and  Africa,  representatives  of  which  are  well-known 
denizens  of  our  poultry-yards. 

'lYi'e.  Co'b.lhlO'Vk  Ivsx.-EX  {Meleagris gallopavd).  Coq  d'lnde  and 
Dindon  (Dinde,  fem.),  French  ;  Gallo  d'India,  Gallinaccio  (Gallina 
d'India,  fem.)  of  the  Italians  ;  Indianische  Hahn  of  the  Germans. 
(Sec  Fig.  1394.) 


Fig.  1394. — The  Common  Turkey. 

This  noble  Bird,  one  of  the  ornaments  of  our  poultry-yard,  is  a 
native  of  America,  whence  it  appears  to  have  been  imported  into 
Europe  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  But  it  must  be 
confessed  that  nothing  very  tangible  or  definite  respecting  its  intro- 
duction has  been  recorded.  So  involved  in  obscurity  is  the  early 
history  of  the  Turkey,  and  so  ignorant  do  the  writers  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  appear  to  have  been  about  it,  that  they 
have  regarded  it  as  a  Bird  known  to  the  ancients  under  the  title  of 
"Meleagris" — namely,  the  Guinea  Fowl,  or  Pintado — a  mistake  which 
was  not  cleared  up  till  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ; 
but  the  name,  originally  applied  in  error,  has  been  since  continued 
rather  for  the  sake  of  convenience  than  because  of  its  propriety. 
The  appellation  of  "  Turkey,"  which  the  Bird  bears  in  our  country, 
arose,  according  to  Willughby,  from  a  supposition  that  it  came  origin- 
ally from  the  country  so  called  ;  and  Mr.  Bennett  observes  that  such  an 
erroneous  opinion  may  possibly  have  arisen  from  that  confusion  which 
appears  to  have  at  first  existed  between  these  Birds  and  Guinea 
Fowls,  the  latter  being  commonly  obtained  from  the  Levant,  and 
being  also,  in  the  si.xteenth  century,  exceedingly  rare  in  England. 
Oviedo,  in  his  "  Natural  History  of  the  Indies,"  the  title  then  given 
to  the  newly-discovered  regions  of  America,  speaks  of  it  as  a  kind 
of  Peacock,  abounding  in  New  Spain,  which  had  already  (1526)  been 
transported  in  a  domestic  state  to  the  islands  and  the  Spanish  Main, 
where  it  was  kept  by  the  Christian  colonists.  Mexico  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Grijalva  in  1518.  In  the  fifteenth  year  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1521),  Turkeys  are  reported  to  have  been  introduced  into  England; 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


.S49 


and  in  1541  we  find  these  Birds  among  the  dainties  of  the  table. 
Archbishop  Cranmer  (Leland's  "Collectanea")  ordered  that  of 
Cranes,  Swans,  and  Turkey-Cocks  there  should  be  at  festivals  only 
one  dish.  In  1573,  Tusscr,  in  his  "  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good 
Husbandry,"  notices  these  Birds  as  amonc;:  the  farmer's  fare  at 
Christmas.  At  the  present  day  the  Domestic  Turkey  is  spread  over 
the  greater  portion  of  Europe,  and  is  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion. 

The  habits  of  the  Wild  Turkey  (see  Fig.  1395)  arc  admirably  de- 
tailed by  Audubon  and  the  Prince  of  Canino,  whose  accounts  we 
shall  follow.  The  native  country  of  this  species  extends  from  the 
north-western  territory  of  the  United  States  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  south  of  which  it  is  not  to  be  found.  It  was  formerly  com- 
mon in  many  parts  of  Canada,  as  well  as  in  districts  within  the 
States,  whence  it  has  been  driven  by  the  advance  of  colonisation, 
and  must  now  be  sought  for  in  remoter  localities.     The  unsettled 


seldom  taking  wing  unless  to  escape  the  hunter's  Dog,  or  cross  a 
river,  which  latter  feat  is  not  performed  till  after  some  delay,  during 
which  they  ascend  the  highest  eminences,  and  strut  about  and 
gobble  as  if  to  raise  their  courage  to  a  pitch  bolilting  the  emergency. 
Even  the  females  and  young  assume,  at  this  juncture,  a  pompous 
demeanour,  spread  out  their  tails,  and  "pur"  loudly.  When  the 
weather  is  settled,  and  they  themselves  prepared,  they  take  to  flight 
for  the  opposite  shore  ;  the  old  and  robust  easily  cross  a  river  of  the 
breadth  of  a  mile,  but  the  young  and  meagre  Birds  often  find  their 
strength  fail,  and  fall  into  the  water,  not,  however,  to  be  drowned,  as 
might  be  imagined.  They  bring  their  wings  close  to  the  body, 
spread  out  their  tail,  stretch  forward  their  neck,  strike  out  vigor- 
ously with  their  legs,  and  rapidly  make  w.ay  to  the  shore.  It  is 
remarkable  that,  after  landing  on  the  opposite  banks  of  a  large 
stream,  the  flocks  ramble  about  for  some  time  as  if  bewildered  and 
many  fall  a  prey  to  ferocious  beasts  or  the  hunter.     When  they'have 


FisJ    1395.— Wild  Turkeys. 


parts  of  the  States  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  aud  Indiana,  an  im- 
mense country  to  the  north-west  of  these  districts,  and  the  vast 
regions  drained  by  these  rivers,  from  their  confluence  to  Louisiana, 
including  the  wooded  parts  of  Arkansas,  according  to  Audubon,  are 
the  most  abundantly  supplied  with  this  magnificent  Bird.  The 
Wild  Turkey  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  migratory  in  its  habits,  and 
associates  in  flocks  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months.  About 
the  beginning  of  October,  when  the  fruits  and  seeds  are  about  to 
fall  from  the  trees,  these  Birds  collect  together,  and  gradually  move 
towards  the  rich  bottom-lands  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  The 
males,  or  "  gobblers,"  associate  in  parties,  varying  from  ten  to  a 
hundred,  and  search  for  food  apart  from  the  fernalcs  ;  the  latter, 
with  their  young  broods,  usually  join  each  other,  forming  parties  of 
seventy  or  eighty,  and  assiduously  avoid  the  old  males,  which  evince 
a  disposition  to  attack  and  destroy  the  young  till  they  are  fully 
grown.     The  flocks  of  the  district  all  move  in  the  same  direction. 


arrived  in  their  land  of  abundance,  they  disperse  in  small  flocks, 
composed  of  individuals  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages  intermingled  ; 
this  occurs  about  the  middle  of  November.  The  mast,  or  fruit  of 
the  beech,  has  now  fallen  in  abundance  ;  but  besides  this,  maize, 
the  peccan-nut,  and  the  acorn  are  also  relished,  and  they  devour 
Beetles,  Grasshoppers,  Tadpoles,  young  Frogs,  and  small  Lizards. 
At  this  season  they  often  venture  near  farm-yards  and  barns,  and 
numbers  are  killed  for  sale. 

Early  in  March  they  begin  to  pair,  the  females  having  previously 
assumed  a  solitary  mode  of  life,  feeding  and  roosting  apart  by 
themselves :  when  they  call,  the  males  respond,  and  the  woods 
sometimes  resound  for  miles  with  the  clamour.  Rival  males  often 
engage  in  mortal  combat.  As  soon  as  the  females  begin  to  lay, 
they  relinquish  the  society  of  their  mates,  and  soon  attend  exclu- 
sively to  the  duty  of  incubation  ;  the  nest,  which  consists  of  a  few 
leaves,  is  artfully  concealed  in  some  brake  or  under  the  covert  of  a 


SSO 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


dense  thicket,  and  the  female  both  leaves  and  visits  her  nest  with 
the  greatest  caution,  lest  the  male  should  discover  it,  in  which  case 
he  would  ferociously  crush  the  eggs  in  a  moment,  The  Crow,  the 
Polecat,  and  the  Snake  are  also  dreaded ;  and  it  often  happens  that 
several  hens  associate  together  for  mutual  safety,  rearing  their  broods 
in  one  united  nest,  which  is  always  watched  by  one  or  more,  so 
that  no  Crow,  Raven,  or  Polecat  dares  approach  it.  When  the 
young  are  hatched,  the  female  leads  them  abroad,  keeping  a^n 
anxious  and  incessant  watch  lest  Hawks  and  other  enemies,  includ- 
ing the  Turkey-Cock,  should  attack  them  ;  the  troops  move  onwards, 
ke^eping  to  the  higher  grounds,  for  the  young  are  only  covered  with 
down,  and  if  wetted  in  this  stage  of  existence  seldom  survive.  At 
the  expiration  of  about  a  fortnight  they  are  able  to  raise  themselves 
from  the  ground,  on  which  they  have  hitherto  reposed  at  night,  and 
follow  their  mother  to  a  perch  on  the  low  arm  of  a  tree,  where  they 
nestle  under  her  broadly  curved  wings.  The  brood  vanes  in  number 
from  ten  to  fifteen  or  eighteen.  The  growth  of  the  young  is  rapid, 
In  Aucnast,  though  still  led  by  their  respective  parents,  several  broods 
associate  together,  and  the  young  display  almost  as  much  alertness 
in  securing  their  safety  as  do  the  adults.  -,   ,  ,     , 

In  colour  the  Wild  Turkey  closely  resembles  the  bronzed  black 
varieties  of  the  domestic  race,  but  the  plumage  is  more  brilliant,  gleam- 
ing with  violet,  green,  and  gold  according  to  the  incidence  of  the 
lic?ht  The  long  pectoral  tassel  of  hair,  and  the  naked,  changeable, 
carunculated  skin  of  the  head  and  throat,  are  the  same  in  the  wild 
as  in  the  domesticated  race.  Fig.  1396  represents  the  gizzard  ot 
the  Turkey. 


head  of  this  species,  which  is  the  Gallina  di  Numidia  of  the 
Italians,  Pintade  of  the  French,  Pintado  of  the  Spanish,  Perl  Huhn 
of  the  Germans.  In  a  subsequent  illustration  of  a  "  Group  of 
Domestic  Poultry,"  the  figure  of  this  Bird  will  be  seen. 

The  Guinea-Fowl,  or  Pintado,  as  its  name  indicates,  was  originally 
from  Africa.  It  was  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
received  from  the  former  the  name  of  Meleagris.  According  to  the 
ancient  fable,  the  sisters  of  Meleager,  mourning  the  death  of  their 
brother,  were  turned  into  Birds  called  Meleagrides  (in  the  singular 
Meleagris),  having  their  feathers  sprinkled  with  tear-drops.  The 
term  Meleagris,  however,  strange  to  say,  has  been  transferred  by 
Belon,  Gesner,  Aldrovandus,  and  others  to  the  Turkey,  a  native  of 
America,  and  of  which  the  ancients  had  no  information. 


Fig.  1396.— Gizzard  of  the  Turkey. 

The  HONDUR.A.S  Turkey  (il/e/e^zi'rw  oce/Ziz/a).— Beautiful  as  is 
the  common  Wild  Turkey  of  North  America,  it  is  far  surpassed  by 
the  Honduras  Turkey,  which  rivals  the  Peacock  in  its  gorgeous 


Fig.  1397. — The  Honduras  Tiivkey. 

dress,  effulgent  with  golden  bronze,  steel  blue,  emerald  green,  and 
velvet  black.     (See  Fig.  1397.) 
The  Guinea-Fowl  (Numida  meleagris  J.    Fig.  1398  shows  the 


Fig.  139S. — Head  of  the  Guinea-Fowl. 

The  Guinea-Fowl  is  noticed  by  Aristotle,  by  Pliny,  by  Varro  ("  De 
Re  Rustica  "),  and  by  Columella,  a  writer  on  husbandry  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius  Ca:sar,  and  by  others.  According  to  Athenasus,  the 
^tolians  first  introduced  this  Bird  into  Greece  ;  but  though  it  must 
have  been  naturalised  there,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  spread  very 
widel)'.  In  the  middle  ages  we  lose  all  trace  of  it  ;  no  writers  of 
those  times  appear  to  notice  it,  nor  can  we  distinctly  point  out  the 
period  of  its  introduction  into  the  British  Isles.  This,  however, 
must  be  comparatively  recent ;  its  name  does  not  occur  in  the  list  of 
Birds  in  the  famous  feast  of  Archbishop  Nevill,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  ;  nor  does  it  appear  in  the  Duke  of  Northumberland's 
Household-Book,  1512  ;  nor  yet  in  the  Household-Book  of  Henry 
VIII.  Yet,  in  all  these  lists,  the  Peion,  or  Peacock,  makes  a  con- 
spicuous figure.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
Guinea-Fowl  was  tolerably  common  in  England,  and  is  now  com- 
pletely naturalised. 

Adanson,  Dampier,  Le  Vaillant,  and  other  travellers  in  Africa, 
have  observed  the  Wild  Guinea-Fowl  in  different  parts  of  that  con- 
tinent ;  but,  as  several  species  are  known,  we  cannot  be  certain 
which  of  them  is  intended. 

The  common  Guinea-Fowl  {Numida  t)teleagris)  appears  to  be 
dispersed  through  an  extensive  range  of  Africa,  frequenting  low 
humid  situations,  and  the  banks  of  rivers  and  marshes.  It  is 
eminently  gregarious,  assembling  in  large  flocks,  which  wander 
about  during  the  day  in  search  of  food ;  as  evening  approaches, 
they  seek  the  branches  of  trees,  and  roost  crowded  together.  In  its 
rapid  mode  of  running,  and  in  its  short  flight  when  forced  to  take 
wing,  we  are  reminded  of  the  Partridge,  which  it  also  somewhat 
resembles  in  the  contour  of  its  body.  A  wild  race  of  these  Birds  is 
found  in  St.  Domingo  and  others  of  the  West  India  islands ;  this 
race  is  said  to  have  been  imported  from  Guinea. 

In  a  domestic  condition,  the  Guinea-Fowl  retains  almost  unaltered 
its  original  habits ;  it  is  restless,  addicted  to  wandering,  and 
impatient  of  restraint.  It  will  stray  for  miles  from  the  farm  to 
which  it  belongs,  and  it  often  happens  that  a  long-missed  female 
will  make  her  appearance  with  a  young  brood  attending  her.  In 
close  confinement  the  female  rarely  hatches  her  eggs,  the  want  of  free- 
dom interfering  with  her  instincts;  few  Birds,  indeed,  are  more  recluse 
and  shy  during  the  time  of  incubation,  or  more  cautious  in  conceal- 
ing their  nest.  It  is  generally  made  among  dense  brushwood  or  in 
similar  retreats.  The  number  of  eggs  varies  from  twelve  to  twenty. 
They  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Fowl,  of  a  pale  yellowish-red, 
minutely  dotted  with  darker  points.  Both  the  eggs  and  flesh  of  the 
Guinea-Fowl  are  excellent.  Cream-coloured  Guinea-Fowls  are  some- 
times to  be  seen  ;  in  these  the  white  spots  are  still  to  be  distinguished. 
Another  variety  has  a  white  breast,  and  the  general  colouring 
destitute  of  the  richness  which  renders  the  wild  and  the  undegenerate 
domestic  race  so  attractive.  The  shrill  querulous  notes  of  this  Bird, 
which  it  perpetually  repeats,  are  veiy  disagreeable.  The  Guinea- 
Fowl  has  not  yet  reached  the  colder  latitudes  of  Europe ;  it  is  not 
mentioned  by  Linnaeus  in  his  Swedish  Fauna ;  and  it  is  said  that 
neither  Denmark,  Norway,  nor  Northern  Russia  possesses  it. 
The  Crested  Guinea-Fowl,  or  Pintado  {Numida  crislala). 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


551 


—This  species  is  less  than  the  common  Gumea-Fowl ;  its  head  is 
crested  with  hair-hke  feathers  ;  the  general  plumage  is  bluish-black 
spotted  with  grey.  Quills  yellowish-brown  ;  edges  of  the  secondaries 
pure  white. 

The  True  Pheasants— Sub-family  Phasianinai. 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  Phasianhia-,  or  True  Pheasants,  the  tail 
is  more  or  less  elongated,  usually  very  long,  wedge-shaped,  pointed, 
and  composed  of  narrow,  wedge-shaped  feathers.  Of  this  group, 
which  includes  the  Pheasants  and  Domestic  Poultry,  the  best  known 
■wild  species  is  the  common  Pheasant  [P/iauaniis  colchicus). 
This  Bird,  which  is  too  well  known  to  need  description,  although 
naturalised  in  this  country,  and  included  in  our  lists  of  Birds,  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  native  species  ;  and  except  in  some  very  favour- 
able situations,  considerable  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  its  ex- 
tinction.    It  is  a  native  of  Western  Asia,  and  is  supposed  to  have 


=i-.))Mv 


Fig-  1399.— The  Crested  Guinea-Fowl. 

been  originally  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  banks  of  the  Phasis 
a  river  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Colchis,  situated  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Black  Sea;  and  from  this  locality  its  scientific 
name  is  derived.  It  is  now,  however,  very  generally  distributed 
over  the  whole  of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe. 

The  description  of  the  habits  of  the  common  Pheasant  will  serve, 
with  but  little  variation,  for  the  whole  group.     Its  favourite  haunts 


Fig.  1400.— Group  of  Chinese  Pheasants, 


are  woods  and  thickets,  always  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water;  and 
it  frequently  takes  to  marshy  islands,  overgrown  with  rushes  or 
osiers.  In  the  summer  the  Pheasants  roost  on  the  ground ;  but 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  autumn  and  winter,  they  pass  the  night 
upon  "the  trees.  They  feed  upon  grain  and  seeds  of  various  kinds, 
intermixed  with  fruits,  green  herbage,  roots,  and  Insects.  Mr. 
Yarrell  says  that  he  has  seen  them  feeding  on  blackberries,  sloes, 
and  haws  ;  and  that  sometimes  their  crops  are  distended  with  acorns 
of  such  large  size,  that  the  Birds  must  have  had  some  trouble  in 
getting  them  down.  They  are  also  said  to  be  particularly  fond  of 
The  root  of  the  common  buttercup  (Ramniailiis  bulbosus).  In  their 
movements.  Pheasants  closely  resemble  the  common  Fowl,  walking 
and  running  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  great  swiftness  ;  in  fact, 
rarely  taking  wing  unless  pressed  with  immediate  danger.  They 
are  polygamous,  and  the  males  and  females  only  associate  during 
the  breeding  season,  which  is  in  the  spring.  At  this  time,  the 
males,  which  have  kept  together  during  the  winter,  separate,  each 
taking  up  a  particular  station,  where  he  collects  a  number  of  females 
round'  him,  by  strutting  about,  clapping  his  wings,  and  crowing. 
The  females  deposit  from  ten  to  fourteen  eggs  amongst  long  grass 
or  bushes  ;  the  nest  consisting  merely  of  a  small  hollow,  lined  with 
dried  leaves  ;  they  are  then  deserted  by  the  male,  and  the  whole 
labour  of  incubation  and  bringing  up  the  young  brood  is  left  entirely 
to  them. 

The  Pheasant  breeds  pretty  readily  in  confinement;  but  under 
these  circumstances  the  female  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  careless  in 
hatching  the  eggs,  which  are  therefore  usually  put  under  a  common 
Hen  ;  and  the  possessors  of  preserves  even  collect  all  the  eggs  that 
can  be  found,  hatch  them  in  this  way  under  a  Hen,  and  turn  the 
young  out  into  the  covers  when  fledged.  In  captivity  the  Pheasant 
will  breed  with  the  common  Fowl  and  Guinea-Fowl;  and  even  in 
the  wild  state,  hybrids  of  this  Bird,  with  the  Black  Grouse,  have 
been  met  with.  A  variety,  the  Ring-necked  Pheasant,  distinguished 
by  having  a  white  ring  round  its  neck,  is  also  supposed  by  some  to 
be  a  hybrid  with  the  Phasianus  torqiiatus,  a  native  of  China.  The 
young  Birds  are  very  subject  to  a  disease  called  the  gapes,  which  is 
caused  by  the  presence  in  the  windpipe  of  a  parasitic  Worm  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Fasciola,  which  causing  the  trachea  to  inflame, 
often  produces  suffocation.  Various  remedies  are  employed  against 
this  disease  ;  in  its  eariier  stages,  gariic,  chives,  or  young  onions, 
are  said  to  have  a  beneficial  effect ;  but  when  the  disease  has  be- 
come serious,  the  best  remedy  is  fumigation  with  tobacco,  the  Birds 
being  enclosed  in  a  tight  box,  and  smoked  until  they  are  nearly 
or  completely  stupefied.  Pheasant-shooting  is  a  favourite  amuse- 
ment with  sportsmen,  and  perh.-!ps  no  other  description  of  game  is 
so  subject  to  the  depredations  of  poachers.  The  number  of  these 
Birds  sometimes  killed  at  battues  is  enormous  ;  but  it  must  be  con- 
fessed  that  this  practice  is  not  one  of  the  most  sportsmanlike. 

Numerous  species  of  Pheasants  are  found  in  the  wooded  regions 
of  the  Asiatic  continent  and  islands.     Amongst  these,  two  of  the 

most  beautiful  are  the  Gold 
and  Silver  Pheasants  of  China, 
which  are  not  uncommon  in 
aviaries.  Fig.  1400  represents 
three  specimens  of  Chinese 
Pheasants :  a,  the  Silver  ;  b, 
the  Golden ;  and  c,  Reeve's 
Pheasant. 

The  Golden  Pheasant  {Pha- 
siaiiiis  pictiis)  is  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  species,  its 
plumage  being  variegated 
with  brilliant  scarlet,  yellow, 
and  blue,  and  the  head  orna- 
mented with  a  large  yellow 
crest,  which  can  be  elevated  at 
pleasure.  Cuvier  supposes 
that  this  Bird  was  the  original 
of  Pliny's  description  of  the 
Phoenix.  In  the  Silver  Phea- 
sant {P.  nyctheincnts)  the 
general  colour  of  the  plumage 
is  white,  but  each  feather  is 
adorned  with  fine  black  lines, 
and  the  whole  lower  surface 
of  the  body  is  black.  One  of 
the  finest  species  is  the  Argus 
Pheasant  {Argus  giganteus. 
Fig.  1401),  which  inhabits  the 
larger  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  The  male  mea- 
sures between  five  and  six 
feet,  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  formed 
by  the  two  central  feathers. 
The    general    colour    of   the 


SSa 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


plumage  is  brown ;  but  the  most  remarkable  character  of  the 
Bird  consists  in  the  enormous  size  of  the  secondary  quill-feathers 
of  the  wings  (see  Fig.  1402),  which  often  exceed  three  feet  in 
length  ;  and  from  their  being  adorned  with   a  series  of  occUated 

spots,  along  the  whole  length 
of  each,  give  the  Bird  a  very 
elegant  appearance  when  the 
wings  are  expanded.  The 
Pucras  Pheasant  {Piicrasia 
i)iacrolopJia)  is  closely  allied 
to  the  common  species ;  but 
the  other,  the  Tragopan,  or 
Horned  Pheasant  {Ceriornis 
satyra,  see  Fig.  1403),  makes 
a  nearer  approach  to  the  ordi- 
nary Fowl.  This  Bird  is  re- 
markable for  the  singularity 
of  the  appendages  with  which 
the  head  of  the  male  is 
adorned  ;  the  sides  of  the  head 
are  naked,  and  behind  each 
eye  there  is  a  long  horn  of  a 
Head  of  the  Argus  Pheasant,  bluish  colour,  which  is  also  the 
tint  of  the  dilatable  wattles 
that  hang  down  from  the  chin.  The  plumage  in  the  male  is  of  a 
rich  red  colour,  adorned  with  small  white  spots  ;  but  in  the  females 
it  is  brown.  The  latter  are  also  destitute  of  the  appendages  of  the 
head. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  naturalisation  of  Pheasants  in  Eng- 
land are  extracted  from  the  "  Guide  "  of  the  Zoological  Society  to  their 
Gardens  at  Regent's  Park,  London,  where  an  extensive  series  of 
living  Birds  may  be  seen  : — 

"  The  Game-Birds  of  the  Himalaya,  and  other  parts  of  Eastern 
Asia,  include  so  many  fine  species  which  are  capable  of  living  in 
Europe,  that  their  introduction  into  this  country  has,  from  the  first, 
been  a  cherished  object  of  the  Zoological  Society.  The  common 
Pheasant  is  a  comparatively  modern  accession  to  the  coverts  of  Eng- 
land, and  is  not  naturally  more  adapted  to  our  climate  than  many 


Fig.  1401.- 


other  species  of  Pheasants  which  are  known  to  inhabit  India, 
Mongolia,  China,  or  Japan.  Within  these  last  few  years  nearly  the 
whole  of  these  splendid  Birds  have  been  introduced  into  this  country 
in  a  living  state,  principally  by  the  agents  and  correspondents  of  the 
Society.     Some  of  them  have  succeeded  well  in  captivity,  and  breed 


Fig.  1402. — Secondary  Quill-Feather  of  the  Argus  Pheasant. 

regularly  in  the  Society's  Gardens.  Others  have  done  well  for  the 
first  3'ear  or  so  after  their  acquisition,  but  have  subsequently  fallen  off, 
and  will  require  fresh  introduction. 

"  The  Monal  {Loj>hoJ>horus  im^eyaniis). — The  Monal,  or  Impeyan 


Fi^.  1403. — The  Tragopan,  or  Horned  I'hc.isanl. 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


*,ll 


Pheasant,  of  the  Himalayas,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  Birds  of  its 
tribe,  and  cannot  fail  to  fix  tlie  attention  of  all  who  behold  it.  The 
rich  beauty  of  its  plumage,  its  size,  and  the  grotcsqueness  of  its 
actions  at  particular  periods  are  equally  remarkable."  Fig.  1404 
represents  the  head,  and  Figs.  1405  and  1406  the  male  and  female 
Birds. 

The  male  is  a  handsome  Bird,  nearly  as  large  as  a  Turkey,  and  of 
a  general  black  colour ;  but  the  feathers  reflect  most  beautiful 
metallic  blue,  green,  golden,  and  coppery  tints.   The  head  is  adorned 


Fig.  1404. — Head  o(  the  Inipey.in  Theasant. 

with  a  remarkable  tuft  of  plumes,  which,  like  the  feathers  of  the  back, 
appear  golden-green  by  reflection.  The  tail  is  of  a  fine  chestnut-red 
colour,  and  the  rump  white.  The  females  are  far  inferior  in  beauty 
to  the  males,  being  of  a  general  brown  tint,  more  or  less  variegated 
with  grey  and  tawny.  The  Bird  feeds  principally  upon  bulbous 
roots,  for  digging  up  which,  the  elongated  upper  mandible  is  parti- 
cularly adapted. 

"The  Amherst's  Pheasant  {Thatmialea  amkersiics). — This 
Pheasant  is  a  strict  congener  of  the  well-known  Gold  Pheasant  (77^. 
■pictd),  already  described ;  but  is  even  more  showy  and  magnificent  in 


Fig.  1405. — The  Impeyan  Pheasant — Male. 

plumage.  It  was  for  many  years  known  only  by  a  few  imperfect 
skins  in  our  museums,  but  within  these  last  few  years  has  been 
obtained  by  collectors  in  the  Chinese  provinces  Yunan  and  Western 
Szechuen,  in  considerable  numbers.  The  living  e.xamples  in  the 
Society's  collection  were  procured  from  the  latter  locality.  The 
males  breed  freely  with  hens  of  the  Gold  Pheasant,  and  the  resulting 
hybrids  are  barely  distinguishable  from  Pure  Birds. 

"  The  Purple  Kaleege  {Euplocamus  horsfiehW) ;  The  White- 
crested  K.4LEEGE  {E.  albo-cristatus) ;  The  Lineated  Kaleege 
{E.  lineatus). — The  division  oiPhasianitlcB  to  which  these  fine  Birds 
belong,  has  long  been  familiar  to  European  eyes  in  the  Silver 
Pheasant,  already  described ;  which  was  probably  one  of  the  first 
introductions  resulting  from  our  commerce  with  China.  Males  of 
the   Horsfield's   or  Purple  Kaleege  were   obtained  by  the  Society 


through  Captam  Ncsbit,  of  the  "Nile,"  in  the  year  i8si.  The 
Lmeatod  kaleege  of  Arracan  and  the  Burmese  provinces  is  the  most 
recently  rntro.  uced  of  the  Kaleeges,  most  of  which  breed  regularly 
m  the  Society  s  Gardens.  ' 

"  The  Argus  Pheasant  {Argus  giganfcus).-1\^x^  has  been 
already  described.     For   pairs   of  this   rare  and  valuable    Bird    the 
Society  are  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  I.  G.  Fanshawe    F  7  S 
and  Sir  Harry  St.  George  Ord,  K.C.B.  r<i"!.nawe,  i  ./..&., 

"The  Temminck's  Tr.\gopan  [Cerioynis  tcmm!ncki\~T\^<i 
Tragopans  or  Horned  Pheasants,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  Gamc-Birds  of  Eastern  Asia.     The  Horned  Tragopan  {Cerioniis 


Fig.  1406. — The  Impeyan  Pheasant— Female. 

satyra)  was  the  first  species  of  the  group  introduced.  This  Trago- 
pan is  found  in  Nepal,  Bhotan,  and  Sikim,  being  replaced  on  the 
slopes  of  the  north-western  Himalayas  by  the  Black-headed  Tragopan 
{C.  7>!elaiwccphala).  Tcmminck's  Tragopan  is  a  representative  of 
this  splendid  group  of  Pheasants  in  Central  and  Western  China  ; 
and  Blyth's  Tragopan,  the  most  recent  addition  to  the  genus,  isfirom 
Upper  Assam. 

"The Peacock  Vhea.sdiniXPolypleciron  chinquis).—1\\ft  Polyplec- 
trons  obtained  the  name  of  Peacock  Pheasants  from  the  metallic  eyes 
which  adorn  the  principal  feathers  of  the  body,  and  all  the  feathers 
of  the  tail.  This  gorgeous  scheme  of  decoration  may  be  observed  as 
occurring  also  in  the  Ocellated  Turkey  of  Honduras.  There  are 
several  Polyplectrons  found  in  North  India  and  the  Malay  countries, 
but  the  present  Bird  is  the  only  species  which  has  bred  freely 
in  captivity.  Contrary  to  the  usual  habits  of  Gallinaceous  Birds, 
the  Polyplectrons  are  strictly  monogamous,  and  lay  only  two  eggs." 

The  Common  Fowl. — The  most  important  species  of  this  group, 
and  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  Birds,  is  the  Common  Fowl 
{Gallus  domestiacs).  This  Bird  has  been  under  the  protection  of 
man  from  time  immemorial  ;  and  the  earliest  historical  records 
which  we  possess,  the  curious  paintings  of  the  Egyptians,  show  that 
this,  and  most  of  our  ordinary  Domestic  Animals,  were  as  completely 
domesticated  at  that  early  period  as  in  our  own  day.  The  original 
stock  of  the  Domestic  Fowl  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  Gallus 
bafzkivus,  or  Jungle-Fowl,  of  Java,  which  will  be  presently  described  ; 
but  naturalists  are  far  from  having  arrived  at  any  certainty  upon 
this  point ;  and  it  seems  not  improbable,  cither  that  this  valuable 
Bird  forms  a  species  per  se,  or  that  it  has  been  produced  by  an 
intermixture  of  closely  related  species. 

With  respect  to  the  habits  of  our  Domestic  Fowls  nothing  need  be 
said.  The  crow  of  the  Cock,  the  cackle  of  the  Hen,  the  care  of 
Chanticleer  over  his  harem,  his  attention  and  spirit,  the  cluck  with 
which  he  calls  the  females  to  some  acceptable  food,  their  mode  of 
dusting  their  feathers,  their  habit  of  swallowing  gravel  and  small 
pebbles,  to  assist  in  the  trituration  of  grain,  subjected  to  the  action 
of  the  muscular  gizzard — these  and  many  other  points  in  their 
economy  are  known  to  all. 

The  varieties  of  Fowl  are  too  numerous  for  description  ;  but  the 
following  illustration  shows  some  of  the  most  interesting  kind,  together 
with  other  Animals  common  in  the  farm  and  poultry-yard. 

The  Bankiva,  or  Javan  Jungle-Fowl  {Gallus  banki- 
viis,  Temm.).  The  Javan  Cock  of  Latham;  Ayam  utan  of  the 
Malays. — This  beautiful  species  is  a  native  of  Java,  and,  though 
smaller  in  size,  closely  resembles  the  Black-breasted  Red  Game 
breed  of  our  own  country.  It  tenants  the  jungles,  and  in  some 
districts  is  very  abundant.  We  have  seen  many  specimens  in  the 
Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society.  A  larger  variety,  or  perhaps  a 
distinct  species,  is  found  on  the  continent  of  India.  The  plumage  of 
the  male  is  as  follows  : — the  hackles  of  the  neck  and  rump  are  long, 
and  of  a  fine  rich  orange-red ;  the  upper  part  of  the  back  below  the 

4B 


554 


THE   PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


DOMESTIC   FOWLS;    MALE  AND   FEMALE   TURKEY. 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


55S 


hackles  bl.iish.b!ack  ;  the  shoulders  bright  chestnut-red  :  the  greater 
coverts  and  secondaries  deep  steel-blue  :  the  qui  Is  brownish-black, 
edcred  with  pale  reddish-yellow  ;  tail  black,  with  green  and  steel- 
blue  reflexions ;  breast  and  under  parts  black  ;  the  comb,  which  is 
upright  and  deeply  indented,  the  naked  space  round  the  eyes,  and 
the  wattles  scarlet.  The  Hen  closely  resembles  a  Brown  Garne  Hen, 
of  the  same  breed  as  the  Black-breasted  Red,  or  Duck-winged  Game- 
Cock  This  is  the  15ird  to  which  allusion  has  just  been  made  as  the 
probable  origin  of  our  domestic  race.     (See  Fig.  1408.) 


,s</,'n-■/l,u^^ 


Fig.  140S. — The  Eankiva,  or  Javan  Jungle- Fowl. 

Sonnerat's  '^vfiG'L^-Vow'L  [Gallus  so?ineraiu').  Jungle-Fowl 
of  the  sportsmen  in  India  ;  Rahn  Komrah  of  the  Mahrattas. — This 
splendid  Bird,  of  which  many  specimens  have  lived  long  in  the 
menagerie  of  the  Zool.  Soc,  is  celebrated  for  its  high  courage  and 
prowess,  and  is  in  great  request  among  the  Cock-fighters  of  Hindo- 


Fig.  1409. — Sonnerat's  Jungle-Fowl — Male. 

Stan,  who  consider  it  more  than  a  match  for  a  larger  Bird  of  the 
ordinary  breed.  Its  port  is  erect  and  stately,  and  its  form  is  admir- 
able. In  size  this  species  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Domestic  Fowl,  but 
lighter  and  more  graceful.  The  comb  is  only  slightly  indented ; 
the  wattles  are  large  and  double  ;  the  hackles  (though  they  scarcely 


come  under  this  term)  of  the  neck,  of  the  wing  and  tail-coverts,  dark 
greyish,  with  bright  golden  orange  shafts  dilating  in  the  centre  and 
towards  the  tip  into  a  flat  hornyplate.  In  some  of  these  feathers  the 
shaft  takes  an  elliptical  or  oar-like  shape  ;  in  others  it  puts  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  long  inverted  cone,  from  the  centre  of  the  base  of 
which  a  battledore-like  process  arises.  The  substance  and  appear- 
ance of  these  plates  have  been  not  inaptly  compared  with  the  wax- 
like plates  which  ormemcnt  the  wings  and  tail  of  the  Bohemian 
Chatterer.  The  effect  produced  by  this  modification  of  the  shafts 
is  singular  and  beautiful.  Feathers  of  the  middle  of  the  back, 
breast,  belly,  and  thighs  deep  rich  grey,  with  paler  shafts  and  edges  ; 
tail  generally  rich  deep  green  ;  the  feathers  which  immediately 
succeed  the  hackles  are  rich  purple,  with  a  pale  yellow  edge  ;  those 
next  in  succession  are  golden  green,  with  grey  edges,  and  all  arc 
glossed  with  brilliant  metallic  reflexions  ;  bill,  legs,  and  feet  yellow. 
The  living  Bird  presents  altogether  a  rich  and  striking  object,  es- 
pecially when  the  sun  shines  on  the  plumage.     (See  Fig.   1409.) 

Female  less  than  the  Cock  by  about  a  third,  without  comb  or 
wattles,  but  a  trace  of  nakedness  round  the  eye.  The  plumage 
(generally)  is  without  the  horny  structure  which  distinguishes  that 
of  the  male.     Upper  parts  uniform  brown  ;  neck  feathers  with  dark 


Fig.  1410.— Sonnerat's  Jungk-Fowl— Female. 

edges,  those  of  the  back  and  wing-coverts  with  a  pale  streak  along 
the  shaft,  and  those  of  the  wings,  tail-coverts,  and  tail  waved  and 
mottled  with  darker  pencillings  ;  throat  and  front  of  the  neck  white  ; 
feathers  of  the  rest  of  the  lower  parts  greyish-white,  edged  with  dark 
brown  ;  legs  and  feet  bluish-grey.     (See  Fig.  1410.) 

Peafowl — Sub-Family  Pavonince. 

The  last  sub-family  of  the  Phasianidous  Birds  is  that  of  the 
Pavonincs,  or  Peafowl,  distinguished  by  having  a  tuft  or  crest  upon 
the  head,  and  the  tail-coverts  greatly  elongated— these  being  the 
feathers  which,  in  the  common  Peacock,  form  that  beautiful  orna- 
ment usually  known  as  the  tail.  The  Common  Peacock  {Pavo  cris- 
tatus)  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  Birds. 

It,  and  its  immediate  allies,  have  only  a  single  spur  on  the  tarsus  ; 
but  the  species  of  the  genus  Poly^ilectron,  already  described,  are 
furnished  with  two,  or  even  more,  of  such  weapons.  In  these  Birds 
the  tail-coverts  are  much  shorter  than  in  the  True  Peacocks,  and, 
in  the  best  known  species  {^Polyplcciron  bkalcaratus),  are  of  a 
reddish  colour,  each  adorned  with  a  doubie  ocellated,  green  spot. 

The  Peacock  {Pavo  cristatus).  Tai>z  or  Taiii-  of  the  Greeks  ; 
Pavo  of  the  Latins  ;  Paon,  French  ;  Pavon  and  Pavone,  Italian  ; 
Pfau,  German.  .  i-     .  j 

This  gorgeous  Bird,  which  is  too  well  known  in  its  domesticated 
state  to  need  description,  is  a  native  of  India.  It  is  common  in 
many  districts,  and  abounds  in  the  jungles  along  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  in  the  forests  of  the  Jungleterry  and  Baughulpore  districts, 
and  in  the  dense  woods  of  the  Ghauts.  When  taken  yoting,  it  is 
easily  domesticated,  and  many  Hindoo  temples  in  the  Dukhun  have 
considerable  flocks  attached  to  them.  The  Peafowl  was  known  to 
the  ancients.  We  find  it  noticed  in  the  Scriptures  as  being  one  of 
the  importations  from  India  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  and  a  forcible 
allusion  to  the  splendour  of  its  plumes  is  made  in  the  Hook  of  Job. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  Alexander  the   Great  obtained   tnis 


SS6 


THE  MOUND-BIRDS. 


Bird  during  his  Indian  expedition,  and  introduced  it  into  Greece, 
wlience  it  has  spread  through  the  greater  portion  of  Europe.  But 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  well  known  in  Greece  at 
an  earlier  period  ;  and  a  talented  writer  has  well  observed  that  it  is 
mentioned  in  two  plays  of  Aristophanes  (third  year  of  88th  Olympiad, 
and  second  year  of  91st,  respectively  ;  whereas  Alexander  was  not 
born  till  the  second  year  of  the  98th  Olympiad) ;  and  observes  it  was 
improbably  introduced  before  the  time  of  Pericles.  To  the  Romans 
it  was  very  familiar  ;  and  indeed  must  have  been  common  in  Italy  at 
an  earlier  period  Admired  as  the  Peacock  was,  its  beauty  did  not 
protect  it  from  slaughter,  for  it  was  killed  to  add  to  the  delicacies  of 
the  tables  of  the  great  and  luxurious  ;  and  its  brain,  together  with  the 
tongues  of  Flamingoes,  entered  into  the  composition  of  a  favourite 
dish  of  the  Emperor  Vitellius.  In  our  country,  a  roasted  Peafowl, 
served  up  with  the  plumes  attached  to  it,  swelled  the  rude  pomp  of  a 
baron's  entertainment.  The  Peafowl  is  restless  and  wandering  in  its 
habits,  and  cannot  well  be  kept  in  a  small  space  ;  it  perches  or 
roosts  by  preference  on  the  topmost  branches  of  trees,  and  indeed  is 
fond  of  any  elevated  situation.  It  seeks  its  food,  however,  and  also 
constructs  its  nest,  on  the  ground.  In  its  wild  state  it  chooses  a  re- 
tired spot,  among  close  brushwood,  as  the  place  of  incubation, 
making  an  inartificial  nest  of  sticks,  twigs,  and  leaves  ;  the  eggs 
are  from  twelve  to  fifteen  in  number.     In  domestication  its  habits  are 


Fig.  141 1. — The  Peacock. 

the  same  ;  indeed,  domestication  has  effected  but  little  alteration  in 
these  points;  nor  has  it  degenerated  into  numerous  varieties.  White 
Peacocks,  it  is  true,  are  sometimes  to  be  seen,  and  imperfectly 
coloured  Birds  are  not  uncommon,  but  here  the  changes  terminate. 

The  beautiful  plumes  of  this  Bird  are  usually  called  its  tail,  and  by 
many  are  supposed  to  be  so  ;  this,  however,  is  not  the  case ;  the  plumes 
of  the  Peacock,  which  are  not  developed  till  the  third  year,  are  its  tail- 
coverts  ;  they  overhang  and  conceal  the  true  tail-feathers,  which  are 
short,  but  which  may  be  easily  seen  when  the  plumes  are  elevated. 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  their 
Gardens  in  Regent's  Park,  are  some  fine  specimens  of  the  Peafowl. 
The  following  additional  remarks  on  them  are  extracted  from  their 
"  Guide  :  " — 

"  The  Common  Peafowl  {Pavo  cristatns).  The  Black-shoul- 
dered Peafowl  {P.  nigripcimis) ;  The  Javan  Peafowl  (.P. 
■Hiuticits).  The  Common  Peafowl  is  a  native  of  India  and  Ceylon. 
•  In  someof  the  unfrequented  portions  of  the  eastern  province,'  says  Sir 
James  Emerson  Tennant,  in  his  interesting  work  on  the  latter  country, 
'  to  which  Europeans  rarely  resort,  and  where  the  Peafowl  are  unmo- 
lested by  the  natives,  their  number  is  so  extraordinary  that,  regarded 
as  game,  it  ceases  to  be  sport  to  destroy  them,  and  their  cries  at  early 
morning  are  so  tumultuous  and  incessant  as  to  banish  sleep  and 
amount  to  an  actual  inconvenience  !  '  The  Black-shouldered  Pea- 
fowl is  commonly  called  the  Japan  Peacock,  but  is  not  found  in 
Japan.  For  a  long  time  its  origin  was  unknown  ;  but  it  has  recently 
been  ascertained  to  occur  wild  in  Cochin-China.  The  Javan  Pea- 
fowl is  a  splendid  Bird.  It  replaces  the  Common  Peafowl  in  the 
Malay  peninsula  and  Java,  and  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  differ- 
ent colouring  and  peculiar  crest."  There  is  a  specimen  of  a  hybrid 
between  the  Japan  Peacock  and  the  Crested  Peahen  bred  in  these 
Gardens. 


The  Mound-Birds.— Family  Mega^odiida:. 

We  next  come  to  a  remarkable  family  of  Birds,  inhabitants  of  the 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  and  Australia,  in  which  the 
hatching  of  the  eggs  is  generally  left  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  assisted 
by  the  warmth  evolved  from  a  mass  of  vegetable  matter  collected  by 
the  parents,  in  which  the  eggs  are  imbedded.  This  is  the  family  of 
the  Megapodiida,  in  which  the  bill  is  rather  stout,  arched  towards 
the  apex,  and  obtuse  at  the  tip  ;  the  wings  are  rounded,  the  tarsi 
long  and  stout,  and  usually  covered  with  large  scales  ;  the  feet 
large,  and  the  hind  toe  elongated,  and  placed  on  the  same  level  with 
the  other  toes.  The  claws  are  long  and  stout.  These  Birds  are 
divided  into  two  sub-families,  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  bill.  _ 

One  is  the  MegapodincB,  or  Mound- Birds.  The  species  of  this 
sub-family  are  found  generally  in  the  shady  forests  of  the  Indian 
islands.  Of  the  habits  of  an  Australian  species,  the  Jungle-Fowl 
(Ulegapodnis  tumulus),  the  following  is  a  description  : — 

The  Mound-making  Megapode  {Mcgapodius  tumulus,  Gould). 
Jungle-Fowl  of  the  colonists  of  Port  Essington  ;  Ooregooga  of  the 
aborigines  of  the  Coburg  Peninsula. — In  the  genus  Megapodius  the 
beak  is  slender,  nearly  straight,  and  much  resembles  that  of  a  Fowl ; 
the  head  is  crested ;  the  toes  are  very  large  and  robust,  and  the 
claws  of  great  size  and  strength.  Fig.  1412  represents  the  head 
and  foot  of  the  Megapode. 


Fig.  1412. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Megapode. 

On  Mr.  Gilbert's  arrival  at  Port  Essington,  his  attention  was 
attracted  to  numerous  great  mounds  of  earth,  which  were  pointed 
out  to  him  by  some  of  the  residents  as  being  the  tumuli  of  the 
aborigines.  The  natives,  on  the  other  hand,  assured  him  that  they 
were  formed  by  the  Jungle-Fowl  for  the  purpose  of  hatching  its  eggs. 
But  this  last  statement  appeared  so  extraordinary,  and  so  much  at 
variance  with  the  general  habits  of  Birds,  that  no  one  in  the  settle- 
ment believed  them  ;  and  the  great  size  of  the  eggs  brought  in  by 
them  as  the  produce  of  this  Bird,  strengthened  the  doubt  of  the 
veracity  of  their  information.  Mr.  Gilbert,  however,  knowing  the 
habits  of  Leipoa,  took  with  him  an  intelligent  native,  and  proceeded 
about  the  middle  of  November  to  Knocker's  Bay,  a  part  of  Port 
Essington  harbour,  comparatively  but  little  known,  and  where  he 
had  been  informed  a  number  of  these  Birds  were  to  be  seen.  He 
landed  beside  a  thicket,  and  had  not  advanced  far  from  the  shore 
when  he  came  to  a  mound  of  sand  and  shells,  with  a  slight  mixture 
of  black  soil,  the  base  resting  on  a  sandy  beach,  only  a  few  feet 
above  high-water-mark;  it  was  enveloped  in  the  large  yellow- 
blossomed  Hibiscus,  was  of  a  conical  form,  twenty  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base,  and  about  five  feet  high.  On  asking  the  native 
what  it  was,  he  replied,  "  Oregoorga  Rambal "  (Jungle-Fowl's  house 
or  nest).  Mr.  Gilbert  scrambled  up  the  sides  of  it,  and  found  a 
young  Bird  in  a  hole  about  two  feet  deep  ;  the  nestling,  apparently 
only  a  few  days  old,  was  lying  on  a  few  dry  withered  leaves.  The 
native  assured  Mr.  Gilbert  that  it  would  be  of  no  use  to  look  for  eggs, 
as  there  were  no  traces  of  the  old  Birds  having  lately  been  there. 
Mr.  Gilbert  took  the  utmost  care  of  the  young  Bird,  placed  it  in  a 
moderate-sized  box,  into  which  he  introduced  a  large  portion  of 
sand,  and  fed  it  on  bruised  Indian  corn,  which  it  took  rather  freely. 
Its  disposition  was  wild  and  intractable,  and  it  effected  its  escape 
on  the  third  day.  While  it  remained  in  captivity,  it  was  inces- 
santly employed  in  scratching  up  the  sand  into  heaps  ;  and  Mr. 
Gilbert  remarks  that  the  rapidity  with  which  it  threw  the  sand  from, 
one  end  of  the  box  to  the  other  was  quite  surprising  for  so  young 
and  small  a  Bird,  its  size  not  being  larger  than  that  of  a  small 
Quail.  At  night  it  was  so  restless  that  Mr.  Gilbert  was  constantly 
kept  awake  by  the  noise  it  made  in  endeavouring  to  escape.  In 
scratching  up  the  sand  the  Bird  only  employed  one  foot,  and  having 
grasped  a  handful,  as  it  were,  threw  the  sand  behind  it  with  but 
little  apparent  exertion,  and  without  shifting  its  standing  position  on 
the  other  leg. 

Mr.  Gilbert  continued  to  receive  the  eggs  without  any  opportunity 
of  seeing  them  taken  from  the  ground  until  the  beginning  of 
February,  when,  on  again  visiting  Knocker's  Bay,  he  saw  two  taken 
from  a  depth  of  six  feet,  in  one  of  the  largest  mounds  he  had  met 
with.     In  this  instance  the  holes  ran  down  in  an  oblique  direction 


GOLDEN   AND   SILVER   PHEASANT:   COMMON    PHEASANT. 


THE  PHEASANT  TRIBE. 


557 


from  the  centre  towards  the  outer  slope  of  the  hillock,  so  that 
although  the  egg's  were  six  feet  deep  from  the  summit,  they  were 
only  two  or  three  feet  from  the  side.  "  The  birds,"  says  Mr.  Gilbert 
in  continuation,  "are  said  to  lay  but  a  single  egg  in  each  hole,  and 
after  the  c^^  is  deposited  the  earth  is  immediately  thrown  down 
lightly  until  the  hole  is  filled  up  ;  the  upper  part  of  the  mound  is 
then  smoothed  and  rounded  over.  It  is  easily  known  when  a 
Jungle-Fowl  has  been  recently  excavating,  from  the  distinct  impres- 
sions of  its  feet  on  the  top  and  sides  of  the  mound,  and  the  earth 
being  so  lightly  thrown  over,  that  with  a  slender  stick  the  direction 
of  the  hole  is  readily  detected,  the  case  or  difficulty  of  thrusting  the 
stick  down  indicating  the  length  of  time  that  may  have  elapsed  since 
the  birds's  operations.  Thus  far  it  is  easy  enough  ;  but  to  reach 
the  eggs  requires  no  little  exertion  and  perseverance.  The  natives 
dig  them  up  with  their  hands  alone,  and  only  make  sufficient  room 
to  admit  their  bodies,  and  to  throw  out  the  earth  between  their  legs ; 
by  grubbing  with  their  fingers  alone  they  are  enabled  to  follow  the 
direction  of  the  hole  with  greater  certainty,  which  will  sometimes, 
at  a  depth  of  several  feet,  turn  off  abruptly  at  right  angles  its  direct 
course  being  obstructed  by  a  clump  of  wood  or  some  other  impedi- 
ment. Their  patience  is,  however,  often  put  to  severe  trials.  In 
the  present  instance  the  native  dug  down  six  times  in  succession  to 
a  depth  of  at  least  six  or  seven  feet  without  finding  an  fig'g,  and  at 
the  last  attempt  came  up  in  such  a  state  of  exhaustion  that  he 
refused  to  try  again  ;  but  my  interest  was  now  too  much  excited  to  re- 
linquish the  opportunity  of  verifying  the  native's  statements,  and  by 
the  offer  of  an  additional  reward  I  induced  him  to  try  again  ;  this 
seventh  trial  proved  successful,  and  my  gratification  was  complete 
when  the  native,  with  equal  pride  and  satisfaction,  held  up  an  e.g^, 
and,  after  two  or  three  more  attempts,  produced  a  second  ;  thus 
proving  how  cautious  Europeans  should  be  of  disregarding  the 
narrations  of  these  poor  children  of  nature,  because  they  happen  to 
sound  extraordinary  or  different  from  anything  with  which  they  were 
previously  acquainted." 

The  Jungle-Fowl  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  dense 
thickets  immediately  adjacent  to  the  sea-beach  :  it  appears  never  to 
go  far  inland,  except  along  the  banks  of  creeks.  It  is  always  met 
with  in  pairs  or  quite  solitary,  and  feeds  on  the  ground,  its  food  con- 
sisting of  roots,  which  its  powerful  claws  enable  it  to  scratch  up 
with  the  utmost  facility,  and  also  of  seeds,  berries,  and  Insects, 
particularly  the  larger  species  of  Coleoptera.  It  is  at  all  times  a 
very  difficult  Bird  to  procure  ;  for  although  the  rustling  noise  pro- 
duced by  its  stiff  pinions  when  flying  away  be  frequently  heard,  the 
Bird  itself  is  seldom  to  be  seen.  Its  flight  is  heavy  and  unsustained 
in  the  extreme  ;  when  first  disturbed  it  invariably  flies  to  a  tree,  and 
on  alighting  stretches  out  its  head  and  neck  in  a  straight  line  with 
its  body,  remaining  in  this  position  as  stationary  and  motionless  as 
the  branch  upon  which  it  is  perched :  if  however  it  becomes  fairly 
alarmed,  it  takes  a  horizontal  but  laborious  flight  for  about  a 
hundred  yards  with  its  legs  hanging  down  as  if  broken. 

The  head  and  crest  of  the  Mound-making  Megapode  are  of  a 
deep  cinnamon-brown.  The  back  of  the  neck  and  all  the  under 
surface  dark  grey.  Back  and  wings  cinnamon-brown  ;  tail-coverts 
dark  chestnut ;  bill  reddish-brown.  Tarsi  bright  orange,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lower  scales  of  the  front,  and  those  of  the  toes, 
which  are  dark  reddish-brown.     (See  Fig.  1413.) 


Fig.  1413. — The  Mound-making  Megapode. 

The  Ocellated  Leipoa  {Leipoa  oceUata,  Gould).  Native 
Pheasant  of  the  colonists  ;  Ngow  of  the  aborigines  of  the  lowlands, 
and  Ngow-00  of  those  of  the  highlands  of  Western  Australia.  In 
this  genus  the  beak  is  more  feeble  than  in  Talegalla,  the  head 
clothed  with  feathers  and  crested.  Fig.  1414  represents  the  head 
and  foot  of  Leipoa. 

This  species  abounds  in  the  country  north  of  Perth  (W.  Australia), 
and  in  the  barren  sandy  plains  of  the  interior,  one  hundred  miles 
north  and  east  of  York.     It  was  seen  by  Captain  Grey  at  Gantheaume 


Bay,  and,  accordmg  to  the  natives,  exists  at  King  George's  Sound. 
In  size  It  IS  mferior  to  the  Talegalla,  to  be  presently  described,  more 
slender  and  more  elegantly  formed.  The  Ocellated  Leipoa  is  a 
Ground-Bird,  never  taking  to  a  tree  except  when  closely  hunted  ; 
when  hard  pursued,  it  will  frequently  run  its  head  into  a  bush,  and 
IS  then  easily  taken.  Food  gcner.illy  consists  of  seeds  and  berries. 
The  note  is  mournful,  very  like  that  of  a  Pigeon,  but  with  a  more 
inward  tone.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  a  mound  of  sand,  the 
formation  of  which  is  the  work  of  both  sexes.  According  to  the 
natives,  the  Birds  scratch  up  the  sand  for  many  yards  around,  form- 
ing a  mound  about  three  feet  in  height,  the  inside  of  which  is  con- 


Fig.  1414.— Head  and  Fool  of  the  Leipoa. 

structcd  of  alternate  layers  of  dried  leaves,  grasses,  &c.,  anions 
which  twelve  eggs  and  upwards  are  deposited,  and  are  covered  up 
by  the  Birds  as  they  are  laid;  or,  as  the  natives  express  it,  "the 
countenances  of  the  eggs  are  never  visible."  Upon  these  eggs  the 
Bird  never  sits  ;  but  when  she  has  laid  out  her  lay,  as  the  henwives 
say,  the  whole  are  covered  up,  when  the  mound  of  sand  resembles 
an  Ant's  nest.  The  eggs,  which  are  white,  and  very  slightly  tinged 
with  red,  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  the  vegetable 
lining  retaining  sufScient  warmth  during  the  night;  they  are  de- 
posited in  layers,  no  two  eggs  being  sufTered  to  lie  without  a  division. 
The  plumage  is  as  follows  : — head  and  crest  blackish-brown  ;  neck 
and  shoulders  dark  ash-grey  ;  fore-part  of  neck,  from  the  throat  to 
the  breast,  with  lanceolate  feathers,  which  are  black  with  a  white 
stripe  down  the  centre ;  feathers  of  the  back  and  wings  marked 
with  three  distinct  bands  of  greyish-white,  brown  and  black  near 
the  tip  of  each,  the  marks  assuming  an  ocellated  form  ;  primaries 
brown,  with  zigzag  lines  near  the  tip;  under-surface  pale  buff; 
flanks  barred  with  black  ;  tail  blackish-brown,  broadly  tipped  with 
buff;  bill  black  ;  legs  blackish-brown.     (See  Fig.  1415.) 


Fig.  1415. — The  Oscellated  Leipoa. 

The  following  description  of  this  Bird  has  been  copied  from  that  given 
in  the  ''Guide"  to  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  : 

"The  Brush-Turkey  {Talegalla  Iathami.)—\n  the  whole 
economy  of  the  Class  of  Birds  there  is  nothing  more  remarkable  than 
the  reproduction  of  the  family  of  the  Mcgapodes  [McgapoJidcs),  to 
which  the  Talegalla,  or,  as  the  Austrafian  colonists  call  it,  the 
Brush-Turkey,  belongs. 

"Since  the  year  i8i;4,  the  singular  phenomenon  of  the  mound- 
raising  faculty  of  the"  Talegalla," which  had  been  well  ascertained 
in  Australia  by  Mr.  Gould,  has  been  annually  displayed  in  this  country. 

"  On  being  removed  into  an  enclosure,  with  an  abundance  of 
vegetable  materal  within  reach,  the  male  begins  to  throw  it  up  into 
a  heap  behind  him,  by  a  scratching  kind  of  motion  of  his  powerful 
feet,  which  project  each  footful,  as  he  grasps  it,  for  a  considerable 
distance  in  the  rear.  As  he  always  begins  to  work  at  the  outer 
margin  of  the  enclosure,  the  material  is  thrown  inwards  in  concentric 
circles,  until  sufficiently  near  the  spot  selected  for  the  mound  to  be 
jerked  upon  it.     As  soon  as  the  mound  is  risen  to  a  height  of  about 


558 


THE  CURASSOWS. 


four  feet,  both  Birds  work  in  reducing  it  to  an  even  surface,  and 
then  begin  to  excavate  a  depression  in  the  centre.  In  this,  in  due 
time,  the  eggs  are  deposited  as  they  are  laid,  and  arranged  in  a 
circle,  about  fifteen  inches  below  the  summit  of  the  mound,  at 
regular  intervals,  with  the  smaller  end  of  the  &gg  pointing  down- 
wards. The  male  Bird  watches  the  temperature  of  the  mound  very 
carefully :  the  eggs  are  generally  covered,  a  cylindrical  opening 
being  always  maintained  in  the  centre  of  the  circle  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  air  to  them,  and  probably  to  prevent  the  danger  of  a 
sudden  increase  of  heat  from  the  action  of  the  sun  or  accelerated 
fermentation  in  the  mound  itself.  In  hot  days  the  eggs  are  nearly 
uncovered  two  or  three  times  between  morning  and  evening. 


Fig.  1416. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Brush-Turkey. 

"  On  the  3'oung  Bird  chipping  out  of  the  egg,  it  remains  in  the 
mound  for  at  least  twelve  hours  without  making  any  effort  to  emerge 
from  it,  being  at  that  time  almost  as  deeply  covered  up  by  the  male 
as  the  rest  of  the  eggs. 

"  On  the  second  day  it  comes  out,  with  each  of  its  wing-feathers 
well  developed  in  a  sheath  which  soon  bursts,  but  apparently  with- 
out inclination  to  use  them,  its  powerful!  feet  giving  it  ample  means 
of  locomotion  at  once.  Early  in  the  afternoon  the  young  Bird  retires 
to  the  mound  again,  and  is  partially  covered  up  for  the  night  by  the 
assiduous  father,  but  at  a  diminished  depth  as  compared  with  the 
circle  of  eggs  from  which  it  emerged  in  the  morning.  On  the  third 
day,  the  nestling  is  capable  of  strong  flight,  and  on  one  occasion, 
one  of  them  being  accidentally  alarmed,  actually  forced  itself,  while 


Fig.  1417.— The  Brush-Turkey. 

on  the  wing,  through  the  strong  netting  which  covered  the  enclosure. 
The  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Talegalla,  given  by  Mr.  Gould  in 
his  '  Birds  of  Australia,'  in  1842,  strange  as  it  appeared  at  the  time, 
is  thus  perfectly  verified  in  every  repect."  (See  Figs.  1416  and 
1417-) 

The  Curassows.— Family  Cracidce. 

The  last  family  in  the  order  is  that  of  the  CracidcE,  or  Curassows, 
which  appear  to  be  the  American  representatives  of  the  Pheasants. 
They  have  the  bill  of  moderate  size,  but  more  or  less  arched  to  the 
tip,  with  the  nostrils  situated  at  the  base  ;  the  wings  are  short  and 
rounded  ;  the  tail  elongated,  and  very  broad ;  the  tarsi  and  toes 
elongated — the  former  stout,  the  latter  slender  ;  and  the  hind  toe  is 
placed  in  the  same  plane  with  the  others. 

These  Birds  are  inhabitants  of  the  forests  of  Tropical  America, 
where  they  feed  upon  seeds,  fruits,  buds,  and  Insects.  They  live 
upon  the  ground,  but  roost  and  make  their  nests  on  trees.  Some  of 
them  may  be  domesticated  to  a  considerable  e.\tent ;  but  others  are 
very  wild  and  untractable. 


The  Common  or  Crested  Curassow  {Crax  alector,  Fig.  1418),  is 
almost  as  large  as  a  Turkey,  or  about  three  feet  in  length  ;  it  is  of  a 
shining  black  colour,  glossed  with  purple  and  green,  and  the  top  of 
the  head  is  furnished  with  a  crest  of  curled  or  twisted  feathers, 
which  the  Bird  can  raise  or  depress  at  pleasure.  The  abdomen  and 
tail-coverts  are  white.  The  bill  is  strong,  and  much  elevated  at  the 
base,  where  it  is  surrounded  by  a  skin,  in  which  the  nostrils  are 
pierced. 

These   Birds   are   found    abundantly   in   Brazil,   and    from    that 


Fig.  141S. — The  Crested  Curassow. 

country  to  Mexico ;  they  collect  in  small  companies,  and  feed 
principally  upon  seeds  and  fruits.  They  are  even  domesticated  in 
their  native  country  ;  and  a  rather  smaller  species,  the  Red 
Curassow  {Crax  rubra),  has  even  been  brought  into  Holland, 
where  it  was  found  to  be  almost  as  prolific  as  the  common  Fowl. 
They  associate  readily  with  other  Poultry,  and  their  flesh  is  said  to  be 
exceedingly  delicate.  A  nearly  allied  species  {Crax  globiccra),  has 
a  large,  yellow,  globular  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  This  is  still 
more  striking  in  the  Pauxi  {On rax  ;paHXi),  which  has  an  oval  blue 
tubercle,  of  a  stony  hardness,  and  as  large  as  the  head,  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  bill.     This  Bird  is  said  to  nidificate  on  the  ground. 

The  Guans  (Pciiclnpc)  and  their  allies,  are  also  inhabitants  of 
the  great  forests  of  Tropical  America.  They  are  more  elegant  in 
their  forms  than  the  Curassows,  and  bear  a  considerable  resemblance 


Fig.  1419. — The  Crested  Guan. 

to  the  Pheasants.  The  throat  has  a  naked  skin,  which  the  Bird  can 
dilate  at  pleasure.  They  live  solitary,  feeding  principally  upon 
fruits,  and  perching  and  making  their  nests  on  trees.  Their  flesh 
is  said  to  be  very  delicate  food ;  but  the  Birds  are  timid  and  wild, 
and  do  not  appear  to  submit  to  domestication  so  readily  as  the 
Curassows.     (See  Fig.  14 19.) 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological    Society  of    London,   living 
specimens  of  the  Curassows,  &c.,  may  be  seen. 


CURSORIAL   BIRDS. 


Si? 


CHAPTER    XXXIir. 

CLASS  11.— AVES,  OR  BIRDS:  ORDER  CURSORES,  OR  RUNNERS. 


■^"^  F  the  Cursorial  Birds,  which  have  been  in- 
O  eluded  by  many  authors  among'st  the   Gral- 


latores  (which  will  be  described  in  the  next 
chapter),  the  Common  Ostrich  is  a  well- 
known  example.  They  are  nearly  all  large 
Birds,  with  strong',  and  generally  elongated 
legs  ;  the  wings,  on  the  contrary,  are  always 
reduced  to  a  rudimentary  condition  (Fig. 
1420),  although  the  bones,  in  number  and 
'.  form,  agree  with  those  of  the  wings  of  other 
Birds.  In  consequence  of  this  small  size  of 
the  wings,  these  Birds  are  quite  incapable  of  flight ; 
and  the  only  use  they  ever  appear  to  make  of  their 
wings,  is  to  spread  them  out  as  if  to  catch  the  air  in 
running.  In  accordance  with  this  deficiency  of  the 
power  of  flight,  the  bones  are  almost  entirely  desti- 
tute of  the  air-cells  which,  in  the  ordinary  Birds,  gives 
so  much  lightness  to  the  skeleton  ;  and  the  sternum 
is  reduced  to  a  simple  convex  shield  (Fig.  142 1), 
without  any  trace  of  the  keel,  which  in  other  Birds 
gives  attachment  to  the  powerful  pectoral  muscles. 
To  compensate  for  this  deficiency,  however,  the  great 
size  and  muscularity  of  the  legs  render  the  pace  of 
theie  Birds,  in  running,  exceedingly  swift  ;  the  pelvis  is  of  large 
size,  and  the  two  sides  of  the  arch  unite  at  the  pubis,  which  is  not 
the  case  in  any  other  Birds.  The  anterior  toes  are  strong,  either 
two  or  three  in  number,  and  terminated  by  strong  nails.  The  hinder 
toe  is  entirely  wanting,  except  in  the  genus  Apteryx,  in  which  this 
organ  is  present  in  a  rudimentary  condition. 


Fig.  1420. — Skeleton  of  the  Ostrich, 

The  plumage  is  of  a  very  peculiar  character,  the  barbs  of  the 
feathers  being  always  separate,  and  often  exhibiting  a  close  resem- 
blance to  hairs.  The  bill  is  usually  rather  short,  depressed,  and 
somewhat  triangular;  but  in  the  Apteryx  it  is  elongated  and  cylin- 
drical, with  the  nostrils  placed  at  the  tip.  The  head  and  neck  are 
usually  naked,  or  covered  only  with  a  short,  downy  plumage;  the 
head  is  sometimes  furnished  with  a  horny  crest,  and  the  neck  with 
fleshy  wattles. 

These  remarkable  Birds,  of  which  very  few  species  are  known,  are 
confineil  to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth— one  species  being  found 
in  Tropical  Africa  ;  another  in  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  ; 
a  third  in  Australia  ;  and  a  fourth  in  South  America.  The  singular 
genus  Apteryx,  of  which  two  species  have  been  described,  is  confined 
to  New  Zealand. 

Sub-divisions.— The  order  includes  only  two  families— the 
StruthionidcB  and  the  ApterygidcB.  The  best  known  species  is 
the  Ostrich,  Struthio  camelus,  of  which  the  following  is  a  descrip- 
tion :  — 

The  Ostrich  [Siruthio  camelus).  Srpoueoica/iijXoc  of  the  Greeks  ; 
Struthiocamelus   of    Pliny  ;     Autruche    of    the    French ;     Struzzo 


and  Struzzolo  of  the  Italians  ;  Strauss  of  the  Germans.  The  Penus 
Sfnifhto  IS  characterised  by  the  beak  being  depressed,  str.aieht 
rounded  and  ungmculate  at  the  tip,  with  the  nostrils  longitudinar 
prolonged  half-way  down  the  bill,  and  open,  the  legs  robust  with 
only  two  toes  stout  and  strong,  and  connected'  at  their 'base 
by  a  thick  membrane;  of  these  the  innermost  is  much  larger 
than  the  outer  toe,  and  is  furnished  with  a  hoof-like  claw  ;  outer  toe 
clawless ;  wmgs  furnished  with  beautiful  waving  plumes,  and  two 


Fig.  1421. — Sternum  of  the  Emeu. 

plumeless  shafts  not  unlike  a  Porcupine's  quill  ;  head  and  upper  half 
of  the  neck  scantily  covered  with  thin  down  ;  eyes  large  and  well 
guarded  with  eyelashes;  tongue  extremely  small,  short,  and 
rounded.  Fig.  1422  represents  the  head  and  foot  of  the  Ostrich  ; 
Fig.  1423  the  front  view  of  the  head,  with  the  beak  open  to  show  tlit; 
tongue. 

The  resemblance  of  the  Ostrich,  in  many  structural  peculiarities,  to 
the  Ruminating  Quadrupeds  was  not  overlooked  by  the  ancients, 
which  led  them  to  assign  to  it  the  name  of  Camel-Bird,  in  allusion  to 


Fig.  1422. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Ostrich. 

certain  points  of  analogy  between  it  and  the  Camel;  indeed,  Aris- 
totle asserts  the  Ostrich  to  be  partly  Bird  and  partly  Quadruped,  and 
Pliny  observes  that  it  may  be  almost  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
class  of  Beasts.  The  voluminous  thighs,  divested  of  feathers,  are 
more  like  those  of  a  Quadruped  than  a  Bird  ;  added  to  which  the  bifid 
hoof-armed  foot,  well  padded  beneath,  bears  a  marked  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  Camel.  In  this  animal  there  is  a  large  callous  p.ad  or. 
the  chest,  upon  which,  when  reposing,  it  throws  a  great  portion  o; 
the  weight  of  the  body.  In  the  Ostrich,  the  sternum,  which  has  nr 
keel,  but  is  simply  convex  and  shield-like,  is  also  covered  with  a 
callous  pad,  or  elastic  cushion,  having  a  hard  rouyh  surface  ua- 


S6o 


THE  OSTRICHES. 


clothed  with  feathers,  and  on  which  the  Birds  rest  while  reposing. 

The  eyes,  with  their  long  lashes  and  overhanging  brow,  are  also 
Camef-liko.  The  vast  size  and  sacculated  form  of  the  proventri- 
culous  (or  cavity  before  the  muscular  gizzard),  with  its  extraordinary 
apparatus  of  glands  for  pouring  out  a  solvent  fluid  capable  of  re- 
ducing the  coarsest  vegetable  aliment,  is  not  to  be  overlooked. 
(See  Fig.  1424,  the  stomach  of  the  Ostrich  ;  Fig.  1425,  the  same  laid 
open.)  Nor  ought  we  to  pass  unnoticed  the  comparatively  developed 
condition  of  the  diaphragm,  which  muscular  expansion  in  the  Apteryx 
is  complete. 


1423. — Head  and  Tongue  of  the  Ostrich. 

Like  the  Camel,  this  celebrated  Bird  is  destined  to  inhabit  the 
wide-spread  desert,  beneath  a  burning  sun.  It  is  found  in  the  sandy 
wilds  of  Arabia,  and  of  Africa  from  the  north  to  the  south  ;  every- 
where avoiding  the  presence  of  man,  who,  time  immemorial,  has 
been  its  unrelenting  persecutor. 


Fig.  1424.— Stomach  of  the  Ostrich, 

In  South  Africa  flocks  of  Ostriches  are  often  seen  on  the  Great 
Karroo,  in  company  with  troops  of  Quaggas.  all  amicably  feeding 
together,  and,  when  alarmed,  scouring  the  desert  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  The  swiftness  of  the  Ostrich  is  indeed  very  great; 
elevating  itself  and  vibrating  its  expanded  plumes,  it  leaves  "  horse 
and  rider"  far  behind.  In  South  Africa  several  horsemen,  taking 
different  sides  of  a  plain,  often  manage  to  tire  the  Bird  down  ;  but 
when  driven  to  extremities  it  frequently  turns  infuriated  on  its 
pursuers,  and  will  inflict  dreadful  wounds  with  its  claw.  Dr.  Shaw 
gives  an  account  of  a  person  who  was  ripped  open  by  the  blow  of  an 
enraged  Ostrich,  which  was  kept  tame,  and  which,  though  gentle  to 
persons  with  whom  it  was  familiar,  was  fierce  and  violent^towards 
strangers.  In  Arabia  and  North  Africa  the  chase  of  the  Ostrich  is 
accounted  one  of  the  most  severe  of  exercises  both  for  the  Arab  and 
his  courser,  requiring  not  only  speed,  but  skill ;  and  did  the  Bird, 
instead  of  wheeling  round  in  circles  of  greater  or  less  extent,  dart 
forward  in  a  direct  line,  the  hunter  would  find  his  efforts  fruitless  ; 
as  it  is,  he  is  generally  enabled,  after  some  exertion,  to  dash  across 
the  path  of  the  Bird,  and  throw  his  djerid  or  fire  his  gun.  From  the 
swiftness  of  the  Ostrich,  audits  power  of  endurance  at  full  speed 
for  hours,  we  may  easily  conceive  that  its  strength  must  be  very 
great.  Adanson  saw  two  tame  Ostriches  at  the  factory  of  Podor,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Niger.     "  They  were  both  so  tame,"  he  says. 


"that  two  little  blacks  mounted  together  on  the  back  of  the  largest, 
and  no  sooner  did  he  feel  their  weight  than  he  began  to  run  as  fast 
as  ever  he  could,  till  he  carried  them  several  times  round  the 
village,  and  it  was  impossible  to  stop  him  otherwise  than  by 
obstructing  the  passage.  To  try  their  strength,  I  made  a  full-grown 
negro  mount  the  smallest,  and  two  others  the  largest.  This  burden 
did  not  seem  to  me  at  all  disproportioned  to  their  strength.  At  first 
they  went  at  a  moderate  gallop  ;  when  they  were  heated  a  little,  they 
expanded  their  wings  as  if  to  catch  the  wind,  and  then  scoured  along 
with  such  fleetness  that  they  seemed  not  to  touch  the  ground  ;  they 
would  have  distanced  the  fleetest  race-horses  that  were  ever  bred  in 
England."     (See  Fig.  1426.) 

The  Ostrich  is  polygamous.     "The  male  ostrich  in  South  Africa, 
at  the  time  of  breeding,"  says  a  personal  observer,  "  usually  asso- 


Fig.  1425. — Stomach  of  the  Ostrich  laid  open. 

ciates  to  himself  from  two  to  six  females.  The  hens  lay  all  their 
eggs  together  in  one  nest,  this  being  merely  a  shallow  cavity 
scraped  in  the  ground,  of  such  dimensions  as  to  be  conveniently 
covered  by  one  of  these  gigantic  birds  during  incubation.  The  hens 
relieve  each  other  during  the  day,  and  the  male  takes  his  turn  at 
night,  when  his  superior  strength  is  required  to  protect  the  eggs  or 
the  new-fledged  young  from  jackals,  tiger-cats,  and  other  enemies. 
Some  of  these  animals  are  not  unfrequently  found  lying  dead  near  the 
nest,  killed  by  a  stroke  from  the  foot  of  this  powerful  bird.  As  many  as 
sixty  eggs  are  sometimes  found  in  and  around  an  ostrich  nest ;  but  a 
smaller  number  is  more  common.  Each  female  lays  from  twelve  to 
si.xteen  eggs.  They  continue  to  lay  during  incubation,  and  even 
after  the  young  brood  are  hatched  ;  the  supernumerary  eggs  are  not 
placed  in  the  nest,  but  around  it,  being  designed  (it  is  reported)  to 
assist  in  the  nourishment  of  the  young  birds,  which,  though  as  large 
as  a  pullet  when  first  hatched,  are  probably  unable  at  first  to  digest 
the  hard  and  acrid  food  on  which  the  old  ones  subsist.  The  period 
of  incubation  is  from  thirty-six  to  forty  days.  In  the  middle  of  the 
day  the  nest  is  often  left  by  all  the  birds,  the  heat  of  the  sun  being 
then  sufiicient  to  keep  the  eggs  at  the  proper  temperature." 

With  respect  to  the  passage  in  Job  xxxix.  15,  it  may  be  observed, 
that  within  the  torrid  zone  the  eggs  are  merely  laid  in  the  warm 
sand,  the  incubation  of  the  female  being  required  only  at  night ;  so 
far,  however,  is  she  from  neglecting  her  offspring,  that  she  watches 
over  them  with  as  much  solicitude  as  any  other  Bird,  hovering 
around  the  spot  where  they  are  deposited,  and  if  surprised,  making  a 
short  circuit  and  returning  to  the  object  of  her  care. 

The  flesh  of  the  Ostrich  when  young  is  very  palatable,  and  the 
eggs  are  excellent.  If,  however,  the  Bird  perceives  that  the  latter 
have  been  disturbed  by  the  hand,  or  that  the  nest  has  been  visited, 
she  breaks  them  all  and  abandons  the  spot ;  hence  the  natives 
abstract  these  delicacies,  by  means  of  a  long  stick,  with  the  utmost 
caution,  and  endeavour  to  prevent  the  prints  of  their  footsteps  from 
being  visible  ;  if  this  be  well  managed,  the  Hen  will  continue  to  lay 
for  some  time. 

The  food  of  the  Ostrich  consists  of  the  tops  of  shrubby  plants, 
seeds,  and  grain  ;  strange  to  say,  however,  it  will  swallow  with  in- 
discriminating  voracity  stones,  sticks,  pieces  of  metal,  cord,  leather, 
and  other  substances,  which  often  occasion  its  destruction.  A  fine 
specimen  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  where  the  living 
animals  may  be  seen,  died  some  years  ago  in  consequence  of  swal- 
lowing part  of  a  parasol. 

The  voice  of  the  Ostrich  is,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  a  hoarse 
sonorous  sort  of  chuckle  ;  but  it  is  said  to  utter,  especially  at  night, 
a  roaring  so  like  that  of  the  Lion,  as  to  deceive  the  Hottentots.  The 
young  Ostrich  is  covered  with  coarse  mottled  and  striped  plu- 
mage of  a  blackish-brown  and  yellowish-white  :  the  feathers  of  the 
back  having  the  shafts  dilated  into  a  thin  homy  strip.  The  height 
of  the  adult  male  is  from  seven  to  eight  feet  or  more,  standing 


THE  OSTRICHES. 


561 


upright.     The  beautiful  plumes,  which  are  so  valued  in  commerce, 
are  procured  from  the  wings  and  tail. 

Great  as  is  in  modern  days  the  slaughter  of  Ostriches,  in  the  times 
of  the  Roman  emperors  it  must  have  been  far  more  considerable. 
We  read  of  the  brains  of  si.x  hundred  having  been,  on  one  occasion, 
served  up  in  a  single  dish  :  and  Vopiscus  is  said  to  have  devoured 
an  entire  Ostrich  (a  Chicken  doubtless)  at  one  sitting.  By  the 
Mosaic  law  the  Ostrich  was  forbidden  as  food,  and  the  Arabs  still 
regard  it  as  unclean. 


Fig.  1426. — Ostriches  in  Flight. 

The  Rhea,  or  American  Ostrich  {Rhea  amcricatia). — This 
Bird,  called  also  the  Nandou,  is  scarcely  more  than  half  the  size  of 
the  African  species,  from  which  it  also  differs  in  having  the  head 
covered  with  feathers,  and  the  feet  furnished  with  three  toes.  It  is 
of  a  nearly  uniform  gray  tint,  and  the  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail, 
although  elongated,  possess  none  of  the  beauty  of  those  of  the  True 
Ostrich ;  they  are  only  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  light  dust- 
ing-brooms. It  is  very  abundant  in  the  great  plains  of  Tropical 
America,  where  it  is  pursued  on  horseback,  and  captured  by  the 
lasso,  or  by  throwing  at  its  legs  an  instrument  formed  of  two  heavy 
balls,  or  stones,  attached  together  by  a  leathern  throng.  Mr. 
Darwin,  who  had  frequent  opportunities  of  observing  these  Birds, 
has  given  an  excellent  account  of  their  habits.  He  says  that  the 
Ostriches  take  the  water  readily,  and  swim  across  broad  and  rapid 
rivers,  and  even  from  island  to  island  in  bays.  They  swim  slowly, 
with  the  greater  part  of  their  bodies  immersed,  and  their  necks 
extended  a  little  fonvards.  According  to  the  Earl  of  Derby,  these 
Birds  are  polygamous  ;  and  the  male  Bird  prepares  the  nest,  collects 
the  eggs  (which  are  frequently  laid  by  the  females  at  random  on  the 
ground),  and  performs  all  the  duties  of  incubation.  Mr.  Darwin 
confirms  these  observations,  and  says  that  four  or  five  females  have 
been  seen  to  lay  in  the  same  nest,  and  that  the  male,  when  sitting, 
lies  so  close  that  he  himself  nearly  rode  over  one.  At  this  time  the 
males  are  said  sometimes  to  be  very  fierce,  and  they  have  been  known 
to  attack  a  man  on  horseback,  trying  to  kick,  and  leap  on  him. 
Specimers  of  this  Bird  may  be  seen  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  London.'  '{See  Fig.  1427.) 

The  Emeu  {Dromaius  novce  honandia).—i:h.\s  Bird,  a  native  of 
Australia,  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  African  Ostrich,  measuring  from 
five  to  seven  feet  in  height.  It  has  three  toes  on  each  foot,  and 
these  are  furnished  with  nearly  equal  claws  ;  the  head  is  covered 
with  feathers,  but  the  throat  is  naked,  the  plumage  of  the  body 
closely  resembles  long  hairs,  hanging  down  on  each  side  of  the  body 
from  a  central  line,  or  ^parting.  The  neck  is  covered  with  feathers. 
These  Birds  are  abundant  in  the  southern  parts  of  Australia  ;  but  in 
the  mote  populous  parts  of  the  British  colonies  there,  they  are  now 
extinct.  They  are  much  sought  for,  both  by  natives,  and  Europeans, 
for  the  sake  of  their  flesh,  that  of  the  young  Birds  being  described 
as  very  delicate ;  whilst  that  of  the  old  is  compared  to  beef.  Their 
eggs  are  also  eaten  ;  and  its  said  that,  during  the  breeding  season, 


the  natives  of  some  parts  of  Australia  live  almost  entirely  upon 
Emeu's  eggs.  The  old  Birds  are  hunted  by  trained  Dogs,  which 
have  been  taught  to  avoid  the  powerful  kicks  of  their  quarry,  by 
running  up  alongside  of  the  Bird,  and  then  springing  suddenly  upon 
its  neck.  They  are  monogamous  ;  and  the  males,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Rhea,  perform  the  duties  of  incubation.  The  eggs  are  nearly 
as  large  as  those  of  the  Ostrich,  but  of  a  dark-green  colour ;  and 
the  young,  when  first  hatched,  are  rather  elegantly  striped  with 
black  and  whitish  grey.  Figs.  1428  and  1425  represent  the  foot 
of  the  Rhea  and  the  Emeu,  and  they  may 
be  compared  with  that  of  the  Ostrich,  re- 
presented in  Fig.  1422  ante. 

The  Common  Cassowary  {Castiarius 
galeatus)  ;     the     Australian    Cassowary 
(C.  australis) ;    the  Two-Wattled  Casso- 
wary  (C   bkaniniilatus)  ;    the  Bennett's 
-  Cassowary,  or  Mooruk{C  hcnnctti. — The 

following  description  of  these  Birds  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  "Guide"  of  the  Zoolo- 
gical Society  of  London,  and  refers  to 
specimens  living  in  their  Gardens  : — The 
Cassowaries  and  the  Emeu  are  nearly  allied 
and  form  a  family  of  Struthious  Birds, 
quite  distinct  from  the  Ostrich  and  the 
Rhea.  They  are  practically  wingless — the 
quills  being  represented  by  a  few  denuded 
feather-spines,  but  have  the  feet  exces- 
sively large  and  strong,  and  in  some 
species  armed  with  formidable  nails,  with 
which  they  strike  severe  blows.  Casso- 
waries are  usually  wild  and  difficult  to 
manage,  and  can  but  very  rarely  be  in- 
duced to  breed  in  captivity.  On  several 
occasions,  when  eggs  have  been  deposited 
by  the  Birds  of  this  genus  in  the  Society's 
Gardens,  the  male  (who  takes  sole  charge 
of  the  duties  of  incubation)  has  not 
succeeded  in  hatching  them  out.  In  the 
summer  of  1866,  however,  we  had  better 
luck,  and  a  fine  young  Bird  of  the  Common 
Cassowary  was  successfully  reared. 

"  The  Common  Cassowary,  which  is  only 
found  in  Ceram,   is  replaced   in  the  Aroo 
Islands  by  another  species  (the  Casuanus 
bicaru7iculatics),  distinguished  by  having 
the   caruncles   on  the  throat  widely  sepa- 
rated ;  and  in  Northern  Australia  by  a  third 
species  {C.  aitsfralh),  of  which  living  specimens  have  only  lately 
reached  this  country.     Other   species  are    found  in    New    Guinea 
and  New  Britain.     Fig.  1430  represents  a  group  of  Cassowaries. 


562 


THE  APTERYX. 


The  egfgs  and  some  of  the  bones  of  a  gisrantic  Bird  belonging  to 
this  family,  the  ^pyornis  maximiis,  have  been  discovered  in  the 
island  of  Madagascar.  The  largest  of  the  eggs,  which  were  found 
imbedded  in  alluvial  soil,  measured  no  less  than  twelve  inches  and 
two-thirds  in  length  ;  whilst  the  e.^^  of  the  Common  Ostrich  is  only 
about  half  this  size.  The  difference  in  the  contents  of  the  two  eggs 
is  much  greater ;  for  M.  Isidore  Geoifroy  Saint  Hilaire,  who  was  the 
first  describer  of  these  extraordinary  remains,  calculates  that  the 
largest  egg  of  the  ^pyornis  received  by  the  Paris  Museum  would 


Fig.  1428.— Foot  of  the  Rhea. 

contain  loj  quarts,  or  about  as  much  as  si.x  eggs  of  the  Ostrich, 
si.xtecn  of  the  Cassowary,  or  148  of  the  domestic  Hen.  One  of  the 
eggs  had  been  perforated  by  the  natives,  and  used  as  a  vessel  for 
carrj'ing  water.  From  the  dimensions  of  the  bones,  it  is  supposed 
that  this  Bird  must  be  at  least  double  the  size  of  the  Ostrich ;  and  it 


culated  that  this  Bird  must  have  been  at  least  fourteen  feet  in  height. 
It  appears  exceedingly  probable  that  these  Birds,  if  they  do  not 
still  e.xist  in  the  more  inaccessible  parts  of  the  islands  of  New 
Zealand,  were  inhabitants  of  that  distant  land  when  it  was  first 
peopled  with  human  beings,  as  the  traditions  of  the  natives  describe 
a  gigantic  Bird,  to  which  they  give  the  name  of  Moa,  with  which 
their  ancestors  are  said  to  have  waged  a  war  of  destruction.  The 
natives  showed  one  traveller  the  place  where  the  last  Moa  was  de- 
stroyed after  a  tremendous  battle,  in  which  several  of  its  assailants 


Fig.  1429. — Foot  of  the  Emeu. 

were  killed.  The  egg  of  one  of  these  Birds  was  discovered  by  Mr. 
Walter  Mantell,  who  describes  it  as  so  large  that  his  hat  would  but 
just  serve  as  an  egg-cup  for  it ;  it  would,  therefore,  appear  to  be 
nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the  jiEpyor7iis. 


Fig.  1430. — Group  of  Cassowaries. 


appears  not  improbable  that  it  may  still  be  in  existence  in  the 
interior  of  the  almost  unknown  island  in  which  its  remains  were 
found. 

Another  group  of  gigantic  Extinct  Birds  is  also  placed  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood  of  the  Struthionida  by  some  authors,  but 
distributed  by  others  between  these  and  the  Grallatores.  These 
are  the  Dinornidce,  the  bones,  and  even  the  eggs  of  which,  have 
been  found  in  considerable  quantities,  imbedded  in  the  volcanic 
sands  of  New  Zealand. 

Several  species  have  been  distinguished,  amongst  which  the 
Dinornis  gigantcus  was  pre-eminent  in  stature.    It  has  been  cal- 


The  Apteryx— Family  Aj>ierygtd(S. 


The  second  family  of  the  Ciirsores,  the  Apterygidce,  mcludes 
some  wingless  Birds,  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand. 

The  Apteryx  [Apteryx  atistralis).—The  Apteryx  stands  about 
two  feet  in  height.  Its  wings  are  trifling  rudiments,  buried  beneath 
the  general  plumage  of  the  body,  and  not  to  be  discovered  without 
difaculty ;  they  are  each  terminated  by  a  little  hooked  claw. 

The  beak  is  long,  slender,  and  slightly  arched,  remmdmg  one  of 
that  of  the  Curlew.     The  upper  mandible  is  somevv-hat  swollen  and 


THE  APTERYX. 


notched  at  its  tip,  and  a  longitudinal  furrow  runs  along-  each  side 
from  the  base  to  the  extremity.  (See  Fig.  1431.)  The  situation  of 
the  nostrils  is  most  extraordinary;  they  are  minute  narrow  fissures, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  tip  of  the  beak  ;  and  therefore  not  situated 
as  in  other  Birds  which  insert  their  long  beaks  into  mud  for  the  pur- 
pose of  procuring  Insects,  and  which  have  the  nostrils  at  the  base. 
The  limbs  are  extremely  powerful ;  the  tarsi  are  thick  and  short, 
and  covered  with  hard  scales.  The  toes  are  four  in  number;  the 
three  anterior  toes  are   robust,    with   strong  claws,  and  are  well 


S6j 


includes  four  species,  all  of  which  are  represented  in  the  Society's 
collection.  The  first  Kiwi  acquired  by  the  Society  was  a  female  of 
Apfcryx  maiitelli,  presented  in  i8s2  by  Lieut.-Govcmor  Eyre,  and 
most  carefully  brought  from  New  Zealand  by  the  kindness  of  Admiral 
Erskine,  then  in  command  of  II. M.S.  Ihuatniah.  After  being 
nearly  seven  years  in  the  Gardens,  this  Bird  laid  an  egg  on  the  9th 
of  June,  1859,  and  subsequently  deposited  others.  The  egg,  when 
fresh,  weighs  14I  oz.,  the  contents  thereof  weighing  13^  01.  The 
weight  of  the  living  Bird  was  nearly  60  oz. ;  so  that  in  this  species 


Fig.  1431.— Cill  of  the  Aplcryx-. 

adapted  for  digging.  The  hind-toe  is  a  thick,  sharp,  homy  spur, 
used  as  an  offensive  weapon.  (See  Fig.  1432.)  There  is  no  vestige 
of  a  tail.     The  tongue  is  short  and  simple. 

The  feathers  are  long  and  lanceolate,  and  fall  loosely  like  those 
of  the  Emeu,  but  there  is  only  a  single  plume  from  each  quill. 
These  feathers  are  of  a  chestnut-brown,  margined  on  each  side  with 
blackish-brown  :  the  tint  of  those  on  the  under  parts  is  lighter.  The 
eye  is  small,  and  a  number  of  long  bristle-hairs  are  scattered  around 
and  about  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  The  bill  is  of  a  horn  colour,  or 
yellowish,  like  a  piece  of  cane.     (See  Fig.  1433.) 


Fig.  1432. — Foot  of  the  Apteiyx. 

The  following  further  description  of  the  Apteryx  has  been  ex- 
tracted from  the  "  Guide"  to  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London,  where  attempts  have  been  made  to  acclimatise  it. 

"The  Southern  Apteryx  (^//crja-^M^v/Z/j-;)  The  Owen's 
Apteryx  {A.  o-Minii ;)  The  Mantell's  Apteryx  {A.  maufclli ;) 
The  Haasx's  Apteryx  (^.  Iiaast7.)—1\\(^  genus  ^/Av^.r,  or  Kiwi, 


Fig.  1433. — The  Apteryx. 

the  weight  of  the  e^%  appears  to  be  nearly  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the 
whole  weight  of  tlie  Bird.  A  second  Kiwi  of  tlie  same  species,  believed 
to  be  a  male,  was  added  to  the  collection  in  September,  1864,  by 
Major  Keane,  by  whom  it  was  brought  from  New  Zealand ;  and  a 
third  was  subsequently  presented  by  Surgeon  Henry  Slade,  of  the 
Royal  Navy. 

' '  For  their  examples  of  Owen's  Apter\'X  the  Society  are  indebted 
to  the  Acclimatisation  Society  of  Otago,  New  Zealand  ;  for  their 
unique  specimen  of  Haast's  Apteryx — the  largest  and  most 
recently  discovered  form  of  this  singular  group — we  have  to  thank 
Dr.  F.  von  Mueller,  C.M.Z.S.,  of  Melbourne,  Australia. 

"  The  Kiwi  is  purely  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  never  shows  itself 
to  visitors  during  the  daytime,  unless  brought  out  by  the  keeper  for 
the  purpose  of  being  exhibited.  After  hastily  swallowing  one  or 
two  earthworms  which  are  provided  for  it,  it  invariably  makes  a 
hasty  retreat  to  its  den,  and  hides  itself  deep  in  its  straw  until  again 
summoned  forth  to  gratify  the  curiosity  of  a  fresh  band  of  sightseers. 
If,  however,  a  visit  be  paid  to  the  Apteryx  in  the  night-time,  it  will  be 
found  running  about  lively  enough,  probing  into  the  ground,  and 
round  every  corner  of  the  place  where  it  is  confined,  with  its  long  and 
sensitive  bill." 


564 


GRALLATORIAL,   OR    WADING  BIRDS. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 
CLASS  II.-AVES,  OR  BIRDS ;   ORDER  GRALLATORES,   OR  WADING    BIRDS. 


ADING  BIRDS,  or 
Grallatores,  as  they 
are  termed  by  natural- 
ists, include  the  Cranes, 
Herons,  Bustards.  Plovers,  &c. 
Many  of  them  may  be  found  in 
our  own  islands,  where  circum- 
stances encourage  their  growth. 
Some  of  them,  as  the  Snipes,  are  highly  esteemed  as 
food  or  sport.  In  these  Birds  the  feet  are  always 
formed  for  walking  ;  usually  of  great  length  ;  and 
the  toes  are  never  united  by  a  membrane,  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  Natatorial  order.  They 
are,  however,  sometimes  surrounded  by  membrane- 
ous lobes,  and  in  many  cases  furnished  with  a 
small  web  at  the  base.  The  great  length  of  the  legs 
is  generally  due  to  the  elongation  of  the  tarsi  ;  but 
the  tibiae  are  also  frequently  very  long,  and  gene- 
rally bare  of  feathers  for  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
The  naked  portion  of  the  tibiae  is  covered  with  a 
reticulated  skin,  like  that  of  the  tarsi  and  toes  ;  but 
the  latter  are  often  more  or  less  covered  with  horny 
plates  or  scutella.  The  toes  are  usually  four  in 
number — three  in  front  and  one  behind ;  the  latter 
varies  greatly  in  its  development,  being  sometimes 
very  small,  and  sometimes  as  long  as,  or  longer  than 
the  others  ;  it  is  placed  either  on  the  same  level 
with  the  anterior  toes,  or  raised  more  or  less  upon  the  back  of 
the  tarsus.  The  anterior  toes  are  usually  elongated,  and  the  two 
outer  are  often  united  together  for  a  certain  portion  of  their  length. 
(See  Fig.  1434.) 

The  great  length  of  the  legs,  in  the  majority  of  these  Birds, 
enables  them  to  wade  with  much  facility  in  shallow  water,  in 
search  of  the  Fish  and  other  Aquatic  Animals  upon  which  they 
feed;  hence  the  name  of  Grallatores,  or  Waders,  applied  to  the 
order.  In  many  cases,  however,  this  does  not  apply ;  for  the 
legs  of  several  species  are  too  short  to  be  of  any  use  to  them 
in  wading ;  whilst  other  species,  in  which  the  legs  are  much 
elongated,  are  inhabitants  of  dry  situations,  and  are  never  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  water.  Some  species  run  upon  the  surface  of  aquatic 
plants,  and  others  swim  and  dive  with  greater  facility  than  many  of 
the  true  Natatorial  Birds.  They  are  all  active  Birds,  running  with 
great  swiftness,  and  usually  possessing  great  power  of  flight. 

The  development  of  the  neck  keeps  pace  with  that  of  the  legs,  and 
in  most  cases  the  beak  also  is  of  considerable  length.  The  latter 
organ  is  almost  always  longer  than  the  head  ;  usually  of  an  elongated 
conical  form ;  sometimes  almost  cylindrical ;  and  occasionally 
flattened  and  more  or  less  dilated.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  and  usually 
triangular. 

The  wings  are  well  developed,  often  of  great  size,  and  the  Birds 
are  almost  always  powerful  fliers,  although  many  of  them,  when 
disturbed,  appear  to  prefer  trusting  to  their  long  legs  to  betaking 
themselves  to  the  air.  The  plumage  is  soft,  and  bears  a  certain  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  Natatorial  Birds,  but  the  feathers  are  gene- 
rally furnished  with  a  distinct  plumule. 

The  habits  of  these  Birds  vary  considerably.  Most  of  them  in- 
habit the  vicinity  of  water  or  marshy  places,  where  they  wade  about 


in  search  of  Aquatic  Animals,  or  walk  upon  the 
moist  ground  and  amongst  the  rank  herbage, 
seeking  for  Worms  and  Insects.  A  few  arc 
found  in  dry  situations,  but  their  food  is  of  much 
the  same  nature  as  that  of  their  marsh-loving 
brethren,  and  very  few  appear  to  take  any  con- 
siderable portion  of  vegetable  nourishment. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Birds  of  this  order  may 
all  be  referred  to  six  family  types — namely,  the 
RallidcB,  or  Rails  ;  the  Scolopacida;,  or  Snipes  ; 
the  Ardeida,  or  Herons  ;  the  CharadrUda,  or 
Plorers ;    the    Oiidce,    or     Bustards ;     and    the 
Gruida,  or  Cranes.     In  the  first   of  these,  the 
Rallidce,  or  Rails,  the  bill  is  short,  rarely  longer 
than  the  head,  strongly  compressed  and  wedge- 
shaped  ;  the    upper   mandible    usually    has     a 
groove  on  each  side,  near  the  middle  of  which 
the  nostrils  are  situated.     The  latter  are  per- 
vious— that  is  to  say,   they  open   through    the 
bill.     The   ridge   of  the  bill  is  often    more    or 
less  expanded  at  the  base,  and  sometimes  forms 
a  large  plate,  covering    the  forehead  (Fig.  1435).      The   legs    are 
stout,  not  very  long,  sometimes  short ;  but  the  toes  are  usually  of 
great  length,  and  frequently  armed  with  very  long  claws.    The  wings 
are   of  moderate  size,  and,  in  some   genera,  armed  with  spines  at 
the  carpal  point.     The  neck  is  rather   short,  and  the  head  small, 
oblong,  and  compressed.     The  body,  also,  is  much   compressed  in 
form,  and  the  tail  is  very  short.     The  throat  and  oesophagus  are 
of  moderate  width,    and  there  is   no    crop;    the  stomach  forms    a 
strong  gizzard,  and  the  intestine  is   long,  and  furnished  with  rather 
large  coeca. 


Fig.  1434. — Foot  of  the  Gallinule. 

The  relations  of  these  Birds  are  somewhat  singular.  In  their 
general  form,  and,  indeed,  in  some  points  of  their  internal  anatomy, 
they  resemble  the  Gallinaceous  tribe,  and  their  food  also  partakes  of 
the  same  nature  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  some  of  them  are  fur- 
nished with  membranous  lobes  on  the  toes.  Many  can  swim  with 
ease,   and  a  few  actually  exceed  many  of  the  true  Natatorial  Birds 


Fig.  1435. — Head  of  the  Jacana. 

in  the  facility  with  which  they  not  only  move  upon  the  surface  of  tlie 
water,  but  even  dive  into  its  depths.  They  generally  live  amongst 
the  sedges,  rushes,  and  other  plants  at  the  edges  of  water,  and  some 
also  in  corn-fields ;  but,  in  either  situation,  the  compressed  form  of 


THE  RAIL   TRIBE. 


565 


their  bodies  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  allow  them  to  pass  with  ease 
amongst  the  stems  of  the  plants.  Their  elongated  toes,  also,  enable 
them  to  support  themselves  upon  floating-  aquatic  plants. 

The  Rallidceietd  principally  upon  Worms,  Mollusca,  and  Insects  ; 
but  many  also  eat  a  good  deal  of  vegetable  food,  such  as  blades  of 
grass  and  seeds.  Some  of  them  are  solitary,  others  more  or  less 
gregarious  in  their  habits.  They  build  a  large  nest  of  dried  grasses 
and  sedges,  placing  it  upon  the  ground  amongst  thick  herbage  ;  the 
eggs  vary  considerably  in  number,  and  the  young  are  able  to  run, 
and  frequently  to  swim,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched. 

The  British  species  all  belong  to  that  section  of  the  family  which 
constitutes  the  family  Rallidce  of  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray.  They  have  the 
beak  but  slightly  arched  towards  the  tip,  the  wings  unarmed,  and 
the  claws  of  moderate  length.  In  the  Gallinules  (ffa///«K//«(s),  or 
Water-Hens,  the  base  of  the  ridge  of  the  bill  is  dilated  into  a  soft, 
oblong  plate,  which  occupies  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  the  forehead. 
These  Birds  are  especially  aquatic  in  their  habits,  living  amongst 
the  reeds  and  sedges  of  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  in  marshy 
places,  and  swimming  and  diving  with  great  facility.  Their  food 
consists  of  Insects,  Worms,  and  Mollusca,  with  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  seeds,  especially  those  of  the  graminaceous  plants.  The 
British  species  of  Gallinule  {Gallinula  chloropus)  is  particularly 
described  as  follows  : — 

The  Moor-Hen  {Gallhtida  c/iloro^us). — Poule  d'eau  of  the 
French  ;  Gallinella  of  the  Italians  ;  Wasserhuhn  and  Braune  Meer- 
huhn  of  the  Germans  ;  Dwfriar  of  the  Welsh  ;  Common  Gallinule 
and  Water-Hen,  English.  In  the  genus  Gallinule  the  beak  is  short 
and  straight,  the  cutting  edges  of  the  upper  mandible  falling  over 
those  of  the  lower  ;  a  naked  frontal  plate  ;  toes  long  and  simple. 

The  Moor-Hen,  or  Water-Hen,  is  dispersed  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Japan,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  if  indeed 
the  species  be  identical,  which  is  a  question  not  settled.  The  Prince 
of  Canino  considers  the  two  American  species  {^G.  galeata  and  G. 
marfim'ca)  to  be  both  distinct  (as  he  does  also  the  American  Coot, 
Fulica  americajia)  from  their  European  representatives. 

In  our  island  the  Water-Hen  is  abundant  where  secluded  sheets  of 
water,  ponds,  meres,  or  pools,  bordered  by  beds  of  reeds  and  rushes, 
overhung  by  old  willows  and  other  trees,  afford  it  an  asylum. 
Though  its  feet  are  not  fringed,  it  swims  very  gracefully,  and  dives 
with  singular  address,  both  in  order  to  escape  danger  and  to  obtain 
food.  In  the  former  case  it  often  remains  immersed  amidst  the 
shelter  of  the  herbage,  with  little  more  than  its  beak  above  the 
water,  watching  till  the  danger  is  past.  On  the  land  it  runs  with 
great  rapidity  ;  and  when  suddenly  surprised  on  the  bank — where,  as 
we  have  often  seen,  it  delights  to  bask  in  flocks  of  ten  or  twenty — it 
dashes  half  running,  half  flying,  into  the  water,  and  either  dives,  or 
skims  half  flying  over  the  surface  to  the  covert  of  the  reed-bed,  and 
instantly  disappears.  While  walking  on  the  grass,  it  has  a  habit  of 
flirting  up  its  short  tail,  so  as  to  display  the  white  under-coverts  ; 
and  in  all  its  actions  is  smart,  quick,  and  animated. 

According  to  Mr.  Gould,  the  female  is  clothed  in  a  dark  rich  plu- 
mage, and  has  the  base  of  the  bill  and  the  frontal  plate  of  a  bright 
crimson  red,  tipped  with  fine  yellow  ;  while  the  male,  contrary  to  the 
general  rule,  has  the  upper  surface  more  olive  than  the  female,  and 
the  bill  also  is  less  richly  tinted.  The  female,  though  more  richly 
clad,  is  one-fifth  less  than  her  mate.  The  food  of  this  species,  in 
addition  to  Aquatic  larvae.  Worms,  &c.,  consists  of  aquatic  weeds, 
and  grain,  as  wheat  and  barley.  The  Water-Hen  selects  a  retired 
spot  in  which  to  breed,  and  conceals  the  nest  amidst  the  sedges, 
reeds,  and  flags  of  the  water-side  ;  sometimes  it  is  placed  upon  a 
low,  thickly  foliaged  floating  branch,  or  the  stump  of  an  old  pollard  ; 
it  is  formed  ef  matted  flags  and  rushes.  The  eggs  are  of  a  yellowish- 
white,  marbled  with  tints  of  brown,  and  vary  from  five  to  nine  in 
number.  On  leaving  her  nest,  the  female  always  covers  up  her 
eggs,  principally  with  a  view  to  their  concealment  from  the  Rat  or 
the  Snake.  The  young  are  at  first  covered  with  black  hairy  down, 
and  immediately  take  to  the  water.  In  five  or  six  weeks  they  are 
fully  fledged,  and  able  to  provide  for  themselves.  Numbers,  how- 
ever, fall  a  prey  to  the  Rat,  the  Weasel,  the  Hawk,  and  the  Pike. 
Base  of  the  bill  and  frontal  plate  red  ;  head,  throat,  neck,  and  under 
parts  blackish-grey  ;  ridge  of  the  wing  and  under  tail-coverts  white  ; 
upper  parts  of  the  body  dark  olive  green  ;  legs  dusky  green,  with  a 
garter  of  red  above  the  tarsal  joint.     (See  Fig.  1436.) 

The  Coot  {Fulica  atra).  Foulque,  Macroule,  or  Morrelle  of 
the  French  ;  Schwarzes  Wasserhuhn  of  the  Germans  ;  Mcir  Koet 
of  the  Netherlanders ;  Folaga  and  Folacra  of  the  Italians  ;  Jar 
ddwfr  foel  of  the  Welsh. — In  the  genus  Fulica  the  bill  is  strong, 
straight,  sub-conical,  and  compressed,  and  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible  is  carried  upon  the  forehead  in  the  form  of  a  broad  ex- 
panded plate.  The  feet  are  large,  and  the  toes  are  margined  by 
lobated  membranes.     Plumage  full  and  deep. 

The  Coot  is  very  generally  spread  over  temperate  Europe,  and  is 
particularly  abundant  in  Holland.  In  our  island  it  is  common, 
frequenting  large  sheets  of  water,  especially  such  as  are  surrounded 
with  a  broad  belt  of  reeds  and  tall  luxuriant  aquatic  plants,  forming 
a  dense  covert  for  concealment.  It  swims  and  dives  with  the  utmost 
address  ;  nor  is  it  inactive  on  land,  and  may  be  often  seen  early  in  the 


morning  in  humid  low  meadows  adjacent  to  the  water,  wandering  in 
search  of  Slugs,  Worms,  and  Insects,  which,  with  Aquatic  larva;, 
Snails,  and  the  fry  of  Fishes,  &c.,  constitute  its  food.  When  winter 
sets  in  severely,  and  the  inland  waters  arc  frozen,  it  journeys  to  the 
more  southern  districts  of  our  island,  visiting  saline  marshes,  arms 
and  inlets  of  the  sea,  and  the  moutlis  of  rivers,  as  the  Southampton 
Water,  where  numbers  congregate  during  the  inclement  season,  and 
may  be  seen  crowding  the  mud-flats.  The  nest  of  the  Coot  is  a  huge 
mass  of  grass,  flags,  and  other  herbage,  sometimes  situated  among 
the  reeds  near  the  water's  edge,  at  other  times  absolutely  within  the 
margin  of  the  water,  and  rising  above  its  surface  to  the  height  of 
eight  or  ten  inches.  From  the  nature  of  the  materials  composing 
the  nest,  conjoined  with  its  situation,  it  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  it  is  torn  from  its  moorings  by  floods  and  carried  down  with  the 
current ;  and  instances  have  been  known  of  such  occurrences  taking 
place,  the  female  continuing  to  sit  upon  her  eggs,  which  remained 
uninjured. 


Fig.  1436. — The  Moor-Hen. 

The  eggs,  from  seven  to  ten  in  number,  are  of  a  greenish-white, 
thickly  spotted  with  brown.  The  young  are  clothed  with  black 
down,  tipped  with  grey,  and  immediately  take  to  the  water,  under 
the  protection  of  their  parents  till  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  The 
Coot  is  not  roused  to  take  wing  without  difficulty,  and  then  flies  low 
and  heavily,  with  the  legs  hanging  down,  or  it  just  skims  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  which  it  strikes  with  its  feet  by  way  of  aiding 
its  progress.  It  can,  however,  undertake  a  long-continued  flight, 
as  is  evident  from  its  semi-migratory  habits  ;  and  Mr.  Selby  states 
that  he  has  more  than  once  seen  this  Bird  flying  at  a  considerable 
elevation,  with  a  very  unexpected  degree  of  strength  and  speed. 


Fig.  1437. — The  Coot. 

The  description  is  as  follows  :— Bill  pale  rose-red;  irides  scarlet; 
frontal  plate  largest  in  the  male,  milk-white  ;  head  and  neck  deep 
greyish-black  ;  under  parts  greyish-black,  with  a  slight  bluish  tinge  ; 
upper  parts  slaty-black ;  naked  part  of  the  tibia;  orange ;  tarsi 
greenish-grey  tinged  with  yellow.     (See  Fig.  1437.) 


566 


THE  RAIL  TRIBE. 


There  are  numerous  exotic  species,  some  of  them  considerably 
larger  than  the  European  members  of  the  group.  Amongst  these, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Notornis  of  New  Zealand,  a  Bird 
which  was  long  supposed  to  be  extinct,  as  it  was  only  known,  like 
the  Dinoriiis  of  those  islands,  by  the  occasional  occurrence  of 
its  bones.  It  has,  however,  been  taken  alive  within  the  last  few 
years. 

The  True  Rails  I^Rallincs)  are  destitute  of  the  dilatation  of  the 
base  of  the  bill  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Gallinules.  They 
closely  resemble  the  Gallinules  in  their  habits,  but  remain  less  ex- 
clusively in  the  neighbourhood  of  water  ;  the  common  Crakes  {Crex), 
of  which  four  species  are  found  in  Britain,  being  generally  inhabitants 
of  corn-fields.  The  commonest  species  is  the  Corn-Crake  (Crex 
^rafcnsis),  whose  cry  of  crek,  crek,  is  familiar  to  most  country- 
people— although,  as  Mr.  Macgillivray  observes,  its  appearance  is 
so  little  known,  that  to  many  it  is  "  vox  et  frcsterea  nihil."  The 
Common  Rail  {Rallus  aquatics)  is  less  abundant  than  the  Corn- 
Crake  in  this  countrj'.  The  following  is  a  description  of  some  of  the 
True  Rails. 

The  Water-Rail  {Rallus  aquaticus).  Rale  d'eau  of  the 
French;  IMerIa  d'acqua  of  the  Italians  ;  Wasser  Ralle  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Cwtair  of  the  Welsh.— The  Water-Rail  is  distributed  over 
Europe,  and  some  parts  of  Asia,  having  been  seen  by  Dr.  von 
Siebold  in  Japan.  In  our  island  it  is  not  uncommon,  but  is  very 
shy  and  recluse,  tenanting  secluded  marshes  and  ponds,  where 
the  thickest  reed-bods  screen  it  from  observation,  through  which, 
from  the  compressed  form  of  its  body,  it  glides  with  the  utmost 
facility  and  address  :  it  thus  easily  eludes  the  pursuit  of  the  Dog, 
winding  about  till  it  gains  some  deep  hold  or  other  recess,  and  can 
therefore  seldom  be  flushed.  It  also  swims  and  dives  with  remark- 
able ease,  and  if  pushed  hard  instantly  disappears,  rising  at  a  dis- 
tance and  pressing  forward  to  the  reed-bed. 

While  moving  undisturbed  in  search  of  food,  the  Water-Rail,  like 
the  Moor-Hen,  has  a  habit  of  flirting  up  its  short  tail  so  as  to  show 
the  cream-white  under-coverts.  In  the  winter,  this  Bird,  if  it  does 
not  positively  migrate,  resorts  to  the  sides  of  large  streams  and 
rivers,  where  various  Insects,  Worms,  &c. ,  are  always  to  be  pro- 
cured. The  nest  of  this  species  is  made  of  coarse  grasses,  and 
concealed  amidst  the  thickest  herbage  in  the  most  inaccessible  part 
of  its  haunt.  The  eggs  are  from  six  to  eight  in  number,  of  a 
yellowish-white  colour  marked  with  spots  of  brown.  When  first 
excluded,  the  young  are  covered  with  black  down,  and  follow  their 
parents,  swimming  with  equal  address. 

Bill  brown  at  the  tip,  orange-red  at  the  base  ;  throat  pearl  grey  ; 
sides  of  the  neck,  the  breast,  and  under-surface  bluish  or  slate  grey  ; 
flanks  greyish-black  barred  with  white  and  cream  yellow  ;  under 
tai!-coverts  cream  white  ;  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  yellowish- 
brown,  the  centre  of  each  feather  being  velvet  black ;  legs  brown 
flesh-colour;  irides  orange  ;  length  twelve  inches.     (See  Fig.  1438.) 


Fig.  1438.— The  Water-Rail. 

The  Corn-Crake  {Crex  pratensis).  Rale  de  Genet,  ou  Rio 
der  Caillcs  of  the  French;  Re  di  Quaglie  of  the  Italians  ;'Weissen 
Knarrer  of  the  Germans ;  Regen  yr  yd  of  the  Welsh  ;  Landrail 
Corn-drake,  Daker  Hen,  English. — The  Com-Crake  is  spread  over 
the  whole  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  very  abundant  in  Holland. 
It  visits  the  southern  districts  of  our  island  in  April,  but  seldom 
appears  in  the  north  before  the  beginning  of  May.  In  some 
localities  it  greatly  abounds ;  in  others  it  is  little  known.  In  the 
rich  meadow-lands  of  Cheshire  the  monotonous  cry  of  this  Bird,  like 
crake-crake-crake,  may  be  heard  during  May  and  June  resounding 
on  every  side  ;  now  close  at  hand,  as  if  the  Bird  were  not  a  yard 


distant ;  now  far  off ;  while  the  voices  of  others  in  different  parts  are 
unremittingly  exerted.  This  note,  which  is  the  call  of  the  male  to 
his  mate,  and  which  ceases  on  the  commencement  of  incubation, 
may  be  imitated  by  drawing  the  finger  or  a  stick  across  the  teeth  of 
a  comb.  So  shy  and  cunning  is  the  Bird,  that  it  is  seldom  to  be 
seen  ;  and  unless  by  means  of  a  Dog  accustomed  to  such  work,  it  is 
almost  impracticable  to  force  it  to  take  wing;  it  seems  to  elude  pur- 
suit as  if  by  magic,  and  is  here  and  there,  threading  its  way  through 
the  long  grass,  before  its  pursuer  can  imagine  it  has  even  left  the 
spot  from  which  its  call  first  resounded.  Its  swiftness  and  dexterity 
are  indeed  almost  incredible.  The  Corn-Crake  breeds  on  the 
ground,  making  a  nest  of  dried  grass  in  some  depression,  the  female 
laying  from  eight  to  twelve  eggs  ;  they  are  of  a  yellowish-white, 
covered  with  dull  rust-coloured  spots,  and  in  size  nearly  equal  to 
those  of  a  Partridge.  The  young,  when  first  excluded,  are  covered 
with  a  blackish  hairy  down,  and  follow  the  parents  ;  and  in  six 
weeks  are  able  to  fly.  Worms,  Insects,  vegetables,  and  seeds  con- 
stitute the  food  of  this  Bird  ;  it  is  very  fond  of  Grasshoppers.  Its 
southward  migration  takes  place  in  October,  when  it  passes  over  to 
the  continent,  and  continues  its  gradual  progress.  The  flesh  of  the 
Corn-Crake  is  in  high  esteem  as  a  delicacy.  The  description  is  as 
follows  : — A  large  ash-coloured  eyebrow,  prolonged  upon  the  sides 
of  the  head  ;  all  the  feathers  of  the  upper  parts  blackish-brown  in 
the  middle,  bordered  laterally  with  ash-colour,  and  terminated  with 
reddish  ;  the  long  feathers  which  extend  on  the  quills  entirely 
bordered  by  a  large  band  of  olive-reddish  ;  coverts  of  the  wings  of  a 
rusty  red ;  quills  reddish  externally  ;  throat,  belly,  and  abdomen 
white  ;  breast  olive-ash  ;  sides  reddish,  striped  with  white  ;  upper 
mandible  brown,  lower  whitish  ;  iris  reddish-brown  ;  eyebrows 
flesh-colour;  feet  flesh-colour  or  reddish-brown.  Length  nine  inches 
and  a-half.     (Sec  Fig.  1439.) 


Fig.  1439 The  Corn-Crake. 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  their 
Gardens  in  Regent's  Park,  the  following,  among  other  specimens 
of  the  RallidcB,  may  be  seen — viz.  :  examples  of  several  species  of 
the  peculiar  short-winged  Rails  of  the  Pacific  Islands — such  as  the 
Weka  Rail  {Ocydromus  anslralis)  and  the  Earle's  Weka  (O. 
earlei)  of  New  Zealand,  the  Woodhen  (0.  sylvestris)  of  Lord  Howe's 
Island,  and  the  New  Caledonian  Rail  {O.  lafresnayanus).  These 
Birds  are  quite  unable  to  fly,  and  only  use  their  soft-feathered  wings 
to  aid  them  in  running. 

In  a  second  section  of  the  family — the  PalameidcB  of  Mr.  G.  R. 
Gray — the  bill  is  considerably  arched  towards  the  tip  ;  the  wings  are 
armed  with  spurs,  and  the  claws  are  very  long  and  acute  (Fig. 
1440).  These  Birds  are  all  exotic,  and  resemble  the  Rails  in  their 
general  habits,  but  feed  much  more  generally  upon  vegetable  sub- 
stances ;  the  great  length  of  the  toes,  in  most  species,  enables  them 
to  run  with  great  ease  upon  the  floating  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 
In  the  Common  Jacana  {Parra  Jacana),  which  inhabits  Brazil,  the 
claw  of  the  hind  toe  is  excessively  elongated  and  acute,  from  which 
circumstance  the  name  of  the  surgeon  has  been  applied  to  it.  The 
base  of  the  bill  is  furnished  with  a  large  free  dilated  plate,  which 
stands  up  in  front  of  the  forehead. 

In  the  genus  Palamedea  the  forehead  is  furnished  with  a  singular 
horn-like  process,  and  the  wing  bears  two  spurs.  The  best  known 
species,  P.  cornuta,  inhabits  the  marshy  districts  of  Brazil  and 
Guiana.  This  Bird  is  larger  than  a  Goose,  and  of  a  blackish 
colour,  with  a  red  patch  on  the  shoulder.  It  lives  in  pairs,  and  has 
a  very  strong  voice,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance.  The 
Chaja  {Chauna  chavaria)  is  another  nearly  allied  species,  which 
has  a  circle  of  movable  feathers  on  the  occiput.  This  is  also  an 
inhabitant  of  Brazil,  where  it  is  frequently  brought  up  in  a  domesti- 


THE  SNIPE  TRIBE. 


567 


cated  condition  amongst  tlie  Fowls  and  Gcesc,  whicli,  as  it  is 
exceedingly  courageous,  it  is  said  to  protect  from  the  attacks  of 
Birds  of  Prey.  A  remarkable  peculiarity  exhibited  by  this  Bird  is, 
that  the  skin  is  separated  from  the  iiesh  by  a  considerable  interval, 


Fig.  1440.— Foot  of  the  Jacana, 

occupied  by  a  loose  cellular  structure  which  is  filled  with  air,  so  that 
the  skin  crackles  under  the  finger.  The  same  arrangement  of  the 
skin  occurs  in  some  Cormorants  and  Gannets. 

The  Snipes— Family  Scoloj^acidce. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  all  inhabitants  of  marshy  lands, 
the  borders  of  swamps,  lakes,  and  rivers,  and  the  shores  of  the  sea. 
Their  food  consists  of  Worms,  Slugs,  Aquatic  IMolluscs,  &c.  ;  for 
this  purpose  their  bill  is  at  once  a  probe,  a  feeler,  and  an  organ  of 
prehension.  Most  of  the  genera,  observes  Mr.  Selby,  procure  food 
by  thrusting  the  bill  into  the  soft  earth  or  the  mud  of  the  shore, 
■whence  they  extract  their  prey.  To  facilitate  this  operation  an  extra- 
ordinary development  of  nerve  is  distributed  over  the  bill,  but  more 
especially  concentrated  at  the  tip,  which  is  thus  endowed  with  an  ex- 
quisite sense  of  feeling,  and  the  membrane  of  that  part  is  often  pulpy. 
In  many  species  the  bill  is  further  provided  with  a  peculiar  muscle 
which  operates  to  expand  the  pulpy  points  of  the  mandibles,  enabling 
the  Bird,  with  the  bill  still  buried  in  the  ground,  to  seize  its  prey 
the  moment  it  is  felt.  From  this  peculiar  mode  of  searching  for  their 
prey,  many  species,  as  the  Snipe,  Woodcock,  (Src,  have  been  called 
Birds  of  Suction.  The  distribution  of  the  Scolopacidce  is  verj' 
general,  their  powers  of  flight  are  considerable,  and  they  are  all  more 
or  less  migratory  in  their  habits.  They  incubate  on  the  ground  ;  the 
eggs  are  four  in  number,  of  a  peculiar  form,  being  small  and  pointed 
at  one  end,  large  and  obtuse  at  the  other,  and  they  are  usually 
placed  in  the  nest  in  a  circle  with  the  acute  ends  meeting  in  the 
centre,  so  as  to  occupy  as  small  a  space  as  possible.  The  flesh  of 
many  is  in  high  estimation. 

Fig.  1441  illustrates  a  group  of  the  Scolopacida:,  representing — a, 
the  Curlew  ;  b,  the  Godwit ;  c,  the  Purre,  or  Stint. 

The  Curlew  {Niimcnius  arquatus').- — In  the  genus  Niimcnius 
the  bill  is  long,  slender,  curved,  compressed,  hard  and  sub-obtuse  at 
the  point ;  the  upper  mandible  exceeding  the  lower,  rounded  towards 
the  end,  and  channelled  for  three-fourths  of  its  length  ;  nostrils 
lateral,  linear,  and  pierced  in  the  channel ;  legs  slender ;  hind-toe 


small,  touching  the  ground  ;  anterior  toes  united  by  a  membrane  as 
high  as  the  first  joint  ;  wings  moderate. 

The  Curlew  is  the  Courli's  of  the  French  ;  Chiarlotto  and  Chiurle 
maggiore  of  the  Italians  ;  dcr  Grossc  Krumschriiblichte  Schncpfe 
and  Kcilhacke  of  the  Germans  ;  the  Waup,  Scottici  ;  Gylfinhrof  the 
Welsh.  The  Curlew  is  spread  over  every  part  of  the  Old  World, 
from  the  Torrid  zone  to  the  Polar  regions.  It  is  found  in  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  South  Africa. 

In  its  habits  the  Curlew  is  migratory,  and  during  the  winter  col- 
lects in  large  flocks,  which  frequent  the  low  oozy  shores  of  the  sea, 
easily  perforated  by  their  bills,  which  they  plunge  into  the  mud  in 
search  of  food.  It  wades  in  the  shallows,  and  when  out  of  its  depth 
swims  with  considerable  facility.  Few  Birds  arc  more  shy  and  wary 
than  the  Curlew,  and  while  on  the  wing  it  utters  a  clear  whistle  as 
the  flock  wheels  round  in  wide  circles  through  the  air. 

In  the  high  northern  regions  are  the  favourite  breeding  haunts  of 
the  Curlew,  whither  immense  flocks  repair  early  in  the  spring  ;  but 
numbers  continue  in  our  island,  leaving  the  low  shores  and  southern 
districts  for  the  wild  and  heathy  parts  of  the  interior,  the  wilds  of 
Northumberland,  and  the  bleak  islands  of  Scotland.  The  nest  con- 
sists of  withered  grass  or  rushes  placed  in  a  depression  under  the 
covert  of  heath  or  other  herbage.  The  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  of 
a  pale  olive-green,  blotched  with  two  tints  of  brown.  The  young, 
which  are  at  first  covered  with  a  yellowish-white  down  varied  witli 
dark  spots  and  markings,  are  assiduously  attended  by  their  parents, 
who  manifest  great  courage  in  their  defence,  sweeping  round  the 
head  of  the  intruder,  uttering  a  loud  cry  of  coiii-lis,  conriis,  in  quick 
repetition.     In  about  six  weeks  the  young  are  able  to  take  wing. 

The  Snipe  {Scolopax  gallinago). — In  the  genus  Scolofiax,  sub- 
family Scolopacince,  the  beak  is  long,  straight,  compressed,  and 
slender,  but  swollen,  minutely  dimpled,  and  pulpy  at  the  tip  ;  the 
upper  mandible  is  furrowed  through  half  its  length  ;  the  nostrils  are 
lateral,  basal,  and  longitudinal  in  the  commencement  of  the  furrow. 
Legs  slender,  of  moderate  length  ;  wings  pointed ;  eyes  large,  and 
placed  back  in  the  head.     (See  Fig.  1442.) 

The  Common  Snipe  is  the  Becasseau  becassine  and  Chevre  voland 
of  the  French ;  Beccacino  and  Pizzarda  of  the  Italians ;  Wald- 
schneppe  of  the  Germans  ;  Ysnittan  y  Finiar  of  the  Welsh. 

This  Bird  is  widely  spread  over  Europe  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
Asia,  being  everywhere  of  migratory  habits  ;  though  it  must  be  ob- 
served that  it  breeds  in  our  island  wherever  favourable  localities 
afford  it  shelter.  It  was  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the 
Orkneys,  by  Sir  H.  Davy  (1817),  in  the  month  of  August ;  he  ob- 
served that  each  nest  contained  two  young  Birds,  sometimes  three, 
and  describes  the  parents  as  exceedingly  attached  to  their  offspring; 
adding,  that  if  any  one  approach  their  nest,  they  make  a  loud  and 
drumming  noise  over  the  head  of  the  intruder,  as  if  to  divert  his 
attention.  The  Snipe  has  been  known  to  breed  also  in  Dorsetshire, 
in  the  New  Forest,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in  Norfolk,  in  Scotland, 
Wales,  and  Ireland.  The  nest  is  made  of  dry  grass  or  herbage, 
rudely  put  together,  and  placed  in  some  depression  under  the  covert 
of  heath,  fern,  or  long  rushes  near  water,  in  swampy  spots,  or  on 
marshy  hills.  The  eggs  are  comparatively  large,  of  a  greenish- 
white,  spotted  at  the  larger  end  with  different  tints  of  brown. 

In  winter  our  home-bred  Birds  are  joined  by  vast  accessions  from 
Norway  and  other  northern  parts  of  Europe,  the  greatest  number 
arriving  in  the  beginning  of  November.  These  are  ever  on  the 
move  from  place  to  place,  frequenting  swamps,  the  margins  of 
rivulets,  and  oozy  meadows  along  streams  and  rivers,  in  quest  of 
food;  this  consists  of  Worms,  Insects,  &c.,  in  order  to  obtain  which 
they  thrust  their  bill  up  to  its  base  in  the  mud,  and  are  guided  by 
its  exquisite  sensibility. 

About  the  beginning  of  April  the  Snipe  calls  to  his  mate,  uttering 
a  piping  or  clicking  note,  often  repeated,  and  accompanied  at 
intervals  by  a  humming  noise,  "  apparently  produced  by  the  action 
of  the  wings,  as  the  bird,  whenever  this  sound  is  emitted,  is  observed 
to  descend  with  great  velocity,  and  with  a  trembling  motion  of  the 
pinions.  At  this  season  it  soars  to  an  immense  height,  remaining 
long  upon  the  wing  ;  and  its  notes  may  frequently  be  heard  when  the 
bird  itself  is  far  beyond  the  reach  of  sight.  These  flights  are  per- 
formed at  intervals  during  the  day,  but  more  commonly  towards  the 
evening,  and  are  continued  during  the  whole  time  that  tlie  female  is 
engaged  in  incubation."  Of  the  ordinary  flight  of  this  Bird,  of  its 
excellence  for  the  table,  and  of  the  colours  of  its  plumage,  nothing 
need  be  said. 

The  Jack-Snipe  {Scolopax  galUiiula).  La  Petite  B(5cassine  and 
Becassine  sourde  of  the  French  ;  Moorschneppe  of  the  Germans  ; 
Judcock,  provincial  English. — This  species  appears  to  be  confined 
to  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  is  a  periodical  w-inter  visitant  to 
our  island,  making  its  first  appearance  about  the  second  week  of 
September.  Early  in  March  it  quits  our  latitudes  for  the  Polar 
regions,  where  it  breeds  ;  we  believe  that  there  is  no  authenticated 
instance  of  its  having  been  known  to  incubate  in  any  of  our  fens. 
The  Jack-Snipe  frequents  oozy  bogs  and  marshes  ;  when  flushed,  it 
utters  no  alarm-cry,  and  after  a  short  direct  flight  drops  in  some 
miry  spot,  and  is  not  to  be  easily  roused  again.  This  species  is  the 
smallest  of  the  genus,   being  about  halt  the  siiie  of  the  Common 


S68 


THE  SNIPE  TRIBE. 


Snipe,  and  seldom  exceeding  two  ounces  and  a  quarter  in  weight : 
but  its  flesh  is  exquisite,  It  i's  generally  found  solitary  ;  and,  unlike 
the  Common  Snipe,  having  fixed  upon  one  locality  as  its  haunt,  it 
seldom  quits  it  for  another,  even  though  harassed  by  the  sportsman. 
It  sits  very  close,  and  will  allow  itself  almost  to  be  trodden  upon 
before  taking  wing.  The  plumage  of  this  Bird  is  too  well  known  to 
require  a  detailed  description.     (See  Fig.  1443-) 


Europe  and  Asia,  its  migratory  range  is  very  extensive,  extending 
to  Italy,  Madeira,  Barbary,  Greece,  Aleppo,  and  E.gypt.  It  has 
been  noticed  in  Cashmere  and  Japan.  It  breeds  in  Russia,  Finland 
Norway,  Sweden,  Siberia,  &c.,  and  also  in  Switzerland  and  Great 
Britain.  With  respect  to  its  breeding  in  our  islands,  we  might  cite 
numerous  authentic  instances  on  record,  but  the  fact  is  too  well 
established  to  require  such  labour. 


Fig.  1441. — Group  oi  Scohpacida,  or  Snipes. 


The  Woodcock  {Scolofax  nisticold).  Becasse  of  the  French  ; 
Beccaccia  of  the  Italians ;  Waldschnepfe  of  the  Germans ;  Cyffylog 
of  the  Welsh.     (See  Fig.  1444-) 

Though  the  Woodcock  is  a  native  of  the  northern  latitudes  of 


fig.  1442.— Head  and  Leg  of  the  Snipe. 


■  The  first  flights  of  Woodcocks  from  the  north  to  our  island 
generally  occur  towards  the  end  of  September  or  the  beginning  of 
October;  but  these  flocks,  after  remaining  a  short  time,  wing  their 
way  to  the  more  southern  regions  of  Europe,  and  Northern  Africa,  a 
few  stragglers  only  remaining  behind,  which  are  afterwards  joined 
by  other  arrivals  during  the  latter  part  of  October,  November,  and 
December.  They  generally  come  over  in  hazy  weather  with  little 
wind,  and  that  blowing  from  the  north-east.  Their  favourite  haunts 
are  woods,  moist  thickets,  close  brakes,  glens,  and  similar  places, 


Fig.  I44.'5.— The  J.ick  Snipe. 


THE   SNIPE  TRIBE. 


569 


where  they  remain  concealed  during  the  day,  but  as  soon  as  dark- 
ness sets  in  they  leave  these  retreats,  and  scatter  themselves  over 
moist  meadows  and  swampy  open  grounds,  where  they  search  for 
food— namely.  Slugs,  Insects,  and  especially  Worms,  thrustmg  their 
bill  into  the  earth,  and  drawing  forth  their  captives.  The  digestion  of 
this  Bird  is  very  rapid.  Mr.  Selby  states  that  he  had  known  one  to 
consume,  within  a  single  night,  more  large  earth-worms  than  half 
filled  a  garden-pot  of  considerable  size.  The  nest  of  the  Woodcock  is  a 
loose  structure  of  grass  and  leaves,  in  a  depression  among  herbage 
and  thickets,  near  the  root  of  a  tree  or  bush.  The  eggs  are  usually 
four  in  number,  of  a  pale  yellowish-white,  blotched  and  spotted  at 
the  larger  end  with  ash  grey,  and  two  shades  of  yellowish-brown. 
During  the  pairing  season  the  Birds  often  pursue  each  other  on  the 
approach  of  dusk,  circling  the  wood  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  uttering 
a  sharp  but  not  very  loud  whistling  note;  besides  this  the  male 
often  flies  low  on  heavy  and  flapping  wings,  keeping  up  an  inces- 
sant croaking,  or  rather  purring  noise,  not  unlike  that  of  the  spinning- 
wheel.     As  the  season  advances,  these  circling  flights  and   noises 


Fig.  1444. — The  Woodcock. 

are  discontinued,  "the  low  croaking  and  occasional  whistle  being," 
as  a  writer  observes,  "peculiar  to  the  period  of  incubation,  like 
that  singular  noise  made  by  the  Snipe  in  spring,  as  it  rapidly 
descends  in  the  air  during  its  circuitous  flight  over  its  native  mo- 
rass." 

We  need  not  say  that  the  Woodcock  is  highly  celebrated  for  the 
exquisite  flavour  of  its  flesh.  When,  however,  the  spring  change  of 
plumage  commences,  it  loses  its  delicacy,  and  becomes  rank  and 
worthless.  The  return  of  the  Woodcock  to  the  regions  of  the  north 
from  our  latitudes  takes  place  in  March,  and  by  the  middle  of  April 
all,  save  those  that  remain  stationary  with  us,  have  disappeared. 
The  female  somewhat  exceeds  the  male  in  size. 

The  African  Painted  Snipe  {Rynchcea  capensis). — From  the 
genus  Scolopax  are  separated  the  Painted  Snipes  of  Africa  and 
India,  which  form  the  genus  Rynchcca  :  they  are  characterised  by 
the  beak  being  slightly  arched  at  the  tip.  Their  habits  and  manners 
are  those  of  the  Snipes  generally.  They  are  remarkable  for  the 
brilliancy  of  their  colours,  and  for  the  ocellated  spots  upon  the  quills 
of  their  wings  and  tails.     (See  Fig.  1445.) 


Fig.  1445. — The  African  Painted  Snipe. 

The  Ruff  {Philoynachtis,  or  Machetes ptignax).—Y^v<\-!\&,  the 
Reeve.  Le  Combatt  nt  and  Paon  de  Mer  of  the  French  ;  Salsarola 
and  Uccello  rauto  of  t  e  Italians  ;  Streisschnepfe  and  Rampfhahlein 
of  the  Germans;  yrYtnladdgar  of  the  Welsh. 


This  Bird  is  generally  distributed  over  Europe  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Asia,  and  is  a  summer,  not  winter,  visitant  to  our  island, 
arriving  in  April,  breeding  in  our  fens,  and  departing  in  autumn. 
An  occasional  straggler  remains  with  us  during  the  winter.  In 
Holland  it  is  very  abundant.  In  England  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire 
and  Cambridgeshire  are  its  principal  resort.  It  would  appear  that 
the  males  are  the  first  to  arrive  at  their  destined  station  ;  at  all 
events  they  keep  themselves  in  distinct  bands,  separate  from  the 
females.  As  the  breeding-time  draws  near,  beautiful  long  plumes 
round  the  neck,  forming  a  ruff,  and  large  full  ear-tufts,  rapidly 
develop.  The  males  now  begin  to  hill,  as  it  is  termed — that  is,  they 
seek  some  spot  a  little  elevated  above  the  surrounding  marsh,  to 
which,  as  to  a  common  centre,  numbers  are  gradually  drawn.  Each 
individual  selects  its  own  station  or  little  territory,  for  the  possession 
of  which  it  strenuously  contends  ;  the  attempt  of  a  rival  to  encroach 
upon  the  circle  is  immediately  followed  by  a  hard-fought  battle,  the 
territory  being  ceded  by  the  vanquished  to  the  victor.  Those  battles 
and  contests  are  almost  incessant,  at  least  during  the  day :  for  at 
night  they  all  return  to  the  marsh  in  order  to  feed  (in  this  respect 
their  habits  being  nocturnal),  but  in  the  morning  each  resumes  its 
station,  and  the  contests  are  again  carried  on.  Here,  full  of  ani- 
mosity against  each  other,  and  jealous  of  each  other's  rights,  they 
await  the  arrival  of  the  females.  The  arrival  on  the  hill  of  one  of 
the  other  sex  is  the  signal  for  a  general  contest.  The  scene  is  now 
one  of  perpetual  warfare,  female  after  female  arriving  at  the  hill,  so 
that  "  the  theatre  of  these  battles,"  as  Selby  observes,  "  soon  be- 
comes bare  of  grass  from  the  constant  traversing  of  the  combatants." 
Not  only  have  the  neck  and  ear  plumes  now  attained  their  perfec- 
tion, but  the  face  of  the  male  becomes  covered  with  small  yellowish 
papilla;,  or  fleshy  excrescences,  instead  of  the  short  feathers  with 
which  it  is  ordinarily  clothed.  During  the  whole  of  May  and  the 
early  [part  of  June  this  scene  of  warfare  continues  with  unabated 
energy.  The  manner  in  which  the  Ruff  fights  has  much  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the  Game-Cock  ;  the  head  is  lowered,  the  plumes 
are  thrown  up  into  a  disc,  the  tail  is  expanded,  and  each  adversary 
attempts  to  seize  the  other  with  his  bill,  following  up  his  advantage 
by  a  blow  with  the  wing.  The  contest  is  seldom  fatal,  the  van- 
quished being  rather  wearied  out  and  dispirited  by  the  superior 
strength  and  determination  of  his  antagonist,  than  seriously  injured. 
Towards  the  latter  part  of  June  this  combativeness  abates,  the 
papilla;  on  the  face  disappear,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  fine  plumes 
are  moulted  off,  their  place  being  supplied  by  ordinary  feathers. 
(See  Fig.  1447.)  .  . 

The  females,  or  Reeves,  which,  as  we  have  intimated,  only  visit 
the  hill  at  intervals,  breed  among  the  swamps.  The  nest  consists  of 
little  more  than  a  slight  depression  amidst  a  tuft  of  grass,  rushes, 
or  other  herbage.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  closely  resemble 
those  of  the  Snipe,  but  are  somewhat  larger.  In  the  group  of 
Grallatorial  Birds,  to  which  the  present  species  belongs,  the  females 
usually  exceed  the  males  in  size; 'here,  however,  the  females  are 
much  smaller  than  the  males,  and  moreover  undergo  no  corres- 
ponding changes  of  plumage.  With  respect  to  the  beautiful  plumes, 
which  for  a  season  ornament  the  Ruff,  one  circumstance  is  very 
remarkable— namely,  the  diversity  of  their  colouring:  in  no  two 
examples  is  the  colour  precisely  alike.  We  have  seen  them  pure 
white  ;  white  elegantly  barred  with  black  ;  reddish-brown  intermixed 
with  black,  or  barred  and  spotted ;  pure  glossy  black ;  grey  and 
black,  &c.  It  appears,  moreover,  that  in  no  individual  are  these 
colours  the  same  in  any  two  seasons. 

The  Ruff  is  among  the  list  of  Birds  whose  flesh  is  accounted  as  a 
delicacy  for  the  table ;  and  considerable  profit  is  made  by  various 
fowlers  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire,  who  devote  themselves  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  to  the  business  of  catching  them  and  feeding 
them  for  sale.  The  means  employed  for  taking  them  are  chiefly 
clap-nets,  into  which  they  are  lured  by  various  devices,  one  of  which 
is  a  stuffed  Bird  of  their  own  species.  The  seasons  for  taking  them 
are,  first,  April  and  May,  when  the  males  are  hilling,  and  pugnacious 
in  the  extreme  ;  and,  secondly,  September,  after  the  young  are  fully 
fledged  and  ready  for  the  autumnal  migration,  when  they,  with  the 
old  Birds,  pass  to  more  southern  latitudes.  -Their  natural  food  con- 
sists of  Worms,  small  Insects,  &c.,  with  which  the  soft  ooze  or  mud 
of  the  marsh  abounds  ;  but  they  are  easily  reconciled  to  a  change  of 
diet,  and  feed  eagerly  upon  bread  and  milk,  boiled  wheat,  and  other 
articles  of  a  farinaceous  quality,  upon  which  they  thrive  and  become 
plump.  Captivity,  which  subdues  the  spirit  of  most  wild  creatures, 
does  not  abate  the  pugnacity  of  the  full-plumed  males  taken  in  the 
spring.  Not  only  will  the  appearance  of  a  Reeve  e.xcite  them  to 
strife,  but  a  bowl  of  food  set  before  them  will  produce  the  same  effect, 
and  lead  to  a  tumultous  conflict,  which,  as  the  arena  is  very  limited, 
and  the  weaker  have  no  chance  of  escape,  is  sometimes  known  to 
result  in  fatal  consequences. 

Of  the  variable  colour  of  the  neck  and  ear  plumes  we  have  already 
spoken.  The  rest  of  the  colouring  may  bo  thus  descnbed :— Ihe 
upper  parts  of  the  body  are  varied  with  a  mixture  of  brown,  pale  yel- 
low, and  black  ;  the  sides  of  the  chest  and  flanks  are  barred  with 
black  on  a  pale  yellow  ground  ;  the  under  surface  is  white.  In  some 
individuals  these  tints  are  much  darker  than  in  others.     The  Reeve 

4D 


570 


THE  SANDPIPERS. 


in  summer  has  the  upper  surface  varied  with  black  on  a  cinerous 
orey  ground;  in  winter  the  colour  becomes  more  uniform,  losing  the 
markings  of  black. 

The  Phalaropes  {Phahiro;(>incB)  resemble  the  Coots  in  having  the 
toes  bordered  with  membranous  lobes  (Fig.  1446),  and,  like  these, 
were  included  by  Temminck    in    his  order  of  Piii}iatipcdes.     As 

might  be  expected  from  this  con- 
formation of  the  feet,  the  Phala- 
ropes are  veiy  aq\iatic  in  their 
naoits,  swimming  with  great  ease, 
and  being  often  met  with  amongst 
floating  seaweed  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  land.  Their  move- 
ments, when  swimming,  are  very 
elegant,  resembling  those  of  the 
Teal  ;  and  they  are  continually  dip- 
ping their  bills  into  the  water,  in 
search  of  the  small  Insects  and  Crustacea,  upon  which  they  feed. 
Two  species  are  found  in  this  countrj',  but  only  as  winter  visitors, 
their  summer  residence  and  breeding  station  being  on  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  regions. 


Fis 


1446. — Foot  tA  LoUpcs 
liy/erbon'iis. 


visiting  this  country  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  and  retiring  to  the 
high  northern  latitudes  to  breed  during  the  summer  ;  some  appear 
only  to  pay  us  a  passing  visit  in  their  vernal  and  autumnal  journeys 
between  their  summer  and  winter  residences.  Nevertheless,  great 
numbers  of  many  species  reside  permanently,  and  breed  in  our 
islands  ;  in  fact,  some  individuals  of  almost  all  the  species  pass  the 
summer  here.     Fig.  1448  represents  some  of  the  TriiigincB. 

Thd  Black-tailed  Godwit  (Limosa  melamtra).  Beak  and 
Foot.  (See  Fig.  1449.)  In  the  genus  Limosa  the  bill  is  very  long, 
more  or  less  curved  upwards,  soft  and  flexible,  depressed  at  the  apex, 
which  is  dilated  and  obtuse ;  upper  mandible  furrowed  ;  legs  long 
and  slender;  hind-toe  small ;  outer  and  inner  toes  united  by  a  basal 
web  ;  w'ings  moderate.  This  species  is  the  Grande  Barge  rousse  of 
Buffon  ;  the  Red  Godwit  of  Latham  ;  Dunkelfussiger  Wasserlaufer 
of  Meyer  ;  Eostog  of  the  ancient  Welsh. 

The  Godwit  (with  other  allied  species)  undergoes  a  double  moult, 
which  nearly  changes  the  entire  colour  of  the  plumage,  and  has  led 
to  some  confusion  ;  the  young  of  the  year  differ  from  the  adults.  In 
its  winter  plumage  this  Bird  is  the  Limosa  7nela?iura  of  Lesler,  and 
the  Jadreka  Snipe  of  Latham.  In  its  spring  plumage  it  is  the 
Scolo^ax  belgica  and  ^.  cegoccphala  of  Gmelin.     The  young  of  the 


Fig.  1447.— Ruff  and  Reeves. 


The  Tri7igiticB,  including  the  Sandpipers  and  numerous  allied 
Birds,  differ  from  the  Snipes  principally  in  the  greater  length  of  their 
legs.  The  bill  is  long,  slender,  grooved  throughout,  sometimes 
straight,  sometimes  curv^ed  either  upwards  or  downwards.  The 
hinder  toe  is  very  small,  and  elevated  on  the  back  of  the  tarsus,  or 
sometimes  entirely  wanting,  and  the  anterior  toes  are  usually 
slightly  webbed  at  the  base.  Many  of  the  Sandpipers  present  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  Snipes  in  their  appearance  ;  and, 
like  these,  they  are  generally  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water — 
some  of  them  even  swimming  with  facility.  They  collect  in  flocks 
during  the  winter,  seeking  for  their  food,  which  consists  principally 
of  Worms,  Insects,  and  MoUusca,  by  inserting  their  long  bills  into 
the  mud  or  soft  ground  of  the  shore.  In  the  winter  they  not  unfre- 
quently  visit  the  sea-coast.  They  run  and  fly  rapidly,  and  most  of 
them  produce  a  loud  and  shrill  cry.      They  are  Migratory  Birds, 


year  is  the  Totantts  ruftis  of  Bechstein.     The  female  exceeds  the 
male  in  size,  but  her  colours  are  less  bright. 

The  Black-tailed  Godwit  breeds  in  the  high  northern  latitudes, 
but  occasionally  within  the  limits  of  the  British  Islands  ;  during  the 
winter  it  is  spread  along  the  shores  of  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
specimens  have  been  received  both  from  India  and  Africa.  In 
England  the  present  species  is  not  very  abundant  at  any  period, 
though  it  breeds  sparingly  in  some  of  our  fens.  During  the  winter 
it  frequents  oozy  shores  and  the  embouchures  of  rivers,  and  plunges 
its  long  sensitive  bill  into  the  mud  in  search  of  food — viz.,  Marine 
Insects  and  Worms,  &c.  The  nest  is  formed  of  dry  grass  and 
herbage,  and  the  four  eggs  are  of  a  light  olive  brown,  dashed  with  a 
darker  tint.  Its  flesh  was  formerly  in  high  esteem.  Winter  plum- 
age : — upper  parts  uniform  brown  ash,  the  shaft  of  each  feather 
being  of  a  darker  tint ;  rump  blackish  ;  front  of  neck,  the  breast, 


THE  GODWIT—THE  STTLT-PLOX^ER. 


S7I 


and  sides,  bright  grey  ;  under  parts  and  base  of  tail-feathers,  and 
also  of  the  quill-feathers,  pure  white  ;  a  broad  belt  of  black  across 
the  tail-feathers,  of  which  the  central  are  slightly  tipped  with  white  ; 
bill  orange-yellow  at  the  base,  black  at  the  tip. 

Spring  Plumage :— Feathers  of  the  top  of  the  head  black, 
bordered  with  bright  red ;  throat  and  neck  red,  transversely  striped 
with  fine  zigzag  markings  :  upper  part  of  the  back  and  scapulars 
deep  black,  terminated  with  a  band  of  red,  and  bordered  by  spots  of 
that  colour ;  wing-coverts  ash  ;  lower  part  of  the  back  and  tail 
black ;  under  parts  of  base  and  quill-feathers  white.  Length 
fifteen  inches.  In  the  young  the  plumage  of  the  upper  parts  is 
brown  and  blackish-brown,  greatly  varied  with  red. 


Fig.  1448. — Sandpipers. 

The  Common  or  Red  Godwit  {Limosa  ritfa,  Brisson)  is 
closely  allied  to  the  preceding,  which  it  resembles  in  habits  and 
manners,  and  extent  of  range,  but  may  be  distinguished  by  shorter 
legs,  by  the  absence  of  white  on  the  basal  part  of  the  quill-feathers, 
and  by  the  tail-feathers  being  always  distinctly  barred.  It  is  not 
known  to  breed  in  our  island  :  its  summer  haunts  are  Iceland, 
Lapland,  Sweden,  and  other  northern  countries.  Both  species  fly 
very  rapidly,  and  utter  a  singular  cry  while  on  the  wing.  The 
Prince  of  Canino  notices  two  species,  distinct  from  either  of  the 
preceding,  as  peculiar  to  America.  (See  b,  in  group  of  Scolo^acidcB, 
Fig.  1 141,  p.  568,  ante. 


Fig.  1449. — Beak  and  Foot  of  the  Black-tailed  Godwit. 

The  last  sub-family  is  that  of  the  TotanincB,  to  which  Mr.  Mac- 
gillivray  gives  the  English  name  of  Tatlers.  In  these  Birds  the  bill 
is  very  long,  slender,  compressed,  and  acute ;  the  legs  are  also  very 
long  and  slender,  and  the  toes  of  moderate  length,  webbed  at  the 
base — the  fourth  very  small,  or  entirely  wanting. 

The  Tota>iin(B  are  genuine  Wading  Birds,  which  always  frequent 
the  water's  edge,  and  generally  seek  their  food  in  the  water, 
although  they  occasionally  imitate  the  Birds  of  the  preceding  sub- 
families in  their  practice  of  pushing  the  bill  into  the  sand  or  mud  of 
the  brink.  Some  of  them  also  take  to  the  water,  and  swim  without 
hesitation,  although  the  structure  of  their  feet  does  not  appear  very 
well  adapted  for  such  a  purpose.  They  are  found  not  only  upon  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  in  the  marshy  grounds  in  their 
vicinity,  but  also  frequently  upon  the  sea-shore  ;  and  in  the  winter 
they  generally  collect  into  small  bands,  and  frequent  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  sea,  and  especially  the  estuaries  of  rivers.  Their  food 
consists    of    Insects,    Mollusca,    Crustacea,    Worms,    and   other 


Aquatic  Animals.  They  run  and  fly  swiftly,  and  emit  loud  and  shrill 
cries.  Most  of  the  species  perform  migrations  of  greater  or  less 
extent;  the  British  species  being  generally  winter  visitors,  and 
breeding  in  regions  far  to  the  north,  although  some  of  them  generally 
remain  during  the  summer,  and  one  or  two  appear  to  be  permanent 
residents. 

The  Bl.\ck-winged  Stilt-Plover  [Himantofius  mclan- 
opterus).  Charadrius  himanfopus,  Linn.  ;  H.  riifipes,  Bechst.  ; 
H.  atropteriis,  Meyer;  I'Echasse  and  I'Echasse  d  manteau  noir  of 
the  French  ;  Cavaliere  grande  Italiano  of  the  Italians  ;  .Schwarz- 
fltigeliche  Strandreuter  of  the  Germans;  Long-legged  Plover  and 
Long-shanks,  English;  Cwttyn  hirgoes  of  the  Welsh. 

The  members  of  the  genus  Ilnnaiitopiis  are  remarkable  for  the 
extreme  length  and  slendemess  of  the  legs  ;  they  are  not  numerous, 
but  are  distributed  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  present 
species  only  occasionally  occurs  within  the  British  Islands,  and  is 
equally  scarce  and  accidental  in  its  visits  in  Holland  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  essentially  a  native  of  the  eastern 
parts  of  Europe,  whence  it  is  spread  throughout  Asia  to  Japan,  in- 
cluding India  and  the  Indian  Islands,  and  also  from  the  north  to  the 
south  of  Africa.  According  to  the  Prince  of  Canino,  the  two  species 
found  in  America  are  both  distinct,  and  Mr.  Gould  has  described 
the  species  found  in  Australia  and  Java  as  different,  under  the  title 
of  H.  leucoccptialus. 

"  The  long-legged  plover,  as  its  conformatton  w^ould  lead  us  to 
conclude,  is  a  bird  whose  most  congenial  habitat  is  morasses  and 
the  low  flat  shores  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  seas.  Hence  in  the  eastern 
portions  of  Europe,  where  it  is  said  to  arrive  from  Asia  in  small 
flocks,  it  takes  up  its  abode  along  the  lakes  and  among  the  vast 
morasses  of  Hungary  and  Russia,  where,  according  to"  M.  Tem- 
mirick,  it  rears  its  progeny,  and  where  it  fearlessly  wades  in  search 
of  its  food,  without  much  chance  of  its  being  carried  out  of  its 
depth  ;  but  should  such  an  occurrence  happen,  or  the  waves  drift  it 
from  the  shore,  it  possesses,  like  many  of  the  true  wading  birds, 
the  power  of  swimming  with  great  ease  and  lightness.  Few  birds 
exceed  it  in  the  powers  of  flight ;  its  wings  far  exceed  the  tail,  and 
it  passes  through  the  air  with  astonishing  rapidity.  When  on  firm 
ground,  it  appears  as  if  tottering  on  long  and  awkward  stilts  ;  but 
firm  ground  is  not  its  congenial  habitat."  (Gould,  "  Birds  of 
Europe.") 

In  the  last  part  of  his  "  Manuel,"  M.  Temminck  states  that  this 
Bird  makes  its  nest  upon  a  little  eminence  constructed  in  the 
marshes,  laying  four  eggs  of  a  tarnished  green  colour,  marked  with 
numerous  ashy  spots,  and  with  moderate  and  very  small  reddish- 
brown  spots.  In  this  species  the  cheeks,  neck,  and  all  the  lower 
parts  are  white,  with  a  roseate  tinge  ;  the  occiput,  back  of  the  neck, 
and  upper  parts  black  glossed  with  green  ;  the  very  old  male  has 
the  occiput  and  back  of  the  neck  varied  with  white,  sometimes  quite 
white  ;  bill  black  ;  iris  crimson  ;  legs  vermilion.  Length  of  head 
and  body  fourteen  inches.     (See  Fig.  1450.) 


Fig.  1450.— The  Black-winged  Stilt-Plover. 

The  Avocet,  or  Scooper  {Rectirvirostra  avocei(a).—ln  the 
genus  Rccurvirostra  the  bill  is  long,  slender,  tapering,  depressed, 
and  bending  upwards  at  the  tip,  which  is  very  flexible  ;  legs  long 
and  slender,  and  the  three  anterior  toes  united  for  nearly  the  whole 
of  their  length  by  a  scolloped  membrane.     (See  Fig.  1451.) 


572 


THE  HERON  FAMILY. 


The  Avocet  is  widely  diffused  through  temperate  Europe.  It  is 
found  in  Siberia,  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  about  the  salt  lakes 
of  Tartary,  and  also  in  Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  Africa.  In  our 
island  these  Birds  are  not  uncommon  along  the  eastern  coast,  south 
of  the  Humber,  and  breed  in  the  fenny  parts  of  Lincolnshire,  and 
also  in  Romney  Marsh  in  Kent.  They  are  very  rare  in  the  north  of 
England  and  Scotland.  They  abound  in  Holland.  During  the  wmter 
the  Avocet  assembles  in  small  flocks,  frequenting  muddy  flat  shores 
and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  feeding  upon  Marine  Insects,  minute  Crus- 
tacea ,  and  Shell-fish,  in  quest  of  which  it  wades  in  the  shallows, 
only  swimming  when  unexpectedly  out  of  its  depth.  Its  slender, 
recurved,  elastic  beak,  resembling  whalebone,  by  no  means  organised 
as  a  feeler  for  plunging  into  the  mud,  enables  it  to  scoop  up  from  the 
surface  of  the  slimy  ooze  the  minute  Insects  or  Worms  on  which  it 
feeds  :  during  this  operation  it  appears  as  if  it  were  incessantly 
beating  the  mud  with  its  beak.  Its  actions  are  all  quick  and  lively, 
and  its  flight  is  rapid  and  vigorous.  During  the  summer  the  Avocets 
are  scattered  in  pairs  over  the  fens  and  saline  marshes,  and  select  a 
dry  spot  on  which  to  breed.  The  nest  is  merely  a  slight  depression 
sheltered  by  such  herbage  as  the  morass  affords.     The  eggs  arc 


Fig.  1451. — The  Avocet. 

greenish,  spotted  with  black.  When  disturbed  during  incubation,  or 
while  guarding  their  down-covered  young,  they  fly  round  the  intruder 
in  circles,  uttering  without  intermission  their  peculiar  cry,  twit-twit, 
twit-tioit,  and,  like  the  Stilt-Plover,  will  feign  lameness,  and  crouch 
on  trembling  limbs,  in  order  to  decoy  the  object  of  their  fear  to  a 
distance.  The  Avocet  is  a  beautiful  Bird  :  its  general  plumage  is 
white,  with  the  exception  of  the  head,  and  back  of  the  neck,  the 
middle  wing-coverts,  and  greater  quill-feathers,  which  are  black  ; 
legs  bluish-grey.  The  toes,  which  are  webbed,  give  the  Bird  superior 
advantage  in  traversing  the  soft  ooze  in  search  of  food.  Length 
eighteen  inches.     There  are  American  species  of  this  Bird. 

The  Herons — Family  Ardeidce. 

In  this  family,  that  of  the  Ardeidce,  or  Herons,  we  find  the  most 
typical  species  of  the  order — stately  Birds,  which  stalk  majestically 
along,  and  often  stand  sedately  watching  for  their  prey.  The  legs 
are  long  and  slender,  with  a  large  portion  of  the  tibia  naked ;  the 
tarsi  are  usually  scutellated,  and  the  hind-toe  is  of  large  size,  and 
placed  on  the  same  level  as  the  anterior  toes.  The  bill  is  large, 
strong,  and  usually  conical  ;  the  oesophagus  is  wide,  and  the  stomach 
large,  furnished  with  a  thin  muscular  coat  and  a  soft  epithelium,  in- 
dicating a  very  different  description  of  food  from  that  which  forms 
the  diet  of  the  Birds  to  which  we  have  previously  referred.  The 
■wings  are  very  large  and  powerful,  but  the  flight  of  the  Birds  is 
generally  slow.  They  frequent  the  margins  of  water,  feeding 
upon  Aquatic  Animals  of  all  kinds  ;  but  Fish  and  Frogs  constitute  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  nourishment  of  the  larger  species.  They 
are  generally  migratory  in  their  habits,  and  often  perform  very  long 
journeys.    We  have  first  to  describe  the 

Spoonbills — Sub-family  Plataleince. 

In  this  group  the  singular  form  of  the  bill  at  once  arrests  attention  ; 
it  is  long,  powerful,  gradually  flattening  from  a  stout  base,  and  at 
last  expanding  into  a  rounded  shovel-like  termination.  The  upper 
mandible  is  transversely  marked  with  slight  furrows,  and  channelled 
along  its  edge  from  each  nostril,  which  has  an  upper  site,  near  the 
base  of  the  mandible.  The  form  of  the  nostrils  is  oblong.  The  face 
is  more  or  less  naked.  The  limbs  are  long  and  robust.  The  three 
anterior  toes  are  united  by  a  web  as  far  as  the  second  joint.  The 
wings  are  long  and  ample.     The  feathers  of  the  neck  are  very  close- 


set.  Figs.  1452  and  1453  represent  the  beak  of  the  Spoonbill.  The 
Birds  of  this  group  are  shy  and  retiring,  and  live  in  society  in  wild 
wooded  marshes,  about  the  borders  of  lakes  and  the  mouths  of 
rivers,  but  rarely  visit  the  sea.  Their  food  consists  of  Fishes,  Mol- 
luscs, small  Reptiles,  the  larvae  of  Aquatic  Insects,  &c.  They  gene- 
rally build  on  trees,  but  occasionally  in  bushes,  or  even  amidst  the 


Fig.  1452. — Bill  of  the  .Spoonbill. 

luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  swamp.  It  is  not  till  the  third  year  that 
the  young  assume  the  colouring  of  the  adult  ;  and  the  beak,  which  is 
covered  with  a  vascular  membrane,  gradually  acquires  its  full  dimen- 
sions and  hardness. 


Fig.  1453. — Head  of  the  Spoonbill. 

The  Common  Spoonbill  {Platalea  leucorodia).  Pale,  Poche, 
Cueillar,  Truble,  and  Spatule  blanche  of  the  French  ;  Becquaroneglia 
and  Cucchiarone  of  the  Italians  ;  Weissar-Laffler  and  Laffelgans  of 
the  Germans  ;  Lepelaar  of  the  Netherlanders  ;  y  Lldon  big  of  the 
ancient  British. 

The  Common  Spoonbill  is  widely  spread  over  Europe,  the  adjacent 
districts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  visits  Holland  every  spring  in  consi- 
derable numbers,  migrating  with  the  Storks  ;  and  is  also  to  be  found 
in  the  marshy  districts  of  France.  It  is  essentially  a  Bird  of  passage, 
resorting  in  winter  to  Africa,  where  it  extends  its  range  southwards, 
even  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  frequenting  the  mouths  of  rivers  and 


^^fe3_ 


Fig.  1454. — The  Spoonbill. 

marshes :  in  our  island  it  rarely  makes  its  appearance.  Pennant 
mentions  a  large  flight  which  arrived  in  the  marshes  near  Yarmouth, 
1774.  Montagu  records  it  as  having  been  sometimes  seen  during 
winter  on  the  coast  of  South  Devon,  and  mentions  the  receipt  of  two 


CRANES,   HERONS,    AND    SPOONBILL 


THE   IBISES. 


573 


specimens  from  that  part  of  the  country,  one  in  November,  1804,  and 
a  second  in  March,  1807.  Dr.  Latham  mentions  an  instance  of  its 
occurrence  on  the  Kentish  coast.  Mr.  Yarrell  records  two  specimens 
which  were  shot  in  Lincolnshire  in  1826  ;  and  Mr.  Selby  states  that, 
when  in  London  in  May,  1830,  he  obtained  a  male  and  female,  in 
fine  adult  plumage,  from  Norfolk  ;  adding,  "  From  the  time  of  the 
year  at  which  these  birds  were  killed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  they 
would  have  remained  to  breed  in  the  district  selected ;  and  though 
my  collection  has  profited  by  their  capture,  I  must  still  regret  that 
they  were  not  allowed  to  remain  in  security."  The  food  of  this  Bird 
consists  of  the  fry  of  Fishes,  Aquatic  Worms,  Molluscs,  Insects,  and 
the  roots  of  some  weeds  and  grasses,  in  quest  of  which  it  explores 
the  muddy  water  with  its  broad  bill,  at  the  same  time  rapidly  opening 
and  shutting  the  mandibles.  The  flesh  of  the  Spoonbill  is  said  very 
nearly  to  resemble  that  of  a  Goose,  without  any  fishy  or  unpleasant 
fiavour.  In  its  anatomy,  says  Mr.  Selby,  this  Bird  shows  an  affinity 
to  the  Cranes  ;  the  windpipe  previous  to  entering  the  chest  assumes 
a  double  flexure,  to  the  extent  of  about  two  inches,  forming  a  convo- 
lution similar  to  the  figure  8  ;  the  flexures  touch,  but  do  not  cross 
each  other,  the  points  of  contact  being  united  by  fine  membranes. 
Temminck  and  others  have  supposed  that  this  peculiarity  was  to  be 
found  only  in  the  male  ;  but,  as  is  now  well  known,  it  equally  occurs 
in  the  female.  The  nest  of  this  species  is  sometimes  placed  on 
trees,  sometimes  in  rushes  and  reeds ;  the  eggs  are  generally  three 
in  number,  white,  and  usually  marked  with  obscure  red  spots.  The 
general  plumage  of  the  Spoonbill  is  white,  with  the  exception  of  a 
broad  pectoral  mark  of  ochreous  yellow,  which  extends  round  the 
base  of  the  neck  ;  the  naked  skin  round  the  eyes  and  throat  yellow,  but 
on  the  lower  part  of  tlie  latter  slightly  tinged  with  red.  Bill  black, 
bluish  in  the  hollows  of  the  furrows,  and  ochreous  yellow  at  the  apex. 
Iris  red  ;  legs  black.  Length  two  feet  six  inches.  Length  of  bill  eight 
inches  and  a-half.  Head  with  a  fine  crest  of  long  slender  feathers, 
which  can  be  raised  or  depressed  at  will.  The  female  is  somewhat 
smaller,  with  a  less  developed  crest,  and  a  paler  chest-mark.  The 
young  have  no  crest  ;  the  undeveloped  bill  is  soft  and  flexible,  about 
four  inches  long,  and  covered  by  a  smooth  ash-coloured  skin  ;  the 
naked  parts  of  the  head  are  of  a  dull  white.  The  general  plumage 
is  white,  excepting  the  quills,  which  are  black  along  the  shafts  and 
at  their  ends.  The  yellow  patch  on  the  chest  does  not  appear  till 
the  second  or  third  year.  A  beautiful  species,  known  as  the  Roseate 
Spoonbill  {Platalea  ajaja),  is  found  in  many  parts  of  South  America. 
It  has  a  plumage  of  a  beautiful  rose  colour,  with  wings  of  a  rich 
carmine. 

From  the  Spoonbills  we  pass  readily  to  the  Ibises  {TantalincB),  in 
which  the  bill  is  gently  curved  downwards  like  that  of  the  Curlew. 
In  their  general  structure  and  habits  they  closely  resemble  the 
Spoonbills,  frequenting  the  margins  of  waters,  and  feeding  princi- 
pally upon  Worms  and  Mol/iisca.  The  only  species  found  in  Britain 
is  the  Glossy  Ibis  {Ibis  falcinellics). 

The  Gl^OSS\  \ms  {Ibis  falrinellies)  ;  Tantalus falcinellus,  Linn., 
le  Courlis  vert  of  Buifon  ;  Green  Ibis,  Latham  ;  Glossy  Ibis  of  the 
same. 

This  species,  probably  the  Black  Ibis  of  Herodotus,  and  celebrated 
for  destroying  Snakes,  whence  it  was  one  among  the  Sacred  Birds 
of  Egypt,  is  migratory  in  its  habits,  annually  visiting  the  borders 
of  the  Danube,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Siberia,  and  occasionally 
other  countries  still  more  to  the  west ;  sometimes  even  appearing  in 
our  island.     It  is  common  through  the  greater  part  of  Asia  and 


Fi^.  1455.— The  Glossy  Ibis. 


Africa,  and  its  remains,  with  those  of  the  Sacred  Ibis,  are  found 
amongst  the  mummies  of  the  Egyptian  catacombs. 

The  Glossy  Ibis  lives  in  societies,  and  its  migrations  are  per- 
formed in  numerous  flocks.  It  frequents  the  banks  of  rivers  and 
lakes,  and  grounds  recently  inundated,  feeding  on  Reptiles,  Worms, 
Insects,  and  also  aquatic  plants.  Its  general  colour  above  is 
glossy  greenish-black  with  a  metallic  lustre  ;  under  parts  bright 
chestnut ;  a  naked  skin  extending  from  the  bill  to  the  eye  is  green  ; 
bill  and  legs  blackish-green.     (Sec  Fig.  1455.) 

The  Sacred  Ibis  {Ibis  religiosa).  tantalus  afhiopicus,  La- 
tham ;  Abou  Hannes,  Bruce. — This  species  is  no  doubt  the  White 
Ibis  of  Herodotus,  described  as  being  "  familiar  with  man,  and 
having  no  feathers  on  the  head  and  neck  ;  white  all  over,  except  the 
head  and  neck,  the  tips  of  the  wings,  and  the  end  of  the  rump,  which 
are  very  black." 

It  is  to  the  celebrated  traveller  Bruce  that  we  owe  the  recognition 
of  this  species  as  the  Sacred  Ibis,  abundantly  represented  on 
Egyptian  monuments,  but  which  had  been  regarded  by  Linna;us  as 
the  Tantalus  ibis,  a  species  which,  as  Cuvier  observes,  is  not  of 
common  occurrence  in  Egypt,  but  is  brought  from  Senegal.  The 
views  of  Bruce  have  since  been  amply  confirmed  by  Geoffrey,  Savigny, 
and  Baron  Cuvier,  as  well  as  by  other  naturalists. 

The  Sacred  Ibis,  called  in  Upper  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  Abou 
Hannes,  or  Father  John,  and  by  the  people  of  Lower  Egypt  Abou- 
menzel,  or  Father  Sicklebill,  visits  that  country,  being  a  Migratory 
Bird,  as  soon  as  the  waters  of  the  Nile  begin  to  rise  ;  and  their 
numbers  increase  with  the  spread  of  the  inundation,  and  diminish  as 
it  subsides.  On  their  first  arrival,  they  repair  to  the  low  lands  over 
which  the  water  is  beginning  to  flow,  and  as  its  depth  and  extent 
augment,  they  gradually  retire  to  higher  grounds,  and  spread  them- 
selves along  the  sides  of  canals  and  water-courses  which  intersect  the 
cultivated  country. 

This  species  lives  either  solitary  or  in  small  companies  of  eight  or 
ten  individuals,  which  may  be  seen  leisurely  walking  about,  or 
exploring  the  humid  ground  and  mud  in  quest  of  food,  which  consists 
of  Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells,  which  are  swallowed  whole,  to- 
gether with  Worms,  Insects,  and  small  Reptiles.  Its  flight  is  lofty ; 
and,  as  it  sweeps  along  from  one  spot  to  another,  it  utters  at  in- 
tervals a  hoarse  loud  cry. 

Where  the  Sacred  Ibis  breeds  does  not  appear  to  be  ascertained  : 
most  probably  in  the  central  parts  of  Africa.  Salt,  on  rounding 
Cape  Guardafui  from  the  south,  saw  near  the  coast  a  lagoon  abound- 
ing in  wild  Fowl,  and  on  the  borders  of  it  stood  numbers  of  these 
Birds,  which,  as  he  says,  are  called  Abou  Hannes  by  the  Arabs,  the 
True  Ibis  of  the  Egyptians  as  described  by  Herodotus — -a  fact  proved 
by  the  head  and  neck  being  bare  and  of  a  deep  black  colour.  "  It 
maybe  worthy,"  he  adds,  "to  remark  that  Strabo  mentions  this 
bird  as  frequenting  the  coast  to  the  east  of  the  Straits  of  Babel- 
mandeb."  It  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  this  Ibis  kills 
and  devours  Snakes,  or  the  contrary,  Herodotus  having  stated  tliat 
armies  of  Flying  Serpents,  the  bones  of  which  he  saw  in  incredible 
multitudes  in  a  narrow  gorge  between  two  mountains  in  a  part  of 
Arabia,  a  little  beyond  the  city  of  Brutus,  were  intercepted  every 
spring  by  the  Ibis,  and  destroyed.  It  would  appear,  however,  that 
it  was  not  by  this  Bird,  but  by  the  Black  Ibis,  that  this  feat  was 
annually  performed.  That  both  Birds  may  swallow  small  Snakes  we 
cannot  doubt  ;  but  the  narration  of  Herodotus  carries  with  it  its  own 
refutation.  He  saw  the  bones  of  Snakes  in  incredible  multitudes, 
whence  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Reptiles  in  question  were  not 
devoured  at  all ;  and  we  cannot  suppose  the  Ibis  would  kill  them  for 
any  other  object  than  that  of  preying  upon  them.  It  is  evident  that 
Herodotus  was  himself  imposed  upon  :  he  describes  the  Serpents, 
which  he  does  not  say  he  had  seen  alive,  as  resembling  the  Water- 
Snake,  but  with  wings  destitute  of  feathers,  and  smooth  like  those 
of  a  Bat.  M.  Savigny  found  in  the  crops  of  the  fresh-killed  specimens 
of  the  Sacred  Ibis,  which  he  examined  in  Egypt,  only  Land  and 
Fresh-water  shells  {Cyclasto?>iata,  AmpullaricB,  PlanorbcB)  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  Cuvier  detected  the  remains  of  the  skin  and 
scales  of  Snakes,  still  undigested,  in  one  of  the  mummies  of  the  Ibis, 
which  he  deposited  in  the  anatomical  gallery  of  the  Paris  Museum. 
We  again  repeat  it,  that,  though  the  story  told  by  Herodotus  is 
unworthy  of  serious  notice,  both  this  species  and  the  Black  Ibis  may 
devour  small  Serpents  and  other  Reptiles,  The  Ibis  religiosa,  says 
Cuvier,  "  was  entertained  in  the  temples  of  ancient  Egypt  with  the 
observances  of  religious  worship,  and  after  death  was  embalmed, 
and  this  because,  according  to  some,  it  devoured  the  serpents  which 
would  become  the  pest  of  the  land;  according  to  others,  because 
there  was  some  similitude  between  its  plumage  and  one  of  the  phases 
of  the  moon  ;  and,  finally,  because,  according  to  others  again,  its 
appearance  announced  the  rise  of  the  Nile."  The  last  was  pro- 
bably the  true  reason. 

The  sacred  Ibis  is  about  the  size  of  a  Fowl  ;  in  its  immature  state 
the  neck  is  partially  covered  with  down  of  a  blackish  tint,  which 
disappears  when  the  plumage  is  mature,  leaving  the  head  and  neck 
bare,  which,  with  the  beak  and  legs,  are  of  a  decided  black  colour. 
The  general  plumage  is  of  a  pure  white,  with  the  exception  of  the 
tips  of  the  quill-fcathcrs,  which  are  of  a  glossy  black,  with  violet 


574 


THE  STORKS. 


reflexions  ;  as  are  also  the  last  four  secondaries,  which  have  the 
barbs  singularly  elongated  and  silky,  so  as  to  form  a  graceful  plume, 
hanging  down  over  the  wings  and  tail,  presenting  an  effective 
contrast  with  the  purity  of  the  rest  of  the  pluinage..  (See  Fig.  1456.) 
The  Scarlet  Ibis  {Ibis  rubra).— 'l\\\?.  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  species.  Nothing  can  be  more  intense  in  colour  than 
the  Scarlet  Ibis,  when  its  plumage  is  developed  under  the  hot  sun  of 
Tropical  America.  In  Europe,  however,  it  rarely  reproduces  that 
gorgeous  livery  ;  and  at  each  successive  moult  the  adult  Birds 
usually  become  more  pale. 


Fig,  1456. — The  Sacred  Ibis. 

Specimens  of  each  of  these  species  of  the  Ibis  may  be  seen  alive 
in  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  their 
Gardens  in  Regent's  Park. 

The  Storks,  sub-family  Ciconinis,  have  the  bill  stout,  conical, 
compressed,  and  pointed,  with  the  nostrils  placed  near  the  base, 
without  a  groove  ;  the  gape  does  not  e.xtend  under  the  eyes.  (See 
F'ff-  '457-)     The  tarsi  are  reticulated;    the  toes  rather  short  and 


Fig.  1457.— Bill  of  the  Stork. 

stout,  and  united  at  the  base  by  a  considerable  membrane  ;  the  claw 
of  the  middle  toes  is  not  denticulated.  In  the  Common  Storks,  of 
which  two  species  {Ciconia  alba  and  nigra)  are  found  in  this 
country,  the  bill  is  straight  and  pointed  ;  but  in  the  Jabirus 
{Afycferm)  it  is  turned  up  at  the  tip  ;  and  in  the  Open-bills  [Anas- 
tomus)  the  two  mandibles  are  in  contact  at  the  base  and  apex,  but, 
from  their  being  slightly  curved  in  opposite  directions,  have  a  con- 
siderable space  between  them  in  the  middle. 

The  STORKS  are  all  large  Birds,  which  chiefly  inhabit  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  earth,  where  they  frequent  marshy  places  feeding 
upon  Reptiles  Batrachians,  Fishes,  and  other  small  Animals,  not 
excluding  small  Quadrupeds  and  Birds.  Many  of  them  devour  in- 
discriminately almost  anything  that  comes  in  their  way,  includine 
garbage  of  a  1  kinds  ;  hence,  like  the  Vultures  and  other  Carrion- 
eating  Animals,  they  are  regarded  with  great  favour  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  warm  climates.  Several  species  perform  long  migrations, 
visiting  temperate  and  cold  climates  during  the  summer -but  the 
majority  appear  to  be  permanently  resident  in  warm  countries 
_  Ihe  British  species  are,  of  course,  migratory  in  their  habits  and 
in  fact  must  be  regarded  only  as  occasional  visitors  to  our  shores  ' 
but  in  Holland  and  Germany  they  are  tolerably  abundant  The  best 
known  species  is  the  White  Stork  {Ciconia  alba),  of  which  the 
following  is  a  description. 

The  range  of  the  Common,  or  White  Stork  (Cicogne  blanche, 
Buffon  ;  Weisser  Storch,  Meyer)  is  very  extensive,  being  everywhere 
a  Bird  of  migratory  habits.  The  vast  flocks  that  have  visited  Europe 
and  sojourned  there  during  the  summer,  collect  together,  and  win<^ 
their  way  for  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  there  to  pass  the 


winter.  Belon  states,  that  when  in  Abyssinia,  during  the  month  of 
August,  a  great  flight  of  Storks  came  from  the  north,  and  when 
they  reached  the  commencement  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  they 
there  made  many  circuitous  turns,  and  then  dispersed  into  smaller 
companies  ;  and  Dr.  Shaw  informs  us  that  when  he  was  j'ourneying 
over  Mount  Carmel  he  saw  the  annual  migration  of  those  which  had 
quitted  Egypt,  and  that  each  of  the  flocks  was  half  a  mile  in  breadth, 
and  occupied  three  hours  in  passing  over.  Their  course  is  usually 
unattended  with  any  noise,  excepting  that  of  their  wings  ;  but  when 
anything  occurs  to  startle  them  or  engage  their  attention,  they 
make  an  extraordinary  clattering  noise,  which  may  be  heard  at  a 
great  distance,  by  striking  the  mandibles  quickly  and  forcibly  to- 
gether. 

The  Stork  breeds  in  Turkey,  S)rria,  Greece,  and  Egypt,  but  it  also 
visits  Europe,  and  is  common  in  Holland  and  Germany,  extending 
its  migrations  to  Sweden  and  Northern  Russia.  In  Seville,  it  is 
abundant ;  but  seems  only  an  accidental  visitor  near  Rome.  When 
we  consider  how  abundant  the  Stork  is  in  Holland,  and  that  it 
extends  its  migrations  to  more  northern  latitudes,  it  is  somewhat 
surprising  that  individuals  should  so  rarely  visit  our  marshes.  Per- 
haps it  was  formerly  more  common  than  at  present,  and  its  rarity 
may  be  attributed  partly  to  the  drainage  of  our  great  morasses  and 
partly  to  the  persecution  which  it  would  assuredly  bring  down  upon 
itself  by  such  an  untoward  visit,  whereas  on  the  continent  it  has  for 
ages  experienced  the  utmost  toleration.  In  Holland  and  Germany 
the  Stork  approaches  without  fear  the  dw-ellings  of  man,  and  is 
treated  as  a  welcome  guest ;  annually  returning  to  the  steeple  or 
turret,  or  to  the  false  chimney  erected  by  the  Hollander  for  its  nest, 
and  which  has  been  the  nursery  of  many  a  generation. 

The  stump  of  a  decayed  tree  is  sometimes  chosen  as  the  site  of 
the  nest ;  but  wherever  it  takes  up  its  abode  it  is  there  respected. 
In  Spain,  the  Storks  build  their  brood-nests  on  the  towers  of  churches, 
and  are  held  sacred  ;  and  Dillon  states  that  in  Seville  almost  every 
tower  in  the  city  is  peopled  with  them,  and  that  they  annually 
return  to  the  same  nests.  One  of  the  causes  of  their  being  venerated 
is  their  destroying  all  the  vermin  on  the  tops  of  the  houses.  At 
Bagdad,  Niebuhr  says,  hundreds  of  these  Birds  are  to  be  seen  there 
on  every  house,  wall,  and  tree,  quite  tame.  We  are  told  by  Fryer 
that  they  are  so  exceedingly  numerous  among  the  ruins  of  Persepolis, 
that  the  summit  of  almost  every  pillar  of  these  magnificent  monu- 
ments of  antiquity  contains  a  Stork's  nest. 

It  would  appear  that  the  Turks  hold  this  Bird  in  more  than  usual 
esteem  ;  their  name  for  it  is  Hadji  Lug-lug :  the  former  word,  which 
is  the  honorary  title  of  Pilgrim,  it  owes  to  its  migrations  and  ap- 
parent attachment  to  their  sacred  edifices  ;  the  latter  is  a  word  formed 
in  imitation  of  the  noise  which  the  Bird  makes. 

Where  convenient  buildings  are  not  to  be  found,  the  Stork  will 
construct  its  nest  on  the  flat  shelf-like  masses  of  branches  and  foli- 
age presented  by  the  fir  or  cedar.  The  nest  is  made  of  sticks  and 
twigs,  and  is  a  solid  compact  mass,  lasting  for  many  years  ;  it  is 
lined  with  reeds,  grasses,  and  moss.  The  eggs  are  from  three  to 
five  in  number,  and  of  a  creamy  white  ;  in  size  equalling  that  of  the 
Goose.  Incubation  continues  for  a  month,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  period  the  young  are  hatched,  and  assiduously  attended  to 
by  the  parents  until  they  are  fully  feathered  and  able  to  depend  upon 
their  own  exertions. 

Elevated  on  its  stilt-like  legs,  the  Stork  walks  slowly  and  with 
measured  steps,  traversing  the  marsh  in  quest  of  Frogs  and  other 
Reptiles,  small  Mammalia,  and  even  the  young  of  various  Water- 
Fowl,  on  which  it  preys.  It  clears  the  streets  of  carrion  and  offal. 
Previously  to  their  autumnal  return  to  the  south,  which  occurs  to- 
wards the  close  of  August  or  at  the  beginning  of  September,  the 
Storks  of  a  district  assemble  together,  till  at  length  vast  flocks  are 
gradually  collected  ;  all  is  bustle  and  commotion  ;  they  make  short 
excursions,  and  keep  up  a  continual  clattering  of  their  bills,  under 
the  excitement  of  the  contemplated  voyage  through  the  upper  regions 
of  the  air.  On  some  favourable  night  they  mount  up  into  the  sky, 
and  sail  away  towards  their  destined  haven,  returning  to  their 
old  familiar  haunts  and  a  hearty  welcome  in  March  or  April. 

The  Stork  stands  nearly  four  feet  high  in  its  ordinary  attitude,  and 
measures  three  feet  six  inches  in  length  from  bill  to  tail.  The  eyes 
are  surrounded  by  a  small  black  naked  space,  which  does  not  j'oin 
the  bill.  The  general  plumage  is  pure  white,  excepting  the  quills, 
greater  wing-coverts,  and  scapularies,  which  are  black.  Bill  and 
legs  red-iris  brown.     (See  Fig.  1458.) 

During  repose  the  Stork  sleeps  like  the  Crane,  always  standing 
balanced  on  one  leg,  with  the  neck  bent,  and  the  bill  resting  on  the 
breast. 

The  Adjutant,  or  Argala  {Lejiiopfilus  argald).  Ciconia 
argala,  Vigors. — In  the  genus  Leptoptilus  are  placed  some  gi- 
gantic species  of  Stork,  distinguished  at  once  by  the  vast  size  and 
volume  of  the  beak,  with  proportionate  enlargement  of  skull  and 
muscularity  of  neck,  which,  together  with  the  head,  is  bare  of 
feathers,  and  only  sprinkled  with  scattered  hairs  or  a  little  down. 
A  large  pouch  of  skin,  capable  of  being  inflated,  hangs  like  a  loose 
dewlap  from  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  anterior  to  the  breast,  giving 
to  the  Birds  an  uncouth  aspect,  and  reminding  us  of  some  of  the 


THE  ADJUTANT  AND  MARABOU. 


S7S 


Vulture  tribe,  a  resemblance  which  their  g-cnoral  form,  movements, 
and  carrion  appetite  tend  to  streng-then.  They  are,  in  fact,  voracious 
and  hig'hly  carnivorous,  and  the  structure  of  the  stomach  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  appetite.  The  solvent  ,a:lands  are  differently 
arranged  from  those  of  any  other  Bird.  Instead  of  being-  placed 
round  the  upper  portion   of  the  stomach,  they  form  two  circular 


Fig.  1458 Tlie  Stork. 

figures,  about  one  inch  and  a-half  in  diameter,  one  placed  on  the 
anterior,  one  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  stomach  ;  each  gland  is 
compused  of  five  or  six  cells,  which  pour  out  the  solvent  fluid  through 


/r 


Fig-  I459-— Stomach  of  the  Adjutant, 


one  common  tube  or  duct :  the  gizzard  is  lined  with  a  horny  cuticle. 
Fig.  1^50  shows  the  stomach  of  the  Adjutant. 

Tlie  Adjutant,  or  Argala,  is  a  gigantic  Bird,  measuring  from  the 

lip  of  the  bill  to  the  claws   seven   feet  and  a-half,  and  in   extent   of 

wing  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  feet,  while  in  its  ordinary  erect  attitude 

it  stands  five  feet  high.     The  beak  is  enormously  thick  and  massive, 

and  the  gape  wide.     (See  Fig.  1460.) 

This  Bird  is  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
India,  and  is  to  be  found  near  Calcutta  :  its  great 
voracity  renders  it  extremely  useful,  and  it  is  not 
only  tolerated,  but  revered  by  the  natives,  who 
are  indignant  against  those  who  molest  it :  it 
swallows  Snakes,  Lizards,  Frogs,  vermin  of  all 
kinds,  carrion,  and  bones,  and  with  the  Kites 
and  Crows  by  day,  and  Jackals  and  Hyainas  at 
night,  assists  in  the  office  of  "  scavenger  public," 
clearing  the  streets,  lanes,  and  fields  of  all  sorts 
of  offal. 

The  Argalas,  says  Dr.  Latham,  who  was  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  Smeathman  with  the  account,  are 
met  with  in  companies,  and  when  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  coming  from  an 
observer,  which  they  often  do  with  their  wings  ex- 
tended, may  well  be  taken  for  canoes  upon  the 
surface  of  a  smooth  sea — when  on  the  sand-banks, 
for  men  and  women  picking  up  Shell-Fish  or  other 
things  on  the  beach.  One  of  these,  a  young  Bird 
about  five  feet  high,  was  brought  up  tame,  and 
presented  to  the  chief  of  the  Bananas,  where  Mr. 
Smeathman  lived  ;  and,  being  accustomed  to  be  fed 
in  the  great  hall,  soon  became  familiar,  duly  at- 
tending that  place  at  dinner-time,  placing  itself 
behind  its  master's  chair,  frequently  before  the 
guests  entered.  The  servants  were  obliged  to 
watch  narrowly  and  to  defend  the  provisions  with 
switches  ;  but,  notwithstanding,  it  would  frequently 
seize  something  or  other,  and  once  purloined  a 
whole  boiled  Fowl,  which  it  swallowed  in  an  in- 
stant. Its  courage  is  not  equal  to  its  voracity,  for 
a  child  of  eight  or  ten  years  old  soon  puts  it  to 
flight  with  a  switch,  though  at  first  it  seems  to 
stand  on  its  defence  by  threatening  with  its 
enormous  bill  widely  extended,  and  roaring  with  a 
loud  voice  like  a  Bear  or  Tiger.  It  is  an  enemy 
to  small  Quadrupeds,  as  well  as  Birds  and  Reptiles, 
and  slily  destroys  Fowls  or  Chickens,  though  it 
dares  not  attack  a  Hen  openly  with  her  young. 
Everything  is  swallowed  whole  ;  and  so  accommo- 
dating is  its  throat,  that  not  only  an  animal  as  big 
as  a  Cat  is  gulped  down,  but  a  shin  of  beef  broken 
asunder  serves  it  but  for  two  morsels.  It  is  known  to 
swallow  a  leg  of  mutton  of  five  or  six  pounds,  a 
Hare,  a  small  Fox,  &:c.  After  a  time  the  bones  are 
rejected  from  the  stomach,  which  seems  to  be 
voluntary,  for  it  has  been  known  that  an  ounce 
or  two  of  emetic  tartar  given  to  one  of  these  Birds 
produced  no  effect. 
General  colour  above,  ash  grey  ;  under  parts 
white.  The  under  tail-coverts  delicate  and  floating,  forming  plumes 
of  the  most  exquisite  texture. 

The  Marabou,  or  Marabout  {Leptojitilus  crumen'fcras ;  or 
L.  marabou).  Ckonia  marabou.  Vigors,  not  Teraminck.  The 
beak  of  this  species  is  represented  at  Fig.  1461. 

The  Marabou  is  smaller  than  the  Argala  ;  it  is  a  native  of  Tropical 
Africa,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  large  towns  of  the  interior, 
where  it  was  seen  by  Major  Denham,  in  the  character  of  a  privileged 
visitor,  on  account  of  its  utility  as  a  scavenger.  It  is  easily  domes- 
ticated, and  becomes  annoyingly  familiar ;  it  has  been  known  not 
only  to  snatch  pieces  of  meat  from  the  table,  but  a  boiled  Fowl, 
swallowing  it  at  a  bolt.  The  Marabou  flies  high,  and  roosts  in  the 
topmost  branches  of  tall  trees,  whence,  as  from  a  watch-tower,  it 
looks  abroad  for  its  prey.  On  its  sides  grow  the  beautiful  plumes 
called  Marabou  feathers.     (See  Fig.  1462.) 

The  Jabiru  {Mycteria  a/ncn'ca/ia). — The  gigantic  Storks  of  this 
genus,  of  which  there  are  American,  Asiatic,  and  Australian,  are 
characterised  by  the  greatest  part  of  the  head  and  neck  being  desti- 
tute of  feathers  ;  the  bill,  which  appears  to  be  somewhat  turned  up 
at  the  extremity,  owing  rather  to  the  curvature  of  the  lower  mandible 
than  of  the  upper,  is  large,  elongated,  sharp-edged,  and  strong ; 
the  upper  mandible  is  nearly  if  not  quite  straight  and  trigonal. 
Length  from  the  forehead  to  the  tip,  upwards  of  thirteen  inches. 
Nostrils  basal  and  linear.  Anterior  toes  united  at  the  base  by  a 
membrane.     Habits  closely  resembling  those  of  the  Stork. 

The  Jabiru  inhabits  the  borders  of  lakes  and  morasses  in  South 
America,  where  it  feeds  upon  Reptiles,  Fish,  small  Quadrupeds,  &c. 
It  is  of  gigantic  stature,  standing  between  four  and  five  feet  high, 
and  is  endowed  with  great  power  in  the  head  and  neck,  its  loug 


576 


THE  TRUE  HERONS. 


sharp  bill  being  a  formidable  spear-like  weapon.  The  general 
colour  of  the  plumage  of  this  species  is  white  ;  the  occiput  is 
feathered,  but  the  rest  of  the  head  and  the  neck  are  naked,  the  skin 
being  black,  with  a  tinge  of  red  about  the  lower  part  of  the  latter. 
Fig.  1463  represents  the  Jabiru  of  Senegal  {M.  setiegalensh). 

The  Open -bills  {Aiiasfomits)  are  about  the  size  of  the  Common 
Stork  :  they  inhabit  the  warmer  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  A 
species  found  at  the  Cape,  \.\\^  Anastomus  lamclliger, -vihich  is 
of  a  brown  tint,  with  a  purplish  metallic  gloss,  is  remarkable  for 
having  the  tips  of  the  stalks  of  nearly  all  the  feathers  terminated  by 
a  shining  black  horny  disc  of  an  oblong  form. 


Fig.  1460. — The  Adjutant, 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  Regent's 
Park,  the  scries  of  Storks  is  large,  living  specimens  of  most  species 
being  maintained.  Among  these  are  the  White  Stork,  already 
described  ;  the  Maguari  Stork  (C  maguari),  the  White-Necked 
Stork  {C.  episcopiis),  &c.  The  stuffed  specimens  in  the  British 
Museum  are  also  numerous. 

The  True  Herons  (sub-family  ArdeincB)  present  a  great  re- 
semblance to  the  Storks  in  their  general  form,  but  are  distinguished 


Fig.  1461. — Bill  of  the  Marabou. 

by  the  following  characters  : — The  bill  is  usually  of  a  conical  form, 
and  nearly  as  stout  as  in  the  Common  Storks ;  but  the  nostrils  are 
situated  in  pits  on  the  sides  of  the  upper  mandible,  and  from  this  a 
furrow  runs  to  a  greater  or  less  distance  forwards,  sometimes  nearly 
reaching  the  extremity  of  the  bill.  The  gape  opens  as  far  as  the 
eyes,  which  are  surrounded  by  a  naked  skin.  The  tarsi  are  scutel- 
latod  ;  the  toes  rather  long  and  slender,  and  less  united  by  membrane 
than  those  of  the  Storks  ;  the  inner  margin  of  the  claw  of  the  middle 
toe  is  denticulated.        , 

The  Common  Heron  {Ardea  cinercd).  Heron  of  the  French; 
Beccapesce,  Airone,  and  Garza  of  the  Italians  :  Reyger  and  Rheier 
of  the  Germans  ;  Cryr  gl4s  of  the  Welsh  :  Hern,  Heronshaw,  Hern- 
seugh,  English  ;  Hearonsevi^s  (Herons),  in  Household- Book  of  the 
fifth  Earl  of  Northumberland.     (See  Fig.  1465.) 

The  Common  Heron  is  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  world, 
inhabiting  Asia  and  Africa,  as  well  as  Europe.  In  our  island  and  in 
temperate  climes  the  Heron  is  stationary,  but  is  migratory  in  coldeir 


latitudes.  Except  during  the  breeding  season,  this  fine  Bird  is 
solitary,  haunting  rivers,  sheets  of  water,  and  preserves  of  Fish, 
where  it  often  commits  considerable  damage.  Recluse  and  sus- 
picious, the  Heron  sits  roosting  during  a  great  part  of  the  day  on 
his  accustomed  branch  in  some  remote  and  dense  part  of  the  wood  ; 
or,  where  marshes  are  extensive,  he  may  be  observed  in  the  middle 
of  the  morass,  standing  on  one  leg,  immovable  as  a  statue,  and  so 
stationed  as  to  command  a  wide  prospect  around.  If  roused  by  an 
intruder  from  this  spot  of  repose,  he  spreads  his  wings,  mounts  into 
the  air,  and  sails  away  for  some  distant  and  more  secluded  retreat. 


Fig.  1462.— The  Marabou. 

To  come  upon  him  by  surprise  is  very  difficult.  It  is  early  in  the 
morning,  with  the  grey  of  the  dawn,  after  sunset  in  the  evening,  and 
especially  during  moonlight,  that  the  Heron  takes  his  prey,  except- 
ing, indeed,  when  the  calls  of  his  nestlings  demand  his  continual 
exertions.  He  may  then  be  seen  in  lonely  and  secluded  nooks, 
standing  in  the  water,  with  glistening  eye,  and  head  drawn  back 
ready  for  the  fatal  stroke ;  patiently  does  he  maintain  his  fixed 
attitude  ;  presently  a  Fish  passes ;  sudden  as  lightning,  and  with 
unerring  precision,  arrow-like  he  launches  his  beak,  and  up  he  soars 
bearing  the  captive  to  his  nest.  Occasionally  the  Heron  will  swim. 
The  Heron  builds,  like  the  Rook,  in  societies,  choosing  the  highest 
trees  for  the  purpose  ;  and  the  breeding-places  are  termed  Heronries. 
In  modern  days  these  are  much  more  limited  in  number  than  form- 
erly, when  the  Heron  was  protected  for  the  pleasure  of  the  knight 
and  noble,  who  flew  at  it  their  best  Falcons,  and  regarded  it  as  a 
choice  delicacy  in  their  banquet. 

In  Berkshire,  in  a  low  meadow  traversed  by  a  rapid  brook 
flowing  into  the  Kennet,  was  a  Heronry,  which  we  have  often  visited, 
and  near  it  a  Rookery;  but  neither  the  Herons  nor  Rooks  seemed  to 
interfere  with  each  other,  or  offer  each  other  any  injury  or  molesta- 
tion. The  nests  were  flat  and  built  of  sticks.  It  was  amusing  to 
see  the  Herons  sailing  to  and  from  their  city,  on  wide-spread  wings, 
and  wheeling  and  hovering  around  their  brooding-mates  or  young ; 
while  a  loud  clanking  clatter,  uttered  by  numbers  without  inter- 
mission, and  heard  at  a  considerable  distance,  resounded  from  the 
crowded  nests,  half  hidden  amidst  the  foliage  of  the  tall  trees,  which 
for  years  they  have  colonised.  On  the  Clyde  in  Scotland,  and 
many  other  rivers  and  inland  lakes.  Heronries  are  frequently  met 
with;  also  in  marshy  districts  in  that  country  and  in  England.  The 
eggs  of  the  Heron  are  five  in  number,  of  a  dull  bluish-green.  The 
young  remain  five  or  six  weeks  in  the  nest,  and  the  old  Birds  un- 
ceasingly supply  their  voracious  appetite  with  Fish,  and  defend 
them  with  great  resolution. 

The  colouring  of  the  Heron  in  full  plumage,  which  is  not  attained 
till  the  third  year,  is  as  follows : — Long,  loose,  black  feathers  adorn  the 
back  of  the  head,  and  similar  plumes  of  a  lustrous  white  depend  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck ;  the  equally  elongated  and  subulate 
scapulars  are  of  a  silvery  ash.  Forehead,  neck,  middle  of  the  belly, 
border  of  the  wings,  and  thighs  pure  white ;  occiput,  sides  of  the 
breast,  and  flanks  deep  black.  On  the  front  of  the  neck  are  large 
longitudinal  black  and  ash  spots.  Back  and  wings  very  pure  bluish- 
ash  ;  bill  deep  yellow ;  iris  yellow ;  naked  skin  of  the  eye  bluish- 
purple  ;  feet  brown,  but  of  a  lively  red  towards  the  feathered  part. 


THE  TRUE  HERONS. 


577 


The  Night-Heron  {Nydicorax  gardcni.  or  atropaiis).  A rdea 
vycticorax,  Linn.  ;  Bihoreau  and  Roupcau  of  the  French  ;  Scarza 
Nitticora  of  the  Italians;  der  Nacht-Raiher  of  the  Germans.  In 
its  young  state,  the  Spotted  and  Gardenian  Heron  of  Latham ; 
Night-Raven. 

This  species  is  very  widely  spread  over  Asia,  Africa,  and  Southern 
Europe.  In  our  islands  the  Night-Heron  is  a  Bird  of  rare  and  acci- 
dental occurrence;  in  Spain  it  is  common,  and  in  the  adj.icent 
countries.  In  many  respects  it  resembles  the  Common  Heron  in  its 
manners,  breeding  like  that  Bird,  in  society,  on  the  topmost  branches 
of  trees,  and  roosting  during  the  day  in  the  recesses  of  woods  ad- 
jacent to  wild  swamps  and  rivers,  which  it  visits  on  the  approach  of 
twilight  in  quest  of  prey.  During  the  flight  of  these  Birds  to  their 
fishing-stations,  and  throughout  the  night,  they  continually  utter  a 
hoarse  hollow  croak,  ominous  of  death  in  the  ears  of  superstition,  as 
we  believe  is  also  the  boom  of  the  Bittern,  at  which  dread  roar  the 
credulous  wayfarer  of  the  night  has  stood  aghast  with  terror. 


Fig.  I4C3. — Jabirus  of  Senegal. 

Wilson,  speaking  of  the  American  species,  or  Qua-Bird,  which 
visits  Philadelphia  in  great  numbers,  breeding  in  the  tall  trees  of  the 
vast  cedar-swamps,  says  that  "  on  entering  the  swamp  the  noise  of 
the  old  and  of  the  young  would  almost  induce  one  to  suppose  that 
two  or  three  hundred  Indians  were  choking  or  throttling  each 
other.  The  instant  an  intruder  is  discovered,  the  whole  rise  into 
the  air  in  silence,  and  remove  to  the  top  of  the  trees  in  another  part 
of  the  woods,  while  parties  from  eight  to  ten  make  occasional  circuits 
over  the  spot  to  see  what  is  going  on."  While  flying  from  their 
roost  to  the  marshes,  about  the  beginning  of  evening  twilight, 
he  says,  they  utter,  "  in  a  hoarse  and  hollow  tone,  the  word'(2«a,"' 
whence  the  name  Qua-Bird. 

In  the  Night-Heron  the  legs  are  not  so  long  in  proportion,  nor  is 
the  space  above  the  tarsal  joint  naked  for  so  great  an  extent,  as  in 
the  Common  Heron.  The  middle  and  outer  toe  are  connected  at 
the  base  by  a  membrane,  and  the  middle  claw  is  pectinated. 


The  adult  plumage  is  as  follows  : — Top  of  the  head,  back,  and 
scapulars  black  with  bluish  and  greenish  reflexions  ;  three  white 
very  narrow  feathers,  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  taking  their 
origin  at  the  back  of  the  head,  just  above  the  nape,  and  descending 
backwards  ;  lower  part  of  the  back,  wings,  and  tail  clear  ash-colour  ; 
forehead,  space  above  the  eyes,  throat,  front  of  the  neck,  and  lowei 
parts  white  ;  bill  black,  yellowish  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible  ; 
iris  red  ;  feet  yellowish-green.  Length  rather  more  than  one  foot 
eight  inches. 

In  the  young  of  the  year  the  three  long  feathers  from  the  back  of 
the  head  are  wanting,  and  the  general  plumage  is  of  a  brown  tinge, 
dashed  and  variegated  with  rufous  :  the  lower  parts  being  clouded 
with  brown,  white,  and  ash-colour. 

The  Bitterns  {Botaurus),  of  which  three  species  have  occurred  in 
England,  also  belong  to  this  group.     The  Common  Bittern,  which  is 
one'of  the  largest  of' the  genus,  is  described  as  follows  :— 
The   Bittern    {Botaurus  stellaris).      Butor    of   the    French ; 
Uccello    lepre    and   Trombutto    of    the 
Italians  ;   Rohrdommcl  of  the  Germans. 
The  Bittern  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  and  was  once  common   in 
England,   when,   in   the  palmy  days  of 
Falconry,  it  afforded  one  of  the  "great 
flights,"    and   was  protected  by  severe 
penalties,    but    is    now    comparatively 
scarce,   though  a  few  arc  said   still  to 
breed  in  the  fenny  counties.     Its  flesh, 
rank   as  we   should   deem   it,  was  ac- 
counted a  great  delicacy. 

The  Bittern  frequents  wild  morasses 
and  the  oozy  banks  of  large  rivers, 
where  extensive  tracts,  overgrown  with 
flags,  reeds,  and  bulrushes,  afford  it  an 
asylum.  In  the  midst  of  these  it  crouches 
during  the  day,  and  is  with  difficulty 
roused  to  take  wing,  when  it  flies  slowly 
away  to  a  distant  haunt,  uttering  from 
time  to  time  a  resounding  cry  different 
from  the  "  boom,"  which  is  peculiar  to 
the  breeding  season,  which  has  given 
rise  to  some  of  its  provincial  names, 
as  Mire-drum  and  BuU-of-the-Bog.  This 
noise  has  been  erroneously  supposed  to 
be  made  by  the  Bird  while  plunging 
his  bill  into  the  mud,  and  is  first  heard 
in  February  or  March. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  spring  the 
Bittern  "  booms  "  from  the  midst  of  the 
marsh  at  inter\'als  throughout  the  day, 
and  then  on  the  approach  of  dusk  he 
soars  spirally  to  a  vast  height,  uttering 
his  hollow  boom,  which  sounds  not  un- 
like the  deep-toned  roar  of  a  Bull. 

The  nest  of  this  Bird  is  a  rude  struc- 
ture, and  placed  not  on  trees,  but  by 
itself  in  the  solitude  of  the  morass,  on 
some  slight  elevation.  The  eggs,  five  in 
number,  are  of  a  pale  green.  The 
Bittern,  when  wounded,  defends  itself 
with  great  determination,  throwing  it- 
self on  its  back  like  a  Bird  of  Prey,  and 
launching  its  formidable  beak  with  great 
force  against  its  enemy,  generally  aim- 
ing at  the  eye  ;  consequently  it  is  not  to 
be  approached  without  caution.  In 
olden  days,  when  the  Hawk  had  brought 
the  Bittern  down,  it  was  the  Falconer's 
first  care  to  plunge  the  bill  of  the  latter 
into  the  ground,  lest  the  Hawk  should 
be  impaled. 

In  size  the  Bittern  is  rather  less  than 
the  Heron.  The  plumage  is  beautifully  varied  with  spots,  bars,  and 
dashes  of  black  on  a  fine  reddish-yellow  ground.  The  feathers  of 
the  head  and  neck  are  long  and  loose,  and  capable  of  being  thrown 
for^vard.  Bill  brown  above,  greenish  below ;  iris  yellow  ;  legs  pale 
green;  middle  claw  pectinated.  Frogs,  Field-Mice,  Newts,  and 
Fish,  with  the  buds  of  water-lily  and  other  aquatic  plants,  constitute 
the  food  of  the  Bittern.     (See  Fig.  1467.)  .        .   ,      •, 

Two  other  remarkable  Exotic  Birds  belonging  to  this  sub-family 
deserve  to  be  noticed  here.  One  of  these  is  the  BoatbiU  {Cancroma 
coclilcaria,  Fig.  1468),  a  Bird  about  the  size  of  a  Fowl,  which  is 
pretty  generally  distributed  in  South  America.  It  receives  its  name 
from  the  peculiar  form  of  the  bill,  which,  by  some  observers,  is  com- 
pared to  a  boat  turned  keel-upwards  ;  and  by  others  to  the  bowls  of 
two  spoons  placed  with  their  concave  sides  together.  The  upper 
mandible  is  terminated  by  a  strong  hook.  The  legs  of  this  Bird  are 
rather  shorter  than  those  of  the  other  members  of  this  group,  and  it 

4E 


S78 


THE  PLOVERS. 


is  said  to  perch  upon  the  branches  of  trees  overhang-ing  the  creeks 
and  rivers,  so  as  to  dash  down  upon  the  Fish  as  they  pass  beneath 
it.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  French  colonists  in  Guiana  give  it 
the  name  of  Crabier,  behaving  that  it  feeds  on  Crabs. 

The  other  is  a  very  singular  Bird,  from  the  White  Nile,  described 
by  Mr.  Gould  under  the  name  of  Baht/ticcps  rex.  It  resembles 
Cancroma  in  the  form  of  the  bill,  which  is  excessively  developed  ; 


Fig.   1464. — Head  of  the  Night- Heron. 

but  the  legs  are  much  longer,  and  the  Bird  is  very  much  larger, 
measuring  no  less  than  fifty-two  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the 
extremity  of  the  tail.  This  gigantic  Bird  appears  in  some  respects 
to  be  allied  to  Cancroma,  and  is  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  witli 
that  genus  in  the  s\3.\)-ia.mi\y  ArdeincB ;  in  some  of  its  characters, 


Fig.   1465.— The  Heron. 

however,  such  as  the  reticulation  of  the  tarsi,  and  the  absence  of 
denticulations  on  the  middle  claw,  it  resembles  the  Storks ;  whilst 
Mr.  Gould  regards  it  as  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Pelicans. 

The  Plovers— Family  CharadriidcB. 

The  next  family  is  that  of  the  Charadriidce,  or  Plovers,  in  which 
the  bill  is  generally  about  the  length  of  the  head,  or  rather  shorter — 
usually  nearly  straight,  with  the  basal  portion  soft  and  weak,  the 
apical  hard,  somewhat  arched,  and  more  or  less  pointed  at  the  tip 
(Fig.  1469).  The  nasal  aperture  is  posterior,  and  placed  in  a  groove 
which  extends  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  bill.  The 
legs  are  generally  very  long  and  slender,  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
tibia;  bare ;  the  tarsi  reticulated,  but  often  scutellatc  in  front  ;  and 
the  toes  are  rather  small,  united  at  the  base  by  a  small  membrane, 
the  hinder  one  (Fig.  1470)  being  very  small,  and  raised  from  the 
ground,  or  entirely  wanting.  The  mouth  and  oesophagus  are 
narrow,  but  the  gizzard  is  large  and  muscular ;  the  coeca  are  rather 
long. 

The  Plovers  in  general  are  Gregarious  Birds,  feeding  in  flocks. 
They  are  less  strictly  aquatic  in  their  habits  than  the  other  families  ; 
some  of  them,  indeed,  frequenting  the  margins  of  rivers,  lakes,  and 
ponds,  or  the  sea-shores  ;  whilst  others  are  found  upon  moors  and 
pastures,  and  even  in  ploughed  fields.  Most  of  them  perform 
considerable    migrations,    visiting     the    high     northern     latitudes 


during  the  summer  for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  They  generally  lay 
their  eggs  in  a  mere  cavity  in  the  sand  or  gravel ;  and  the  young 
run  about  soon  after  they  are  hatched.  Several  species  are  found  in 
Britain. 

In  the  sub-family  of  the  HcBmatopoditlce,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  following  : — 


Fig.  1466.— The  Night-Heron. 

The  Oyster-Catcher  {HcEmafopus  ostralcgus).  L'Huitcrier, 
Pie  de  Mer,  and  Becasse  de  Mer  of  the  French  ;  Beccacio  di  Mare 
of  the  Italians  ;  Geschackte  Austernfischer  of  the  Germans  ;  Piogen 
y  Mor  of  the  Welsh ;  Sea  Pie,  Pianet,  Olive,  Sea  Woodcock, 
Chalder,  &c.,  provincial  English. 

In  the  genus  Haniafopus  the  bill  is  long,  hard,  compressed, 
especially  at  the  point,  which  is  abrupt  and  chisel-like,  but  not 
pointed;  nostrils  longitudinal  (see  Fig.  1471);  legs  strong;  toes 
three,  all  directed  forwards,  bordered  by  the  rudiment  of  a  mem- 
brane ;  and  the  external  and  middle  toes  united  by  a  partial  web  at 
the  base. 


Fig.  1467.— The  BiUern. 

The  Oyster-Catcher  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of  the  European 
continent  and  a  great  part  of  Asia  and  Africa,  frequenting  the  sea- 
shore, and  is  common  on  the  low  flat  coasts  of  our  island,  where  it 
breeds,  laying  its  eggs  on  the  bare  ground  amidst  the  shingle,  or 
such  herbage  as  grows  above  high-water-mark.  The  eggs,  four  in 
number,  are  pale  olive-green  blotched  with  brownish-black.  During 
incubation  the  male  is  always  on  the  watch,  and  on  the  approach  of 
an  intruder  utters  a  loud  shrill  whistle,  as  an  alarm-call,  upon  which 


THE   PLOVERS. 


579 


the  female  silently  quits  her  eggs,  and  runs  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance before  taking  wing.  Limpets,  which  it  easily  detaches  from 
the  rock,  Mussels,  Oysters,  and  other  Molluscs  constitute  its  food, 
in  quest  of  which  it  wades  amongst  the  shallows,  or  swims,  which  it 
does  very  easily,  where  the  depth  forbids  wading.  In  the  autumn, 
after  the  young  have  acquired  their  full  growth,  these  Birds  assernble 
in  large  flocks,  which  separate  into  pairs  on  the  recurrence  of  spring. 
The  p'arcnts  are  bold  in  the  defence  of  their  young,  which  run  about 
as  soon  as  hatched,  under  the  care  of  the  former.     The  Oyster- 


Fig.  146S.— The  Boat-bill. 

catcher  is  a  beautiful  Bird.  The  general  plumage  is  glossy  velvet 
black,  with  the  exception  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  the  base  of 
the  tail,  transverse  bars  on  the  wings,  and  the  under  parts,  which 
are  white  ;  bill  and  circle  round  the  eyes  orange-red  ;  irides  crimson  ; 
legs  deep  purplish-red.  In  winter  there  is  a  collar  of  white  on  the 
throat,  and  the  black  is  less  brilliant.     (See  Fig.  1472.) 

In  the  CiiiclincB  the  hind-toe  is  present,  but  very  small ;  and  the 


Fig.  1469, — Head  of  Grey  Plover. 

bill  is  shorter  than  the  head,  compressed,  and  obtusely  pointed. 
The  legs  are  not  very  long,  and  the  tarsi  are  scutellate  in  front. 
The  British  species,  Strepsilas  iiiterpres,  or  Turnstone,  receives  its 
name  from  the  singular  manner  in  which  it  obtains  its  food. 

The  Turnstone  {Strepsilas  intefpres).  Triiiga  intcrpres, 
Linn.  ;  Morinella  collaris,  Meyer ;  Strepsilas  collar  is. — In  the 
genus    Strepsilas,  the   beak  is  of   moderate  length,  strong,  com- 


pressed, acutely  pointed,  and  slightly  turned  upwards  ;  nasal  depres- 
sion elongated  ;  w-ings  acuminate  ;  hind-toe  very  small. 

There  is  not  a  part  of  the  globe,  from  Nova  Zembla  and  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  from  tlie  shores  of  Hudson's 
Bay  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  which  is  not  visited  by  this  species 
—Japan,  Sunda,  the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea,  and  Australia, 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  constitute  its  range.     It  breeds  in  the  high 


Fig.  1470. — Foot  of  the  Crested  Lapwir.g. 

northern  latitudes,  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  also,  it  is  said,  in 
the  Shetland  Isles;  in  June  and  in  August  it  begins  its  southern 
progress,  returning  northwards  in  spring.  Mr.  Hewitson  found  its 
nest  on  the  coast  of  Norway  placed  against  a  ledge  of  rock,  and 
consisting  of  nothing  more  than  the  fallen  leaves  of  the  juniper-bush, 
under  a  creeping  branch  of  which  the  eggs,  four  in  number,  were 
concealed.  Their  colour  was  of  an  olive-green  spotted  and  streaked 
with  ash-blue,  and  two  shades  of  reddish-brown.  In  our  island  the 
Turnstone  is  found  from  August  to  March  or  April ;  it  frequents  the 


Fig.  1471. — Head  of  the  Oystev-catclicr. 

rocky  and  gravelly  shore,  feeding  upon  small  Molluscous  Animals, 
Crustacea,  &c.,  in  quest  of  which  it  turns  over  the  stones  along  the 
water's  edge,  by  means  of  its  hard  bill  :  it  trips  quickly  along,  and 
flies  with  great  power  and  rapidity.  In  its  progress  to  maturity  the 
Turnstone  undergoes  several  transitions  of  colour  before  acquiring 
a  permanent  livery      When  in  perfect  plumage  the  upper  parts  arc 


Fig.  1472.— The  Oyster-catcher. 

of  mingled  black  and  rufous  ;  a  black  gorget  on  the  chest  passes  up 
the  sides  of  the  neck  and  round  the  base  ;  lower  part  of  the  back 
white,  as  is  also  the  basal  half  and  extreme  tip  of  the  tail,  the  inter- 
mediate part  being  black  ;  a  semilunar  mark  of  dark  feathers  sepa- 
rates  the  white  of  "^Lhc  lower  part  of  the  back  from  the  white  tail- 
coverts  ;  under  surface  white  ;  a  white  spot  between  the  eye  and  base 
of  the  beak  is  very  conspicuous ;  legs  orange-yellow.  Length  nme 
inches.     (See  Fig.  1473-) 


58o 


THE    PLOVERS. 


The  sub-family  Charadrmcs,  including-  the  True  Plovers  and  the 
Lapwings,  have  the  bill  of  variable  length,  and  of  the  form  already 
described  in  the  character  of  the  family.  The  legs  are  very  slender  ; 
the  tarsi  covered  with  hexagonal  scales,  or  scutellate  in  front  ;  the 
toes  rather  short  and  slender,  the  two  outer  connected  by  a  basal 
web,  and  the  hinder  one  usually  and  entirely  wanting,  or,  when 
present,  reduced  to  a  very  small  size.  These  Birds  are  generally 
lound  in  marshy  places,  and  visit  the  sea-shores  in  flocks  during 
the  winter.  Their  flesh  is  very  good,  and  the  eggs  are  regarded  as 
a  great  delicacy.  Out  of  numerous  species  we  select  the  following 
for  description. 


Fig.  i473.^The  Turnstone. 

The  Golden  Plover  {Charadrius  jiluvialis). — The  Golden 
Plover  (Pluvier  dore  of  the  French)  is  a  Bird  of  Passage,  spread  over 
Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  portions  of  North  Africa.  In  North 
America  its  place  is  supplied  by  an  allied  fpecies  (C//.  virginiacus, 
Borkh),  and  by  the  CA.  W(7r;«orfif2'«j  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia. 
Though  the  Golden  Plover  breeds  in  the  British  Isles,  it  is  only  to  be 
found  in  the  southern  districts  during  the  winter,  at  which  season 
the  numbers  of  our  native  Birds  are  increased  by  arrivals  from  more 
northern  latitudes — all,  be  it  observed,  clad  in  their  wintery  livery, 
which  differs  remarkably  from  that  of  the  summer. 

Heathy  swampy  moors  and  wild  hilly  districts  are  the  haunts  of 
this  species,  where  it  breeds  ;  its  nest  consists  of  a  few  fibres  and 
stems  of  grass,  placed  in  some  depression  of  the  ground  amidst  the 
heath.  The  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  of  a  cream  yellow,  with  a 
tinge  of  green,  blotched  and  streaked  with  amber  brown.  The 
young,  when  first  excluded  from  the  egg,  are  covered  with  a  beautiful 
parti-coloured  down  of  bright  king's  yellow  and  brown.  They  are 
very  active,  and  follow  the  parents,  who  sedulously  attend  them,  and 
not  only  display  great  anxiety  in  their  protection,  but  put  in  practice 
the  most  ingenious  artifices  in  order  to  draw  off  Man  or  Dog  from  the 
spot  where  they  lie  crouched  ;  they  will  flutter  along  as  if  lame  and 
unable  to  take  wing,  a  few  feet  before  the  intruder,  and,  attracting 
his  attention,  give  him  as  it  were  hopes  of  soon  being  able  to 
effect  a  capture,  till  having  effected  its  object,  up  it  mounts,  leaving 
him  to  gaze  "in  silent  wonder  lost."  In  the  same  manner  they 
protect  their  eggs,  the  female  always  running  to  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  nest,  and  even  meeting  the  intruder,  long  before 
he  would  approach  the  spot,  before  employing  her  parental  strata- 
gems. The  young  are  able  to  fly  in  a  month  or  five  weeks,  and 
joining  other  broods,  with  their  parents  form  large  flocks,  which  quit 
the  hilly  districts  of  the  north,  and  make  their  way  to  the  open  downs 
bordering  our  southern  coasts.  About  the  beginning  of  April  the 
flocks  return  northwards,  gradually  breaking  up,  and  at  last  resolv- 
ing into  pairs,  which  soon  fix  upon  a  breeding-spot.  The  cry  of  the 
Plover  is  a  plaintive  monotonous  whistle,  more  varied  in  the  breed- 
ing season,  by  the  imitation  of  which  the  Bird  may  be  enticed  within 
a  short  distance.  The  flight  of  this  species  is  rapid  and  vigorous,  and 
during  the  spring  and  summer  generally  at  a  great  elevation  ;  while 
it  sails  round  and  round  performing  most  graceful  evolutions.  Night 
is  the  feeding-time.  When  reposing  during  the  day,  the  Plover  rests 
either  crouched  on  the  ground  or  standing  on  one  leg,  with  the  head 
drawn  down  between  the  shoulders.  Insects  and  their  larva.  Slugs, 
Worms,  &c.,  constitute  their  diet,  for  which  they  frequent  fallow 
lands  in  the  autumn,  becoming  very  fat,  and  are  highly  esteemed  as 
one  of  the  luxuries  of  the  table.  In  the  southern  countries  of  Europe 
this  species  winters  in  countless  multitudes.  In  autumn  and  winter 
the  London  markets  are  abundantly  supplied  with  Golden  Plovers. 

The  summer  plumage  of  this  species,  assumed  in  spring,  is  of  a 


deep  black  above,  each  feather  having  triangular  marginal  spots  of 
golden  yellow  ;  forehead  and  space  above  the  eyes  pure  white,  as 
are  also  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  chest,  but  spotted  with  black  and 
yellow  ;  throat,  front  of  the  neck,  and  under  parts  deep  black.  As 
winter  comes  on  the  black  of  the  neck  and  under  parts  is  lost ;  the 
upper  surface  is  sooty  black,  largely  varied  with  fine  golden  yellow ; 
the  sides  of  the  head,  neck,  and  chest  are  varied  with  ashy  brown 
and  yellowish  spots  ;  throat  and  under  parts  white.  Length  ten 
inches  and  a  half.  Fig.  1474,  Summer  plumage;  Fig.  1475,  Winter 
plumage. 


Fig.  1474. — The  Golden  Plover  in  Summer  Plumage. 

The  Grey  Plover  {Squatarola  chicrca). — In  the  genus  Sqiiat- 
arola  we  see  the  rudiment  of  of  a  hind-toe  ;  the  tarsi  are  reticulated. 
Nasal  groove  wide.  Fig.  1476  represents  the  head  and  foot  of 
Sijiiaiaro/a.  The  Grey  Plover  is  the  Vanneau  varie,  Vanneau  gris, 
and  Vanneau  Pluvier  of  the  French. 

The  plumage  of  this  species  undergoes  a  similar  change  to  that 
of  the  Golden  Plover,  and  indeed  so  much  do  the  two  Birds  resemble 


Fig.  1475. — The  Golden  Plover  in  Winter  Plumage. 

each  other,  that  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  a  minute  hind-toe  in 
the  Grey  Plover,  and  for  the  long  black  feathers  which  are  found 
underneath  the  wings  near  the  body,  one  might  be  easily  mistaken 
for  the  other.  The  Grey  Plover  is  spread  over  all  the  temperate 
countries  of  Europe,  and  Asia  during  the  winter,  retiring  in  summer 
to  the  regions  of  the  Arctic  Circle  to'  breed.  It  has  been  obser\'ed  in 
Japan.  It  is  also  common  in  North  America,  breeding  in  the  far 
countries  of  the  north.  According  to  Dr.  Richardson  it  is  the 
Toolee-areeo,  or  Tooglie-aiah  of  the  Esquimaux.  Captain  J.  Ross 
found  it  breeding  near  the  borders  of  the  marshes  in  considerable 
numbers,  immediately  to  the  south-west  of  Fury  Point.  _  This  species 
visits  our  island,  but  not  in  great  numbers,  during  its  southward 
migration  in  autumn,  and  upon  its  return  northwards  in  spring,  and 
a  few  small  flocks  sometimes  remain  with  us  during  the  winter,  fre- 
quenting oozy  bays  and  the  mouths  of  rivers  along  the  coast.  Worms, 
Insects,  small  Shell-fish,  and  Crustacea,  with  various  berries  in 
summer,  constitute  its  food.  The  flight  is  powerful  and  circling ; 
it  also  runs  with  great  celerity  ;  its  cry  is  similar  to,  but  not  quite  so 
shrill  as  that  of  the  Golden  Plover.  The  flesh  is  e.xceUent,  and  in 
high  esteem.  It  is  the  Tritiga  helvetica  of  Linnaeus  ;  Squatarola 
helvetica  of  Gould ;   and  the  Charadrins  africarius  of  Wilson. 


THE  PLOVERS. 


581 


The  young-  is  the  Tringa  varia  of  Linnjcus.  Another  species, 
Squatarola  cincta,  was  brought  by  Captain  P.  P.  King,  R.  N., 
from  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

The  Lapwing  (  Vancllus  crisfaftis). — Le  Vanneau  of  the  French  ; 
Paoncella  of  the  Italians  ;  Gehaubte  Kieboz  of  the  Germans  ;  De 
Kievet  of  the  Netherlanders  ;  Wype,  Peesweep,  and  Peewit,  Provin- 
cial Eno-lish  ;  Cornchwigel  of  the  Welsh.  Fig.  1479  represents  the 
head  and  foot.  .'In  the  genus  Vayiclhts  the  hind-toe  is  more  deve- 
loped than  in  Squatarola,  and  the  head  is  ornamented  cither 
with  a  crest,  or  with  fleshy  wattles  and  protuberances  about  the 
base  of  the  beak,  as  in  many  foreign  species  ;  many  also  have  the 
carpal  joint  of  the  wing  armed  with  a  sharp  spur,  often  of  consider- 


Fig.  1476. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Grey  Plover. 

able  length.  "  These  birds,"  says  Selby,  "are  the  inhabitants  of 
open  grounds  and  plains,  particularly  where  the  soil  is  of  a  moist 
nature,  feeding  on  worms,  insects,  larv;e,  &c.  They  are  subject  to 
the  double  moult,  but  their  vernal  change  of  plumage  is  not 
attended  with  any  remarkable  difference  of  colour."  The  wings  are 
ample. 


The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Lapwing  is  very  extensive;  it 
is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe  and  a  great  part  of  Asia ;  it 
occurs  in  collections  from  India,  North  Africa,  and  Japan.  In  our 
island  it  is  abundant  wherever  moorland  tracts  invite  its  abode. 
Here  it  breeds,  depositing  four  eggs  in  a  loose  nest  made  with  a  few 
straws  or  stalks  of  grass,  in   a   slight   depression   of  the   ground. 


Fig.  147S. — The  Lapwing. 


Fig.  1477.— The  Grey  Plover. 

The  eggs  are  of  a  fine  olive  green-blotched  and  marked  with  a 
brownish-black.  Great  numbers  of  these,  known  as  "  Plovers' 
eggs,"  are  annually  brought  into  the  London  market,  and,  being 
accounted  delicacies,  sell  at  a  good  price.  They  are  collected  in 
Norfolk,  Lincolnshire,  and  Cambridgeshire.  When  the  female  is 
driven  from  her  eggs  she  runs  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  then 
flies  low  near  the  ground,  uttering  not  a  single  cry ;  in  the  meantime 
the  male  flies  round  the  intruder,  and  clamorously  reiterating  the 

syllables  pce-Tueet,  endeavours  by 
various  arts  to  draw  off  his  atten- 
tion from  the  female,  and  the  spot 
where  the  nest  is  placed.  When 
first  hatched  the  young  are 
covered  with  a  parti-coloured  down 
of  yellow  and  brown,  and  follow 
their  parents,  who  not  only  de- 
fend them  with  courage  against 
Birds  of  Prey,  but  employ  every 
stratagem  to  divert  men  or  Dogs 
from  their  retreat,  feigning  lame- 
ness and  fluttering  and  tumbling 
in  the  path  before  them  (see  Fig. 
1478).  When  the  autumn  com- 
mences, the  Lapwings  assemble 
in  vast  flocks,  composed  of  old 
Birds  and  the  young  of  the  year  ; 
and  as  the  cold  sets  in,  gradually 
withdraw  from  the  inland  moor- 
lands, visiting  the  districts  near 
the  sea  and  the  mouths  of  rivers  ; 
frequenting  fallow  lands,  turnip- 
fields,  and  low  oozy  grounds,  where 
in  the  more  southern  parts  of  our 
island,  they  appear  to  remain  all 
the  year,  unless  the  mid-winter  be 
a  season  of  more  than  usual 
severity,  when  they  pass  still  more 
southward.  In  February,  or  the 
beginning  of  March,  these  Birds 
revisit  the  moorlands,  and  scatter 
abroad  in  pairs.  At  this  season 
their  flight  is  very  singular  ;  they 
perform  a  variety  of  fantastic  evo- 
lutions (especially  the  males), 
sometimes  darting  upwards,  then 
suddenly  sweeping  downwards, 
and  describing  an  abrupt  and 
=-  mazy  course  with  many  turnings  : 
during  this  flight  of  exultation 
they  incessantly  utter  a  variety  of 
notes  very  different  from  their 
monotonous  melancholy  pcc-'iSieet, 
while  the  loud  whizzing  of  their 
long  pinions  is  distinctly  audible. 
In  the  autumn  the  flesh  of  the 


582 


THE  THICK-KNEES. 


Peewit  (or  Wype,  as  it  is  called  in  the  "  Northumberland  Household 
Book  ")  is  excellent,  but,  as  might  be  expected,  it  is  dry  in  the  sum- 
mer. Mr.  Selby  considers  it  to  be  the  Bird  called  Egret  (from  its 
crest  or  aigrette),  of  which  i,ooo  were  served  up  at  the  famous  feast 
of  Archbishop  Nevil.  Slugs,  Worms,  and  Insects  constitute  the  diet 
of  this  Bird,  for  the  destruction  of  which  it  is  sometimes  kept  in 
gardens,  and  becomes  very  tame.  The  Lapwing  is  very  beautiful. 
The  head  is  black  glossed  with  green,  and  an  elegant  crest  of  long 
slender  black  feathers,  turned  slightly  upwards,  rises  from  the  occi- 
put ;  the  throat  is  black  ;  the  upper  parts  are  greenish-black  with 
purple  and  blue  reflexions  ;  the  chest  and  under  parts  are  white  ;  the 
tail  is  white  at  the  base,  then  black,  with  white  at  the  tip.  Length 
thirteen  inches. 


Fig.  1479. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Lapwing. 

The  Pratincoles  sub-family  {Glarcoh'}ia:\  a  singular  group  of 
Birds,  arc  also  placed  in  this  family  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray,  and  by 
several  other  authors.  Linnaeus  placed  them  amongst  the  Swallows, 
which  they  resemble  in  their  forked  tails  and  mode  of  flight ;  but  he 
appears  to  have  entertained  some  doubt  as  to  whether  this  was  really 
the  proper  place  for  the  single  species  known  to  him,  as  he  says  that 
it  appears  to  be  intermediate  between  the  Swallows  and  the  Grallcs. 
It  appears,  however,  that  Linnaeus  came  to  this  conclusion  without 
seeing  the  Bird  ;  for,  in  a  letter  written  after  he  had  obtained  speci- 
mens, he  refers  it  to  the  Grallcs ;  and  in  this  he  has  been  followed 
by  many  modern  writers  on  Ornithology,  although  a  few  still  retain 
the  original  opinion  of  Linnaeus. 

The  Collared  Pratincole  {Glareola  ^raiincola,  or  G.  tor- 
t/uafa).—The  Collared  Pratincole  is  the  Perdrix  de  ]\Ier  of  Brisson  ; 
das  Rothfussige  Sandhuhn  of  Bechstein  ;  Sudliche  Sandhuhn  of 
Brehm  ;  and  Pcrnice  di  Mare  of  Savi.— Though  a  few  instances  are 
on  record  of  this  Bird  having  been  killed  within  the  British  Isles,  it 
can  scarcely  be  admitted  within  the  catalogue  of  our  Fauna.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  eastern  provinces  of  Europe  on  the  Asiatic  borders,  and 
especially  of  Hungary,  where  extensive  tracts  of  morass,  and  lakes, 
both  fresh  and  sahne,  surrounded  by  low  flat  lands  traversed  by 
numerous  rivers,  afford  food  and  security.  In  Western  Tartary  it  is 
equally  abundant.  M.  Temminck  informs  us  that  it  breeds  in  Sar- 
dinia, and  is  numerous  in  Dalmatia,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake 
Boccagnaro,  on  its  spring  passage ;  and  that  in  Hungary,  among 
the  immense  morasses  of  the  lakes  Neusidel  and  Balaton,  he  has 
been  in  the  midst  of  hundreds  sweeping  through  the  air  in  chase  of 
their  Insect  prey,  and  darting  along  with  arrow-like  rapidity.  Nor 
is  it  less  remarkable  for  celerity  on  the  ground,  and  often  catches 
Insects  as  it  runs  along.  This  graceful  Bird  incubates  amidst 
reeds,  oziers,  and  the  tall  herbage  of  morasses.  The  eggs  are  four 
in  number,  of  a  yellowish-white.  In  Germany,  France,  and  Italy  it  is 
a  Bird  of  periodical  occurrence.  The  general  colour  of  the  Collared 
Pratmcole  :s  browmsh-grey  above  ;  the  throat  is  white  with  a  tinge 
of  reddish,  banded  by  a  narrow  crescentic  line  of  black;  the  upper 
tail-coverts  are  white  ;  the  under  surface  dirty  white  ;  the  tail  is 
forked,  and  brownish-black  ;  the  under  wing-coverts  arc  chestnut. 
Length  nine  inches  and  a-half.  Naked  circle  round  the  eye  rod. 
(See  Fig.  1480.) 

The  Black-bellied  Swift-foot  {Ciirsorius  tcmminckii).— 
In  the  genus  Cursorius,  sub-family  Cursorince,  the  bill  is  mode- 
rately long,  arched,  and-  compressed,  with  the  nostrils  basal,  oval. 


and  with  an  oblong  lateral  opening ;  wings  pointed  ;  legs  long ; 
toes  three,  all  interior — the  middle  toe  the  longest,  with  a  serrated 
claw.  The  Birds  of  this  genus  are  natives  of  Africa,  inhabiting 
inland  tracts  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sea,  and  running  along 
the  ground  with  extraordinary  rapidit)'.  One  species,  the  Cream- 
coloured  Swift-foot  {Curs,  isalelliiius,  or  C.  euro^pccus'),  has  been 
a  few  times  seen  in  England,  in  France,  and  in  Austria. 


•^.v■.~.•Vi'- 


Fig.  1480. — The  Collared  Pratincole.' 

The  Black-bellied  Swift-foot  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia.  Its  general 
plumage  is  creamy  brown  ;  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  breast 
ferruginous ;  a  double  nuchal  collar,  the  upper  white,  the  lower 
black ;  sides  of  the  body  white  ;  the  quills  and  centre  of  the  under 
surface  black.     Length  eight  inches.     (See  Fig.  1481.) 

The  last  sub-family  of  the  CharadriidcB  is  that  of  the  CEdic7ic- 
mincs,  or  Thick-knees,  of  which  a  single  species  visits  this  country 
during  the  summer.  In  these  Birds  the  basal  portion  of  the  bill  is 
depressed  and  weak,  the  apical  strong  and  swollen.  The  nostrils 
are  placed  in  a  deep  longitudinal  groove,  on  each  side  of  the  bill ; 
the  legs  are  elongated,  with  the  bare  portion  of  the  tibias  and  the 
tarsi  reticulated,  and  the  hind-toe  either  entirely  deficient  or  very 
small,  and  raised  from  the  ground.  (See  Fig.  1482.)  These  Birds, 
which  appear  in  some  respects  to  unite  the  Plovers  with  the  Bustards, 


Fig.  14S1.— The  Black-bellied  Swift-foot. 

generally  frequent  dry  pastures  and  waste  places,  They  arc  pecu- 
liar to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  over  the  warm  and  temperate  parts 
of  which  they  are  pretty  generally  distributed.  One  species,  the 
Common  Thick-knee  {CEdiciiemus  crepitans),  which  is  found  abun- 
dantly in  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  south  of  Europe,  visits  this  country 
in  considerable  quantities  in  the  summer.  The  following  is  a  de- 
scription of  this  Bird  :— 

The  Common  Thick-knee  {CEdicnemus  crej>ita7is).  Le  grand 
Pluvier  ou  Courlis  de  Terre  of  the  French  ;  Gran  Pivieri,  Curlotte, 
Ciurlui,  and  Ciurlovi  of  the  Italians ;   Grosser  Brachvogel  of  the 


THE  BUSTARDS. 


583 


Germans;  y  glin-Braff  of  the  Welsh  ;  Thick-knccd  Bustard,  Stone- 
Curlew,  and  Norfolk  Plover  of  English  writers.     (Sec  Figs.  1482-83.) 

Wide  downs  and  commons,  uplands,  and  sheep-walks  are  the 
favourite  resorts  of  this  Bird,  where  it  makes  its  appearance  in 
March  or  April,  in  small  flocks,  which  are  very  shy.  Hying  round 
in  wide  circles  if  disturbed  from  their  repose.  They  run  along  very 
nimbly,  with  the  head  poked  forwards  ;  and  squat  amongst  loose 
stones  and  the  irregularities  of  broken  ground,  where  the  colour  of 
the  objects  about  favours  their  concealment.  In  Hampshire,  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  Sussex,  &c.,  this  Bird  is  tolerably  common.  In  Germany, 
as  in  England,  it  is  migratory.  It  is  found  in  Southern  Europe, 
generally  in  India,  North  Africa,  Egypt,  the  Greek  Archipelago, 
and  Turkey. 

Though  the  Thick-knee  is  wary  and  watchful  by  day,  and  readily 
takes  alarm,  this  is  in  reality  its  resting-time,  and  it  is  at  night  that 
it  rouses  up  in  pursuit  of  food.  As  the  dusk  of  evening  approaches, 
it  begins  to  utter  its  loud  piping  note,  and  trips  over  the  dewy  grass. 


.\ 


Fig.  1482.— Head  and  Foot  of  the  Tliick-knce. 

pickin^^  up  Worms,  Insects,  and  young  Frogs,  which  form  Its  chief 
diet.  The  Thick-knee,  like  the  Bustard,  makes  no  nest,  but  deposits 
its  eggs,  two  in  number,  on  the  bare  earth,  in  fallow  land  or  spots  of 
ground  where  flint  stones  are  scattered  about,  spotting  as  it  were 
the  earth,  and  favouring  the  concealment  of  the  female  and  her 
progeny,  whose  plumage  assimilates  with  the  chequered  and  mottled 
appearance  of  the  surface  which  she  has  selected.  The  eggs  are 
of  a  light  yellowish-brown,  with  darker  streaks  and  blotches.  The 
young  after  exclusion  immediately  follow  their  parents,  and  are  then 
covered  with  a  mottled-grey  down,  which  gradually  gives  place  to 
the  proper  plumage,  and  in  six  weeks  or  two  months  they  are  capable 
of  flying  and  of  providing  for  themselves. 

In  the  autumn,  after  the  breeding  season,  the  flocks  which  had 
scattered  themselves  in  pairs  over  the  downs,  and  the  young  they 
have  reared,  assemble  all  together,  forming  larger  or  smaller  flocks, 
and  prepare  to  take  their  departure,  quitting  our  latitudes  for  a  more 
congenial  climate  ;  and  in  October  few,  if  any,  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
localities  previously  tenanted,  and  where  at  night  their  loud  call  had 
resounded  "  familiar  to  the  shepherd's  ear." 

The  general  plumage  of  this  Bird  is  of  a  reddish-ash  above,  each 
feather  having  a  central  streak  of  umber  brown  ;  neck  and  chest 
yellowish-white,  streaked  with  umber  brown  :  throat  and  under  parts 
white  ;  quills  black  ;  base  of  the  bill  bright-yellowish  ;  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes  ;  iris  and  legs  fine  yellow.     Length  sixteen  inches. 

The  Bustards— Family  Oiididcs. 

In  the  family  Oiidida:,  or  the  Bustards,  the  bill  is  short  and  stout, 
rather  convex,  broad  at  the  base,  and  compressed  towards  the  apex  ; 
the  nostrils  are  placed  in  a  large  membranous  groove,  which  is 
clothed  with  feathers  at  the  base  ;  the  legs  are  elongated  and 
slender,  the  tarsi  reticulated,  and  the  toes  short,  with  convex,  obtuse 
claws.  The  hind-toe  is  entirely  wanting.  The  wings  are  ample,  and 
somewhat  pointed.  The  Birds  of  this  family  have-  frequently  been 
placed  by  authors  in  the  order  Cursorcs,  with  the  Ostriches  and  their 
allies,  and  in  some  respects  they  are  allied  to  the  Rasorial  Birds  ; 
but  their  nearest  allies  appear  to  be  the  Coursers  and  Thick-kneed 


Plovers,  and  we  have  accordingly  placed  them  in  juxta-position  with 
these  amongst  the  Grallatarcs. 

The  Bustards  are  generally  large  Birds,  which  live  upon  heaths 
and  dry  plains  in  various  parts  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  They  run 
very  rapidly,  and  fly  well,  although  they  rise  with  difficulty.  Their 
food  consists  principally  of  Worms  and  Insects,  with  a  few  Reptiles 
and  even  small  Mainnialia,  and  Birds.  Green  vegetables,  also, 
appear  to  constitute  a  part  of  their  diet. 

Two  species  are  found  in  Britain  ;  and  of  one  of  these,  the  Great 
Bustard  {Otis  iarda),  the  following  is  a  description : — 


Fig.  14S3. — The  Common  Thick-knee. 

The  Great  Bustard  [Oh's  tarda).  Outarde  of  the  French; 
Starda  of  the  Italians  ;  Der  grosse  Trappe,  Trappgans,  and  Aken- 
trap  of  the  Germans  ;  Abutarda  of  the  Spaniards  ;  yr  Araf  Ehedydd 
of  the  Welsh. — This  noble  Bird,  which  was  once  common  in  our 
island,  is  now  rarely  to  be  seen,  except,  we  believe,  in  the  western 
part  of  Norfolk  ;  it  is  true  that  it  occasionally  makes  its  appearance 
on  the  wide  plains  and  commons,  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  as 


,„;-Sr^*^ 


Fig.  14S4.— Tlie  Great  Bustard— Male 


584 


THE  BUSTARD— THE  CRANES. 


Salisbury  plain,  Newmarket  heath,  and  North  Stow  heath  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds  ;  but  unfortunately  its  presence 
attracts  observation,  and  observation  in  such  a  case  is  generally  fol- 
lowed by  active  measures  conducing  to  its  destruction.  In  Spain 
and  the  plains  of  Greece,  in  some  parts  of  Russia,  and  on  the  wilds 
of  Tartary,  it  is  common  ;  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  some  parts  of 
France,  very  rarely  in  Italy. 

The  male  Bustard  weighs  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds,  and 
measures  about  three  feet  three  inches  in  length  (See  Fig.  1484). 
The  female  seldom  e.xceeds  one-third  of  the  size  of  the  male.  Grain, 
various  grasses,  and  tender  leaves  and  sprouts  of  turnips,  Insects, 
Worms,  Frogs,  &c.,  constitute  their  food.  In  the  adult  male  there 
exists  a  membranous  pouch  beneath  the  skin  on  the  fore-part  of  the 
neck,  having  an  entrance  to  it  under  the  tongue  ;  it  is  of  consider- 
able capacity,  being  capable,  according  to  Pennant,  of  containing 
seven  pints  of  water ;  it  has  been,  indeed,  supposed  by  some  that 
the  use  of  this  sac  is  for  carrj'ing  a  supply  of  water,  either  for 
its  own  use  or  that  of  the  female  and  her  young  ;  but  as  the  male 
takes  no  care  of  the  brood,  and  as  no  water  has  ever  been  found 
in  this  pouch,  this  supposition  is  untenable.  Its  use,  in  fact,  is  not 
known. 

The  Bustard  runs  very  swiftly,  and  we  have  accounts  of  its  having 
been  chased  by  Dogs,  which  we  can  readily  credit,  because  a  good 
Greyhound  would  press  so  hard  as  not  to  allow  the  Bird  the  time  of 
preparation  for  taking  wing,  should  he  come  upon  it  by  surprise. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  we  agree  with  Mr.  Selby,  who  says, 
"  Upon  being  disturbed,  so  far  from  running  in  preference  to  flight, 
as  has  been  often  described,  it  rises  upon  wing  with  great  faciHty, 
and  flies  with  much  strength  and  swiftness,  usually  to  another 
haunt,  which  will  sometimes  be  at  the  distance  of  six  or  seven  miles. 
It  has  also  been  said  that  in  former  days,  when  the  species  was  of 
common  occurrence,  it  was  a  practice  to  run  down  the  young  Birds, 
before  they  were  able  to  fly,  with  greyhounds,  as  affording  excellent 
diversion.  So  far  from  this  possibility  existing  with  respect  to  the 
present  remnant  of  the  bird,  the  young  birds  upon  being  alarmed 
constantly  squat  close  to  the  ground,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
young  of  the  lapwing,  golden  plover,  &c.,  and  in  this  position  are 
frequently  taken  by  the  hand  :  indeed,  this  is  even  the  habit  of  the 
female  at  the  time  of  incubation." 

In  the  "  Book  of  Falconrie  "  (i6ii)the  Bustard  is  mentioned  as 
affording  what  was  termed  the  "great  flight,"  together  with  the 
Crane,  Wild  Goose,  Bittern,  Heron,  &:c.,  a  proof  in  favour  of  Mr. 
Selby's  observation,  that  it  gives  preference  to  the  wing  when 
alarmed.  In  the  winter  the  Bustard  associates  in  small  flocks,  which 
traverse  the  country  in  search  of  food,  and  visit  turnip-fields  for  the 
sake  of  the  leaves,  to  which  they  are  very  partial ;  in  severe  weather 
they  seek  sheltered  situations,  and  often  resort  to  the  maritime  dis- 
tricts. The  eggs  of  the  Bustard  are  two  in  number,  as  is  usual  with 
the  Birds  of  this  family ;  the  female  forms  no  definite  nest,  but  de- 
posits them  on  the  ground  in  a  slight  depression  made  to  receive 


Fig.  14S5.— The  Great  Bustard— Female. 


them,  generally  in  extensive  corn-fields  ;  they  exceed  in  size  those  of 
the  Turkey  ;  they  are  of  a  pale  brownish  olive,  with  darker  blotches. 
Incubation  lasts  four  weeks,  and  the  young  as  soon  as  excluded  fol- 
low their  parents,  but  are  unable  to  take  wing  for  a  considerable 
period.  _  As  anarticle  of  food  the  flesh  of  the^Bustard  is  in  high 
estimation  ;  it  is  dark  in  colour,  short  in  fibre,  and  of  fine  flavour. 
Iri  its  wild  state  the  Bustard  is  very  shy,  so  as  not  to  be  approached, 
within  gun-shot,  unless  with  great  caution  :  it  always  selects  for  its 
place  of  repose  the  centre  of  the  largest  inclosure,  or  if  the  country 
be  open,  that  part  of  the  plain  where  it  will  be  most  secure  from  the 
danger  of  a  surprise.  Those  which  have  been  kept  in  confinement, 
though  tolerably  tame  towards  persons  with  whom  they  were  fami- 
liar, have  exhibited  both  distrust  and  ferocity  towards  strangers.  All 
attempts  to  breed  these  Birds  in  captivity  have  failed. 

In  the  male  Bustard,  from  each  side  of  the  cheeks,  near  the  lower 
mandible,  arises  a  tuft  of  long  wiry  feathers  with  loose  barbs.  The 
fore-part  of  the  neck  over  the  pouch  is  destitute  of  feathers,  the  skin 
being  bluish-black.  The  head  and  back  of  the  neck  are  bluish-grey  ; 
a  longitudinal  streak  of  black  occupies  the  top  of  the  head.  The 
upper  surface  is  of  a  fine  orange  buff,  barred  with  zigzag  transverse 
markings  of  black  ;  under  parts  w'hite,  a  tinge  of  yellow  occupying 
the  chest.  Tail  white,  at  the  base,  passing  into  yellowish-brown, 
with  one  or  two  black  bars.  The  female  is  destitute  of  the  moustache- 
feathers,  and  the  head  and  neck  have  a  deeper  tint  of  grey  than  in 
the  male.     Gular  pouch  wanting.     (See  Fig.  148s.) 

The  second  British  species,  the  Little  Bus'tard  {Otis  tefrax, 
Fig.  i486),  is  regarded  as  a  straggler,  or  occasional  visitor  to  our 
shores ;  its  regular  residence  being  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean.  Singularly  enough,  however,  it  has  generally  oc- 
curred in  this  country  in  the  winter.  It  is  a  much  smaller  Bird  than 
the  preceding,  measuring  only  about  seventeen  inches  in  length. 


Fig.  14S6.— Head  of  the  LiUle  Bustard. 


Stuffed  specimens  of  various  species  of  the  Bustard  may  be  seen 
in  the  British  Museum.  In  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
Regent's  Park,  London,  are  living  species,  including  the  Great 
Bustard,  already  described,  the  Australian  Bustard  {Eu^odiiis 
australis),  and  Denham's  Bustard  {E.  de?ihami),  &c. 

The  Cranes — Family  Gruidcc. 

The  last  family  of  the  Grallatorial  Birds  is  that  of  the  Gruidcc,  or 
Cranes,  composed  of  large  and  handsome  Birds,  some  of  which 
appear  to  be  allied  to  the  Bustards,  and  others  to  the  A?-dcida;,  in  or 
near  w-hich  latter  family  they  are  placed  by  some  authors.  They 
have  the  bill  strong  and  sharp-edged,  w-ith  the  nostrils  placed  in 
large  concave  sinuses  (Fig.  1487) ;  the  legs  long  and  slender, 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  the  tibix  bare,  and  the  tarsi  corn- 


Fig.  l4S7._nill  of  the  Crane. 

pressed  and  shielded  in  front ;  the  toes  rather  long,  with  a  very 
small  membrane  uniting  the  two  outer  ones,  and  the  hind-toe  short 
and  elevated.  The  wings  are  broad,  and  the  tail  short ;  but  the 
tertiary  feathers  of  the  wings  are  often  much  elongated,  and  decom- 
posed into  separate  filaments,  forming  tufts  of  beautiful  plumes, 
which  hang  down  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  and  were  formerly  much 


THE    CRANE    TRIBE. 


58s 


worn  as  ornaments.  The  Birds  in  wliich  this  peculiar  structure  of 
the  tertiaries  prevails,  form  the  sub-family  of  the  True  Cranes 
[Gi-uina)  ;  they  are  further  characterised  by  havinjT  the  bill  straight 
and  strong,  with  both  the  mandibles  of  equal  length,  and  pointed  at 
the  tip.  The  Cranes  are  large,  stately,  and  elegant  Birds,  most  of 
which  are  exclusively  inhabitants  of  warm  climates,  although  some  of 
them  undertake  considerable  migrations. 

The  Common  Crane  {Grus  cincrca). — Gruc  of  the  French  ; 
Grua  of  the  Italians ;  Kranich  of  the  Germans  ;  Goran  of  the 
Welsh.  The  Crane  is  spread  over  a  great  portion  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  and  from  the  earliest  times  has  been  noticed  as  a  Bird 
of  migratory  habits.  Associated  in  large  flocks,  they  journey  north- 
wards in  spring  to  their  accustomed  breeding-places,  and  return 
southwards  in  autumn  to  India,  Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  Africa. 
According  to  Latham  the  Crane  visits  Sweden,  Russia,  Siberia,  and 
the  whole  of  Northern  Asia.  Dr.  Von.  Siebold  noticed  it  in  Japan. 
Formerly  it  was  a  regular  visitor  to  our  island,  where  it  bred  before 
cultivation  had  deprived  the  species  of  congenial  localities  by  the 
enclosing  of  waste  tracts  of  land  and  the  drainage  of  marshes.  We 
hear  of  statutes  imposing  a  fine  upon  those  who  should  presume  to 
take  away  the  eggs  of  a  Crane  or  Bustard.  Willughby  says, 
"  Cranes  come  often  to  us  in  England,  and  in  the  fen  counties  of 
Lincolnshire  and  Cambridgeshire  there  are  great  flocks  of  them." 
It  appears  that  no  less  than  204  were  served  up  at  the  feast  of 
Archbishop  Nevil  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  At  present  the 
Crane  is  very  rarely  seen  within  our  shores,  and  almost  as  rarely 
in  Holland. 

The  aerial  voyages  of  the  Crane  are  performed  at  a  high  elevation 
in  the  air,  and  though  the  loud  cries  of  the  passing  flock  may  reach 
the  ear,  the  Birds  themselves  are  beyond  the  limits  of  our  sight. 
These  flights  often  take  place  during  the  night-time.  The  Crane 
makes  its  nest  among  rushes,  reeds,  and  the  long  herbage  of  swampy 
tracts,  and  sometimes  on  the  walls  of  isolated  ruins.  The  eggs  are 
two  in  number,  of  a  pale  dull  bluish-green,  blotched  with  brown. 

Wide  open  lands  newly  sown  are  often  visted  by  this  Bird,  for  the 
sake  of  the  grain,  to  which  it  is  very  partial ;  but  it  also  haunts 
morasses,  feeding  upon  shelled  Molluscs,  Worms,  Frogs,  and  other 
Reptiles.  The  general  colour  of  the  Crane  is  dark  grey,  the  top  of 
the  head  being  red  and  naked  ;  on  the  back  of  the  head  and  front  of 


Fig.  1488.— The  Crane. 

Ion  J'lnn^l'"^^''''^-  ■'^PP''?aches  black  ;  many  of  the  secondaries   form 

e"f  black      T°pTH^fP'"™r'.^,',"  g'-eenish-black;  iris  red-brown  ; 

feht'lrtn  }^^^.  'rSee*Ffg";i88°;''=  ^"'^  °'  ''"'  *^"'  ''''''  ^^^ 

Th?DeSS^or'N^m[f  "f"''*""^''''-^'')-  ^''^'^  Virgo,Ur.r.^^s. 


Africa,  and,  hke  the  Cranes  in  gcner.al,  is  migratory  in  its  habits.  It 
c.xtends  along  the  ModUerr.inean,  and  is  abundant  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Iripoli  ;  It  visits  Egypt  during  the  inundation  ;  and  appears 
about  Constantinople  in  October,  on  its  return  from  the  southern 
coasts  of  the  black  and  Caspian  seas.  It  has  been  observed  at  Lake 
Baikal  and  has  been  killed  at  Ncp:ll ;  on  the  west  of  Africa  it  ex- 
tends  from  Egypt  to  Guinea,  and  is  found  near  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope._  The  food  of  this  beautiful  Bird  consists  in  a  great  measure 
of  grains  and  seeds,  to  which  it  adds  Insects,  Worms  &c  The 
Demoiselle  stands  about  three  feet  six  inches  in  height  'The  top  of 
the  head  IS  grey  ;  behind  each  eye  springs  a  tuft  of  white  feathers, 
passing  backwards  to  the  occiput,  where  they  form  a  drooping  crest 
of  soft  loose  plumes,  which  undulate  with  every  movement  •  the  sides 
of  the  head,  the  neck,  and  a  long  flowing  plume  depending  from  the 
breast,  blackish  ;  general  tint  delicate  slate  grey  ;  the  secondary 
quill-feathers,  elongated  into  slender  plumes,  which  fall  over  the 
quills  and  tail ;  bill  yellowish.    (See  Fig.  1489.) 


Fig.  1489.— The  Demoiselle. 

The  Stanley  Crane  {Tetraptenix  ^arad/sea,  or  A^ithropdides 
stanleyamis;  Ajithropdides  paradisaus,  Bechstein).— In  beauty, 
gracefulness,  easy  elegance  of  movement,  this  species  equals  the 
Demoiselle,  to  which  indeed  it  is  closely  allied.  It  runs  and  bounds 
with  singular  velocity,  and  sweeps  along  with  expanded  wings  in 
search  of  Insects,  which  it  takes  as  they  flit  by,  and  to  which  it  is  very 
partial.  In  captivity  it  is  gentle  and  familiar.  It  is  a  native  of 
India,  perhaps  also  of  Africa.  The  full  soft  feathers  of  the  head 
make  it  appear  as  if  tumid.  The  general  plumage  is  bluish-grey 
passing  into  brownish-black  on  the  points  of  the  tail-feathers  and  the 
long  pendent  flowing  wing-plumes,  which  touch  the  ground.  This 
species  somewhat  e.xcels  the  Demoiselle  in  stature,  and  the  hind- 
toe  is  comparatively  larger.     (See  Fig.  1489  ) 

The  Crowned  Crane  i,Balearica  pavotima).  This  species, 
and  one  from  South  Africa,  the  Cape  Crowned  Crane  (Ba/cartca 
regulorum),  said  to  be  held  sacred  by  the  Kaffirs,  are  the  only  two 
species  at  present  known  of  the  genus  Balearka,  which  is  now 
separated  from  A  tithropdides. 

The  Crowned  Crane  is  a  native  of  Northern  and  Western  Africa 
Ihe  Romans  are  supposed  to  have  received  them  from  the  Balearic 
Islands,  now  Majorca  and  Minorca.  In  Guinea  and  at  Cape  Verd. 
as  well  as  in  the  adjacent  countries,  they  are  very  common,  frequent- 
ing swampy  places,  and  subsisting,  like  the  Crane,  partly  on  grains 
and  other  vegetables,  partly  on  Insects,  Molluscs,  small  Fisli,  &c. 
At  Cape  Verd  these  Birds  are  said  to  be  so  familiar  as  to  come  into 
the  poultry-yards,  and  feed  in  company  with  the  domestic  inmates, 
iheir  gait  is  slow  and  stately;  but  expanding  their  wings,  and 
assisted  by  the  wind,  they  scud  along  with  great  velocity.  Their 
night  IS  lofty,  and  capable  of  being  long  sustained.  Their  voice  is 
loud,  trumpet-hkc,  and  hoarse.  In  captivity  the  Crowned  Crane 
becomes  very  tame  and  gentle  ;  like  the  rest  of  the  family  to  which 
It  belongs,  it  generally  reposes  resting  on  one  leg,  with  its  neck 
bent,  and  its  body  maintained  almost  horizontally.  It  often,  how- 
ever, assumes  a  very  different  attitude,  standing  perpendicularly 
upright,  with  its  long  neck  on  the  full  stretch  ;  in  this  position  it 
remains  for  some  short  space  of  time,  gazing  stedfastly  at  the  spec- 
tator, and  then  breaking  out  into  a  hoarsa  Hnd  of  chuckle. 

4  F 


586 


THE  CRANE  TRIBE. 


The  CroNvned  Crane  stands  about  four  feet  in  height  ;  the  front  of 
thehead  is  covered  with  short  black  velvety  feathers;  from  the 
occiput  there  rises  a  remarkable  crest  of  slender  bristle-like  fila- 
ments, diverging  from  each  other,  ^Yith  a  spiral  twist,  and  four  or 
five  inches  in  length.  Their  colour  is  yellowish  ;  they  are  fringed 
with  minute  black  barbs.  The  cheeks  are  naked,  the  upper  portion 
of  the  denuded  space  being  white,  the  more  extensive  space  below 
red  ;  there  is  a  small  wattle  on  the  throat.  The  general  plumage 
is  bluish  slate-colour  ;  the  feathers  of  the  fore-part  of  the  chest 
are  elongated ;  primary  quills  and  the  tail  arc  black  ;  the  secondary 
quill-feathers,  which  are  long  and  slender,  arc  of  a  rich  brown,  and 
the  wing-coverts  pure  white.    (See  Fig.  1490.) 


Fig.  1490. — The  Stanley  Crane. 

In  the  Cape  Crowned  Crane  {B.  reguloriini)  the  naked  cheeks 
are  white,  with  a  roseate  upper  margin,  and  the  throat-wattle  is 
large.  Both  species,  together  with  the  preceding,  are  living  in  the 
Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society. 

The  following  species  may  also  be  seen  in  the  Gardens  of  the 
Society,  from  whose  "  Guide"  the  descriptions  have  been  quoted  :  — 


fig.  1491. — The  Crowned  Crane, 


"The  Mantchurian  Crane  {Grus  montignesta,  Bp.)— The 
descriptions  of  this  magnificent  Bird  in  the  old  authors  presume  it 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Japan.  There  is  at  present  no  ground  for 
believing  that  to  be  the  fact ;  but  we  now  know  positively  that  its 
true  locality  is  the  country  north  of  Pekin. 

"Sir  John  Bowring  sent  a  pair  of  these  Birds  to  her  Majesty  the 
Queen,  which,  after  living  for  some  years  in  the  Royal  Collection, 
were  graciously  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  in  1857. 


Fig.  1492. — The  Golden-breasted  Trumpeter. 

"  The  birds  which  were  imported  by  M.  de  Montigny,  on  his  return 
from  China  in  1854,  "o'  '^"^Y  flourished  at  Paris  in  the  most  perfect 
health,  but  for  three  successive  seasons  made  a  nest  and  hatched 
out  their  young.     The  pair  in  possession  of  the  Society  in  i860  nested 


Fig.  1493. — The  Caiiama. 


THE  CRANE  TRIBE. 


587 


twice,  but  did  not  succeed  in  hatching  their  eggs.  The  following 
year,  however,  they  were  more  successful,  and  a  young  bird  was 
hatched  on  the  24th  of  June,  1861,  to  which  they  devoted  unceasing 
care  and  attention  for  many  months.  The  Mantchurian  Crane  is  a 
favourite  bird  amongst  the  Chinese ;  and  it  has  been  stated  that  a 
considerable  number  of  them  arc  always  in  captivity  at  Pckin.  Its 
figure  constantly  occurs  on  the  paper-hangings  with  which  their 
houses  arc  decorated,  and  which,  although  sometimes  containing 
animals  which  are  apparently  pure  inventions,  often  present  very 
faithful  transcripts  of  Nature. 

"The  Sarus  Crane  {Grits  antig07ie)  is  another  noble  Asiatic 
species,  well  known  to  all  residents  in  India,  where  it  is  abundant 
throughout  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  the  peninsula  of 
India,  and  in  the  Burmese  provinces.  It  is,  perhaps,  less  exclusively 
a  grain-feeder,  Dr.  Jerdon  tells  us,  than  some  other  species,  and  is 
generally  met  with  not  far  from  water.  Its  fine  trumpet-like  call, 
uttered  when  alarmed  or  when  on  the  wing,  can  be  heard  a  couple 
of  miles  off.     In  most  parts  of  the  country  it  is  so  confiding  and 


Fig.  1494 The  Kagu. 

fearless  in  its  habits,  as  to  prevent  the  sportsman  from  shooting  it  ; 
and  in  the  territories  of  Holkar  it  is  said  to  be,  if  not  venerated, 
esteemed  so  highly  as  to  be  held  sacred  from  the  Shikaries. 

"  In  Australia  the  place  of  the  Sarus  is  occupied  by  the  Australian 
Craxis  {Gnts  ausfralis).  This  Crane  bears  a  close  resemblance  to 
the  great  Sarus  Crane  of  India,  from  which,  however,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  is  entirely  distinct.  It  may  be  readily  recognised  by 
the  bright  red  hood  which  envelops  the  back  of  the  head,  and  the 
black  hairs  which  almost  conceal  the  bright  covering  of  the  throat. 
According  to  Mr.  Gould  it  is  only  found  in  Northern  Australia  and 
in  New  South  Wales.  It  evinces  great  aptitude  for  domestication, 
and  is  called  there  "  the  Native  Companion,"  from  the  docility  with 
which  it  accommodates  itself  to  the  society  of  man. 

"The  Canadian  Crane  [Grus  canadensis.)  The  White 
American   Crane  {Grus  americana).—The  European  Crane  is 


replaced  in  North  America  by  the  Canadian  Crane  ( Gn/s  canadensis), 
of  which  the  Society  have  also  living  examples.  The  second  North 
American  species  {Grus  anicricana) — the  White  Crane  of  America 
— is  likewise  a  very  ornamental  species-" 

"  The  White-necked  Crane  {Grus  lcucauch€n.y-0\  this 
ornamental  species,  conspicuous  from  its  white  neck,  a  single  pair, 
received  from  Japan,  may  be  seen  in  the  (hardens." 

The  following  Birds  arc  allied  with  the  Cranes  and  Bittern,  and 
specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
whose  description  is  here  quoted  : — 

"  The  Kagu  {Rhinochctus  juhatus). — Examples  of  this  curious 
bird  were  first  received  from  Dr.  George  Bennet,  of  Sydney,  a  Fellow 
of  the  Society.  The  Kagu  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  little-known  island 
of  New  Caledonia,  which  has  recently  become  a  French  colony.  Its 
alliances  are  with  the  Cranes  (Gruida-),  though  it  diverges  from 
the  ordinary  members  of  that  group  in  several  important  particulars, 
and  is  an  isolated  form,  related  to  the  next  species.  (See  Fig. 
1404.) 

"  The  Sun-Bittern  (Euryfyga 
hclias). — This  beautiful  bird  is 
one  of  the  most  successful  of  re- 
cent introductions  to  the  Society's 
Aviaries,  and  now  breeds  with  us 
regularly  every  year.  Nothing  can  be 
more  striking  than  the  varied  hues 
of  the  Sun-Biitern's  wings,  when 
exhibited  in  its  airy  flight,  which 
calls  to  one's  mind  that  of  some  of 
the  larger  Tropical  Butterflies, 
rather  than  the  fiight  of  a  bird. 

"  The  Sun-Bitterns  first  com- 
menced to  breed  in  this  Aviary  in  the 
month  of  May,  1865.  The  nest  was 
formed  of  wet  mud  and  clay  mixed 
with  bits  of  straw  and  grass,  and 
placed  upon  the  top  of  a  pole  about 
ten  feet  from  the  ground,  on  which  an 
old  straw  nest  had  been  fixed.  One 
Gg'g  was  laid  in  June,  and  the  young 
one  hatched  after  twenty-seven 
days'  incubation — both  male  and 
female  taking  turns  upon  the  nest. 
The  young  bird  remained  in  the 
nest  about  three  weeks,  and  was 
regularly  fed  by  both  parents.  It 
grew  quickly,  and  in  two  months 
was  indistinguishable  from  the  old 
birds.  The  old  birds  bred  a  second 
time  in  August  of  the  same  year, 
and  succeeded  in  rearing  a  second 
young  one.  Since  that  date  the 
Sun-Bitterns  have  bred  regularly  in 
this  Aviary."  The  Bitterns,  genus 
Botattrus^  have  already  been  de- 
scribed at  page  577,  ante. 

In  the  Psohpina:  or  Trumpeters, 
forming  the  second  sub-family  of 
the  Gruidce,  the  tertiaries  are  not 
elongated  and  decomposed,  and  the 
bill  is  considerably  arched  towards 
the  apex,  with  the  upper  mandible 
overhanging  the  lower  one  at  the  tip. 
The  Birds  belonging  to  this  sub- 
family, which  are  peculiar  to  South 
America,  are  interesting  to  the 
naturalist  from  the  great  similarity 
which  they  present,  in  some  respects, 
to  the  Rasorial  or  Gallinaceous 
Birds.  One  of  them,  the  Trum- 
peter, Psophia  crepitans  (see  Fig. 
1492),  called  the  Aganii  by  the 
natives  of  South  America,  being 
about  the  size  of  a  large  Fowl,  is  common  in  Guiana,  where  it  is 
often  kept  with  poultry,  which  it  is  said  to  protect  from  the  attacks 
of  Birds  of  Prey.  It  is  exceedingly  docile,  and  attaches  itself  to 
the  person  that  feeds  it,  following  him  about  like  a  Dog  ;  it  is 
said  even  to  attack  other  Domestic  Animals,  to  prevent  them  from 
sharing  in  its  master's  caresses.  Its  name  of  Trumpeter  alludes 
to  a  deep,  rough  sound  which  it  emits.  Another  species,  which 
it  also  common  in  South  America,  and,  like  the  Trumpeter, 
may  be  easily  domesticated,  is  the  Cariama  {Cariama  cr  is  fata, 
see  Fig.  1493),  a  Bird  about  the  size  of  .a  Heron,  which  is  found 
principally  in  the  mountain  plains  of  Brazil.  It  flies  ill,  but  runs 
with  great  swiftness.  It  is  generally  pursued  on  horseback,  and 
always  leads  its  pursuers  a  long  and  tedious  chate.  This  Bird 
feeds  upon  Insects  and  small  Reptiles,  and,  like  the  Trumpeter, 
emits  a  loud,  dull  cry. 


588 


THE  NATATORIAL,   OR  SWIMMING  BIRDS. 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

CLASS  II.— AVES,  OR  BIRDS :  ORDER  NATATORES,  OR  SWIMMING  BIRDS. 


HE    most    striking    character    of    the 

g.\   Naiatorcs,  or   Swimming  Birds,  is  de- 

rived   from   the   structure   of    the   feet, 

which  are  always  palmate,  or  furnished 

with  webs  between  the  toes.     There  are 

always  three  toes  directed  forwards,  and 

these  are  usually  united  by  a  membrane 

to    their     extremities ;     but,    in    some 

cases,   the   membrane   is    deeply   cleft, 

and  the  toes  are  occasionally  quite  free, 

and   furnished  with  a   distinct  web  on 

each  side.     The  fourth  toe  is  generally 

but  little  developed,  and  often  entirely  wanting  ; 

when  present,  it  is  usually  directed  backwards, 

and  the  membrane  is  sometimes  continued  to  it 

along  the   side  of  the  foot  (Fig.   1495).     These 

webbed  feet  are  the  principal  agents  by  which 

such  Birds  propel  themselves  through  the  water, 

upon  the  surface  of  which  most  of  them  pass  a 

great  portion  of  their  time :   and,  by  the  same 

means,  many  species    dive    to    a    considerable 

distance  below  the    surface  in   search   of  their 

food,   which   consists    almost  entirely   of  Fish, 

Molliisca,  and    other   small   Aquatic   Animals. 

The  feet  are  generally  placed  very  far  back,  a 

position  which  is  exceedingly  favourable  to  their 

action  in  swimming  and  diving,   rendering  the 

terrestrial  progression  of  the  Natatorial  Birds  anything  but  elegant. 

In  some  instances,  however,  the  feet  are  situated  quite  at  the  hmder 

extremity  of  the  body,  which  then  assumes  an  upright  position  when 

on  land.  j     •  , 

The  body  is  generally  stout  and  heavy,  and  covered  with  a  very 
thick,  close,  downy  plumage,  which  the  Bird  keeps  constantly 
anointed  with  the  greasy  secretion  of  the  caudal  gland,  so  that  it  is 
completely  waterproof.  The  wings  exhibit  a  very  great  variety  in 
their  development.  In  the  Penguins  they  are  reduced  to  a  rudi- 
mentary condition,  destitute  of  quills,  and  covered  with  a  scaly  skin, 
forming  flat,  fin-like  organs  ;  whilst,  in  some  other  species,  the 
wings  are  of  vast  size  and  power,  and  the  Birds  pass  nearly  their 
whole  lives  in  the  air.  Between  these  two  extremities  we  meet  with 
every  intermediate  degree  of  development.  Those  species  which 
are  endowed  with  the  greatest  power  of  flight,  are  usually  incapable 
of  diving,  although  they  frequently  take  their  prey  by  plunging 
suddenly  into  the  water  when  on  the  wing. 


Fig.  1495. — Feet  of  various  Water-Eivds. 

The  form  of  the  bill  is  also  very  variable  :  in  some  it  is  broad  and 
flat  ;  in  others,  deep  and  compressed ;  and  in  others,  long  and 
slender.  The  mandibles  are  sometimes  sharp  and  smooth,  occa- 
sionally furnished  with  denticulations  or  lamella;  at  the  margins. 
The  texture  of  the  bill  also  varies;  but  these  differences  will  be 
referred  to  in  characterising  the  families. 


Most  of  these  Birds  live  in  societies,  which  are  often  excessively 
numerous,  inhabiting  high  northern  and  southern  latitudes.  Many 
of  them  prefer  rocky  coasts,  in  the  clefts  and  corners  of  which  they 
lay  their  eggs,  often  on  the  bare  rock,  but  generally  selecting  the 
most  inaccessible  situations.  The  nest  is  always  of  a  very  rude 
description  ;  but  some  species  have  the  instinct  to  attach  their  nests 
to  aquatic  plants  in  such  a  manner  that,  although  it  is  securely 
anchored  to  one  spot,  it  is  capable  of  rising  or  falling,  in  accord- 
ance with  any  change  that  may  take  place  in  the  level  of  the  water. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Natatorial  Birds  are  divided  into  six 
families.  The  ^/c/(/i57,  or  Auks,  forming  the  first  of  these,  have  the 
feet  placed  very  far  back,  close  to  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  body; 
the  toes  always  united  by  a  membrane,  and  the  hinder  toe  either 
rudimentary  or  entirely  wanting.  The  Alci'dcs  do  not  support  them- 
selves when  on  land  merely  upon  the  toes,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
other  Birds,  but  upon  the  whole  lower  surface  of  the  tarsus,  which  is 
usually  furnished  with  a  sort  of  sole  to  adapt  it  for  this  purpose. 
The  wings  are  very  small — sometimes  rudimentary,  and  covered 
only  with  a  scaly  skin  ;  occasionally  covered  with  feathers,  and 
furnished  with  quills,  so  that  the  Birds  are  capable  of  rising  into  the 
air,  although  their  flight  is  by  no  means  powerful.  The  beak  is 
compressed  and  short,  sometimes  hooked  at  the  tip  ;  and  the  plum- 
age is  exceedingly  thick  and  close. 

In  the  species  with  rudimentary,  fin-like  wings,  the  scales  with 
which  the  skin  of  those  organs  is  covered,  are  really  rudimentary 
feathers.  These  Birds,  which  are  well  known  to  voyagers  under  the 
name  of  Penguins,  form,  with  some  authors,  a  distinct  family,  to 
which  the  name  of  SphcniscidcB  has  been  given.  They  are  found 
in  vast  quantities  in  the  Antarctic  seas,  where  they  pass  the  greater 
portion  of  their  time  in  the  water,  and  appear  rarely  to  stay  any 
time  on  land,  except  during  the  breeding  season.  In  the  water  they 
are  exceedingly  active,  swimming  and  diving  with  the  greatest 
facility  ;  and  making  use  of  their  little  naked  wings  as  fins,  when 
engaged  in  the  latter  operation.  There  are  numerous  species  of 
which  we  have  selected  the  following  for  description  : — 

The  Jackass  Penguin  [Eudyftes,  or  S;pheniscus  de»tersus). — 
This  species  is  very  abundant  at  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Captain  Fitz-Roy  observed  it  in  great  abundance 
at  Noir  Island.  "Multitudes  of  penguins,"  he  observes,  "were 
swarming  together  in  some  parts  of  the  island,  among  the  bushes 
and  '  tussoc  '  (thick  rushy  grass)  near  the  shore,  having  gone  there 
for  the  purposes  of  moulting  and  rearing  their  young.  They  were 
very  valiant  in  self-defence,  and  ran  open-mouthed,  by  dozens,  at 
any  one  who  invaded  their  territory,  little  knowing  how  soon  a  stick 
would  scatter  them  on  the  ground.  The  young  were  good  eating, 
but  the  others  proved  to  be  black  and  tough  when  cooked.  The 
manner  in  which  they  feed  their  young  is  curious  and  rather  amusing. 
The  old  bird  gets  on  a  little  eminence,  and  makes  a  great  noise 
(between  quacking  and  braying),  holding  its  head  up  in  the  air,  as  if 
it  were  haranguing  the  penguinnery,  while  the  young  one  stands 
close  to  it,  but  a  little  lower.  The  old  bird,  having  continued  its 
clatter  for  about  a  minute,  puts  its  head  down  and  opens  its  mouth 
widely,  into  which  the  young  one  thrusts  its  head,  and  then  appears 
to  suck  from  the  throat  of  its  mother  for  a  minute  or  two,  after  which 
the  clatter  is  repeated,  and  the  young  one  is  again  fed  ;  this  con- 
tinues for  about  ten  minutes.  I  observed  some  which  were  moulting 
make  the  same  noise,  and  then  apparently  swallow  what  they  thus 
supplied  themselves  with  ;  so  in  this  way,  I  suppose,  they  are  fur- 
nished with  subsistence  during  the  time  they  cannot  seek  it  in  the 
water." — ("Voyages  of  the  Adventure  and  Beagle,"  King). 

Mr.  Darwin,  who  found  this  Bird  at  the  Falkland  Islands,  gives 
the  following  interesting  account  of  its  courage  and  habits.  "  One 
day,"  he  says,  "having  placed  myself  between  a  penguin  {A^teno- 
dytes  demersa)  and  the  water,  I  was  much  amused  by  watching  its 
habits.  It  was  a  brave  Bird  ;  and,  till  reaching  the  sea,  it  regularly 
fought  and  drove  me  backwards.  Nothing  less  than  heavy  blows 
would  have  stopped  him  ;  every  inch  gained  he  firmly  kept  standing 
close  before  me,  erect  and  determined.  When  thus  opposed  he  con- 
tinually rolled  his  head  from  side  to  side,  in  a  very  odd  manner,  as 
if  the  power  of  vision  only  lay  in  the  anterior  and  basal  part  of  each 
eye.  This  bird  is  commonly  called  the  jackass  penguin,  from  its 
habit,  while  on  shore,  of  throwing  its  head  backwards,  and  making  a 
loud  strange  noise,  very  like  the  braying  of  that  animal ;  but  while  at 
sea  and  undisturbed,  its  note  is  very  deep  and  solemn,  and  is  often 
heard  in  the  night  time.  In  diving,  its  little  plumeless  wings  are  used 
as  fins  ;  but  on  the  land,  as  front  legs.  When  crawling  (it  may  be 
said  on  four  legs)  through  the  tussocks,  or  on  the  side  of  a  grassy 
cliff,  it  moved  so  very  quickly  that  it  might  readily  have  been  mis- 


THE  GREAT  AUK. 


589 


taken  for  a  quadruped.  When  at  sea,  and  fishing,  it  comes  to  the 
surface,  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  with  such  a  spring-,  and  dives 
again  so  instantaneously,  that  I  defy  any  one  at  first  sight  to  be  sure 
that  it  is  not  a  fish  leaping  for  sport." — ("  Voyages  of  the  yl^/z/c/z/wre 
and  Beagle;'"  Darwin,  "Researches  in  Geology  and  Natural 
History.") 

Sir  James  Clark  Ross,  when  taking  possession  of  Victoria-land  in 
the  name  other  Majesty,  found  that  the  Penguins,  the  only  inhabi- 
tants of  that  inhospitable  region,  were  by  no  means  disposed  to  sub- 
mit quietly  to  their  invaders,  but  attacked  and  pecked  at  them 
vigorously  as  they  were  "wading"  through  their  ranks.  Their 
numbers  were  so  great  in  Possession  Island,  where  the  ceremony 
of  taking  possession  was  gone  through,  that  Sir  James  tells  us  that 
the  Penguins  "  completely  and  densely  covered  the  whole  surface  of 
the  island,  even  to  the  summits  of  the  hills."  The  females  hatch 
their  eggs  by  holding  them  between  their  thighs ;  and  when 
threatened  with  danger,  move  away,  still  retaining  the  eggs  in  this 
position.  During  the  period  of  incubation,  the  male  fishes  for  the 
female  ;  and  after  the  young  are  hatched,  both  parents  are  engaged 
for  a  time  in  procuring  them  food.  The  roosting-places  of  the 
Penguins,  like  those  of  some  other  Marine  Birds,  arc  covered  with  a 
deep  bed  of  excrementitious  matter,  mixed  with  the  bones  of  dead 
Birds  and  feathers,  which  has  been  gradually  accumulated  during 
the  long  series  of  ages  that  these  Birds  have  been  in  undisputed 
possession  of  their  rocky  shores.  This  substance  is  a  most  valuable 
manure,  which,  under  the  name  of  guano,  is  now  largely  imported 
into  this  country  for  the  use  of  agriculturists.  The  largest  species  of 
Penguins  is  the  Sphetiisciis  77iagellanicus,  or  Great  Magellanic 
Penguin,  which  measures  about  two  feet  in  length,  and  sometimes 
weighs  between  thirty  and  forty  pounds.  In  1878,  a  living  specimen 
of  the  Jackass  Penguin  was  added  to  the  collection  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London,  in  their  Gardens  at  Regent's  Park.  (See  Fig.  1496.) 


Fig.  1496. — The  Jackass  Penguin. 

Of  the  Alcidcs,  in  which  the  wings  are  constructed  in  the  usual 
manner,  some  have  these  organs  so  small,  that  they  are  as  useless 
for  the  purpose  of  flight  as  those  of  the  Penguins.  Of  these,  the 
Great  Auk  (Alca  impe7inisj,  which  has  occasionally,  although 
rarely,  been  taken  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  islands,  is  an  example. 
The  following  is  a  description  of  this  Bird. 

The  Great  Auk  (Alca  impennisJ.—The  True  Auks  are  strictly 
oceanic  Birds,  never  leaving  the  water,  except  for  the  purpose  of 
incubation.  They  breed,  associated  together  in  vast  flocks,  on  the 
ledges  of  precipices,  in  caverns,  and  deep  fissures.  They  dive  with 
great  ease,  and  using  their  wings,  pursue  their  finny  prey,  deep 
below  the  surface,  with  wonderful  rapidity.  The  young  are  fed  from 
the  crops  of  the  parents,  even  some  time  after  they  leave  their 
"rocky  lair,"  and  swim  fearlessly  amidst  the  waves.  Awkward  as 
the  movements  of  these  Birds  are  on  shore,  they  shuffle  along  with 
considerable  dispatch.  The  bill  is  deep,  compressed,  and  cultrated  ; 
the  upper  mandible  arched  and  hooked;    the  nostrils  are  nearly 


hidden  by  the  feathers  of  the  forehead :  the  wings  short.     (See  Fig. 
I407-) 

In  the  Great  Auk  the  wings  are  so  reduced  as  to  be  incapable  of 
servmg  the  purpose  of  flight,  but  they  are  most  cfBcicnt  paddles, 
aidmg  Its  progress  beneath  the  water.  This  fine  species  is  a  native 
of  the  Arctic  Circle  ;  its  visits  to  the  northern  islands  of  Scotland  are 
very  rare  ;  Dr.  Fleming  gives  the  account  of  one  which  was  taken 
ahvo  at  St.  Kilda  in  1822;  and  one  was  ineffectually  chased  by 
Bullock,  during  his  tour  to  the  northern  isles,  1813,  who  followed  in 
a  six-oared  boat,  and  found  himself,  despite  the  exertions  of  the 
men,  completely  distanced.  It  was  ultimately  shot,  allowing  the 
boatmen,  to  whom  it  appeared  indifferent,  to  approach  within  gun 
range.  This  Bird  is  now  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum. 
The  one  described  by  Dr.  Fleming  swam  under  water  with  a  long 


Fig.  1497 The  Great  Auk. 

and  heavy  cord  tied  to  its  leg,  making  way  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  The  Great  Auk  is  frequent  about  the  coasts  of  Norway 
and  Iceland,  but  still  more  so  around  the  icy  shores  of  Greenland 
and  Spitzbergen,  where  it  breeds  in  the  clefts  and  caverns  of  rocks, 
above  the  highest  tides.  The  female  lays  a  single  egg,  as  large  as 
that  of  a  Swan,  of  a  whitish-yellow,  marked  with  numerous  lines  and 
strokes  of  black. 

Fish  and  various  Crustacea  constitute  the  food  of  this  species  ;  its 
favourite  prey  is  said  to  be  the  Lump-Fish  (Cycloptcriis  lii/npusj. 
The  Great  Auk  measures  nearly  three  feet  in  length.  The  upper 
plumage  is  deep  black,  with  the  exception  of  a  large  patch  of  white 
on  the  forehead  and  around  the  eyes,  and  a  slight  band  of  white  on 
the  wing;  under  plumage  white;  bill  and  legs  dull  black.  In 
winter  the  cheeks,  throat,  fore-part  and  sides  of  the  neck  are  white. 

The  Razor-bill  {Utamania,  ox  Alca  tarda) — In  this  species 
the  wings  are  capable  of  short  but  rapid  flight ;  they  are  also  used 
as  oars  in  the  water.  The  Razor-bill  is  common  in  the  higher 
latitudes  of  the  northern,  and  plentiful  on  the  rocky  coasts  of  our 
island,  where  it  breeds  with  Guillemots  and  Puffins  ;  it  tenants  the 
Needles  and  adjacent  cliffs  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  eggs,  which 
are  esteemed  a  delicacy,  are  taken  in  great  numbers.  As  the  chalk- 
cliffs  there  are  600  feet  in  elevation,  the  islanders  reach  them  from 
above,  by  descending  the  perpendicular  cliffs,  much  in  the  same 
perilous  manner  as  is  practised  by  the  Norwegians  and  hardy  natives 
of  the  Feroe  Islands. 

They  drive  a  large  stake,  or  bar  of  iron,  into  the  top  of  the  cliff, 
and  to  this  they  fasten  a  strong  rope,  with  a  stick  put  crosswise  at 
the  end,  for  the  support  of  the  adventurer,  who  is  lowered  down  the 
front  of  the  horrid  precipice.  If  his  object  is  to  secure  the  eggs 
only,  he  shouts  to  scare  away  the  Birds,  which  rise  in  countless 
numbers  ;  but  if  he  wishes  to  secure  the  Birds,  for  the  sake  of  the 
feathers,  he  goes  to  work  in  silence,  and  either  catches  them  in  their 
holes,  or  knocks  them  down  with  a  stick  as  they  fly  out ;  the  soft 
feathers  are  valuable,  and  find  a  ready  market ;  the  flesh  is  worth- 
less, but  is  used  by  the  fishermen  as  baits  for  Crab-pots,  (Src.  The 
same  mode  is  practised  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  On  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  thousands  of  these  Birds  are  killed  for  the  sake  of  the 
breast-feathers,  which  are  close,  warm,  and  elastic  ;  and  the  eggs 
are  coflected  in  incredible  multitudes.  Each  female,  however,  only 
lays  one  egg,  large  in  proportion,  and  pointed,  of  a  yellowish-white 
blotched  with  dark  brown.    The  Razor-biU  is  fifteen  inches  long. 


590 


PUFFINS  AND   GUILLEMOTS. 


The  head,  neck,  and  upper  plumage  are  black,  with  a  distinct  white 
line  from  the  beak  to  the  eye,  and  a  narrow  bar  across  the  wings  ; 
under  parts  white  ;  bill  black,  with  a  white  band  down  the  sides  of 
each  mandible  ;  legs  black.  In  winter  the  throat  and  fore-part  of 
the  neck  are  white.     {See  Fig.  1498.) 

The  Puffin  or  Covvi'e.k^v.w  (Fraiercula  arctica,OT  Mormon 
fratercida,  Temm.  ;  Alca  arctica,  Linn.  ;  Mormon  arcticus, 
lUiger). — In  this  genus  the  bill  is  short,  nearly  as  deep  as  long,  and 
very  compressed,  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible  being  thin  and 
sharp  ;  the  nostrils  are  slits  on  the  border  of  the  upper  mandible 
near  the  base ;  the  sides  are  marked  by  oblique  ridges  and  furrows, 
and  a  loose  puckered  skin  surrounds  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  Two 
horny  appendages  are  placed  on  the  eyelids  ;  the  smaller  one  above, 
the  larger  beneath  the  eye. 


Fig.  149S.— The  Razor-bill. 

Jn  its  general  form  and  habits  the  Puffin  resembles  the  Guillemot 
and  Razor-bill  ;  it  has  the  same  thick  rounded  contour,  the  same 
address  in  the  water,  and  the  same  rapid  flight.  The  PufBn  is  ex- 
tensively spread  through  the  Arctic  circle,  whence  it  migrates  south- 
wards in  winter.  It  is  a  native  of  our  islands,  visiting  us  from  the 
south  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  departing  for  the  coasts  of 
Spain  and  Italy,  in  August.  It  is  common  on  various  parts  of  our 
shores  ;  is  numerous  at  the  Needles  and  cliffs  of  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  upon  Priestholm  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Anglesea  ;  many  resort 
to  the  Farn  Islands.  In  the  latter  place,  according  to  Mr.  Selby, 
there  being  no  Rabbits,  the  burrows  of  which  it  can  usurp,  it  selects 
such  spots  as  are  covered  with  a  stratum  of  vegetable  mould,  and 
digs  a  burrow  for  itself  in  which  to  incubate.  The  Puffins  "  com- 
mence this  operation  about  the  first  week  of  May,  and  the  hole  is 
generally  excavated  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  often  in  a  curving 
direction,  and  occasionally  with  two  entrances.  When  engaged  in 
digging,  which  is  principally  performed  by  the  males,  they  are  some- 
times so  intent  upon  their  work  as  to  admit  of  being  taken  by  the 
hand  ;  and  the  same  may  also  be  done  during  incubation.  At  this 
period  I  have  frequently  obtained  specimens  by  thrusting  my  arm 
into  the  burrow,  though  at  the  risk  of  receiving  a  bite  from  the 
powerful  sharp-edged  bill  of  the  old  bird.  At  the  farther  end  of  this 
hole  the  single  c^'g  is  deposited,  which  in  size  nearly  equals  that  of 
a  pullet."  On  rocky  coasts,  as  the  cliffs  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the 
Puffin  selects  the  crevices  and  fissured  recesses  of  the  precipice  for 
its  breeding  retreat.  The  young  are  at  first  covered  with  blackish 
down,  and  in  about  a  month  are  sufficiently  plumed  to  follow  their 
parents  to  sea.  The  Puffin  is  an  admirable  diver  ;  it  may  be  often 
seen  perched  on  the  ledge  of  a  bold  precipice,  peering  witfi  its  keen 
eyes  into  the  glassy  water  below, — suddenly,  it  throws  itself  headlong 
into  the  abyss,  cleaving  the  waves,  which  sparkle  as  they  close  over 
it.  Soon,  however,  it  reappears,  laden  with  a  row  of  Sprats,  its 
favourite  food,  which  hang  from  the  bill,  their  heads  being  secured 
between  the  mandibles;  and  now,  taking  a  curved  sweep  upwards, 
it  bears  them  to  its  young. 

In  the  PufBn,  the  crown  of  the  head,  the  upper  parts  of  the  body, 
and  a  collar  round  the  neck  are  black  ;  the  cheeks  pearl-grey ;  the 
horny  appendages  to  the  eyelids  leaden-grey ;  the  bill,  deeply 
furrowed,  is  bluish-grey  at  the  base,  the  middle  being  rich  orange- 
red,  which  deepens  into  fine  red  at  the  tip  ;  legs,  orange-red.  Length, 
thirteen  inches.  The  young  have  the  beak  small  and  smooth,  and  of 
a  dull  yellow ;    and  the  general  plumage  more  dusky.     (See  Fig. 

I499-) 

The  Foolish  Guillemot  {Uria  troUe).—ln  the  genus  Uria 
the  bill  is  moderate,  robust,  straight,  acute,  and  compressed ;  nostrils 


basal ;  the  limbs  short,  the  tarsi  alone  appearing  to  emerge  from 
the  body  ;  tail  very  short.  Fig.  1500,  represents  the  bill  of  the  Guille- 
mot;  Fig.  1501,  the  foot. 

The  Foolish  Guillemot,  so  called  from  suffering  itself  to  be  taken 
rather  than  quit  the  single  egg  over  which  it  broods,  is  found  in  the 
Arctic  seas  of  the  Old  and  New  World  ;  in  winter  the  immense 
flocks  which  have  left  their  breeding  places,  for  they  are  migatory  in 
their  habits,  pass  along  the  coasts  of  Norway,  and  England,  Hol- 
land, and  France,  and  abound  in  the  Baltic.  According  to  Nuttall, 
the  great  body  of  American  Birds  of  this  species  take  their  course 


Fig.  1499. — The  Puffin. 

along  the  whole  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay,  Labrador,  and  Newfound- 
land, and  winter  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  In  spring  the  flocks  which 
were  scattered  over  the  bays,  gulfs,  and  seas  of  the  temperate  lati- 
tudes, where  food  was  abundant,  return  to  their  own  breeding  haunts. 
In  our  island  they  make  their  appearance  towards  the  end  of  March 
or  the  beginning  of  April,  and  tenant  in  myriads  the  Orkneys,  the 
Bass  Rock,  the  isolated  pillars  of  Trap-rock,  in  the  Farn  Islands,  the 
cliffs  of  Scarborough,  and  the  Needles  and  cliff's  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  as  well  as  other  places.  Here,  associated  with  Razor-bills, 
Puffins,  and  other  Sea-fowl,  they  cover  the  ledges  of  the  precipitous 
rocks,  ranged  in  tiers  ;  the  Guillemots  in  crowded  rows,  each  female 


Fig.  1500. — Bill  of  the  Guillemot. 

sitting  in  an  upright  position  on  her  own  egg,  which  she  has  de- 
posited on  the  narrow  naked  ledge  ;  all  living  hi  harmony  together ; 
the  appearance  made  by  the  congregated  multitude  in  a  dense  mass 
is  very  curious.  Incubation  lasts  a  month  ;  the  young,  which  are  at 
first  clad  in  a  thick  down,  of  a  blackish  grey  colour  above,  white 
beneath,  are  plentifully  supplied  with  young  Herrings,  Sprats,  and 
other  Fish,  till  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  weeks  they  acquire  their 
plumage,  and,  taking  to  the  water,  depend  upon  their  own  exertions. 
The  egg  is  of  a  pale  green,  stained  with  black  and  umber-brown. 

In  the  autumn  the  Guillemots  leave  the  rocks,  and  betake  them- 
selves entirely  to  the  ocean,  where  the  old  Birds  undergo  a  moult,  in 
which  the  black  of  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  neck  is  exchanged  for 


Fig.  1501.— Foot  of  the  Guillemot, 


THE  DIVERS. 


591 


■white,  the  black  being  reassumed  the  following-  spring.  At  this 
time,  from  the  loss  of  so  many  of  the  quill-feathers,  they  are  often  for 
a  short  time  unable  to  fly ;  but  as  they  are  out  at  sea,  and  dive  on 
the  approach  of  danger  with  astonishing  quickness,  this  is  of  little 
consequence.  The  flocks  now  gradually  pass  southwards,  following 
the  shoals  of  Fishes  which  leave  our  coasts,  and  at  length  reach  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  coast  of  Sicily,  where  they  feast  upon  the 
Anchovy  and  Sardine.  On  the  other  hand,  a  few  stragglers  from  the 
Polar  Circle  visit  the  friths  of  Scotland,  which  appear  to  be  the 
extent  of  their  southern  migration.  The  flight  of  the  Guillemot  is 
sharp  and  rapid,  at  a  low  degree  of  elevation,  but  not  of  long  duration. 
In  its  summer  dress  the  head  and  neck  of  this  Bird  are  black, 
and  the  feathers  of  a  velvety  texture ;  the  upper  surface  is  sooty 
black  ;  the  under  plumage  white  ;  bill  and  legs  black.  Length  fif- 
teen inches.     (See  Fig.  1502.) 


Fig.  1502. — The  Foolish  Guillemots. 

In  the  young  of  the  year  the  black  of  the  upper  parts  is  clouded 
with  ash  colour ;  ashy  brown  predominates  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck  ;  and  the  white  of  the  lower  parts  is  not  so  pure. 

The  Black  Guillemot  ( Uria  grylle).—T\\ft  Black  Guillemot  in- 
habits the  same  range  of  countries  as  the  preceding  species,  and 
migrates  southwards  in  winter  along  the  borders  of  the  ocean.  It  is 
rare  on  the  English  coast,  but  breeds  abundantly  in  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Isles,  on  the  ledges  of  the  rocks,  and,  according  to  Selby, 
Gould,  and  others,  lays  a  single  e.%%  of  a  greyish-white,  speckled 
with  black  and  dusky  grey.  Both  Nuttall  and  Audubon,  however, 
affirm  that  in  the  northern  districts  of  America  this  species  lays 
three  eggs.  "  On  several  occasions,"  says  the  latter  observer,  "  at 
Labrador,  some  of  my  party  and  myself  saw  several  black  guillemots 
sitting  on  eggs,  in  the  same  fissure  of  a  rock,  where  every  bird  had 
three  eggs  under  it."  For  the  reception  of  these  eggs,  according  to 
the  same  authority,  the  Birds  raise  a  sort  of  nest  or  fabric  of  pebbles 
to  the  height  of  two  or  three  inches,  in  order  that  the  water  trickling 
through  the  fissures  and  recesses  of  the  rock  may  not  reach  the 

eggs. 

Dr.  Richardson  states  that  this  species  abounds  in  the  Arctic  seas 
and  straits,  from  Melville  Island  down  to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  re- 
mains, though  in  diminished  numbers,  during  winter  in  the  pools 
of  open  water,  which  occur,  even  in  high  latitudes,  among  the  floes 
of  ice.  In  summer  the  colour  of  this  species  is  black,  with  a  white 
band  across  the  wings.  In  winter  the  old  Birds  have  the  cheeks, 
throat,  and  all  the  under  plumage,  pure  white  ;  these  parts  acquiring 
at  the  vernal  moult  the  sooty  black  which  remains  during  the  summer. 
(See  Fig.  1503.) 

The  Little  Auk  {Mergidus  alle;  Mergulus  ntelanoleucus, 
Ray;  Uria  alle,  Temm. ;  Alca  alle,  Linn.).  Rotch  and  Sea-Dove, 
Provincial. 

This  active  little  Bird  is  intermediate  between  the  Auks  and 
Guillemots  ;  the  bill  is  not  so  long  and  pointed  as  in  the  latter,  yet 
not  compressed  and  furrowed  as  in  the  former ;  it  is  short,  stout, 
and  broader  than  deep  at  the  base.  The  Little  Auk  is  a  native  of 
the  Arctic  circle,  and  is  recognised  as  a  winter  visitor  to  the  coasts 


of  Scotland  ;  Mr.  Sclby  suggests  that  a  few  may  perhaps  breed  upon 
the  extreme  rocky  islands  of  the  north  of  that  part  of  our  country, 
but  of  this  we  have  no  definite  information  ;  on  the  coasts  of  England 
it  is  rarely  seen,  and  then  only  when  driven  by  storms  and  adverse 
winds  from  its  northern  home.  It  abounds  on  the  bleak  coasts  of 
Greenland,  and  Spitiibcrgen,  and  thousands  have  been  seen  at  Mel- 
ville Island.     When  the  floes  of  ice  arc  broken  up   by  the  wind. 


Fig.  1503. — Black  Guillemots. 

myriads  of  these  Birds  may  be  seen  riding  on  the  waves  busily 
engaged  in  searching  for  various  Marine  Animals,  which  are  tossed 
up  by  the  agitated  waters.  The  ocean  is  its  home  and  resting-place, 
except  during  the  season  of  incubation,  when  it  resorts  in  thousands 
to  the  ledges  of  precipitous  rocks,  on  which  the  female  deposits  her 
single  egg,  of  a  pale  bluish-green.  Its  flight  is  rapid,  but  low,  and 
never  long  sustained.  This  species  is  about  nine  inches  long.  The 
head,  back  of  the  neck,  and  upper  plumage,  are  black  ;  under- 
plumage,  white  ;  a  narrow  white  bar  across  the  wing ;  the  throat, 
neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  breast  pitch-black  in  summer,  more  or 
less  white  in  winter.     (See  Fig.  1504.) 


Fig.  1504.— The  Little  Auk. 

Fig.  1505  shows  the  Gizzard  and  Proventriculus  of  this  Bird  laid 
open  ;  the  latter  is  remarkable  for  its  peculiar  form. 

The  Divers— Family  Colymbidce. 

The   Colymbidce  have  the  wings  rather  short,  but  still  distinctly 
longer  than  in  the  Alcidce.    The  beak  is  rather  long,  conical,  and 


592 


THE  DIVERS. 


pointed,  with  very  small  linear  nostrils;  the  head  is  sonnctimes 
crested,  or  adorned  with  tufts  of  feathers  ;  and  the  hinder-toe,  al- 
though small,  is  always  distinct.  The  legs,  as  in  the  Alcidcc,  are 
placed  far  back,  so  that  the  Birds,  when  standing  on  the  ground, 
assume  a  more  or  less  erect  position.  The  tarsi  are  much  com- 
pressed, and  the  tibiffi  almost  entirely  concealed  beneath  the  skin  of 
the  body.  The  Colyinbida  inhabit  the  cold  and  temperate  regions 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  some  of  them  residing  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  fresh  waters,  and  only  visiting  the 
sea-coast,  or  the  estuaries  of  rivers,  when  a 
severe  winter  drives  them  from  their  ac- 
customed haunts ;  others  are  exclusively 
marine.  They  feed  upon  Fish,  Molhisca, 
Insects,  and  Crustacea.  In  their  habits 
these  Birds  present  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  many  of  the  AlcklcB  ;  their  flight 
is  swift,  but  not  long-continued,  and  they 
swim  and  dive  with  the  greatest  facility. 

This  family  may  be  divided  into  two 
very  distinct  sections,  in  accordance  with 
the  structure  of  the  foot.  In  the  Grebes 
{PodiC!j)i>!a:),  the  toes  are  not  united  by  a 
membrane  except  close  to  the  base,  the 
remainder  of  the  membrane  taking  the  form 
of  broad  lobes  surrounding  each  toe  sepa- 
rately (Fig.  1506).  Further  description  will 
be  given  in  connection  with  the  Eared 
Grebe.  These  Birds,  of  which  five  species 
occur  in  our  country,  are  generally  found 
in  the  vicinity  of  fresh  water,  although  they 
occasionally  visit  the  sea,  and  often  frequent 
the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  Eared  Grebe  {Podice^s  aiiritiis). 
— Le  Grebe  oreillard  of  Temminck.  In 
the  form  of  their  body,  the  position  and  structure  of  the  feet, 
and  the  nature  of  their  plumage,  the  Grebes  are  expressly 
fitted  for  the  element  on  which  they  habitually  reside,  and  in  which 
they  chase  their  finny  prey  with  arrow-like  velocity.  The  head  is 
narrow;  the  beak  long,  pointed,  and  sharp,  somewhat  compressed 
at  the  sides,  and  slightly  inclined  upwards  towards  the  tip.  The 
neck  is  long;  the  body  boat-shaped  and  flattened  ;  the  wings  are 
short,  concave,  and  pointed  ;  there  is  no  tail  ;  the  plumage  is  thick, 
full,  and  soft ;  a  dense  layer  of  fine  down  forms  an  under-dress, 
being  covered  by  feathers  of  a  silky  gloss  and  texture,  and  completely 


rig.    1505. — Gizzard  of 
the  Little  Auk. 


Fig.  1506. — Foot  of  the  Grebe. 

waterproof.  The  toes  differ  from  those  of  every  other  aquatic  race 
of  Birds,  as  already  mentioned.  Instead  of  being  webbed,  as  in  the 
Duck  tribe,  and  others  of  the  Natorial  order,  the  toes  are  separate 
and  flattened,  having  their  edges  furnished  with  a  broad  stiff  mem- 
brane, each  toe  being,  in  fact,  a  distinct  and  beautifully-formed 
paddle.  Of  the  three  anterior  toes,  the  outermost  is  the  longest  and 
largest ;  the  next  is  nearly  as  large,  and  its  outer  edge  lies  tile-like 
over  the  inner  membrane  of  the  outermost ;  the  innermost  toe  is  less 
than  the  middle  one,  on  which  its  outer  edge  impinges.  The  hind 
toe  is  short,  placed  high  on  the  leg,  and  furnished  with  a  lobated 
membrane.  The  arrangement  of  the  scales  covering  the  toes  gives 
to  them  a  leaf-like  appearance  ;  for  the  lines  dividing  the  scales  run 
in  regular  succession  obliquely  upwards  from  a  central  line  or  shaft, 


formed  by  the  bones  advancing  to  the  tips,  which  are  covered  with  a 
broad,  flat  nail.  The  leg,  or  tarsus,  is  short,  and  flattened  laterally 
so  as  to  cut  the  water  when  drawn  up  after  each  stroke. 

The  situation  of  the  legs  in  the  Grebe  is  thrown  as  far  backwards 
as  possible,  and  the  thigh  is  short,  and,  as  it  were,  retracted,  so  as 
not  to  advance  beyond  the  body  ;  the  Grebe,  however,  cannot  sit 
upright  like  the  Penguin,  for  it  does  not  rest  on  its  heel ;  it  is  not 
plantigrade.  When  resting  on  the  land  it  lies  prone  on  its  whole 
body,  and  in  this  situation  shufiles  along  like  a  seal,  pushing  itself 
onwards  by  striking  the  ground  with  its  feet.  Ill  adapted  for  the 
land,  the  Grebe,  as  we  have  seen,  is  admirably  constructed  for  the 
water.  It  swims  low,  owing  to  the  flatness  of  its  body,  and  when 
diving  in  pursuit  of  its  prey,  uses  its  wings  to  add  to  its  velocity. 

The  quickness  with  which  the  Grebes  dive  is  very  remarkable ;  so 
instantaneously  do  they  plunge,  that  they  are  able  to  avoid  the  shot 
from  a  fowling-piece,  fired  by  a  common  flint  lock,  and  they  will 
then  make  a  stretch  of  two  hundred  yards  before  coming  up  to 
breathe,  which  is  done  by  merely  raising  the  head  for  a  second  above 
the  water.  Mr.  Selby  informs  us  that,  when  making  a  tour  through 
Holland,  in  company  with  Sir  W.  Jardine,  he  gave  chase  to  a 
Crested  Grebe,  upon  one  of  the  lakes  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rotter- 
dam, and  that  though  in  a  boat  conducted  by  those  accustomed  to 
the  business,  it  cost  upwards  of  an  hour  and  a  half's  severe  exertion 
to  get  within  range  and  secure  it  by  a  shot  through  the  neck.  The 
food  of  this  singular  group  of  Birds  consists  of  Fishes  and  Aquatic 
Insects ;  but  it  is  observed  that  the  stomach  is  always  found  to  con- 
tain a  mass,  greater  or  less,  of  the  feathers  of  their  own  body.  That 
these  are  swallowed  to  assist  digestion,  as  has  been  suggested,  is 
not  clear  ;  most  probably  they  are  involuntarily  swallowed  during  the 
dressing  and  cleaning  of  the  plumage,  for  we  often  find  in  the 
stomach  of  Cows  and  other  Ruminants,  balls  of  hair ;  the  material 
being  collected  into  the  mouth  while  licking  their  own,  or  each  other's 
coats,  and  then  swallowed. 

The  places  chosen  by  the  Grebes  for  their  nidification  are  among 
the  thick  reeds  and  luxuriant  aquatic  herbage  of  marshes,  or  the 
sedges  which  border  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers,  the  nest  being 
composed  of  a  mass  of  half-decayed  roots,  dried  flags,  and  other 
similar  vegetable  materials.  It  is  large  and  compact,  but  roughly 
put  together,  and  rises  or  falls  according  to  the  rise  or  fall  of  the 
water  on  which  it  floats ;  the  eggs  are  three  or  four  in  number, 
and  carefully  covered  up  by  the  female  every  time  she  leaves  the 
nest. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  ornithologists  have  extri- 
cated the  species  of  the  genus  Podiceps  from  the  confusion  in  which 
they  were  left  by  the  earliest  writers,  who,  misled  by  the  great  dif- 
ference existing  between  the  plumage  of  Birds  in  an  immature  and 
adult  state,  had  set  down  the  young  as  specifically  distinct  from  their 
parents  ;  nor  is  this  error  much  to  be  wondered  at,  since  the  dif- 
ferences are  not  only  very  considerable  as  it  regards  colour,  but  also 
as  respecting  the  absence  or  presence  of  long  ear-tufts,  occipital 
crests,  or  throat-frills,  with  which  the  adults  are  more  or  less  orna- 
mented during  the, breeding  season.  The  Horned  Grebe,  the  Eared 
Grebe,  and  the  Crested  Grebe,  take  their  names  from  the  position  of 
these  silky  plumes,  which  produce  a  striking  and  elegant  appearance. 
We  have  eveiy  reason,  however,  to  believe  that  they  are  lost  during 
the  winter,  being  the  temporary  ornaments  of  the  breeding  season. 
Fig.  1507  represents  the  head  of  the  Eared  Grebe  in  full  plumage. 


Fig.  1507. — Head  of  the  Grebe. 

The  genus  Podiceps  has  a  wide  geographical  range,  being  found 
in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  following  species  are  common  t  j 
Northern  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  :— The  Red-neck  Grebe 
{^Podiceps  rubricol/is),  a  winter  visitor  to  our  Island ;  the  Crested 
Grebe  {P.  cris/atiis),  which  breed  in  some  of  the  fens  of  the  midland 


THE   DIVERS. 


593 


counties  of  England,  and  in  Scotland  ;  the  Horned  Grebe  (P.  cor- 
nutiis),  a  rare  species,  but  occasionally  breeding-  in  the  fenny  dis- 
tricts of  the  eastern  counties  ;  and  the  Eared  Grebe  {P.  aiiritus), 
also  a  very  rare  Bird  in  our  island,  but  occasionally  known  to  breed 
in  the  same  districts  as  the  preceding 

The  Little  Grebe  or  Dabchick,  {Podice;ps  minor),  common  in  the 
ponds  and  lakes  of  our  country  and  spread  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  is  represented  in  North  America  by  the  P.  caroli- 
Jioisis.  Severals  pecies  are  peculiar  to  Australia.  Some  Birds,  nearly 
allied  to  the  Grebes,  are  found  in  Tropical  Africa  and  South  America 
Mr.  C.  R.  Gray  has  established  a  third  sub-family  (^Helwrnince)  for 
their  reception.  The  plumage  of  the  male  Eared  Grebe  in  full  dress 
is  as  follows  : — Crown  of  the  head  and  short  ruff  round  the  neck, 
shining  black  ;  from  behind  and  below  the  eyes  on  each  side  is  a  tuft 
of  long,  slender,  shining,  orange  buff  feathers,  which  cover  the 
ears,  and  nearly  meet  behind  ;  throat,  neck,  sides  of  breast,  and 
upper  plumage  deep  shining  greyish-black;  secondaries,  white; 
under  plumage  white,  with  a  silky  lustre  ;  bill  black  ;  iris  Vermillion  ; 
legs  brown.  Fig.  1508  represents  a  male  in  full  plumage,  and  a  young 
Bird  of  the  year. 

The  Colymbina;,  or  Divers,  which  have  the  three  anterior  toes 
completely  united  by  a  membrane,  closely  resemble  the  Grebes  in 
their  general  appearance  ;  but  they  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  coast, 


of  the  Cree  Indians  ;  Talkijeh  of  the  Chippewayans  ;  Trochydd  mawr 
of  the  ancient  British. 

This  fine  species  inhabits  the  Arctic  regions  of  the  globe, 
migrating  southwards  in  winter,  during  which  season  numbers 
frequent  our  northern  coasts,  and  especially  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
attracted  by  the  shoals  of  Herrings,  on  which  they  principally  feed. 
It  is  occasionally  seen  about  our  southern  coasts,  and  has  been 
killed  in  the  Thames  below  Woolwich.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
great  mass  of  those  Birds  which  visit  our  coast  consists  of  the  young 
of  the  year,  or  of  the  previous  year,  adults  in  full  plumage  being 
seldom  seen,  nor  are  these  ever  observed  on  the  lakes  of  Germany, 
France,  or  Switzerland.  The  Great  Northern  Diver  breeds  upon  the 
shores  of  the  inland  lakes  of  the  north,  and  on  the  islets,  which  are 
often  studded  over  by  their  nests.  The  eggs,  two  in  number,  are 
large,  and  of  a  deep  oil  green,  spotted  with  purplish  red.  Dr. 
Richardson,  who  had  abundant  opportunities  of  observing  the 
manners  and  habits  of  the  Northern  Diver,  remarks  that  though  it 
"  is  generally  described  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  ocean,  we  seldom  ob- 
served it  either  in  the  Arctic  Sea  or  Hudson's  Bay;  but  it  abounds 
in  all  the  interior  lakes,  where  it  destroys  vast  quantities  of  fish.  It 
is  rarely  seen  on  land,  its  limbs  being  ill-fitted  ior  walking,  though 
admirably  adapted  for  its  aquatic  habits.  It  can  swim  with  great 
swiftness,  and  to  a  very  considerable  distance,  under  the  water  ;  and, 


Fig.  1508.— Eared  Grebes. 


and  seek  their  food  in  the  salt  water.  They  are  much  larger  Birds 
than  the  Grebes,  measuring  usually  between  two  feet  and  a-half  and 
three  feet  in  length,  and  are  essentially  inhabitants  of  the  high 
northern  latitudes,  visiting  our  shores  in  the  autumn,  remaining 
through  the  winter,  and  quitting  us  in  the  spring  to  seek  their  nor- 
thern breeding  stations. ..  A  good  many,  however,  remain  to  breed  on 
the  coasts  and  lakes  of  the  Highlands  and  Islands  of  Scotland, 
forming  a  neat  nest  of  vegetable  materials  on  the  beach,  or  amongst 
the  herbage  of  the  shore  ;  they  lay  two  or  three  eggs,  and  the  young 
take  to  the  water  soon  after  they  are  hatched.  They  fly  rapidly, 
although  their  wings  are  very  small  in  comparison  to  the  size  of  their 
bodies,  and  exhibit  the  greatest  activity  in  the  water,  swimming 
swiftly  either  upon  the  surface,  or  with  the  whole  of  the  body  sub- 
merged, and  diving  and  progressing  under  water  with  great  ease. 
The  Great  Northern  Diver  [^Colymbus  glacialis.  Fig.  1509),  which  is 
one  of  the  finest  species,  is  described  as  follows  : — 

The  Great  Northern  Diver  {Colymbus  glacialis). — Greatest 
speckled  Diver  or  Loon  of  Williighby  ;  Immer  Diver,  Ember  Goose 
of  Sibbald ;  Imber,  le  grand  Plongeon  of  Buffon  ;  Schwarzhalsiger 
Seetaucher,  Eis-taucher,  Grosse  Hab-ente,  and  Meer-nocring  of  the 
Germans ;  Inland  Loon  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  residents  ;  Turlik  of 
the  Greenlanders  :  Kagloolek  of  the  Esquimaux  ;  Eilhcnncw  Moqua 


when  it  comes  to  the  surface,  it  seldom  e.xpioses  more  than  the  neck. 
It  takes  wing  with  difficulty,  flies  heavily,  though  swiftly,  and 
frequently  in  a  circle  round  those  who  intrude  on  its  haunts.  Its 
loud  and  very  melancholy  cry,  like  the  howling  of  the  wolf,  and  at 
times  like  the  distant  scream  of  a  man  in  distress,  is  said  to  portend 
rain.  Its  flesh  is  dark,  tough,  and  unpalatable.  We  caught  several 
of  these  birds  in  the  fishing-nets,  in  which  they  had  entangled 
themselves  in  the  pursuit  offish." 

Montagu  informs  us  that  one  of  these  Birds,  captured  on  our 
shores,  was  kept  in  a  pond  for  some  months.  "  In  a  few  days,"  he 
says,  "  it  became  extremely  docile,  would  come  to  the  call  from  one 
side  of  the  pond  to  the  other,  and  would  take  food  from  the  hand.  The 
bird  had  received  an  injury  in  the  head,  which  had  deprived  one  eye 
of  its  sight,  and  the  other  was  a  little  impaired  ;  but,  notwithstanding, 
it  could,  by  incessantly  diving,  discover  all  the  fish  that  were  thrown 
into  the  pond.  When  it  could  not  get  fish  it  would  eat  flesh  ;  and 
when  it  quitted  the  water,  it  shoved  its  body  along  upon  the  ground 
like  a  seal,  by  jerks,  rubbing  the  breast  against  the  ground;  and 
returned  again  to  the  water  in  a  similar  manner.  In  swimming  and 
diving  the  legs  only  were  used,  and  not  the  wings,  and  by  their 
situation  so  far  behind,  and  their  little  deviation  from  the  line  of  the 
body,  it  is  enabled  to  propel  itself  in  the  water  with  great  velocity." 

4  G 


594 


THE  PELICANS. 


The  colours  of  the  adult  Great  Northern  Diver  are  admirably 
arranged;  head  and  neck  jet  black,  with  a  broad  colour  of  white 
striated  with  black,  nearly  encircling  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and 
a  similar,  but  narrow  collar,  the  upper  part.  Upper  plumage  glossy 
black,  thickly  dotted  with  square  marks  of  white,  disposed  in  regular 
rows  ;  sides  of  the  chest  white,  striated  with  black.  Under  surface 
pure  white  ;  tail,  very  short ;  bill,  black;  legs,  dull  black;  length, 
thirty-five  or  thirty-six  inches.  In  the  young  of  the  year,  the 
head  and  upper  plumage  are  generally  of  a  greyish  brown; 
and  the  under  plumage  white.  After  the  second  moult,  a 
dark  band  appears  along  the  neck,  and  the  upper  plumage 
begins  to  assume  indications  of  the  adult  character,  which  is  still 
more  developed  at  the  third  moult,  and  is  perfected  at  the  fourth. 
(See  Fig.  1509.) 


Fig.  1509. — Northern  Diver. 


The  Pelicans— Family  Pelecanida. 

The  Divers  are  followed  by  the  interesting  family  of  the  Pele- 
canidce,  of  which  the  essential  character  consists  in  the  peculiar 
formation  of  the  foot,  the  hinder  toe  being  directed  more  or  less 
inwards,  and  united  by  a  web  with  the  innermost  of  the  three 
anterior  toes.     (See  Fig.  1510.) 

In  their  habits  the  Peleca7iida  exhibit  considerable  diversity,  but 
they  are  all  voracious  Birds,  feeding  entirely  upon  Fishes,  which 
they  capture  in  various  ways.  They  form  a  rude  nest,  sometimes 
on  rocks  close  to  the  water,  or  on  trees  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  It,  and  the  young  usually  remain  in  the  nest  until  they  are 
capable  of  flight. 

This  family  includes  several  very  interesting  Birds,  amongst  which 
the  best  known  are  the  typical  Pelicans,  of  which  several  species  are 
found  in  different  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  Pelicans  are 
large  Birds,  the  common  species  measuring  from  five  to  si.x  feet  in 
length  \vith  an  expanse  of  wing  from  twelve  to  thirteen  feet.  They 
live  indifferently  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  and  on  the  sea 
shores,  generally  in  small  flocks  ;  and,  according  to  Lesson,  do  not 
go  to  any  very  great  distance  from  the  shore.  They  swim  and  fly 
well,  and,  like  the  other  species  of  this  family,  and  a  few  Ducks,  are 
able  to  perch  upon  trees.  The  skin,  beneath  the  lower  mandible,  is 
dilated  into  a  large  pouch,  in  which  the  Fish  are  stored  when  cap- 
tured; from  this  the  food  passes  gradually  into  the  cesophagus,  as 
the  process  of  digestion  goes  on.  When  fishing,  the  Pelicans  fly 
over  the  water  at  a  height  of  from  twenty  to  forty  feet,  until  they  see 
a  Fish  near  enough  to  the  surface,  when  they  immediately  dart  down 
upon  It  with  the  most  unerring  certainty,  store  it  away  in  the  pouch 
and  proceed  in  search  of  more.  ' 

The  White  Pelican  fPckcamis  onocrofa/usj.  In  the  genus 
Pelecaiius  the  bill  is  very  long,  broad,  flattened,  and  straight  with 
a  hooked  projection  at  the  extremity  of  the  upper  mandible  •  the 
nostrils  are  basal  slits  ;  the  under  mandible  is  formed  of  two  long 
slender  flexible  branches,  uniting  together  at  the  tip,  and  enclosing 
a  widely  dilatable  membranous  pouch,  which  extends  to  the  throat  • 
tongue  rudimentary;  eyes  surrounded  by  a  naked  space-  body 
large;  legs  short;  wings  moderately  ample;  air-cells  of  tlie  body 


extensively  developed.      Fig.  151 1  represents  the   head,   Fig.  15 12 
the  foot,  of  the  Pelican. 

This  magnificent  Bird  is  a  native  of  Africa,  India,  and  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  southern  provinces  of  Eastern  Europe.  It  is 
also  found  in  America.  It  is  common  on  the  Danube  and  Volga, 
on  the  lakes  of  Hungary  and  Russia,  on  the  Black  Sea,  and 
along  the  coasts  of  Greece,  and  also  in  Egypt  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 


Fig.  1 5 10. — The  Pelican. 

Hasselquist,  who  saw  this  species  at  Damietta,  observes  that  it 
visits  Egypt  in  the  middle  of  September,  arriving  in  flocks,  which 
form  during  flight  an  acute  triangle  at  a  great  elevation.  Dr.  Von 
Siebold  saw  it  at  Japan.  The  Pelican  swims  well,  but,  strictly 
speaking,  does  not  dive.  We  have  often  seen  these  Birds  plunge 
their  long  beaks  and  necks  under  water,  and'  net  the  Fish  in  their 
capacious  pouches  :    in  their  wild  state  they  hover  and  wheel  over 


Fig.  1511. — Head  of  the  Pelican. 

the  surface  of  the  water,  watching  the  shoals  of  Fish  beneath,  and 
suddenly  sweeping  down,  bury  themselves  in  the  foaming  waves ; 
rising  immediately  from  the  water  by  their  own  buoyancy,  up  they 
soar,  the  pouch  laden  with  the  Fish  scooped  up  during  their  momen- 
tary submersion.  The  number  of  Fish  the  pouch  of  this  species  will 
contain  may  be  easily  imagined  when  we  state  that  it  is  so  dilatable 
as  to  be  capable  of  containing  two  gallons  of  water  ;  yet  the  Bird  has 
the  power  of  contracting  this  membranous  expansion,  by  wrinkling 
it  up  under  the  lower  mandible,  until  it  is  scarcely  to  be  seen.  In 
shallow  inlets,  which  the  Pelican  often  frequents,  it  nets  its  prey  with 


Fig.  1512. — Foot  of  the  Pelican. 


THE  PELICANS. 


595 


great  adroitness  in  the  manner  already  described,  and  which  may 
be  witnessed  by  observers  of  these  Birds  in  the  Zoolo,^ical  Gardens. 
The  PeHcan  chooses  remote  and  solitary  islands,  isolated  rocks 
in  the  sea,  the  borders  of  lakes  and  rivers,  as  its  breeding-place. 
The  nest,  placed  on  the  ground,  is  made  of  coarse  grasses,  and  the 
eggs,  which  are  white,  are  two  or  three  in  number.  While  the 
female  is  incubating,  the  male  brings  fish  to  her  in  his  pouch,  and 
the  young,  when  hatched,  are  assiduously  attended  by  the  parents, 
who  feed  them  by  pressing  the  pouch  against  the  breast,  so  as  to 
transfer  the  Fish  from  the  former  into  the  throats  of  the  young.  This 
action  has  doubtless  given  origin  to  the  old  fable  of  the  Pelican 
feeding  its  young  with  blood  drawn  from  its  own  breast.  Occa- 
sionally the  Pelican  perches  on  trees  along  the  margin  of  the  water, 
but  rocky  shores  are  its  favourite  haunts.  In  certain  localities  they 
congregate  in  great  numbers,  mi.\ed  with  other  Water-fowl,  all 
harmoniously  breeding  together.  Le  Vaillant,  upon  visiting  Dassen 
Eyland,  at  the  entrance  of  Saldanha  Bay,  after  wading  through 
the  surf  and  clambering  up  the  rocks,  beheld  an  astonishing 
spectacle  : — "  All  of  a  sudden  there  arose  from  the  whole  surface  of 
the  island  an  impenetrable  cloud,  which  formed  at  the  distance  of 


rig.  1513 Pelicans  in  their  haunts. 

forty  feet  above  our  heads  an  immense  canopy,  or  rather  sky,  com- 
posed of  birds  of  every  species  and  of  all  colours  ;  cormorants,  sea- 
gulls, sea-swallows,  pelicans,  and  I  believe  the  whole  winged  race 
of  this  part  of  Africa,  assembled  on  this  spot.  All  their  voices 
mixed  together,  and  modified  according  to  their  different  kinds, 
formed  such  a  horrid  music  that  I  was  every  moment  obliged  to 
cover  my  head  to  gain  a  little  relief  to  my  ears.  The  alarm  which 
we  spread  was  so  much  the  more  general  among  these  innumerable 
legions  of  birds,  as  we  principally  disturbed  the  females,  which  were 
then  sitting ;  they  had  nests,  eggs,  and  young  to  defend.  They 
were  like  furious  harpies  let  loose  against  us,  and  their  cries  rendered 
us  almost  deaf.  They  often  flew  so  near  us  that  they  flapped  their 
wings  in  our  faces,  and,  though  we  fired  our  pieces  repeatedly,  we 
were  not  able  to  frighten  them  ;  it  seemed  almost  impossible  to 
disperse  this  cloud.  We  could  not  move  one  step  without  crushing 
cither  their  eggs  or  young,  the  earth  was  entirely  strewed  with  them." 
The  same  enthusiastic  traveller  also  narrates,  that,  on  the  Klein- 
brak  river,  whilst  waiting  for  the  ebb-tide,  he  saw  assembled 
thousands  of  Pelicans  and  Flamingoes,  the  white  of  the  former 
strongly  contrasting  with  the  scarlet  of  the  latter. 

Besides  the  Common  Pelican,  another  species  {P.  crisfus, 
Feldegg)  inhabits  south-eastern  Europe.  In  America  there  are  two 
species,  the  P.  trachyrhynchus,  Latham,  and  the  P.  fusciis.    The 


former  is  numerous  in  the  fur  countries,  where  it  was  found  breeding 
by   Dr.    Richardson,   on   small   rocky   islands,   and    the    brink    of 

cascades. 

The  White  Pelican,  when  adult,  has  the  plumage  generally  of  a 
pure  white,  with  a  slight  rose  tinge  ;  the  feathers  of  the  chest  are 
long,  firm,  and  silky,  with  a  tinge  of  fine  straw  yellow  ;  the  quill- 
feathers  are  black,  but  nearly  concealed  beneath  the  wing-coverts, 
which  are  long  and  pointed  and  very  regularly  and  beautifully  dis- 
posed ;  the  bill  is  yellowish,  passing  into  red  at  the  tip  ;  the  sides  of 
the  lower  mandible,  and  a  line  down  the  upper  being  lead-coloured  ; 
pouch  yellow ;  legs  vivid ;  space  round  the  eyes  flesh-colour. 
Length  nearly  si.x  feet  ;  expanse  of  wing  twelve  or  thirteen  feet. 
(See  Fig.  1513.) 

The  following  kinds  of  Pelicans  may  be  seen  in  the  Zoological  Gar- 
dens, London  ;  we  add  further  description,  quoted  from  the  "  Guide." 
The  Common  Pelican  {Pelecanus  oiwcrotalus).  The  Mitred 
Pelican  {P.  niitratus).  The  Crested  Pelican  {P.  cn'sfitis). 
The  Australian  Pelican  {P.  conspicillatus).  The  West 
African  Pelican  {P.  ne/ascens). 

"  The  Pelicans  do  well  in  captivity,  and  the  Society's  living  series 

of  the  species  found  in  the  Old 
Worldis  very  nearly  complete.  But 
we  have  at  present  no  representa- 
tives of  the  Pelicans  of  America. 

"The  Crested  Pelican  is  sel- 
dom seen  in  collections.  Accord- 
ing to  Lord  Lilford  it  is  common 
throughout  the  year  on  the  coast  of 
Epirus,  but  the  living  specimens 
which  have  been  received  by  the 
Society  have  been  usually  brought 
from  Upper  Egypt.  The  orange 
colour  of  the  pouch  becomes  ex- 
tremely vivid  in  the  breeding 
season  ;  and  the  bird  is  altogether 
larger  and  more  imposing  than 
the  common  species,  P.  onocro- 
talus. 

"  The  Pelicans  have  a  very  ex- 
tensive distribution,  being  found 
in  all  quarters  of  the  world.  One 
of  the  finest  of  the  whole  genus  is 
the  Australian  Pelican,  of  which 
the  Society  have  two  adult  speci. 
mens."  There  are  numerous 
specimens  of  the  Pelican  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Pelicans 
are  Cormorants  belonging  to  the 
genus  Phalacrocorax  of  which 
the  following  is  a  description. 

The  Cormorant  (Phalacro- 
corax carbd). — In  the  genus  Pha- 
lacrocorax the  bill  is  long, 
straight,  compressed,  with  the 
upper  mandible  boldly  curved  at 
the  point :  the  gullet  is  large  and 
dilatable  ;  sides  efface  and  throat 
naked  ;  nostrils  basal  and  linear  ; 
tail  ample  and  rigid. 

In  the  "  Zoological  Journal, "  vol. 
iv.,  Mr.   Yarrell  has  described  an 
additional  bone  affixed  to   the  oc- 
ciput of  the  Cormorant,  and  which 
he  calls  a  xiphoid  bone,  giving  origin  on  each  side  to  a  long  triangular 
muscle,  acting,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  muscles  upon  the  lower 
jaw:  he  also  notices  the  great  length  of  the  OS  quadratum.    Fig.  15 14 
represents  the  skull,  i,  and  the  dissected  head,  2.  of  the  Cormorant. 
The  skull,  i.  :  a,  the  occipital  ridge  ;  b,  the  xiphoid  bone  ;  c,  the  os 
quadratum.     Dissected  head,  2.  :  a  and  b,  muscles  answering  to  the 
temporal  and  massitor  ;  c,  the  triangular  muscle  arising  from  the 
xiphoid  bone  and  inserted  into  the  lower  jaw. 

The  range  of  the  Cormorant  is  very  extensive  ;  it  is  found  on  the 
Ganges  of  India,  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  also  in  North 
America.  It  is  abundant  in  Holland  at  all  seasons,  and  is  common 
in  France  and  England  ;  numbers  breed  on  the  cliffs  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and,  according  to  Selby,  on  the  Farn  or  Fern  Islands  ;  and 
flocks  may  often  be  seen  on  sand-banks  near  our  southern  coast,  on 
isolated  rocks,  or  sailing  up  and  down  near  the  shore,  and  up  the 
mouths  of  the  larger  rivers.  Voracious  in  the  extreme,  the  Cormo- 
rant is  an  unwearied  and  active  fisher,  pursuing  its  prey  beneath  the 
water,  like  the  Otter,  occasionally  rising  to  take  breath,  and  renewing 
the  chase.  Eels  are  said  to  be  a  favourite  food.  The  dilatable 
character  of  the  gullet  of  this  Bird  permits  it  to  swallow  Fish  of  con- 
siderable size  without  difficulty,  head  foremost  ;  but  should  the  Fish 
be  seized  transversely,  the  Bird  jerks  it  into  the  air,  and  dexterously 
catches  it  in  the  right  position  as  it  falls.     The  Cormorant  swims  so 


596 


THE  CORMORANTS. 


low  in  the  water  that  nothing  but  the  head,  neck,  and  top  of  the  back 
appear  above  the  surface  ;  its  tail,  composed  of  stiff  elastic  feathers, 
is  submerged  and  used  as  a  rudder  in  its  subaquatic  evolutions,  and 
the  wings  as  oars ;  the  address  with  which  it  dives,  and  the  rapidity 
of  its  movements,  are  wonderful,  nor  less  so  the  pertinacity  with  which 
it  pursues  its  victims.  This  interesting  Bird  sometimes  builds  its 
nest  in  trees,  but  generally  on  the  summits  of  rocks  :  the  nest  consists 
of  dried  seaweeds  ;  in  the  Fern  Islands,  according  to  Mr.  Selby,  the 
nests  so  composed  are  frequently  two  feet  in  height.  The  eggs  are 
from  three  to  five  in  number,  of  a  bluish  white.  The  young,  when 
first  hatched,  are  naked,  the  skin  being  of  a  purplish  black ;  in  si.N 


Fig.  1514.— Skull  and  Head  of  the  Cormorant. 

or  seven  days  they  become  covered  with  black  down,  but  the  feathered 
plumage  is  not  perfected  till  a  lapse  of  six  weeks.  Yet  when  only 
half-fledged,  if  thrown  into  the  water  they  immediately  dive  and 
pursue  their  submarine  course  to  a  great  distance,  using  their  imper- 
fect wings  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  almost  as  much  effect,  as 
the  old  Birds.     (See  Fig.  1515.) 


Fig.  i5i5._The  Cormorant. 

In  winter,  fiocks  of  Cormorants  often  wander  inland,  and  may 
be  seen  on  lakes  and  rivers  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
sea. 

When  the  old  Birds  are  surprised  on  the  nest,  they  have  a  strant^e 
habit  of  stretching  out  the  neck,  raising  up  the  head,  opening  the 
bill,  and  vibrating  the  loose  skin  of  the  throat,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  utter  a  cry  expressive  of  alarm  and  anger. 

Ravenous  as  the  Cormorant  is,  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  becomes 
very  attached  and  familiar.  One  of  these  Birds  which  was  cau^-ht 
by  accident,  was  kept  by  Colonel  Montagu,  and  soon  became  pljr- 
fectly  domesticated  ;  it  would  join  him  at  the  fireside,  and  dress  its 
feathers  with  perfect  self-possession.  It  lived  in  perfect  harmony  with 
Swans,  Geese,  Ducks,  and  other  Birds,  and  was  only  excited  by  the 
sight  of  a  Fish.     It  never  attempted  to  stray,  and  would  walk  in  and 


out  of  the  house,  regardless  even  of  the  Dog,  and  was,  as  the  colonel 
said,"  Troublesomely  tame."  This  character,  Mr.  Selby  states,  that  he 
can  confirm,  having  himself  kept  these  Birds  in  a  domesticated  state. 

As  a  further  proof  of  the  docile  nature  of  this  Bird,  we  may  men- 
tion that  both  in  our  country  and  in  Holland  it  was  trained  to  fish  ; 
Willoiighby,  quoting  Faber,  says  :  "  They  are  wont  in  England  to 
train  cormorants  to  fishing  :  when  they  carry  them  out  of  the  room 
where  they  are  kept  to  the  fish-pools,  they  hoodwink  them,  that  they 
be  not  frightened  by  the  way  :  when  they  come  to  the  rivers  they 
take  off  the  hoods,  and  having  tied  a  leather  thong  round  the  lower 
part  of  their  necks  that  they  may  not  swallow  down  the  fish  they 
catch,  throw  them  into  the  river.  They  presently  dive  under 
water,  and  there  for  a  long  time  with  wonderful  swiftness  pursue 
the  fish,  and  when  they  have  caught  them  they  rise  presently 
to  the  top  of  the  water,  and  pressing  the  fish  lightly  with  their 
bills  they  swallow  them,  till  each  bird  hath  after  this  manner 
devoured  five  or  six  fishes.  Then  their  keepers  call  them  to  the  fist, 
to  which  they  readily  fly,  and  little  by  little  disgorge  all  their  fish, 
a  little  bruised  by  the  nip  they  gave  them  with  their  bills.  When 
they  have  done  fishing,  setting  the  birds  on  some  high  place,  they 
loose  the  string  from  their  necks,  leaving  the  passage  to  the  stomach 
free  and  open,  and  for  their  reward  they  throw  them  part  of  the  prey 
they  have  caught  to  each,  perchance,  one  or  two  fishes,  which  they 
by  the  way,  as  they  are  falling  in  the  air,  will  catch  most  dexterously 
in  their  mouths. "  Swammerdam  states  the  circumstance  of  Trained 
Cormorants  being  brought  from  Holland  to  England  for  sale.  Latham 
observes  that  "  Whitelock  says  he  had  a  cast  of  them,  manned  like 
hawks,  and  which  would  come  to  hand  ;  and  relates,  that  the  best  he 
had  were  presented  to  him  by  Mr  Wood,  master  of  the  cormorants  to 
King  Charles  the  First." 

The  adult  Cormorant  is  a  handsome  Bird.  Top  of  the  head,  neck, 
breast,  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  under  surface,  of  a  glossy  greenish 
black  ;  a  white  band  stretches  across  the  throat,  and  white  silky 
hair-like  feathers  are  scattered  over  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  ;  top 
of  the  back  and  wings  fine  bronze  brown,  each  feather  having  a 
marginal  belt  of  rich  velvet  black  ;  quill  and  tail  feathers  black  ;  bill 
dusky  ;  skin  of  the  throat  yellow  ;  iris  bright  green  ;  a  white  patch 
upon  the  thighs  ;  legs  dusky  black.  A  semi-erect  crest  on  the  back 
of  the  head.  Length  about  three  feet ;  extent  of  wings  nearly  four  feet. 

The  Fishing  Corjiorant. — Of  the  exotic  species,  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  Fishing  Cormorant  {Phalacrocorax  sinejisis),  an 
inhabitant  of  China,  where  it  is  regularly  trained  and  employed  in 
fishing.  Mr.  Fortune,  who  saw  them  frequently  engaged  in  this 
manner  during  his  travels  in  the  interior  of  China,  says  that  their 
docility  is  so  remarkable,  that  had  he  not  witnessed  their  proceed- 
ings, he  would  have  had  great  difficulty  in  believing  the  statements 
of  previous  authors.  They  are  taken  out  in  small  boats,  each  with 
a  string  tied  round  his  neck  to  prevent  his  swallowing  the  F~ish  when 
caught ;  and  on  receiving  the  word  of  command  from  their  masters, 
immediately  quit  the  boats  and  scatter  themselves  over  the  surface 
of  the  water,  looking  out  for  prey.  The  moment  they  perceive  a  Fish 
below  them,  they  dive  down  upon  it,  and,  on  rising  again  with  their 
prey,  they  bring  it  to  their  masters  with  the  docility  of  a  Dog,  allow 
themselves  to  be  dragged  in,  disgorge  the  Fish,  and  then  return  to 
their  occupation.  "  What  is  more  wonderful  still,"  adds  Mr.  Fortune, 
"  if  one  of  the  Cormorants  gets  hold  of  a  fish  of  large  size,  so  large 
that  he  would  have  some  difficulty  in  taking  it  to  the  boat,  some  of  the 
others,  seeing  his  dilemma,  hasten  to  his  assistance,  and,  with  their 
efforts  united,  capture  the  animal,  and  haul  him  off  to  the  boat." 
Occasionally  one  of  the  Birds  will  swim  about  without  attending  to 
its  business  ;  the  fishermen  then  strike  the  water  near  it  with  a  long 
bamboo  used  for  propelling  the  boat,  and  call  out  to  it  in  an  angry 
tone,  when  the  Cormorant,  "like  the  truant  schoolboy  who  neglects 
his  lessons  and  is  found  out,  gives  up  his  play,  and  resumes  his 
labours."  They  fish  for  about  seven  hours  daily,  for  seven  or  eight 
months  in  the  year — namely,  from  October  to  May  ;  they  do  not  fish 
during  the  summer  months.  At  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when 
they  cease  fishing,  and  come  on  shore,  each  Bird  receives  about  half 
a  pound  of  fish  and  some  pulse  jelly;  but  during  the  day  they  are, 
of  course,  not  fed.  It  appears  that,  in  some  parts  of  China,  there 
are  large  establishments  for  breeding  and  training  these  Birds.  They 
begin  to  lay  when  about  three  years  old;  the  eggs  are  hatched  by 
hens,  and  the  young,  when  excluded,  are  put  upon  cotton,  and  fed 
with  eels'  blood  for  five  days.  At  the  end  of  this  period  they  are  fed 
with  finely  chopped  eels.  It  is  interesting  to  see  the  instincts  of  a 
Bird  which,  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  so  exceeeding  destructive,  thus 
rendered  subservient  to  the  convenience  of  mankind. 

The  Crested  Cormorant  or  Shag  {Phalacrocorax  cn'sfufus.) 
Cormoran  Largup  of  Temminck  :  Shag  or  Green  Cormorant  of 
Gould,  Selby,  and  others.  The  Crested  Cormorant,  or  Shag,  is 
widely  spread  over  the  north  of  Europe,  but  is  not  an  American 
species.  It  is  common  on  various  parts  of  our  coast,  breeding  in  the 
cliffs,  and  on  the  ledges  of  perpendicular  cliffs  (not  like  the  preced- 
ing, on  the  top),  and  making  a  nest  of  seaweeds.  Its  habits, 
manners,  and  food  are  precisely  the  same  as  those  of  the  Cormorant, 
and  require  no  separate  detailed  account. 

The  crest  of  tnis  species,  which  consists  of  an  occipital  tuft  of  long 


THE  FRIGATE  BIRDS— THE  G ANNE  IS. 


S97 


green  feathers,  is  lost  after  the  breeding-  season.  The  upper  part  of 
the  back  and  shoulders  of  a  deep  bronzed  green,  each  feather  being 
martrined  with  velvet  black;  head,  neck,  and  under  surface  lustrous 
silky  blackish  green  ;  tail  of  twelve  black  feathers  ;  bill  and  legs 
black  ;  guttural  skin,  and  corners  of  the  mouth  gamboge-yellow,  the 
former  with  black  specks  ;  iris  green.  Length  two  feet  one  or  two 
inches.     (See  Fig.  1516.) 

The  foreign  species  of  the  genus  PJiahicrocorax  are  very  numerous, 
and  generally  distributed  throughout  the  different  quarters  of  the 
globe;  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Australia  havmg  their 
respective  examples.  The  collection  of  the  British  Museum  is  rich 
in  stuifed  specimens  obtained  from  India,  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, various  parts  of  North  and  South  America,  the  Falkland 
Isles,  &c. 


■^O^^-^.- 


Fig.  1 5 16. — The  Crested  Cormorant. 

Amongst  the  most  remarkable  Birds  of  this  family  are  the  Frigate 
Birds  {Tachypefes),  which  are  distinguished  by  the  immense  length 
and  power  of  the  wings.  They  are  more  particularly  described  as 
follows  : — 

The  Frigate,  or  Man-of-War  Bird  [Tachypetes  aquilus). 
— The  genus  Tachypetes  is  characterised  by  a  strong  elongated  beak, 
depressed  in  the  centre,  and  abruptly  hooked  at  the  end  ;  the  nostrils 
are  mere  slits  in  a  suture  running  along  each  side  of  the  upper 
mandible ;  the  tarsi  are  extremely  short ;  the  webs  of  the  toes 
deeply  notched  ;  the  wings  extremely  long  and  narrow  ;  the  tail 
is  forked ;  an  extensive  naked  gular  pouch  :  one  species  only  is 
ascertained. 

Noted  for  its  raptorial  habits,  the  Frigate  Bird  soars  on  rapid 
pinions  over  the  broad  expanse  of  ocean  principally  in  intertropical 
latitudes,  and  tyrannizes  over  the  Gulls  and  Boobies,  from  whom  it 
forces  the  prey  they  have  captured.  At  immense  distances  from 
shore  it  pursues  its  habits  of  rapine,  but  is  never  known  to  repose  on 
the  water  ;  rapid  as  an  arrow  it  plunges  from  its  altitude  upon  the 
shoals  of  flying-fish,  which  rise  glittering  above  the  surface,  or  upon 
some  unfortunate  Sea-Bird  which  has  made  a  capture,  and  which  it 
harasses  till  it  obtains  the  booty.  No  Bird  is  more  at  home  in  air, 
or  sweeps  along  on  more  radid  pinions.  Supported,  says  Mr.  Vigors, 
"  in  its  unlimited  flights  by  the  strength  and  expansion  of  its  wings, 
and  aided  by  the  singular  mechanism  of  its  tail,  and  the  buoyant 
nature  of  the  inflated  sac  which  distends  its  throat,  it  seems  to  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  air  rather  than  of  the  land,  to  which  it  resorts 
alone  for  the  duties  of  its  nest,  or  of  the  water,  over  which  it  only 
hovers  for  its  prey."  It  may  here  be  added  that  the  long  wing-bones 
are  hollow,  thin,  and  light,  and  that  the  air-cells  of  the  whole  body 
are  extremely  developed,  while,  in  proportion  to  the  expanse  of 
wings,  the  total  weight  of  the  Bird  is  very  trifling  ;  hence  can  it 
repose  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  suspended  without 
effort. 

Sloane,  who  saw  these  and  Tropic  Birds  when  he  came  into  lati- 
tude 13°  10',  says,  "The  man-of-war  bird  seems  very  large,  bigger 
than  a  kite,  and  black  ;  they  fly  like  kites,  very  high,  and  often 
appear  immovable  over  the  water,  to  wait  for  and  catch  small  fish 
appearing  on  the  surfare  :  they  are  sharp  winged,  and  their  tail  is 
forked.  When  flying-fishes  are  persecuted  under  water  by  dolphins, 
bonitos,  &c.,  they  rise  and  fly  for  some  space  in  the  air,  and  are 
often  devoured  by  these  birds  in  that  time.  We  saw  them  first  when 
we  came  near  Barbadoes.  The  sailors  guess  themselves  not  many 
days,  or  about  two  hundred  leagues,  off  the  islands,  when  they  spy 
them  first ;  and  it  is  wondered  how  they  can  direct  their  course  to 
the  land  at  nights,  being  so  far  distant  ;  but  it  seems  no  very  strange 
matter,  because  they  are  very  high  in  the  air,  and  can  see  land 
much  farther  than  those  on  the  deck  or  topmast  of  a  ship.     The 


reason  of  their  flying  so  high  may  be  to  have  a  greater  field  before 
them  for  prey,  because  they  may  go  where  they  see  the  dolphins 
follow  or  hunt  the  flying-fishes.  They  are  commonly  thought  in  the 
West  Indies  to  foretcl  the  coming  in  of  ships,  for  when  they  see  a 
man-of-war  bird  come  into  their  ports,  they  reckon  ships  will  soon 
follow ;  and  it  is  very  often  true,  for  they  love  to  fish  in  not  very 
rough  weather,  so  that  when  it  blows  hard  at  sea,  they  come  into 
the  ports  and  bays  to  fisli,  where  the  wind  is  broken  off  by  the  land, 
and  the  same  wind  blowing  them  in,  brings  in  the  shipping  after 
them.  There  are  more  of  these  in  the  firm  land  of  America  than  in 
the  isles.  One  of  these  birds  at  Panama  coming  to  take  sardinas 
that  were  a-curing  in  the  sun,  a  negro  broke  his  wing  with  a  stick  he 
had  in  his  hand:  the  body,  after  it  was  cleared  of  feathers,  was 
little  bigger  than  a  pigeon.  The  wings  being  extended,  no  man, 
though  several  tried,  could  reach,  with  his  arms  stretched  out, 
within  four  inches  of  the  tip  of  them."  The  fat  was  considered  by 
the  Indians  and  others  a  sovereign  remedy  in  some  diseases,  such 
as  sciatica,  &c. 

These  Birds  are  said  to  build  their  nest  on  precipitous  rocks  near 
the  sea.  The  eggs  are  stated  to  be  of  a  carnation  tinge  dotted  with 
crimson,  and  one  or  two  in  number.  The  length  of  the  male,  in- 
cluding the  tail,  is  three  feet ;  expanse  of  wing  eight  feet  ;  gular 
air-pouch  red  ;  general  plumage  blackish  umber-brown.  In  the 
female  the  pouch  is  less  and  the  plumage  of  a  duller  hue.  (See  Fig. 
1517.)  In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  specimens  may  be 
seen  of  the  Ariel  Frigate  Bird  of  Australia,  and  other  species. 


rig.  1517.— The  Frigate,  or  Man-of-War  Bird. 

The  Gannets  next  follow.  They  resemble  the  Cormorants  in  their 
general  form,  but  vary  in  certain  particulars. 

The  Gannet.  Soland  Goose,  or  Booby  {Sula  bassana).— 
Fou  de  Bassan  of  the  French  ;  Solend-Gans,  or  Schotten-Gans  of 
the  Germans ;  Gans  of  the  ancient  British ;  Solan  and  Soland 
Goose,  English.  The  name  Booby  has  been  applied  to  them  on 
account  of  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  approached,  and  cap- 
tured when  sitting. 

In  the  genus  Sula,  the  bill  is  long,  thick  at  the  base,  and  taper- 
ing to  a  sharp  point ;  the  edges  are  denticulated  with  serrations 
directed  backwards  ;  beneath  the  under  mandible  the  skin  is  naked 
and  dilatable;  space  round  the  eyes  naked;  tail  graduated;  claw 
of  the  middle  toe  pectinated. 

Gifted  with  unwearied  powers  of  wing,  the  Gannet  soars  over  the 
ocean,  surveying  its  surface  with  a  piercing  glance,  and  darting 
down  with  more  than  arrow-like  rapidity  on  the  Fish  winch  has 
unwarily  approached  the  surface.  This  extraordinary  Bird  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  Arctic  regions  of  the  Old  and  New  World :  in 
Europe,  the  shores  of  Norway  and  the  Hebrides  are  their  strongholds  ; 
the  Bass  Rock  at  the  entrance  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  the  Isle  of  Ailsa 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  St.  Kilda,  the  Skelig  Isles  on 
the  Irish  coast,  and  others,  are  their  annual  breeding  resorts.  1  liey 
are  numerous  in  Iceland,  and  are  found  on  the  coast  of  Newlound- 
land,  and  on  the  north-west  coast  of  America. 

The  Gannet  is  migratory,  arriving  at  the  Bass,  and  other  places 
of  resort,  about  the  end  of  March,  in  vast  flocks,  for  the  purpose  ot 
incubation.  Thousands  incubate  in  harmony  together  :  the  nes: 
is  composed  of  withered  grasses  and  sun-dried  seaweeds  ana, 
according  to  Mr.  Selby,  the  female  lays  only  a  single  c^?.,  not  two  as 
is  stated  by  Temmick.  When  first  hatched,  the  young  are  quile  des- 
titute of  down,  and  the  skin  is  of  a  dark  lead  colour  ;  in  a  lew  d,ays 
however,  the  white  down  makes  is  appearance,  and  soon  becomes 
so  thick  and  full,  that  the  nestlings  look  like  powder-pufl^  :  in  about 
two  months  the  young  are  fledged.  1      /-        „» 

The  Bass  Rock  and  St.  Kilda  may  be  regarded  as  regular  Gannet 


59S 


THE  DARTERS. 


farms ;  the  young  are  taken  in  g^eat  numbers,  not  only  for  the  sake 
of  the  down,  but  also  of  their  flesh,  which,  though  oily  and  rank,  is 
esteemed  as  a  relish,  when  roasted,  in  some  parts  of  Scotland.  Mr. 
Selby  says,  in  respect  to  the  Bass  Rock,  that  "  Great  care  is  taken 
to  protect  the  old  birds,  which  the  tenant  is  enabled  to  do  from  the 
privilege  possessed  by  the  proprietor  of  preventing  any  person  from 
shooting  or  otherwise  destroying  them,  \\ithin  a  certain  limited  dis- 
tance of  the  island.  From  the  accounts  I  have  received  from  the 
resident  there,  it  appears  that  the  gannet  is  a  very  long-lived  bird, 
as  he  has  recognised,  from  particular  and  well-known  marks,  certain 
individuals,  for  upwards  of  forty  years,  that  invariably  returned  to 
the  same  spot  to  breed  ;  he  also  confirmed  to  me  the  time  required 
for  this  bird  to  attain  maturity— viz.,  four  years,  and  pointed  out 
several  in  the  different  garbs  they  assume  during  that  period,  stating 
also,  that  until  fully  matured,  they  have  never  been  known  to  breed." 
During  incubation,  in  consequence  of  being  unmolested,  they  be- 
come very  tame  :  and  where  the  nests  are  easily  accessible,  upon  the 
flat  surface  of  the  rock,  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  island,  will 
allow  themselves  to  be  stroked  by  the  hand  without  resistance,  or 
any  show  even  of  impatience,  except  the  low  guttural  cry  of  ^ro^-, 
grog.  The  surface  of  Bass  Island  is  almost  entirely  covered  in  the 
months  of  May  and  June  with  the  nests,  eggs,  and  young  of  the 
Gannet,  so  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  walk  without  treading  on 
them.  The  flocks  rise  in  clouds,  and  make  such  a  stunning  noise 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  hear  your  companion's  voice.  The  sea 
all  round  is  covered  with  them,  and  the  flocks  in  the  distance  can 
only  be  compared  to  vast  swarms  of  Bees.  The  food  of  the  Gannet 
consists  almost  exclusively  of  the  different  species  of  Herring,  on 
which  it  plunges  from  a  great  altitude,  with  tremendous  force  and 
rapidity  ;  Gannets  have,  indeed,  been  taken  by  means  of  a  Fish 
fastened  to  a  board  sunk  to  the  depth  of  two  fathoms,  against  which, 
so  violent  has  been  the  shock  of  the  Bird,  that  its  neck  has  been 
instantly  dislocated,  and  the  bill  firmly  fixed  in  the  wood.  Thus, 
plunging  from  aloft  beneath  the  waves,  do  the  Birds  pounce  upon 
its  finny  prey,  and  again  rise  into  the  regions  of  air  with  surprising 
ease  and  address.  Buchanan,  in  his  "  View  of  the  Fishery  of  Great 
Britain,"  calculated  that  the  Gannets  of  St.  Kilda  alone  destroy 
annually  105,000,000  of  Herrings;  yet  the  shoals  of  this  Fish, 
though  man  draws  his  millions  also,  seem  undiminished,  notwith- 
standing the  annual  havoc  made  amongst  them.  On  the  approach 
of  autumn,  the  great  body  of  Gannets  seek  more  southern  latitudes, 
and  in  winter  are  met  with  in  great  abundance  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
and  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  the  Anchovy  and  Sardine  afford 
them  an  ample  supply. 

The  general  colour  of  the  adult  Gannet  is  white  ;  the  top  of  the 
head  and  back  of  the  neck  being  tinged  with  yellow,  and  the  quill- 
feathers  black  ;  bill  bluish-grey  ;  naked  skin  around  the  eyes  dull 
blue  ;  skin  of  throat  black  ;  webs  of  the  toes  dusky  ;  a  bluish  streak 
along  the  tarsus  and  upper  part  of  the  toes.  Length,  two  feet  eight 
or  ten  inches.  The  general  plumage  of  the  young  of  the  year  is 
dusky  grey,  which  gradually  passes  into  white.  (See  Fig.  1518.) 
There  are  numerous  specimens  of  the  Gannet  in  the  British 
Museum. 


Fig.  1518.— The  Gannet. 


The  preceding  species  all  belong  to  the  typical  sub-family  of  the 
Pelecani7tCB,  but  there  are  two  other  groups,  each  containing  a 
single  genus,  which  have  also  been  regarded  as  forming  sub- 
families— viz.,  the  Plotina,  or  Darters,  and  the  Phaito7ii7ice,  or 
Tropic  Birds. 

Le  Vaillant's  Darter,  or  Snake-Bird  {Plohts  levaiUanth). 
— The  Darters,  or  Anhingas,  as  Buffon  and  the  French  naturalists 
term  them,  are  most  extraordinary  Birds,  remarkable  for  the  length 
and  slenderness  of  the  neck,  which  bears  no  distant  resemblance  to 
the  slim  form  of  a  Snake,  attached  to  the  body  of  a  Cormorant  ;  the 
beak  is  long,  straight,  pointed,  and  obliquely  dentilated  along  the 
edges:  the  face  and  throat  are  naked,  the  wings  rather  short ;  the 
tail  ample  and  composed  of  rigid  feathers.  The  Darters  perch  upon 
trees  along  the  margin  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  creeks  ;  they  swim  with 
the  body  completely  submerged,  the  long  neck  alone  rising  out  of 
the  water.  When  thus  seen,  they  might  be  mistaken  at  a  casual 
glance  for  Snakes,  and  Le  Vaillant  says,  that  when  the  Birds  are 
perching  the  neck  is  in  a  state  of  constant  oscillation,  and  that  any 
one  who  saw  its  tortuous  movements  amidst  the  foliage  of  the 
trees,  the  body  being  concealed,  would  take  it  for  one  of  the  Tree- 
Serpents.  During  flight  the  neck  is  stretched  out  in  a  line  with  the 
body. 

Le  Vaillant's  Darter  is  a  native  of  Senegal,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  some  parts  of  India,  and  of  the  islands  of  Java  and  Sumatra. 
It  feeds  on  Fish,  which  it  pursues,  like  the  Cormorant,  under  water, 
using  its  tail  as  a  rudder  in  its  subaquatic  evolutions. 

Small  Fish  are  swallowed  whole,  but  larger  prey  is  carried  to  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  or  rock,  where  the  Bird,  fixing  it  securely  beneath  its 
feet,  picks  it  to  pieces.  Though  the  water  is  the  favourite  element 
of  the  Darter,  according  to  Le  Vaillant,  it  is  upon  trees  and  rocks 
that  it  establishes  its  nest  and  rears  its  young ;  always  choosing 
situations  favourable  to  the  escape  of  the  brood,  when  fledged,  or 
when  alarmed,  into  the  water.  This  species  is  extremely  shy  and 
waty,  and  difficult  of  approach  ;  so  instantaneous  are  its  actions  in 
the  water,  that  it  dives  before  the  shot  reaches  it,  upon  the  drawing 
of  the  trigger,  and  often  doubles  back,  emerging  far  behind  the 
sportsman,  and,  taking  wing,  sails  away  to  a  distance.  In  full 
plumage  all  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck  are 
brick  red,  bordered  with  a  riband  of  black  which  descends  to  the 
shoulders  ;  forehead,  cheeks  and  sides  of  neck,  white  ;  throat  and 
anterior  part  of  neck,  ochre-yellow  ;  chest  and  under  parts  blaek, 
with  green  reflexions  ;  base  of  the  neck  reddish,  with  spots  of  white  ; 
upper  surface  brown,  the  middle  of  each  feather  of  a  bright  rust 
colour ;  quills  and  tail  brown  ;  beak  and  feet  yellow.  (See  Fig. 
1519-) 


Fig.  1519. — Le  Valliant's  Darter. 

The  American  Darter  {Plohts  ankinga). — The  American 
Darter,  or  Snake-Bird,  is  a  native  of  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  the 
Floridas,  and  Louisiana  ;  it  is  common  in  Brazil  and  Cayenne.  Like 
the  African  species,  it  swims  with  the  body  submerged,  and  its  long 
neck  vibrating  in  a  peculiar  manner.  "  The  first  individual,"  says 
Mr.  Ord,  "tliat  I  saw  in  Florida,  was  sneaking  away  to  avoid  me 
along  the  shore  of  a  reedy  marsh,  which  was  lined  with  alligators  ; 
and  the  first  impression  on  my  mind  was  that  I  beheld  a  snake,  but 
the  recollection  of  the  habits  of  the  bird  soon  undeceived  me.  To 
pursue  these  birds  at  such  a  time  is  useless,  as  they  cannot  be 
induced  to  rise,  or  even  e.xpose  their  bodies."     "  Wherever,"  adds 


THE  TROPIC  BIRDS. 


599 


the  same  naturalist,  "the  limbs  of  a  tree  project  over  and  dip  into 
the  waters  there  the  darters  are  sure  to  be  found,  these  situations 
being  convenient  resting-places  for  the  purpose  of  sunning  and 
preening  themselves,  and  probably  giving  them  a  better  opportunity 
of  obsen-ing  their  finny  prey.  They  crawl  from  the  water  upon  the 
limbs  and  fix  themselves  in  an  upright  position,  which  they  main- 
tain in  the  utmost  silence.  If  there  be  foliage  or  long  moss,  they 
secrete  themselves  in  it  in  such  a  manner  that  they  cannot  be  per- 
ceived unless  one  be  close  to  them.  When  approached,  they  drop 
into  the  water  with  such  surprising  skill,  that  one  is  astonished  how 
so  large  a  body  can  plunge  with  so  little  noise,  the  agitation  of  he 
water  being  apparently  not  greater  than  that  occasioned  by  the 
gliding  of  an  eel."  .     .  r    .      t-,     ^ 

Bartram,  who  states  that  he  has  seen  paintings  of  the  Darter  on 
Chinese  screens,  and  other  Indian  pictures,  was  "«*.  we  suppose, 
aware  of  the  distinction  between  the  American  and  Old  .World 
snecies  which,  till  Teinminck  extricated  them  from  a  labyrinth  ot 
error  were  confounded  together  under  the  title  of  Plotus  mclatio- 
gast'er     According  to  Bartram,  these  Birds  "delight  to  sit  in  little 


Fig.  1520. — The  American  Darter — Male. 

peaceable  communities  on  the  dry  limbs  of  trees,  hanging  over  the 
still  waters,  with  their  wings  and  tails  expanded,  to  cool  and  air 
themselves,  when  at  the  same  time  they  behold  their  images  in  the 
watery  mirror.  At  such  times,  when  approached,  they  drop  off  the 
limbs  into  the  water  as  if  dead,  and  for  a  minute  or  two  are  not  to  be 
seen,  when  on  a  sudden,  at  a  great  distance,  their  long  slender  head 
and  neck  appear,  like  a  snake  rising  erect  out  of  the  water.  In  the 
heat  of  the  day  they  are  seen  in  great  numbers,  sailing  very  high  in 
the  air  over  lakes  and  rivers."  These  Birds  build  in  the  trees  of 
swamps  and  islands  in  the  midst  of  lakes  or  sheets  of  water,  and 
occupy  the  same  station  for  a  series  of  years  ;  the  nest  is  large,  and 
made  of  sticks,  and  the  eggs  are  blue. 

The  plumage  undergoes  several  changes  before  the  perfect  livery 
is  attained.  In  full  plumage  the  general  colour  is  glossy  greenish- 
black  ;  the  scapular  feathers  are  long  and  slender,  ornamented  with 
a  streak  of  white  down  the  centre  of  each,  forming  a  sort  of  plume 
over  the  back  and  wings  ;  side  of  the  neck,  from  the  eye  backwards, 
marked  throughout  half  its  length  with  a  stripe  of  brownish-white, 
consisting  of  long  hair-like  feathers  ;  a  few  tufts  on  the  crown  ;  wings 
black,  beautifully  variegated  with  silvery  white  ;  bill  black  above, 
yellow  below ;  naked  skin  of  face  and  throat  yellow  ;  legs  yellow ; 
middle  claw  pectinated ;  plumage  stiff  and  elastic.  In  the  female 
and  young  the  front  of  the  neck  is  of  a  rusty  grey  colour,  which 
extends  over  the  breast.  Length  about  two  feet  eight  or  ten  inches, 
but  the  body  does  not  much  exceed  in  size  that  of  a  large  Duck. 
Fig.  1520  represents  the  male.  Fig.  152 1  the  female. 

The  Common  Tropic  Bird  {P/iaeion  cstherius). — The  genus 
Phaetoti,  by  some  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Larida  (Gulls),  is 
characterised  by  a  strong,  compressed,  elongated,  and  pointed  Ijill 
with  dentilated  edges ;  the  nostrils  are  linear ;  the  cheeks  are 
feathered  ;  the  legs  are  very  small  and  short ;  the  wings  long  and 
pointed  ;  the  tail  short ;  with  the  exception  of  two  long,  slender,  but 
wiry  feathers. 

The  navigator  well  knows  these  Birds  as  harbingers  of  the  Tropics, 
where,  far  from  land,  they  may  be  seen  soaring  over  the  ocean,  or 
giving  chase  to  the  Flying-fishes,  which  rise  in  glittering  shoals 
above  the  surface  of  the  waves.  Their  flight  is  extremely  graceful : 
they  often  glide  along,  without  any  apparent  motion  of  the  wings, 
but  sometimes  dart  onwards  by  a  succession  of  rapid  impulsive 
movements,  cleaving  the  air  with  great  velocity.    On  the  appearance 


of  a  vessel,  they  generally  make  towards  it,  sail  round  and  round  it, 
and  then  shoot  away,  to  give  chase  to  their  finny  prey. 

It  is  seldom  that  these  Birds  are  seen  many  degrees  beyond  the 
Tropics,  though  occasionally  they  are  driven  out  of  the  limits  of  their 
ordinary  range  by  storms.  The  Tropic  Bird  rarely,  if  ever,  settles  on 
the  water ;  but  usually  returns  to  its  roosting-place  in  the  evening, 
where  it  perches  on  trees  or  craggy  rocks.  In  serene  weather  it  is 
sometimes  observed  to  settle  on  the  backs  of  drowsy  Turtles,  sunning 


Fig.  1521. — The  American  Darter — Female. 

themselves  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  Though,  as  we  have  said 
these  Birds  usually  visit  their  rocky  resting-places  in  the  evening, 
yet  in  latitudes  remote  from  land  they  keep  during  the  night,  as  well 
as  the  day,  upon  the  wing.  Lesson  heard  them  often  overhead  in 
fine  calm  tropical  nights,  still  pursuing,  unwearied,  their  rapid 
course.  According  to  Catesby,  they  breed  on  the  inaccessible  cliffs 
of  the  Bermudas,  and  in  great  numbers  on  some  little  islands  at  the 
end  of  Porto  Rico.  They  are  abundant  near  the  islands  of  Bourbon 
and  Mauritius.  The  natives  of  some  of  the  islands  within  the 
Tropics  use  the  two  long  tail-feathers  as  ornaments  of  dress. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Tropic   Bird  is  white,  variegated  with 


Fig.  1522.— The  Tropic  Bird. 


6oo 


THE  GULLS. 


cun-ed  lines  of  black  on  the  back  ;  marks  of  black  across  some  of 
the  quill-feathers,  and  a  circle  of  the  same  round  the  eye,  ending  in 
a  point  near  the  occiput  ;  bill  fine  red  ;  legs  Vermillion.  Total 
length,  including  the  long,  slender  tail-feathers,  about  eighteen 
inches.  The  Red-tailed  Tropic  Bird  {Pha'pfon  ^hcEni'airus)  is  a 
distinct  species,  and  more  common  in  the  intertropics  of  the  Great 
Pacific,  while  the  present  species  frequents  more  abundantly  those  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  White  Tropic  Bird  [P.  caiididus)  is  seen 
in  the  South  Seas,  and  frequents  the  Island  of  Ascension. 

The  Gulls — Family  LaridcB. 

The  Lartdce,  or  Gulls,  have  the  wings  of  large  size,  and  pass  the 
greater  part  of  their  time  in  the  air.  The  feet  are  usually  rather 
small,  furnished  with  three  anterior  toes,  united  by  a  membrane  and 
a  free  hinder-toe.  The  beak  is  of  variable  form,  generally  com- 
pressed, and  the  nostrils  are  linear  or  oblong.  The  La}'!dcs  are 
active,  noisy  Birds ;  most  of  them  feed  upon  small  Fish,  which  they 
capture  whilst  skimming  over  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are 
very  buoyant  on  the  water,  but  swim  little,  and  are  incapable  of 
diving.  They  also  form  three  sub-families.  The  Terns  {Stern!)?cs) 
have  the  beak  long,  nearly  straight,  and  pointed  ;  the  tarsi  short, 
and  the  tail  more  or  less  forked  ;  the  latter  character,  coupled  with 
their  small  size  and  constant  activity  on  the  wing,  has  obtained  for 
them  the  name  of  Sea  Swallows.  (See  Fig.  1523).  The  species  are 
tolerably  numerous,  and  live  in  all  parts  of  the  world.     They  gener- 


Fig.   1523. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Tern. 

ally  collect  in  numerous  bands,  and  feed  principally  upon  small 
Fishes,  MoUusca  and  Crustacea ;  but  some  species,  such  as  the 
Sterna  anglica,  capture  Insects  upon  the  wing,  thus  presenting  as 
close  a  resemblance  in  their  habits,  as  in  their  form,  to  the  Swallows. 
The  species  which  feed  upon  Insects  appear  to  frequent  fresh-water 
lakes  and  marshes,  and  many  of  them  are  found  on  the  vast  marshes 
of  Hungary  and  other  inland  countries.  They  make  no  nests,  but 
the  females  lay  their  eggs,  from  two  to  four  in  number,  upon  the  bare 
ground,  or  on  the  ledges  of  rocks  ;  they  exhibit  great  attachment  to 
their  young,  and  defend  them  with  such  courage  as  often  to  baffle 
Birds  of  Prey  in  their  attempts  to  carry  off  any  of  the  brood.  About 
a  dozen  species  occur  in  Britain,  but  they  are  only  summer  visitors, 
arriving  on  our  coasts  in  the  spring,  and  quitting  them  again  in  the 
autumn  for  more  genial  climates.  The  following  is  a  description  of 
some  of  the  species  : — 

The  Common  Tern  {Sterna  hirundd). — Pierre  Garin  of  the 
French  ;  Fionco  and  Rondine  di  mare  of  the  Italians  ;  Meerschwalbe 
of  the  Germans  ;  y  F6rwennol  fwyaf,  and  Yscraen  of  the  ancient 
British ;  Sea  Swallow,  English.  The  Common  Tern  is  found  in 
abundance  along  our  southern  shores,  and  those  of  the  adjacent 
parts  of  the  Continent,  as  well  as  of  Asia  and  Africa ;  according 
both  to  M.  Temminck  and  the  Prince  of  Musignano,  it  e.xtends  its 
range  to  the  coasts  of  North  America.  It  flies  in  flocks,  uttering  a 
harsh  note,  and  often  ascends  creeks  and  rivers  to  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  sea.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  address  and  sudden- 
ness with  which  this  Bird  darts  upon  such  Fish  as  approach  the  sur- 
face, precipitating  upon  its  unwary  victims  with  unerring  certainty, 
and  rising  again  to  pursue  its  course,  as  if  unchecked  by  the  effort. 
This  species  breeds  upon  the  sand  or  shingle  above  high-water 
mark,  the  female  depositing  two  or  three  eggs  in  a  slight  cavity, 
upon  which  she  seldom  broods  during  the  middle  of  the  day,  if  the 
weather  be  sultry,  but  sits  on  them  at  night.  They  young  Birds  are 
at  first  clothed  in  mottled  down,  and  are  carefully  guarded  by  the 
parents,  who  are  watchful  and  clamorous  in  their  defence,  and  sweep 
close  round  the  head  of  the  intruder.  The  bill  of  the  species  is  red, 
passincr  into  black  at  the  tip.  The  top  of  the  head  is  black,  be- 
coming mixed  with  white  in  winter  ;  back  and  wings  delicate  ashy 
grey  ■  rump  and  tail  white  ;  chest  pearl  grey.  The  outer  web  of  the 
outer  tail-feather,  and  first  quill-feather,  blackish;  legs  tile  red. 
Length  fourteen  inches.  . 

The  Common  Tern  is  migratory  m  its  habits,  passing  southwards 
in  winter.  In  the  northern  seas  of  our  island  it  is  rare.  (See 
Fig.  1524-) 


The  Noddy  {Anous  stoHdus,  Leach;  Megalopterus  stolidus, 
Boie  ;  Sterna  stotida,  Linn.)— This  species  is  only  an  accidental 
visitor  to  the  coasts  of  Europe,  its  principal  range  of  habitat  being 
confined  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  coasts  of  Florida,  the  Bahamas, 
the  Tortugas,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Helena.  Two  specimens 
were   shot  off  Wexford  in  Ireland,  in    1830.     It  is  familiar  to  all 


Fig.  1524. — The  Common  Tern. 

mariners  who  navigate  in  the  Equatorial  regions,  and  is  often  seen 
in  flocks,  hundreds  of  leagues  from  land  ;  assiduously  pursuing  its 
finny  prey,  and  uttering  loud  and  discordant  cries.  Occasionally  it 
alights  on  vessels,  and  suffers  itself  to  be  captured,  probably  being 
exhausted  by  fatigue  by  wandering  so  far  away  from  a  resting-place. 
Mr.  Gould  remarks,  that  the  Noddy,  unlike  the  generality  of  Terns, 
builds  in  bushes  or  on  low  trees,  making  a  large  nest  of  twigs  and 
dried  grass  ;  and  while  hovering  round  it,  the  old  Birds  utter  a  low 
querulous  murmur.  The  eggs  are  three  in  number,  of  a  reddish  yel- 
low, blotched  with  dull  red  and  purple.  It  does  not  plunge  down 
upon  its  prey,  like  the  other  Terns,  but  as  it  skims  along  the  water, 
during  its  rapid  progress. 

The  wings  when  closed  extend  beyond  the  tail,  which  is  rounded, 
not  forked.  Plumage  sooty  black  ;  forehead  white,  passing  into  grey 
and  gradually  blending  with  the  general  tint.  Bill  and  feet  black. 
(See  Fig.  1525.) 


Fig.  1525, — The  Noddy. 

A  second  sub-family  (the  Rhynchopina)  is  formed  by  the  remark- 
able genus  Rhy/ictwJ>s,  the  species  of  which,  are  found  principally 
on  the  coast  of  both  sides  of  the  American  continent.  The  beak  in 
these  Birds  is  long,  straight,  and  much  compressed— in  the  form  of 
the  blade  of  a  knife,  the  upper  mandible  being  much  shorter  than 
the  lower  ;  the  legs  are  slender,  the  wings  very  long,  and  the  tail 
forked.  The  peculiar  form  of  the  beak,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  employed,  have  obtained  for  these  Birds  the  names  of  Shearwaters 
and  Skimmers,  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  ;  they  skim 
along  the  surface  of  the  ocean  by  means  of  their  long  and  powerful 
wings,  every  now  and  then  dipping  the  end  of  the  elongated  lower 
mandible  into  the  water,  in  search  of  the  small  Fishes  and  Crus- 
tacea, upon  which  they  feed.  The  common  Shearwater  {RJiynchops 
ni'^ra)  will  be  presently  described.  Like  the  Terns,  which  they 
resemble  in  their  general  habits,  the  Shearwaters  make  no  nest,  but 
lay  their  eggs  in  a  hollow  of  the  sand  ;  and  the  young,  when  hatched, 
are  attended  to  with  great  care  by  the  parents. 

The  Shearwater  or  Scissors-Bill  {RynchoJ>s  tiigra).  Sea 
Skimmer,  Cut-water;  Piscator  of  the  Ch''.iani. 


THE   GULLS. 


60 1 


This  extraordinary  Bird,  whose  beak  differs  from  that  of  all  its 
oceanic  allies,  is  very  extensively  spread  ;  it  ranges  along  the  east 
and  west  coast  of  America;  is  not  uncommon  on  the  coasts  of  Mala- 
bar and  Coromandel,  and  on  those  of  Senegal,  in  Africa.  Catesby 
describes  it  as  frequent  near  the  sea-coasts  of  Carolina  ;  Lesson  found 
it  in  thousands  off  the  coasts  of  Concepcion  (Chili);  and  Mr.  Dar- 
win observes,  that  he  saw  it  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  South 
America  between  latitudes  thirty  and  forty-five  degrees  ;  and  adds, 
that  it  is  abundant  far  inland,  along  the  course  of  the  Rio  Parana, 
whore  it  is  said  to  be  stationary,  breeding  in  the  marshes. _ 

The  Scissors-bill  or  Shearwater  is  about  twenty  inches  in  length, 
the  neck  being  elongated  ;  its  stretch  of  wing,  however,  is  very  great, 
giving  a  measurement  of  three  feet  six  or  eight  inches  ;  the  man- 
dibles of  the  bill  are  very  compressed,  and  the  lower,  which  is  much 
the  longest,  bears  no  distant  resemblance  to  a  sharp  and  slender 
paper-cutter;  its  length  is  about  five  inches  ;  the  upper  mandible  is 
more  than  an  inch  shorter,  more  pointed,  and  rather  stouter,  having 
its  inferior  edge  channelled  with  a  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  lower 
blade,  which  shuts  somewhat  like  a  razor  into  its  handle.  Both  man- 
dibles are  orange-red  at  the  base,  but  gradually  become  black.  Fig. 
1 S26  shows  the  bill  and  head  of  this  bird  in  different  positions.  The  tail 


Fig.  1526. — Head  of  the  Scissors-bill. 

is  forked.  Everlastingly  traversing  the  surface  of  the  water,  this  extra- 
ordinary Bird  flies  with  the  celerity  of  an  arrow  ;  and  with  the  tip  of 
the  lower  mandible  cleaving  the  liquid  surface,  it  seizes  and  swallows 
its  prey,  namely.  Fishes  and  various  Crustacea.  In  this  manner 
flocks  skim  to  and  fro,  busy  in  thus  ploughing  the  waves,  each  Bird 
leaving  its  narrow  wake  as  it  dashes  on  in  a  wild  irregular  course, 
uttering  loud  harsh  cries  of  exultation.  Catesby  says  that  it  fre- 
quents the  oyster  banks  on  the  coasts  of  Carolina,  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  on  those  Mollusca  (see  Fig.  1527) ;  Linnffius  states  that  be- 
sides Fishes  and  Crustacea,  Shell-fish  form  part  of  its  diet ;  and 
Lesson  observes,  "  we  had  proof  that  this  bird  knew  how  to  use  its 


Fig.  1527.— The  Scissors-bill. 

beak  with  advantage  and  the  greatest  address.  The  sandy  beaches 
of  Penco  are  covered  with  Mactrez  (bivalve  shells)  which  the  ebbing 
tide  leaves  nearly  dry  in  small  shallows.  The  Scissors-bill,  well  aware 
of  this,  places  itself  near  these  Mollusca,  waiting  till  the  valves  are  a 
little  opened,  when  it  immediately  thrusts  in  "the  lower  trenchant 
blade  of  its  bill  between  them  ;  they  immediately  close,  and  the  bird 
then  raises  the  shell  and  beats  it  against  the  beach,  so  as  to  cut  the 
contractor  muscle  of  the  Mollusca,  which  it  then  easily  obtains  and 
swallows.  Many  times  have  we  been  witnesses  of  this  highly-per- 
fected instinct."  >=  ^  if 
The  Scissors-Bill  breeds  in  small  flocks  in  marshes,  on  sand-banks, 


and  low  islands ;  the  eggs  arc  three  in  number,  of  a  clear  white, 
spotted  with  different  shades  of  ash.  The  general  colour  of  this 
species  is  dark  umber-brown,  approaching  black  over  the  wings  and 
upper  surface ;  forehead,  checks,  throat,  chest,  and  under  parts 
white  :  a  slight  bar  of  white  across  the  wings ;  feet  red-lead 
colour. 

The  sub-family  of  the  Gulls  {Laritia],  including  the  Birds  com- 
monly known  as  Gulls,  Sea-mews,  &c.,  is  distinguished  from  the 
Terns  by  the  more  robust  and  arched  form  of  the  beak  (Fig.  1528), 
which  is  always  more  or  less  convex  above,  and  often  strongly 
hooked  at  the  tip.  These  Birds  are  found  in  great  abundance  upon 
almost  all  shores,  feeding  upon  Fishes,  Crustacea,  and  Mollusca, 
which  they  capture  alive,  and  not  unfrequently  condescending  to 
make  a  meal  upon  the  carcasses  of  Whales  and  Seals  which  may  be 
floating  in  their  neighbourhood  ;  in  fact,  one  species,  the  Ivory  Gull 
fPa^opliila  eburnca),  which  is  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Green- 
land, has  received  the  name  of  the  Whale  Gull,  from  its  habit  of 
feeding  upon  the  dead  bodies  of  Cctacca. 


Fig.  1528.— Beak  of  the  Gull. 

They  are  exceedingly  voracious  Birds,  skimming  constantly  over 
the  surface  of  the  waves  in  search  of  their  finny  prey,  and  often  fol- 
lowing- the  shoals  of  Fish  to  great  distances.  The  species  of  the  genus 
Lestris,  however,  have  the  remarkable  habit  of  accompanying  the 
other  Gulls  and  Terns  when  fishing,  attacking  them,  and  com- 
pelling them  to  disgorge  a  portion  of  their  prey,  which  the  robber 
seizes  before  it  reaches  the  water.  These  Birds  are  endowed  with 
a  great  power  of  flight,  and  their  toes  are  armed  with  strong  curved 
claws,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  seize  the  Birds  that 
they  attack  as  above  described.  Some  of  the  species  often  wander 
to  a  considerable  distance  inland,  especially  during  stormy  weather  ; 
and  the  smaller  species  not  unfrequently  visit  ploughed  fields,  for 
the  purpose  of  picking  up  Worms  and  the  larvas  of  Insects. 

The  Gulls  usually  congregate  in  vast  numbers  at  their  breeding- 
places,  which  are  generally  rocky  headlands  or  islands.  They  make 
a  rude  nest,  and  lay  from  two  to  four  eggs.  The  British  species  are 
rather  numerous,  but  several  of  them  only  appear  to  visit  our  coast 
during  the  breeding  season  ;  whilst  others,  which  breed  in  the  high 
northern  latitudes,  are  seen  on  the  British  coasts  in  the  winter.  A 
few  remain  here  all  the  year  round. 

The  Great  Black-backed  Gull  {Larus  marhius). — Among 
the  various  species  of  Gull  which  haunt  our  shores,  this  fine  species 
may  be  often  noticed  flying  alone  or  in  pairs,  and  known  by  its 
superior  size,  its  black  mantle,  and  wings.  (See  Fig.  1529.)  It  is 
common  in  the  Orcades  and  Hebrides ;  and  migrating  south  in 
winter,  visits  the  coasts  of  Holland  and  France,  both  in  spring  and 


Fig.  1529. — The  Great  Black-backed  Gull. 

on  the  approach  of  the  cold  season.  In  ver)'  high  latitudes  it  is 
rare;  and  is  seldom  seen  in  Baffin's  Bay,  though  it  is  by  no 
means  unfrcqucnt  along  the  coast  of  the  States  of  North  America. 
Its  cry  is  loud  and  hoarse.  Among  its  breeding  places  in  the 
British  Islands  may  be  named  the  Steep-holme,  and  Sandy  Islands, 
in  the  Bristol  Channel,  Souliskerry,  in  the  Orkneys,  the  Bass  Island 

4  U 


602 

in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  the  marshes  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames. 
U  builds  a  nest  of  rushes,  grass,  &c.  ;  the  eggs  are  three  or  four  in 
number  of  an  olive-green  blotched  with  blaek.  In  its  habi  s  i  is 
very  wary!  anS  its  appetite  is  voracious.     Fig.  1530  represents   the 

r;,v/^  rhUbundtiS  Lnn.)-The  species  of  the  genus  Xema 
aeach)  a  e  d  sS'isbed  by  a  more  slender  bill,  a  slighter  contour, 
Indbv  the  head  b^ing  black  in  summer,  which  colour  is  lost  on  the 
approach  of  winter,  "and  resumed  in  the  spring.  The  Laughing 
GuU  is  common  during  the  winter  on  our  coasts  and  those  of 
t^^mDerate  Europe  •  but  leaves  the  sea  on  the  approach  of  spring, 
anTvrsts  tr^lakes  and  fenny  districts  of  the  interior  of  the 
country  for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  Here  it  makes  a  nest  of  de- 
couniry,  lu    u     i     1        ^^  ^^^^  among  the  tufts  of  rushes,  the 

female  laying  three  or  four  eggs  of  a  pale 
olive-brown,  blotched  with  black  and  grey. 
The  young  are  covered  with  parti-coloured 
down,  but  soon  become  fledged,  and  to- 
wards the  end  of  June  begin,  with  their 
parents,  their  course  from  the  interior  sea- 
wards. Formerly  the  eggs  and  young  were 
held  in  estimation,  and,  according  to  Mr. 
Selby,  a  Gullery  has  produced  a  revenue  of 
from  fifty  to  eighty  pounds  a-year  to  the 
i»Silli*^r^ti^  proprietor.  He  notices  the  large  pond  at 
/a^W\MfflflV,-TO  Pallinsbum,  in  Northumberland,  and  other 
Hiayywlra'iitre  1  localities  in  the  neighbourhood,  as  annually 
Mfinwf  I  |||lfi  visited  by  flocks  of  these  Birds  ;  and  Wil- 
Illllfilr'lllB  luf'-hby  states  that  in  his  time  they  yearly 
lliiMilHfcliJi  built  and  bred  "at  Norbury  in  Stafford- 
^^UMaMm^WS  shire,  on  an  island  in  the  middle  of  a  great 
pool,"  arriving  about  the  beginning  of 
March,  and  incubating  towards  the  end  of 
April.  The  young  were  taken  and  fattened 
for  the  table,  to  the  number  of  1,200 
annually,  and  sold  at  a  high  price. 
The  head  of  this  species  is  a  dark  blackish-brown,  the  bill  deep 
crimson:  the  general  plumage  pearl  grey  above,  white  beneath; 
winc-s  long  and  pointed;  legs  blood  red.  In  winter  the  head  is 
white  Earthworms,  Slugs,  Aquatic  Insects,  constitute  its  sunimer 
diet  and  it  often  visits  ploughed  lands  in  quest  of  the  larvae  of  the 
cockchaffcr;  in  winter  it  feeds  upon  small  I'lsh  and  Crustacea. 
(See  Fig.  1531.) 


THE  PETRELS. 


Fig.  1530. — Gizzard  of 
°  theSea-Mew. 


Fig.  1531. — Laughing  Gulls. 

The  Arctic  Skua  Gull  [Lestris  ^arasih'cus;  Catarr hades 
■parasificus,  Fleming ;  Lams  parasiticus,  Linn.)  Unlike  the 
True  Gulls,  the  Skua  or  Parasitic  Gulls  are  Birds  of  rapacious 
habits,  and  are  bold  and  destructive,  resembling,  in  many  points, 
Birds  of  prey.  Fish  is  their  usual  food ;  like  the  Sea-Eagle,  how- 
ever, as  already  noticed,  they  seldom  obtain  their  livlihood  by  their 
own  honest  exertions,  but  attacking  the  ordinary  species,  they  force 
them  to  give  up  their  booty,  or  to  disgorge  it,  if  swallowed,  and, 
sweeping  down  with  arrow-like  velocity,  catch  it  before  it  reaches 
the  water.  They  have  the  beak  strong  and  thick  with  an  extended 
cere  at  the  base,  and  hooked  at  the  point;  the  claws  are  large  and 
sharp,  the  inner  one  the  most  robust  and  curved  ;  the  wings  are  lono- 
and  pointed ;  the  tail  rounded,  with  the  two  middle  feathers  pro^ 
longed  and  narrow.  Their  flight  is  astonishingly  rapid,  and  per- 
formed in  successive  curves,  so  that  it  bears  no  resemblance  to  the 
flagging  undulating  and  wheeling  course  of  the  Gulls  (Larus).  A 
few  species  tenant  the  northern  shores  of  our  island  and  the  higher 
latitudes  :  namely,  the  common  Skua,  a  large  and  fierce  Bird,  which 
hesitates  not  to  assault  the  Eagle,  should  the  latter  venture  within 


the  limits  of  its  breeding  territory  ;    the  Pomarine  Skua,   and  the 

Arctic  Skua.  ,  ,      ,  .   ,  ., 

The  Arctic  Skua  is  widely  distributed  over  the  high  northern 
latitudes,  and  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  Polar  seas  both  of  Europe  and 
North  America  ;  it  breeds  upon  several  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Islands,  congregating  in  small  flocks  ;  and  the  young  in  autumn 
repair  to  the  northern  coasts  in  England,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
Scottish  mainland,  harassing  the  Gulls  that  follow  the  shoals  of 
Herring,  which  at  that  season  approach  the  shore  ;  the  adults,  how- 
ever, are  rarely  met  with  so  far  south,  but  after  the  breeding  season 
migrate,  as  it  would  appear,  eastward,  returning  to  the  Orkneys  in 
May.  It  is  common  along  the  Baltic,  and  the  coasts  of  Norway  and 
Sweden,  as  well  as  on  the  lakes  of  the  interior.  The  young  acci- 
dentally visit  Holland,  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland.  Ihe 
flio-ht  of  this  species  is  very  swift,  and  its  aerial  evolutions  while 
persecuting  the  more  peaceful  Fishes  of  the  sea,  are  extrcrnely 
beautiful ;  "but  would  interest  the  more,  did  we  not  know  the  injury 
it  is  inflicting  on  the  unfortunate  objects  of  its  attack.  Its  nest  is 
composed  of  dry  grass  ;  the  eggs  are  two  in  number,  of  a  dark 
olive-green,  blotched  with  liver-brown.  The  Arctic  Skua  defends  its 
nest  with  great  determination,  and  courageously  darts  at  the  intruder 
within  its  territory,  striking  at  the  head  both  withbeak  and  wings  ; 
it  also  feigns  lameness  in  the  manner  of  the  Lapwing. 

In  perfect  plumage  the  forehead  is  whitish,  the  top  of  the  head 
blackish-brown  ;  all  the  under  parts  pure  white  ;  upper  parts  ashy- 
brown,  passing  into  blackish  on  the  quills  and  tail,  of  which  latter 
the  two  middle  feathers  exceed  the  rest  by  four  or  five  inches.  Bill 
bluish  ;  legs  black.     Length  fifteen  inches.     (See  Fig.  1532.) 


Fig.  1532.— The  Arctic  Skua  Gull. 

In  the  British  Museum  the  collection  of  Terns,  and  other  memters 
of  the  Gull  or  Laridcc  family  is  very  extensive,  and  living  specimens 
of  the  following  may  be  seen  at  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  London  : — viz.,  the  Herring-Gull  (Z.  argejitatiis),  the 
Greater  and  Lesser  Black-backed  Gulls  (Z.  mariiius  and  L.fuscus'), 
and  the  Glaucous  (Z.  glaucus).  There  are  also  examples  of  the 
Yellow-legged  Herring-Gull  of  the  Mediterranean  (Z.  leiicophcsus'), 
and  of  some  other  exotic  species.  These  Birds  generally  do  well  in 
captivity.  Some  of  them  pair  and  make  their  nests  every  spring, 
and  not  unfrequently  succeed  in  hatching  and  rearing  their  young 
in  spite  of  the  persecutions  to  which  they  are  subjected  by  their  less 
domestically  inclined  and  ever  hungry  brethren. 

The  Petrels,  &c.,  Family  Procellaridcs. 

In  the  fifth  family  of  the  Natatorial  Birds,  the  Procellaridcc, 
including  the  Petrels  and  their  allies,  the  general  form  of  the  body 
resembles  that  of  the  Gulls  ;  but  the  feet  are  destitute  of  the  hinder 
toe,  and  the  structure  of  the  beak  is  very  different.  The  tip  of  the  up- 
per mandible  is  convex  and  strongly  hooked,  and  the  lower  mandible 
is  truncated  at  the  apex  ;  the  apical  portion  of  both  mandibles  being 
distinctly  separated  from  the  basal  portion.  The  structure  of  the 
nostrils  is  also  very  peculiar  ;  they  are  produced  into  tubes,  more  or 
less  united  together,  and  lying  upon  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  upper 
mandible. 

In  their  habits  the  Procellaridce  present  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  some  of  the  Gulls ;  but  they  are  more  strictly  oceanic, 
passing  nearly  their  whole  lives  in  skimming  over  the  surface  of  the 
waves,  and  often  appearing  to  delight  in  very  rough  water,  from 
which  circumstance  they  have  long  been  regarded  by  sailors  as  har- 
bingers of  a  storm.  Many  of  the  species,  in  fact,  appear  scarcely 
ever  to  visit  the  chore,  except  for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs  and 
hatching  their  young  ;  and  when  thus  engaged,  they  generally  select 
rocky  coasts,  where  they  deposit  their  eggs  upon  the  bare  rock,  with- 
out constructing  any  nest. 

The  most  remarkable  species  is  the  Albatross  [Diomcdca  cxulans), 


THE  PETRELS. 


603 


a  large  Bird  which  is  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  vast 
expanse  of  ocean  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Capo  of  Good 
Hope.     The  following  is  a  description  of  this  Bird.  : — 

The  Albatross  {Diomcdea  exularts). — Several  species  of  Alba- 
tross are  well  known  and  described,  but  none  equal  in  size  the  great 
wandering  Albatross  {Diomcdea  cxulans),  which  often  weighs 
upwards  of  twenty  pounds,  and  ordinarily  measures  from  ten  to 
eleven  feet,  and  sometimes  even  fourteen  feet,  in  the  expanse  of  its 
wing.  It  is  not  until  the  voyager  passes  the  line,  and  enters  within 
the  latitudes  of  the  Southern  Seas,  that  he  finds  himself  within  the 
range  of  the  Albatross,  which  on  outspread  wings  sails  around  the 
vessel,  or  sweeps  over  the  surface  in  chase  of  the  Flying^lsh,  which 
the  Bonito  or  Albacore  are  impetuously  pursuing  below.  These 
Birds  are  extremely  voracious,  they  will  swallow  a  Fish  of  four  or 
five  pounds  weight ;  they  feed  also  on  Mollusca,  blubber,  and  the 
offal  thrown  overboard  of  vessels.  The  vast  extent  of  wing  which 
the  Albatross  possesses  renders  it  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  for  this 
Bird  to  raise  itself  from  the  surface  of  the  water  on  which  it  is  reposing, 
it  has  to  skim  half  flying,  half  running,  for  a  considerable  distance 
before  it  can  fairly  mount,  but  once  on  the  wing  it  sweeps  majesti- 
cally through  the  air  on  expanded  pinions,  and  wheels  around  in 
large  circles,  watching  the  waters  beneath  ;  suddenly  it  plunges 
dow'n  amidst  the  billows,  covered  with  their  dashing  spray,  and  rises 
again;  and  though  "the  stormy  winds  may  blow,"  makes  its  way 
as  if  unaffected  by  the  tempest. 

Though,  as  we  have  said,  it  is  in  the  Southern  hemisphere  that 
the  Albatross  abounds,  yet  it  would  appear  that  the  European  coasts 
are  occasionally  visited  by  this  Bird,  and  that  in  the  northern  lati- 
tudes it  is  even  abundant.  Vast  flocks  of  the  Albatross  are  seen 
towards  the  end  of  June  about  Behring's  Straits,  and  Kamtschatka, 
frequenting  chiefly  the  inner  sea,  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  the  bay  of 
Pentschinensi ;  they  are  doubtless  attracted  thither  by  the  enormous 
shoals  of  Fish,  the  migratory  movements  of  which  they  follow.  The 
natives  of  Kamtschatka  catch  these  Birds  by  means  of  a  hook 
attached  to  a  cord,  and  baited  with  a  fish,  which  they  greedily 
swallow  :  the  intestines  are  blown,  and  used  as  buoys  for  nets,  and 
the  long,  hollow  wing-bones,  as  tobacco-pipes ;  the  flesh  is  tough 
and  dry. 

Mr.  G.  Bennett,  in  his  "  Wanderings,"  gives  an  admirable  account 
of  the  habits  of  the  Albatross,  far  too  long  for  insertion  :  "  It  is 
pleasing,"  he  said,  "  to  obser\'e  this  superb  bird  sailing  in  the  air 
in  graceful  and  elegant  movements,  seemingly  excited  by  some 
invisible  power,  for  there  is  rarely  any  movement  of  the  wings  seen, 
after  the  first  and  frequent  impulses  given,  when  the  creature  ele- 
vates itself  in  the  air  ;  it  rises  and  falls  as  if  some  concealed  power 
guided  its  various  motions,  without  any  muscular  exertion  of  its  own  ; 
and  then  descending,  it  sweeps  close  to  the  stern  of  the  ship,  as  if  it 
were  monarch  of  all  it  surveyed.  It  is  from  the  very  little  muscular 
exertion  used  by  these  brds,  that  they  are  capable  of  sustaining 
such  long  flights  without  repose."  Captain  Grey,  in  his  Journal 
gives  a  nearly  similar  account  of  the  "  lordly  and  graceful  albatross," 
that  holds  "  its  holiday  in  the  stormy  gale." 

Captain  Carmichael  ("Linn.  Trans,"  vol.  xii.)  found  the  Great 
Albatross  and  three  other  species,  breeding  at  Tristan  d' Acunha ; 
the  Great  Albatross  raises  no  nest,  but  merely  selects  some  slight 
concavity  for  the  reception  of  a  single  large  white  ^z?,-  -f'  nourishes 
its  young  by  disgorging  the  oily  contents  of  its  stomach,  and  when 
approached,  discharges  through  the  nostrils,  a  deluge  of  fetid  oily 
fluid  on  the  intruder,  at  the  same  time  clattering  with  its  beak ; 
otherwise  it  makes  no  defence,  and  is  so  fearless  as  not  even  to 
move  out  of  the  way  for  the  passage  of  a  party  of  men  ;  and  when 
pulled  off  the  nest,  will  either  remain  quietly  by,  or  instantly  return 
to   its  egg.     Some  of  the  other  species  raise  a  nest  of  mud. 

The  pkimage  of  the  Great  Albatross  is  subject  to  variation  ;  the 
head,  neck,  back,  and  wings  are  generally  more  or  less  tinged  v/ith 
grey ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  white  ;  the  bill  is  pale  horn  colour 
with  a  tinge  of  yellow  ;  feet  deep  flesh  colour.     (See  Fig.  1533.) 

Of  the  true  Petrels  Sub-family  Procellariyicc,  the  largest  is  the 
Giant  Petrel  {Ossifragus  gigantciis),  vih\ch  inhabits  the  tempest- 
uous seas  to  the  south  of  Cape  Horn,  and,  according  to  Lesson, 
measures  about  twenty-eight  inches  in  length,  and  fifty-six  in  expanse 
of  wing:  at  a  distance  it  may  readily  be  mistaken  for  the  Albatross. 
But  the  Birds  commonly  known  as  Petrels,  the  Storm  Birds,  and 
Mother  Carey's  Chickens  of  the  sailors,  generally  present  a  complete 
contrast  to  tliese  giants  of  the  other  order,  some  of  them  being  the 
smallest  of  Natatorial  Birds  ;  the  oldest  known  species,  the  Pro- 
cellar  hi  ^elagica,  measures  only  six  inches  in  length.  These  Birds 
are  generally  observed  with  abhorrence  by  sailors,  who  reg:ard  their 
appearance  as  a  certain  percursor  of  bad  weather ;  and  it  is  said 
that  they  always  collect,  and  utter  their  peculiar  note,  on  the 
approach  of  a  storm.  The  name  oi  petrel,  applied  to  them,  has  a 
somewhat  singular  derivation.  They  have  been  said  to  run  upon 
the  surface  of  the  waves  with  their  wings  closed  ;  and  this  supposed 
faculty  having  been  compared  with  St.  Peter's  miraculous  walking 
upon  the  Sea  of  Genesareth,  a  diminutive  of  the  apostle's  name 
was  applied  to  the  Bird.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the 
Stormy  Petrel : — 


The  Stormy  Petrel  {Proccllaria,  or  Thalassidroma pela^ica). 
Petrel  Tempetc,  Temminck ;  Kleinster  Sturmvogel  of  Meyer; 
Accello  delle  Tempeste  of  the  Italians;  Cas  gan  Longwr  of  the 
ancient  British;  Mother  Carey's  Chicken,  Stormfinch,  Spency, 
Mitty,  Witch,  &c.,  of  the  English. 

The  present  species  is  found  along  the  coasts  of  North  America, 
and  is  also  common  along  the  coasts  of  Scotland  and  England  ;  it  is 
rather  abundant  in  the  Orkneys  and  Hebrides.  Mr.  Sclby  states 
that  it  is  to  be  seen  upon  the  seas  surrounding  Great  Britain  at  all  sea- 


Fig.  1533. — The  Albatross. 

sons  of  the  year,  but  he  doubts  the  very  extensive  range  some  writers 
have  assigned  it,  other  closely  allied  species  having  been  mistaken  for 
it  ;  and  in  this  view  he  is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Gould,  who,  in  a  letter  to 
the  Zool.  Soc,  dated  Van  Diemen's  Land,  May  10,  1839  (see  "  Pro- 
ceeds." 1839),  relating  some  details  relative  to  several  Oceanic 
Birds  met  with  during  his  voyage,  saj-s,  "  Immediately  off  the  Land's 
End,  Wilson's  storm-petrel  {Tli.  IVilsoyiii)  was  seen  in  .-bundance, 
and  continued  to  accompany  the  ship  throughout  the  day.  The 
little  storm-petrel  {Th.  felagica)  was  also  seen,  but  in  far  less 
numbers  ;  both  species  disappeared  on  approaching  the  latitudes  of 
Madeira,  their  place  there  being  occupied  by  other  species,  which  I 
took  to  be  Thai.  Bulweri.  *  *  *  *  As  I  had  every  reason  to 
expect,  I  found  the  Australian  seas  inhabited  by  their  own  peculiar 
storm-petrels,  four  distinct  species  of  which  I  have  already  observed 
since  leaving  the  Cape." 

The  flight  of  the  Petrel  is  very  swift,  and  on  wings  even  more 
rapid  than  those  of  the  Swallow,  it  wheels  round  the  labouring  ship, 
descends  into  the  tTOugh  of  the  waves,  and  mounts  over  their  curling 
crests,  secure  amid  the  strife  of  waters  ;  often  with  wings  expanded 
it  is  seen  to  stand,  as  it  were,  on  the  summit  of  the  billow  and  dip 
its  bill  into  the  water,  no  doubt  in  order  to  pick  up  some  small 
Crustaceous  Animal ;  and  again,  on  vigorous  w'ings,  it  pursues  its 
way.  Seldom  does  it  settle  on  the  waters  to  swim,  and  it  is  totally 
incapable  of  diving,  as  many  have  erroneously  supposed.  During  a 
gale  at  sea  the  Petrel  is  all  animation. 

We  agree  with  Mr.  Selby,  that  the  great  motives  which  induce  the 
Petrel,  and  other  Sea-birds,  to  follow  a  ship  in  its  course,  are  the 
refuse  which  is  thrown  from  time  to  time  overboard,  and  the  abund- 
ance of  small  Marine  Insects,  Mollusca,  &c.,  which  are  brought 
within  its  reach  by  the  action  of  the  vessel  as  it  ploughs  the  briny 
waves.  The  Stormy  Petrel  breeds  in  the  northern  and  western  isles 
of  Scotland,  and  on  the  rocky  coast  of  Cornwall ;  it  incubates  on  a 
single  egg  (perhaps  two  eggs)  of  a  pure  white,  in  the  holes  of  rocks, 
in  the  burrows  of  Rats  or  Rabbits,  and  under  large  stones.  The 
female  utters  a  low,  purring  noise,  while  brooding  over  her  egg 
or  young.  The  latter  remains  in  its  retreat  for  some  weeks,-  till  fully 
feathered  and  capable  of  flight,  and  during  this  time  is  fed  by  the 
parents  with  oily  matter  ejected  from  their  stomachs.  Though  the 
Petrel  is  seen  out  at  sea,  particularly  in  gloomy  weather,  when  the 
lowering  clouds  threaten  a  storm,  yet  it  is  to  a  great  degree  noc- 
turnal in  its  habits,  especially  during  the  time  of  incubation  and  ot 
rearing  its  young.  Till  evening  sets  in,  it  remains  quiet  in  its  retreat, 
and  then  sallies  forth,  making  a  shrill  whistling,  as  well  as^thc 
purring  noise  before  alluded  to.  So  oily  is  the  body  of  the  Feael, 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Ferroe,  and  other  islands,  sometimes  con- 
vert it  into  a  lamp  by  drawing  a  wick  of  cotton  through  the  body, 
which  will  continue  to  burn  till  the  oil  be  exhausted. 

The  length  of  this  species  is  about  five-and-a-haU  inches  to  six 


6o4 


THE  DUCKS. 


inches ;  the  .Cfcneral  colour  is  sooty  black  ;  tail  and  quills  pure  black ; 
a  patch  behind  the  thighs,  and  a  bar  across  the  upper  tail  coverts, 
white  ;  a  few  of  the  wing  coverts  and  scapularies  slightly  edged 
with  white.  Fig.  1535  displays  the  characters  of  the  head  and  foot 
of  the  Stormy  Petrel. 

The  Fulmar  Petrel  {Fulmarhis,  or  ProceUa}  7a  glacialis). — 
Le  Petrel  fulmar,  ou  de  I'lsle  de  St.  Kilda,  ofBuffon;  Gwylan  y 
Graig,  of  the  ancient  British. 

The  character  of  the  head  and  foot  of  the  genus  Procellaria,  or 
sub-genus  Fiilmariiis ,  of  Leach,  are  well  depicted  in  Fig.  1536.  The 
nostrils  are  tubular,  the  tube  being  elevated  and  opening  by  a  single 
rounded  orifice  ;  the  tip  is  greatly  hooked.  A  sharp  claw  exists  in 
the  place  of  a  hind-toe. 


Fig.  1534.— The  Stormy  Petrel. 

The  Fulmar  Petrel  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  abounds 
at  all  times  in  Davis's  Straits  and  BafSn's  Bay.  It  is,  however, 
migratory,  and  Major  Sabine  states  that,  during  the  time  of  the  de- 
tention of  the  ships  by  ice  in  Jacob's  Bay,  lat.  71°,  from  the  24th  of 
June  to  the  3rd  of  July,  Fulmars  were  passing  in  a  continual  stream 
to  the  northward,  in  numbers  inferior  only  to  the  flocks  of  the  Pas- 


Fig-  1535.— Head  and  Foot  of  the  Stormy  Petrel. 

senger  Pigeon  in  North  America.  In  more  southern  latitudes  the 
Fulmar  is  only  seen  as  a  winter  visitor,  extending  its  journey  along 
the  coast  of  Norway,  and  appearing  occasionally  on  those  of  Holland 
and  France  ;  yet  there  are  certain  spots  within  the  limits  of  the 
British  Islands,  where  it  breeds  in  great  abundance — namely,  the 
rocky  and  precipitous  St.  Kilda,  and  others  of  the  western  isles  of 
Scotland;  and,  according  to  Mr.  Gould,  it  also  resorts  to  the 
Orkneys,  &c.,  though  St.  Kilda  is  its  favourite  residence.  Here  the 
Fulmars  take  up  their  abode  in  the  holes  and  caverns  of  the  rocks. 
The  female  lays  a  single  large  white,  and  very  brittle  &gg ;  and  the 
young,  which  are  hatched  in  June,  are  fed  with  oil  disgorged  by  the 
parents.  These  Birds  constitute  a  source  of  emolument  to  the  in- 
habitants. As  soon  as  the  young  are  fledged,  the  cragsmen,  at  the 
risk  of  their  lives,  scale  the  precipitous  cliffs,  and  capture  them  in 
great  numbers  for  the  sake  of  the  down,  feathers,  and  oil.  "  No 
bird,"  says  Pennant,  "is  of  such  use  to  the  islanders  as  this  :  the 
fulmar  supplies  them  with  oil  for  their  lamps,  down  for  their  beds,  a 
delicacy  for  their  table,  a  balm  for  their  wounds,  and  a  medicine  for 
their  distempers.  The  fulmar  is  also  a  certain  prognostication  of 
the  change  of  wind  ;  for  if  it  comes  to  land  no  west  wind  is  ex- 
pected for  some  time,  and  the  contrary  when  it  returns  and  keeps 
the  sea." 

The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  the  flesh  and  blubber  of  dead 
Whales,  Seals,  and  Fishes,  Mollttsca,  and  Crustacea.  According 
to  Sir  James  Ross,  these  Birds  are  of  great  importance  to  the  Whale^ 
fishers,  by  guiding  them  to  those  places  where  the  Whales  are  most 
numerous  ;  and  they  give  notice  of  the  first  appearance  of  these 
Animals  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  by  crowding  to  the  spot  from 
all  quarters.  They  have  been  seen  in  multitudes  on  the  floating 
carcass  of  these  giants  of  the  ocean,  tearing  up  the  skin  with  their 


hooked  beaks,  and  gorging  on  the  delicious  blubber.  Off  New- 
foundland the  Fulmar  is  a  constant  attendant  upon  the  fishing 
vessels,  in  order  to  obtain  the  livers  and  offal  of  the  Cod-fish. 

The   Fulmar  measures  si.xteen  inches  in  length.     The  head,  neck, 
all  the  lower  parts,  rump,  and  tail,  are  pure  white.     Back  and  wings 


Fig.  1536. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Fulmar. 

bluish-ash  ;  quills  bright  blackish-grey.  Bill  yellow  ;  legs  yellow, 
tinged  with  grey.  The  young  have  the  white  tinged  with  ash  colour, 
and  the  upper  plumage  brownish.    (See  Fig.  1537.) 


Fig.  1537.— The  Fulmar  Petrel. 


The  Ducks,  &c.— Family  A7iatidcs. 

The  great  family  of  the  Anatidcs,  which  closes  the  order  Nafa- 
toi'cs,  is  readily  distinguishable  from  the  preceding  families  by  the 
structure  of  the  bill.  This  organ  is  usually  of  a  flattened  form, 
covered  with  a  soft  skin,  and  furnished  at  the  edges  with  a  series  of 
lamella:,  which  serve  to  sift  or  strain  the  mud  in  which  these  Birds 
generally  seek  for  their  food  (Fig.  1538.)  The  feet  are  furnished  with 
four  toes,  of  which  three  are  directed  forwards,  and  united  by  a  web ; 
whilst  the  fourth  is  directed  backwards,  and  is  usually  of  small  size, 
and  quite  free.  The  tongue  is  large  and  fleshy,  the  oesophagus 
narrow,  and  the  gizzard  strong  and  muscular,  adapted  for  the  tritu- 
ration of  the  food,  which  in  these  Birds  is  usually  more  or  less  of  a 
vegetable  nature.  The  trachea,  in  the  males,  is  variously  enlarged 
or  twisted  at  its  lower  part,  and  the  different  modifications  of  this 
organ  are  often  of  great  importance  in  the  determination  of  the 
species.  The  wings  are  of  moderate  size,  and  the  Birds  generally 
possess  considerable  power  of  flight,  although,  in  this  respect,  they 
by  no  means  equal  those  of  the  three  preceding  families. 


THE  DUCK  TRIBE. 


60s 


The  Birds  of  this  family,  which,  from  its  including  the  only  domes- 
ticated species  of  the  Natatorial  order,  must  be  regarded  as  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  Man,  are  generally  inhabitants  of  the  fresh 
waters,  and,  for  the  most  part,  prefer  ponds  and  shallow  lakes,  in 
which  they  can  investigate  the  bottom,  with  their  peculiar  bills, 
without  actually  diving  beneath  the  surface.  Their  food  generally 
consists  of  Worms,  MoUusca,  and  Aquatic  Insects,  which  they  sepa- 
rate from  the  mud  by  the  agency  of  the  lamelke  at  the  margins  of 
the  bill ;  but  most  of  them  also  feed  upon  seeds,  fruits,  and  other 
vegetable  substances.  The  family  contains  a  great  number  of 
species,  and  has  been  divided  into  several  sub-families,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  principal : — 


Fig    153S.  — Head  of  the  Wild  Duck,  showing  the  lamella;  of  the  bill. 

The  Mergansers  sub-family  Mcrgitza;,  have  an  attenuated  and 
nearly  cylindrical  bill,  the  upper  mandible  of  which  is  terminated  by 
a  strongly-hooked  nail  [ii/iguis) ;  the  lamellae  are  very  strong  and 
tooth-like  (Fig.  1539).  These  i5irds  are  exceedingly  active  and  pre- 
daceous,  feeding  upon  Fishes  and  other  Aquatic  Animals,  in  pursuit 
of  which  they  not  only  dip  under  water  in  the  ordinary  manner  of  the 
Ana t idee,  but  even  dive  with  great  facility.  They  generally  fre- 
quent lakes  and  rivers,  but  are  occasionally  seen  on  the  sea-shore ; 


Fig.  1539.— Head  of  the  Goosander. 

they  are  inhabitants  of  the  cold  northern  latitudes,  and  the  majority 
of  the  British  specimens  are  only  winter  visitors,  although  some 
appear  to  remain  with  us  all  the  year;  and  several  localities  are  re- 
corded in  which  these  Birds  breed  regularly  every  summer.  The  nest 
is  composed  of  grass,  roots,  and  other  vegetable  materials,  lined 
with  down,  which  the  female  is  said  to  pluck  from  her  own  breast; 
it  is  placed  near  the  edge  of  the  water,  concealed  amongst  the  bushes 
or  herbage.  The  eggs  vary  in  number  from  five  to  twelve  in  the 
different  species,  and  the  young  take  to  the  water  soon  after  they  are 
hatched.  Four  species  of  this  group  have  been  recorded  as  British  ; 
but  one  of  these,  the  Hooded  Merganser  [Mergzts  cucuUatus),  is  a 
North  American  species,  specimens  of  which  have  occasionally 
strayed  to  this  country. 

The  Goosander  {Mergus  merganser).— Le  Harle  of  the 
French  ;  Garsen-sager  and  Taucher-gans  of  the  Germans  ;  Mergo, 
Oca  marina,  and  Mergo  dominicano  of  the  Italians.  ■  It  is  also  the 
Sugherone  of  the  Italians  ;  the  Meer-rack  and  See-rack  of  the 
Germans  ;  Hwyad  ddanhedog  of  the  ancient  British  ;  Bieure  of  the 
old  French  ;  Dundiver,  Savvbill,  Jacksaw,  &c.,  provincial  Enn-Ush. 


This  fine  species  is  a  native  of  the  high  northern  regions  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  where  amidst  morasses,  along  a  dreary 
coast  it  makes  its  nest  and  rears  its  brood.  It  has  been  seen  in 
Japan.  Mr.  Selby  states  that  in  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  the 
Orkneys,  and  other  adjacent  islands,  it  is  a  permanent  resident, 
finding  subsistence  throughout  the  year  cither  on  the  fresh-water 
lakes  of  the  interior,  or,  when  these  are  frozen,  in  the  deep  indenta- 
tions of  the  coast,  formed  by  the  saline  lochs  so  numerous  in  that 
part  of  the  kingdom.  In  the  south  of  England,  excepting  during 
very  severe  winters,  it  is  rarely  seen,  but  then  in  small  parties  of 
seven  or  eight ;  in  Holland  and  Germany,  however,  where  extensive 
inland  fresh  waters  abound,  it  is  tolerably  common.  It  is  much 
more  rare  in  Italy.  Dr.  Richardson  observes  that  this  species 
merely  winters  in  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  not  abundant,  and  re- 
turns to  the  fur  countries  to  breed.  It  is  found  in  Iceland,  Green- 
land, Siberia,  Kamtschatka,  &c.  The  Goosander,  excepting  when 
on  the  wing,  is  generally  seen  on  the  water,  where  it  is  completely 
at  home ;  diving  in  pursuit  of  Fish,  which,  when  seized,  are  securely 
held  in  its  serrated  bill.  It  has  the  power  of  remaining  submerged 
for  a  long  time  ;  and  its  sub-aquatic  progress  is  surprisingly  rapid. 
The  nest  of  this  species  is  placed  near  the  edge  of  the  water,  and 
consists  of  grass,  roots,  and  fibres,  with  a  lining  of  down.  It  is 
sometimes  concealed  among  stones,  sometimes  in  long  tufted 
herbage,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  hollow  stumps  of  decayed  trees. 
The  eggs,  twelve  or  fourteen  in  number,  are  of  a  cream-yellow. 

The  old  male  Goosander  in  full  plumage  is  a  beautiful  Bird,  and 
has  the  head  thickly  tufted,  this  and  part  of  the  neck  being  greenish 
black,  the  reflection  varying  in  different  lights  ;  lower  part  of  the 
neck,  breast,  under  parts,  coverts  of  the  wings  and  scapulars  farthest 
from  the  body,  tinged  of  a  yellowish  rose-colour  (which  soon  fades  in 
stuffed  specimens  to  white) ;  upper  part  of  the  back  and  scapulars 
nearest  to  the  body  deep  black ;  quills  blackish,  great  coverts 
bordered  with  black ;  rest  of  the  back  and  tail  ash-coloured ; 
beauty-spot  on  the  wing  white,  without  transverse  bands  ;  bill  deep 
red,  black  above  and  on  the  terminal  nail ;  iris  reddish-brown,  some- 
times red  :  feet  vermillion  red.  Length  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight 
inches. 

The  lower  figure  1540  is  the  male,  the  upper  the  female.  The 
trachea  of  the  male  has  two  enlargements  while  running  down  the 
neck,  and  a  large  bulla  at  the  bifurcation  in  the  chest. 


Fig.  1540. — Goosanders. 

The  Smew  {lilcrgus  albellus).  Le  petit  Harle  huppe  ou  !a 
Piette  of  Buffon  ;  Weisser-sager  and  Kreutz-ente  of  the  Germans. 
Merga  oca,  minoree,  and  cenerino,  of  the  Italians ;  Lleian-wen  of 
the  ancient  British  ;  White  Nun,  Vare  Widgeon,  and  Smee,  pro- 
vincial English. 

Like  the  preceding  species,  this  Bird  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic 
regions  of  both  worlds,  whence  it  migrates  southwards  in  autumn, 
and  in  severe  winters  is  not  uncommon  on  our  eastern  coasts,  about 
the  mouths  of  our  rivers,  and  in  the  fenny  districts.  It  is  remark- 
able, however,  that  the  majority  of  those  which  visit  our  island  are 
females  or  young  males,  adult  males  in  their  full  garb  being  com- 
paratively seldom  met  with.  It  is  abundant  during  the  winter  in 
Germany,  France,  and  Holland,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  Italy. 
With  other  Mergansers  it  frequents  the  river  Wolga  ;  and  has  been 
observed  in    Japan.      In    America,    according  to  Wilson,  it  may 


6o6 


THE  DUCK  TRIBE. 


frequently  be  seen  on  some  of  the  lakes  of  New  England,  and  of  the 
state  of  New  York  ;  but  it  returns  to  the  fur  countries  to  breed. 
Bonaparte  states  that  at  Philadelphia  it  is  very  rare,  and  adven- 
titious. 

The  Smew  has  all  the  habits  of  its  race,  and  is  vigorous  on  the 
wing,  and  quick  and  active  as  a  diver,  feeding  on  Fish,  small 
Critsfacct!,  and  Insects.  It  is  extremely  shy  and  wary.  Its  mode 
of  nidification  resembles  that  of  the  Goosander,  and  the  eggs  are 
yellowish-white. 

The  old  male  has  a  great  spot  of  greenish-black  on  each  side  of 
the  bill,  and  a  similar  coloured  but  longitudinal  one  on  the  occiput ; 
the  tufted  crest,  neck,  scapulars,  small  coverts  of  the  wings  and  all 
the  lower  parts  very  pure  white  ;  upper  part  of  the  back,  the  two 
crescents,  which  are  directed  under  the  sides  of  the  breast,  and  the 
edges  of  the  scapulars,  deep  black  ;  tail  ash-coloured ;  sides  and 
thighs  varied  with  ash-coloured  zigzags  ;  bill,  legs  (tarsi),  and  toes 
bluish-ash;  webs  black;  iris  brown.  Length  fifteen  to  sixteen 
inches.  Female  : — Summit  of  the  head,  chocks,  and  occiput  reddish- 
brown  ;  throat,  upper  part  of  the  neck,  belly,  and  abdomen  white  ; 
lower  part  of  the  neck,  breast,  sides,  and  rump  bright  ash  ;  upper 
parts  and  tail  deep  ash;  wings  variegated  with  white,  ash,  and 
black.  Length  fifteen  inches.  Young  of  the  year,  similar  to  the 
female. 

In  the  male  the  trachea  has  one  gradual  enlargement  in  its 
course  down  the  neck,  and  a  considerable  bulla  at  the  bifurcation. 
(See  Fig.  1541.) 


but  not  at  a  great  elevation,  or  long  protracted  ;  and  its  cry  is  loud 
and  almost  incessant,  and  when  uttered  by  congregated  multitudes, 
resounds  to  a  considerable  distance.  The  male  of  this  species  differs 
considerably  from  the  female  in  plumage,  and  the  livery  of  summer 
differs  from  that  of  winter.     (See  Figs.  1543  and  1544.) 


Fig.  1541. — Smews. 

In  the  FuligulhicB,  or  Pochards,  the  bill  is  nearly  of  the  same 
breadth  and  height  at  the  base  ;  gradually  depressed  towards  the 
apex,  where  the  upper  mandible  is  terminated  by  a  curved  nail,  and 
the  lamellae  are  transverse  and  thin.  The  legs  are  short,  and 
the  hind-toe  is  furnished  with  a  broad,  membranous,  inferior  lobe 
(Fig.  1542).  The  FuligulincB  closely  resemble  the  Common  Ducks 
in  their  form,  but  are  generally  marine 
in  their  habits,  and  feed  voraciously 
upon  Mollusca  and  Crustacea,  which 
they  procure  by  diving,  also  eating 
aquatic  plants.  They  are  clothed  with 
very  thick  dense  plumage,  and  many  of 
them  are  adorned  with  elegant  colours, 
especially  the  males,  the  females  being 
usually  of  a  more  sober  hue  than  their 
partners.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
species  is  the  Long-tailed  Duck  {Fuli- 
gula  glacialis),  of  which  the  following 
is  a  description.  The  male  has  the  two 
middle  feathers  very  narrow  : — 

FUHGULA,      OR     THE     LONG-TAILED 
DtrcK  [Harclda  glacialis).     Canard  a 
longue  queue  of    the    French  ;   Eisente 
of  the  Germans ;  Swallow-tailed   Duck  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  resi- 
dents ;  Hwyadgynffon  gwennol  of  the  ancient  British. 

This  active  Duck  is  a  native  of  the  dreary  regions  of  the  Arctic 
circle,  making  along  the  grassy  shores  a  nest  of  herbage,  which  it 
lines  with  fine  down  from  its  breast.  The  eggs  are  five  in  number, 
and  of  a  pale  greenish  grey.  After  the  season  of  incubation,  these 
Birds  collect  in  vast  flocks,  and  as  the  cold  season  advances,  migrate 
southwards,  but  not  before  the  Polar  seas  are  thorougly  ice-bound. 
It  visits  the  shores  and  lakes  of  the  United  States,  Norway,  Sweden, 
Russia,  Germany,  and  the  islands  and  lakes  of  Scotland,  but  is 
seldom  seen  on  our  southern  shores.     Its  flight  is  wonderfully  rapid, 


Fi" 


1542. — Hinder  Toe  of  a 
Fuliguline  Bird. 


Fig.  1543.— The  Long-tailed  Duck— Male. 

Of  the  true  Pochards  {Ayihya),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  is  the 
Canvas-backed  Duck  of  North  America  {A .  vallisneria),  which  is 
described  as  follows  : — 

The  Canvas-back  Duck  {Fuligula  vallisneria). — The  Canvas- 
back  Duck,  in  many  points,  both  of  form  and  colouring,  closely 
approaches  our  well-known  Pochard,  but  is  considerably  superior 
in  size.  It  is  a  species  peculiar  to  America,  breeding  from  the  .soth 
parallel  of  N.  latitude,  to  the  most  northern  limits  of  the  fur  countries. 
When  the  season  of  incubation  is  over,  and  the  winter  sets  in,  the 
Canvas-back,  in  large  flocks,  migrates  southwards,  appearing  on  the 
coasts  of  the   United  States  about  the  middle  of  October.     A  few 


Fig.  1544.— The  Long-tailed  Duck — Female. 

descend  to  the  Hudson  and  Delaware,  but  the  great  body  of  these 
Birds  resort,  according  to  Wilson,  to  the  numerous  rivers  belonging 
to,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of,  Chesapeake  Bay,  particularly  the 
Susquehannah,  the  Patapsco,  Potomac,  and  James  rivers.  It  is 
probable  that  they  extend  their  migration  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ; 
they  are  said  to  be  common  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Neuse,  near 
Newbern.  It  is  seldom  that  these  Birds  advance  high  up  the  rivers, 
but  resort  to  a  particular  part  of  tide  water,  where  the  long  sub- 
aquatic  vallisneria  grows  in  immense  quantities,  the  white  tender 
root  of  which  furnishes  them  with  the  most  acceptable  food.  For 
this  they  dive  and  tear  up  the  plants,  which  become  drifted  into 
matted  rows  by  the  wind ;  the  tender  portions  near  the  root  of  the 
slender  marine  vegetables,  called  Eel-grasses  {Zostera  marina  and 
Ruppia  maritima),  are  also  eagerly  devoured,  as  well  as  seeds  and 
grain,  which  are  often  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  water  near 
the  coast,  from  wrecks.  Wherever  their  favourite  vegetables  abound, 
these  Birds  assemble,  and  sometimes  in  such  multitudes  as  to  cover 
acres  of  the  river ;  the  noise  of  their  wings,  when  they  rise  disturbed 
by  the  gunner,  resembling  the  roar  of  thunder.  They  are  extremely 
shy,  and  can  only  be  approached  by  stratagem  ;  yet  they  are  the 


THE  DUCK  TRIBE. 


607 


object  of  the  sportsman's  unceasing  persecution,  for  of  all  the  Duck 
tribe,  if  we  may  believe  those  who  ought  to  know,  none  can  at  all 
compare  with  them  in  the  exquisite  flavour  of  their  tlesh.  On  their 
first  arrival  along  the  shores  of  the  United  States  they  arc  lean,  but 
in  a  short  time  they  become  very  fat,  and  then  is  the  flesh  superla- 
tive. The  neck  of  the  Canvas-back,  in  the  male,  is  of  a  rich  chest- 
nut' deepening-  into  black  on  the  upper  part  of  the  back  and  breast, 
where  it  abrifptly  terminates  ;  the  rest  of  the  back  is  white,  beauti- 
fully pencilled  with  fine  transverse  wavy  lines  of  dusky  black  ;  the 
breast  and  under  surface  are  white,  pencilled  in  the  same  manner, 
but  more  obscurely;  quill-feathers  pale  slate,  dusky  towards  the 
tips ;  tail  short  and  greyish-brown.  Bill  black ;  legs  pale  ash  ; 
len"-'th  two  feet.  In  the  female,  the  general  plumage  is  umber- 
brown,  varied  with  rufous  ;  the  back  being  finely  undulated  with 
greyish-white.     (See  Fig.  1545.) 


Fig.  1545' — The  Canvas-back  Duck. 

Another  species,  which  is  perhaps  still  better  known  is  the  Eider- 
Duck  {Soinateria  mollissima),  an  inhabitant  of  the  Arctic  portions 
of  both  Europe  and  America,  where  it  occurs  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance.    It  is  more  particularly  described  as  follows  :— 

The  Eider-Duck  {Soinateria  7>ioUissima).  Oie  a  duvet,  ou 
Eider  of  the  French  ;  Eiterente  of  the  Germans  ;  Hwyad  fwythblu  of 
the  ancient  British ;  St.  Cuthbert's  Duck,  Great  black-and-white 
Duck,  Dunton  Duck,  &c.  Fig.  1546  represents  the  male,  and  Fig. 
1547  the  female. 


Fig.  1546.— The  Male  Eider-Duck. 

It  is  from  this  Bird,  and  an  allied  species,  the  King-Eider 
{S.  spectabilis),  that  the  down  so  celebrated  for  warmth  and  lightness 
is  procured.  The  Eider-Duck  is  oceanic  in  its  habits,  tenanting  the 
northern  seas,  and  is  very  abundant  on  the  shores  of  Iceland,  Green- 
land, Lapland,  Spitzbergen,  and  those  of  Baffin's  and  Hudson's 
Bays.  It  IS  called  Mittek  by  the  Greenlanders.  It  is  only  an  acci- 
dental visitor  to  our  southern  coasts,  but  is  common  in  the  Hebrides, 
where  it  annually  breeds,  as  also  on  the  Farn  Islands,  on  the 
Northumbrian  coast.  In  Iceland  and  Norway,  the  districts  to  which 
this  Bird  resorts  arc  regarded  as  valuable  property,  and  strictly  pre- 


served ;  but  in  Labrador,  whore  the  Eider  is  abundant,  the  egg- 
gatherers  kill  it  in  great  numbers,  from  mere  wantonness,  but  neglect 
the  down.  The  Greenlanders  chase  the  Eider  for  the  sake  both  of 
the  flesh  and  skin  ;  and  also  rob  the  nests  of  the  down  and  the  eggs, 
the  latter  being  esteemed  excellent  food.  It  is  tlie  down  with  which 
the  female  lines  her  nest  that  is  so  valuable  ;  that  taken  from  the 
dead  Bird  being  of  very  inferior  quality.  The  mode  in  which  the 
down  is  collected  in  Iceland  and  Norway,  where  everyone  is  anxious 
to  have  an  Eider  estate,  is  as  follows  : — The  female  is  suffered  to  lay 
her  five  or  six  eggs,  which  are  placed  in  a  nest  constructed  of  marine 
plants,  with  the  warm  elastic  material  in  question  as  a  lining  ;  these 
eggs  and  the  down  are  taken  ;  she  then  relincs  her  nest,  and  lays  a 
second  time  :  the  eggs  and  down  are  again  abstracted.  Unable  to 
supply  more  down,  the  male  now  strips  his  breast,  and  furnishes  a 


Fig.  1547. — The  Female  Eider-Duck. 

supply,  known  by  its  pale  colour ;  on  this  the  female  lays  two  or 
three  eggs,  which  she  is  suffered  to  hatch  unmolested,  for  were  these 
to  be  taken,  the  bereaved  Bird  would  utterly  forsake  the  inhospitable 
place,  and  return  no  more.  The  quantity  afforded  by  a  single  female 
is,  when  cleaned,  about  half-a-pound. 

The  Eider-Duck  is  a  Bird  of  reclmse  habits,  disliking  interruption, 
though  not  particularly  timid.  Hence  it  generally  chooses  for  its 
breeding-haunt  low  flat  islands  along  the  coast,  and  narrow  slips  of 
land  projecting  into  the  sea  ;  here  multitudes  assemble  during  the 
summer,  in  order  to  rear  their  broods,  and  are  at  that  time  very 
tame. 

Sir  George  Mackenzie,  during  his  travels  in  Iceland,  had  an  oppor- 
tunity, on  the  8th  June,  at  Vidoe,  of  observing  the  Eider-Ducks,  at 
all  other  times  of  the  year  perfectly  wild,  assembled  for  the  great 
work  of  incubation.  The  boat,  in  its  approach  to  the  shore,  passed 
multitudes  of  these  Birds,  which  hardly  moved  out  of  the  way  ;  and, 
between  the  landing-place  and  the  Governor's  house,  it  required 
some  caution  to  avoid  treading  on  the  nests,  while  the  Drakes  were 
walking  about,  even  more  familiar  than  Common  Ducks,  and  uttering 
a  sound  which  was  like  the  cooing  of  Doves.  The  Ducks  were 
sitting  on  their  nests  all  round  the  house,  on  the  garden  wall,  on  the 
roofs,  nay  even  in  the  inside  of  the  houses  and  in  the  chapel.  Those 
which  had  not  been  long  on  the  nest  generally  left  it  when  they  were 
approached ;  but  those  that  had  more  than  one  or  two  eggs  sat  per- 
fectly quiet  and  suffered  the  party  to  touch  them,  though  they  some- 
times gently  repelled  the  intrusive  hand  with  their  bills.  But  if  a 
Drake  happen  to  be  near  his  mate  when  thus  visited,  he  becomes 
extremely  agitated.  He  passes  to  and  fro  between  her  and  the  sus- 
picious object,  raising  his  head  and  cooing. 

The  food  of  the  Eider-Duck  consists  of  small  Crustacea,  Mussels, 
and  other  Shell-Fish,  and  various  Marine  Animals,  in  quest  of  which 
it  dives  with  great  address.  The  male  and  female  differ  greatly  in 
colouring.  In  the  male,  on  each  side  of  the  head  and  above  the 
eyes,  is  a  large  band  of  black  feathers  ;  the  sides  of  the  throat  and 
back  of  the  neck  are  of  a  delicate  sea-green  ;  the  neck  is  white,  with 
a  tinge  of  yellow  passing  into  buff  on  the  breast ;  back  and  shoulders 
white  ;  quill  feathers,  tail,  and  under  parts  black.  The  female  has 
the  plumage  universally  of  a  brownish-red,  barred  transversely  with 
black ;  bill  oil-green  ;  legs  greenish-yellow. 

The  True  Ducks— Sub-family,  Anatina. 

The  Anatinw,  or  True  Ducks,  closely  resemble  the  preceding 
groups  in  their  general  conformation,  and  in  the  form  of  the  bill ;  but 
the  hinder  toe  is  only  furnished  with  a  very  small  membranous  lobe 
(Fig.  1 548).     The  tibirc,  as  in  the  Fuii/tgulincs,  arc  naked  at  the 


6o8 


THE  DUCK  TRIBE. 


extremity.  These  birds  all  frequent  fresh  water,  where  they  feed 
upon  the  Worms,  Molluscs,  and  Lar\'a;  which  they  pick  out  of  the 
mud.  A  considerable  portion  of  their  food,  however,  consists  of 
vegetable  matters,  such  as  grass,  roots,  seeds,  &c.  They  are 
gregarious  in  their  habits,  and  generally  migrate  in  large  flocks. 
The  males  are  larger  than  the  females,  and  often  adorned  with 
beautiful  colours  ;  whilst  the  females  are  usually  of  a  more  uniform 
and  sober  tint. 

They  moult  twice  in  the  year,  in  June  and  November  ;  in  June, 
the  males  acquire  the  female  plumage  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  but  they  regain  their  proper  dress 
at  the  second  moult,  and  retain  it  during  the 
breeding  season.  The  nest  is  usually  placed 
on  the  ground,  amongst  reeds  and  sedges  near 
the  water ;  sometimes  in  holes  or  in  hollow 
trees,  but  rarely  amongst  the  branches.  The 
eggs  vary  from  about  eight  to  fourteen  in 
number,  and  the  young  are  active  from  the 
moment  of  their  exclusion,  and  soon  take  to  the 
water,  where  they  are  as  much  at  home  as  the 
old  Birds. 

A  well-known  example  of  this   group  is  the 
Fig.  154S.— Ilind-toe  common   Mallard,    or  Wild   Duck  {Anas  bos- 
of  a  True  Duck.      chas),  the  original  of  all  the   ordinary  domestic 
varieties. 
The  Mall.\kd  {A7ias  boschas),  Bill  of.    (See  Fig.  1549.)   Boshas 
inajor,  Brisson  ;  Canard  sauvage  of  the  French  ;  Capo  Verde  (male), 
Anitra  (female),  Germano,  and  Paperone  of  the  Italians  ;  Wild  Ente 
of  the  Germans  ;  Cors  Hwyad  Garan  Hwyad,  and  Hwdnwy  of  the 
ancient  Britons.  This  species  is  the  origin  of  our  Domestic  Duck,  and 
is  spread  over  the  northern  and  temperate  portions  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America.     It  is  everywhere  a  Migratory  Bird  :  and  though  it 
breeds  abundantly  in  our  island  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  Con- 
tinent,  yet  the   great  rendezvous  of  the   species  is  in  the  higher 
latitudes,  whence,  on  the  approach  of  winter,  vast  flocks  wing  their 


Fig.  1549.— Bill  of  the  Mallard. 

way  southwards,  visiting  marshes,  lakes,  and  rivers,  and  returning 
northwards  early  in  spring.  Though  the  Domestic  Duck  is  poly- 
gamous, the  Wild  Birds  pair,  but  do  not  mutually  assist  each  other 
in  the  work  of  incubation  or  care  of  the  brood,  for  when  the  female 
begins  to  sit,  the  male  deserts  her,  and  joins  others  of  his  sex,  so  that 
it  is  not  unusual  after  May  to  see  the  males  (or  Mallards)  in  small 
companies  by  themselves. 

As  is  the  case  with  the  Teal,  Widgeon,  Pintail-duck,  &c.,  the 
plumage  of  the  male,  towards  the  middle  of  summer,  undergoes  a 
remarkable  change,  and  approaches  in  colouring  to  that  of  the 
female  ;  not,  as  it  would  seem,  by  a  moult  of  the  feathers,  but  by  an 
actual  change  of  tint.  With  the  autumn  moult,  the  Drake  regains 
his  beautiful  dress.  In  the  Tame  Drake  this  alteration  is  not  so 
definite. 

The  female  makes  her  nest  in  some  dry  spot  in  the  marshes  not 
far  from  the  water,  and  in  the  covert  of  dense,  tall,  herbage' and 
bushes.  It  is  composed  of  withered  grass  and  other  vegetables  ;  the 
eggs  are  from  ten  to  fourteen  in  number,  of  a  bluish-white.  When 
the  female  quits  the  nest  for  food,  she  covers  the  eggs  with  down  and 
other  substances.  Though  the  female  Wild  Duck  generally  breeds 
in  the  marshes  as  stated,  she  occasionally  chooses  very  different 
situations,  and  several  instances  have  been  recorded  in  which  the 
eggs  have  been  deposited  on  the  fork  of  a  large  tree,  or  in  some 
deserted  nest.     Mr.  Selby  informs  us,  that  an  instance  of  tliis  kind 


came  under  his  personal  observation  near  his  own  residence ;  the 
Bird  having  laid  her  eggs  in  the  old  nest  of  a  Crow,  at  least  thirty 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  hatched  her  young  ;  "  and  as  none  were 
found  dead  under  the  tree,  it  is  presumed  that  she  carried  them  safely 
to  the  ground  in  her  bill,  a  mode  of  convej'ance  known  to  be  frequently 
adopted  by  the  eider-duck."  Montagu  says,  "  We  have  been  assured 
by  a  person  of  undoubted  veracity,  that  a  half-domesticated  duck 
made  a  nest  in  Rumford  Tower,  hatched  her  young,  and  brought 
them  down  in  safety  to  a  piece  of  water  at  a  considerable  distance. 
Others  have  been  known  to  breed  in  trees;  and  we  recollect  the 
nest  of  this  bird  being  found  in  the  head  of  an  old  pollard  willow 
impending  the  water,  whence  the  young  might  readily  drop  unhurt 
into  their  natural  element.  Mr.  Etchington  mentions  one  in  Sussex, 
which  was  found  sitting  upon  nine  eggs,  on  an  oak-tree,  twenty-five 
feet  from  the  ground  ;  and  the  author  of  the  '  Rural  Sports '  records 
an  instance  of  one  taking  possession  of  the  nest  of  a  hawk  in  a  large 
oak.  To  these  we  can  add,  upon  the  testimony  of  a  gentleman  of 
the  strictest  veracity,  that  out  of  a  large  flock  of  half-domesticated 
ducks,  one  deposited  her  eggs  in  the  principal  fork  of  a  large  tree 
near  his  house." 

In  the  Drake,  or  male,  the  trachea  is  furnished  at  its  lower  larynx 
with  an  osseous  bulla  of  considerable  magnitude. 

In  all  countries  the  Domestic  Duck  is  valued  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh 
of  the  excellency  of  which  nothing  need  be  said.  In  China,  where 
these  Birds  are  kept  in  vast  numbers,  housed  at  night  in  boats  on  the 
river,  thousands  are  hatched  by  artificial  means  ;  the  eggs  are 
placed  in  tiers  or  boxes  filled  with  sand,  and  subjected  to  the  neces- 
sary degree  of  heat  upon  a  floor  of  bricks.  "  The  ducklings  are  fed 
at  first  with'a  mess  composed  of  boiled  craw-fish  or  crabs,  cut  in  small 
pieces  and  mixed  with  rice.  In  about  a  fortnight  they  are  able  to 
shift  for  themselves,  when  they  are  placed  under  the  guidance  of  an 
old  stepmother,  who  leads  them  at  stated  times  to  feed,  to  and  from 
the  boat  in  which  they  are  kept,  and  which  is  moved  about  by  the 
owner  to  places  likely  to  afford  a  plentiful  supply  of  food." 

It  is  curious  to  see  how  well  a  flock  of  three  or  four  hundred  Ducks 
are  trained  to  obey  their  master,  for  some  thousands  belonging  to 
different  boats  will  feed  at  large  on  the  same  spot,  and,  on  a  signal 
given,  follow  their  leader  to  their  respective  boats  without  a  stranger 
being  found  amongst  them. 

Wild  Ducks  were  formerly  much  more  abundant  in  our  island  than 
at  present,  in  consequence  of  the  drainage  of  our  marshes.  Pennant 
records  that  during  one  season  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wainfleet,  of 
Ducks.  Widgeons,  and  Teals,  31,200  were  taken  in  only  ten  decoys, 
of  which  more  than  two-tliirds  were  of  the  present  species  ;  and  that 
at  a  single  driving  of  the  fens  in  Lincolnshire,  before  the  young  had 
taken  wing,  and  while  the  old  Birds  were  in  moult,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dozens  have  been  captured. 

The  mode  of  capturing  Wild  Ducks  varies  in  different  countries ; 
at  the  Lakes  of  Peronne,  in  Picardy,  the  fowlers,  concealed  in  huts  of 
reeds,  scatter  destruction  amidst  the  flocks  by  the  gun.  In  China 
the  sportsman  covers  his  head  with  a  calabash,  and  wading  up  to  his 
neck,  mixes  with  the  flock,  and  seizing  his  victims  by  the  feet,  pulls 
them  under  the  water,  kills  them,  and  fastens  them  to  his  girdle 
without  exciting  any  alarm  among  the  survivors. 

As  regards  Lincolnshire,  Suffolk,  &c..  where  Wild  Ducks  abound 
the  following  method  is  adopted  : — In  the  lake  to  which  the  Wild 
Ducks  resort,  their  most  favourite  haunts  are  observed.  Then  in  the 
most  sequestered  part  of  this  haunt  a  ditch  is  cut,  which  is  about 
four  yards  across  at  the  entrance,  and  decreases  gradually  in  width 
from  the  entrance  to  the  farther  end,  which  is  not  more  than  two 
feet  wide.  The  ditch  is  of  a  circular  form,  but  does  not  bend  much 
for  the  first  ten  yards.  The  banks  of  the  lake  on  each  side  of  this 
ditch  (or  "  pipe  "  as  it  is  called)  are  kept  clear  from  reeds,  coarse 
herbage,  &c.,  in  order  that  the  Fowl  may  get  on  them  to  sit  and 
dress  themselves.  Along  the  ditch,  poles  are  driven  into  the  ground 
close  to  its  edge,  on  each  side,  and  the  tops  are  bent  over  across  the 
ditch  and  tied  together.  These  poles,  thus  bent,  form  at  the  entrance 
of  the  ditch  or  pipe  an  arch,  the  top  of  which  is  ten  feet  distant  from 
the  surface  of  the  water.  This  arch  is  made  to  decrease  in  height  as 
the  pipe  decreases  in  width,  so  that  the  remote  end  is  not  more  than 
eighteen  inches  in  height.  The  poles  are  placed  about  six  feet  from 
each  other,  and  connected  by  poles  laid  lengthwise  across  the  arch 
and  tied  together.  Over  the  whole  is  thrown  a  net,  which  is  made 
fast  to  a  reed  fence  at  the  entrance  and  nine  or  ten  yards  up  the 
ditch,  and  afterwards  strongly  pegged  to  the  ground.  At  the  end  of 
the  pipe  farthest  from  the  entrance  is  fixed  a  "tunnel  net,"  as  it  is 
called,  about  four  yards  in  length,  of  a  round  form,  and  kept  open  by 
a  number  of  hoops,  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  placed  at  a 
small  distance  from  each  other  to  keep  it  distended.  Supposing  the 
circular  bend  of  the  pipe  to  be  to  the  right  when  one  stands  with  his 
back  to  the  lake,  then  on  the  left  hand  side  a  number  of  reed-fences 
are  constructed,  called  "shootings,"  for  the  purpose  of  screening 
the  "  decoy  man  "  from  observation,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
Fowl  in  the  decoy  may  not  be  alarmed  while  he  is  driving  those  that 
are  in  the  pipe.  These  shootings,  which  are  ten  in  number,  are 
about  four  yards  in  length,  and  about  six  feet  high.  From  the  end 
of  the  last  shooting  a  person  cannot  see  the  lake,  owing  to  the  bend 


THE  DUCK  TRIBE. 


609 


of  the  pipes,  and  there  is  then  no  further  occasion  for  shelter.  Were 
it  not  for  these  shootings,  the  Fowl  that  remain  about  the  mouth  of 
the  pipe  would  be  alarmed,  if  the  person  driving  the  Fowl  already 
under  the  net  should  be  exposed,  and  would  become  so  shy  as  entirely 
to  forsake  the  place.  The  first  thing  that  the  decoy-man  does 
when  he  approaches  the  pipe,  is  to  take  a  piece  of  lighted  turf  or  peat 
and  hold  it  near  his  mouth,  to  prevent  the  Birds  from  smelling  him. 
He  is  attended  by  a  dog  trained  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  him 
assistance.  He  walks  very  silently  about  half-way  up  the  shootings, 
where  a  small  piece  of  wood  is  thrust  through  the  reed-fence,  which 
makes  an  aperture  just  large  enough  to  enable  him  to  see  if  any 
Fowl  are  in  ;  if  not,  he  walks  forward  to  see  if  any  are  about  the 
entrance  of  the  pipe.  If  there  are,  he  stops  and  makes  a  motion  to 
his  Dog,  and  gives  him  a  piece  of  cheese,  or  something  else  to  eat ; 
and,  having  received  this,  the  animal  goes  directly  to  a  hole  through 
the  reed-fence,  and  the  Birds  immediately  fly  off  the  bank,  into  the 
water.  The  Dog  returns  along  the  bank  between  the  reed-fences, 
and  comes  out  to  his  master  at  another  hole.  The  man  then  gives 
him  something  to  reward  and  encourage  him,  and  the  Animal  re- 
peats his  rounds  until  the  Birds  are  attracted  by  his  motions,  and 
follows  him  into  the  mouth  of  the  pipe.  This  operation  is  called 
"working"  them.  The  man  now  retreats  farther  back,  working 
the  Dig  at  different  holes  until  the  Ducks  are  sufficiently  under  the 
net.  He  then  commands  his  Dog  to  lie  down  behind  the  fence,  and 
going  himself  forward  to  the  end  of  the  pipe  ne.xt  the  lake,  he  takes 
off  his  hat  and  gives  it  a  wave  between  the  shootings.  All  the 
Birds  that  are  under  the  net  can  then  see  him  ;  but  none  that  are 
in  the  lake  can.  The  former  fly  forward,  and  the  man  then  runs  to 
the  next  shooting  and  waves  his  hat,  and  so  on,  driving  them  along 
until  they  come  to  the  tunnel-net,  into  which  they  creep.  When 
they  are  all  in,  the  man  gives  the  net  a  twist,  so  as  to  prevent  them 
from  getting  back.  He  then  takes  the  net  off  from  the  end  of  the 
pipe,  and  taking  out,  one  by  one,  the  Ducks  that  are  in  it,  dislocates 
their  necks.  The  net  is  afterwards  hung  on  again  for  the  repetition 
of  the  process  ;  and  in  this  manner  five  or  six  dozen  have  sometimes 
been  taken  at  one  drift.  When  the  wind  blows  directly  in  or  out  of 
the  pipes,  the  Fowl  seldom  work  well,  especially  when  it  blows  into 
the  pipe.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  Ducks  always  prefer 
swimming  against  the  wind,  otherwise  the  wind  blowing  from  be- 
hind catches  and  ruffles  their  feathers.  If  many  pipes  are  made  in 
the  same  lake,  they  are  so  constructed  as  to  suit  different  winds,  and 
are  worked  accordingly.  The  better  to  entice  the  Fowl  into  the 
pipe,  hemp-seed  is  occasionally  strewn  on  the  water.  The  season 
allowed  by  Act  of  Parliament  for  taking  Ducks  in  this  way  has  been 
the  subject  of  recent  legislation.  Imitation  Decoy  Ducks  made 
of  India-rubber  and  properly  coloured  are  much  employed  for  cap- 
'  turing  the  Mallard. 

Willughby  states,  that  formerly  before  the  young  Ducks  took 
flight,  or  while  the  old  ones  were  in  moult,  and  unable  to  fly,  they 
were  driven  by  men  in  boats  furnished  with  long  poles,  with  which 
they  splashed  the  water,  between  long  nets  stretched  vertically 
across  the  pools  in  the  shape  of  two  sides  of  a  triangle,  into  lesser 
nets  placed  at  the  point,  and  in  this  way  he  says  that  four  thousand 
were  taken  at  one  drive  into  Deeping  Fen  ;  and  Latham  has  re- 
corded an  instance  in  which  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty- 
six  were  taken  in  two  days  near  Spalding,  in  Lincolnshire  ;  but 
these  practices,  being  considered  injurious,  were  prohibited  by 
statute  in  the  reign  of  George  II. 

Fig.  1550  is  the  copy  of  an  interesting  Egyptian  painting,  in  the 
British  Museum,  representing  a  fowler  in  a  boat  on  the  marshes  or 
flooded  grounds,  evidently  engaged  in  the  capture  of  Wild-fowl, 
apparently  by  the  decoy  plan,  in  which  he  is  assisted  by  Trained 
Birds,  and,  strange  to  say,  by  a  cat,  which  is  delineated  in  the  act 
of  seizing  a  Bird,  while  holding  down  another  which  she  has  al- 
ready caught.  As  the  picture  is  only  a  fragment,  a  complete  de- 
tailed explanation  is  not  to  be  deduced  from  it. 

The  Common  Teal  {Qiierqtiedula  crecca).  Sarcelle,  Petite 
Sarcelle,  Cercelle,  Cercerelle  of  the  French ;  Cercedula,  Cercevolo, 
Scavolo,  Sartella,  and  Anitrella  of  the  Italians  ;  Spiegel  Entlein  and 
Kriekente  of  the  Germans  ;,^Cor  Hwyad  and  Brach  Hvvyad  of  the 
ancient  British. 

This  beautiul  little  Duck,  which  is  too  well  known  to  require  a 
detailed  description,  is  widely  spread  over  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is 
found  in  India,  China,  and  Japan  :  it  visits  North  Africa  ;  and  is 
common  in  Germany,  Holland,  France,  and  Italy.  It  breeds  in 
Norway,  Sweden,  Lapland,  and  Iceland ;  nor  must  the  British 
Islands  be  excluded,  for  although  there  are  flocks  of  these  Birds, 
which  arrive  in  our  marshes  from  the  north  about  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, and  return  thither  again  in  spring,  still  we  have  our  own 
indigenous  Birds,  which  continue  permanent,  breedmg  and  rearing 
their  broods.  Cumberland,  Northumberland,  Norfolk,  the  borders 
of  some  of  the  lakes  in  Wales,  are  known  to  afford  suitable  localities 
which  they  regularly  tenant ;  a  few  breed  in  Romney  Marsh  ;  in 
Ireland,  some  are  also  resident  throughout  the  year.  The  nest  of 
this  species  is  formed  of  decaying  vegetable  matters,  with  a  lining 
of  down  and  feathers ;  it  is  placed  amidst  the  long  rushy  herbage, 
about  the  edges  of  lakes,  or  in  the  boggy  parts  of  the  upland  moors. 


The  eggs,  from  eight  to  ten  or  twelve  in  number,  are  of  a  cream 
white. 

The  flight  of  the  Teal  is  wonderfully  rapid,  and  when  the  Bird  is 
flushed  the  sportsman  must  be  on  the  alert,  otherwise  it  will  be 
beyond  range  of  shot  ere  he  draws  his  trigger.  Night  is  the  feed- 
mg-time  of  this  species  ;  during  the  day  it  reposes  upon  the  water, 
or  sits  shrouded  amidst  the  herbage  of  the  bank,  with  the  head 
crouched  between  the  shoulders,  or  with  the  bill  under  the  scapulars  : 
immediately  after  sunset  it  wings  its  way  to  its  usual  feeding-"Tound  ; 
aquatic  plants  and  their  seeds,  grain,  Iresh-water  Molluscs.^Insects 
and  their  larva:,  constitute  its  diet.     For  the  sake  of  its  beauty  the 


Fig.  IS50.— Ancient  Egj'ptians  Bird-catching  in  the  Marshes. 

Teal  is  often  kept  on  ornamental  sheets  of  water,  and  becomes  very 
tame  and  familiar  ;  those  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  have  for  several 
years  past  bred  annually.  Of  all  our  water-fowl  this  is  the  most 
delicate  for  the  table,  and,  as  Willughby  remarks,  "  doth  deservedly 
challenge  the  first  place  among  those  of  its  kind."  Accordingly 
we  find  it  recorded  among  the  abundance  of  good  things,  compos- 
ing the  lordly  banquets  of  the  olden  time.     (See  Fig.  1551)- 

The  Pint.uled  T)vcvL{DafiIa  caudaciita).  Anas  Caudacuta, 
Ray;  Anas  acuta,  Linn.;  Anas  longicauda,  Brisson  ;  Qucrguc- 
dula  acuta,  Selby  ;  le  Canard  a  longue  queue  ou  Filet  of  the  trench  ; 
Anitra  codilanza  and  Anitra  di  coda  lunga  ot  the  Italians ;  Speis- 
sente  and  Fasanente  of  the  Germans  ;  Hwyad  gynfionfain  of  the 
ancient  British. 


/I: 


Fig.  1551. — Common  Teals. 

Fig.  1552  represents  the  bill  of  the  Pintailcd  Duck,  in  which  the 
lamina:  are  only  moderately  developed,  while  the  elevation  at  the 
base  exceeds  the  breadth.  The  bulla  of  the  windpipe  is  of  the  size 
of  a  small  hazel-nut.  The  Pintailed  Duck  is  a  native  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  breeding  in  the  high  latitudes, 
whence  on  the  approach  of  winter  it  wings  its  way  soutliwards,  to 

4  I 


6io 


THE   DUCK  TRIBE. 


return  ag-ain  in  sprin?-.  It  visits  Holland,  France,  and  Germany  m 
jrreat  numbers,  as  well  as  the  British  Islands,  the  fens  of  Lincoln- 
ihire,  Norfolk,  &c.,  being  its  principal  places  of  resort.  It  is  a  shy 
and  wary  Bird,  and  one  of  the  first  to  give  the  alarm  on  the  approach 
of  a  gunner.  Contrary  to  the  statement  of  Montague,  Mr.  Selby 
asserts,  from  long  personal  observation,  that  it  is  of  rare  occurrence 
in  the  north  of  England,  and  the  south  of  Scotland,  and  that  he  has 
reason  to  believe  that  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  it  is  equally  uncommon,  the  Long-tailed  Duck  already 
described  which  in  winter  frequents  the  bays  of  the  Orkneys  and 
other  groups  of  islands  in  great  abundance,  having  been  mistaken 


Fig.  1552. — Bill  of  the  Pintailed  Duck. 

for  it.  This  species  is  easily  domesticated,  but  seldom  breeds  in 
confinement  ;  yet  hybrids  between  it  and  other  Ducks,  have  occasion- 
ally been  produced. 

the  Pintailed  Duck  is  a  Bird  of  graceful  proportions,  with  a 
slender  neck  and  elongated  tail,  and,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Mallard 
and  several  others,  as'the  Teal  and  Widgeon,  the  plumage  of  the 
male  after  the  breeding-season  undergoes  a  remarkable  change  of 
colour,  and  assimilates  to  that  of  the  female. 

In  the  male,  in  full  plumage,  the  head  and  throat  are  dark  hair 
brown,  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  two  streaks  running  up  to 
the  hind  part  of  the  head,  the  breast,  and  under  parts,  white.  Back 
of  the  neck  deep  brown.  Flanks  and  thighs  with  fine  transverse 
black  lines.  Under  tail-coverts  velvet  black.  Back  marked  with 
alternate  wavy  lines  of  black  and  greyish-white.  Scapulars  black; 
tertials  long,  acuminate,  and  black,  with  yellowish-white  margins. 
Lesser  wing-coverts  deep  smoke-grey.  Speculum  blackish-green, 
with  a  bronzed  reflection,  bordered  below  by  white.  Quills  brown. 
Two  middle  tail-feathers  elongated,  acuminate,  and  black,  the 
rest  brown  margined  with  white.  Bill  black.  Legs  blackish-grey. 
(See  Fig.  1553). 


F'.?.  1553.  — The  Pintailed  Duck. 

The  Shieldrake  {Tadorna  vulpanser),  head  and  foot.  (See 
Fig.  1554.)  Aims  tadorna,  Linn.  ;  la  Tadorna:  Buffon  ;  Brandente, 
Bechstein  ;  Volpoca  of  Savi ;  Hwyad  yr  cithin  and  Hwyad  fruith  of 
the  ancient  British. 

The  Shieldrake  is  a  native  of  northern  Europe,  and  Asia,  and 


occurs  in  Japan.  We  may  enumerate  it  among  the  indigenous 
Birds  of  our  islands,  as  it  breeds  with  us,  and  may  be  seen  at  all 
seasons  upon  various  parts  of  the  coast,  and  on  the  mud-banks  of 
our  tidal  rivers,  but  rarely  far  inland ;  their  numbers,  however,  are 
greatly  increased  in  the  winter  by  accessions  from  the  north,  which 
return  to  their  summer  haunts  in  March.,,  This  species  selects 
Rabbit-warrens  along  the  coast  as  its  breeding-place,  and  taking  up 
a  deserted  burrow,  there  makes  a  nest  of  dried  grass,  lined  with  soft 
down  plucked  from  its  own  breast.  The  nest  is  sometimes  ten  or 
twelve  feet  from  the  entrance  ;  but  where  there  are  no  burrows  ac- 
cessible, it  is  placed  in  a  fissure  of  the  rock  or  bank  :  the  eggs  are 
ten  or  twelve  in  number,  and  ot  a  pure  white.  The  parents  are  very 
solicitous  respecting  their  young.     During  the  period  of  incubation 


Fig.  1554. — Head  and  Foot  of  the  Shieldrake. 

(thirty  days)  the  male  keeps  watch,  and  takes  the  place  of  the 
female  when  she  leaves  the  nest  for  food.  When  the  young  are 
hatched,  they  are  conducted  or  carried  in  the  bill  of  their  parents  to 
the  sea,  where  they  swim  about  in  some  sheltered  spot,  seldom  leav- 
ing the  water  till  fully  fledged.  Wlien  the  nest  or  young  are  in 
danger,  the  old  Birds  show  great  address  in  decoying  the  intruder 
to  a  distance,  feigning  lameness,  and  fluttering  along  the  ground 
before  him  ;  hence  the  natives  of  the  Orkneys  call  this  Bird  the  Sly 
Goose.  The  food  of  the  present  species  consists  of  sea-weed, 
shelled  Mollusca,  small  Crustacea,  the  spawn  and  fry  of  Fishes,  and 
also  grain.  The  flesh  is  rank  and  bad.  From  its  great  beauty  the 
Shieldrake  is  often  kept  tame  as  an  ornamental  appendage  to  lakes 
and  sheets  of  water  in  parks  or  gardens,  and  numbers  of  the  young 
are  annually  captured  for  sale.  Selby  states  that  in  confinement 
this  species  seldom  breeds  ;  one  instance  came  under  his  own  ob- 
servation, and  another  is  recorded  by  Montagu. 

The  Shieldrake  is  distinguished  from  the  Ducks  of  other  genera  by 
the  form  of  its  bill,  which  is  comparatively  short,  high  at  the  base 
depressed  in  the  middle,  with  the  tip  flattened  and  turning  upwards, 
and  the  nail  abruptly  curved.  The  legs  are  long,  and  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  body,  whence  the  Birds  run  on  shore  with  considerable 
ease  and  quickness.  There  is  a  fleshy  knot  on  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible  in  the  male,  which  increases  on  the  approach  of  the  pairing- 
season,  and  acquires  a  beautiful  crimson  hue.  The  trachea  of  the 
male  is  furnished  at  the  lower  larynx  with  two  thin  bullae,  of  which 
that  on  the  right  side  is  the  largest.  The  head  and  neck  are  greenish- 
black  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  wing-coverts,  back,  sides,  rump, 
and  base  of  tail,  pure  white.  Scapulars,  a  large  band  girding  the 
middle  of  the  belly,  quills  and  extremity  of  caudal  feathers,  deep 
black  ;  a  large  bay-coloured  gorget  adorns  the  breast.  Speculum, 
or  beauty-spot  of  the  wings,  purple-green.  Feet  flesh-coloured. 
The  female  is  less  than  the  male,  and  her  colours  are  more  obscure. 
The  Wigeon,  or  Widgeon  [Mareca  Penelope).  Canard 
Siffleur  of  the  French  ;  Anistra  fischiarola,  Anatra  marigiana,  and 
Fischione  of  the  Italians ;  Pfeifente  of  the  Germans ;  Chwiw  of  the 
ancient  British. 

The  Widgeon  is  a  native  of  the  northern  regions  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  breeding  in  Lapland,  Sweden,  Norway,  &c.,  whence  on  the 
approach  of  winter  vast  flocks  wing  their  way  southwards,  visiting- 
Holland,  Germany,  France,  Spain,  and  Italy.  It  occurs  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Caucasus,  in  India,  and  Japan.  In  the 
British  Islands  it  arrives  about  the  beginning  of  October,  visiting 
our  inland  marshes,  bays,  and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  great  num- 
bers are  annually  taken  in  decoys,  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh,  which  is 
very  excellent ;  as  a  vegetable  diet  (aquatic  plants,  sea-weeds,  and 
ordinary  grass)  forms  the  chief  support  of  this  species.  Dr. 
Richardson,  in  a  note,  gives  the  following  interesting  particulars, 
which  he  derived  from  Skelton,  the  intelligent  keeper  of  a  decoy  in 
Lincolnshire: — "With  respect  to  food,  the  mallard,  pintail,  and 
teal,  frequent  rich  flooded  IslviAs,  switteri)2g\{\t\\  Xh&ir:  nebs  in  the 
soil,  and  sucking  out  all  its  strength,  but  the  wigeon  feeds  quite 
differently,  Iwi'iig  an  amazing  foivl  to  graze,  and  a  strange  cater 
of  grass.  It  is  especially  fond  of  flutter  grass  (G/j'C^r/a),  which  it 
crops  on  the  surface,  but  it  likewise  eats  many  other  herbs."  It  is 
partial  to  willow-weed  seeds  {Epilobiiim),  as  are  also  the  Mallard, 
Teal,  and  Pintail,  preferring  thera  to  oats  ;  and  it  feeds  by  day, 
but  is  also  nocturnal  in  its  habits.    The  Widgeon  has  been  known 


DUCKS;  COMMON   AND   CANADIAN   GOOSE. 


THE  SWANS. 


6ii 


to  breed  in  Sutherlandshire  ;  the  nest  is  placed  among  low  bushes, 
reeds,  or  rushes  near  fresh  water,  and  is  composed  of  vegetable 
materials  in  a  state  of  decaj',  lined  with  warm  down  plucked  from 
the  parent's  body.  The  eggs  are  cream-coloured.  The  flocks  of 
this  species,  while  on  the  wing,  utter  during  their  flight  a  peculiar 
whistling  call-note,  by  which  the  fowler,  during  the  night,  easily 
distinguishes  them.  From  this  call,  the  Bird  in  some  places,  has 
received  the  name  of  Whew-duck.  Early  in  March  the  flocks  begin 
their  Polar  migration,  and  by  the  month  of  April  our  morasses  and 
shores  are  deserted.     (See  Fig.  i,S55-) 


Fig.  I5SS- — Widgeons. 

Our  limited  space  prevents  us  giving  further  illustration  of  the 
Duck  tribe,  with  the  exception  of  the  following  remarks,  for  which 
we  are  indebted  to  the  last  edition  of  the  "  Guide  "  to  the  Zoological 
Society's  Gardens,  London  : — 

"The  Shieldrake  {Tadoma  vu!Jianser.)— This  brightly- 
plumaged  Duck",  which  has  already  been  described,  "is  a  great 
favourite  of  those  persons  who  possess  collections  of  ornamental 
Water- Fowl,  the  pure  and  clearly  contrasted  colours  of  its  feathers 
rendering  it  conspicuous  from  afar. 

"  The  Australian  Shieldrake  {Tadorna  iadornordes.)—Oi 
this  beautiful  Shieldrake,  specimens  were  first  received  in  1862,  from 
the  Hon.  J.  C.  Hawker,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly  at  Adel- 
aide. These  unfortunately  turned  out  to  be  all  females.  Males, 
however,  have  been  received  from  the  Acclimatisation  Society  of 
Melbourne,  and  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  this  fine  species  may 
soon  be  induced  to  propagate  in  this  country. 

"  The  Ruddy  Shieldrake  [ladorna  r«//7a,)— easily  known  by 
its  bright  colour,  is  one  of  the  rarest  visitants  to  Britain,  and  only 
becomes  abundant  in  Eastern  Europe.  It  occurs  in  Egypt,  and  is 
said  to  be  extremely  numerous  in  Asia  Minor.  Indian  specimens 
differ  slightly,  but  not  sufficiently  to  merit  specific  distinction.  A 
pair  of  these  birds  bred  in  the  Gardens  for  the  first  time  in  1859,  and 
successfully  reared  four  strong  young  birds.  Since  that  time  the 
species  has  bred  with  us  nearly  every  year. 

"  The  Paradise  Shieldrake,  of  New  Zealand  {Tadorna  varie- 
gata),  which  is  remarkable  for  the  striking  diversity  of  colouring  of 
the  sexes — the  head  in  the  male  being  black,  and  in  the  female  of  a 
pure  white.  The  Society  are  indebted  to  J.  D.  Tetley,  Esq.,  for 
their  first  pair  of  this  valuable  bird,  which  now  breeds  regularly  in 
the  Gardens." 

Among  others  of  the  Duck  tribe  in  these  Gardens  are  the  Spotted- 
Dilled  Duck  of  India  {Anas  ■pacilorhyiicha),  the  Rosy-billed  Duck 
of  S.  America  [Aleiopiana  ^eposaca),  and  the  Chilian  Pintail 
{Dafila  spinica2ida),  all  recent  additions  to  the  living  series  of  this 
group,  beside  the  Shoveller-duck,  &c. 

"  The  Bahama  Duck  {Dafila  ba7iamensis.)—1\i\%  extremely 
beautiful  Duck,  the  Ilathera  Duck  of  Catesby,  nearly  allied  to  the 
Red-billed  Duck  of  South  Africa,  breeds  very  freely  in  confinement, 
and  has  now  been  distributed  by  the  Society  to  several  of  the 
amateurs  who  have  collections,  both  in  this  country  and  on  the 
Continent. 

"  The  Summer  Duck  {Aix  jr/o?zj-(Z.)— This  elegant  Duck  is  now 
well  known  in  Europe,  many  hundred  pairs  of  it  having  been  im- 
ported from  the  United  States,  and  constantly  breeds  on  the  orna- 
mental waters  of  this  country.  Like  its  congener,  the  Mandarin 
Duck  (see  above)  it  is  arboreal  in  its  habits,  and  not  only  builds  its 


nest,  but  lives  for  a  considerable  part  of  its  time,  in  trees,  when  in  a 
state  of  nature.  Wilson  gives  an  interesting  account  of  his  visit  to 
a  breeding-place  of  the  Summer  Duck  on  the  Tuckahoc  river,  New 
Jersey,  Am.  Orn.,  vol.,  iii.  121.  > 

"  The  Mand.\rin  Duck,  [Aix galericula(a,)—3i  species  which  is 
so  highly  prized  in  China,  that  Sir  John  Bowring  had  the  greatest 
difficulty  in  obtaining  a  few  pairs  for  the  purpose  of  transmission 
to  this  country,  in  1850.  Two  pairs  had  previously  reached  a  skilful 
amateur  at  Rotterdam,  and  from  these  individuals  the  whole  of  the 
birds  of  this  species  now  in  Europe  have  descended.  The  Mandarin 
Duck  appears  to  be  indigenous  to  the  country  north  of  Pekin, 
whence  the  Mandarins  at  Canton,  and  in  the  south  generally,  obtain 
a  supply  for  their  aviaries.  It  has  also  been  found  in  a  wild  state  on 
the  Southern  Amur." 

The  Garganey  Ducks  [Querqucdula  circia)  are  represented  in 
the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens. 

The  Swans— Sub-family   Cygnince. 

In  the  Swans  {CygmncB)  the  bill  is  nearly  of  the  same  form  as  in 
the  Ducks,  as  are  also  the  feet  ;  which,  however,  are  much  stouter 
in  proportion.  The  bill  is  rather  long,  and  of  nearly  equal  breadth 
throughout ;  and  the  neck  is  greatly  elongated.  These  large  and 
elegant  Birds,  of  which  several  species  are  found  in  this  country, 
are  amongst  the  most  graceful  of  the  Aquatic  Birds ;  and  few 
objects  in  nature,  perhaps,  are  more  pleasing  than  a  large  Swan 
moving  in  its  usual  majestic  manner  over  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
water.  Their  wings  are  very  long  and  powerful,  and  many  of  them 
perform  long  migrations,  during  which  they  always  fly  in  single 
lines.  Their  dietis  principally  of  a  vegetable  nature,  consisting  of 
grass,  roots,  and  seeds ;  but  they  are  said  also  to  feed  upon  Worms 
and  Aquatic  Insects.  Swans  are  gregarious  at  all  seasons.  The 
nest,  which  is  very  bulky,  is  composed  of  grass,  rushes,  and  coarse 
herbage,  and  placed  on  the  ground,  generally  amongst  the  sedges 
of  the  brink.  Several  observers  have  stated  that  the  Swan,  when 
sitting,  has  been  known  to  add  considerably  to  the  materials  of  her 
nest,  so  as  to  raise  it  sometimes  as  much  as  two  feet,  or  two  feet  and 
a-half,  in  anticipation  of  heavy  rains,  which  swelled  the  waters  to 
such  an  extent,  that  the  nest,  if  left  in  its  original  condition,  would 
have  been  completely  submerged.  The  male  remains  in  company 
with  the  female  during  the  period  of  incubation,  and  assists  in  the 
care  of  the  young  after  their  exclusion.  An  interesting  instance  of 
the  courage  and  determination  of  the  male  Swan  in  defending  his 
young,  is  related  by  Mr.  Yarrell.  A  pair  of  the  Whooping  or 
Hooping  Swans  {Cygnus  ferns)  had  bred  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  in  the  summer  of  1839.  "The  Cygnets,"  says 
Mr.  Yarrell,  "  when  only  a  few  days  old,  were  sunning  themselves 
on  the  margin  of  one  of  the  islands,  close  to  the  deep  water  The 
parent  birds  were  swimming  near.  A  Carrion  Crow  made  a  descent 
and  struck  at  one  of  the  Cygnets  ;  the  old  male  Hooper  came  to  the 
rescue  in  an  instant,  seized  the  Crow  with  his  beak,  pulled  him  into 
the  water,  and,  in  spite  of  all  its  buffetings  and  resistance,  held 
him  there  till  he  was  dead."  The  name  of  the  Hooper  or  Whooping 
Swan  given  to  this  Bird,  which  is  the  common  Wild  Swan  of 
Europe,  is  an  allusion  to  the  peculiar  note  emitted  by  the  male, 
which  is  said  by  Mr.  Yarrell  to  be  exactly  similar  to  the  word  "hoop," 
repeated  several  times  in  succession.  The  intensity  of  this  sound  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  convolution  of  the  trachea,  which  pene- 
trates the  keel  of  the  sternum,  almost  to  its  posterior  extremity,  and 
is  then  bent  back  upon  itself  so  as  to  return  to  the  front  of  the 
sternum  before  reaching  the  lungs. 

An  arrangement,  in  some  degree  similar  to  this,  occurs  also  in 
another  British  species,  Bewick's  Swan  [Cygnus  bezfic^ii),  which 
also  produces  a  considerable  noise,  especially  when  flying  on  its 
migrations  ;  but  the  trachea  of  the  Common  Tame  Swan  [C.  olur)  is 
quite  simple,  and  the  Bird  has  only  a  soft,  plaintive  voice,  very 
different  from  the  strong  note  of  the  Hooper.  Another  species,  the 
C.  immutabilis,  so  called  from  the  cygnets  being  white  instead  of 
grey  or  brownish,  as  is  the  case  with  the  other  Swans,  occasionally 
makes  its  appearance  in  this  country  during  severe  winters ;  it  is 
sometimes  brought  by  dealers  from  the  Baltic,  under  the  name  of 
the  Polish  Swan,  but  its  summer  residence  is  not  accurately  known. 

The  following  is  a  more  particular  account  of  various  species  of 
the  Swan  Tribe  :  — 

The  Tame  Swan  [Cygnus  olor).  Cygne  of  the  French  ;  Cigno 
and  Cigno  reale  of  the  Italians  ;  Schwan  and  Hocker  Schwan  of  the 
Germans  ;  Tam  Svane  of  the  Danes;  Alarch  of  the  Welsh;  Swan 
and  Mute  Swan,  English.  The  Tamo  or  Mute  Swan,  so  well  known 
in  a  state  of  semi-domestication  on  our  ornamental  sheets  of  water, 
our  lakes,  meres,  and  large  rivers,  of  which  it  is  so  conspicuous  an 
ornament,  is  not  an  aboriginal  of  our  islands,  but  is  found  in  the 
eastern  portions  of  Europe,  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Asia,  where 
inland  seas,  vast  lakes,  and  extensive  morasses  afford  it  a  congenial 
home.  In  Siberia,  and  some  parts  of  Russia,  it  is  common,  and 
abounds  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  migratory  la  us 
habits. 


6t2 


THE  SWANS. 


When  this  graceful  Bird  was  introduced  into  England  we  cannot 
ascertain  ;  we  find,  however,  that  at  an  early  period  it  was  regarded 
as  royal  property,  and  under  the  protection  of  authorised  Swan- 
herds,  or  masters  of  the  King's  Swans,  while  the  stealing  of  one  of 
these  Birds,  or  of  the  eggs  of  Swans  out  of  their  nests,  was  punished 
with  great  severity. 

The  following  observations  relative  to  the  ancient  right  of  keeping 
Swans,  will  be  of  interest  : — "  In  England  the  swan  is  said  to  be  a 
bird  royal,  in  which  no  subject  can  have  property,  when  at  large  in 
public  river  or  creek,  except  by  grant  from  the  crown.  In  creating 
this  privilege,  the  crown  grants  a  swan-mark  (cygninota),  for  a  game 
of  swans,  called  in  law  Latin  deductus  (a  pastime,  un  deduit)  cyg- 
norum,  sometimes  volatus  cygnorum.  (7,  Coke's  Rep.,  17.)  In 
Scotland  the  swan  is  said  not  to  be  a  royal  bird  (Erskines's  Insti'i., 
b.  ii.,  tit.  6)  ;  but  whilst  all  proprietors  in  that  country  have  the 
right  of  fowling  within  their  own  grounds,  swans,  unless  specially 
granted,  appear  to  be  reserved  to  the  crown.  (Stair's  Insii'i.,  b.  ii., 
t.  3,  s.  60  :  and  see  Ducange  Cygnos  habe?idijus.)  In  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  upwards  of  900  corporations  and  individuals  had  their 
distinct  swan-marks,  some  of  which  may  be  seen  in  Yarrell's 
"British  Birds,"  vol.  iii.,  121,  &c. 

"  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  crown,  instead  of  granting  a 
swan-mark,  confers  the  still  greater  privilege  of  enjoying  the  pre- 
rogative right  (within  a  certain  district)  of  seizing  white  swans,  not 
marked.  Thus  the  Abbot  of  Abbotsbury,  in  Dorsetshire,  had  a 
game  of  wild  swans  in  the  sstuary  formed  by  the  Isle  of  Portland 
and  the  Chesil  Bank.  The  swannery  at  Abbotsbury  is  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom,  which,  though  formerly  considerably  more  extensive, 
still  numbers  many  hundreds  of  these  birds,  forming  an  object  of 
considerable  attraction  and  interest  to  those  who  visit  this  part  of 
the  south  coast :  it  is  now  vested  in  the  Earl  of  Ilchester,  to  whose 
ancestor  it  was  granted  on  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries.  (7 
Co.  Rep.  17  ;  Hutchins,  Dorset,  i.  538.) 

"The  privilege  of  having  a  swan-mark,  or  game  of  swans,  is  a 
freehold  of  inheritance,  and  may  be  granted  over.  But  by  22  Edw. 
IV.,  c.  6,  no  person,  other  than  the  king's  sons,  shall  have  a  swan- 
mark,  or  game  of  swans,  unless  he  has  freehold  lands  or  tenements 
of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  five  marks  (^3  6s.  8d.),  on  pain  of 
forfeiture  of  the  swans,  one  moiety  to  the  king  and  the  other  to  any 
qualified  person  who  makes  the  seizure.  In  the  first  year  of  Richard 
III.  the  inhabitants  of  Crowland,  in  Lincolnshire,  were  exempted 
from  the  operation  of  this  act  upon  their  petition  setting  forth  that 
their  town  stood  'all  in  marsh  and  fen,'  and  that  they  had  great 
games  of  swans,  '  by  which  the  greatest  part  of  their  relief  and 
living  had  been  sustained.'     (6  Rot.  Pari.,  260.) 

"  The  city  of  Oxford  has  a  game  of  swans  by  prescription,  though 
none  are  now  kept.  In  the  si.'iteenth  century  (when  a  state  dinner 
■was  not  complete  unless  a  swan  was  included  in  the  bill  of  fare)  this 
game  of  swans  was  rented  upon  an  engagement  to  deliver  yearly 
four  fat  swans,  and  to  leave  six  old  swans  at  the  end  of  the  term. 
By  the  corporation  books  it  also  appears  that  in  1557,  barley  was 
provided  for  the  young  birds  at  i4d,  a  bushel,  and  that  tithes  were 
then  paid  of  swans. 

''  Two  of  the  London  Companies  have  games  of  swans,  the  Dyers' 
and  the  Vintners'  Company,  and  are,  with  the  crown,  the  principal 
owners  of  swans  in  the  Thames.  In  August,  1841,  the  Queen  had 
232,  the  Dyers  105,  and  the  Vintners  100  swans  in  the  river.  For- 
merley  the  Vintners  alone  had  500.  The  swan-mark  of  the  Dyers' 
Company  is  a  notch,  called  a  '  nick,'  on  one  side  of  the  beak.  The 
swans  of  the  Vintners'  Company,  being  notched  or  nicked  on  each 
side  of  the  beak,  are  jocularly  called  '  swans  with  two  necks,'  a  term 
which  had  long  been  used  as  a  sign  by  what  was  formerly  one  of 
the  large  inns  in  the  City  of  London,  whence  many  of  the  mail  and 
stage  coaches  used  to  start. 

"  On  the  first  Monday  in  August  in  every  year  the  swan-markers 
of  the  crown  and  the  two  Companies  of  the  City  of  London  go  up 
the  river  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  and  taking  an  account  of  the 
swans  belonging  to  their  respective  employers,  and  marking  the 
young  birds.  In  antient  documents  this  annual  expedition  is  called 
swan-upping,  and  the  persons  employed  are  denominated  swan- 
uppers.  These  are  still  the  designations  used  amongst  the  initiated, 
though  popularly  corrrupted  into  swan-hopping  and  swan-hoppers. 

"The  swan-markers  proceed  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  river 
frequented  by  the  swans  for  breed- 
ing, and  other  places  where  the 
birds  are  kept.  They  pay  half-a- 
crown  for  each  young  bird  to  the 
fishermen  who  have  made  nests 
Fig.  1566.— Royal  Swan  Mark.       for  the  old  birds,  and  two  shillings 

per  week  to  any  person  who  during 
the  winter  has  taken  care  of  the  swans  by  sheltering  them  in 
ponds  or  otherwise  protecting  them  from  the  severity  of  the  weather. " 
Fig.  1556  is  a  representation  of  the  Royal  Swan-mark,  given  by 
Mr.  Yarrell,  in  whose  valuable  work  on  British  Birds  will  be  found 
a  mass  of  curious  informarion  on  this  subject,  together  with  delinea- 
tions of  sixteen  different  swan-marks. 


Wm) 


Fig.  1557  represents  the  Head  of  the  Tame  Swan  {Cygnus  olor), 
remarkable  for  the  development  of  the  black  naked  cere,  at  the 
base  which  extends  to  the  eye,  rising  on  the  anterior  part  of  the 
forehead  in  the  form  of  a  large  prominence,  more  conspicuous  in  the 
male  than  the  female.  The  beak  generally  is  of  an  orange  red,  with 
the  exception  of  the  nail  at  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible,  the  edges 
of  both,  and  of  the  nostrils,  which  are  black. 


Fig.  1557. — Head  of  the  Tame  Swan. 

In  a  natural  state  the  female  Swan,  sedulously  attended  by  her 
mate,  forms  her  nest,  which  is  a  thick  mass  of  sticks,  reeds,  flags, 
and  rushes,  in  the  midst  of  reeds  or  oziers  near  the  water.  The 
eggs  are  six  or  eight  in  number.  The  young  Birds  are  termed 
Cygnets,  and  are  covered  with  a  greyish  brown  plumage  which  is 
not  entirely  lost  till  the  beginning  of  the  third  year.  Though  the 
Swan  is  in  general  very  gentle  and  inoffensive,  the  male  will  defend 
the  nest  with  great  courage,  and  advance  to  the  onset  with  ruffled 
pinions  and  every  demonstration  of  anger,  nor  is  it,  from  its  mus- 
cular powers,  an  antagonist  to  be  despised,  as  already  mentioned. 

The  Swan  is  very  long-lived,  attaining  to  the  age  of  even  more 
than  thirty  years. 

The  Hooper,  or  Whistling  Sw.^^n,  {Cygnus  ferns ;  Cygnus 
7!iusiciiS,  Bechstein)  ;  Cygne  sauvage  of  the  French  ;  Cigno  salvatico 
of  the  Italians  ;  Singschwan  of  the  Germans ;  Vild  Svane  of  the 
Danes  ;  Alarch  gwylt  of  the  ancient  British. 

This  species,  which  differs  in  many  important  anatomical  details  . 
from  the  preceding,  is  a  native  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  as  far  at  least  as  Europe  and  Asia  extend  ;  for  it  ap- 
pears, according  to  the  Prince  of  Canino,  that  in  the  high  latitudes 
of  America  it  is  represented  by  a  distinct,  though  closely  allied 
species,  the  Cygnus  americanus,  Sharpless. 

The  Hooper  is   a   Migratory  Bird,  residing   during  the  summer 
within  the  regions  of  the  Arctic  circle,  where   it  breeds  in  great 
numbers.     It  has  been  known,  however,  to  incubate  and  rear  its 
young  in  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Islands.     On  the  approach  of 
winter,  this  Bird  leaves  the  dreary  regions  of  the  north  for  more 
southern  latitudes,  visiting  the  British  Islands,  Holland,  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy,  extending  its  journey  even   to  Northern  Africa 
and  Egypt.     It  performs  its  periodical  flight  in  flocks  of  greater  or 
less  extent,  arranged  in  the  figure  of  a  wedge,  travelling  with  vast 
rapidity,  and  at  a  great  elevation.     The  note  which  it  utters  while  on 
the  wing  is  harsh,  and  resembles  the  word  hoop,  repeated  several 
times   successively ;    yet  this  cry,  when   heard   from   a  flock  high 
overhead  and  softened  by  distance,  is  not  unmusical.     The  trachea, 
or  windpipe,  of  this     species   is  very  remarkable.     After  passing 
down   the   long  neck   of  the   Swan,  it   descends  between   the  two 
branches   of  the  merrythought,  and  instead   of  then  passing  into 
the   chest,    it  enters   into   the   keel   of  the    breast-bone,   which   is 
hollowed    for   its  reception ;    here   it  extends   backwards  between 
the  two   plates   of  the   keel,   nearly  throughout  its   whole  extent, 
then  suddenly  turning  upon  itself,  it  passes  torwards,  and  emerging 
sweeps  round  the  apical  portion  of  the  merrythought,  and  so  again 
turning  back  enters  the  chest,  and  there  gives  off  two  long  branchial 
tubes,  one  to  each  lobe  of  the  lungs.     In  females  and  young  males 
the  extent  to  which  the  wmdpipe  enters  the  keel  of  the  breast-bone 
is  not  so  considerable.     Fig.  1558  and  1559  represent  the  windpipe 
and  breast-bone,  with  a  portion  of  the  keel  removed,  so  as  to  expose 
the  former :  a,  a,  the  trachea ;  b,  the   bony  ring,   or  lower  larynx, 
whence  are  given  off  c,  c,  the  two  branchial  tubes.     Fig.  1560  shows 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  keel,  with  the  opening  for  the  reception 
and  exit  of  the  trachea. 

Wide  morasses,  lakes,  or  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  inundated 
grounds  are  the  abode  of  this  wary  Bird.  On  the  first  dawn  of 
spring,  the  flocks  which  have  spread  themselves  in  small  parties 
over  our  latitudes,  collect,  and  wing  their  way  back  to  their  nor'hern 
breeding-haunts,  scattering  themselves  over  Norway,  Iceland,  Lap- 
land, Spitzbergen,  and  Siberia. 
The  down  of  this  species  is  '^sry  valuable,  and  is  procured  in  great 


THE  SWANS. 


613 


quantity  by  the  Icelanders,  together  with  the  feathers,  not  only  for 
domestic  comfort,  but  for  the  purpose  of  barter.  The  season  for 
Swan-hunting  in  Iceland  is  during  the  month  of  August,  when  the 
old  Birds,  having  cast  their  quill-feathers,  are  unable  to  fly  ;  the 
natives  assemble  in  bodies  in  the  places  where  these  Birds  collect, 
attended  by  Dogs,  and  mounted  upon  small  but  active  Horses,  well 


Fig.  1558. — Breast-bone  of  the  Wild  Swan. 

trained  to  pass  over  bogs  and  through  mashy  soil,  and  many  are 
ridden  down,  but  the  greater  number  are  caught  by  the  Dogs,  which 
always  seize  by  the  neck,  a  mode  of  attack  that  causes  the  Bird  to 
loose  its  balance  and  become  an  easy  prey. 

The  Hooper  is  smaller   and  much  less  graceful  than   the  Tame 
Swan ;  in  swimming  it  is  never  seen  to  thow  up  the  plumes  of  its 


rig.  1559. — Brest-bone  of  the  Wild  Swan. 

wings,  nor  assume  any  striking  attitude,  and  it  carries  its  neck  erect 
and  straight,  instead  of  curved  ;  but  while  walking,  the  head  is 
lowered,  and  the  neck  reclines  over  the  back  to  assist  in  preserving 
the  equipoise  of  the  body.  In  captivity  it  soon  becomes  tame,  and 
has  bred  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  but  it  does  not  associate  with 
the  Tame  Swan. 

This  species  has  no  basal  protuberance  on  the  beak  ;  the  base  of 
the  upper  mandible  and  cere,  as  far  as  the 
eye,  are  yellow,  as  is  also  the  back  part  of  the 
lower  mandible ;  the  point,  as  far  as  the 
nostrils,  black^these  two  colours  meet  each 
other  obliquely,  the  latter  running  obliquely, 
backwards,  the  yellow  advancing  forwards 
along  the  sides,  of  the  beak  ;  iris  brown  ;  feet 
black.  E.xpanse  of  wings  about  eight  feet. 
Fig.  1 561,  represents  the  head  of  the  Hooper. 
Bewick's  Swan  (Cyg)iusbe%vickii.  )  This 
species  is  about  one-third  less  than  the 
Hooper.  Its  beak  rises  high  at  the  base, 
which  is  yellow ;  the  anterior  portion,  in- 
cluding more  than  the  nostrils,  black  (see 
Fig.  it;62);  the  tail-feathers  are  eighteen,  in  the  Hooper  twenty; 
the  legs  are  of  a  deeper  black  than  in  the  Hooper,  and  the  neck 
is  more  slender.  The  arrangement  of  the  trachea,  besides  is 
very  different.'  "  The  tube  of  the  windpipe,  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  "  is  of 
equal  diameter  throughout,  and,  descending  in  front  of  the  neck, 
enters  the  keel  of  the  sternum,  which  is  hollow  as  in  the  hooper, 
traversing  the  whole  length.  Having  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  keel, 
the  tube,  then  gradually  inclining  upwards  and  outwards,  passes 
into  a  cavity  in  the  sternum  destined  to  receive  it,  caused  by  a  sepa- 
ration of  the  parallel  horizontal  plates  of  bone,  forming  the  posterior 
flattened  portion  of  the  breast-bone,  and  producing  a  convex  pro- 
tuberance on  the  inner  surface.  The  tube,  also  changing  its  direc- 
tion from  vertical  to  horizontal,  and  reaching  within  half  an  inch  of 
the  posterior  edge,  is  reflected  back,  after  making  a  considerable 
curve,  till  it  once  more  reaches  the  keel ;  again  traversing  which,  in 
a  line  immediately  over  the  first  portion  of  the  tube,  it  passes  out 
under  the  arch  of  the  merrythought;  where  turning  upwards  and 


Fig.  1560. — P^.int  of 
Keel  of  the  Breast-bone. 


afterwards  backwards,  it  enters  the  body  of  the  bird,  to  be  attached 
to  the  lungs  in  the  usual  manner.  This  is  the  state  of  development 
in  the  oldest  bird  I  have  yet  met  with.  The  degree  next  in  order,  or 
younger,  differs  in  having  the  horizontal  loop  of  the  trachea  confined 
to  one  side  only  of  the  cavity  in  the  sternum,  both  sides  of  which 
cavity  are  at  this  time  formed,  but  the   loop  of  the  tube  is  not  yet 


Fig.  1561.— Head  of  the  Hooper. 

sufficiently  elongated  to  occupy  the  whole  space  ;  and  the  third  in 
order,  from  a  still  younger  bird,  possesses  only  the  vertical  insertion 
of  the  fold  of  the  trachea."  Mr.  Yarrell  adds,  however,  that  in  this 
last  case  the  cavity  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  sternum  already 
exists  to  a  considerable  extent.     (See  Fig.  1563.) 

Bewick's  Swan  is  a  native  of  the  northern  regions  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  as  well  as  of  America;  though  in  his  "  Comparative  List  of 
the  Birds  of  Europe  and  America,"  the  Prince  of  Canino  does  not 


Fig.  1562. — Head  of  Bewick's  Swan. 

give  it  as  an  American  species,  but  parallels  it  with  the  Cygnus 
buccinatur,  or  Trumpeter  Swan.  According  to  Temminck,  it  breeds 
in  Iceland,  and  within  the  Arctic  circle,  migrating  southwards  in 
spring;  but  it  appears  to  be  much  scarcer  than  the  Hooper. 

Captain  Lyon  describes  the  nest  as 
constructed  of  peat  moss,  nearly  six  feet 
long,  four  and  three  quarters  wide,  and 
two  feet  in  height,  with  a  cavity  for  the 
eggs,  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  Mr. 
Blackwall  describes  the  cry  of  this 
species  as  loud,  and  states  that  a  flock 
of  twenty-nine  were  very  clamorous. 
Mr.  Sinclaire  says  the  note  of  these  Birds 
in  captivity  is  a  low-toned  whistle  ;  and 
Mr.  Selby,  "  its  voice  is  much  weaker 
than  that  of  the  preceding  species,  the 
Hooper." 

The  Polish  Swan  {Cygiius  immu- 
tablis).  This  species  has  been  con- 
founded with  the  [Cygiius  olor),  or  Tame 
Swan,  to  which,  of  all  the  European  Swans, 
it  is  the  most  nearly  related.  There  are, 
however  many  important  anatomical 
differences,  especially  in  the  osteology  of 
the  head.  (See  Fig.  1564.)  The  Cygnets  are  white,  a  point  in 
which  it  differs  from  every  other  species  of  white  swan.  In  the  adult 
Bird  the  beak  is  reddish-orange  ;  the  lateral  margins,  the  nail,  the 
nostrils,  and  base  of  the  upper  mandible  are  black.  There  is  a  small 
tubercle,  which  never  acquires  the  size  of  that  ornamenting  the  head 
of  the  Cygnus  olor.  Legs,  toes,  and  inten,-enmg  membranes  slate 
grey.     The  windpipe  is  simple.      The  Bird,  a  native  or  the  high 


Fig.  1563.- Winflpipe  of 
Bewick's  Swan. 


6 14 


THE  GEESE. 


northern  regions  and  the  Baltic,  is  called  by  dealers  the  Polish 
Swan,  and  occasionally  visits  our  island.  It  is  easily  reconciled  to 
captivity,  breeding  as  freely  as  the  Common  Tame  Swan.  The  female 
of  a  pair  of  these  Swans,  at  Lord  Derby's  seat,  Knowsley,  having 
died,  the  male  paired  with  a  female  of  the  ordinary  tame  species,  and 
a  brood  was  the  result,  but  the  hybrids,  though  old  enough,  neither 
paired  among  themselves  nor  with  any  of  the  Tame  Swans  on  the 
same  water. 


1564. — Head  of  the  Polish  Swan. 

The  Black  Swan  {Cygnus  atratus,  Bennet ;  A)ias  ■pluionia, 
Shaw;  Chenopis  atratus,  Wagler.)  (See  Fig.  1565.)  The  Black 
Swan,  b}'  no  means  "  rara  avis  in  terris,"  is  a  native  of  Australia, 
where  it  abounds  on  the  rivers  and  lakes,  and  on  various  islands 
along  the  coast,  and  is  usually  seen  in  flocks,  which  are  shy  and 
wary.  Of  late  years  this  beautiful  Bird  has  been  introduced  into  our 
island,  where  it  thrives  and  breeds,  and  is  perfectly  acclimatised. 
It  is  irrascible  in  temper,  and  disposed  to  tyrannise  over  the  weaker 
or  more  timid  captives  resident  on  the  same  piece  of  water. 


Fig.  1565. — Head  of  the  Black  Swan. 

The  Black  Swan  is  inferior  to  the  Hooper  in  size  ;  its  plumage  is 
black,  with  the  exception  of  the  primary  and  a  few  of  the  secondary 
quill-feathers,  which  are  white  ;  but  these  are  obscured  by  the  curled 
secondaries,  which  hang  plume-hke  over  them.  The  bill  is  of  a 
bright  red  colour,  crossed  near  the  nail  by  a  whitish  band ;  its  base, 
in  the  male,  is  surmounted  by  a  slight  protuberance,  which  is  wanting 
in  the  female  ;  under-part  of  the  bill  grej'ish-white  ;  legs  and  feet  of 
a  dull  ash-colour  ;  iris,  red  ;  trachea  perfectly  simple,  not  unlike  that 
of  the  Cygnus  oto?-.  Fig.  1566  represents  the  trachea  and  breast- 
bone of  the  Black  Swan.     The  note  of  this  species  is  harsh. 


Fig.  1566. — Breast-bone  of  the  Black  Swan. 

Various  portions  of  the  coast  of  South  America  (Chili,  the  Falkland 
Islands,  Rio  de  la  Plata,  &c.)  present  us  with  a  very  beautiful 
species  of  the  Black-necked  Swan  (Cy^«?^j«z^;>-/'«//;j-),  distinguished 


by  a  jet  black  head  and  neck,  contrasting  admirably  with  the  snowy 
whiteness  of  the  rest  of  the  plumage.  The  bill  is  red  ;  the  legs 
and  feet  flesh-colour.  It  equals  the  Hooper  in  size.  This  Bird 
breeds  regularly  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  London. 

Among  the  Birds  of  the  Swan  Tribe  in  the  Zoological  Society's 
Gardens,  London,  is  the  following,  beside  the  species  already 
described : — 

The  Trumpeter  Swan  ( Cygnus  buccinator).  This  fine  American 
Sw^an,  of  which  the  first  pair  were  received  from  Ohio  in  1866,  com- 
menced to  breed  in  1S70,  and  has  reproduced  in  the  Gardens  every 
year  since  then  six  or  seven  cygnets  from  the  brood,  and  are  hatched 
in  Alay  or  June. 

There  is  also  a  specimen  of  the  Chilian  Swan.  The  collection  of 
the  British  Museum  contains  numerous  stuffed  specimens  of  the 
tribe. 

The  Geese — Zuh-iamWy  Atiscn'ttcs. 

The  Anserincs,  or  Geese,  have  a  large  heavy  body,  with  a  toler- 
ably long  neck,  a  small  head,  and  a  conical  bill  (Fig.  1567.)  Their 
feet  are  rather  long,  and  the  hind  toes  very  small  ;  the  wings  are 
long  and  powerful.  These  Birds,  many  of  which  are  only  inferior  in 
size  to  the  Swans,  resemble  them  in  most  of  their  habits  ;  they  live 
together  in  flocks,  inhabit  the  Polar  regions  during  the  summer,  and 
migrate  in  autumn  in  search  of  a  more  genial  climate  in  which  to 
pass  the  winter.  During  their  migrations,  they  fly  in  long  lines,  at 
a  great  height  in  the  air,  continually  emitting  loud  cries.  They 
feed  on  vegetables,  such  as  grass,  herbaceous  plants,  and  seeds, 
and  generally  take   up  their   abode  in  marshy  places.     In   these 


Fig.  1567. — Head  of  the  Gray  Goose. 

situations  they  build  their  nests,  which  are  of  large  sige,  and  com- 
posed of  coarse  grass  and  other  herbage.  They  lay  several  eggs  ; 
and,  according  to  Professor  Nilsson,  the  males  quit  their  partners 
during  the  period  of  incubation,  and  collect  in  flocks  close  to  the 
sea. 

Of  the  True  Wild  Geese  (Anser)  several  species  are  found  in  this 
country,  principally  as  winter  visitors,  although  some  species  occa- 
sionally remain,  and  breed  here  during  the  summer.  The  Grey 
Lag  Goose  {A  nser  ferus)  which  is  said  to  have  been  very  abundant 
formerly  in  the  fenny  districts,  is  now  rarely  found  in  Britain  ;  but 
Mr.  Yarrell  appears  to  consider  this  as  the  original  of  our  domestic 
breed,  perhaps  with  a  cross  of  the  White-fronted  Goose  {Anser 
atbt/rons),  which  still  visits  our  shores  in  considerable  numbers 
during  the  winter.  The  commonest  of  the  British  species  is  the 
Bean  Goose  {Anser  segetum).  The  Bernicle  Geese  (Bcrnicla)  are 
marine  in  their  habits,  and  feed  almost  entirely  upon  Algse  and  upon 
the  Grass-wrack  [Zostcra  }tiarina).  The  following  is  a  more 
particular  account  of  some  of  the  species  of  the  Goose  Tribe  : — 

The  Canada  Goose  {Anser  canade?isis).  This  species,  of 
which,  as  we  have  said,  there  is  a  tame  breed  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America, 
whence,  in  the  autumn,  vast  flocks  wing  their  way  southwards, 
spreading  over  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The  autumnal 
flight,  says  Wilson,  lasts  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle 
of  October,  when  the  frosts  begin.  No  sooner  do  they  arrive  in 
Canada  and  the  States,  than  the  work  of  slaughter  commences. 
They  run  the  gauntlet,  so  to  speak,  for  many  hundreds  of  miles, 
through  such  destructive  fires,  that  by  the  time  they  have  reached 
the  shores  of  the  Middle  States,  their  numbers  are  not  only  greatly 
reduced,  but  the  survivors  have  become  exceedingly  shy  and  watch- 
ful. The  English  residents  at  Hudson's  Bay  depend  greatly  on  the 
supply  of  Canada  Geese  for  their  winter  provision ;  and  it  is  stated 
that  in  favourable  years,  as  many  as  three  or  four  thousand  have 
been  killed  and  barrelled  up  ;  a  single  native,  from  the  ambush  of 
his  bough  hut,  will  sometimes  kill  two  hundred  in  a  day.  Those 
which  are  taken  when  the  frost  begins  to  set  in,  are  preserved  in 
a  frozen  state,  with  the  feathers  on,  and  not  salted,  as  the  rest ;  the 
feathers  constitute  an  article  of  commerce,  and  are  sent  to  Eng- 
land.   The  flesh  of  this  species,  though  juicy  and  excellent,  is  not 


THE  GEESE. 


equal  to  that  of  the  Snow  Goose  {Ajiser  hypcrboreus),  which, 
according' to  Dr.  Richardson,  is  of  first-rate  quality;  consequently 
thousands  of  this  latter  species  are  killed  during-  their  southern  pro- 
gress, and  kept  in  a  frozen  state,  in  holes  dug-  in  the  ground,  and 
covered  up  with  earth.  The  same  mode  of  preserving  them  is 
practised  also  in  Siberia. 

About  the  middle  of  April  the  Canada  Geese  return  northwards, 
their  flight  lasting  till  the  middle  of  May.  They  have  been  found 
breeding  on  the  coasts  of  Labrador.  On  the  arrival  of  the  flocks  in 
the  fur  countries  the  work  of  slaughter  again  commences,  the  natives 
attracting  the  Birds  within  gun-shot  range  by  imitating  their  call 
note.  "  One  goose,"  says  Dr.  Richardson,  "  when  fat  weighs  about 
nine  pounds,  and  is  the  daily  ration  for  one  of  the  company's  servants 
during  this  season  ;  it  is  reckoned  equal  to  two  snow  geese,  or  three 
ducks,  or  eight  pounds  of  buffalo  or  moose  meat,  two  pounds  of 
pcnimican,  or  a  pint  of  maize  and  four  ounces  of  suet.  About  three 
weeks  after  their  first  (vernal)  appearance,  the  Canada  geese  dis- 
perse, in  pairs,  throughout  the  country  between  the  50th  and  67th 
parallels  to  breed,  retiring  at  the  same  time  from  the  shores  of 
Hudson's  Bay.  They  are  seldom  or  ever  seen  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Arctic  Sea.  In  July,  after  the  young  are  hatched,  the  parents 
moult,  and  vast  numbers  are  killed  in  the  rivers  and  small  lakes, 
when  they  are  unable  to  fly.  When  chased  by  a  canoe  and  obliged 
to  dive  frequently,  they  soon  become  fatigued,  and  make  for  the 
shore  with  the  intention  of  hiding  themselves,  but  as  they  are  not 
fleet  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  their  pursuers.  In  the  autumn  they 
again  assemble  in  flocks  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  for  three 
weeks  or  a  inonth  previous  to  their  departure  southwards." 

The  food  of  the  present  species  consists  of  tender  Aquatic  herbage 
and  roots,  and  also  marine  plants,  together  with  grain  and  berries. 

The  Canada  Goose  has  the  head,  nearly  all  the  neck,  the  greater 
quills,  rump,  and  tail  black.  Back  and  wings  brown,  with  a  pale 
edge  to  each  feather.  Base  of  the  neck  and  under  plumage  white, 
a  few  feathers  before  the  edge,  and  a  large  throat-mark  white.  Bill 
and  feet  black.     (See  Fig.  1568.) 


6>S 


Fig.  156S. — The  Canada  Goose. 

The  Bean  Goose  {Anser  segetum,  Steph.)— The  Bean  Goose 
or  Small  Grey  Goose  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Greylag,  the 
origin  of  our  domestic  stock,  and  from  which  it  may  be  distinguished 
by  its  inferior  size,  and  by  the  form  of  the  bill,  which  is  compara- 
tively shorter,  smaller,  and  more  compressed  towards  the  end.  Its 
wings  reach  even  beyond  the  tail.  Moreover,  in  the  Bean  Goose  the 
base  of  the  upper  mandible,  as  far  as  the  nostrils,  and  of  the  lower, 
together  with  the  nails  of  both,  are  black,  the  rest  of  a  reddish  flesh- 
colour  inclining  to  orange,  whereas  the  bill  of  the  Greylag  is  of  an 
orange-red,  with  the  nail  of  a  greyish-white. 

The  Bean  Goose  is  a  native  of  the  high  northern  regions,  and  the 
range  of  country  within  the  Arctic  circle  ;  whence  in  the  autumn  it 
migrates  southwards,  and  is  well  known  as  a  regular  winter  visitant 
to  our  islands,  arriving  about  the  beginning  of  October.  The  flocks 
have  their  respective  feeding  districts  or  haunts,  to  which,  as  Mr. 
Selby  has  satisfactorily  determined,  they  invariably  return  ;  their 
flight,  except  during  stormy  weather,  is  generally  at  a  great  eleva- 
tion, and  extremely  rapid.  The  Birds  fly  either  in  a  diagonal  line, 
or  form  two  sides  of  an  acute  triangle,  and  during  their  aerial  pro- 
gress, maintain  an  incessant  cackle,  the  voices  of  the  two  sexes 
being  easily  distinguished.  During  the  day,  the  flocks  resort  to  the 
upland  grounds  and  open  lands,  feeding  on  the  tender  wheat,  and 
also  upon  clover  and  other  herbage.  In  the  early  part  of  the  spring 
they  visit  the  fields  newly  sown  with  beans  and  peas,  and  greedily 
devour  as  much  as  they  find  scattered  about,  or  can  dislodge  ;  on 


the  approach  of  evening  they  retire  to  the  water,  or  to  some  bar  of 
sand,  at  a  little  distance  from  the  shore,  where  they  have  a  free  range 
of  vision  all  around,  and  no  enemy  can  steal  unobserved  upon  them. 
They  are  extremely  watchful  and  vigilant,  and  it  is  only  by  stratagem 
that  the  sportsman  can  come  upon  them  within  gunshot.  The  best 
plan  is  to  lie  in  wait  for  them,  when  they  make  their  early  morning 
visit  to  the  feeding  grounds  which  they  habitually  frequent.  The 
Bean  Goose  is  said  to  breed  on  some  of  the  outermost  Western 
islands  in  considerable  numbers,  making  in  the  marshy  grounds  a 
nest  of  dried  grasses  and  other  vegetables ;  the  eggs  are  ten  or  twelve 
in  number. 

This  Bird  is  much  more  common  in  our  island  than  the  Greylag, 
at  least  in  the  present  day  :  for  formerly  the  Greylag  was  not  only 
numerous,  but  a  permanent  resident,  breeding  in  the  fenny  counties, 
from  which  the  process  of  draining,  and  an  increase  of  population) 
have  almost  entirely  banished  it.     (Sec  Fig.  1569.) 


Fig.  1569. — The  Bean  Goose. 

The  Bernicle  Goose  {Anser  bcrnicla).  The  Bernicle,  together 
with  a  closely  allied  species,  the  Brent  Goose  (^;w^;-  brentu),  are 
both  natives  of  the  high  northern  latitudes,  both  of  Europe  and 
America,  and  in  autumn  migrate  southwards ;  they  visit  our  islands 
during  the  winter ;  the  Bernicle  Goose  resorts  to  the  western  shores 
of  Britain,  and  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  is  abundant  on  the  coast  of 
Lancashire,  and  in  the  Sohvay  Frith ;  while  the  Brent  Goose  chiefly 
haunts  the  eastern  and  southern  shores  of  Britain,  and  abounds  on 
the  Northumberland  coast.  Both  species  are  very  shy  and  wary, 
and  can  only  be  approached  by  means  of  the  most  cautious  ma- 
noeuvres. They  frequent  marshy  ground  covered  with  spring-tides, 
feeding  upon  sea-shore  grasses,  and  fronds  of  various  algae,  and 
particularly  of  the  laver.  The  Bernicle  breeds  in  Iceland,  Spitz- 
bergen,  Greenland,  Lapland,  the  north  of  Russia,  and  of  Asia,  and 
the  neighbourhood  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  of  handsome  form,  and, 
from  the  length  of  the  tarsi,  stands  high  on  the  hmbs  ;  its  flesh  is 
very  excellent.     (See  Fig.  1570.) 

As  the  Bernicle  or  Bernacle  Goose  and  the  Brent  Goose  have  till 
recently  been  confounded  together,  the  fabulous  origin  attributed  to 
the  one,  involves  that  of  the  other  also.  It  is  strange  that  in  matters 
concerning  the  marvellous,  even  men  of  education  will  take  pains  to 
deceive  themselves,  and,  instead  of  investigating  nature  with  a 
"  learned  spirit,"  give  a  licence  to  ill-directed  imagination,  and 
credit  absurdities.  When  such  men  are  so  credulous,  how  can  we 
wonder  at  the  superstitions  of  the  illiterate  ? 

The  flrst  phase  of  the  story  in  question  is,  that  certam  trees, 
resembling  willows,  more  particularly  in  one  of  the  Orkneys, 
Pomona,  produced  at  the  ends  of  their  branches  small  swelled  balls, 
containing  the  embryo  of  a  Duck  suspended  by  the  bill,  which,  when 
ripe,  fell  off  into  the  sea  and  took  wing.  Munster,  Saxo,  Gram- 
maticus,  Scaliger,  Fulgosus,  Bishop  Leslie,  and  Olaus  Magnus,  all 
attested  to  the  truth  of  this  monstrous  absurdity.  Gesner,  Johnston, 
and  Aldrovand,  may  be  also  cited.  .        ,     „  x 

A  second  phase  or  modification  of  the  story  is  that  given  byBogce 
the  oldest  Scottish  historian  ;  he  denies  that  the  Geese  (Scottice 
Claiks)  grow  on  trees  by  their  bills,as  some  belicve.but  that,  as  his  own 
researches  and  personal  experience  prove,  they  are  first  produced  in 
the  form  of  Worms,  in  the  substance  of  old  trees  or  timber  floating 
in  the  sea  ;  for  such  a  tree,  cast  on  shore  in  1480,  was  brought  to  the 
laiid    who  ordered  it  to  bo  sawn  asunder,  when  there  appeared  a 


6i6 


THE  GEESE. 


multitude  of  Worms,  "  throwing  themselves  out  of  sundry  holes  and 
bores  of  the  tree  ;  some  of  them  were  rude,  as  they  were  new  shapen  ; 
some  had  both  head,  feet,  and  wings,  but  they  had  no  feathers; 
some  of  them  were  perfect  shapen  Fowls.  At  last  the  people, 
having  this  tree  each  day  in  more  admiration,  brought  it  to  the  kirk 
of  St.  Andrew's,  beside  the  town  of  Tyre,  where  it  yet  remains  to  our 
days."  Other  instances  he  adduces  by  way  of  proof,  and  at  length 
he  comes  to  tlie  conclusion,  that  the  production  of  these  Geese  from 
fruits  is  the  erroneous  opinion  of  the  ignorant  ;  it  being  ascertained 
that  "  they  are  produced  only  by  the  nature  of  the  ocean  sea,  which 
is  the  cause  and  production  of  many  wonderful  things."  In  this 
view  he  was  supported    by   Turner  and   others  :    "  When,"    says 


Fig.  1570.— The  Bernicle  Goose. 

Turner,  "  at  a  certain  time  an  old  ship,  or  a  plank,  or  a  pine-mast 
rots  in  the  sea,  something  like  a  little  fungus  at  first  makes  its 
appearance,  which  at  length  puts  on  the  manifest  form  of  birds  ; 
afterwards,  these  are  clothed  with  feathers,  and  at  last  become  living 
and  flying  fowl."  ("Avium  Prsecip.  Hist.,"  art  "  Anser.") 
Turner,  however,  does  not  give  up  the  Goose-tree,  but  informs 
Gesner  that  it  is  a  different  Bird  from  the  Brent  or  Bernicle  Goose, 
which  takes  its  origin  from  it.  (Gesner  "  De  Avibus,"  iii-,  p.  107, 
&c.)  Passing  a  host  of  other  autliorities,  with  their  accumulated 
proofs,  and  the  depositions  of  unimpeachable  witnesses,  we  may 
come  to  Gerard,  who,  in  1636,  published  in  his  "Herbalist"  a 
detailed  account  as  follows  : — 

"  But  what  our  eyes  have  seen  and  hands  have  touched  we  shall 
declare.  There  is  a  small  island  in  Lancashire,  called  the  Pile  of 
Foulders,  wherein  are  found  the  broken  pieces  of  old  and  bruised 
ships,  some  whereof  have  been  cast  thither  by  shipwracke,  and  also 
the  trunks  and  bodies  with  the  branches  of  old  and  rotten  trees,  cast 
up  there  likewise;  wherein  is  found  a  certain  spume,  or  froth'  that 
in  time  breedeth  into  certaine  shels,  in  shape  like  those  of  the 
muskle,  but  sharper  pointed,  and  of  a  whitish  colour ;  wherein  is 
contained  a  thing  in  form  like  a  lace  of  silke  finely  woven,  as  it 
were,  together,  of  a  whitish  colour  ;  one  end  whereof  is  fastened  into 
the  inside  of  the  shell,  even  as  the  fish  of  oysters  and  muskles  are  ; 
the  other  end  is  made  fast  unto  the  belly  of  a  rude  masse  or  lumpe! 
which  in  time  cometh  to  the  shape  and  form  of  a  bird  ;  when  it  is 
perfectly  formed  the  shell  gapeth  open,  and  the  first' thino-  that 
appeareth  is  the  foresaid  lace  or  string  ;  ne.xt  come  the  legs^of  the 
bird  hanging  out,  and  as  it  groweth  greater  it  openeth  the  shell  by 
degrees,  till  at  length  it  is  all  come  forth  and  hangeth  only  by  the 
bill ;  in  short  space  after  it  cometh  to  full  maturitic,  and  falleth  into 
the  sea,  where  it  gathereth  feathers,  and  groweth  to  a  fowle  bigger 
than  a  mallard  and  lesser  than  a  goose,  having  blacke  legs  and  bill 
or  beake,  and  feathers  blacke  and  white,  spotted  in  such  manner  as 
is  our  magpie,  called  in  some  places  pie-annet,  which  the  people  of 
Lancashire  call  by  no  other  name  than  a  tree-goose :  which  place 
aforesaid,  and  all  those  parts  adjoining,  do  so  much  abound  there- 
with, that  one  of  the  best  is  bought  for  threepence.  For  the  truth 
hereof,  if  any  doubt,  may  it  please  them  to  repaire  unto  me,  and  I 
shall  satisfie  them  by  the  testimonie  of  good  witnesses." 

Fig-  1571  represents  the  illustration  given  by  Gerard  of  this  acconnt. 


It  is  apparently  intended  for  a  log  of  wood  rising  out  of  the  sea, 
crowned  with  these  Goose-bearing  shells. 

We  must  not  suppose  that  there  were  none  who  doubted  this  marvel. 
Belon,  who  wrote  in  1551,  and  others,  treated  it  with  ridicule  ;  and  in 
Ray's  "  Wilhighby,"  published  in  1678,  we  find  a  refutation  of  it,  only 
with  an  admission  of  spontaneous  generation  among  certain  Animals 
of  the  lower  orders. 

What,  it  may  be  asked,  were  the  Marine  Anirfials  supposed  to  be 
the  origin  of  this  Goose  ?  Simply  those  singular  shell-covered  Cirrhi- 
pedous  creatures  supported  on,  or  rather  attached,  often  in  thousands, 
to  floating  timber  by  means  of  long  flexible  worm-like  stalks  or  pe- 
duncles. They  are  known  by  the  name  of  Bernacles,  or  Bernicles 
{Pentelasmis  atiatifera,  Leach  ;  Lepas anafifera,  Linn.).  The  body 
of  these  curious  creatures  is  enclosed  in  a  shell  not  unlike  that  of  a 
muscle,  but  composed  of  five  portions,  one  a  dorsal  stripe  :  along  the 


Fig.  I57I- — Bernicles  Transforming  into  Geese,     (From  Gerard. ) 

interior  margin  the  valves  are  but  partially  connected  by  a  membrane 
leaving  a  large  fissure,  through  which  emerge  the  ciliated  arms  or 
cirrhi,  plumose  and  jointed.  The  colour  of  the  shell  is  pale  purplish 
blue.  Of  these  Animals  we  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to  speak 
more  particularly.  How  it  came  to  pass  that  the  absurd  tradition 
we  have  briefly  detailed  arose,  is  beyond  our  conjecture. 

To  return  to  the  Bernicle  Goose  (for  so  it  is  still  called),  its  weight 
is  about  five  pounds  ;  the  bill  is  black  with  a  reddish  streak  on  each 
side  ;  the  cheeks  and  throat,  with  the  e.xception  of  a  black  line  from 
the  eye  to  the  beak,  white  ;  head,  neck,  and  shoulders,  black  ;  upper 
plumage  marbled  with  blue,  grey,  black,  and  white.  Tail  black ; 
under  parts  white  ;  legs  dusky. 

The  Egyptian  Goose  {Chenalopex  cBgyptiacus). — The  Egyptian 
Goose  is  abundant  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  is  distributed 
over  the  continent  of  Africa  generally.     It  also  visits  the  southern 
shores  of  Europe,  and  is  not  uncommonly  seen  in  Sicily.     According 
to  Temminck,  it  was  this  species  which  was  held  in  veneration  by  the 
ancient   Egyptians,  and  of  which  figures   are   frequently   observed 
among  the  monumental  remains  of  that  extraordinary  nation.     The 
author  of  "  Egyptian   Antiquities,"    vol.    ii.    p.   311    ("  Library   of 
Entertaining  Knowledge"),  also  observes  that  the  Chenalopex  of 
Herodotus,  still  very  common  in  Egypt,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  on 
the  sculptures,  though,  as  he  says,  it  was  not  a  Sacred  Bird,  unless 
it  may  have  some  claims  to  that  honour  from  having  been  a  favourite 
article  of  food  for  the  priests.     "  A  place  in  upper  Egypt  had  its 
name  Chenoboscium  or  Chenoboscia  (goose-pens)  from  these  animals 
being  fed  there,  probably  for  sale."     There  is  good  reason,  however, 
to  believe  that  the  ordinary  Common  Goose  was  kept,  as  well  as  the 
Chenalopex.     The  ancients   regarded  the   eggs  of  this  species   as 
second  in  flavour  only  to  those  of  the  Pea-fowl.     .(Elian  mentions  the 
Bird,   and  notices    its   cunnmg  and   wariness.       Hence    the   word 
Xr\vaKbsTrr\^,  from  x'i",   a  Goose,   and  dXwn-ijI,  a  Fox.     The  Egyptian 
Goose  is  often  kept,  because  of  its  beauty,  in  a  semi-domesticated 
state  on  ornamental  sheets  of  water,  both  in  our  country  and  on  the 
continent,   and  in  that  condition  it  breeds  freely  ;  hence  it  happens 
that  the  young,  when  fledged,  often  take  wing,  and  wandering  about 
on  rivers  or  lakes,  are  shot :  a  circumstance,  as  Mr.  Gould  observes, 
which  occurs  yearly.      The  habits  ot  this  Goose  closely  resemble 
those  of  the  tftst  of  the  tribe.     The  bill  is  long,  sleuder,  and  nearly 


THE    GEESE. 


617 


straight,  rounded  at  the  tip  ;  the  upper  mandible  is  sli.i^lifly  curved, 
and  the  nail  hooked.  The  tarsi  are  elongated  ;  the  neck  is  long  and 
slender;  the  general  contour  compact. 


Fig.  1572. — The  Egyptian  Goose. 

The  Cereopsis  Goose  {Cereo^sis  7iovcb  hollandics). — This  beau- 
tiful Bird  decidedly  forms  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus,  of  which, 
however,  it  is  the  only  known  species.  According  to  some  naturalists 
it  evinces  a  certain  degree  of  approximation  towards  the  .<4rd'e/af(? 
(Herons),  a  point  on  which  we  are  by  no  means  satisfied,  for  though 
less  completely  organised  for  swimming  and  diving  than  many  of  the 
Anatidce,  still,  neither  in  food  nor  in  habits,  nor  in  the  essential  points 
of  its  anatomy,  does  it  resemble  the  Herons.  The  fact  is,  that  the 
theory  of  circles  or  given  groups  inosculating  by  means  of  inter- 
mediate forms  stands  on  a  frail  basis.  The  Cereopsis  exhibits  the 
leading  characters  which  distinguish  the  Geese  from  the  Ducks, 
carried  out  still  more  decidedly.  The  beak  is  shorter,  the  legs 
longer,  and  the  feet  less  webbed  than  in  most  Geese  ;  we  may  add  to 
this  that  the  bill  is  elevated,  obtuse,  and  covered,  except  at  the 
tip,  with  a  cere,  or  membrane,  on  .which  are  the  nostrils.  The  legs 
are  bare  of  feathers  a  little  way  above  the  tarsal  joint ;  the  nails 
are  strong,  and  the  wings  ample.  Refer  to  bill  of  Cereopsis, 
Fig-  1573- 


^'g-  1573- —Bill  of  the  Cereopsis  Goose. 

The  Cereopsis  is  a  native  of  Australia  ;  and  though  most  vovaP-ers, 
who  have  visited  the  distant  shores  on  which  it  abounds,  have  alluded 
to  It  as  a  species  of  Swan,  or  as  a  Goose,  it  is  only  within  the  last 
few  years  that  naturahsts  at  home  have  gained  an  accurate  know- 


ledge of  its  true  characters  and  its  natural  afTinitics.  The  first  intro- 
duction of  the  Coreopsis  into  the  records  of  science  was  by  Dr. 
Latham  in  the  year  1802.  He  published  at  that  time  a  figure  and 
description  of  the  Bird  in  question  in  the  second  supplement  to  his 
"  General  Synopsis,'  regarding  it  as  the  type  of  a  new  genus  among 
the  Waders,  and  to  this  genus  he  gave  the  title  of  Cereopsis,  the 
specific  designation  of  the  Bird,  of  which,  indeed,  he  had  seen  only 
one  example,  being  Cereopsis  novcs  hollamlia;.  The  term  Cereopsis 
contains  an  allusion  to  the  largo  cere  covering  the  base  of  the  bill, 
but  which  Dr.  Latham,  misled  by  an  apparently  imperfect  specimen, 
supposed  to  be  extended  on  the  forehead  and  face  ;  as  it  is,  however, 
the  cere  is  so  extensive  as  to  justify  the  title.  ,  Subsequently  to  the 
publication  above  alluded  to.  Dr.  Latham  had  the  opportunity  of 
examining  another  specimen,  from  which  he  took  the  description 
published  in  his  "  General  History,"  vol.  ix.  p.  432,  where  he  corrects 
his  former  views  with  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  cere,  but  with  an 
assurance,  in  a  foot-note,  that  in  the  specimen  first  seen,  the  cere  ex- 
tended far  beyond  the  eyes.  Still,  strange  to  say,  he  retained  the 
Cereopsis  among  the  Wading  Birds,  observing,  "  Mrs.  Lewin  informs 
me  that  it  is  in  sufficient  plenty  in  some  parts  of  New  Holland,  and, 
from  its  being  so  about  Cape  Barren,  has  obtained  the  name  of  Capo 
Barren  Goose.  It  certainly  at  first  sight  appears  not  unlike  that 
Bird,  but  in  the  bill  it  entirely  differs  from  any  of  the  genus,  and  the 
legs  are  bare  a  great  way  above  the  joint,  although  it  must  be  owned 
that  the  feet,  having  a  considerable  membrane  between  the  toes, 
would  otherwise  bring  it  to  class  with  the  web-lboted."  Mrs.  Lewin 
adds,  "  that  it  becomes  very  tame  and  familiar,  so  as  to  be  domesti- 
cated with  our  common  goose,  and  that  the  flesh  is  well  flavoured." 
On  the  Continent,  where,  until  Temminck  figured  it  in  his  Planches 
Coloriees  as  appertaining  to  the  Swimming  I5irds,  it  did  not  appear 
to  be  known,  it  was  regarded,  on  the  authority  of  Latham,  as  a 
Wader.  After  Temminck,  it  was  also  figured  by  Vieillot  as  a 
Swimming  Bird ;  but  the  figure  although  sufficiently  characteristic, 
is  in  one  point  erroneous,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  the  cere  extending 
over  the  top  of  the  head.  In  1831  Mr.  Bennett  described  and 
figured  the  Cereopsis  in  the  "Gardens  and  Managerie,  &c., 
delineated  ;  "  his  figure,  which  is  very  accurate  and  characteristic, 
being  taken  from  a  specimen  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  the  Society  having,  at  that  time,  eight  living  individuals. 
These,  as  he  observed,  then  exceeded  "  in  number  all  the  stuffed 
specimens  that  exist  in  public  collections  in  Europe,  the  latter  so  far 
as  we  are  aware,  being  limited  to  one  in  the  British,  one  in  the 
Paris,  and  one  in  the  Berlin  Museums." 

Though  Vieillot  figured  the  Cereopsis,  he  appears  not  to  have  sus- 
pected its  identity  with  a  Bird  previously  described  by  him  in  the 
"  Nouveau  Dictionaire  d'Histoire  Naturelle  "  as  the  Cygne  andrS, 
from  the  characters  detailed  by  M.  Labillardiere  (see  his  account  of 
the  voyage  of  D'Entrecasteaux  in  1792),  "who  mentions  the  occur- 
rence, in  Esperance  Bay,  on  the  south  coast  of  New  Holland,  of  a 
new  species  of  swan,  rather  smaller  than  the  wild  swan,  of  an  ashy- 
grey  colour,  somewhat  lighter  beneath,  with  a  blackish  bill,  covered 
at  the  base  by  a  tumid  brimstone-coloured  cere,  and  legs  slightly 
tinged  with  red."  By  way,  however,  of  confusing  the  species  still 
further,  M.  Vieillot  described  a  specimen  brought  home  by  M. 
Labillardiere  from  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  deposited  it  in  the 
Paris  Museum,  as  a  species  of  Goose,  under  the  title  of  Anser 
griseus.  D'Entrecasteaux  informs  us  that  Riche,  one  of  the 
naturalists  attached  to  his  expedition,  had  described  the  Bird  under 
the  title  oi  Anas  Terra  Leeuwi?iii. 

The  habits  of  the  Cereopsis,  in  a  state  of  nature,  have  been  suc- 
cintly  detailed  by  various  voyagers.  Most  probably  it  is  migratory, 
at  least  to  a  certain  extent;  for  Captain  Flinders  found  it  more 
abundant  on  Goose  Island  in  some  seasons  than  in  others.  It  fre- 
quents grassy  districts,  and  the  shore,  but  rarely  takes  to  the  water, 
its  food  being  exclusively  grass.  Both  at  Lucky  Bay  and  Goose 
Island  these  Birds  were  very  abundant,  and  so  tame  that  the  crew  of 
Captain  Flinders  had  no  difficulty  in  knocking  them  down  with 
sticks,  or  even  in  taking  them  alive.  M.  Bailly  reports  to  the  same 
effect  respecting  those  seen  by  him  at  Preservation  Island;  and 
Labillardiere  says,  that  at  first  they  were  so  little  alarmed  by  the 
presence  of  man,  as  to  suffer  themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand  ; 
but  in  a  short  time  they  became  aware  of  their  danger,  and  took  to 
flight  on  the  approach  of  any  one.  It  breeds  freely  in  our  climate, 
and  feeds  like  the  Common  Goose,  but  is  even  more  familiar,  and 
requires  only  ordinary  attention.  Its  voice  is  deep,  hoarse,  and 
clanging.  In  size,  this  species  equals  the  Common  Goose.  The  top 
of  the  head  is  pale-grey  ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  slate-grey,  each 
feather  on  the  back  and  shoulders  being  margined  with  a  paler  tint, 
while  the  greater  coverts  and  the  secondary  quill-feathers  have  a 
round  dusky  spot  near  the  extremity;  the  quills  and  tail-feathers 
dusky-black ;  tip  of  the  bill  black ;  cere  yellow ;  tarsi  orange- 
yellow ;  toes  and  webs  black.  Fig.  1577  represents  a  pair  of  these 
Birds  with  their  young.  When  in  charge  of  their  young  the  adults 
are  very  pugnacious,  driving  other  Birds  to  a  distance  with  great 
spirit  ;  and  even  at  other  times  this  jealousy  of  their  companions  in 
captivity  is  but  little  abated.  The  Black  Swan  from  Australia,  al- 
ready described,  displays  a  similar  spirit,  and  will  not  endure  the 

4  K 


6i8 


THE  GEESE— THE  FLAMINGOES. 


approach  of  its  snow-white  relative  ;  indeed,  we  know  of  instances 
in  which  White  Swans  have  not  only  been  seriously  injured,  but  even 
killed  by  their  dusky  rivals. 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  are  numerous  specimens 
of  the  Goose  Tribe.  We  are  indebted  to  the  "Guide"  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  for  the  following  description  of  living 
Birds  in  their  gardens,  besides  which  are  some  other  species,  includ- 
ing most  of  those  already  described: — 

"  The  Maned  Goose  fBerm'clajubata.J— Pairs  of  the  beautiful 
little  Goose,  known  as  the  Maned  Goose,  or  Hawkesbury  Goose,  of 
Australia,  have  been  obtained  through  the  liberality  of  the  Society's 
correspondents  in  that  country.  This  Bird  was  formerly  very 
common  on  the  rivers  near  Sydney.  In  South  Australia,  Mr.  Gould 
tells  us,  it  is  still  one  of  the  commonest  Water-birds,  frequenting  the 
brooks  of  the  interior,  and  breeding  in  the  hollow  holes  of  the  larger 
trees. 

"The  Black-backed  Goose  f^Sara'd/offn's  me/anofaj,  a  hand- 
some species  inhabiting  the  peninsula  of  India,  and  well-known  to 
the  sportsmen  of  Bombay  and  Madras  as  the  "  Comb-duck,"  from 
the  peculiar  fleshy  caruncles  on  its  head,  and  its  near  ally  the 
American  Black-backed  goose. 


and  even  later.  The  whole  organisation  of  these  Birds,  however 
shows  that  they  must  be  referred  to  the  Nafatores,  and,  indeed,  to 
the  family  ^l/^a^/if^«7,  with  which  they  agree  in  all  essential  points, 


Fig.  1575. — Skull  of  the  Flamingo. 

although,  at  the  same  time,  they  undoubtedly  present  several  extra- 
ordinary characters. 


Fig.  1574- — Cereopsis  Geese  and  Young. 


"The  Upland  GooSE{Ber}ik!amagenaj!ka.) — This  Goose  pre- 
sents a  very  remarkable  e.xception  to  the  species  most  closely  asso- 
ciated with  it,  in  the  great  contrast  in  colour  between  the  male  and 
female.  In  most  of  the  Geese,  such  as  the  Bernicle  and  the  Brent, 
the  sexes  so  nearly  resemble  each  other  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  distinguish  them  ;  but  in  the  Upland  Goose  the  female  has  a 
sober  hue  of  chestnut  and  greyish -brown,  barred  with  black,  and  the 
male  is  conspicuously  white,  except  on  the  back,  and  even  there  the 
ground  colour  is  clear  and  brilliant,  instead  of  being  grey.  The  legs 
also  differ  in  colour  in  the  most  marked  manner,  those  of  the  male 
being  black,  and  of  the  female  yellow.  The  Upland  Goose  is  a 
native  of  the  Falkland  Islands." 

The  Flamingoes — Sub-family  Phcenicoipterincv. 

A  close  approach  to  the  Grallatorial  Birds  is  made  by  the  Flamin- 
goes {Phce7iicoj>tcrinai),  which  were,  in  fact,  placed  amongst  the 
Waders  by  most  of  the  older  naturalists,  down  to  the  time  of  Cuvier, 


We  cannot  describe  the  beak  of  the  Flamingo  better  than  by  say- 
ing it  is  that  of  a  Swan  bent  down  abruptly  in  the  middle,  with  the 
sides  of  the  lower  mandible  raised  boat-like,  so  that  its  margin  may 
follow  the  abrupt  arch  presented  by  the  edge  of  the  upper,  which  is 

channelled  on  each  side  on  the 
'//.■Uii:,  upper   aspect  of   the   margin, 

'^"      "■■'''  from   the  nostrils  to   the   hard 

nail-like  apex.  To  enter  into 
detail,  we  may  observe  that 
the  head  is  small,  surmounting 
a  slender  neck  of  extraordinary 
length,  while  the  beak  is 
so  modified  as  to  be  used 
in  the  contrary  position  to 
which  it  is  in  general ;  that 
is,  the  upper  mandible  is 
and  ooze  while  the  Bird  is 
searching  for  food.    The  upper  mandible  proceeds  for  about  half  its 


Fig.  1576. — Tongue  of  the  Flamingo, 
applied    lowermost    to    the   mud 


THE  FLAMINGOES. 


6ifl 


length  from  the  head  straight,  with  an  obtuse  upper  ridge,  and  in 
the  part  below  the  ridge  is  an  extensive  membranous  nasal  fossa,  on 
which  are  seated  the  nostrils  in  the  form  of  longitudinal  slits  ;  the 
mandible  then  becomes  flat,  and  bends  down  abruptly,  terminating 
in  a  blunt  and  somewhat  incurved  apex.  The  lower  mandible, 
extending  forwards  and  describing  on  its  lower  margin  a  gentle 
curve,  throws  up  its  sides,  which  describe  a  bold  arch,  the  edge 
fitting  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  edges  of  both  man- 
dibles are  furnished  with  fine,  close,  transverse  tooth-like  lamina;, 
which  form  a  sort  of  filter,  and,  as  Professor  Owen  says,  like  the 
plates  of  Whalebone  on  the  Whale,  allow  the  superfluous  moisture 
to  drain  away,  while  the  small  Mollusca  and  other  Littoral  Anim- 
alcula  are  detained  and  swallowed.  "The  tongue,"  says  the  same 
writer,  "  is  remarkable  for  its  texture,  magnitude,  and  peculiar 
armature.  It  is  almost  cylindrical,  but  slightly  flattened  above,  so 
as  to  correspond  with  the  form  of  the  inferior  mandible.  The  lower 
part  of  the  truncated  surface  is  produced  in  a  pointed  form,  and  is 
supported  beneath  by  a  small  horny  plate.  The  whole  length  of  the 
tongue  is  three  inches,  its  circumference  two  inches  and  a  half. 
Along  the  middle  of  the  superior  flattened  surface  there  is  a  mode- 
rately deep  and  wide  longitudinal  furrow,  on  either  side  of  which 
there  are  from  twenty  to  twenty-iive  recurved  spines,  but  of  a  soft 
and  yielding  horny  texture,  measuring  from  one  to  three  lines  in 
length.  These  spines  are  ranged  in  an  irregular  alternate  series, 
the  outer  ones  being  the  smallest,  and  these,  indeed,  may  be  con- 
sidered a  distinct  row.  At  the  posterior  part  of  the  tongue  there  are 
two  groups  of  smaller  recumbent  spines,  directed  towards  the  glottis. 
The  substance  of  the  tongue  is  not  muscular,  but  is  chiefly  composed 
of  an  abundant  yielding  cellular  substance,  with  fat  of  an  almost 
oily  consistence.  It  is  supported  by  a  long  and  thin  concave  carti- 
lage articulated  to  the  body  of  the  os  hyoides."  Fig.  1575  repre- 
sents the  Skull  and  Beak  of  the  Flamingo  ;  Fig.  1576,  the  Tongue  ; 
Fig.  1577,  the  Head  and  Tongue  of  the  same.  In  the  Flamingo  the 
legs  are  of  excessive  length  ;  the  three  anterior  toes  are  fully 
webbed  ;  the  hind  toe  is  short,  and  articulated  high  on  the  tarsus ; 
nails  short  and  flat  ;  wings  moderate.  These  Birds  are  waders  in 
their  habits,  but  occasionally  swim  when  out  of  their  depth.  They 
frequent  low  muddy  coasts,  the  mouths  of  large  rivers,  saline 
morasses,  creeks,  lagoons,  inland  seas,  and  large  lakes. 


F'g-  IS77-— Head  and  Tongue  of  the  Flamingo. 

The  Flamingo  {Phatikoperus  ruber,  Linn. ;  Pha:nko-bfcrus 
anfiqjwrton,  Temminck) ;  le  Flammant  of  the  French.  The  Euro- 
pean Flammgo,  a  Bird  well  known  to  the  ancients,  has  been  occa- 
sionally observed  on  the  coast  of  France  washed  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean, of  those  of  Spain  and  Italy.  It  is  noted  by  the  Prince  of 
t^anmo  as  a  rare  and  accidental  visitor  near  Rome.  It  arrives  at 
uncertain  times,  but  mostly  in  October  and  November,  on  the  Persian 
^\^,°}  '^'^  Caspian  Sea,  and  thence  along  the  west  coast  as  far  as 
the  Wolga,  appearing  in  considerable  flocks,  which  have  migrated 
trom  more  northern  latitudes.  It  is  found  in  India,  and  Colonel 
bykes  enumerates  it  among  the  Birds  of  the  Dukhun,  stating  that  it 
is  called  Rajah  Huns  by  the  Hindoos.  It  breeds  in  the  Cape  de 
Verde  Islands.  It  is  seen  everywhere  on  the  African  coast,  and  is 
abundant  in  South  Africa  ;  Le  Vaillant  saw  thousands  of  Flamingoes 
and  Pelicans  on  the  river  Klein-brak,  where  the  water  is  brackish 
owing  to  the  tidal  flow  from  the  ocean.  Kolben  also  speaks  of  their 
numbers  at  the  Cape,  where  by  day  they  resorted  to  the  borders  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  and  lodged  at  night  among  the  long  grass  on  the 

,.^he  Flamingo  is  extremely  shy,  wary,  and  distrustful,  so  that  it  is 
ditbcult  to  approach  within  gun-shot  of  a  flock,  as  on  the  slightest 
alarrn  they  abruptly  leave  the  spot.  Dampier,  however,  by  conceal- 
mg  himself,   managed  to  kill  fourteen  at  once.     Whilst  feeding. 


those  Birds  keep  together,  drawn  up  in  lines,  with  sentinels  by  way 
of  security.  These  notify  the  approach  of  danger  by  a  loud  trumpet- 
like  noise,  which  may  be  heard  to  a  great  distance,  upon  which  the 
whole  flock  take  wing.  When  flying,  they  form  a  triangle.  The 
Flamingo  rests  standing  on  one  leg,  the  other  being  drawn  up  close 
to  the  body  and  the  head  placed  under  the  wing.     [See  Fig.  i  s70  5 

'^e  'a  Marmora,  in  his  "  Voyage  to  Sardinia,'  gives  the  following 
accoun  of  the  habits  of  this  remarkable  Bird  :-'■  It  quits  Sardinil 
about  the  end  of  March,  to  return  about  the  middle  of  August  •  then 
It  IS  that  from  the  bastion  which  forms  the  promenade  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Caghari,  flights  of  these  magnificent  birds  may  be  seen  to 
arrive  from  Africa.  Disposed  in  a  triangular  band,  they  appear  at 
first  in  the  heavens  like  a  line  of  fire  ;  they  advance  in  the  most 
regular  order,  but  at  the  sight  of  the  neighbouring  Irke  there  is  a 
pause  in  their  progression,  and  they  appear  for  a  moment  immovable 
in  the  air ;  then  tracing  by  a  slow  and  circular  movement  a  reversed 
conical  spiral  figure,  they  attain  the  end  of  their  migration.  Bril- 
liant in  all  the  splendour  of  their  plumage,  and  ranged  in  a  line 
these  birds  offer  a  new  spectacle  and  represent  a  small'  army  ranged 
in  order  of  battle,  the  uniformity  and  symmetry  of  which  leaves  no- 
thing to  be  desired  ;  but  the  spectator  should  content  himself  with 
observing  this  peaceful  colony  from  afar.  Woe  to  him  if  he  dare 
approach  the  lake  at  this  deadly  season."  The  exemption  of  various 
Animals,  the  Flamingo  and  Buff'alo  for  example,  from  the  poison  of 
the  malaria,  so  fatal  to  man  is  very  remarkable. 

The  Flamingo  makes  a  singular  nest,  constructing  it  of  earth  in 
the  shape  of  a  hillock,  with  a  cavity  at  the  top  ;  the  eggs  are  two  or 
three  in  number  white,  and  as  large  as  those  of  a  Goose,  but  of  a 
longer  figure.  These  hillocks  they  form  in  the  marshes,  the  female 
resting  upon  them  during  incubation  in  a  standing  attitude,  with  the 
eet  on  the  marshy  ground,  or  even  in  the  water.  Some  state  that 
the  flesh  of  the  Hamingo  is  excellent,  that  of  the  young  being  equal 
to  Partridge.  The  inhabitants  of  Provence,  however,  aflirm' that  it 
IS  fishy,  and  reject  it,  preserving  only  the  feathers.  The  Romans 
whose  taste  in  culinary  matters  seems  to  have  been  singular,  regarded 
this  Bird  as  a  luxury,  and  Apicius  has  left  receipts  for  dressing  it 
with  all  the  precision  of  a  "chef  de  cuisine."  The  brains  Ind 
tongues  were  especial  favourites,  particularly  the  latter,  which  formed 
one  of  the  celebrated  dishes  of  Heliogabalus.  Dampier  confirms  the 
opinion  of  the  Roman  epicures,  observing  that  a  dish  of  these  tongues 
IS  worthy  of  a  place  at  a  prince's  table.    The  height  of  the  Flamingo 


Fig.  157S.— The  Little  Flamingo. 

standing  erect,  is  between  five  and  six  feet.  \Vhcn  in  full  plumage 
the  general  colour  is  deep  scarlet,  excepting  the  quill-feathers,  which 
are  black.  Basal  part  of  the  bill,  reddish  yellow  ;  the  greater  part 
of  the  extremity  black  ;  cere  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  extending  to  the 
eye,  flesh-coloured.  Legs  red.  An  allied  species,  regarded  by 
Linnffius  and  Wilson  as  identical  with  the  present,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  North  America,  Peru,  Chili,  Cayenne,  the 
West  India  Islands,  and  especially  the  Bahamas,  where  numbers 


620 


THE  FLAMINGOES. 


breed.  It  scarcely  differs  from  the  Old  World  Rird,  but  is  not  so 
intensely  coloured  ;  its  manners  are  precisely  the  same.  It  is  the 
Phcsnicoptenis  chilensis,  of  Molina. 

The  Little  Flajungo  {PhcBnicopterns parznts). — This  species 
is  a  native  of  Africa,  tenanting  morasses  and  the  borders  of  lakes. 
Specimens  have  been  brought  from  Senegal  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  lower  mandible  is  remarkable  for  its  great  depth,  and 
the  boldness  of  the  arch  formed  by  the  upper  edges,  which  completely 
receive  within  them  those  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  plumage  of 
the  adult  is  of  a  pure  rose,  without  a  spot  or  streak,  the  centre  of  the 
wing-coverts  deepening  into  scarlet ;  tail-feathers  black  ;    base  of 


the  bill,  cere,  and  region  of  the  eye  deep  purple  ;  middle  of  the  lower 
mandible  orange-red,  point  black ;  tarsus  livid ;  toes  and  space 
above  the  tarsi  joint,  red.  Total  length  nearly  three  feet.  The  young 
are  white  or  whitish,  marked  with  streaks  of  brown  on  the  head,  neck, 
chest,  and  wing-coverts.  The  rose  tint  first  begins  to  appear  on 
the  wings.     Bill  black.     Legs  reddish  livid.     (See  Fig.  1578.)  _ 

In  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  are  numerous  specimens 
of  the  Flamingo  Tribe  ;  and  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
may  be  seen  the  European,  and  Ruddy  Flamingoes  already  described, 
with  occasionally  others  out  of  the  si.K  species  already  known,  from 
North  America,  Buenos  Ayres,  Egypt,  the  Cape,  &c. 


Fig.  1579. — Flamingoes. 


THE  REPTILES. 


621 


CHAPTEK    XXXVI. 

CLASS  III.— REPTILIA  OR  REPTILES,  INCLUDING  SERPENTS,  LIZARDS,  CROCODILES,  ETC. 


Y  many  writers  on  Natural  History  the 
Class  of  Reptiles,  ox Reptilia,  included  the 
Frog-  Tribe,  or  Batrachia.  But,  for  various 
reasons,  which  will  be  more  apparent  as  we 
proceed  in  their  description,  it  will  be  evident 
that  the  RcJ>tilia  will  be  better  treated  under 
\{  a  separate  head.  As  a  rule,  they  are  re- 
■\  garded  with  aversion  by  mankind,  but  they 
present  many  points  of  interest,  not  only  in  a 
scientific  point  of  view,  but  also  as  involving 
some  questions  of  social,  commercial,  and 
other  matters. 

The  True  Reptiles,  constitute  the  first  class 
of  the   higher    Vertchrata,   or   of  those   in 
which  a  mechanism  for  Aquatic  respiration 
is  never  found.     They  thus  differ  from   the 
Bafrachia,  which,  as  we  have  already  stated,  are  very 
commonly  included  in  the  Class  of  Reptiles,   and  with 
which  they  agree  in  the  so-called  coldness  of  their  blood, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  character  of  their  circu- 
latory apparatus,  not  only  in  the  important  physiological 
point  above  mentioned,  but  also  in  several  particulars  of 
their  anatomical  structure,  and  especially  in  the  mode  of 
development  of  the  embryo,  in  which  they  closely  resemble 
the  Birds.     They  thus  become  a  kind  of  link  between  the 
two  classes. 

The  Reptiles  in  general,  almost  with  the  sole  exception 
of  the  Tortoises,  are  of  an  elongated  form,  often  nearly 
cylindrical,  and  they  usually  terminate  posteriorly  in  a 
very  long  tail.  The  feet  are  developed  in  many  waj'S, 
but  rarely  suffice  to  support  the  Animal  in  the  manner  of  an  ordinary 
Quadruped  ;  the  belly,  as  a  general  rule,  trailing  along  the  ground 
when  the  Animal  is  in  motion.  In  a  considerable  number  no  traces 
of  the  limbs  are  to  be  found  ;  and  when  they  first  make  their  appear- 
ance, it  is  in  such  a  rudimentary  form,  that  they  can  be  of  little  or  no 
use  to  their  owner. 

In  all  these  animals  the  ossification  of  the  skeleton  is  very  com- 
plete, and  in  none  of  them  does  it  present  the  cartilaginous  state  of 
that  of  many  Fishes,  and  some  Batrachia.  The  true  skull  is  always 
of  comparatively  small  size,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  head  is  made 
up  of  the  bones  of  the  jaws.  The  occipital  bone  always  exhibits  the 
vertebral  form  with  great  distinctness  ;  it  is  furnished  with  a  single 
articulating  process,  which,  however,  is  sometimes  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  narrow  furrow  ;  this  fits  into  the  cavity  of  the  first  cervical 
vertebras.  The  floor  of  the  cranium  is  formed  by  the  sphenoid  bone, 
and  its  upper  surface  principally  by  the  parietals,  which  are  usually 
amalgamated  so  as  to  form  a  single  bony  plate.  The  front  of  the 
cranial  cavity  is  closed  by  the  frontal  bones,  which  are  also  fre- 
quently coalescent,  and  by  the  nasal  bones. 

The  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  are  always  greatly  deve- 
loped ;  in  some  instances  they  are  firmly  fixed  to  the  cranial  bones, 
whilst  in  others  they  are  movable,  and  only  attached  to  the  skull  by 
articulations.  This  shows  a  great  distinction  between  them  and 
Birds.  The  lower  jaw  is  of  very  complex  structure,  each  half  being 
composed  of  a  variable  number  of  pieces  ;  in  the  Snakes  this  number 
is  four  or  five  ;  whilst  in  the  Lizards  and  Crocodiles,  each  branch  of 
the  jaw  consists  of  no  less  than  six  pieces.  In  the  Snakes,  the  two 
branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are  united  only  by  ligaments  and  muscles, 
so  that  they  are  capable  of  being  separated  to  a  considerable  distance 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  Animal  ;  but  in  the  Lizards  and  Crocodiles  the 
union  is  much  closer,  the  bones  being  united  by  fibro-cartilage  in  the 
one  case,  and  in  the  other  by  a  suture  ;  whilst  in  the  Tortoises,  the 
whole  of  the  lower  jaw  is  amalgamated  into  a  single  piece.  The 
mode  of  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  varies  greatly  in  the  different 
orders,  and  will  be  referred  to  in  the  proper  places. 

The  mouth,  in  almost  all  Reptiles,  is  armed  with  sharp  hooked 
teeth,  which  are  sometimes  placed  only  on  the  jaws,  but  in  some 
instances  are  distributed  over  the  palatine  bones  and  vomer.  They 
are  generally  inserted  into  a  furrow  of  the  bone,  to  which  they  are 
attached  only  by  flesh  and  sinews  ;  but  in  the  Crocodiles  they  are 
sunk  separately  into  regular  sockets  in  the  jaws.  In  the  Tortoises, 
again,  no  teeth  exist,  the  edges  of  the  jaws  being  simply  armed 
with  a  horny  covering,  bearing  no  distant  resemblance  to  the  beak 
of  a  Bird. 

That  great  authority  on  Osteology,  Professor  Owen,  makes  the 
following  remarks  in  regard  to  the  dentition  of  of  the  Reptilia  : — 

In  the  class  Reptilia  an  entire  order  {Chelonia),  including  the 
Tortoises,  Terrapenes,  and  Turtles,  are  devoid  of  teeth  ;  but  the  jaws 
in  these  Edentulous  Reptiles  are  covered  by  a  sheath  of  horn,  which, 


in  some  species,  is  of  considerable  thickness  and  density  ;  its  work- 
ing surface  is  trenchant  in  the  Carnivorous  species,  but  is  variously 
sculptured  and  adapted  for  both  cutting  and  bruising  in  the  vegetable 
feeders.  No  species  of  Toad  possesses  teeth  ;  neither  have  the  jaws 
the  compensatory  covering  above  described  in  the  Chelonians. 
Frogs  have  teeth  in  the  upper,  but  not  in  the  lower  jaw.  Newts  and 
Salamanders  have  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  also  upon  the  palate ;  and 
teeth  are  found  in  the  latter  situation  as  well  as  on  the  jaws  in  most 
Serpents  and  in  the  Iguana  Lizard.  In  most  other  Lizards  and  in 
Crocodiles,  the  teeth  are  confined  to  the  jaws ;  in  the  former  they 
are  cemented,  or  anchylosed  to  the  jaw;  in  the  latter  they  are  im- 
planted in  sockets. 

The  Existing  Lizards  exhibit  many  modifications  in  the  form  of 
the  teeth,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  food.  They  are  pointed 
with  sharp  cutting  edges  in  the  great  Carnivorous  Monitor  (  Varanits), 
and  are  obtuse  and  rounded  like  paving-stones  in  the  herbivorus  or 
mixed  feeding  Scinks,  called,  on  account  of  the  shape  of  the  teeth, 
Cyclodus.  The  Gigantic  Extinct  Lizards  showed  similar  modifica- 
tions of  their  teeth.  The  Megalosaurus  had  teeth  which  combined 
the  properties  of  the  knife,  the  sabre,  and  the  saw  (Fig.  1580.)  When 
first  protruded  above  the  guin,  the  apex 
of  the  tooth  presented  a  double  cutting 
edge  of  serrated  enamel ;  its  position 
and  line  of  action  were  nearly  vertical, 
and  its  form,  like  that  of  the  two-edged 
sword,  cutting  equally  on  each  side. 
As  the  tooth  advanced  in  growth,  it  be- 
came curved  backwards  in  the  form  of  a 
pruning-knife,  and  the  edge  of  serrated 
enamel  was  continued  downwards  to  the 
base  of  the  concave  and  cutting  side 
of  the  tooth  ;  whilst  on  the  other  side  a 
a  similar  edge  descended  but  a  short 
distance  from  the  point,  and  the  convex 
part  of  the  tooth  became  blunt  and 
thick,  as  the  back  of  a  knife  is  made 
thick  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
strength.  In  a  tooth  thus  formed,  the 
jaw  combined  the  power  of  the  knife  and 
saw.  The  backward  curvature  of  the 
full-grown  teeth  enabled  them  to  re- 
tain the  prey  which  they  had  pene- 
trated. 

In  the  Iguanodon,  the  gigantic  contem- 
poraryof  the  Megalosaurus — the  crown  of 
Fig.  15S0.— Tooth  of  the  Me-  the  te'eth  (Fig.  1581)  was  so  shaped,  that 
galosaurus.  after  the  apex  became  worn  down,  it  pre- 

sented a  broad  and  nearly  horizontal 
surface,  exposing  dental  substances  of  four  different  degrees 
of  density — viz.,  a  ridge  of  enamel  along  the  outer  border  of  the 
crown  ;  a  layer  of  hard  or  unvascular  dentine  next  to  this  ;  a  layer 
of  softer  vascular  dentine  forming  the  inner  half  of  the  crown  ;  and 
a  portion  of  firm  ostco-dentine  in  the  middle  of  the  grinding  surface, 
formed  by  the  ossified  remnant  of  the  tooth-pulp.  The  series  of 
complex  teeth,  so  constructed,  seems  to  have  been  admirably  adap- 
ted to  the  cropping  and  comminution  of  such  tough  vegetable  food 
as  the  clathraria,  and  similar  extinct  plants,  the  fossil  remains  of 
which  are  found  buried  with  those  of  the  Iguanodon.  No  existing 
Reptile  now  presents  so  complicated  a  structure  of  the  tooth  in  rela- 
tion to  vegetable  food.  The  still  more  complex,  and,  indeed,  mar- 
vellous structure  of  the  teeth,  was  that  of  the  extinct  gigantic  Lizard- 
like Toad,  called  the  Labyrinthodon.  But,  perhaps,  the  most 
singular  dental  structure  yet  found  in  the  ancient  members  of  the 
Class  Reptilia,  is  that  presented  by  certain  species  of  fossil  found  in 
South  Africa,  and  probably  from  a  geological  formation  nearly  as  old 
as  our  coal  strata.  Professor  Owen  has  called  them  "  Dicynodonts," 
from  their  dentition  being  reduced  to  one  long  and  large  canine  tooth 
on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw.  As  these  teeth  give,  at  first  sight,  a 
character  to  the  jaws  like  that  which  the  long  poison-fangs  give, 
when  erected,  to  the  jaws  of  the  Rattlesnake,  we  shall  brielly  notice 
their  characters  before  entering  upon  the  description  of  the  more 
normal  saurian  dentition. 

Fig.  1582  gives  a  reduced  side  view  of  the  skull  and  teeth  of  the 
Dicy?wdo7i  lacerticeps. 

The  maxillary  bone,  21,  is  excavated  by  a  wide  and  deep  alveolus, 
with  a  circular  area  of  half  an  inch,  and  lodges  a  long  and  strong, 
slightly  curved,  and  sharp-pointed  canine  tooth  or  tusk,  which  pro- 
jects about  two-thirds  of  its  length  from  the  open  extremity  of  the 
socket.    The  direction  of  the  tusks  is  forwards,  downwards,  and 


f22 


TEETH  OF  REPTILES. 


very  sHs;htly  inwards ;  the  two  converg-ing  in  the  descent  along  the 
outer  side  of  the  compressed  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw,  c  c.  The 
tusli  is  principally  composed  of  a  body  of  compact  unvascular  den- 
tine. The  base  is  excavated  by  a  wide  conical  pulp-cavity,  -p,  with 
the  apex  extending  to  about  one-half  of  the  implanted  part  of  the 
tusk,  and  a  linear  continuation  extending  along  the  centre  of  the 
solid  part  of  the  tusk. 

Until  the  discovery  of  the  Rhynchosaurus,  this  edentulous  and 
horn-sheathed    condition     of    the    jaws 
■was    supposed    to    be  peculiar    to    the 
Chelonian   order    among  Reptiles ;  and 
it  is  not  one  of  the  least  interesting  fea- 
tures of  the   Dicynodonts  of  the  African 
sandstones,   that   they  should  repeat  a 
Chelonian    character    hitherto    peculiar 
amongst  Lacertians,  to  the  above-cited 
remarkable  extinct  Edentulous  genus  of 
the  new    red    sandstone  of  Shropshire. 
But  our  interest  rises  almost  to  astonish- 
ment, when  in  a  Saurian   skull  we  find, 
super-added  to  the  horn-clad  mandibles 
of  the  Tortoise,   a   pair  of  tusks,   bor- 
rowed, as  it  were,  from  the  INIammalian 
class,  or  rather  fore-shadowing  a  struc- 
ture which,  in  the  existing  creation,  is 
peculiar    to    certain    members    of     the 
highest     organised  warm-blooded   ani- 
mals.    In  the  other  Repfilia,  recent  or 
Fig.  1581.— New-formed  and  extinct,    which    most    nearly   approach 
worn  teeth  of  the  Iguanodon.  the    Mammalia     in     the    structure    of 
their  teeth,  the  difference  characteristic 
of    the     inferior    and    cold-blooded    class    is    manifested    in    the 
shape,   and  in  the  system  of  shedding  and  succession  of  the  teeth. 
The  base  of  the  implanted  teeth  seldom  becomes  consolidated,  never 
contracted  to  a  point,  as  in  the  fangs  of  the  simple  teeth  of  Mam- 
malia, and  at  all  periods  of  growth,  one  or  more  genus  of  teeth  are 
formed  within  or  near  the  base  of  the  tooth  in  use,  prepared  to  succeed 
it,  and  progressing  towards  its  displacement.     The  dental  armature 


Fig.  15S2. — Skull  and  Tusks  oi  Dicynodon  lacerticeps. 

of  the  jaws  is  kept  in  serviceable  order  by  uninterrupted  change  and 
succession  ;  but  the  forming  organ  of  the  individual  tooth  is  soon 
exhausted,  and  the  life  of  the  tooth  itself  may  be  said  to  be  com- 
paratively short. 

If  one  of  the  conical,  sharp-pointed,  and  two-edged  teeth  of  the 
Gangetic  Crocodile,  called  "  garrhial "  by  the  Hindoos,  be  extracted, 
its  base  will  be  found  hollow,  and  partly  absorbed  or 
eaten  away,  as  at  ff,  Fig.  1583) ;  and  within  the  cavity 
will  be  seen  the  half-formed  succeeding  tooth,  b;  at 
the  base  of  which  may  probably  be  found  the  begin 
ning,  or  germ,  c,  of  the  successor  of  that  tooth ;  all 
the  teeth  in  the  Crocodile  tribe  being  pushed  out  and 
replaced  in  the  vertical  direction  by  new  teeth,  as 
long  as  they  live.  (See  Fig.  1583.)  The  individual 
teeth  increase  in  size  as  the  animal  grows  ;  but  the 
number  of  teeth  remains  the  same  from  the  period 
when  the  Crocodile  quits  the  (t'g^  to  the  attain- 
ment of  its  full  size  and  age.      No   sooner  has   the 


Fig.  ISS3. — Tooth,  with  Germs  of  Successors,  of  the  Garrhial 
(  Cavialis  gan^elicHs). 

young  tooth  penetrated  the  interior  of  the  old  one,  than  another 
germ  begins  to  be  developed  from  the  angle  between  the  base 
of  the  young  tooth  and  the  inner  alveolar  process,  or  in  the 
same  relative  position  as  that  in  which  its  immediate  predecessor 
began  to  rise  ;  and  the  processes  of  succession  and  displacement  are 
carried  on,  uninterruptedly,  throughout  the  long  life  of  these  cold- 


Fig.  rsSj.- 
Poison-fang 
of  Rattle- 
snake (mag- 
nified). 


blooded  Carnivorous  Reptiles.  The  fossil  jaws  of  the  extinct  Croco- 
diles demonstrate  that  the  same  law  regulated  the  succession  of  the 
teeth  at  the  ancient  epochs,  when  they  prevailed  in  greatest  numbers, 
and  under  the  most  varied  specific  modifications,  as  at  the  present 
day,  when  they  arc  reduced  to  a  single  family. 

The  most  complex  condition  of  the  dental  system  in  the  Reptile 
class,  is  that  which  is  presented  by  the  Poisonous  Serpents,  in  which 
certain  teeth  are  associated  with  the  tube  or  duct  of  a  poison-bag  and 
gland. 

These  teeth,  called  "poison-fangs,"  are  confined  to  those  bones 
of  the  upper  jaw  called  "  maxillary,"  and  are  usually  single,  or, 
when  more,  one  only  is  connected  with  the  poison-apparatus,  and 
the  others  are  either  simple  teeth,  or  preparing  to  take  the  place  of 
the  poison-fang. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  structure  of  this  tooth,  we  may  suppose  a 
simple  slender  tooth,  like  that  of  a  Boa-constrictor,  to  be  flattened, 
and  its  edges  then  bent  towards  each  other  and  soldered  together, 
so  as  to  form  a  tube,  open  at  both  ends,  and  inclosing 
the  end  of  the  poison-duct.  Such  a  tooth  is  represented 
at  Fig.  1584,  where  A  is  the  oblique  opening  pene- 
trated by  the  duct,  and  v  the  narrower  fissure  by 
which  the  venom  escapes. 

The  duct  which  conveys  the  poison,  although  it  runs 
through  the  centre  of  the  tooth,  is  really  on  the  outside 
of  the  tooth.  The  bending  of  the  dentine  about  it 
begins  a  little  beyond  the  base  of  the  tooth,  where  the 
poison-duct  rests  in  a  slight  groove  or  longitudinal  in- 
dentation on  the  convex  side  of  the  fang ;  as  it  proceeds 
it  sinks  deeper  into  the  substance  of  the  tooth,  and  the 
sides  of  the  groove  meet  and  seem  to  coalesce,  to  that 
the  trace  of  the  inflected  fold  ceases,  in  some  species, 
to  be  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  and  the  fang  ap- 
pears, as  it  is  commonly  described,  to  be  perforated  by 
the  duct  of  the  poison-gland. 

In  the  Viper,  the  line  of  union  may  be  seen  ^s  marked 
at  V,  Fig.  1584  ;  and  when  such  a  tooth  is  carefully 
divided  lengthwise,  as  in  Fig.  1585,  the  true  pulp-cavity 
in  the  substance  of  the  tooth  is  seen,  as  at  p  -p,  to 
terminate  in  a  point ;  and  the  poison-canal,  as  at  v  v, 
to  run  along  the;  fore  part  of  the  singularly  modified  tooth.  This 
tooth  is  soldered  to  the  maxillary  bone  (Fig.  1586),  which  rotates  so 
as  to  keep  the  tooth  laid  flat  in  the  mouth  at  ordinary  times,  and  to 
erect  it  when  the  deadly  blow  is  about  to  be  struck.  The  head  of 
the  Snake  is  raised,  drawn  back,  and  the  fangs,  erect,  and  exposed 
by  the  widely  open  mouth,  are  struck,  by  the  force 
of  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  head  and  neck,  into 
the  surface  aimed  at ;  the  poison-bags  at  the  same 
moment  are  squeezed,  and  their  contents  driven 
through  the  canal  in  the  tooth  into  the  wound.  And 
here  may  be  noticed  the  advantage  of  having  the 
solid  point  of  the  tooth  prolonged  beyond  the  outlet 
of  the  poison-canal,  and  not  weakened  by  its  con- 
tinuation to  the  apex. 

Having  thus  noticed  the  general  and  dentological 
characters  of  the  Reptilia,  we  proceed  to  the  osseous 
and  other  systems  of  these  Animals,  The  vertebral 
column  is  rather  variable  in  its  structure.  In  a  very 
few  instances  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  already 
described  in  the  first  chapter  of  this  book,  exhibit  a 
conical  cavity  at  each  end,  like  that  existing  in  the 
vertebrae  of  Fishes ;  but  in  most  cases  one  of  the  end- 
surfaces  is  more  or  less  convex,  and  fits  into  a  cor- 
responding cavity  in  the  body  of  the  next  vertebra. 
This  structure  is  most  developed  in  the  Snakes,  inFig.  1585.-860- 
which  the  bodies  of  the  vertebra;  articulate  by  a  tionofa  iioison- 
regular  ball-and-socket  joint.  In  the  Tortoises,  the  fang  —  Rattle- 
two  extremities  of  the  vertebras  are  flat,  and  united  by  snake. 
a  disc  of  fibro-cartilage.  A  striking  osteological 
distinction  between  these  Animals  and  the  Batrachia  consists  in 
the  constant  presence  of  ribs  in  the  former ;  these  appendages  to 
the  vertebral  column  being  always  wanting  m  the  latter  class. 

In  the  Reptiles  the  ribs  generally  extend  backwards  to  the  pelvis ; 
they  are  always  well  developed,  and,  in 
most  cases,  a  greater  or  less  proportion 
of  them  are  attached  to  a  well-devel- 
oped sternum  or  breast-bone,  which,  in 
the  Crocodiles,  also  runs  back  to  the 
pelvis.  In  the  Snakes  the  ribs  are  per- 
fectly free  at  the  extremity,  and,  from 
-Skull  of  a  Rattle-  their  great  mobility,  are  important  aids 
snake.  in  the  movements  of  these  footless  crea- 

tures ;  whilst  in  the  Tortoises,  on  the 
contrary,  these  bones  are  immovably  fixed,  and  constitute  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  bony  case  in  which  those  Animals  are  enclosed.  The  neck  is 
generally  short,  and  the  cervical  vertebr;e  are  sometimes  furnished 
with  ribs  ;  in  the  Tortoises,  however,  this  portion  of  the  vertebral 
column  is  of  considerable  length,  and  possesses  great  flexibility. 


g.  1586. 


ANA  TOM V  OF  THE  REPTILES. 


623 


The  caudal  portion  is  usually  very  long,  and  tapers  gradually  to  a 
point ;  it  many  cases  it  more  than  equals  the  rest  of  the  body  in 
length.  .  .   . 

In  the  development  of  the  extremities  these  Animals  exhibit  as 
great  a  diversity  as  the  Bafrachia.  In  the  greater  part  of  the 
Lizards,  and  in  the  Crocodiles,  all  the  limbs  are  well  developed. 
The  feet  are  formed  of  freely  movable  toes,  which  are  usually  termi- 
nated by  strong  claws ;  and  the  bony  arches,  supporting  these 
members,  are  always  of  considerable  size  and  firmness,  so  that  the 
Animal  waU-s  with  facility,  and  is  often  able  to  perform  considerable 
leaps.  Another  distinction  between  them  and  Birds.  In  some  mem- 
bers of  the  group  of  Lizards,  however,  the  extremities  gradually 
diminish  in  size,  still  retaining  their  perfect  form,  but  aiding  little  or 
nothing  in  the  movement  of  the  creature.  In  others  the  anterior 
pair  disappear,  and  the  posterior  take  the  form  of  large  scale-like 
organs,  in  which  there  is  no  external  indication  of  any  complexity  of 
structure,  although,  except  in  want  of  toes,  the  bones  contained  in 
them  are  identical  with  those  of  the  more  perfectly  formed  Reptiles  ; 
whilst  in  others,  again,  even  these  rudimentary  limbs  are  absent. 
The  latter  structure  prevails  throughout  the  great  group  of  Snakes, 
in  which  the  only  trace  of  the  existence  of  the  limbs  consists  in  a  pair 
of  small  bones  suspended  in  the  muscles  near  the  vent  in  some 
species.  These  must  be  regarded  as  the  analogues  of  the  pelvic 
bones,  the  presence  of  which  is  sometimes  indicated  externally  by  a 
pair  of  horny  spines  projecting  on  each  side  of  the  anal  opening. 
Of  the  perfectly  developed  feet  several  modifications  occur.  In 
general,  the  whole  of  the  toes,  which  are  usually  five  in  number,  are 
extended  forwards  from  the  extremity  of  the  leg  ;  but  in  the  Chame- 
leons the  toes  are  divided  into  two  sets,  one  including  two,  the  other 
three  toes,  forming  a  sort  of  grasping  hand,  that  must  be  of  the 
greatest  service  to  these  creatures  in  their  arboreal  residence.  In 
the  Crocodiles  and  some  Tortoises  the  toes  are  distinctly  recognis- 
able externally,  but  united  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  membranes, 


Fig.  15S7.— Anatomy  of  Snake, 
~Uortar..  carodd  a^Uri.  ^f  ^JlJa'^ca^  ^^  ^f^^^^i  2a 

iia^SrSi!^^^ 

cylindrical  form,  adaoted  for  t^rrl^rin^  thickened  and  more  or  less 

it  is  much  compreL^ed  and  mod  fill    P^^g-^^ssion.  ,  In  the  Turtles 

powerful  fin-like'or"an  ™°'i'fied,  so  as  to  form  a  broad  and 

la  the  clothing  of  the  skin  we  find  almost  an  equal  diversity.     la 


a  small  group  of  Lizards  the  skin  is  covered  with  free  scales,  lying; 
over  one  .-mother  like  tiles,  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  Fishes,  and 
mclosed  like  these  in  peculiar  dermal  sacs  ;  but,  in  the  m.ajority,  the 
scaly  covering  has  a  very  din'erent  arrangement.  The  scales  are 
generally  appendages  of  the  true  skin  or  corium,  and  are  covered  by 
the  epidermis,  a  delicate  horny  pellicle,  which  is  cast  off  periodically. 
In  the  Crocodiles  and  Tortoises  they  become  converted  into  bony 
plates,  which,  in  the  former,  are  immersed  in  the  corium  ;  whilst  in 
the  latter  they  became  united  with  the  bones  of  the  internal  skeleton, 
to  form  the  well-known  body  cases  that  serve  as  such  an  admirable 
protection  for  those  sluggish  creatures.  In  these,  also,  the  epidermis 
becomes  permanent,  and  forms  thick,  horny  plates  gf  regular  forms, 
covering  the  bony  skeleton. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  Tortoises,  all  Reptiles  are  Carni- 
vorous Animals,  feeding  entirely  upon  living  prey.  Their  teeth, 
however,  are  never  constructed  for  the  division  of  the  flesh  of  their 
victims,  and  they  are  consequently  compelled  to  swallow  them 
whole.  For  this  purpose  the  oesophagus  is  usually  very  wide,  and 
capable  of  great  dilatation,  many  of  the  Snakes  actually  being 
capable  of  swallowing  Animals  of  considerably  greater  bulk  than 
themselves.  The  tongue  is  sometimes  closely  attached  to  the  bottom 
of  the  mouth  ;  but,  in  most  Reptiles,  it  is  free,  elongated,  and  bifid, 
terminating,  in  many,  in  a  pair  of  nearly  horny  filaments,  which  are 
inclosed  in  a  sheath,  and  can  be  protruded  and  retracted  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  animal.  The  intestine  is  usually  of  great  width,  but 
comparatively  short  ;  it  terminates  in  a  wide  cloaca,  into  which  the 
ducts  of  the  urinary  and  generative  organs  are  generally  open.  The 
liver,  pancreas,  and  spleen  are  always  present. 

The  anus  opens  in  two  very  different  directions  in  the  Reptiles,  and 
this^  character  has  been  employed  to  divide  the  class  into  two  great 
sections.  In  the  Snakes  and  Lizards,  the  anal  aperture  is  transverse 
and  usually  closed  by  a  sort  of  valve ;  whilst  in  the  Crocodiles  and 
Tortoises,  it  opens  in  a  longitudinal  direction.  These  peculiarities 
in  the  anal  aperture  are  accompanied  by  remarkable  differences  in 
external  generative  organs  of  the  male.  In  the  former  section  there 
are  two  of  these  organs,  which  are  contained  in  a  cavity  of  the  base 
of  the  tad  behind  the  anus  ;  whilst  in  the  second,  the  male  organ  is 
single,  and  lies  within  the  cloaca.  In  the  Lizards,  there  is  generally 
a  transverse  series  of  glandular  organs  placed  immediately  in  front 
of  the  anal  valve  ;  and  these  are  frequently  continued  upon  the 
under  side  of  the  thighs.  These  glands  open  by  a  corresponding 
number  of  pores  ;  and  the  presence  or  absence,  and  number  of  these 
especially  of  the  femoral  pores,  often  furnish  valuable  characters  for 
the  distinction  of  genera  and  species. 

In  the  organs  of  circulation  and  respiration,  the  Reptiles  exhibit  a 
marked  advance  upon  the  BatraclUa,  although  these  organs  are  still 
far  from  exhibiting  the  same  degree  of 
""  '       "  perfection  that  they  attain   in  the  Birds 

and  Mammalia.  The  heart  consists 
essentially  of  four  chambers,  although 
in  by  far  the  majority  of  these  animals 
the  partition  between  the  two  ventricles 
is  imperfect,  so  that,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  we  may  regard  the  ventricle 
as  single.  The  consequence  of  this  ar- 
rangement is,  that  the  blood  returning 
to  the  lungs,  after  exposure  to  the  influ° 
ence  of  the  air,  mingles  with  that  brought 
back  from  the  general  system,  and  this 
mixed  fluid  is  driven  at  once  from  the 
Fi<T   Tcss     HI     .        ,1  yentricle  into  the  pulmonary,  as  well  as 

tig.  I588.-Heart   and   large    mto  the  systemic  arteries,  so  that  only  a 


-  c.p 


—  tl 


vessels  of  the  Crocodile. 
:',  vena  cava,  conveying 
venous  blood  from  the  sys- 
tem to  the  right  auricle,  ao'; 
v/,  the  ventricles,  separated 
by  an  internal  partition ; 
a/>,  pulmonaiy  arteries  con- 
veying venous  blood  from 
the  right  ventricle  to  the 
lungs  ;  2'/,  pulmonary  veins, 
running  to  tiie  left  auricle, 
t>£ ;    no,    aorta   rising    fro 


portion  of  the  venus  blood  passes 
through  the  lungs  before  being  returned 
into  the  general  circulation.  In  the  Cro- 
codiles, the  partition  between  the  two 
ventricles  is  complete  ;  but  in  these,  as 
well  as  in  other  Reptiles,  a  communica- 
tion between  the  great  pulmonary  and 
systemic  arteries  is  effected  by  the 
agency  of  the  remains  of  the  branchial 
arches  of  the  embryo.  Fig.  is88.)  The 
aorta  forms   one,   two,  or  three  arches 


-^  ,    ...-,    UW.I.A    iiaiiiy    jrum    "~. — ""'    v^...-,    L.Yuf,    ui    tjiicc    arcncs 

left  ventricle,  and  conveying   (F'g-  1589),  from  the  foremost  of  which 

blood      to      tho      cifcfo.iA  .      ^        tho  r^rntirl    orfa,.i'.^o   o  .-^     .-^.*,^.*; _..•__ 


blood  to  the  system;  „, 
trunk  rising  from  right  ven- 
tricle, and  canying  venous 
blood  to  the  descending 
aorta ;  c,  carotid  arteries 
running  to  the  head. 


the  carotid  arteries  are  sometimes  given 
off.  The  aortae  afterwards  unite  in  the 
middle  of  the  body  below  the  spinal 
column,  forming  a  single  great  trunk, 
which  runs  down  the  body,  and  is 
called  the  abdominal  aorta.  The  blood 
,  returning    to   the  heart,  is  collected  in 

the  vena  cav.ns,  of  which  the  inferior  forms  a  great  trunk  running 
up  the  body,  and  gives  off  a  portal  system  of  veins  to  the  liver 
and  kidneys  (Fig.  1589.)  The  lymphatic  system  attains  an  ex- 
traordinary degree  of  development  in  this  class,  and  possesses 
some  regularly  pulsating  organs,  or  lymphatic  hearts,  which  serve 
for  tlie  propulsioa  of  the  peculiar  fluid  contained  in  these  vessels 


624 


THE  REPTILES. 


The  respiration  of  these  Animals  being  always  atrial,  their  respira- 
tory organs,  of  course,  take  the  form  of  lungs,  and  these  are  often  of 
extraordinary  size,  in  some  instances  extending  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  ventral  cavity,  which  is  not  divided  by  a  diaphragm 
or  transverse  partition.  In  the  more  elongated  forms,  only  one 
active  lung  is  present,  the  other  being  reduced  to  a  rudimentary  con- 
dition, or  altogether  wanting. 

The  processes  of  respiration  and  circulation  go  on  with  far  less 
activity  in  these  animals  than  in  the  Birds  and  Mammalia,  and  their 
blood,  like  that  of  the  lower  Vcrtcbrata,  is  cold  ;  that  is  to  say,  its 
temperature  is  but  little  higher  than  that  of  the  surrounding  medium. 
The  performance  of  all  their  functions  partakes  of  this  inactivity  ; 
their  digestion  goes  on  very  slowly  ;  and  although  they  are  capable 
of  violent  muscular  exertion,  and  are  often  very  agile  in  their  move- 
ments, their  general  habits  are  sluggish. 


Fig.   15S9. — Circulation  in  a  Lizard. 

tf,  arches  of  aorta  ;  b,  left  auricle ;  c,  right  auricle  ;  d,  ventricle ;  e,  carotid 
artery ;  f,  superior  vena  cava  ;  g,  abdominal  aorta  ;  //.  pulmonary  vein  ;  i, 
brachial  artery  ;  j,  pulmonary  artery  ;  k,  inferior  vena  cava  ;  /,  lungs  ;  m, 
liver  and  vena  portn; ;  n,  stomach;  o,  kidneys;/,  vena  portoe;  r,  in- 
testines ;  s,  artery  of  generative  organs  ;  t,  anus. 

In  the  general  arrangement  of  the  nervous  system,  the  Reptiles 
present  a  considerable  resemblance  to  \X\c  Batrachia  ;  but  the  brain, 
and  especially  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  attains  a  much  greater 
development  in  the  higher  species  of  the  class.  The  cerebellum 
also  exhibits  a_  gradual  development,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
forms. 

The  organs  of  the  senses  are  generally  possessed  in  a  state  of 
considerable  perfection.  The  nasal  cavities  are  of  large  size,  and 
always  open  into  the  mouth  ;  in  the  Crocodiles,  this  opening  is 
placed  very  far  back,  and  the  palate  is  furnished  with  a  velum,  by 
which  the  aperture  can  be  closed  ;  the  nostrils  in  these  animals  are 
also  provided  with  valvular  organs,  which  prevent  the  ingress  of 
■water.  The  eyes  are  usually  small — sometimes,  though  rarely,  con- 
cealed under  the  skin,  and  generally  furnished  with  eyelids.  These 
protections  to  the  visual  organs  are  wanting  in  the  Snakes,  which 
have  the  front  of  the  movable  eye-ball  covered  with  a  transparent 
capsule,  that  is  inserted  under  a  fold  of  skin,  like  the  glass  of  a  watch 
in  its  frame.  Between  this  capsule  and  the  eye  there  is  a  space 
■which  is  filled  by  the  secretion  of  the  lachrymal  glands  ;  the  excess 
of  this  passes  off  through  a  duct  into  the  nasal  cavity.     The  eyes  of 


most  other  Reptiles  are  furnished  with  a  pair  of  eyelids,  of  which  the 
upper  one  is  usually  very  small  and  stit¥,  and  the  lower  one  alone 
is  capable  of  being  drawn  up  to  cover  the  eye,  which  it  does  com- 
pletely. In  some  cases,  this  lower  eyelid  has  a  transparent  space  in 
the  part  corresponding  with  the  pupil ;  in  others,  it  is  furnished 
with  a  peculiar  bony  plate.  The  most  remarkable  structure  in  this 
respect  is  presented  by  the  Chameleons,  -which  have  large,  prominent, 
globular  eyes,  capable  of  very  great  and  independent  motion,  but 
completely  covered  by  a  circular  lid,  having  only  a  small  central 
hole,  corresponding  with  the  pupil.  All  the  Reptiles  with  eyelids 
also  possess  a  nictitating  membrane,  which  can  often  be  drawn  com- 
pletely over  the  eye.  The  structure  of  the  auditory  organs  is  almost 
as  complex  as  in  any  of  the  higher  Vertebrata,  but  some  of  their 
component  parts  are  often  in  a  low  state  of  development.  The 
tympanum  is  sometimes  exposed ;  occasionally  covered  by  a  fold  of 
skin,  or  completely  concealed  under  the  skin  :  in  the  Crocodiles, 
there  is  a  movable  valve,  by  which  the  tympanum  can  be  concealed 
at  pleasure. 

All  the  Reptiles  are  truly  Oviparous  Animals,  and  by  far  the 
majority  come  under  this  denomination  in  its  strictest  sense ;  but 
the  ova  are  generally  retained  within  the  body  of  the  parent  until 
the  development  of  the  embryo  has  proceeded  a  certain  distance, 
and,  in  a  few  cases,  until  the  complete  development  of  the  young 
Animal,  which  then  breaks  out  of  the  e.g%  whilst  this  is  still  inclosed 
in  the  oviduct.  The  species  in  which  this  phenomenon  occurs  are 
often  called  Ovo-viviparous.  The  eggs  of  Reptiles  are  generally  of 
large  comparative  size,  and  are  furnished  with  a  very  large  yelk  ; 
they  are  usually  covered  with  a  parchment-like  shell,  which  occa- 
sionally contains  a  small  portion  of  calcareous  matter.  The  True 
Oviparous  Reptiles  generally  deposit  their  eggs  in  warm,  sandy 
places,  where  they  leave  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  ; 
but  the  common  opinion,  that  they  take  no  further  care  of  the  pro- 
geny, although  correct  in  many  instances,  is  certainly  contradicted 
in  others  ;  for  the  Crocodiles  and  some  Lizards  are  said  to  watch  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  place  where  they  have  laid  their  eggs,  so 
as  to  protect  them  from  any  threatened  danger  ;  and  the  gigantic 
Pythons  have  been  seen,  in  the  Tower  and  other  menageries,  to  coil 
themselves  round  their  mass  of  eggs  in  a  conical  form,  closing  the 
top  with  their  heads.  In  the  species  which  bring  forth  living  young, 
the  connection  between  these  and  the  parent  appears  to  be  still 
closer  ;  and,  according  to  the  testimony  of  many  observers,  the 
young  of  some  of  the  Poisonous  Snakes  take  refuge  from  impending 
danger  by  creeping  down  the  throat  of  their  mother. 

In  the  development  of  the  embryo,  the  Reptiles  differ  from  the 
Fishes  and  Bairachia,  and  approach  the  higher  classes  of  Verte- 
brated  Animals,  especially  in  the  formation  of  a  peculiar  mem- 
branous sac,  the  avitiios,  which  completely  envelops  the  embyro ; 
this  structure  does  not  occur  in  any  of  the  lower  Vertebrata.  After 
the  embryo  has  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  development,  a 
second  membranous  coat  makes  its  appearance,  of  which  we  meet 
with  no  trace  in  the  embryonic  states  of  the  lower  Vertebrata. 
This  is  the  allanfois,  which  forms  a  membranous  sac,  richly  supplied 
with  vessels,  enveloping  both  the  embryo  and  the  amnios. 

The  Reptiles  are  essentially  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  regions  of 
the  earth.  In  our  northern  countries  but  few  species  exist,  and 
these  pass  a  great  portion  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  and 
only  come  abroad  in  the  warm  days  of  spring  and  summer.  But  in 
Tropical  regions  the  number  of  these  creatures  is  surprising ; 
Snakes  and  Lizards  are  to  be  encountered  at  every  turn,  and  Croco- 
diles often  swarm  in  the  rivers  and  tanks.  The  size  attained  by 
these  creatures  in  hot  climates  is  also  enormous  ;  the  Boas  and 
Pythons  of  Tropical  America  and  Asia,  and  the  Crocodiles  and 
Alligators  of  the  warmer  parts  of  both  continents,  often  acquire 
dimensions  which  render  them  formidable  even  to  Man  himself;  and 
the  virulence  of  the  Poisonous  Snakes  of  hot  countries  is  so  great, 
that  their  bite  is  frequently  attended  by  fatal  consequences. 

Sub-divisions. — The  characters  already  given  serve  to  divide 
the  Reptiles  into  two  great  sections,  each  of  which  contains  two 
orders.  Of  the  two  orders  with  a  transverse  anal  aperture,  which 
are  also  characterised  by  the  absence  of  bony  matter  in  the  dermal 
system,  the  Ophidia,  or  Snakes,  are  distinguished  by  the  constant 
■want  of  limbs  and  eyelids  ;  by  their  dilatable  mouths,  movable  facial 
bones,  and  by  the  total  want  of  a  sternum.  In  the  Lizards,  or 
Sauria,  the  limbs  are  sometimes  entirely  absent,  or  present  only  in  a 
rudimentary  condition  ;  but  they  are  generally  pretty  well  developed, 
four  in  number,  and  adapted  for  terrestrial  or  arboreal  progression. 
Their  mouths  are  not  dilatable,  and  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and 
face  are  iirmly  attached  to  the  skull ;  the  eyes  are  almost  always 
provided  with  eyelids,  and  a  portion  of  the  ribs  is  always  attached  to 
a  sternum. 

In  the  second  section,  the  anal  aperture  is  either  rounded  or 
placed  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  and  the  dermal  skeleton  acquires 
a  bony  consistence.  Of  the  two  orders  of  which  it  is  composed,  the 
Loricata,  or  Crocodiles,  are  distinguished  by  their  Lizard-like 
forms,  their  toothed  jaws,  and  their  skin  covered  with  square  bono 
plates  imbedded  in  the  corium  ;  whilst  in  the  Tortoises,  or  Chelonia, 
the   bony  plates  of  the  dermal  skeleton   unite  with  the  ribs  and 


THE  SERPENT  TRIBE. 


625 


sternum,  to  form  a  case  for  the  protection  of  the  soft  parts  of  the 
Animal,  and  the  jaws  are  toothless,  and  armed  simply  with  a  horny 
plate. 

Order  I.    Ophidia,  Serpents,  &c. 

General  Characters. — Few  Animals  appear  to  have  been,  in 
all  ages,  the  objects  of  more  general  aversion  than  the  creatures 
forming  this  order.  Not  to  enter  upon  the  question  of  possible  theo- 
logical grounds  for  this  general  disgust,  we  may  take  the  statement 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  that  "  the  serpent  was  more  subtle  than  any 
other  beast  of  the  field,"  as  a  proof  that,  at  verj'  early  periods,  the 
stealthy  creeping  movements  of  these  creatures  had  obtained  for 
them  the  same  reputation  for  cunning  that  they  enjoy  in  the  present 
day  amongst  the  uninformed — a  reputation  which  has  caused  them 
to  become  one  of  the  most  common  emblems  of  deceit.  The  poison- 
ous properties  possessed  by  some  of  them  have  been  extended  in  the 
popular  mind  to  the  whole  group,  and  cause  them  to  be  viewed  by  all 
with  feelings  of  distrust  and  dread. 

In  the  works  of  all  the  older  naturalists,  the  popular  notion  of  a 
Snake  as  a  Reptile  destitute  of  feet  is  adopted  ;  and  even  in  the 
.^eg"// (7  .(4;/ /wa/ of  Cuvier,  the  distinction  between  the  Serpents  and 
Lizards,  reposes  entirely  upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  organs  of 
locomotion.  We  have  already  seen,  however,  how  very  gradual  is 
the  series  of  steps  in  the  development  of  the  limbs  of  these  Animals  ; 
and  this  appears  even  to  have  been  observed  by  Linnaeus,  who  in- 
cludes, in  his  genus  Aiiguis,  all  the  species  of  Snake-like  Lizards, 
whether  furnished  with  rudimentary  feet,  or  totally  destitute  of  those 
organs.  The  justice  of  this  approximation  cannot  be  doubted:  but 
modern  naturalists,  instead  of  placing  these  Animals,  with  Linnxus, 
amongst  the  Serpents,  have  removed  them  to  the  Lizards,  with  which 
they  agree  in  most  points  of  their  organisation.  This  has  necessi- 
tated the  establishment  of  new  characters  for  the  distinction  of  these 
two  groups,  the  old  division  founded  on  the  presence  or  absence  of 
the  limbs,  being  evidently  untenable  under  any  circumstances  ;  and, 
fortunately,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  finding  excellent  characters  for 
this  purpose. 

One  of  the  principal  distinctive  characters  of  the  Snakes  consists 
in  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  jaws.  The  mouth,  in  these  Animals, 
is  exceedingly  dilatable  ;  all  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate 
are  freely  movable,  with  the  exception  of  the  intermaxillaries,  which 
are  firmly  attached  to  the  nasal  bones  ;  and  the  two  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  several  pieces,  are  united  in 
front  by  ligaments  and  muscles,  which  permit  of  their  being 
separated  to  a  considerable  distance,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Animal. 
But  the  principal  cause  of  the  immense  extent  to  which  the  mouth  ot 
these  creatures  is  capable  of  being  dilated,  consists  in  the  mode  in 
which  the  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  head  (Fig.  1590.)  The 
mastoid  bone,  which  in  most  Vertebrata  forms  a  part  of  the  skull, 
is  here  movable,  and  only  attached  to  the  skull  by  ligaments  and 
muscles.  It  bears,  at  its  extremity,  a  long,  somewhat  cylindrical 
bone,  called  the  tympanic  bone,  to  the  opposite  extremity  of  which 
the  lower  jaw  is  articulated  ;  and  as  the  tympanic  bone  usually  takes 
an  oblique  direction,  downwards  and  backwards,  it  often  extends 
considerably  behind  the  back  of  the  skull,  and  thus  enables  the 
mouth  to  open  beyond  the  head. 

The  jaws  are  always  armed  with  hooked  conical  teeth,  which  serve 
only  to  hold  the  prey  and  assist  in  its  progress  down  the  throat ;  but 
the  arrangement  of  these  varies  considerably  in  the  different  groups. 
In  the  Innocuous  Snakes,  the  teeth  all  form  solid  cones,  and  are 
arranged  in  continuous  rows  round  the  whole  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  the  palatine  bones  also  bearing  another  double  row  of  teeth. 
In  many  of  the  venomous  species,  the  maxillary  bones  are  reduced 
to  a  rudimentary  condition,  and  bear  only  a  pair  of  long,  acute,  per- 
forated teeth,  which  can  be  raised  or  depressed  at  will  by  the  action 
of  peculiar  muscles.  These,  in  fact,  form  a  pair  of  tubes,  communi- 
cating by  ducts  with  the  poison  glands,  and  through  which  the  veno- 
mous secretion  of  these  glands  is  injected  into  the  wounds  made  by 
the  Animal.  The  teeth  of  the  palate  and  lower  jaw  are  arranged  in 
these  Snakes,  more  or  less,  after  the  same  fashion  as  in  the  harmless 
species,  but  those  of  the  true  upper  jaw  are,  of  course,  wanting  ;  and 
this  has  given  rise  to  an  opinion,  that  Venomous  Snakes  might  be 
known  by  the  want  of  maxillary  teeth.  This,  however,  is  a  mistake, 
as  some  of  the  most  deadly  species  are  furnished  with  a  few  teeth 
behind  the  poison  fangs  ;  and  in  some,  which  are  suspected  of 
poisonous  properties,  the  upper  jaw  bears  one  or  more  largo /ur?-OK'ed 
fangs  towards  its  hinder  part,  its  anterior  portion  being  furnished 
with  small  solid  teeth  of  the  ordinary  kind. 

Snakes,  like  almost  all  other  Reptiles,  live  entirely  by  the  capture 
of  living  prey  ;  and  as  their  teeth  are  not  adapted  for  the  division  of 
their  food,  they  are,  of  course,  compelled  to  swallow  them  whole. 
As  their  victims  are  often  of  considerable  size,  this  operation  is  not 
unfrequently  attended  with  difSculty  ;  but  the  form  and  arrangement 
of  the  teeth  and  jaws  are  most  admirably  adapted  for  the  peculiar 
exigences  of  their  mode  of  life.  Dilating  its  mouth  to  the  utmost, 
the  Snake  seizes  upon  one  end  of  the  dead  body  of  its  victim,  and  by 
the  continual  action  of  the  jaws  and  teeth,  gradually  draws  it  into 


its  throat — a  process  which,  perhaps,  might  rather  be  described  as 
the  gradual  extension  of  the  Snake  over  the  body  of  its  prey.  The 
consumption  of  this  mass  of  food  takes  place  very  slowly  ;  and  many 
Snakes,  after  a  full  meal,  pass  a  month  or  six  weeks  in  a  state  of 
torpidity,  whilst  the  operation  of  digestion  is  going  on. 

The  general  form  of  these  Reptiles  is  too  well  known  to  need  des- 
cription.    They  are  totally  destitute  of  limbs  ;  the  scapular  arch  and 


Fig.  1590.— Skull  of  the  Python. 
a,  a  palatal  view  ;  /',  in  profile  ;  c,  as  seen  from  above. 

sternum  arc  entirely  wanting,  and  the  only  trace  of  the  posterior  ex- 
tremities consists  in  a  a  pair  of  small  bones,  representing  the  pelvis  ; 
and  sometimes  a  second  pair,  corresponding  with  the  hii;d  limbs, 
which  are  found  suspended  in  the  muscles  on  each  side  of  the  vent 
in  a  few  species.  These  bones  occasionally  bear  a  sort  of  homy 
claw,  which  projects  slightly  from  the  skin,  on  each  side  of  the  anus  ; 
but  these  organs  are  usually  so  small,  that  they  can  be  of  but  little 
use  to  the  Animal.  Their  movements  are  entirely  effected  by  the 
agency  of  the  very  flexible  vertebral  column,  and  the  exceedingly 
movable  ribs.  The  latter  are  excessively  numerous,  extending  from 
the  neck  to  the  extremity  of  the  belly,  or  even  beyond  this  into  the 
tail ;  and  the  Animal  when  gliding  along  the  ground,  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  walking  upon  the  free  extremities  of  the  ribs,  much  m 
the  same  way  that  the  Millepedes  progress  by  the  action  of  their 
innumerable  httle  legs.     (See  Fig.  1591.) 

The  skin  appears  to  be  covered  with  scales  and  plates,  from  the 
existence  of  numerous  scaly  appendages  of  the  corium  ;  these,  how- 
ever, are  completely  covered  by  the  epidermis,  which  embraces  them 
closely,  aud  follows  all  the  irregularities  of  surface  ;  so  that  when  the 
epidermis  is  cast,  it  presents,  as  it  were,  an  exact  mould  of  all  the 
elevations  and  depressions  which  existed  upon  the  Animal.  On  the 
upper  surface  of  the  body  these  dermal  appendages  have  the  form  o£ 

4  l» 


626 


THE   VENOMOUS  SNAKES. 


scales  ;  on  the  head  and  belly  they  are  usually  converted  into  plates, 
or  shields,  of  larger  or  smaller  size,  and  either  of  a  hexagonal  or 
quadrangular  figure.  The  peculiarities  of  these  organs  furnish  valu- 
able characters  for  the  classification  of  these  Animals. 

The  eye,  as  already  stated,  is  destitute  of  lids,  and  covered  with  a 
glassy  capsule,  in  which  the  organ  is  capable  of  moving  freely.  The 
ears  are  not  visible  externally  ;  the  nostrils  are  placed  on  the  snout, 
and  often  quite  at  its  extremity,  and  the  tongue  is  very  long,  thin, 
bifid,  and  protrusible.  There  is  usually  only  a  single  large  lung, 
situated  on  the  left  side  of  the  body  ;  that  of  the  right  side  is  gener- 
ally quite  rudimentary.  The  trachea  is  very  long,  and  often  cellular, 
so  that  the  distinction  between  the  trachea  and  the  lung  is  some- 
times difficult  of  recognition.  The  hinder  part  of  the  long  lung  is 
frequently  destitute  of  cells,  forming  a  simple  sac,  which  probably 
serves  as  a  reservoir  of  air.  The  other  internal  organs  are  also  much 
elongated,  in  accordance  with  the  general  form  of  the  body,  and 
the  gall-bladder  is  often  separated  from  the  liver  by  a  considerable 
interval. 

Sub-divisions. — The  classification  of  these  Reptiles  presents 
considerable  difficulties,  and  scarcely  any  two  authors  are  agreed  as 
to  the  limits  of  the  subordinate  groups,  or  the  order  in  which  they 


Fig.  1591 — Skeleton  of  Ihe  Boa  Constrictor. 


should  be  arranged.  The  general  arrangement  here  adopted  is  much 
he  same  as  that  given  by  Dr.  Gray,  in  his  Catalogue  of  the  Snakes 
m  the  British  Museum.  He  divides  the  order  Ophidia  into  two  sub! 
orders-the  Uperme,  or  essentially  Venomous  Serpents?  with°veak 
jaws,  of  which  the  upper  is  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  excep  the  two 
Urge  poison  fangs;  and  the  Colubrine  Snakes,  which  are  iox  the 
most  part,  harmless  although  the  upper  jaw,  in  many  species  benrs 
fangs,  beside  the  ordinary  solid,  maxillary  teeth.  ^P^"^^'  ^^ears 

Sub-order  I.— Viperina. 

General  Characters.— The  Viperina,  or  Venomous  Snakes 
Par  excellence  are  distinguished  from  all  others  byX  pecuUar 
arrangement  of  the  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  trae  mLilUary 
bones  are  reduced  to  a  very  small  size,  capable  of  a  great  amount  of 
motion  and  bear  a  single  pair  of  long  curved  fangs!  which  can  be 
aid  flat  m  the  mouth  dunng  repose,  or  erected,  when  in  action,  by 
the  agency  of  peculiar  muscles.  These  are  the  only  teeth  supported 
X^y  n^;^.^'"ary  bones  ;  they  are  perforated  throughout  by  a  slender 
canal  which  communicates  with  a  large  gland  situated  in  the  head 
n^^^P  h"**  under  the  eyes.  This  secrltef  the  venomous  fluid  whrch 
passes  through  a  duct  to  the  base  of  the  tooth,  and  thence  t  irouc^ 


the  canal  in  its  interior,  until  it  is  injected  into  the  wound  made  by 
the  bite  of  the  Serpent.  Its  propulsion  is  effected  partly  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  proper  walls  of  the  gland,  and  partly  by  the  pressure 
of  the  muscles  of  the  jaws  which  act  upon  it  during  their  contraction 
(Fig.  1592.)  The  poison,  which  is  thus  injected  into  the  wound 
mixes  with  the  blood,  and  is  then  carried  into  the  circulation,  when 
it  speedily  produces  an  injurious  effect,  giving  rise  to  an  altered  con- 
dition of  the  fluid,  which,  if  the  poison  be  present  in  sufficient 
quantity,  quickly  renders  it  incapable  of  supporting  life;  In  fact  a 
bite  from  one  of  the  large  Poisonous  Snakes  of  Tropical  climates  is 
generally  fatal,  even  to  Man,  if  the  animal  be  in  a  vigorous  condition, 
and  provided  with  a  good  supply  of  poison  ;  but  a  bite  from  a  similar 
Snake,  after  it  has  nearly  exhausted  its  venom  by  previous  attacks 
may  give  rise  to  little  or  no  inconvenience.  It  is  remarkable,  also, 
that  the  effect  of  the  poison  of  these  creatures  is  very  different  with 
different  Animals  ;  the  Cold-blooded  species  in  general  appear  to  be 
almost  indifi'erent  to  its  effects,  whilst  most  Warm-blooded  Animals 
soon  expire  when  a  sufficient  quantity  is  injected  into  their  veins. 
Various  means  of  preventing  the  injurious  effects  of  the  bite  of  these 
Reptiles  have  been  proposed,  and  the  natives  of  most  countries  in 
which  they  abound  have  their  favourite  antidotes   for  the  wounds 

inflicted  by  them.  The  only 
means,  however,  upon  which  it 
appears  that  much  reliance  can 
be  placed,  are  those  directed  to 
preventing  the  poison  from  get- 
ting into  the  circulation  ;  and 
of  these,  the  principal  consist 
in  sucking  the  wound — either 
with  a  cupping-glass  or  with 
the  mouth,  which  may  be  done 
without  the  least  danger,  the 
poison  being  quite  inocuous 
when  taken  internally — cutting 
out^the  wounded  part,  or  burn- 
ing it  with  a  hot  iron,  or  with 
caustic  applications.  The  use 
of  caustic  liquid  ammonia  as 
an  external  application  has 
been  frequently  efi^ectual.  All 
these  remedies  must,  however, 
be  adopted  immediately  after 
the  wound  has  been  received  ; 
if  any  time  be  allowed  to  elapse 
the  most  distressing  symptoms 
make  their  appearance  ;  and  if 
these  can  be  relieved  by  the 
administration  of  medicines 
{which,  however,  appears  some- 
what doubtful),  the  patient 
generally  suffers  for  a  long 
period  from  the  effects  of  the 
bite. 

The  remainder  of  the  teeth 
of  the  Viperina,  consisting  of 
two  rows  in  the  palate  and  a 
row  in  each  side  of  the  lower 
jaw,  are  generally  of  small 
size,  and  weak.  The  head  is 
broad,  and  more  or  less  trian- 
gular ;  broadest  behind,  so  that 
the  boundary  between  the  head 
and  the  neck  is  very  distinct ; 
and  the  surface  of  the  head  is 
c     ,  .  also  generally  scaly.     All  these 

bnakes,  as  tar  as  we  are  aware,  are  Ovo-viviparous ;  and,  accordin? 
tn   r„v,nr    fl,»  f.™    yj^^j.^   applied  to  the  best-known  species,  il 

derived  from  this  circumstance  ; 


to   Cuvier,  the  term 


a  corruption 


he  regards  it  as 
of  "  vivipare." 

_  Sub-Divisions.— The  Vipe- 
rine  Snakes  form  two  families, 
the  Crotalidcz  or  Rattlesnakes, 
and  the  Viperida  or  Vipers. 
The  former  family,  which  in- 
cludes not  only  the  True  Rattle- 
snakes, so  abundant  in  all  parts 
of  America,  but  also  a  consider- 
able number  of  species  distri- 
buted in  other  warm  regions, 
is  particularly  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  a  deep  pit  on 
each  side  of  the  nose,  situated 
K  u-   J    .T.  .,       ™  .  beneath,   and    usually  a  little 

behind,  the  nostril.  This  pit,  the  purpose  of  which  is^sdll  un^ 
kno^^^,  ,s  lined  with  small  plates.  The  head  is  broad  and 
nat,  scaly  on  the  crown,  and  furnished  with  small  shields  only  on 


Fig.  1S92-— Head  of  the  Rattlesnake, 

with  the  skin  removed. 
V,  nostral ;  v,  poison-gland  ;  c,  fang ; 

m,  muscles  of  the  jaws  ;  ,r,  saliva'ry 

glands. 


THE  RATTLESNAKE. 


627 


the  sides  and  nose.  The  teeth  are  very  small,  but  the  poison- 
fang's  are  exceedingly  large  and  powerful ;  but  these  Snakes  must  be 
regarded  as  the  most  dangerous  of  the  order.  The  belly  is  covered 
with  broad  shields. 

The  best  known  examples  of  this  family  are  the  Rattlesnakes, 
which  positively  swarm  in  the  forests  of  America,  extending  even  as 
far  north  as  Canada.     The  following  is  a  description  of  them  : — 

The  Rattlesnake  {Crotaltis  dun'ssus ;  Crotalus  horridus, 
Cuv.)  Several  species  of  Rattlesnake  are  known  to  naturalists,  as 
the  Boiquira  or  Diamond  Rattlesnake  of  Mexico,  Guiana,  and 
Brazil  {Crotalus  horridus) ;  the  Common  or  Banded  Rattlesnake  of 
tlie  United  States  {Crotalus  dun'ssus  ;  and  the  Small  Rattlesnake 
{Caudisona  miliaris,  Fitzin.).  We  may  here  observe  that  the  terms 
horridus  and  dun'ssus  have  been  very  loosely  applied  to  the  two 
former  species  by  naturalists.  Cuvier  assigns  the  term  horridus  to 
the  species  found  in  the  United  States,  and  dt/rissus  to  that  of 
Guiana.  In  his  "North  American  Reptiles,"  Dr.  Harlan  reverses 
the  titles. 

The  Rattlesnakes  are  chiefly  natives  of  America  ;  the  head  is 
covered  with  scales,  similar  to  those  of  the  upper  surface,  excepting 
in  the  genus  Caudisona  where  it  is  protected  by  plates  ;  there  is  a 
small  depression  behind  each  nostril ;  the  tail  is  furnished  with  an 
appendage  commonly  termed  its  rattle  :  it  consists  of  a  number  of  thin 
homy  cells,  of  a  pyramidal  figure,  with  a  protuberant  marginal  ring ; 
they  are  fitted  into  one  another  as  far  as  this  ring  ;  that  is  the  pyra- 
midal portion  of  one  is  received  into  the  hollow  of  that  succeeding, 
its  apex  reaching  as  far  as  the  ring  of  the  third,  and  so  on, — hence, 
when  all  together,  only  the  protuberant  margin  of  each  is  seen.  The 
articulation  of  these  distinct  portions  being  very  loose,  they  rustle 
against  each  other  when  smartly  vibrated,  and  produce  a  distinct 
whirring  noise  that  may  be  heard  at  some  distance.  The  structure 
of  the  rattle  is  well  expressed  at  Fig.  1593  ;  a  shows  a  rattle  of 
twenty-four  joints  ;  b,  the  section  of  a  rattle,  showing  the  form  of  the 
distinct  portions,  and  the  mode  in  which  they  are  fitted  into  each 


l^'ik'-  1593.— Tail  of  the  Rattlesnake. 

other.  The  number  of  the  joints  composing  the  rattle  increases,  to 
a  certam  period  at  least,  with  each  moult  of  slough,  and  the  basal 
bell  is  the  last  formed.  When  irritated  or  alarmed,  the  Rattlesnake 
vibrates  this  appendage,  and  gives  timely  warning,  for  it  is  slow  to 
strike,  and  never  voluntarily  attacks  Man,  unless  trodden  upon  or 
molested.  It  is,  indeed,  mostly  glad  to  escape,  retiring  with  tail 
erect,  and  rapidly  vibrating.     These  Reptiles,  when  irritated,  exhale 


Fig.  i594._The  Rattlesnake. 

a  disgusting  odour;  it  is  said,  however,  that  the  Peccary  will 
fftpn  /v""  'devour  them  ;  though  not,  as  we  should  suppose,  without 
often  experiencing  the  effects  of  their  venomous  fangs.  Horses  and 
Dogs,  however  avoid  them.  *■        ""'=>="  ''"" 

"  I  have  often,"  says  M.  Bosc,  "  amused  myself  by  trying  to  force 


my  horse  and  dog  to  approach  one  of  these  animals,  but  they  would 
sooner  have  allowed  themselves  to  be  knocked  down  on  the  spot  than 
come  near  them."  It  would  seem  from  Kalm  that  Horses  and  Oxen 
perish  from  the  bite  of  a  Rattlesnake  sooner  than  Dogs  or  Men,  yet 
Dogs  seldom  survive.  Captain  Hall  exposed  some  of  these  Animals 
to  the  bite  of  a  Rattlesnake  measuring  four  feet  in  length  ;  the 
first  struck  with  its  deadly  fangs  e.xpired  in  fifteen  minutes,  the  second 
lingered  in  great  agony  for  two  hours  before  death  ended  its  suffer- 
ings, and  the  third  only  began  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  poison  after 
an  interval  of  three  hours  ;  four  days  afterwards  the  same  Snake  bit 
a  Dog  which  died  in  thirty  seconds,  and  another  Dog  which  died  in 
four  minutes. 

Well  is  it  then  that  such  terrible  Reptiles  are  slow  in  their  move. 
ments,  indolent  in  their  habits,  and  ready  to  give  warning  by  their 
rattle  of  their  presence  !  They  are  fond  of  lying  coiled  up  in  sunny 
spots,  with  the  rattle  elevated  in  the  centre,  and  ready  to  be  vibrated, 
when  the  Animal  sees  an  intruder,  without  moving  any  other  part  of 
the  body.  When  exasperated,  the  Rattlesnake  continuously  vibrates 
the  tail ;  the  head  is  flattened,  the  throat  and  cheeks  are  distended, 
the  jaws  open,  the  venom-fangs  are  displayed,  the  tongue  quivers, 
and  the  body  alternately  swells  and  sinks  with  rage,  like  a  pair  of 
bellows ;  should  its  enemy  now  approach,  the  blow  will  be 
instantaneously  struck  ;  if,  however,  he  retire,  the  Reptile  will  unfold 
its  coils,  and  creep  away  into  the  brushwood,  as  if  unwilling  to  con- 
tinue the  strife. 

Occasionally  these  Snakes  attain  to  very  great  dimensions. 
Catesby  says,  "  The  largest  I  ever  saw  was  one  about  eight  feet  in 
length,  weighing  between  eight  and  nine  pounds.  This  monster  was 
gliding  into  the  house  of  Colonel  Blake,  of  Carolina,  and  had  cer- 
tainly taken  his  abode  there  undiscovered,  had  not  the  domestic 
animals  alarmed  the  family  with  their  repeated  outcries  ;  the  hogs, 
dogs,  and  poultry  united  in  their  hatred  to  him,  showing  the 
greatest  consternation  by  erecting  their  bristles  and  feathers  ;  and, 
expressing  their  wrath  and  indignation,  surrounded  him,  but  care- 
fully kept  their  distance,  while  he,  regardless  of  their  threats,  glided 
slowly  along."  The  same  writer,  speaking  of  the  herbs  used  as 
antidotes  to  the  bite,  by  the  Indians,  adds,  "  Having,  by  travelling 
much  with  Indians,  had  frequent  opportunities  of  seeing  the  direful 
effects  of  the  bite  of  those  Snakes,  it  always  seemed  and  was  appa- 
rent to  me  that  the  good  effects  usually  attributed  to  these,  their 
remedies,  are  owing  more  to  the  force  of  nature  or  the  bite  of  a  small 
snake  in  a  muscular  part.  The  person  thus  bit  I  have  known  to 
survive  for  many  hours  without  any  assistance,  but  where  a  rattle- 
snake with  full  force  penetrates  with  his  deadly  fangs,  and  pricks  a 
vein  or  artery,  inevitable  death  ensues,  and  that,  as  I  have  often 
seen,  in  less  than  two  minutes.  The  Indians  know  their  destiny  the 
moment  they  are  bit,  and  when  they  perceive  it  mortal  apply  no 
remedy,  concluding  all  efforts  are  vain  ;  but  if  the  bite  happen  in  a 
fleshy  part,  they  immediately  cut  it  out  to  stop  the  current  of  the 
poison.  I  could  heartily  wish  that  oil  of  olives  applied  to  the  wound 
might  have  as  good  success  against  the  venom  of  these  snakes  as  it 
hath  been  found  in  England  to  have  had  against  the  poison  of  the 
adder." 

It  is  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  year  only,  according  to  Mr.  Pence 
of  Philadelphia,  that  the  poison  of  this  Reptile  is  the  most  dangerous. 
"  Its  bite,"  he  says,  "  from  the  moment  it  emerges  from  its  retreat 
till  August,  does  not  necessarily  produce  fatal  effects.  It  has  been 
remarked,  and  the  obser\'ation  has  not  escaped  the  Indians,  that 
from  the  month  of  August  to  the  time  when  about  to  retire  to  its 
winter  quarters,  the  period  in  which  it  takes  the  most  food,  it  be- 
comes terrible,  and  its  bite  is  mortal." 

"  We  know  that  serpents  in  general  retire  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  the  temperature 
of  the  places  they  tenant,  either  under  large  stones,  or  into  holes 
which  other  animales  have  burrowed.  The  Boigeura  gives  prefer- 
ence to  places  in  the  vicinity  of  water.  We  have  dug  up  many  of 
their  holes  on  the  borders  of  the  river  Maurice.  They  were  all  tor- 
tuous, and  led  to  a  sort  of  chamber  distant  from  the  entrance  six  or 
eight  feet,  and  there  we  have  found  them  in  balls,  and  twined 
together.  Our  guide  led  us,  on  one  occasion,  into  a  marshy  place, 
covered  with  a  prodigious  quantity  of  the  Sphagnum  pa  lustre,  a 
kind  of  moss,  of  which  the  stems  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high. 
Having  removed  some  of  this  moss,  of  which  the  top  was  frozen  (the 
frost  being  so  severe  that  it  penetrated  the  naked  ground  to  the 
depth  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches),  we  perceived  many  rattle- 
snakes slowly  creeping  among  the  roots  of  the  trees,  immediately 
beneath  the  moss,  and  on  an  oozy  ground  over  which  flowed  running 
water  not  affected  by  the  frost.  Numerous  experiments  prove  that 
the  rattlesnake  eats  indifferently  all  kinds  of  dead  Birds  he  meets 
with,  and  that  he  employs  no  supernatural  means  to  seize  his  victims. 
He  does  not,  however,  eat  frogs.  We  may  add  that  the  Rattlesnake 
never  climbs  trees,  but  waits  on  the  ground  for  its  prey,  on  which  it 
darts  when  within  the  proper  distance. 

Mr.  Pence  says  that  the  Rattlesnake  employs  no  supernatural 
means  to  seize  his  victims — and  he  speaks  sensibly.  Who,  however, 
has  not  heard  of  the  fascinating  powers  of  this  snake  .'  The  process 
is  thus  detailed  by  Catesby  : — "  The  charming,  as  it  is  commonly 


628 


THE  VIPER  TRIBE. 


called,  or  attractive  power  which  this  snake  is  said  to  have  of  drawing 
to  it  animals,  and  devouring  them,  is  generally  believed  in  America  ; 
as  for  my  own  part,  I  never  saw  the  action,  but  a  great  many  from 
■whom  I  have  had  it  related  all  agree  in  the  manner  of  the  process  ; 
which  is,  that  the  animals,  particularly  birds  and  squirrels  (which 
principally  are  their  prey),  no  sooner  spy  the  snake  than  they  skip 
from  spray  to  spray,  hovering  and  approaching  gradually  nearer 
their  enemy,  regardless  of  any  other  danger,  but  with  distracted 
gestures  and  outcries  descend  from  the  top  of  the  loftiest  trees  to  the 
mouth  of  the  snake,  who  openeth  his  jaws,  takes  them  in,  and  in  an 
instant  swallows  them." 

In  all  this  there  is  nothing  beyond  what  arises  from  the  desire  of 
the  Animals  to  drive  away  a  savage  foe,  against  which  they  have  an 
instinctive  hatred,  from  the  precincts  of  their  nests,  and  in  their 
eagerness  and  anxiety  often  advance  so  close  as  to  bring  themselves 
within  the  Reptile's  power.  In  other  instances  they  are  startled  by 
the  dreaded  Snake's  sudden  appearance,  and  become  bewildered  or 
paralysed  with  terror. 

After  all,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  living  Birds  are  the  common 
prey  of  the  Rattlesnake.  Some  experiments  by  Mr.  Pence  on  a 
Rattlesnake,  and  also  on  a  Black  Snake  (not  venomous),  seem  to 
prove  this.  A  living  Bird  (an  Oriole)  w-as  introduced  into  the  cage 
of  the  Rattlesnake,  and  remained  there  for  two  days  without  betray- 
ing the  least  fear,  or  experiencing  the  slightest  molestation  from  ttie 
Reptile,  which,  however,  devoured  a  dead  Bird,  while  the  Oriole 
hopped  about  untouched.  A  Cardinal  Grosbeak  was  then  introduced, 
and  this,  so  far  from  avoiding-  the  Snake,  pecked  at  ease  about  the 
cage,  picked  up  seeds,  and  even  hopped  on  the  Snake's  back,  but 
retreated  on  hearing  the  sound  of  the  rattle.  Frogs,  both  living  and 
dead,  were  presented,  but  it  would  not  touch  them.  The  Black 
Snake,  on  the  contrary,  instantly  seized  them.  At  last  a  common 
Rat  was  put  into  the  Rattlesnake's  cage.  Scarcely  was  it  fairly  in 
when  the  Reptile  appeared  animated  ;  the  Rat  fled  in  alarm  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  cage,  to  escape  the  Snake,  which  now  gave 
chase,  following  the  Rat  very  deliberately.  Strenuous  were  the 
efforts  of  the  terrified  victim  to  avoid  its  pursuer,  but  in  vain  ;  the 
Snake,  seizing  a  favour.able  moment,  struck  its  prey  and  then 
remained  motionless  ;  the  Rat  ran  about  for  a  little  time  as  if  be- 
wildered, and  at  the  end  of  a  minute  became  swollen  and  died  in 
convulsions  ;  it  was  then  swallowed. 

Those  of  the  Crotalidce  in  which  the  tail  is  destitute  of  a  rattle, 
have  that  part  of  the  body  furnished  with  a  sort  of  spine.  These 
Reptiles  often  equal  the  Rattlesnakes  in  size  and  in  the  power  of 
their  venom,  but  many  are,  perhaps,  still  more  dangerous,  as  they 
are  exceedingly  active  animals,  and  are  always  ready  to  make  use 
of  the  terrible  weapons  with  which  they  are  armed.  The  most 
dreaded  serpent  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  the  Craspedocej)haliis 
lanceolatiis,  belongs  to  this  group  ;  it  attains  a  length  of  six  or  seven 
feet,  and  inhabits  the  cane-fields,  where  it  lives  principally  on  the 
Rats  which  abound  in  such  situations,  and  when  in  pursuit  of  prey, 
or  of  any  object  of  irritation,  it  frequently  performs  considerable 
springs.  The  Crotalidm  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere  are  confined  to 
the  Asiatic  continent  and  islands. 

The  Vipers— Family  Vi^eridcs. 

The  second  family  of  this  sub-order,  the  Viperidts,  is  composed  of 
the  Vipers  of  the  Old  World,  which  are  distinguished  from  the 
CrofalidcB  by  the  absence  of  the  pits  in  the  sides  of  the  face.  The 
species  of  this  family  are  entirely  confined  to  the  Old  World  in  the 
hot  climates  of  which  they  are  exceedingly  abundant. 

The  Common  European  Viper  {Pelias  benis)  is  a  well-known 
example  ;  it  is  described  as  follows  : — 

The  Viper  [Pelias  berus ;  Adder ;  Vipera  vulgaris,  Latr.  • 
Vipcra  communis.  Leach.)  '  ' ' 

The  Common  Viper  is  spread  over  Europe,  and  is  tolerably  fre- 
quent in  many  parts  of  England,  giving  preference  to  dry  woods 
sandy  heaths,  peat  lands  and  sunny  banks,  and  similar  places.  In 
Scotland  it  is  more  numerous  than  the  Common  Snake.  In  some 
parts  of  Yorkshire,  Vipers  are  abundant,  and  they  are  so  in  all  chalk 
counties.  Vipers  vary  considerably  in  colour ;  hence  we  have  the 
Black  Viper,  the  Blue-bellied  Viper,  the  Red  Viper,  the  Common 
Viper,  &c.,  which  some  naturalists  have  ventured  to  reo-ard  as 
distinct  species — whereas  the  truth  is  they  are  mere  varieties,  as  is 
now  satisfactorily  demonstrated.  Fig.  1595  represents  the  head  of 
the  Viper,  and  Fig.  1596  the  Animal  itself. 

Happily  for  us,  this  is  our  only  Venomous  Reptile ;  and,  dreaded 
as  it  is,  it  is  by  no  means  so  dangerous  as  reported.  It  never  com- 
mences an  attack,  and  turns  to  bite  only  when  driven  to  self-defence 
or  suddenly  molested  ;  nor  is  its  bite  necessarily  fatal.  We  have 
ourselves  known  persons  bit  by  Vipers — one  a  relative  ;  he  was 
punctured  on  the  thumb;  the  part  swelled  and  inflamed,' and  the 
inflammation  (with  considerable  pain  and  constitutional  irritation) 
ascended  the  absorbents  to  the  axillary  glands  ;  with  a  little  care 
however,  in  a  few  days,  every  bad  symptom  was  removed.  We  have' 
indeed,  heard  of  cases  in  which  death  has  resulted  from  a  Viper's 


bite,  but  we  have  never  been  able  positively  to  authenticate  an 
instance,  though  we  are  willing  to  admit  that,  as  the  effects  are 
rnuch  more  severe  in  some  instances  than  in  others,  persons  of  a 
highly  excitable  or  feeble  temperament  may  have  sunk  under  the 
action  of  the  poison,  especially  if  the  Animal  was  in  full  vigour  and 
activity  when  it  inflicted  the  wound.  It  is  stated  that  ammonia  or 
its  carbonate  is  an  excellent  antidote  to  the  bite  of  a  Viper. 

Small  Animals,  as  Mice,  Rats,  Birds,  &c.,  are  immediately 
affected  by  the  poison,  and  soon  perish.  The  Viper  often  attempts 
to  swallow  prey  too  large  to  pass  down  the  oesophagus.     Mr.  Bell 


Fig.  1595. — Head  of  the  Viper. 

had  in  his  possession  a  small  Viper,  from  Poole  Heath,  in  Dorsetshire, 
which  was  taken  in  a  dying  state,  having  forced  down  a  Mouse, 
which  had  caused  the  skin  of  the  neck  to  burst  in  several  places. 
Mr.  J.  C.  Cox  found  a  Viper  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lausanne, 
which  had  swallowed  a  Common  Lizard  nearly  as  long  as  itself,  and 
which  had  forced  a  hole  through  the  side  of  the  Viper,  one  of  its 
fore-legs  protruding.     ("Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,"  1838,  p.  238.) 

The  Viper  is  Ovoviviparous,  the  young  being  excluded  from  the 
egg  previously  to  parturition.     So  requisite  is  the  heat  of  the  sun  for 


Fig.  1596.— The  Viper. 

this  development  of  the  young,  that  the  female  Viper  may  be  often 
seen  extended  in  the  genial  rays,  basking  with  flattened  body,  and 
unwilling  to  remove  from  the  spot  on  the  approach  of  danger.  The 
young  vary  in  number  from  ten  to  twenty,  and  are  alert  and  active 
from  their  birth. 

We  have  often  heard  it  asserted,  though  we  have  never  been  able 
to  verify  the  statement,  that  the  young  Vipers,  when  alarmed,  hastily 
retire  within  the  mouth  of  their  parent,  and  lodge  in  the  stomach  or 
oesophagus  till  the  danger  is  passed.  To  this  circumstance  Mr.  Bell, 
in  his  work  on  British  Reptiles,  makes  no  allusion.  Mr.  Blyth  (Sec 
Loudon's  "  ]\Iag.  Nat.  Hist.,"  1837,  p.  441)  observes  respecting  it, 
"  I  have  been  informed  of  this  by  so  many  credible  eye-witnesses, 
that  I  cannot  hesitate  in  yielding  implicit  credence  to  the  fact.  One 
man  particularly,  on  whose  word  I  fully  rely,  tells  me  that  he  has 
himself  seen  as  many  as  thirteen  young  vipers  thus  enter  the  mouth 
of  their  parent,  which  he  afterwards  killed,  and  opened  for  the 
purpose  of  counting  them.  The  following  extract  shows  that  the 
habit  IS  common  to  other  venomous  serpents,  all  of  which  are,  I 
believe,  without  exception,  ovoviviparous:'  It  is  stated  of  the  rattle- 
snake, in  Hunter's  '  Memoirs  of  a  Captivity  among  the  North 
American  Indians,'  that,  'when  alarmed,  the  young  ones,  which  are 
eight  or  ten  inj  number,  retreat  into  the  mouth  of  the  parent,  and 
reappear  on  its  giving  a  contractile  muscular  token  that  the  danger 
is  passed.'  "  Gilbert  White  says,  "  Several  intelligent  folks  assure 
me  that  they  have  seen  the  viper  open  her  mouth  to  admit  her  help- 
less young  down  the  throat  on  sudden  surprises,  just  as  a  female 
opossum  does  her  brood  into  the  pouch  upon  the  like  emergencies ; 
and  yet  the  London  viper-catchers  insist  on  it  to  Mr.  Barrington  that 


THE    COLUBRINE  SNAKES. 


629 


no  such  thingf  ever  happens."  When  evidence  is  thus  contradictory, 
is  is  difficult  to  know  what  to  believe.  We  have  seen  Vipers  oft,  but 
we  never  saw  the  occurrence  in  question,  nor  do  we  know  any 
naturalist  who  has  himself  seen  it.  Mr.  Blyth,  who  devoted  much 
time  to  the  out-door  study  of  our  Native  Animals,  never  witnessed  it 
himself,  though  he  believes  it  upon  report.  It  has  been  well 
observed  that  much  related  concerning-  the  habits  of  Reptiles  seems 
to  be  as  confused  as  it  is  inexact.  "  Country-people,  besides  being 
inexact  in  their  accounts  (although  their  occupations  afford  them 
good  and  frequent  opportunities  for  making  observations),  are  seldom 
to  be  depended  upon  ;  they  are  not  nice  observers  of  that  which  does 
not  immediately  affect  their  concerns  ;  and  disgust,  or  fear,  or 
indifference  incapacitates  them  from  taking  accurate  notice  ;  and 
these  feelings  induce  contradiction,  confusion,  and  exaggeration. 
Viper-catchers  may  be  better  authorities,  as  from  use  they  overcome 
the  not  unnatural  repugnance  to  these  animals  ;  but,  in  their  case, 
accuracy  depends  entirely  upon  individual  intelligence,  and,  except 
the  reporters  be  unexceptionable,  their  statements  ought  to  be 
cautiously  received." 

The  Viper  hybemates,  several  entwining  together  in  a  deep  hole, 
or  other  secure  lurking-place,  and  passing  the  winter  in  a  state  of 
torpidity. 

In  many  parts  of  England  the  Viper  is  better  known  by  the  name 
of  Adder,  anciently,  says  Mr.  Bell,  written  ncdre,  and  afterwards 
eddre ;  it  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ncedre,  nether,  lower — a  far- 
fetched derivation,  and  we  agree  with  Mr.  J.  Bladon  that  there  is 
one  much  nearer  at  hand,  viz.  neidr,  the  ancient  British  and  modern 
Welsh  name  for  the  Reptile  in  question.  In  the  plural  form  it  is 
much  more  apparent,  nadroedd,  applied  both  to  the  Viper  and 
Common  Snake. 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  on  the  Viper  by  alluding  to 
two  singular  superstitions  connected  with  this  Reptile — perhaps  not 
yet  altogether  passed  away.  From  the  earliest  times  the  flesh  of 
the  Viper  was  celebrated  (like  that  of  the  Skink,  a  kind  of  Lizard) 
in  the  cure  cf  various  diseases,  and  is  praised  by  Pliny  and  Galen. 
The  ancients  generally  served  the  animal,  boiled,  like  Fish  ;  but  in 
our  country  Viper-broth  was  the  preparation  in  request.  In  Fugland 
these  Reptiles  were  caught  by  means  of  a  stick  with  a  fork  or  cleft 
at  one  end,  for  pinning  the  animal  down,  just  behind  the  head ;  the 
man  then  seized  the  struggling  Reptile  by  the  tail,  and  put  it  into 
a  bag  :  and  in  this  way  the  shops  of  the  apothecaries  were  supplied. 

Many  persons  have  heard  of  the  ovum  anguinum  of  Pliny — the 
glein  neidr  of  the  ancient  British — the  Adder-gem  or  Adder-stone. 
(See  Fig.  1597.)  These  celebrated  charms  for  curing  various  dis- 
eases are  nothing  more  than  antique  blue,  green,  or  striped  glass 
beads  of  various  sizes,  and  perforated.     Pliny  attributed  their  pro- 


copied  from  Jackson,  represents  this  species,  which  is  probably  the 

Vipera  agyptiaca  of  Latrcillc. 

Of  the  Exotic  species  the  most  celebrated  is  the  Cerastes  or 
Horned  Snake  {Ccrasfcs  hassclqithfii),  which  is  found  abundantly 
in  Egypt,  and  has  acquired  an  historical  celebrity  from  its  having 
afforded  Cleopatra  the  means  of  escaping  the  disgrace  of  forming 
an  appendage  to  the  triumph  of  her  Roman  conqueror.  The  Cerastes 
IS  a  small  Snake,  generally  measuring  from  a  foot  to  fifteen  inches 
m  length ;  although  some  specimens  are  more  than  two  feet  long 
Above  each  eye,  m  the  male,  there  is  a  sort  of  horn-like  process 
with  the  pomt  directed  a  little  forwards,  which,  although  it  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  weapon  of  any  kind,  yet  adds  greatly  to  the 
malignity  of  the  creature's  aspect.     The  Cerastes  is  found  in  "reat 


rig-  1597.— Adder  Stones. 

duction  to  Snakes  convoluted  together  in  summer,  and  notices  the 
statement  of  the  Druids  with  regard  to  their  mystic  production  ; 
and  Mason,  in  his  "  Caractacus,"  gives  a  Druid's  song  on  the 
subject. 

Pennant  says,  "  Our  modern  Druidesses  give  much  the  same 
account  of  the  ovum  anguinum  (Glein  Neidr,  as  the  Welsh  call  it  ; 
or  the  adder-gem)  as  the  Roman  philosopher  does ;  -but  seem  not 
to  have  so  exalted  an  opinion  of  its  powers,  using  it  only  to  assist 
children  in  cutting  their  teeth,  or  to  cure  the  hooping-cough,  or 
drive  away  an-  ague. ' ' 

A  species  of  viper,  called  El  EfTah  (apparently  identical  with  the 
Hebrew  word  "Ephah,"  translated  viper),  is  described  and  figured 
in  Jackson's  "  Marocco,"  as  one  of  the  most  common  and  venomous 
Serpents  in  North  Africa  and  South-Western  Asia.  "  It  is  about 
two  feet  long  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  beautifully  spotted  with 
yellow  and  brown,  and  sprinkled  over  with  blackish  specks.  They 
have  a  wide  mouth,  by  which  they  inhale  a  great  quantity  of  air, 
and  when  inflated  they  eject  it  with  such  force,  as  to  be  heard  to  a 
considerable  distance."  He  adds,  that  they  abound' in  the  desert 
of  Susc,  where  their  holes  are  extremely  numerous.  Capt.  Riley,  in 
his  "Authentic  Narrative"  (1817),  described  their  colours  as  beauti- 
ful, and  says  that  Jackson's  engraving  is  very  correct.     Fig.  1598, 


Fig.  159S.— "  El  Eflah  :  "  Viper. 

plenty  in  the  dry  sandy  deserts  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  and 
probably  in  other  parts  of  Asia  and  the  north  of  Africa.  It  is  said  to 
be  exceedingly  active  in  its  movements,  springing  to  a  distance  of 
three  feet  or  more  when  making  its  attack.  According  to  Bruce, 
who  has  given  a  long  account  of  its  habits,  many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  infested  by  the  Cerastes,  handle  these  creatures  with 
impunity,  and  even  without  their  making  the  least  attempt  to  bite  ; 
and  in  some  cases,  at  any  rate,  this  immunity  is  procured  by  con- 
stantly chewing  certain  roots,  and  washing  the  body  with  a  parti- 
cular vegetable  decoction.  Bruce  adds  that  the  drugs  were  '■-iven 
to  him,  and  that  he  several  times  "armed  himself"  to  make  the 
experiment,  "  but  his  heart  always  failed  him  when  he  came  to  the 
trial."    The  following  cut  Fig.  1599  represents  one  of  these  Snakes. 

Sub-order  II.— Colubrina. 

General  Characters.— The  Colubrine  Snakes  are  distin.guished 
from  those  of  the  preceding  sub-order  by  the  greater  strength  of 
their  jaws,  and  by  having  the  maxillary  bones  much  longer,  and 
armed  with  solid  conical  teeth,  sometimes  intermixed  w-ith  fangs. 
The  latter  are,  however,  somewhat  different  in  construction  from 
those  of  the  Vipeyina  :  they  are  simply  grooved  or  slit  down  one 
side  ;  and  although  the  sides  of  this  slit  are  often  in  close  contact, 
so  as  to  form  a  canal  in  the  interior  of  the  tooth,  they  are  never 
amalgamated  as  in  the  Viperine;Snakes.  The  fangs  of  the  Colubrine 
Snakes,  moreover,  are  always  immovably  fixed  in  the  mouth,  the 
different  arrangement  of  the  maxillary  bones  necessarily  preventing 
those  movements  by  which  the  Viperina  are  enabled  to  raise  and 
depress  their  fangs  at  pleasure.  The  head  generally  tapers  off 
gradually  into  the  neck,  and  does  not  present  the  triangular  form 
which  prevails  in  the  preceding  sub-order,  and  the  crown  is  frequently 
covered  with  shield-like  plates. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Colubrine  Snakes  may  be  divided  into 
two  great  sections,  according  as  the  maxillary  bones  are  armed 
only  with  solid  teeth,  or  with  these  mixed  with  long,  grooved  fangs. 
The  Snakes  of  the  former  group,  which  constitute  the  great  nia- 
jority  of  the  sub-order,  are  perfectly  innocuous  ;  but  the  second 
section  includes  a  considerable  number  of  venomous  species.  The 
latter  may  be  again  divided  into  two  groups ;  the  Vencmosa,  inr 
eluding  the  undoubtedly  venomous  species  which  have  the  fangs 
placed  at  the  anterior  portion  of  the  maxillary  bones,  with  the  solid 
teeth  behind  them  ;  and  the  Suspecta,  in  which  the  fangs  arc 
situated  at  the  back  of  the  jaw,  behind  the  common  teeth.  The 
venomous  species  form  two  families,  the  Elapidcc  and  the  Hydro- 
^hida. 

The  ElapidcR  have  a  short,  rounded  head,  covered  with  shields, 
and  the  nostrils  are  placed  on  the  side  of  the  snout,  close  to  its  apex, 
The  body  is  rounded,  and  the  tail  round  and  tapering;  the  lower 


63° 


THE  COBRAS. 


surface  is  covered  with  shields,  which 
are  usually  single  and  transverse  on 
the  belly,   but   arranged  in  a  double 
row  under  the  tail.     The  poison-fangs 
in  these  Animals   are  much   smaller 
than    in  the    Viperine    Snakes ;    but 
such  is  the  virulence  of  their  poison, 
that    their   bite  is  perhaps   quite   as 
dangerous  as  that  of  any  other  Snake. 
The  skin  of  the  neck  is  very  loose, 
and  the  ribs  of  that  part  of  the  body 
are  capable   of  being  extended  and 
raised  so  as  to  dilate  the  skin  into  a 
sort  of  disc,  which,  from   its  resem- 
blance to  a  hood,  has    obtained  for 
these  creatures  the  English  name  of 
Hooded  Snakes,  synonomous  with  the 
Portuguese    Cobra    di   Capello,    by 
which  they  are  perhaps  better  known , 
The    Indian    species,   Naia    fripii- 
diatis,  to  which  the  name  of  Cobra 
di  Cajiello  properly  applies,  is  also 
known  as  the  Spectacle  Snake,  from 
the  existence  of  a  curious  mark  upon 
the  back  of  the  neck,  exactly  resem- 
bling a  pair  of  spectacles    in  form. 
Formidable    as     it   is,     however,     a 
small     mammiferous      animal,     the 
Mungoos  [Herpestcs  griseiis),  does 
not  fear  to  attack  it,  and  usually  with 
success— the  Snake,  on  being  brought 
into  the  presence  of  its  seemmgly  con- 
temptible enemy,   sometimes  endea- 
vouring   to  make    its   escape.     The 
Mungoos,  of  course,  often  gets  bitten 
in  these  encounters ;   but  it  is   said 
to  be  acquainted  with  some  particular 
herb,  which  serves  as  an  antidote  to 
the  poison  of  the  Snake.     The  Hin- 
doos   assert  that    the    root    of   the 
Ophiorhha    mungos     prevents    the 
ill  effects  of  the  Cobra' s  bite.     A  very 
similar    species,    the     Haje    {Nam 
haje.     Fig.    1600),     is     common    m 
Egypt.     The  following  is  a  descrip- 
tion of  these  species  : — 

The  Common  Indian  Naja 
{Naja  triJ>udiatts).—Gohr3.  di  Ca- 
pello  of  the  Asiatic  Portuguese; 
Serpent  A  lunettes  of  the  French; 
Spectacle  Snake  of  the  English ; 
Nag  and  Chinta  Nagoo  of  the  natives. 
This  formidable  Snake  attains  to  five, 
or  even  six  feet  in  length  ;  Captain 
Percival,  indeed,  says  that  specimens 
occur  in  Ceylon  as  long  as  fifteen 
feet ;  but  these  specimens,  we  be- 
lieve, will  be  found  to  belong  to  the 
genus  Hamadryas. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  Naja  expands 
its  hood.  Fig.  1603  represents  the 
head  of  Naja  ;  a,  the  side  view  ;  b,  as 
seen  from  above  :  Fig.  1601  view  of 
the  upper  side  of  the  hood  expanded, 
with  the  head  on  the  same  line 
with  the  body ;  Fig.  1602  ,  a  view 
of  the  under  side  of  the  same;  this 
shows  the  head,  seen  from  behind, 
when  the  anterior  portion  of  the  ex- 
cited Serpent  is  in  an  erect  posture. 

In  the  Naja  trij>udians,  or  Cobra, 
the  hood  is  impressed  behind  with  a 
mark  somewhat  resembling  the  cen- 
tral portion   of  a  pair  of  spectacles  

reversed ;    it    usually    consists  of    a 
double   reversed    horse-shoe    line   of 

black  or  brown,  with  the  tv^-o  ends  dilated,  so  as  to  enclose  an 
oval  space,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  ring  or  spot  of  black, 
as  already  stated.  Captain  Percival  says—"  Before  a  combat  he 
gives  the  signal,  and  his  motions  afterwards  are  too  rapid  to  be 
avoided  ■  "  and  he  adds,  "  I  have,  more  than  once,  been  an  eye- 
witness to  instances  where  the  fatal  bite  of  this  snake  was  escaped 
merely  by  the  object  of  his  vengeance  timely  observing  his  prepara- 
tions. One  remarkable  quality  of  these  dangerous  serpents  is  their 
fondness  for  music  ;  even  when  newly  caught  they  seem  to  listen 
with  pleasure  to  the  notes,  and  even  to  writhe  themselves  into  atti- 


l|lilllll||ll[ll'll|llj|||il')illi[llllllllill!^ill"li^ll'llwlil'''^"''ii"'''''i''''''"'''"''"^^  '■>" 


tudes.     The  Indian  jugglers  improve  greatly  on  this  instinct,  and 
after  taming  them  by  degrees,   instruct  them  to  keep  time  to  their 

flageolet."  ...  ■  ^-  j  • 

The  colour  of  these  Snakes  is  subject  to  some  variation,  and  m 
Ceylon,  according  to  Dr.  Davy,  those  of  a  light  colour  are  called 
hio-h-caste  Snakes,  those  of  a  dark  colour  low-caste.  "  The  natives," 
he%ays,  "  in  general  rather  venerate  this  snake  than  dread  it.  They 
conceive  that  it  belongs  to  another  world,  and  that  when  it  appears 
in  this  it  is  merely  as  a  visitor ;  they  imagine  that  it  possesses  great 
power,  that  it  is  somewhat  akin  to  the  gods,  and  greatly  superior  to 


THE  COBRAS. 


«3i 


man.  In  consequence,  they  supcrstitiously  refrain  from  killing  it, 
and  always  avoid  it,  if  possible.  Even  when  they  find  one  in  their 
house,  they  will  not  kill  it,  but,  putting  it  into  a  bag,  throw  it  into 
water.  They  believe  that  this  snake  has  a  good  and  generous  dis- 
position, and  that  it  will  do  no  harm  to  man  unless  provoked."  Dr. 
Davy  gives  a  pleasing  picture  of  the  irritations  and  soothings  with 
which  The  Snake-charmers  e.xcite  and  allay  the  temper  of  this  Ser- 
pent, and  records  several  instances  of  the  operation  of  the  poison. 
In  one  case  a  young  Cock  was  bitten  in  the  thigh,  and  gradually 
sank,  and  perished  in  convulsions  in  about  seventeen  minutes.  The 
first  'symptoms  consisted    in  the  respiration  becoming  hurried  and 

laborious,  to  which  succeeded  a 
comatose  state ;  the  breathing 
then  became  scarcely  perceptible, 
when  four  or  five  convulsive  fits 
came  on,  each  weaker  than  the 
other,  the  last  proving  fatal. 

A  distinct  species,  found  in  Cal- 
cutta, Bombay,  and  Assam,  and 
termed  by  Dr.  Cantor,  the  Masked 
Naja  (Naja  larvata),  is  described 
in  the  "  Zool.  Proceeds."  1839, 
p.  32.  It  is  of  a  brownish  colour, 
with  numerous  faint  transverse 
stripes ;  the  hood  is  marked  with 
a  white  ring,  not  unlike  the  form 
of  a  mask,  behind  which  there  are 
from  three  to  five  white  rings  ;  the 
anterior  part  of  the  lower  surface 
is  marked  with  alternate  white  and 
bluish-back  rings  ;  the  posterior 
Fig.  1600.— Egyptian  Hooded  Snake  part  is  iridescent  glaucous. 

(Naja  Haje).  A  young  specimen  of  this  Snake 

was  living  in  1829,  in  the  Society's 
Gardens,  Regent's  Park.  The  artificial  temperature,  62°  Fahr.,  in 
which  it  was  kept,  appeared  to  agree  with  it  very  well.  Dr.  Cantor 
observes  that,  in  one  respect,  it  offered  in  its  habits  a  striking  differ- 
ence from  those  of  the  Najas  generally  in  captivity,  for,  as  he  was 
informed  by  the  keeper,  it  fed  occasionally  upon  living  Frogs  and 
Earth-worms,  and  that  it  took  milk;  while  those  in  Dr.  Russel's 
possession,  and  also  in  his  own,  in  India,  when  deprived  of  liberty, 
invariably  refused  to  take  any  kind  of  food.     This  must  be  taken 


Fig.  1601. — Upper  side  of  the  Hood  of  the  Naja. 

with  some  exceptions,  for  Col.  Briggs  states  that  those  kept  by  the 
priests  in  the  temples  are  pampered  with  milk  and  sugar,  and  will 
feed  out  of  the  hand  as  tamely  as  any  domestic  Animal.  Specimens 
of  this,  and  the  following  species,  may  be  seen  in  the  Zoological 
Society's  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  London. 

The  Egyptian  Cobra  {Naja  haje).     El  Haje,  or  Haje  Nascher 
of  the  modern  Arabs.     This  formidable  Snake  was  well  known  to  the 


ancients,  and  Cuvicr  observes  that  "  its  habit  of  elevating  itself  when 
approached,  led  the  ancient  Egyptians  to  believe  that  it  was  the 
guardian  of  the  plains  which  it  inhabited,  and  they  adopted  it  as  the 
protecting  deity  of  the  world  ;  it  is  this  snake  which  they  sculptured 
on  all  the  portals  of  their  temples,  on  two  sides  of  a  globe." 

Pliny  gives  the  following  account  of  this  as  an  allied  species.  "  The 
neck  of  the  asp,"  he  says,  "  is  capable  of  distention,  and  the  only 
remedy  against  its  bite  is  amputation  of  the  wounded  part.  This 
animal,  otherwise  so  much  to  be  dreaded,  has  a  sentiment,  or  kind 
of  affection  truly  wonderful;  it  never  lives  alone,  the  male  and 
female  being  constantly  found  together,  and  if  one  happens  to  be 


Fig.  1602. — Lower  Side  of  the  Hood  of  the  Naja. 

killed,  the  other  seeks  with  the  utmost  fury  to  avenge  its  death.  It 
knows  and  selects  the  destroyer  from  among  crowds,  and  can  only 
be  deprived  of  its  revenge  by  the  most  speedy  flight,  or  the  inter\'en- 
tion  of  some  rapid  river."  He  adds  that  the  lateral  position  of  its 
eyes  prevents  it  from  seeing  straight  before  it,  and  that,  consequently, 
it  is  often  trodden  under  foot  before  it  is  aware  of  its  danger.  This 
latter  circumstance  by  no  means  proves  its  incapacity  for  seeing 
before  it ;  in  fact  its  sight  is  as  quick  as  its  actions  are  prompt  and 
rapid.  Old  walls,  ruins  amidst  woods,  and  similar  places,  are  its 
usual  haunts. 

Fig.  1605  represents  the   Haje   in   its  young   state,  and  1C06  the 
mature  Animal. 


Fig.  1603. — Head  of  the  Naja. 

With  respect  to  a  variety  called  Spuugh-slang  (Spitting  Snake), 
which  is  of  a  livid  blackish-brown,  and  which  is  more  rare  than  the 
others,  Dr.  Smith  observes  that  it  has  acquired  its  name  from  its 
supposed  power  of  ejecting  its  poison  to  a  distance.  All  the  Cobra 
di  Capellos,  he  remarks,  distil  poison  from  the  the  points  of  their 
fangs  when  they  are  much  irritated,  and  are  able  to  eject  a  portion 
of  it  beyond  the  mouth  by  a  forcible  expiration,  but  he  is  not  disposed 
to  admit  that  any  greater  power  is  possessed  by  the  Spuugh-slang. 
The  contrary,  however,  is  asserted  both  by  the  colonists  and 
natives  : — "  Both  of  these  affirm  that  the  snake  in  question  is  able  to 
cast  its  poison  to  a  distance  of  several  feet,  especially  if  the  wind  be 


632 


S£:rpent  charming. 


blowing  so  as  to  favour  its  object ;  and  that  it  often  projects  it  into 
the  eyes  of  unwelcome  intruders,  and  thereby  occasions  a  degree  of 
inflammation  which  not  uncommonly  terminates  in  loss  of  sight.  In 
the  Cape  Colony  the  varieties  of  the  Cobra  di  Capello  are  all 
regarded  as  highly  dangerous,  and  many  severe,  if  not  fatal  conse- 
quences are  the  results  of  their  bite.  They  are  all  savage  and  bold, 
and  when  assailed  they  generally  resist  rather  than  Ry,  and  they  not 
unfrequently  act  upon  the  offensive.  They  climb  trees  with  great 
facility,  and  often  take  to  the  water  out  of  choice.  In  the  liquid 
element  their  progress  is  rather  slow,  and  during  their  residence  in 
it  the  head  is  always  kept  raised  above  the  surface.  Whenever 
they  are  e.xcited  or  irritated,  they,  like  the  common  species  of  India, 
inflate  the  loose  skin  of  the  neck,  and  e.xtend  it  laterally  so  as  to 


Fig.  1604. — The  Indian  Naja. 

exhibit  an  appearance  as  if  the  neck  was  edged  on  each  side  with  a 
thin  semicircular  appendage.  They  feed  upon  small  quadrupeds, 
birds,  and  eggs,  and  ascend  trees  to  rob  nests." 

We  may  here  allude  to  the  fascination  of  Snakes  by  music,  and 
the  intluence  exerted  upon  them  by  a  race  or  caste  of  professed 
Snake-charmers,  who  appear  from  time  immemorial  in  the  East  to 
have  exercised  their  art  upon  them,  and  exhibited  various  perform- 
ances. 

We  find  allusions  to  Serpent-charming  in  the  Scriptures.  Jere- 
miah writes  :  "  For  behold,  I  will  send  serpents,  cockatrices,  among 
you,  which  will  not  be  charmed,"  ch.  viii.  17.     Again  in  the  Psalms  : 


"  Their  poison  is  like  the  poison  of  a  serpent ;  they  are  like  the  deaf 
adder  that  stoppeth  her  ear ;  which  will  not  hearken  to  the  voice  of 
charmers,  charming  never  so  wisely."     Ps.  Iviii.  4,  5. 

The  charming  or  incantation  of  serpents  is  so  strange,  that  many 
have  utterly  denied  the  fact,  while  others  have  asserted  it  to  be  a 
deception.  Our  own  conviction  is  that  Serpents  are  extremely 
susceptible  of  impressions  from  music  notes,  or  modulations,  under 
the  influence  of  which  they  wreathe  their  bodies,  from  feelings  of 
pleasure,  while  to  these  graceful  contortions  and  undulating  move- 
ments, the  charmer,  who  plays  on  a  pipe,  or  some  simple  instrument, 
skilfully  adapts  the  time.  That  Snakes  are  influenced  by  musical 
sounds  we  might  quote  various  authorities  to  prove  ;  it  was,  in  fact, 
known  to  the  ancients.  "Cerberus  Orpheo  lenivit  sibila  cantu." 
Pliny  and  Seneca  both  afSrm  that  serpents  can  be  allured  from  their 
retreats  by  music ;  and  among  the  moderns,  who  contend  for  the 
same,  may  be  mentioned  Chardin,  Greaves,  Dr.  Shaw,  Bruce,  Sir 
W.  Jones,  Chateaubriand,  &c.  The  last,  indeed,  in  his  "  Beauties 
of  Christianity,"  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  effects  upon  a 


Fig.  1605.— The  Naja  Haje.     Young. 


1  .g.  !^ -    £g)'ptian  Cobra. 

Rattlesnake  of  modulations  played  on  the  flute  by  a  Canadian,  who, 
at  last,  like  Orpheus,  led  the  fascinated  Reptile  out  of  the  camp, 
following  him  as  he  moved  onwards  ;  to  the  astonishment  both  of 
the  Europeans  and  natives,  who  unammiously  agreed  that  the 
creature's  life  should  be  spared;  though,  in  evident  anger,  it  had 
intruded  into  their  encampment.  "  A  learned  native  of  this  country 
[India],"  says  Sir  W.  Jones,  "  told  me  he  had  frequently  seen  the 
most  venomous  and  malignant  snakes  leave  their  holes,  upon 
hearing  notes  from  a  flute,  which,  as  he  supposed,  gave  them 
peculiar  delight."  "  Asiat.  Res.,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  315.  IMr.  Gogerly,  a 
missionary,  confirms  this  statement.  He  observes  that  some  persons 
who  were  incredulous  on  the  subject,  after  taking  the  most  careful 
precautions  against  any  trick  of  artifice  being  played,  sent  a  charmer 
into  the  garden  to  prove  his  powers  :  "  The  man  began  to  play  upon 
his  pipe,  and,  proceeding  from  one  part  of  the  garden  to  another, 
for  some  minutes  stopped  at  a  part  of  the  wall  much  injured  by  age, 
and  intimated  that  a  serpent  was  within.  He  then  played  quicker, 
and  his  notes  were  louder,  when,  almost  immediately,  a  large  Cobra 
di  Capello  put  forth  its  hooded  head,  and  the  man  ran  fearlessly  to 
the  spot,  seized  it  by  the  throat  and  drew  it  forth.  He  then  showed 
the  poison  fangs,  and  beat  them  out ;  afterwards  it  was  taken  to  the 
room  where  his  baskets  were  left,  and  deposited  amongst  the  rest." 


THE  SNAKES. 


6J3 


Abundance  of  similar  instances  are  on  record  ;  and  we  may  here  add 
that  M.  Schomberg-,  speaking  of  a  pretty  little  Lizard  in  the  West 
Indies  {Anolius  bttllaris),  states,  that  "  they  are  often  caught  by 
boys,  who  take  advantage  of  their  fondness  for  musical  sounds, 
arresting  their  attention,  and  then  throwing  a  little  noose  over  their 
head,"  as  they  perch  in  a  listening  attitude  on  the  branches  of  trees  : 
"Linn.  Trans.,"  vol.  xvii.,  p.  560.  We  have  then  here  the  key  to 
the  whole  mystery.  The  exhibition  of  Serpents  is  itself  attended 
with  deception,  for  the  poison  fangs  are  always  carefully  extracted  ; 
and  hence  are  the  wounds  which  the  charmers  subject  themselves  to, 
of  comparatively  little  consequence.  It  should  be  observed,  however, 
that  long  practice  has  given  these  men  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  habits  of  these  Reptiles  ;  hence  it  need  not  surprise  us  that  they 
easily  discover  where  they  lurk,  a  point  which  has  been  often  put  to 
the  rigid  test.  Mr.  Lane  imagines  that  it  is  by  the  smell  that  they 
discover  the  presence  of  these  Reptiles  ;  but  we  are  inclined  to 
suppose  that  it  is  by  the  ear.  As  the  man  plays  his  pipe  he  regards 
attentively  the  most  likely  spots,  and  intently  listens  ;  his  practised 
ear  catches  the  slightest  rustle  of  the  Serpent,  as  excited  it  turns  or 
moves  in  its  hole,  its  subdued  hiss,  or  its  quickened  breathing  ;  but 
the  spectators,  engaged  in  attending  to  the  man,  hear  and  see 
nothing  but  him,  and  are  too  much  interested  to  endeavour  to  find 
the  Snake  by  the  exercise  of  their  own  faculties.  No  doubt  these 
men,  in  order  to  magnify  themselves,  arrogate  more  power  than  they 
are  really  entitled  to,  and  throw  an  air  of  professional  mystery  over 
their  operations,  and  hence  many  believe  that  all  is  assumed,  and 
the  whole  a  trick.  Mr.  Johnson,  in  his  "  Indian  Field-Sports," 
leans  to  this  opinion  ;  he  says,  "  The  professed  snake-catchers  in 
India  are  a  low  caste  of  Hindoos,  wonderfully  clever  in  catching 
snakes,  and  in  practising  the  art  of  legerdemain  :  they  pretend  to 
draw  them  from  their  holes  by  a  song,  and  by  an  instrument  some- 
what like  the  Irish  bagpipe,  on  which  they  play  a  plaintive  tune. 
The  truth  is,  all  this  is  done  to  deceive.  If  ever  a  snake  comes  out 
of  a  hole  at  the  sound  of  their  music,  you  may  be  certain  that  it  is  a 
tame  one,  trained  to  it,  deprived  of  its  venomous  teeth,  and  put  there 
for  the  purpose  ;  and  this  you  may  prove,  as  I  have  often  done,  by 
killing  the  snake  and  examining  it,  by  which  you  will  exasperate  the 
man  exceedingly."  No  doubt  they  often  act  thus;  but  this  does 
rot  prove  that  they  cannot  draw  Wild  Snakes  from  their  retreats  ; 
indeed,  the  contrary  is  notorious.  But  beside,  Seals,  Rats  and  Mice 
are  attracted  by  music,  as  we  can  testify,  and  Deer  and  Sheep. 
Music  affects  also  Dogs  and  Cats,  sometimes,  as  it  would  seem, 
distressingly  ;  and  if  our  memory  serve  us,  we  have  somewhere  read 
a  detailed  account  of  the  influence  of  certain  notes  or  modulations 
upon  the  Ferocious  Animals  of  the  menagerie.  The  subject  requires 
a  series  of  detailed  observations,  when,  perhaps,  some  singular  facts 
would  be  elicited.  Of  the  modern  Snake  charmers,  the  Psylli  were 
the  ancient  prototypes.  They  were  a  people  of  Cyrenaica,  a  country 
in  Africa  abounding  in  Reptiles  ;  supposed  to]  be  endowed  with  the 
natural  power  of  charming  Serpents,  from  whose  bite  they  were 
exempt.  Pliny  supposed  that  some  odour  of  their  persons,  which  the 
Serpents  abhorred,  protected  them,  and  Lucan  says  the  same. 

The  latter,  in  his  poem  of"  Pharsalia,"  describes  the  method  they 
adopted  to  drive  away  these  Reptiles  from  the  environs  of  the  Roman 
camp,  marching  around  it,  chanting  mystic  songs  ;  and,  what  was 
more  effectual,  keeping  up  fires  of  different  kinds  of  wood  around 
the  encampment  during  the  whole  of  the  night.  If  a  soldier 
happened  to  be  bitten,  they  raised  "  the  magic  lay,"  and  rubbed 
the  parts  around  with  saliva,  to  prevent,  as  they  said,  the  poison 
from  spreading,  while  they  used  their  arts  to  extract  it ;  and  when 
suspicious  symptoms  arose,  they  sucked  the  venom  from  the  wound. 
The  Hydrophidce,  or  Sea-snakes,  are  distinguished  from  the 
Snakes  of  the  preceding  family,  with  which  they  agree  in  the  general 
arrangement  of  their  teeth,  by  the  compressed  form  of  the  short  tail, 
which  is  converted  into  a  vertical  oar.  The  body  is  also  compressed, 
and  usually  entirely  covered  with  scales.  The  head  is  not  distinctly 
separated  from  the  neck,  and  is  usually  covered  with  shields ;  the 
nostrils  are  placed  close  together  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  snout, 
and  provided  with  valves  to  close  them  when  the  head  is  immersed 
in  the  water. 

The  HydrophidcB  are  found  exclusively  in  the  seas  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  on  the  coasts  of  India,  and  off  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Some  of  them  occur  as 
far  south  as  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia.  A  few  are 
found  occasionally  in  salt  water  tanks  and  canals  ;  but  they  usually 
confine  themselves  to  the  ocean,  and  rarely  ascend  beyond  the  mouths 
of  rivers ;  in  fact,  they  are  said  to  be  unable  to  live  in  fresh  water. 
This  is  probably  a  mistake,  as  they  are  strictly  air-breathing 
Animals,  and  often  visit  the  shore,  where,  in  fact,  they  deposit  their 
eggs.  They  are  exceedingly  venomous,  and  are  regarded  with  great 
dread  by  the  Fishermen,  in  whose  nets  they  are  not  unfrequently 
caught.  They  are,  however,  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  some  of  the 
countries  on  whose  shores  they  occur.  They  rarely  exceed  four  feet 
in  length. 

The  second  group  of  Colubrine  Snakes,  with  both  fangs  and  teeth 
in  the  maxillary  bones  (the  Suspecta),  includes  a  considerable 
number  of  species  which  are  known  to  be  harmless ;  whilst  others 


are  reputed  venomous  by  the  natives  of  the  countries  in  which  they 
occur,  although,  m  most  cases,  it  appears  very  doubtful  whether  they 
are  really  deservmg  of  this  reputation.  In  these  Serpents  the  solid 
teeth  are  placed  m  front  of  the  fangs,  of  which  there  arc  usually 
more  than  one  on  each  side,  which  latter  are  grooved  or  split  alone 
the  convex  surface,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  communi- 
'^?-'^,^'^','^  '"'ernal  poison-glands.  The  head  is  usually  covered  with 
shield-hke  plates. 

Of  these  Snakes  there  are  three  families.  In  the  first,  the 
HomalopszdcB,  the  nostrils  are  placed  close  together,  and  furnished 
with  valves,  as  in  the  Hydropkidce,  which  these  Serpents  also 
resemble  in  their  Aquatic  habits,  although  they  reside  entirely  in 
fresh  water.  They  differ  from  the  HydrophidiB  in  the  form  of  the 
tail,  which  is  elongated,  round,  and  tapering.  These  Animals  are 
especially  abundant  in  the  rivers  and  ponds  of  India,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  where  some  of  them  are  reputed  veno- 
mous, but  apparently  without  reason.  They  sometimes  attain  a  con- 
siderable size. 

The  Dipsadidce  have  a  long,  compressed,  slender  body,  usually 
considerably  narrower  than  the  head,  which  is  covered  with  shields  ; 
and  the  scales,  or  rather  plates,  which  run  along  the  back,  are  con- 
siderably larger  than  the  rest.  Both  jaws  are  sometimes  furnished 
with  fangs.  The  Dendrophidm  resemble  the  preceding  in  the  form 
of  their  bodies,  and  in  the  possession  of  a  row  of  large  scales  along 
the  dorsal  region  ;  but  the  head  is  not  wider  than  the  body. 

The  perfectly  harmless  Colubrine  Snakes,  or  those  in  which  the 
large  fangs  are  entirely  wanting,  may  be  divided  into  three  families. 
In  the  first  of  these,  the  ColubridcB,  or  Snakes,  of  which  the  Common 
Snake  or  Ringed  Snake  {Coluber  tzatn'x.  Fig.  1607)  of  this  country 
is  a  familiar  example,  the  head  is  small,  and  somewhat  triangular, 
but  little  thicker  than  the  neck,  and  covered  with  shield-like  plates ; 
the  nostrils  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  snout,  and  the  eyes  are 
small,  and  furnished  with  round  pupils.  The  following  is  a  more 
particular  description  of  this  species  : — 

The  Common  or  Ringed  Snake  {Natrix  torquata,  Ray; 
Tropidonotus  nain'x,  Kiihl ;  Coluber  ttafrix,  Linn.)  As  an  example 
of  the  ColubridcB  we  may  adduce  the  Common  Ringed  Snake  of  our 
island  and  Europe  generally.  The  head  in  this  genus  is  distinct, 
oblong-ovate,  depressed,  and  covered  above  with  scuta  ;  the  gape  is 
wide;  the  body  long  and  slender;  the  squamae  are  imbricate,  lan- 
ceolate, and  generally  carinated  ;  the  abdominal  scuta  are  simple  ; 
those  under  the  tail  double  or  biserial.  Fig.  1607  represents  the 
head  and  tail  of  the  Common  Snake. 


Fig.  1607. — Head  and  Tail  of  the  Common  Snake. 

Fig.  1608  exhibits— <?,  the  Common  Adder ;  b,  the  Ringed  Snake, 
by  way  of  comparison  ;  they  are  our  only  two  Ophidian  Reptiles. 

The  Ringed  Snake  is  very  harmless,  and  may  be  readily  tamed  ; 
it  is  abundant  in  low  moist  woods,  damp  meadows,  and  hedge-rows, 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  to  which  it  delights  to  resort,  and 
in  and  around  which  its  favourite  food,  the  Frog,  is  always  to  be 
procured.  It  often  frequents  gardens,  attracted  by  the  warmth  of 
hotbeds  and  heaps  of  manure,  in  which  the  females  deposit  their 
eggs  ;  for  the  same  reason,  as  we  can  personally  testily.  Snakes 
often  frequent  the  sides  and  bases  of  lime-kilns  composed  of  large 
rough  masses  of  stone  and  turf,  forming  a  thick  mound,  between  the 
crevices  of  which  they  habitually  conceal  themselves  and  lajf  their 
eggs.  White,  in  his  "  History  of  Selborne,"  complains  that  Snakes 
lay  chains  of  eggs  every  summer  in  his  melon-beds,  in  spite  of  all 
that  can  be  done  to  prevent  them  ;  the  eggs,  he  adds,  do  not  hatch 
till  the  spring  following;  hence  it  follows  that  where  they  are  not 
laid  in  such  places  as  manure-heaps,  or  in  the  crevices  of  lime-kilns, 
as  above  noticed,  and  so  subjected  to  what  may  be  termed  artificial 
heat  regularly  kept  up,  they  have  to  undergo  the  natural  cold  of  our 
winter.  In  all  cases,  most  probably,  they  are  so  secured  as  to  be 
defended  against  severe  frost.  The  eggs  are  invested  with  a  mem- 
brane, and  are  eighteen  or  twenty  in  number,  connected  together,  by 
a  glutinous  matter,  in  a  long  string  or  chain.  ,       ,        .    j 

The  Snake  swims  well  and  very  gracefully,  with  the  head  arched 

4  M 


^34 


THE  SNARES. 


above  the  surface,  and,  as  we  have  witnessed,  it  can  remain  a  con- 
considcrable  time  below.  It  is  probable  that  Snakes  pursue  Frogs 
and  Water-shrews  in  this  element ;  but  they  also  delight  in  it,  for  we 
have  watched  them  swimming  about  without  any  apparent  object 
beyond  the  pleasure  of  the  bath  ;  we  have  also  known  them  take  to 
the  water  in  order  to  escape  when  chased.  In  this  fondness  for 
water  the  Snake  differs  from  the  Blindworm,  which  avoids  it,  and 
from  the  Viper,  which  prefers  dry  localities,  seldom,  if  ever,  volun- 
tarily attempting  to  swim. 

The  Snake  is  very  voracious,  and  pursues  its  prey  with  great  de- 
termination. It  feeds  on  Mice,  nestling  Birds,  Frogs,  especially  the 
latter,  of  which  it  is  a  great  destroyer.  (See  Fig.  1609.)  We  have 
several  times  seen  Snakes  in  the  act  of  swallowing  a  Frog,  their  jaws 
forced  asunder,  their  neck  swollen,  and  so  absorbed  in  their  laborious 
efforts  to  engulf  their  prey,  all  the  while  alive,  that  they  have  made 
no  attempt  to  escape.  In  taking  the  Frog,  the  Snake  generally 
seizes  one  of  the  hind-legs,  and  first  draws  it  in,  then  the  whole  body, 
portion  after  portion,  till  the  whole  disappears.     This  m-drawmg  of 


Fig.  1608.— (7,  The  Common  Adder;  b,  the  Ringed  Snake. 

the  prey  is  not  an  act  of  simple  suction,  but  is  connected  with  the 
mechanism  of  the  jaws,  of  which  the  bones  are  distinct,  being  united 
together,  and  to  the  cranium,  only  by  elastic  ligaments.  This  plan 
ensures  the  necessary  dilation  of  the  mouth,  for  the  prey  swallowed 
generally  exceeds  the  circumference  of  the  Snake ;  and  next,  allows 
the  opposite  side  of  each  jaw,  above  and  below,  the  power  of  inde- 
pendent motion  ;  the  upper  jaw  on  each  side  has  two  rows  of  sharp 
teeth  •  the  lower  jaw  has  one  row.  The  process  is  as  follows  :— 
The  Frog  being  seized,  the  Snake  advances  as  far  as  possible  the 
corresponding  branches  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  of  one  side, 
fixinr- the  teeth  into  the  skin  of  the  victim  ;  this  done,  and  a  secure 
holdlaken  it  advances  the  branches  of  the  opposite  side,  and  so  on 
■  alternately'tiU  the  whole  is  gradually  forced  into  the  gullet,  stretched 
almost  to  bursting.  The  poor  Frog  is  swallowed  alive,  and  has 
been  distinctly  heard  to  utter  its  peculiar  cry  of  distress  some 
minutes  after  having  been  swallowed  ;  this  piteous  cry  it  utters  when 
chased  by  the  Snake,  of  which  it  has  an  instinctive  terror ;  when 
fairly   seized,  however,  it  gives  itself  up  to  its  fate,  and  seldom 


attempts  to  struggle.  Mr.  Bell  relates  a  curious  circumstance  of 
two  Snakes  seizing  one  the  hind-leg,  the  other  the  fore-leg  of  the 
same  Frog,  and  continuing  their  inroads  upon  the  victim  till  their 
upper  jaws  met,  and  they  bit  each  other  in  turn.  After  one  or  two 
such  accidents,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Snakes  commenced  shaking 
the  other,  which  still  had  hold  of  the  Frog,  with  great  violence  from 
side  to  side.  In  a  short  time  the  other  returned  the  attack,  and  this 
was  repeated  till  the  one  which  had  the  slightest  hold  was  regularly 
shaken  off,  when  the  victor  swallowed  his  prey  in  quiet.  The  con- 
test being  over,  a  Frog  given  to  the  unsuccessful  combatant  was 
immediately  seized  and  swallowed.  In  taking  Birds,  Lizards,  &c., 
the  Snake  swallows  them  head  foremost.  After  gorging  its  food  it 
becomes  lethargic,  and  continues  in  a  state  of  inaction  till  the  whole 
is  digested,  when  it  seeks  a  fresh  supply. 

A  celebrated  naturalist,  M.  Schlegcl,  has  ventured  an  opinion  that 
Snakes  never  drink  :  this  is  far  from  being  correct.     Dr.  Cantor  ob- 
serves that  the  greater  number  of  Indian  serpents  are  partial  to  the 
water,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  Tree-snakes,  not  only  drink,  but 
moisten  the  tongue,  which,  as  this  organ  is  not 
situated  immediately  in  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
becomes  two  different  acts.     The  same  has  been 
observed  respecting  African  Serpents,  and  the 
same  applies  to  our  Common  Snake.     Not  only 
does    it  drink,  but    it  is  extremely    partial  to 
milk.     Mr.  Bell   states  that  a  tame  one  in  his 
possession  was  accustomed  to  come  to  his  hand 
every  morning  for  a  draught   of    milk,  which  it 
did  of  its  own  accord,  and  both  in  England  and 
on  the  Continent   it  is  accused  of  invading  the 
precincts   of  the  dairy  in    order  to   obtain  its 
favourite  beverage.     Latreille   says,  "  It  is  as- 
serted that  it   is  very  fond  of  milk,  and  that  it 
even  makes  its  way  into  dairies  for  the  purpose 
of  drinking  what  is  kept  there,  and  further,  that 
it  sucks  the  teats  of  cows  and  sheep."      The 
latter  part  of  the  story  is  decidedly  the  offspring 
of  ignorance,  but  we   believe  the  former  part. 
We  have  heard  it  frequently  affirmed  by  persons 
in  the   country,  that   Snakes   invade   dairies  for 
the  sake  of  the  milk,  and  that  they  have  them- 
selves witnessed  them  in  the  act  of  drinking  it. 
Latreille  states  that  this  species  sometimes  sur- 
prises young  Birds  ;  "  for  it  climbs  very  easily  ; 
sometimes  it  suspends  itself  from  the   branches 
of  trees,  twisting   its  tail   around  them  ;  some- 
times it  hooks  on  by  means  of  its  head  placed 
between  the  forks  of  a   twig."     We  have  seen, 
on  more  occasions  than  one,  the  Snake  entwined 
in  the  midst  of  the  close-locked  branches  of  an 
old  hedge,  but  we  do  not  believe  that  it   ever 
climbs  trees,  nor  does  its  long,   slender,    fine- 
drawn  tail  appear,    as  far  as    our  experience 
goes,   to  possess  that  grasping    power   so  re- 
markable in  the  short  tail  of  the  Boa  or  Python  ; 
neither  does   it   kill  its  prey  by  entwining  them 
in  its  coils.     When  irritated,  the  Snake  hisses, 
vibrates  its  "double  tongue,"  and  elevates  its 
head  ;  its  eyes   sparkle,  its  body  swells,  and  it 
emits   a  disgusting   odour.      It    is  however,  a 
timid  Animal,  and  is  disposed  rather  to  escape 
than  oppose  an  enemy.     That  it  can  be  tamed 
numerous  experiments  prove,  and  further,  that 
it   acquires  feelings  of  attachment    to   its  pro- 
tector.    This  was  the  case    with   one   in    Mr. 
Bell's  possession,  which  when  let  out  of  its  box, 
would  come  to  him  and  crawl  under  the  sleeve 
of  his  coat,  for  the  sake  of  the  warmth.     In  the 
Museum  of  the  Zoological  Society  is  the  pre- 
served skin  of  a  Snake  which  lived  eleven  years 
tame,  in  the  possession   of  a  Mr.  Christman,  to  whom   it  showed 
great  attachment.     "  It  is  brought  up,"  says  Latreille,  ''in  houses, 
and  appears  to  be  not  insensible  of  the  kind  attentions  of  those  who 
caress   it,  sipping  saliva  from  their  lips,  and  delighting  to  conceal 
itself  under  their  dress,  twining,  without  doing  any  mjuiy,  round  their 
arms  or  neck.     In  Sardinia,  the  young  women,  according  to  L,ace- 
pede,  tame  the  ringed  snake,  feed  it  themselves    putting  into  its 
mouth    the  food  they  have  prepared ;    and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  regard  these  snakes  as  animals  of  good  omen,   suifer  them 
freely  to  Inter  their  houses,  and  would  think  that  they  had  driven 
fortune  away  if  they  had  put  to  flight  these  innocent  little  creatures, 
f"  Hist.  Nat.  des  Reptiles.") 

Like  all  the  rest,  the  Ringed  Snake  sheds  its  cuticle,  assuming  a 
more  vivid  colouring.  The  frequency  of  this  change  depends  on  the 
state  of  health  and  feeding  of  the  Animal.  Mr.  Bell  states  that  he 
has  known  it  cast  its  slough  four  or  five  times  during  ^e  year  ;  it  is 
always  thrown  off  by  reversing  it,  the  rent  taking  place  at  the  neck 
before  this  change  the  Snake  is  inactive  and  blind,  the  cuticle  cover- 


THE  SNAKES. 


£35 


ing-  the  surface  of  the  eyes,  and  which  is  shed  with  the  rest,  be- 
cominjj  opaque  ;  the  whole  slough  is  perfect,  the  Animal  slipping 
out,  and  assisting  itself  by  creeping  through  thick  brushwood. 

The  Snake  passes  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  choosing  for  a 
place  of  hybernation  some  sheltered  retreat,  either  under  decayed 
masses  of  wood,  in  the  hollow  roots  of  an  aged  tree,  or  beneath  dense 
brushwood  and  dried  herbage  ;  here  numbers  often  collect,  coiling 
themselves  together  for  the  sake  of  preserving  a  duo  degree  of  tem- 
perature. 


Of  the  foreign  species,  we  may  refer  to  the  Tropidotioti  of  North 
America,  already  mentioned,  some  of  which  live  almost  entirely  in 
the  water  where  they  swim  with  great  rapidity  in  pursuit  of  Frogs 
and  Fishes.  None  of  them  appear  to  exceed  three  feet  in  length, 
and  they  are  all  of  a  gentle  disposition,  suffering  themselves  to  be 
handled  without  attempting  to  bite. 

The  Aquatic  species  of  this  genus,  Tropidonotus ,  frequently  rest 
upon  the  branches  of  trees  overhanging  the  water,  doubtless  looking 
out  for  prey.     The  Hcterodo7is,  which  also  inhabit  the  United  States 


Fig.  1609. — Snake  seizing  a  Frog. 


The  Ringed  Snake  seldom  e.xceeds  three  feet  in  length,  though  we 
have  seen  continental  specimens  approaching  four  feet. 

Several  other  species  belonging  to  this  family  are  found  in  the 
southern  countries  of  Europe,  The  largest  of  these  is  the  Coluber 
elaphis,  which  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  upwards  of  six  feet. 
It  is  found  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France  ;  and  Cuvier  states  that 
it  is  most  probably  the  Boa  of  Pliny.  Another  remarkable  species  is 
the  .iEsculapian  Snake  (C  cBscuIapii),  which  is  found  in  great  abund- 
ance in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome,  and  is  commonly  represented 
by  the  ancients  in  thtit  statues  of  .^sculapius. 


of  America,  have  the  snout  pointed,  and  slightly  turned  up  at  the 
apex,  and  possess  the  singular  power  of  dilating  tlie  back  of  the  head 
and  the  neck  when  disturbed  or  irritated.  Under  these  circumstances 
they  usually  coil  themselves  up,  raise  the  head  in  a  threatening  atti- 
tude, and  hiss  in  the  manner  of  Poisonous  Snakes  when  about  to 
strike ;  and  they  will  even  project  the  head  at  any  object  that  may 
be  extended  towards  them  ;  but  Dr.  Holbrook  states  that  he  never 
could  get  them  to  open  their  mouths,  or  bite,  by  any  amount  01  irrita- 
tion. The  older  writers,  however,  attributed  venomous  properties  to 
these  harmless  creatures. 


636 


THE  BOA   FAMILY. 


One  of  the  most  abundant  of  the  North  American  Snakes  is  the 
Black  Snake  {Coluber  constrictor),  which  is  often  six  feet  in  length, 
and  is  entirely  of  a  shining  black  colour.  It  is  an  exceedingly  active 
Animal,  climbing  trees  with  great  facility,  in  search  of  the  nests  ot 
Birds,  and,  according  to  Catesby,  pursuing  Rats  into  every  crevice 
of  the  houses. 

This  Snake  has  a  singular  habit,  which  often  produces  ludicrous 
results.  The  inhabitants  of  the  districts  in  which  Rattlesnakes 
abound,  usually  take  to  flight  the  moment  they  catch  sight  of  a  Ser- 
pent, without  waiting  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  really  one  of  these 
dreaded  Venomous  Reptiles.  The  Black  Snake,  in  such  cases, 
prompted  perhaps  by  a  spirit  of  fun,  immediately  starts  in  pursuit  of 
the  fugitive,  whom  it  generally  soon  overtakes,  and,  twining  round 
his  legs,  brings  him  to  the  ground,  but  without  doing  him  any  other 
injury.  The  Black  Snake  often  robs  Hen-roosts,  and  is  said  also  to 
be  in  the  habit  of  skimming  the  cream  off  the  milk  in  dames. 

The  Pythons,  Boas  &c.  Family  Boidce. 

The  second  family  of  the  fangless  Colubrine  Snakes  is  that  of  the 
Boidcs,  including  those  large  Serpents  of  Tropical  countries,  which, 
from  their  enormous  size  and  strength,  are  almost  as  much  to  be 
dreaded  as  the  venomous  species.  These  Snakes  are  distinguished 
from  the  true  Cohtbridce  by  the  presence  of  rudimentary  hind  limbs, 
consisting  of  a  few  small  bones  suspended  in  the  muscles  on  each 
side  of  the  vent,  and  terminated  by  a  sort  of  horny  claw,  which  is 
visible  externally.  The  head  in  these  Snakes  is  somewhat  trian- 
gular, and  slightly  exceeds  the  neck  in  thickness,  so  that'_the  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  regions  is  rather  more  preceptible  that  in 
the  Cobibridm.  The  mouth  is  very  wide,  extending  far  beyond  the 
eyes  ;  both  the  jaws  and  the  palatine  bones  are  armed  with  teeth  ; 
as  are  also  the  intermaxillaries  occasionally.  The  head  is  usually 
covered  with  shields,  sometimes  with  scales ;  the  throat_  is  scaly, 
and  the  belly  covered  with  transverse  plates.  The  tail  is  usually 
rather  short  and  prehensile;  its  lower  surface  is  covered  with  a 
double  series  of  shields. 

The  Snakes  belonging  to  this  family  are  frequently  of  gigantic 
size;  they  are  distributed  pretty  generally  over  the  Tropical  parts 
of  both  continents.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  of 
which  the  first,  the  Pythons,  including  the  largest  species  of  the 
family,  is  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  teeth  in  the  intermax- 
illary bones.  They  possess  a  strong  prehensile  tail,  with  two  rows 
of  plates  beneath,  and  the  labial  plates  are  deeply  pitted.  (See  Fig. 
1610.)  The  Pythons  are  entirely  confined  to  the  Old  World;  and 
the  largest  species,  forming  the  genus  Pyt/wn,  are  found  only  in 
India  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  These  Snakes 
certainly  attain  a  length  of  thirty  feet ;  and  an  instance  is  on  record 
of  one  of  them  measuring  upwards  of  sixty  feet  in  length,  having 
been  destroyed  in  the  act  of  coiling  itself  round  a  man  who  was 
lying  asleep  in  a  boat.  They  frequently  ascend  trees,  and  lie  upon 
the  branches  in  a  position  which  enables  them  readily  to  drop  upon 
any  unfortunate  animals  that  may  pass  their  station  ;  and  both 
these  and  the  Boas  are  said  often  to  cling  by  the  tail  to  some  tree 
growing  in  the  water,  when  they  float  upon  the  surface  at  full  length, 
lying  in  wait  for  animals  that  may  come  to  the  water  to  drink.  They 
prey  upon  animals  of  such  bulk  as  would  seem  to  render  their 
swallowing  them  a  matter  of  impossibility.  According  to  some 
writers,  they  can  destroy  and  gorge  a  Buffalo ;  but  specinens 
capable  of  such  feats  of  voracity  appear  to  be  rarely  met  with,  al- 
though there  is  no  doubt  that  a  good-sized  Python  will  make  away 
with  a  Goat  or  Calf.  The  victim  is  destroyed  by  powerful  compres- 
sion, effected  by  the  Snake  coiling  its  body  round  it,  and  then 
gradually  tightening  the  folds.  In  this  manner  the  body  of  the 
animal  is  reduced  to  a  state  fit  for  being  swallowed  ;  and  this  opera- 
tion, which  is  effected  in  the  way  already  described,  usually  takes  a 
considerable  time.  Could  we  believe  the  scattered  notices  of  ancient 
authors,  we  may  suppose  that,  in  earlier  periods,  when  the  human 
population  of  the  earth  was  less  numerous,  these  Snakes  attained 
still  greater  dimentions  than  at  the  present  day.  One  instance  of 
the  occurence  of  a  gigantic  Snake  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
must  be  familiar  to  most  of  our  readers  ;  we  allude  to  the  serpent 
which  is  said  to  have  thrown  the  army  of  Regulus  into  confusion, 
killing  and  devouring  several  of  his  soldiers,  and  destroying  others 
by  squeezing  them  in  its  folds.  The  historian  tells  us  that,  this 
formidable  Snake  was  only  destroyed  at  last  by  assailing  it  with  the 
military  engines  usually  employed  in  the  siege  of  fortified  places. 
This  Serpent  is  said  to  have  measured  upwards  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet ;  its  skin  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  it  was  suspended  in 
a  temple,  and  remained  for  many  years.  It  is,  however,  very 
doubtful  whether  implicit  faith  can  be  placed  in  this  account,  as  the 
ancients  generally  appear  to  have  had  very  exaggerated  ideas  of 
the  size  of  the  large  Serpents  of  Africa.  Lucan  is  not  content  with 
attributing  to  them  the  power  of  destroying  oxen,  but  also  subjects 
even  the  elephant  to  their  dominion  ! 

The  species  of  the  restricted  genus  Boa  are  all  natives  of  the 
Tropical  regions  of  America,  and  are  characterized  by  the  plates  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  tail  being  single. 


Among  the  principal  species  are  the  following :— The  ANACONDA, 
the  Aboma,  &c.  We  select  the  following  for  description  as  typical  of 
the  rest : —  .„  ^   ■  j     \ 

The  Emperor  Boa,  or  Boa  Constrictor  {Boa  constrictor.) 
Le  Devin,  Daudin  ;  Constrictor  formosissimus  ;  Constrictor  rex 
ser Pentium:  Constrictor  auspex ;  Constrictor  diviniloquus.  The 
latter  names  plainly  indicate  the  superstitious  feelings  with  which  it 
was  regarded  by  the  Mexicans.  In  the  Boa  Constrictor  the  head  is 
covered  to  the  end  of  the  muzzle  with  small  scales  like  those  of  the 
body  ;  there  are  no  pits  in  the  plates  along  the  jaws.  In  the  Anaconda 
the  head  has  scaly  plates  from  the  eyes  to  the  end  of  the  muzzle  ;  no 
pits  on  the  jaw-plates.  In  the  Aboma  there  are  scaly  plates  on  the 
muzzle,  and  pits  or  dimples  upon  the  plates  of  the  jaws. 

Endowed  with  powers  which  in  a  semi-civilized  state  of  society 
must  operate  powerfully  on  the  mind  ;  at  ease  and  freedom  alike  on 
the  land,  in  the  water,  or  among  the  trees  ;  at  once  wily,  daring,  and 
irresistible  in  their  attack,  graceful  in  their  movements,  and  splendid 
in  their  colouring,— that  such  creatures,  to  be  both  dreaded  and 
admired,  should  become  the  objects  of  superstitious  reverence,  is 
scarcely  to  be  wondered  at.  The  ancient  Mexicans  regarded  the 
Boa  as  sacred  ;  they  viewed  its  actions  with  religious  horror ;  they 
crouched  beneath  the  fiery  glance  of  its  eyes  ;  they  trembled  as  they 
listened  to  its  long-drawn  hiss,  and  from  various  signs  and  movements 
predicted  the  fate  of  tribes  or  individuals,  or  drew  conclusions  of 
guilt  of  innocence.  The  supreme  idol  was  represented  encircled  and 
guarded  by  sculptured  Serpents,  before  which  were  offered  human 
sacrifices. 

Often,  however,  the  divinity  was  represented  in  the  form  of  a  huge 
Serpent,  with  a  human  victim  in  his  coils,  or  half  ingulfed  in  his 
horrid  jaws  ;  and  the  priests  had  Tame  Boas  of  great  size,  with  v/hich 
they  were  familiar,  and  which  they  suflered  to  wreath  round  them, 
and  thereby  inspiring  the  people  with  wonder,  fear,  and  servile 
obedience. 

It  is  probably  of  the  Boa  Constrictor,  the  Emperor,  the  Devin,  that 
Hernandez  writes,  under  the  name  of  Temacuilcahuilia,  so  called 
from  its  powers,  the  word  meaning  a  fighter  with  five  men.  It  at- 
tacks, he  says,  those  it  meets,  and  overpowers  them  with  such 
force,  that  if  it  once  coils  itself  around  their  necks  it  strangles  and 
kills  them,  unless  it  bursts  itself  by  the  violence  of  its  own  efforts; 
and  he  states  that  the  only  way  of  avoiding  the  attack  is  for  the  Man 
to  manage  in  such  a  way  as  to  oppose  a  tree  to  the  Animal's  con- 
striction, so  that  while  the  Serpent  supposes  itself  to  be  crushing  the 
Man,  it  may  be  torn  asunder  by  its  own  act,  and  so  die.  We  do  not 
ask  our  readers  for  their  implicit  faith  in  this.  He  adds  that  he  has 
himself  seen  Serpents  as  thick  as  a  Man's  thigh,  which  have  been 
taken  young  by  the  Indians  and  tamed  ;  they  were  provided  with  a 
cask  strewn  with  litter  in  the  place  of  a  cavern,  where  they  lived,  and 
were  for  the  most  part  quiescent  except  at  meal-times,  when  they 
came  forth,  and  amicably  climbed  about  the  couch  or  shoulders  of 
their  master,  who  placidly  bore  the  Serpent's  embrace.  They  often 
coiled  up  in  folds,  equalling  a  large  cart-wheel  in  size,  and  harm- 
lessly received  their  food.  In  most  accounts  current  respecting  the 
mode  in  which  Boas  and  Pythons  take  their  food,  the  Snake,  after 
crushing  its  prey,  is  described  as  licking  the  body  with  its  tongue 
and  lubricating  it  with  saliva,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  act  of  deglu- 
tition. It  has  been  observed  with  justice,  that  few  worse  instruments 
for  such  a  purpose  than  the  slender  dark  forked  tongue  of  these 
Snakes  could  have  been  contrived  ;  and  that,  in  fact,  the  saliva 
does  not  begin  to  be  poured  out  abundantly  till  required  to  lubri- 
cate the  jaws  and  throat  of  the  Animal  straining  to  ingulf  the 
carcass.  We  have  seen  these  Snakes  take  their  food,  but  they 
did  not  lubricate  it,  though  the  vibratory  tongue  often  touched 
it ;  we  must  therefore,  withhold  our  credence  from  the  common 
assertion. 

The  size  attained  by  the  Boa,  is  often  very  great,  and  larger  indi- 
viduals than  any  now  seen  occurred  formerly,  before  their  ancient 
haunts  had  been  invaded  by  human  colonisation.  One  killed  in 
Surinam  by  Captain  Steadman,  though  asserted  by  the  natives  to  be 
young,  measured  upwards  of  twenty-two  feet  in  length,  and  yielded 
four  gallons  of  fine  oil,  exclusive  of  as  much  or  more  wasted. 

A  specimen  apparently  of  the  Boa  scytale,  or  Anaconda,  called  in 
Venezuela  "  La  Culebra  de  Agua,"  or  Water-Serpent,  and  also  "  El 
Traga  Venado,"  or  Deer-swallower,  which  measures  nineteen  feet  and 
a-half  in  length,  was  presented  by  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  to  the 
United  Service  Museum.  He  states  that  "  The  flesh  of  this  serpent 
is  white  and  abundant  in  fat.  The  people  of  the  plains  never  eat  it, 
but  make  use  of  the  fat  as  a  remedy  for  rheumatic  pains,  ruptures, 
strains,  &c." 

"  This  serpent,"  says  R.  K.  Porter,  "  is  not  venomous  nor  known 
to  injure  man  (at  least,  not  in  this  part  of  the  New  World)  ;  however, 
the  natives  stand  in  great  fear  of  it,  never  bathing  in  waters  where  it 
is  known  to  exist.  Its  common  haunt,  or  rather  domicile,  is  invari- 
ably near  lakes,  swamps,  and  rivers  ;  likewise  close  wet  ravines  pro- 
duced by  inundations  of  the  periodical  rains  ;  hence,  from  its  aquatic 
habits,  its  first  appellation.  Fish,  and  those  animals  which  repaii 
there  to  drink,  are  the  objects  of  its  prey.  The  creature  lurk.':  watch- 
fully under  cover  of  the  water,  and,  whilst  the  unsuspecting  animal  i."! 


THE  PYTHONS. 


back  l"e?'linin'^'H"'-\T-''''"  ^  ^^^^  ^'  *^^  "O^^'  ^"d  ^'ith  a  s^rip  of  its 

beast  bevonS'^hp"''-'  "T  °^  ''"'.•?  ""^"  ^^"^  '°  ^«"«  'he  terrified 
Deast  Dejond  the  power  of  escape.  ' 

den' floods   an?l'^'  "''''  ^°^'  ^'"^  ^P'  *°  ^'^  ^^--"^d  °""o  sea  by  sud- 

Rev  Lansdnw^  are  sometimes  drifted  alive  on  distant  coasts.     The 

Rev.  Lansdown  Guildmg   writing  in  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent)  savs 

a  noble  specimen  of  the  boa  constrictor  was  lately  conveyed  to ^us 


,J  h  1,  ^■""'1'  '■"'■^'^'^  '■""''"'  *'^e  trunk  of  a  larec  sound  cedar  free 
which  had  probably  been  washed  out  of  the  bank,  by  the  (loods  of 
some  great  South  American  river,  while  its  huge  folds  hung  on  the 
branches  as  it  waited  for  its  prey.  The  monster  was  fortunate  y 
destroyed  after  killing  a  few  sheep,  and  his  skeleton  now  hanc^s  be^ 
W^  T  '^"  ™y/t"dy,  putting  me  in  mind  how  much  reason  I'^might 
have  had  to  fear  in  my  future  rambles  through  St.  Vincent    had 


638 


THE  BOAS. 


this  formidable  reptile  been  a  pregnant  female  and  escaped  to  a  safe 

rf^trG3.t 

Diod'orus  Siculus  relates  the  account  of  the  capture  of  a  Serpent, 
not  without  loss  of  life,  in  Egypt,  which  measured  thirty  cubits  long  ; 
it  was  taken  to  Alexandria.  Suetonius  speaks  of  a  Serpent  exhibited 
at  Rome  in  front  of  the  Comitum,  fifty  cubits  in  length. 

Though  we  do  not  refuse  credit  to  these  narratives,  it  must  be 
added,  that  in  modem  days  we  have  not  seen  Serpents  of  such  mag- 
nitude ;  yet  they  may  exist.  Bonitus  observes  that  some  of  the  Indian 
Pythons  exceed  thirty-six  feet  in  length,  and  says  that  they  swallow 
wild  Boars,  adding,  "  there  are  those  alive  who  partook,  with  General 
Peter  Both,  of  a  recently  swallowed  hog  cut  out  of  the  belly  of  a 
serpent  of  this  kind."  These  Snakes,  he  obser\'es,  are  not  poisonous, 
but  strangle  a  Man  or  other  Animal  by  powerful  compression.  (See 
Fig.  1612.)  The  Ular-Sawa,  or  Great  Python  of  the  Sunda_  Isles,  is 
said  to  exceed,  when  full-grown,  thirty  feet  in  length  ;  and  it  is  nar- 
rated that  a  "  Malsy  prow  being  anchored  for  the  night  under  the 


y-  "^ 


Fig.  161 1. — The  Anaconda, 

Island  of  Celebes,  one  of  the  crew  went  ashore,  in  search  of  betel 
nut,  and,  as  was  supposed,  fell  asleep  on  the  beach,  on  his  return.  In 
the  dead  of  the  night  his  companions  on  board  were  roused  by  dreadful 
screams  ;  they  immediately  went  ashore,  but  they  came  too  late,  the 
cries  had  ceased — the  man  had  breathed  his  last  in  the  folds  of  an 
enormous  Serpent,  which  they  killed.  They  cut  off  the  head  of  the 
Snake  and  carried  it,  together  with  the  lifeless  body  of  their  comrade, 
to  the  vessel ;  the  right  wrist  of  the  corpse  bore  the  marks  of  the 
Serpent's  teeth,  and  the  disfigured  body  showed  that  the  man  had 
been  crushed  by  the  constriction  of  the  reptile  round  the  head,  neck, 
breast,  and  thigh." 

Mr.  McLeod,  in  his  "  Voyage  of  H. M.S.  Akesie,"  after  describing 
the  mode  in  which  a  Python  on  board,  sixteen  feet  in  length,  crushed 
and  gorged  a  Goat,  the  distressing  cries  of  which,  on  being  intro- 
duced into  the  Serpent's  cage,  could  not  but  excite  compassion,  goes 
on  to  say,  that  during  a  captivity  of  some  months  at  Whidah,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Dahomey,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  he  had  opportunities  of 
observing  Pythons  of  more  than  double  that  size,  and  which  were 
capable  of  swallowing  Animals  much  larger  than  Goats  or  Sheep. 
"  Governor  Abson,"  he  adds,  "who  had,  for  thirty-seven  years,  re- 
sided at  Fort  William  (one  of  the  African  Company's  settlements 
there),  describes  some  desperate  struggles  which  he  has  seen,  or 
which  had  come  to  his  knowledge,  between  the  snakes  and  wild 
beasts,  as  well  as  the  smaller  cattle,  in  which  the  former  were  alwaj's 
victorious.  A  negro-herdsman  belonging  to  Mr.  Abson  (and  who 
afterwards  limped  for  many  years  about  the  fort)  had  been  seized  by 
one  of  these  monsters  by  the  thigh  ;  but  from  his  situation  in  a  wood, 


the  serpent,  in  attempting  to  throw  himself  round  him,  got  entangled 
with  a  tree  ;  and  the  man  being  thus  preserved  from  a  state  of  com- 
pression, which  would  instantly  have  rendered  him  quite  powerless, 
had  presence  of  mind  enough  to  cut,  with  a  large  knife  which  he 
carried  about  with  him,  deep  gashes  in  the  neck  and  throat  of  his 
antagonist,  thereby  killing  him,  and  disengaging  himself  from  his 
frightful  situation.  He  never  afterwards,  however,  recovered  the  use 
of  that  limb,  which  had  sustained  considerable  injury  from  the  fangs 
and  mere  force  of  his  jaws." 


Fig.  1612. — The  Boa  Constrictor. 

Ludolph  states  that  enormous  Snakes  exist  in  Ethiopia  ;  and 
Bosman  informs  us  that  entire  men  have  been  found  in  the  gullet  of 
Serpents  on  the  Gold  Coast.  In  the  "Oriental  Annual"  is  the 
following  narrative,  explanatory  of  a  well-known  picture  by  Mr.  W. 
Daniell: — "A  few  years  before  our  visit  to  Calcutta,"  says  the 
writer,  "  the  captain  of  a  country  ship,  while  passing  the  Sunder- 
bunds,  sent  a  boat  into  one  of  the  creeks  to  obtain  some  fresh  fruits, 
which  are  cultivated  by  the  few  miserable  inhabitants  of  this  inhos- 
pitable region.  Having  reached  the  shore,  the  crew  moored  the 
boat  under  a  bank,  and  left  one  of  their  party  to  take  care  of  her. 
During  their  absence,  the  lascar  who  remained  in  charge  of  the  boat, 
overcome  by  heat,  lay  down  under  the  seats  and  fell  asleep.  Whilst 
he  was  in  this  happy  state  of  unsciousness,  an  enormous  boa  (python) 
emerged  from  the  jungle,  reached  the  boat,  had  already  coiled  its 
huge  body  round  the  sleeper,  and  was  in  the  very  act  of  crushing 
him  to  death,  when  his  companions  fortunately  returned  at  this 
auspicious  moment,  and  attacking  the  monster,  severed  a  portion  of 
its  tail,  which  so  disabled  it,  that  it  no  longer  retained  the  power  of 
doing  mischief.  The  snake  was  then  easily  despatched,  and  was 
found  to  measure,  as  stated,  sixty-two  feet  and  some  inches  in 
length."  It  is  hardly  probable  that  the  Snake  had  fairly  entwined 
round  the  man,  for  the  sudden  compression  of  the  chest,  had  the 
Snake  exerted  its  strength,  would  have  been  almost  instantly  fatal. 

We  need  not  enter  into  the  painful  and  revolting  details  of  the 
mode  in  which  the  Goat  was  crushed  and  gorged  on  board  the 
Alceste,  the  account  of  which  is  given  by  Mr.  McLeod,  and  has  been 
often  transcribed  ;  sufBce  it  to  say,  that  with  astonishing  velocity, 
hke  a  flash  which  dazzles  and  is  gone,  the  Goat  was  rigidly  encircled 
in  the  monster's  knotted  folds,  and  afterwards  gradually  swallowed  ; 
the  appearance  of  the  Snake,  with  the  throat  swelled  out  as  if  about 
to  burst,  and  the  jaws  dripping  with  saliva,  being  hideous  and  dis- 
gusting. 

In  March,  1841,  a  singular  circumstance  occurred  at  the  gardens 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  which  at  the  same  time  caused  no  little 
surprise.  A  Python  eleven  or  twelve  feet  long,  and  one  about  nine 
feet  long,  were  kept  together  in  a  well-secured  cage  ;  both  had  been 


THE  LIZARDS. 


639 


fed  one  eveninsr,  the  larger  one  with  three  Guinea-pigs  and  a  Rabbit ; 
but,  as  it  would  appear,  his  appetite  was  unsatiated.  The  next 
morning,  when  the  keeper  came  to  look  into  the  cage,  the  smaller 
Python  was  missing— its  escape  was  impossible — and  the  question 
was,  what  had  become  of  it?  The  truth  was  evident— its  larger 
companion  had  swallowed  it.  There  it  lay  torpid,  and  bloated  to 
double  its  ordinary  dimensions.  How  it  accomplished  the  act  is  not 
known,  but  we  may  imagine  a  fearful  struggle  to  have  taken  place, 
as  wreathing  round  each  other  they  battled  for  the  mastery ; 
unless,  indeed,  the  victim  was  torpid,  and  incapable  of  resistance. 

A  third  group  is  formed  by  the  genus  Eryx,  and  one  or  two  allied 
genera,  in  which  the  head  is  rounded  and  not  distinctly  separated 
from  the  neck ;  the  intermaxillary  teeth  are  wanting,  and  the  tail  is 
short,  obtuse,  and  not  prehensile.  These  Snakes,  which  are  compara- 
tively of  small  size,  are  found  principally  in  India  and  some  of  the  east- 
ern islands.     One  or  two  species  inhabit  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Egypt. 

The  Bengal  Eryx  {Eryx  bengalensis).—T\iz  genus  Eryx  was 
first  separated  from  Boa  by  Daudin  ;  it  differs  m  havmg  a  very  short 
obtuse  tail,  and  in  wanting  the  hooks  at  the  base  ;  the  ventral  scuta 
are  narrow  ;  the  head  is  short,  and  scarcely  exceeds  the  neck,  and  is 
covered  above  with  small  scales.  Of  the  habits  of  this  species  little 
is  known.  Fig.  1613  includes  a  delineation  of  the  abdominal  and 
subcaudal  plates. 


Fig.  1613. — The  Beng.il  Eryx. 

The  OJj/i/'Jia  are  concluded  by  the  Torlriciihc,  a  small  family  of 
Serpents,  which  are  often  included  amongst  the  Boida,  as,  like  them, 
they  are  furnished  with  spurs  at  the  sides  of  the  vent.  They  differ 
from  these,  however,  in  the  small  size  of  the  mouth,  which  only  ex- 
tends backwards  as  far  as  the  eyes;  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw, 
also,  are  firmly  attached  to  the  head,  and  the  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw,  although  quite  separate,  are  less  extensible  than  in  the  other 
Snakes,  These  are  small  Snakes,  which  live  upon  the  ground  in  the 
Tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  They  are  slow  in  their  move- 
ments, and  prey  upon  Insects  and  other  small  Animals.  The  Tor- 
tricidcB,  in  the  structure  of  the  head  and  mouth,  appear  to  lead 
towards  the  next  order,  with  the  Serpentiform  species  of  which  they 
were  formerly  confounded. 

In  concluding  our  remarks  on  the  Reptiles,  or  Ophidia,  we  quote 
the  following  observations  from  the  last  edition  of  tlie  "  Guide  to  the 
Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  London."  Referring  to  the  Reptile 
House,  the  following  remarks  are  made  : — 

"  This  important  addition  to  the  Vivarium  was  effected  in  the 
spring  of  1849,  up  to  which  period  no  attempt  had  been  made  in  this 
country  to  exhibit  the  class  of  Reptiles  under  conditions  which  might 
make  it  possible  to  understand  anything  of  their  habits. 

"  The  success  which  attended  the  experiment  was,  in  every  respect, 
gratifying,  and  excited  considerable  attention  among  the  correspon- 
dents of  the  Society  abroad,  and  very  instructive  collections  were 
forwarded  alrrtost  immediately  from  various  parts  of  the  world. 

"The  characteristic  constricting  organisation  of  the  Boas  is  so 
uniform,  that  the  name  of  Boa  co7istrictor  has  been  popularly 
applied  to  all  of  them,  and  particularly  by  the  English  in  India  to 
the  Python,  or  Rock  Snake.  The  visitor  will  have  an  opportunity  of 
observing  how  much  more  delicate  is  the  species  to  which  Linna;us 
applied  that  name — the  beautifully  coloured  inhabitant  of  the  Tropics 
of  the  New  World,  to  which  the  True  Boas  are  confined — than  the 
Pythons  of  Africa  and  India.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  True 
Boa  is  also  the  most  thoroughly  arboreal  of  the  group,  and  preserves 
its  natural  habits  very  constantly,  even  in  confinement. 


The  West  African  Python  {Python  sebcB).—1nY.  Royal  Py- 
thon {P.  regius).—  l\\v.  Anaconda  {Euncctes  muriniis).—1\\v. 
Boa  Constrictor  {Boa  constrictor).— 'Xwe.  Yellow  Boa  {Chilo- 
botkrus  inor}!at!is).—'X\\v.  Diamond  Snake  {Morclia  spilotcs). 

"  The  Boas,  Pythons,  and  their  allies,  constitute  one  of  the  three 
principal  groups  into  which  the  order  of  Serpents  may  be  best 
divided,  the  others  being  the  Vencmous  Snakes,  or  the  Colubrine,  or 
Harmless  Snakes.  The  organisation  of  the  Boas  is  directed  to  the 
slaughter  of  their  prey  by  compression  ;  and  to  this  end  are  given  to 
them  the  enormous  dimensions  and  power  of  muscle  which,  even  in 
these  comparatively  undeveloped  specimens,  excite  our  admiration. 
"  When  a  Boa  dashes  at  his  prey,  he  generally  preserves  his 
hold  of  the  tree  by  a  coil  or  two  towards  the  tail.  He  seizes  with 
wide-spread  jaws,  and  from  that  point  of  attachment  throws,  with 
the  rapidity  of  thought,  the  folds  of  his  vast  body  round  and  round 
his  victim.  Tightening  as  they  fall,  and  crushing  rib  and  limb 
within  their  embrace,  these  folds  relax  not  until  life  is  pressed  out ; 
and  then  slowly  and  carefully  withdrawing  from  the  motionless 
carcass,  the  Serpent  pauses  for  a  few  moments,  either  to  recover 
from  the  writhings  of  his  struggle,  or  to  assure  himself  that  death  is 
real.  Soon,  however,  he  begins  to  touch  the  carcass  gently  with 
his  muzzle,  not,  as  popular  belief  will  have  it,  to  lubricate  in  pre- 
paration for  the  gorge,  but  to  find  the  head,  at  which  he  likes  best 
to  begin.  This  preUminary  settled,  the  jaws  again  and  again  dilate 
until  the  rami  separate,  and  the  skin  is  strained  so  tight  that  every 
scale  is  isolated.  Then  grasp  following  upon  grasp,  like  wave  after 
wave,  gradually  and  irresistibly  engulfs  the  body,  which,  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  folds,  has  been  compressed  and  attenuated  into 
the  most  convenient  possible  form  for  this  final  operation.  Death 
inflicted  by  such  overwhelming  action  is  almost  instantaneous,  in 
small  animals  especially,  and  far  less  cruel  than  any  method  which 
can  be  practised  by  the  hand  of  man. 

Among  the  Snakes  the  following  may  be  seen  in, the  Gardens  of 
the  Society.  '^^ 

"The  Snake-eater  {Ophinphagiis  b)ingarus).—1nv.  Ameri- 
can Rattlesnake  {Crotalus  durzssiis). — The  Indian  Cobra 
{■^^aja  tripiidians). — The  African  Cobra  {Naja  liaje). — The 
Water  Viper  {Ccttchn's  Jn'sctvonts). 

"  The  Venomous  Snakes  next  claim  our  attention.  The  power  of 
defence  and  of  securing  prey,  which  in  the  Pythons  is  overwhelming 
force,  has  for  its  equivalent  in  this  group  a  far  more  certain  and 
effective  organisation.  Of  colours  which  assimilate  so  closely  with 
foliage,  herbage,  sand,  or  stones,  that  in  their  peculiar  haunts  none 
but  the  most  acute  and  practised  eye  can  discover  them,  the  Ven- 
omous Serpents  are  alike  fearless  of  attack,  and,  unless  disturbed, 
equally  unwilling  to  exert  their  deadly  power.  Amongst  the  spe- 
cimens of  Venomous  Serpents  in  the  collection,  the  largest  and  most 
remarkable  is  the  OpJiiophagus  or  Snake-eater  of  British  India, 
of  w-hich  formidable  species  an  example  was  first  procured  in  1875. 
He  feeds  only  upon  other  snakes,  and  has  devoured  an  enormous 
number  of  his  smaller  brethren. 

"The  Mocassin-Snake  {Trof>tdonoiusfasciatu^).—1\\v.  Gar- 
ter-Snake {T.  ordinattis). — The  Viperine-Snake  {T.viperinus). 
"The  Colubrine  Snakes  are  harmless  and  indeed  most  useful 
animals.  The  quantity  of  rats  and  mice  and  other  injurious  small 
animals  destroyed  by  them  is  enormous.  The  Chickcn-Snake  in 
North  America  and  Rat-Snake  in  Bengal  are  both  much  esteemed 
and  protected  on  account  of  these  qualities. 

Order  II. — The  Lizards,  &c.,  or  Sauria. 

This  order  is  of  especial  interest.  It  embraces  numerous  extinct 
forms  of  Animals  whose  fossils,  especially  in  the  Lias  formation,  arc 
as  connecting  links  in  Geology.  We  here  refer  to  the  Plcsio- 
sauridcB,  t\ii Icthyosazcridcc,  &c.,  descriptions  ofwhichwill  begiven. 

General  Characters. — As  a  general  rule,  the  Animals  of  this 
order  are  furnished  with  four  well-developed  legs,  and  may  come 
under  the  popular  denomination  of  Lizards,  but  in  a  considerable 
number  these  organs  are  wanting,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  even 
doubtful  whether  these  footless  species  should  be  referred  to  this  or 
the  preceding  group.  The  only  characters  to  which  we  can  appeal 
in  these  cases,  are  those  furnished  by  the  structure  of  the  head  and 
jaw.  In  the  Sauria,  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  face  are  firmly 
attached  to  the  skull,  so  that  they  are  quite  incapable  of  any  inde- 
pendent motion  ;  and  the  mastoid  and  tympanic  bones,  which  give 
support  to  the  lower  jaw,  and  which  in  the  Serpents  are  movably 
articulated  to  the  skull,  and  thus  enable  the  mouth  to  be  dilated  to  a 
vast  extent,  are  here  united  with  the  other  bones  of  the  head,  so  that 
the  lower  jaw,  instead  of  a  loose  triple  articulation,  moves  only  from 
a  single  point.  The  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are  firmly  united  in 
front  by  a  suture,  so  that  the  lateral  dilatation,  so  remarkable  in  the 
Snakes,  is  rendered  impossible. 

Both  jaws  are  always  armed  with  teeth  ;  but  these  organs  are 
generally  confined  to  the  bones  of  the  jaws,  and  rarely  occur  upon  the 
palate.  Like  those  of  the  Snakes,  the  teeth  of  the  Saurian  Reptfies 
are  usually  acutely  conical  and  slightly  hooked  ;  but  in  some  cases 
they  are  compressed,  and  occasionally  dentated  on  the  edges.     The 


640 


THE  LIZARDS. 


teeth  are  never  inserted  into  separate  sockets,  but  simply  attached  to 
the  surface  of  the  jaw.  In  some  forms,  however,  the  jaw  is  furnished 
with  a  furrow  for  the  reception  of  the  base  of  the  teeth,  and  is 
bounded  externally  by  a  ridge  ;  each  tooth  not  only  stands  upon  a 
slightly  bony  eminence,  but  is  also  attached,  by  the  external  portion 
of  its  base,  to  the  inside  of  the  ridge  of  the  jaw. 

The  tongue  exhibits  two  very  distinct  forms  in  these  Reptiles.  In 
several  the  organ  resembles  that  of  the  Ophidia,  being  long,  slender, 
horny,  bifid,  and  inclosed  in  a  sheath,  from  which  it  can  be  pro- 
truded at  pleasure,  the  front  of  the  mouth  being  furnished  with  a 
notch  for  the  passage  of  the  tongue  when  the  jaws  are  closed  ; 
whilst  in  others,  this  organ  is  thick  and  fleshy,  attached  to  the  back 
of  the  mouth,  destitute  of  a  sheath,  and  only  protrusible  when  the 
mouth  is  opened.  This  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  tongue  has 
given  rise  to  a  division  of  the  order  into  two  great  groups,  the  Fissi- 
iinguia,  or  Leptoglossa,  which  exhibit  the  first  modification,  and  the 
Brevilinguia,  or  Pachyglossa,  in  which  the  second  form  prevails. 

The  eyes  in  the  Lizards  are  almost  always  furnished  with  distinct 
eyelids,  and  the  ear  is  generally  visible  externally.  The  structure  of 
the  skin  and  scales  is  usually  the  same  as  in  the  Snakes,  and  the 
the  head  is  generally  covered  with  shield-like  plates. 

The  development  of  the  extremities  is  very  variable  in  this  order, 
some  species  being  as  completely  destitute  of  external  limbs  as  any 
of  the  Snakes;  whilst  in  others  the  members  are  well  developed. 
They  are  generally  four  in  number,  and  when  present  are  always 
terminated  by  distinct  toes,  furnished  with  claws.  An  essential 
character,  by  which  the  Saurian  skeleton  is  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  Ophidian  Reptiles,  consists  in  the  presence  of  a  sternum,  to 
which  some  of  the  ribs  are  always  attached  ;  this  bone  increases  in 
size  in  proportion  to  the  development  of  the  legs. 

Professor  Owen,  whose  researches  in  respect  to  Saurian  Fossils, 
has  added  so  much  to  our  knowledge  of  extinct  species  of  Lizards,  &c., 
makes  the  following  remarks  :— 

Osteology  of  Lizards.— The  transition  from  the  Ophidian,  or 
Snake-like,  to  the  Lacertian,  or  Lizard-like  Reptiles,  is  very  gradual 
and  easy,  if  we  pass  from  the  Serpents  with  fixed  jaws  and  a 
scapular  arch — as,  e.g.,  the  Slow-worms  {augiiis) — to  the  serpenti- 
form  Lizards  with  mere  rudiments  of  limbs — as,  e.g.,  the  pseudopus. 
The  distinction  is  effected  through  the  establishment  of  a  costal 
arch  in  the  trunk,  completed  by  the  addition  of  a  haemal  spine 
(sternum)  and  haemapophyses  (sternal  ribs)  to  the  pleurapophyses  or 
vertebral  ribs,  which  are  alone  ossified  in  Ophidia. 

The  vertebrje  of  the  trunk  have  the  same  proccelian  character — i.e., 
with  the  cup  anterior,  and  the  ball  behind  ;  the  latter  being  usually 
less  prominent,  more  oblique,  and  more  transversely  oval  than  in 
Serpents.  The  vertebrae  also  are  commonly  larger,  and  always  fewer 
in  number  than  in  the  Typical  Ophidia.  The  ribs  do  not  begin  to  be 
developed  so  near  the  head  in  Lizards.  Not  only  the  atlas  and  den- 
tata,  but  sometimes,  as  in  the  Monitor  ( Varanus),  the  four  following 
vertebrae  are  devoid  of  pleurapophses  ;  and  when  these  first  appear 
they  are  short,  and  sometimes  (as  in  Cyclodus)  expanded  at  their 
extremities.  They  rapidly  elongate  in  succeeding  vertebrae,  and 
usually  at  the  ninth  from  the  head  {Cyclodus,  iguana),  or  tenth 
(Far««z«),  they  are  joined  through  the  medium  of  ossified  hjema- 
pophyses  to  the  sternum  ;  two  (  Varamts),  three  {Ckavwieo,  iguana), 
or  four  {Cyclodus),  following  vertebras  are  similarly  completed  ;  and 
then  the  haemapophyses  are  either  united  below  without  intervening 
sternum  {Chameleo),  or  two  or  three  of  them  are  joined  by  a  common 
cartilage  to  the  cartilaginous  end  of  the  sternum.  The  hsmapophyses 
afterwards  project  freely,  and  are  reduced  to  short  appendages  to  the 
pleurapophyses.  These  also  shorten,  and  sometimes  suddenly,  as 
e.g.,  after  the  eighteenth  -vertebra,  in  the  Monitors  (  Varanus),  in 
which  they  end  at  the  twenty-eighth  vertebra,  as  they  began,  viz.,  in 
the  form  of  short  straight  appendages  to  the  diapophyses. 

The  Flying  Lizard  {Draco  volans)  is  so  called  on  account  of  the 
wing-like  expansions  from  the  sides  of  its  body,  supported,  like  the 
hood  of  the  Cobra,  by  slender  elongated  ribs.  In  this  little  Lizard 
there  are  twenty  vertebra  supporting  movable  ribs,  which  commence 
apparently  at  the  fifth.  Those  of  the  eighth  vertebra  first  join  the 
sternum,  as  do  those  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  ;  the  pleurapophyses  of 
the  eleventh  vertabra  suddenly  acquire  extreme  length  ;  those  of  the 
five  following  vertebrae  are  also  long  and  slender  ;  they  extend  out- 
wards and  backwards,  and  support  the  parachute  formed  by  the 
broad  lateral  fold  of  the  abdominal  integuments.  The  pleura- 
pophyses of  the  seventeenth  vertebra  become  suddenly  shorter,  and 
these  elements  progressively  diminish  to  the  sacrum  ;  this  consists 
of  two  vertebrae,  modified  as  in  other  Lizards.  There  are  about 
fifty  caudal  vertebrae. 

The  semi-ossified  sternum  in  the  Iguana  has  a  median  groove  and 
fissure,  and  readily  separates  into  two  lateral  moieties.  The  long 
stem  of  the  epistemum  covers  the  outer  part  of  the  groove,  where  it 
represents  the  keel  of  the  sternum  in  Birds. 

In  the  skull  of  the  Lizard  order  we  first  meet  with  a  second  bony 
bar,  diverging  from  the  maxillary  arch  backwards,  and  abutting 
against  the  mastoid,  and  sometimes  also  against  the  tympanic  and 
post-frontal.  This  bar  is  called  the  "  zygomatic  arch;"  it  usually 
consists  of  two  bones — the  one  next  the  ma.xillary  is  the  ''malar," 


26  ;  the  one  next  the  mastoid  is  the  "  squamosal,"  27  ;  it  assumes  a 
form  meriting  that  name  in  the  Tortoise,  and  first  received  it,  as 
"pars  squamosa,"  in  man,  where  it  is  not  only  like  a  great  scale, 
but  becomes  confluent  with  both  the  mastoid  and  tympanic.  But,  as 
has  been  before  remarked,  we  must  use  the  terms  invented  by  an- 
thropotomists  as  arbitrary  signs  of  the  corresponding  bones  in 
the  lower  creation. 

The  scapula  in  the  Monitor  ( Varanus)  is  a  triangular  plate  with  a 
convex  base,  a  concave  hind  border,  and  a  nearly  straight  front 
border;  the  apex  is  thick  and  truncate,  with  an  oval  surface  divided 
into  two  facets.  The  hind  border  forms  a  part  of  the  glenoid  cavity ; 
the  front  one  is  a  rough  epiphysial  surface  continuous,  with  a  similar 
but  narrower  tract,  extending  upon  the  anterior  border,  and  by  which 
the  scapula  articulates  with  the  coracoid.  In  the  Iguanians  and 
Scincoids,  this  synchondrosis  is  obliterated,  and  the  two  bones  are 
confluent.  The  hind  border  of  the  scapula  is  nearly  straight— the 
front  one  sends  forwards  a  process  dividing  it  into  two  deep  margina- 
tions. 

The  coracoid,  in  both  the  Varanus  and  Iguana,  is  short  and 
broad  ;  its  main  body,  which  articulates  with  the  sternum,  is  shaped 
like  an  axe-blade,  and  two  strong,  straight,  compressed  processes,  ex- 
tend forwards  from  its  neck,  which  is  perforated  between  the  origins 
of  these  processes  and  the  part  forming  the  glenoid  articulations. 

The  clavicles  are  simple  sigmoid  styles  in  the  Varanus  and  Iguana  ; 
are  bent  upon  themselves,  like  the  Australian  boomerang,  in  the 
Cyclodus  ;  and  having  the  median  part  of  the  bend  expanded  and 
perforated  in  the  Lacerta  and  Scincus.  They  are  absent  in  the 
Chameleon. 

The  sacral  vertebrae  retain,  in  some  Lacertians,  the  cup-and-ball 
joints;  and  in  these — e.g.,  the  Scincoids — in  which  the  centrums 
coalesce,  the  hind  end  of  the  second  presents  a  ball  to  the  first  cau- 
dal—not a  cup,  as  in  the  Crocodile.  In  the  Cyclodus,  the  thick, 
short,  straight,  pleurapophyses  are  distinct  at  their  origins  from  the 
two  coalesced  centrums,  but  coalesce  at  their  ends,  that  of  the  first 
sacral  being  the  thickest.  In  Varanus  and  Iguana  the  pleurapophy- 
ses, as  well  as  the  centrums,  retain  their  distinctness,  but  the  hinder 
ribs  incline  forwards  and  touch  the  expanded  ends  of  the  fore  pair. 
These  ends  are  very  thick,  and  are  scooped  out  obliquely  behind,  so 
as  to  present  a  curved  border  to  the  ilium,  which  Cuvier  compares  to 
a  Horse-shoe. 

In  the  Varanus  and  Iguana  the  pleuropophyses  of  the  first  caudal 
incline  backwards  as  much  as  those  of  the  second  sacral  do  forwards. 
In  the  Cyclodus  they  extend  outwards,  parallel  with  those  of  the 
sacral  vertebras,  and  are  longitudinally  grooved  beneath.  Haema- 
pophyses are  wanting  in  the  first  caudal,  are  developed  in  the  second 
and  are  displaced  as  far  as  the  interval  between  this  and  the  third ; 
they  are  confluent  at  their  distal  end,  and  produced  into  a  long  spine. 
At  the  twelfth  tail-vertebra  the  line  is  obvious  that  indicates  the 
extent  of  the  anterior  detached  piece,  or  epiphysis,  of  the  centrum, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  origin  of  the  diapophyses ;  it  continues 
marking  off  the  anterior  third  of  the  centrum  in  all  the  other  caudals. 
At  this  line  the  tail  snaps  off,  when  a  Lizard  escapes  by  the  common 
ruse  of  leaving  the  part  of  the  tail  by  which  it  has  been  seized  in  the 
hands  of  the  baffled  pursuer.  It  is  a  very  curious  character,  and 
quite  peculiar  to  the  Lacertians — this  ossification  of  the  centrum 
from  two  points,  and  their  incomplete  coalescence  ;  it  adds  nothing 
to  the  power  of  bending,  or  to  any  other  action  of  the  tail,  but  indi- 
cates a  prevision  of  the  liability  to  their  being  caught  by  their  long 
tail,  and  may  be  interpreted  as  a  provision  for  their  escape.  The 
neural  arch  has  coalesced  with  the  centrum  throughout  the  tail :  the 
epiphysial  line  does  not  extend  through  that  arch  ;  but  its  thin  and 
brittle  walls  soon  break,  when  the  two  parts  of  the  centrum  are 
forcibly  separated. 

Lizards,  as  is  well  known,  have  the  power  of  reproducing  the 
tail,  but  the  vertebral  axis  is  never  ossified  in  the  new-formed  part. 

Sub- Divisions. — The  immense  number  and  great  diversity  of 
these  Animals  render  their  arrangement  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty,  and  authors  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  limits  of 
the  families,  which  are  very  numerous. 

The  nearest  approach  to  the  preceding  order  is  made  by  the 
TyphlopidcB,  which,  in  fact,  stand  opon  a  sort  of  debateable  ground, 
some  writers  claiming  them  for  the  Ophidia,  whilst  others  refer  them 
to  the  Lizards.  They  are  small.  Worm-like  creatures,  of  a  nearly 
cylindrical  form,  quite  destitute  of  limbs  ;  the  head  is  covered  with 
shields,  and  the  tail  is  very  short,  and  rounded  off  at  the  end.  The 
eyes  are  very  small,  and  destitute  of  eyelids,  sometimes  rudimentary 
and  concealed  under  the  skin  ;  and  there  is  no  external  ear.  The 
bones  of  the  upper  jaw  are  firmly  attached  to  the  skull,  and  the  snout 
projects  considerably  in  front  of  the  lower  jaw,  so  that  the  opening 
of  the  mouth  is  situated  in  the  under  surface  of  the  head.  The  sur- 
face of  the  skin  is  divided  by  a  series  of  transverse  and  longitudinal 
furrows  into  numerous  square  plates,  each  of  which  is  furnished 
with  a  small  horny  scale.  The  dentition  of  these  Animals  is  remark- 
able, teeth  existing  only  in  one  of  the  jaws  ;  in  some  cases  it  is  the 
upper,  in  others  the  lower  jaw  that  is  thus  armed.  These  singular 
Reptiles  are  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  warmer  region  of 
both  hemispheres.     A  single  species  only  is  found  in  Europe.     They 


THE  LIZARDS. 


641 


live  in  holes  in  the  ground,  and  under  stones,  burying  themselves 
sometimes  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet  during  the  rainy  season. 
They  feed  principally  upon  Insects  and  Worms,  and  are  said  to  move 
with  considerable  swiftness. 

Nearly  allied  to  these  are  the  Amphisbtstiida,  which  are  also 
cylindrical,  Vermiform  Reptiles,  with  the  skin  annulatedand  divided 
into  square  shields,  by  transverse  and  longitudinal  furrows.  The 
head  is  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  neck  ;  the  tail  rounded  off  and 
ex-ceedingly  short,  so  that  the  anus  is  almost  at  the  extremity  of  the 
body:  and  the  mouth  is  very  small,  and  placed  on  the  lower  surface 
of  the  head.  The  tongue  is  thick,  short,  not  sheathed,  slightly 
notched  at  the  end,  and  terminated  by  two  smooth  threads  ;  the 
teeth  are  placed  in  a  single  row  in  both  jaws,  which  are  generally 
furnished  with  furrows  for  their  reception  ;  although,  in  one  genus 
{Tropidophis),  the  teeth  grow  upon  the  margin  of  the  jaws.  The 
eyes  are  very  small,  destitute  of  eyelids,  and  sometimes  hidden  under 
the  skin.  The  majority  are  quite  destitute  of  limbs  ;  but  in  the 
genus  Chirotes  there  are  very  small  anterior  legs,  terminated  by  five 
toes.  The  only  known  species  of  the  genus  is  the  C.  lumbricoides, 
a  native  of  Mexico,  which  grows  to  a  length  of  about  eight  inches. 
Like  the  Typhlopida:,\.\\QAt>iphisbcz'>2!dcB  are  found  principally  in 
Tropical  climates,  and  most  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  America. 
The  following  afford  a  fuller  description  of  two  of  the  above  genera  : — 

The  Channelled  Chirotes  [Chirotes canalkulatus ;  C.  lutn- 
brkoides.  Lacerta  htmbricoides,  Shaw ;  Chanicesaura  propus, 
Schneider;  Bi!?ianuspropus,0'ppe\  ;  Bipes ca7ialiculatiiSy  Bonnat.) 

These  singular  Animals,  says  M.  Bibron,  would  be  Amphisbsnas, 
were  they  not  provided  with  a  sternum  and  two  fore  limbs — the  only 
differences,  in  fact,  by  which  the  genera  are  distinguished  :  the  body 
is  nearly  cylindrical,  being  somewhat  flattened  on  its  under  surface  ; 
the  head  is  of  the  same  circumference,  the  former  having  the  muzzle 
and  borders  of  the  mouth  covered  with  plates,  the  only  portions  of 
the  Animal  where  the  skin  is  not  marked  by  depressions,  dividing  it 
into  little  quadrilateral  compartments  disposed  in  rings.  The  fore 
limbs,  which  alone  exist  are  placed  at  a  short  distance  behind 
the  head,  and  spring  from  the  under  surface  of  the  neck  ;  they  are 
short,  moderately  robust,  and  terminated  by  five  toes,  of  which  four 
are  well  developed,  and  armed  with  robust,  curved,  and  pointed 
claw-s  ;  the  fifth  is  a  simple  scaly  tubercle,  destitute  of  a  nail.  Along 
the  body,  on  each  side,  is  a  sort  of  suture,  descending  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  origin  of  the  tail ;  at  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen 
is  a  row  of  small  pores.  The  teeth  are  strong,  conical,  simple,  and 
slightly  curved  backwards  ;  the  nostrils  are  lateral  ;  the  eye  is  very 
small ;  the  muzzle  arched  ;  the  tongue  horny  at  the  tip,  and  but 
little  extensile. 

This  singular  Reptile  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  measures  eight  or 
ten  inches  in  length.  The  colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  yellow,  each 
little  square  compartment  having  a  mark  of  chestnut ;  the  under 
parts  are  white.  It  was  first  described  by  Lacepede,  under  the  title 
"  Le  Cannele. "  With  respect  to  its  habits,  they  are  most  probably 
subterranean,  like  those  oi  Vwe.  AmphisbcBiia ;  but  on  these  points 
nothing  appears  to  be  definitely  known.  Fig.  1614  is  accompanied 
by  a  delineation  in  outline  of  the  head  and  one  of  the  paws.  There 
are  no  eyelids. 


Fig.  1614.— The  Channelled  Chirotes  with  Paw  and  Head. 

The  Dusky  Amphisb.^na  {Ampkisba-na  fiiligi)wsd). — The 
genus  AmphisbcEua  differs  from  Cliirotes  principally  in  the  absence 
of  limbs,  as  already  stated  ;  the  head  and  body  are  of  uniform  thick- 
ness, and  the  tail  terminates  bluntly  ;  so  that  at  a  first  glance  it  is 
not  very  easy  to  distinguish  between  the  head  and  tail,  more  espe- 
cially as  the  minute  eyes  are  buried,  and  only  to  be  detected  through 
the  horny  plate  that  covers  them,  as  little  black  dots,  in  which  neither 
iris  nor  pupil  is  perceptible.  In  some  species,  where  the  plates  are 
more  thick,  they  are  scarcely  to  be  observed.  It  is  from  this  simi- 
larity of  the  head  and  tail  that  the  natives  of  South  America  con- 
sidered this  Reptile  to  have  two  heads,  one  at  each  extremity,  and 
that  if  it  was  cut  in  two,  so  far  from  being  killed,  each  distinct  por- 
tion would  continue  to  live,  and  that  the  two  heads  .would  mutually 
seek  each  other,  and  the  bodies  become  reunited  as  if  nothing  had 
happened.  Stedman,  in  his  "  History  of  Surinam,"  says,  "  Another 
snake  which  I  observed  here  is  about  three  feet  long,  and  annulated 


with  different  colours.  It  is  called  Amphisbxna,  from  the  supposi- 
tion of  Its  having  two  heads ;  and  the  truth  is,  from  its  cylindrical 
form  the  head  and  tail  so  much  resemble  each  other  that  the  error 
is  almost  pardonable  ;  besides  which,  the  eyes  are  ncariy  impercep- 
tible. This  is  the  snake  which,  supposed  blind,  and  vulgarly  said 
to  be  fed  by  the  large  ants  (termites),  is  in  this  country  honoured 
with  the  name  of  King  of  the  Emmets.  The  flesh  of  the  Amphis- 
ba;na,  dried  and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  is  confidently  adminis- 
tered as  a  sovereign  and  infallible  remedy  in  all  cases  of  dislocation 
and  broken  bones;  it  being  very  naturally  inferred  that  an  animal 
which  has  the  power  of  healing  an  entire  amputation  in  its  own  case 
should  at  least  be  able  to  cure  a  simple  fracture  in  the  case  of 
another."  We  inay  here  observe  that  the  term  Amphisba;na  (o;i0i'f, 
utrinque  ;  (Saivoi,  incedo),  though  the  Animal  has  not  two  heads,  is 
correct,  as  it  is  capable  of  crawling  with  the  head  or  tail  foremost 
with  equal  facility. 

The  head  of  the  Amphisbsna  is  blunt  and  short,  and  the  muz;  le 
resembles  a  small  arched  beak  ;  sometimes  it  is  rounded  ;  it  is 
covered  with  plates  ;  the  skin  generally  is  divided  into  quadrilateral 
compartments  disposed  in  circles  round  the  body ;  and  in  some 
species  a  furrow  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  also  along 
each  side.     At  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  is  a  range  of  pores. 

The  specimens  of  Amphisba^na  which  we  have  seen  alive  were  dull 
and  inanimate,  with  nq  grace  or  activity  in  their  movements  ;  they 
crawled  slowly  about,  and,  when  handled,  languidly  twisted  their 
bodies  and  opened  their  mouths,  but  made  no  attempt  to  bite  ;  their 
appearance  was  far  from  being  attractive.  One  of  these  Animals, 
kept  alive  some  time  since  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
took  milk  very  freely,  and  subsisted  on  it  for  six  months. 

The  Dusky  Amphisba?na  is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Cayenne,  where 
it  bores  in  the  soft  earth  like  a  worm,  working  its  way  with  consider- 
able despatch  ;  it  is  harmless  and  inoffensive,  living  principally  on 


Fig.  1615. — The  Dusky  Aniphisbaena. 

ants  and  their  larvae  and  Termites,  and  is  often  found  in  the  mounds 
raised  by  these  Insects,  or  in  their  subterranean  habitations.  It 
measures  nearly  two  feet  in  length,  and  the  eyes  are  apparent  as 
black  dots.     Its  general  colour  is  dusky  brown.     (See  Fig.  1615.) 

The  Lizards,  Family  Laccrtida:. 

We  now  come  to  the  True  Lizards,  in  which  the  limbs  are  almost 
always  developed.  These  may  be  divided  into  two  great  sections, 
the  Leptoglossa  and  the  Pachyglossa,  in  accordance  with  the  struc- 
ture of  the  tongue. 

Of  the  Leptoglossa,  distinguished  by  the  bifid,  sheathed,  and  pro- 
trusible  tongue,  several  species  still  retain  a  considerable  resemblance 
to  the  Ophidian  Reptiles.  This  is  particularly  evident  in  the  first 
family,  the  Gymnophthalmidce  in  which  the  body  is  exceedingly  elon- 
gated and  Snake-like  ;  the  limbs  are  either  rudimentary  or  altogether 
wanting  ;  and  the  eyes  are  destitute  of  eyelids,  and  either  covered 
by  a  transparent  capsule,  as  in  the  Snakes,  or  completely  concealed 
under  the  skin.  The  skin  is  covered  with  regular  scales,  imbedded 
in  small  sacs,  and  lying  over  each  other  like  those  of  Fishes.  These 
imbricated  scales  are  composed  of  a  mixture  of  bony  and  horny 
matter,  and  they  occur  only  in  the  Reptiles  of  this  and  the  following 
family.  The  Gyinnophthalmidcs  are  further  distinguished  from  the 
two  preceding  families  by  the  great  width  of  the  mouth,  which 
extends  considerably  behind  the  eyes,  and  by  the  free  exposure  of 

the  ear. 

4N 


642 


THE  SKINKS 


The  Reptiles  of  this  family  exhibit  a  great  diversity  in  the  devel- 
opement  of  the  legs.  In  the  Gyimtopkthahni  there  are  four  weak 
legs,  terminated  by  a  variable  number  of  toes  ;  the  Pygopi  (Fig. 
1616.)  and  Liaiides  have  the  hinder  limbs  developed  in  the  form  of 
undivided  scale-like  organs,  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  anus ; 
whilst  in  the  Aprasice  the  e.xtremities  are  entirely  deficient.  The 
majority  of  the  species  are  inhabitants  of  Australia,  but  one  or  two 
are  found  in  the  east  of  Europe,  and  a  single  species  occurs  in  the 
West  Indies. 

The  Scinks  or  Skinks,  Family  Scincides. 

To  the  general  character  of  the  Satiria  the  family  Scina'dcB  adds 
many  peculiarities.  The  head  is  covered  with  large  plates,  of  an 
angular  figure,  with  the  edges  fitting  together  ;  the  body,  generally, 
is  clad  in  scales  of  variable  size  and  form,  resembling  a  coat  of  mail, 
and  arranged  in  quincuncial  order,  and  overlapping  each  other  like 
the  pointed  or  rounded  tiles  of  a  roof ;  or  like  those  of  a  carp  ;  or  of 
other  osseous  fishes.  The  tongue  is  free,  fleshy,  rather  flat,  notched 
at  the  tip,  and  covered  by  scaly  papillre  :  the  abdomen  is  cylindrical, 
without  lateral  folds,  and  clad  with  scales  usually  arranged  in  the 

same  manner  as  those  of  the  back. 
There  is  little  or  no  distinction 
between  the  neck  and  body.  We 
may  here  observe,  with  respect  to 
the  large  angular  plates  of  the 
head,  that  they  do  not  occur  in  the 
Chameleons,  tlie  Geckos,  Iguanas, 
or  Varans,  but  are  met  with  in  the 
TeidcE,  the  True  Lizards,  and  the 
Chalcida: ;  but,  then,  in  the  Teidce 
and  True  Lizards,  the  scales  of  the 
under  parts  are  arranged  differ- 
ently to  those  of  the  back  ;  and  in 
the  Chalcida,  the  scales  are  not 
only  disposed  so  as  to  form  circles 
or  transverse  bands,  but  a  lateral 
fold  is  carried  from  the  head  to  the 
origin  of  the  tail.  The  limbs  in 
the  Scincidcs,  when  present,  are 
short,  and  generally  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  scaling  is  smooth  and 
polished.  This  group  is  found  in 
the  most  arid  districts  of  the  hot 
and  temperate  regions  of  every 
portion  of  the  globe  :  Europe, 
indeed,  possesses  but  a  limited 
number  of  species,  which,  be  it 
observed,  are  not  restricted  in 
their  geographical  range  to  that 
quarter  of  the  globe,  but  are 
far  more  widely  distributed.  The 
greatest  number  belong  to   Aus- 


Fig.  1616. — The  Pygopus  lepido- 
pocUis. 

r,  Vent  and  rudimentary  legs. 


tralia  and  the  Polynesian  Islands. 

The  Officinal  Scihk  {Scincus  offichialis).  El  Adda  of  Bruce  ; 
Skink,  Shaw's  Barbary.  SKiyyosorSnyicoc  of  the  Greeks.  In  the  genus 
Scincus  the  tongue  is  notched  and  scaly  ;  the  teeth  are  conical,  sim- 
ple, and  blunt  ;  there  are  teeth  on  the  palate,  which  is  longitudinally 
grooved ;  auditory  orifices  operculated ;  muzzle  wedge-shaped ; 
hmbs  four;  with  five  toes  on  each  ;  tail  conical  and  pointed;  general 
scahng  smooth,  glossy,  and  fish-like.  Fig.  1617  represents  the  Ani- 
mal and  the  forefoot,  a, 

The  Officinal  Scink,  of  which  there  are  three  or  four  varieties  is  a 
native  of  Arabia,  Northern  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Abyssinia.  It 
occurs  also  in  Senegal.  In  the  i6th  century  this  Lizard  was  generally 
believed  to  be  endowed  with  wonderful  medicinal  virtues,  and  conse- 
quently was  an  object  of  commerce,  it  was  one  of  the  most  approved 
remedies  m  cases  of  debility,  and  was  regarded  as  an  infallible  reno- 
vator of  a  shattered  constitution.  The  supposition  is  of  very  ancient 
date  ;  for  Pliny  states  that  these  Scinci  were  imported  into  Rome  in 
a  salted  state  (as  Belon  says  that  they  were  in  his  time,  issO  and 
that  their  heads  and  feet  were  taken  in  white  wine.  He  also  cites 
Apelles  as  an  authority  for  their  efficacy  in  the  case  of  wounds  inflicted 
by  poisoned  arrows.  We  need  not  say  that  this  Lizard  no  lont-er 
maintains  a  place  among  the  articles  of  the  materia  medica.  Indeed 
m  Egypt  and  Arabia  its  reputation  is  gone.  M.  Alexandre  Lefebvre' 
who  collected,  says  M.  Bibron,  a  number  of  individuals  of  this  species 
during  an  excursion  in  1828  into  the  oasis  of  Bahrieh,  informs  us  that 
this  Lizard  "  is  met  with  on  the  hillocks  of  fine  light  sand  which  the 
south  wind  accumulates  at  the  foot  of  the  hedges  which  border  the 
cultivated  lands,  and  of  the  tamarisks  which  strive  to  vegetate  on  the 
confines  of  the  desert.  There  it  may  be  seen  tranquilly  baskin.o-  in 
the  rays  of  a  burning  sun,  or  chasing  from  time  to  time  the  Graihy- 
ptert,  or  other  coleopterous  Insects  which  pass  within  its  rano-e.  It 
runs  with  considerable  quickness,  and  when  menaced  buries  itself  in 
the  sand  with  singularrapidity,  excavating  in  a  few  instants  a  burrow 
ol  many  teet  in  depth.     When  taken  it  endeavours  to  escape   but 


beyond  this  neither  attempts  to  bite,  nor  to  defend  itself  with  its 
claws."  t 

In  all  specimens  of  this  Reptile  the  lower  and  lateral  parts  of  the 
head,  body,  and  tail  are  silvery  white,  more  or  less  pure.  The  upper 
surface  varies  in  markings.     M.  Bibron  enumerates  the  following  :— 

Var.  «.— General  colour  of  the  neck,  back,  and  tail,  yellow,  or 
clear  silvery  grey,  mixed  with  brown  or  blackish,  which  forms  great 
spots  dilated  transversely,  most  frequently  putting  on  the  shape  of 
transverse  bands,  the  number  of  which  is  commonly  seven  or  eight. 


Fig.  161S.— The  Slow-Worm. 


Fig.  161 7.— The  Officinal  Scink. 

Var.  b. — A  yellow  tint  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  cranium. 
Neck,  back,  and  a  great  part  of  the  tail  chestnut-brown,  sprinkled 
with  very  small  obscure  whitish  spots,  two  or  three  on  each  scale. 
Across  the  back  five  or  six  large  white  bands,  with  an  irregularly- 
dilated  black  spot  at  each  of  their  extremities.  These  spots  are  not 
situated  on  the  back,  but  on  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  lateral  re- 
gions of  the  trunk. 

Var.  c. — All  the  scales  of  the  neck,  back,  and  first  half  of  the 
upper  surface  o^  the  tail  silvery  grey,  widely  radiated  with  white, 
with  one  or  two  brown  spots  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  radia- 
tions. 

The  Slowtvorm,  or  Blindworm  {Angia's  fragilis). — The 
Slowworm,  as  a  type  of  the  genus  Angicis,  may  be  thus  charac- 
terised : — Body  and  tail  cylindrical  and  obtuse  ;  all  the  scales  smooth, 
glossy,  imbricate,  nearly  equal  on  the  upper  and  under  parts  ;  head 
covered  with  nine  larger  plates  (see  Fig.  1618) ;  limbs  reduced  to 
mere  rudiments  beneath  the  skin  ;  the  mouth  is  small ;  the  teeth 
minute,  none  on  the  palate ;  the  eyes  are  small  but  brilliant. 

The  Slowworm  is  found  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Asia ;  and  it  is  common  in 
many  parts  of  England,  frequenting 
copses,  orchards,  old  mouldering  walls, 
and  banks,  where  it  delights  to  bask 
in  the  sun  ;  it  is  a  sluggish,  timid  crea- 
ture, and  when  handled,  even  roughly, 
seldom  attempts  to  bite ;  if  it  does, 
its  jaW'S  are  too  small  and  feeble,  and  its  teeth  too  minute  to  inflict  a 
wound ;  scarcely  indeed  does  it  make  any  impression,  and  the 
opinion  that  it  is  venemous  is  as  absurd  as  it  is  erroneous.  Let  those 
who  believe  it  put  it  themselves  to  the  test,  examine  the  creature's 
teeth,  try  their  effect  on  any  small  Animal,  and  not  give  up  their 
common  sense  to  the  assertions  of  the  ignorant. 

According  to  Latreille,  the  food  of  the  Slowworm  consists- of 
Worms  and  Beetles,  to  which  it  adds  Frogs,  small  Rats,  and  even 
Toads;  but  this  is  a  mistake;  the  undilatable  mouth  of  the  Slow- 
worm  is  incapable  of  taking  in  such  a  prey ;  it  could  no  more  engulf 
a  Frog  or  Rat  than  could  the  little  Viviparous  Lizard ;  it  feeds  to 
some  extent,  perhaps,  on  Insects,  but  more  particularly  on  Worms 
and  Slugs,  especially  the  latter ;  as  was  witnessed  by  Mr.  George 
Daniel,  whose  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Blindworm,  in  Mr. 
Bennet's  edition  of  White's  "Selborne,"  is  very  interesting.  "A 
blindworm,"  he  writes,  "that  I  kept  alive  for  nine  weeks,  would, 
when  touched,  turn  and  bite,  although  not  very  sharply  ;  its  bite  was 
not  sufficient  to  draw  blood,  but  it  always  retained  its  hold,  until 
released.  It  drank  sparingly  of  milk,  raising  the  head  when  drink- 
ing. It  fed  upon  the  little  white  slug  so  common  in  fields  and 
gardens,  eating  six  or  seven  of  them  one  after  the  other.  It  invari- 
ably took  them  in  one  position.  Elevating  its  head  slowly  above  its 
victim,  it  would  suddenly  seize  the  slug  by  the  middle,  in  the  same 
way  that  a  dog  will  generally  seize  a  rat  by  the  loins.  It  would  then 
hold  it  thus  sometimes  for  more  than  a  minute,  when  it  would  pass 
its  prey  through  its  jaws,  and  swallow  the  slug  head  foremost.  It 
refused  the  larger  slugs,  ana  would  not  touch  either  young  frogs  or 


THE  GLASS-SNAKE. 


643 


mice.  The  blindworm  avoided  the  water ;  snakes  kept  in  the 
same  cage  took  both  frogs  and  mice.  The  snakes,  on  the  con- 
trary, coiled  themselves  in  a  pan  containing  water,  which  was  put 
into  the  cage,  and  appeared  to  delight  in  it.  The  blindworm  was  a 
remarkably  fine  one,  measuring  fifteen  inches  in  length  ;  it  cast  its 
slough  while  in  my  possession  ;  the  skin  came  off  in  separate  pieces, 
the  peeling  of  the  head  being  completed  the  last."  In  a  state  of 
nature,  however,  the  cuticle,  as  in  the  Snake,  is  shed  in  one  entire 
everted  piece.  We  have  alluded  to  the  brittleness  of  the  tail  of  the 
Viviparous  Lizard ;  the  same  brittleness  characterises  the  whole 
body  of  the  Slowworm.  When  alarmed,  or  irritated,  it  forcibly  con- 
tracts all  its  muscles,  and  breaks  asunder  upon  the  slightest  attempt 
to  bend  it,  or  a  trifling  blow.  It  was  from  this  circum- 
stance that  Linnffius  gave  it  the  name  oifragih's.  Like 
the  other  Reptiles  of  our  island,  the  Blindworm  hybernates, 
making  a  burrow  under  decayed  masses  of  vegetation,  in 
the  soft  earth,  working  its  way  to  a  considerable  depth,  the 
glossy  smoothness  of  the  scales  facilitating  its  passage.  In 
such  burrows,  Latreille  assures  us,  it  usually  lives,  coming 
up  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  when  it  raises  its  head  out 
of  its  hole,  ready  to  retreat  on  the  appearance  of  danger. 
Even  in  the  winter  it  sometimes  does  this,  though  snow 
may  be  on  the  ground,  if  the  sun  be  shining  with  a  warm 
though  transient  gleam.  We  have  often,  in  summer,  seen 
it  basking  in  old  hedge-rows,  and  about  crumbling  old 
walls  ;  it  is  easily  captured. 

As  is  the  case  with  the  Viviparous  Lizard  and  the 
Viper,  the  Slowworm  produces  living  young,  the  eggs  being 
hatched  just  previously  to  the  birth  of  the  offspring  they  en- 
closed. This  takes  place  in  June  or  July.  The  young  vary 
from  six  to  twelve  in  number,  and  when  first  born,  are  not 
two  inches  long  ;  they  soon,  however,  become  active,  and 
creep  about  in  search  of  minute  Slugs  and  Worms. 

It  is  from  the  smallness  of  its  eyes  that  this  Reptile  has  received 
the  name  of  Blindworm  ;  they  are,  however,  bright  and  quick,  and 
defended  by  movable  eyelids;  the  minute  teeth  are  slightly  hooked  : 
the  tongue  is  rather  broad,  not  very  free,  nor  bifid,  as  in  the  Snake, 
but  merely  notched  at  the  tip.  The  general  colour  is  lustrous  silvery 
grey,  with  a  tinge  of  brown  ;  a  dark  line  runs  along  the  spine,  and 
obscure  lines,  or  rows  of  spots,  are  carried  down  the  sides  ;  there  is, 
however,  considerable  variety.  The  under  parts  are  of  a  bluish- 
black,  with  white  reticulations.  The  young  are  of  a  pale  yellowish- 
grey  above,  black  beneath  ;  there  is  a  little  black  dot  on  the  top  of 
the  head,  and  another  at  the  back  of  the  head,  whence  a  narrow 
black  line  is  continued  down  the  spine. 

The  adults  measure  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches,  but  the  propor- 
tionate length  of  the  tail  part  varies,  sometimes  being  not  half  the 
length  of  the  body,  sometimes  nearly  equalling  it.  This  dift'erence 
may,  in  a  great  measure,  depend  on  sex,  for  in  the  Lizards  the  body 
of  the  female  is  proportionally  longer  than  that  of  the  male. 

The  West  Indian  Galliwasp  {Cclestus  occidiius),  a  perfectly  harm- 
less Reptile,  which  is,  for  some  reason,  an  object  of  the  most  intense 
dread  v.ith  the  inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies,  also  belongs  to  this 
family.  A  North  American  species,  the  Plesfwdon  laticeps,  lives 
in  holes  of  trees,  often  at  a  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet  from  the 
ground,  where  it  frequently  takes  possession  of  the  deserted  nest  of 
a  Woodpecker.  When  disturbed,  the  Lizard  puts  out  his  head — 
■which  is  very  large,  and  of  a  bright-red  colour — in  a  most  threaten- 
ing manner  ;  and  when  captured,  his  powerful  jaws  and  strong 
teeth  enable  him  to  inflict  a  severe  wound,  although  it  is  not  veno- 
mous, as  commonly  supposed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
States. 

The  same  variety  in  the  development  of  the  feet,  prevails  m  the 
next  family,  the  ChalcidcB,  which,  however,  are  at  once  distinguish- 
able from  both  the  preceding  groups  by  the  nature  of  the  dermal 
covering.  Instead  of  the  imbricated  bony  scales  of  the  Skinks,  the 
Chalcid/z  are  covered  with  scales  of  the  ordinary  Reptilian  character, 
arranged  in  regular  transverse  rows  ;  the  dojrsal  scales  are  usually 
strongly  keeled,  and  the  keels  frequently  produced  behind  so  as  to 
form  spines  ;  the  sides  are,  in  most  cases,  furnished  with  a  fold  of 
skin,  covered  with  granular  scales.  The  eyelids  are  always  present, 
the  ears  generally  exposed,  and  the  tongue  is  short,  fleshy,  and 
notched  at  the  tip.  The  species  of  this  family  occur  for  the  most 
part  in  Africa  and  America  ;  a  few  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  Asiatic  continent ;  and  a  single  species,  the  Scheltopusic 
(Pseudopus ;paUasi),  inhabits  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Europe. 
The  last-mentioned  Lizard  bears  a  considerable  resemblance,  in  the 
form  of  the  feet,  to  the  Pygopus  lepidopodus  already  described. 
The  Glass  Snake  of  North  America  {Ophisaiirus  ventralis),  which 
is  common  in  the  United  States,  is  remarkable  for  the  great  facility 
with  which  it  breaks.  The  following  affords  a  further  description  of 
the  two  last  named  species  : — 

The  Scheltopusic  (Pseudnpits  pal/asij.—lhe.  transition  from 
Reptiles,  with  limbs  imperfect  and  scarcely  developed,' to  the  present 
genus,  in  w^hich  there  are  no  fore-limbs,  and  the  hind-limbs  are 
mere  minute  scaly  appendages,  is  very  easy.  See  Fig.  1619).  We 
have  here  a  completely  Snake-like  body,  which  is  serpentine  in  all 


Its  movements  ;  there  are  indeed  the  rudiments  of  pelvic  bones,  as  seen 
at  Fig.  1620;  a  a.  showing  the  rudiments  of  the  hinder  extremities. 

In  this  genus  the  tongue  is  thin  and  like  an  arrow-head,  bifid  at 
the  point,  and  covered  both  with  villous  and  also  with  large  notched 
papillaj.  The  teeth  arc  strong,  and  the  palate  is  furnished  with 
them  also,  but  they  arc  there  of  small  size.  A  deep  furrow  runs 
down  each  side  of  the  body.     The  eye-lids  arc  perfect. 

The  Scheltopusic,  which  was  first  described  by  Pallas  under  the 
i'Mc  oi  Laccrta  a/of/a,  measures  about  eighteen  inches  in  length, 
and  is  of  a  reddish  chestnut  colour  dotted  with  black.  The  iris  is 
golden  green,  the  pupil  black.  The  young  are  greyish  above  with 
cross-marks  of  brown,  wliitish-grey  below. 


Fig. 


1620. — telvis  of  the 
Scheltopusic. 


Fig.   1619. — The  Scheltopusic. 

This  Serpent-like  Lizard  is  a  native  of  northern  Africa  bordering 
the  Mediterranean,  of  the  Morea,  Dalmatia,  and  Southern  Siberia. 
Scheltopusic  is  the  name  given  to  it  by  the  natives  of  the  deserts  of 
Naryn,  near  the  Volga.  Its  favourite  haunts  are  wooded  valleys, 
and  places  covered  with  brushwood  and  thick  vegetation,  affording 
it  secure  concealment.  It  feeds  on  Insects,  small  Lizards,  nestling 
Birds,  and  chases  its  prey  like  a  Snake, 
darting  along  in  a  series  of  sinuous  flexures. 
When  alarmed  it  instantly  plunges  be- 
neath the  dense  brushwood  and  is  lost. 
This  species  was  found  to  be  common  in  the 
Peloponnesus  by  the  party  conducting  the 
"Voyage  Scientifique  en  Moree."  The 
0  first  discovered  was  observed  basking  in 
the  rays  of  the  vernal  sun,  and  had  evi- 
dently but  lately  emerged  from  its  winter 
retreat.  It  was  instantly  attacked  and 
killed,  but  great  was  the  surprise  of  its 
destroyers,  who  supposed  it  to  be  venomous, 
when  they  found  it  destitute  of  poison-fangs. 

Subsequently  many  individuals  were  caught  alive,  and  kept  in 
rooms,  where  they  soon  became  reconciled  to  the  captivity,  evincing 
a  quiet  inoffensive  disposition.  They  were  fed  upon  hard-boiled 
eggs ;  but  on  one  occasion  a  captive  Scheltopusic  got  access  to  a 
nest  of  young  Birds,  which  it  quickly  demolished,  doubtless  with 
considerable  relish. 

The  Glass-Snake  [Ophisaiirus  venirah's). — In  this  Reptile  we 
have  not  even  the  rudiment  of  limbs,  but  from  the  points  already 
referred  to,  namely,  the  presence  of  eye-lids,  the  consolidation  of  the 
lower  jaw,  the  auditory  orifice,  and  the  unsheathed  tongue.  Snake- 
like as  it  is,  it  does  not  belong  to  the  Ophidia.  There  are  several 
rows  of  palatal  teeth.  The  maxillary  teeth  are  simple.  (Sec  Fig. 
1621.) 

The  name  of  Glassy  Snake  (Glassy  Fragile,  Pennant)  has  been 
given  to  this  Reptile  from  its  extreme  brittleness.  the  slightest  touch 
causing  it  to  snap  asunder.  It  is  a  native  of  Carolina  and  the 
southern  provinces  of  North  America,  and  its  manners  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  Scheltopusic,  just  described.  It  frequents  spots 
abounding  in  vegetation,  and  feeds  on  Insects,  small  Reptiles,  Frogs, 
<S:c.  According  to  Catesby,  it  appears  earlier  in  the  spring  than  any 
of  the  Snake-tribe,  and  is  numerous  in  sandy  woods. 

Fig.  1621  represents  two  heads  of  this  Reptile,  a  and  /;,  of  which 
the  latter  is  depicted  with  the  singularly-formed  tongue  exposed. 

The  Glass-Snake  is  subject  to  considerable  variations  of  colour; 
M.  Bibron  enumerates  four  varieties  ;  the  first  is  marked  above  with 
alternate  longitudinal  lines  of  black  and  yellowish,  the  under  parts 
being  white.  The  second  has  the  scales  of  the  sides  and  neck  black  ; 
those  of  the  upper  surface  and  tail  brown,  with  a  spot  of  black,  and 
a  streak  of  greenish  yellow.  The  head  is  marbled  with  yellow  on  a 
black  ground.  Under  parts  white.  '1  he  third  is  chestnut  with  white 
spots,' almost  entirely  encircled  by  black,  generally  arranged  in 
transverse  bands  ;  the  sides  are  mostly  black,  the  edges  of  each 
scale  being  more  or  less  spotted  with  whitish  or  reddish.  Under 
parts  pale  orange.     The  fourth  is  of  a  yellowish  grey  above,  with  a 


644 

broad  black  median  line  from  the  back  of  the  head  to  t^e  ^nd  of  the 
tail  •  while  on  the  sides  five  more  slender  black  lines  ..^Iternate  with 
white.     Sides  of  the  head   and  neck  are  mottled  with   white  and 

^'catesby  describes  the  colouring  as  yellowish  green,  spotted  with 
black  above.  The  tail  is  longer  than  the  body,  and  the  head  is  very 
small.  "  A  small  blow  with  a  stick,"  he  observes,  -  will  cause  the 
body  to  separate  not  only  at  the  place  struck  but  at  two  or  three 
other  places  also;  the  muscles  bcin-  articulated  in  a  singular 
manner  quite  through  the  vertebrcc. 


THE   COMMON  LIZARD. 


Fig.  1621.— The  Glass  Snake. 

!j"  'u^  "^^^  Lizards  {Laceriida)  the  body  is  clothed  with  scales, 
and  the  head  with  large  regular  plates  ;  the  head  is  distinctly 
separated  from  the  neck,  which  is  never  furnished  with  a  pouch  under 
the  throat,  or  with  any  other  appendages  ;  the  eyes  are  provided 
with  a  pair  of  movable  eyelids,  and  also,  usually,  with  a  nictitating 
membrane.  The  body  is  elongated,  and  generally  of  a  somewhat 
cylindrical  form,  terminated  posteriorly  with  a  very  long,  tapering 
tail,  which  is  often  very  much  longer  than  the  body.  The  feet  are 
well  developed,  and  generally  furnished  with  five  distinct  toes  of 


Fig.  1622.— Head  of  the  Glass  Snake. 

unequal  length.  The  teeth  are  slightly  curved,  and  inserted  in  a 
slight  furrow  of  the  jaw ;  they  are  hollow  at  the  base,  and  are  not 
very  firmly  attached  to  the  bone. 

These  Lizards,  which  must  be  regarded  as  the  types  of  the  Sauria, 
are  confined  to  the  countries  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  over  the 
whole  of  which  they  are  pretty  generally  distributed.  One  species, 
the  Common  Scaly  Lizard  [Zootoca  7)iv!;para),  is  found  abundantly 
in  this  country.  The  following  affords  further  particulars  in  respect 
to  this  animal : — 

The  Viviparous  Lizard  {Zootoca  viv!j>ara).     Lacerta  agilis 


of  some  authors  ;  Nimble  Lizard  ;  Common  Lizard.  In  the  genus 
Zootoca  there  are  no  palatal  teeth,  and  the  females  produce  their 
young  alive. 

Thickets,  heaths,  sunny  banks,  and  sheltered  orchards  are  the 
favourite  localities  of  this  little  Lizard,  which,  in  all  its  actions,  is 
graceful,  prompt,  and  rapid.  In  certain  spots  they  seem  to  abound. 
We  have  often,  while  walking,  in  the  heat  of  a  summer's  day,  along 
a  sunny  bank  covered  with  furze,  counted  more  than  a  dozen  within 
the  space  of  a  few  yards,  basking  in  the  rays,  and  probably  watching 
for  their  Insect  food.  We  have  caught  them,  by  cautiously  surprising 
and  rapidly  seizing  them,  but  several,  notwithstanding  all  our 
address,  have  we  missed,  and  one  has  occasionally  left  its  tail 
wriggling  in  our  hand,  though  we  used  not  the  slightest  violence, 
nor  ever  attempted  to  retain  our  hold  ;  it  snapped,  in  fact,  like  glass, 
at  the  slightest  touch.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  how  rapidly,  when 
alarmed,  these  agile  little  creatures  gain  their  burrows,  or  disappear 
from  view,  diving  beneath  the  intertangled  vegetation  ;  they  seem 
gone  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  No  less  prompt  and  rapid  are  they 
in  catching  their  prey  ;  the  moment  an  Insect  comes  near  them,  or 
settles  on  a  leaf  within  due  distance,  their  bright  eyes  mark  it ;  the 
ne.xt  instant  it  is  seized  and  swallowed  ;  the  act  is  wonderfully  quick 
and  instantaneous.  The  sight  of  these  Animals  is,  indeed,  very 
acute  ;  and  their  hearing  appears  also  to  be  by  no  means  deficient ; 
we  have  seen  them  on  the  slightest  noise,  on  the  snapping  of  a 
branch,  or  a  rustle  made  among  the  leaves,  dart  off  to  their  burrows, 
and,  after  a  little  time,  cautiously  make  their  reappearance,  and  on 
the  least  alarm  again  seek  refuge  in  their  retreats.  (See  a,  Fig. 
1623,  of  a  Group  of  Lizards.) 

Unlike  most  Lizards,  which  produce  eggs  covered  by  membrane, 
and  which  they  deposit  in  the  sand  or  in  other  places,  to  be  hatched 
by  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  the  present  species  brings  forth  living 
young,  the  eggs  being  hatched  while  yet  within  the  body  of  the 
parent.  This  species  is,  therefore,  Ovoviviparous.  The  membrane 
covering  the  eggs  is  very  thin,  and  the  female,  in  the  month  of  June, 
passes  a  great  portion  of  the  day  basking  in  the  sun,  for  the  sake  of 
the  vivifying  heat,  as  necessary  for  the  exclusion  of  the  young  from 
the  eggs  as  if  they  had  been  previously  deposited  in  the  sand.  It  is 
very  remarkable  that  one  out  of  our  two  True  Lizards  should  be  thus 
Ovoviviparous,  and  one  out  of  our  two  True  Snakes,  viz.,  the  Viper, 
which  brings  forth  living  young,  and  basks  in  the  sun  that  the  same 
object  may  be  accomplished. 

The  number  of  young  which  the  Viviparous  Lizard  produces  is  four 
or  five,  and  they  are  occasionally  seen  in  company  with  their  parent, 
but  whether  they  are  united  together  by  an  instinctive  attachment  is 
doubtful ;  the  probability  is  that  they  keep  about  the  spot  where  they 
were  born,  and  where  the  parent  has  her  burrow,  and  remove  by 
degrees  as  they  increase  in  size  and  strength,  for,  from  their  birth, 
they  are  capable  of  running  about,  and  soon  begin  to  exercise  their 
powers  in  the  capture  of  prey. 

During  the  winter,  this,  as  well  as  the  other  British  Lizard,  hyber- 
nates,  but  whether  its  torpidity  is  very  profound  is  not  ascertained  ; 
it  appears  early  in  the  spring,  and  continues  active  till  autumn  has 
far  advanced,  when  it  betakes  itself  to  its  burrow. 

This  species,  and  also  the  Sand-Lizard,  to  be  presently  described, 
are  found  in  Ireland ;  with  respect  to  the  former,  Mr.  Bell  remarks 
that  on  the  Continent  its  range  does  not  appear  to  be  extensive  : 
"  It  is  not,"  he  adds,  "  found  in  Italy,  nor,  I  believe,  in  France,  and 
is  very  probably  confined,  in  a  great  measure,  to  our  own  latitude." 
M.  Bibron,  however,  assures  us  that  it  exists  both  in  France  and 
Italy,  and  that  it  inhabits  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Russia,  as  well 
as  the  British  Islands,  preferring  mountain  districts  ;  and  he  adds, 
'•  M.  Tschudi  informs  us  that  in  Switzerland  it  frequents,  in  prefer- 
ence, the  forests  of  dry  pines,  making  its  runs  under  the  fallen 
leaves,  and  to  these  it  retreats  on  the  appearance  of  danger.  Some- 
times, however,  it  is  met  with  in  damp  and  humid  forests.  In 
France  it  is  not  so  common  as  the  Sand-lizard,  while  in  England  it  is 
the  contrary. 

The  average  length  of  the  Viviparous  Lizard  is  six  inches  ;  its 
colour  and  markings  are  subject  to  variation  ;  in  general,  the  upper 
parts  are  of  an  olive-brown,  with  a  dark  brown  and  often  interrupted 
line  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  a  broad  longitudinal  band 
down  each  side,  between  which  and  the  middle  line  are  black  dashes 
or  spots.  In  the  male  the  under  parts  are  of  a  fine  orange  spotted 
with  black  ;  in  the  female  pale  olive-grey. 

The  Sand-Lizard  {Lacerta  agilis,  Linn ;  Lacerta  stirjiium, 
Daudin.) — This  species,  an  example  of  the  restricted  genus  Zaccr/a, 
is  much  larger  than  the  Viviparous  Lizard,  sometimes  measuring  a 
foot  in  length  ;  we  have  seen  specimens  upwards  of  seven  inches 
long,  and  in  the  "Linnaan  Transactions"  an  instance  is  adduced 
by  the  Rev.  R.  Sheppard,  in  which  the  measurement  exceeded  twelve 
inches  (vol.  xvi.,  1802).  It  is  to  the  labours  of  several  modern 
naturalists  that  we  owe  the  extrication  of  this  Lizard  from  much 
confusion,  for  the  term  agtlis,  applied  by  Linnaeus  to  the  present 
species,  has  been  given  in  England  to  the  Viviparous  Lizard,  and  in 
France  and  Italy  to  the  Wall-Lizard,  the  Common  Lizard  of  those 
countries. 

The  Sand-Lizard  is  subject  to  much  variation  of  colour;  indeed. 


VARIOUS  LIZARDS. 


645 


two  varieties  appear  to  exist :  one,  and  that  the  most  common,  of  a 
sandy-brown  colour,  more  or  less  rich,  with  obscure  longitudinal 
stripes  of  a  darker  tint,  and  a  lateral  series  of  black  occllated  spots, 
each  with  a  white  or  yellowish  dot  in  the  centre  ;  the  other  variety 
has  the  upper  parts  of  a  brownish-green,  the  g-reen  being  more  or 
less  decided,  with  the  same  general  markings.  (See  b,  Fig.  1623  of  a 
Group  of  Lizards. ) 

The  ordinary  residence  of  this  species  is  sandy  heaths,  and, 
though  less  rapid  in  its  actions  than  the  Viviparous,  it  is  quick  and 
active,  and  runs  with  considerable  alertness  ;  occasionally  it  may  be 
seen  basking  on  sunny  banks  and  in  verdant  spots,  and  has  been 
observed  also  near  marshes.  According  to  Mr.  Bell,  it  occurs  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Poole,  both  on  sandy  heaths  and  in  moist  situa- 
tions, and  that  able  naturalist  adds,  "  It  has  been  stated  by  a  gentle- 
man of  my  acquaintance,  that  the  brown  varieties  are  confined  to  the 
sandy  heaths,  the  colours  of  which  are  closely  imitated  by  the  surface 


Fig.  1623. — Group  of  Lizards. 
a.  The  Viviparous,  or  Common  Lizard  ;  l>,  the  Sand-Lizard ;  c,  the  Blind,  or  Slow-Worm 

ofthebody,  and  that  the  green  variety  frequents  the  more  verdant 
localities.  Be  this  as  it  may,  and  it  is  a  statement  which  at  present 
1  can  neither  confirm  not  dispute,  it  is  certain  that  these  varieties 
mentioned  by  Linnaus,  and  seen  by  Miiller,  do  exist  in  the  place  I 
have  named,  and  within  a  comparatively  short  distance."  The 
band-Lizard  is  common  in  France,  but  rare  in  Italy ;  it  is  abundant 
in  the  middle  districts  of  Europe,  and  extends  as  far  north  as  Sweden 
and  Denmark.  It  is  found  in  Ireland.  According  to  M.  Bibron  it 
inhabits  the  plains  and  hills,  but  never  the  mountains,  of  the  Con- 
tinent, and  gives  preference  to  the  margin  of  woods,  copses,  large 
gardens,  and  vineyards.  Its  retreat  is  a  burrow  varying  in  depth, 
worked  out  under  a  matted  collection  of  herbage,  or  between  the 
roots  of  a  tree;  in  this  burrow  it  hybernates,  having  closed  the 
entrance  with  earth  and  dried  leaves,  and  does  not  reappear  till  the 
warm  weather  has  returned.  It  feeds  on  Insects.  On  a  transient 
glance  of  this  species  running  along,  it  might  be  easily  mistaken  for 
the  Viper,  as  Mr.  Sheppard  says  it  was  by  himself,  its  length  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  colours  favouring  the  deception  ;'its  movements, 
indeed,  are  serpentine  ;  if  seized  whilst  thus  endeavouring  to  escape 
It  will  turn  and  bite,  and  when  captured  is  impatient  of  confinement, 


avoids  observation,  and  ultimately  dies.  It  is  indeed  extremely 
timid,  and,  unlike  the  beautiful  Green  Lizard  {Laccrla  viridis)  of 
southern  Europe,  never  can  be  rendered  familiar. 

The  Sand-Lizard  deposits  its  eggs,  to  the  number  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen,  m  hollows  in  the  sand,  which  it  excavates  for  their  reception, 
and  then  carefully  covers  them  up,  leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  young,  on  exclusion  from  the  egg,  are 
active,  and  lead  at  once  an  independent  existence. 

Fig.  1623  exhibits— (7,  the  Viviparous  Lizard  ;  b,  the  Sand-Lizard  ; 
C-,  the  Bhndworm  {,Aiiguis  fragais),\'i\i\c\i.  wc  have  described  at 
Page  642  a7itc. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  beautiful  Green  Lizard,  which  is  often 
brought  over  to  England  by  Italians  for  show  or  sale,  and  kept  in 
cages.  This  species  is  a  native  of  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Greece,  and 
the  Mediterranean  borders  of  Africa.  It  is  said  also  to  occur  in  the 
island  of  Guernsey,  but  it  exists  neither  in  England  nor  Ireland. 
Orchards,  large  gardens,  shrubberies,  brakes, 
and  thickets  are  the  haunts  of  this  Lizard; 
and,  though  it  cannot  be  called  arboreal,  it 
climbs  the  stems  of  bushes  with  great  facility 
in  quest  of  Insect  food.  It  is  quick  and  active 
in  its  movements,  and  darts  rapidly  on  its  prey. 
In  captivity  it  soon  becomes  very  tame,  and  will 
take  flies  from  those  with  whom  it  is  familiar, 
and  permit  itself  to  be  handled  without  attempt- 
ing to  bite.  It  is  usually  kept  in  a  cage, 
having  an  inner  compartment  filled  with  moss 
or  dried  bran,  in  which  it  buries  itself,  and  will 
remain  in  a  state  of  hybernation  during  the 
winter.  This  Lizard  should  be  protected  from 
sudden  changes  of  weather,  for  it  is  very  sensi- 
tive, and  does  not  well  endure  cold  ;  it  delights 
to  bask  in  the  genial  rays  of  the  sun,  while 
its  burnished  skin  glitters  with  metallic  bril- 
liancy. From  beauty  and  utility  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  Insects,  it  might  be  kept  with  advantage 
in  vineries  or  green-houses.  The  general  colour 
of  this  elegant  little  species  is  a  rich  metallic 
green,  fading  into  a  paler  or  yellowish  tint  on 
the  under  parts ;  the  back  and  head  are  some- 
times minutely  freckled  with  black,  occasionally 
with  yellow,  and  a  blue  tinge  not  unfrequently 
pervades  the  head. 

A  larger  species,  attaining  to  sixteen  inches 
or  more  in  length,  also  remarkable  for  the 
beauty  of  its  colouring,  is  a  native  of  the 
southern  provinces  of  Europe,  and  the  north 
of  Africa.  It  is  the  Eyed  Lizard  {Laccrta 
occllata),  so  called  from  being  ornamented  with 
round  spots  of  gold  and  blue,  and  with  rings 
and  irregular  markings  of  black  on  a  bright 
green  ground.  In  its  actions  it  is  extremely 
prompt  and  rapid,  and  as  it  darts  along  its 
colour  glistens  with  metallic  lustre  in  the  sun. 
When  driven  to  act  upon  the  defensive,  it 
manifests  great  spirit,  attacking  its  assailant 
with  determined  resolution  ;  and  when  it  fastens 
on  the  muzzle  of  a  Dog,  it  will  suffer  itself  to 
be  killed  before  it  will  let  go  its  hold.  It 
makes  deep  burrows  at  the  roots  of  trees,  under 
hedges,  and  in;  vineyards  sloping  to  the  sun, 
always  preferring  a  south  or  south-east  aspect. 
Frequently  it  excavates  a  deep  retreat  in  layers 
of  sand  or  other  material  easily  worked,  separ- 
ating two  beds  of  hard  calcareous  rock.  Like 
all  the  True  Lizards,  this  species  is  quick-eyed 
and  wary,  and  disappears  within  its  burrow  with 
wonderful  celerity. 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  at  their 
Gardens  in  Regent's  Park,  the  following  are  some  of  the  more 
remarkable  kinds  of  Lizards  :—TiiE  Stump-tail  Lizard  (7>ac/<y- 
dosaurus  rugosus). — The  Great  Cyclodus  {Cyclodus  gigas). — 
The  Ocellated  Lizard  {Lacerfa  ocellata).—1'a.-E  Australian 
Monitor  {^Monitor  goztldii.J 

The  LacertidcB  are  represented  in  America  by  the  Ameivid<z, 
which  resemble  them  in  their  general  characters,  but  differ  in  having- 
solid  teeth  firmly  attached  to  the  jaws,  which  are  furnished  with  a 
deep  furrow  for  their  reception.  The  species  of  this  family  resemble 
their  old-world  relatives  in  habits.  They  live  on  the  ground  in  woods 
and  hedges,  and  feed  principally  upon  Insects,  although  they  not 
unfrequently  also  capture  small  Vertebrate  Animals. 

Some  of  the  Ameivas  attain  a  large  size,  the  Teguexin  {Teius 
teguexiii),  which  inhabits  Brazil  and  Guiana  measuring  sometimes 
as  much  as  six  feet  in  length.  It  is  a  voracious  Animal,  preying 
upon  Mice,  Frogs,  and  other  small  Animals,  and  it  is  said  occa- 
sionally to  visit  the  poultry  yards,  to  feed  on  the  chickens  or  eggs. 
Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  in  Brazil ;  it  is  said  to  be  white,  and  not 


646 


THE  THICK-TONGUED  LIZARDS. 


unlike  that  of  a  fowl  in  flavour.  When  pursued,  the  Teguexin  does 
not  allow  itself  to  be  taken  without  a  strug^gle  ;  it  runs  with  great 
swiftness,  and  strikes  such  violent  blows  at  the  Dogs  with  its  tail 
that  they  do  not  readily  venture  to  attack  it.  When  brought  to  bay, 
it  fights  boldly,  and  inflicts  severe  bites  upon  anything  that  comes 
within  its  reach.  The  species  of  the  genus  Ameiva  are  elegant  and 
inoffensive  Lizards,  which  abound  especially  in  the  West  Indies. 
(See  Fig.  1624.) 


Fig.  1624. — The  Teguexin. 

The  ViTranid(S,  which  form  the  last  family  of  the  Slender-tongued 
Lizards,  resemble  the  preceding  families  in  the  form  of  their  bodies, 
and  in  the  constant  development  of  the  limbs,  but  differ  from  them  in 
having  the  head  and  belly  covered  with  scales,  resembling  those  of 
the  rest  of  the  body,  instead  of  the  shield-like  plates  which  form  the 
clothing  of  those  parts  in  the  Lacertida  and  Ameivida:.  The  head 
is  elongated,  and  the  tongue,  which  is  very  long  and  distinctly  bifid, 
like  that  of  a  Snake,  is  received  at  the  base  in  a  membranous  sheath, 
the  tail  is  very  long,  usually  compressed  and  keeled  ;  and  the  feet 
large,  and  furnished  with  long  toes,  terminated  by  strong  claws. 

The  species  of  this  family  are  confined  to  the  Old  World,  with  the 
exception  of  a  single  species,  the  Heloda-ma  hori-idum,  or  Calte- 
tepon  (See  Fig.  1625),  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  Mexico,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  possession  of  furrowed  fangs  at  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  jaws — a  structure  which  gives  some  support  to  the  belief 
in  its  venomous  properties  entertained  by  the  inhabitants  of  its 
native  country.  It  differs  so  much  from  the  other  species  of  the 
family,  that  Dr.  Gray  has  founded  a  separate  family  (the  Heloder- 
mida:)  for  its  reception. 


Fig.  1625. — Rough-scaled  Heloderma. 

The  best  known  species  of  the  family  are  the  Monitors,  which 
inhabit  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers,  where  they  are  said  to  give 
notice  of  the  presence  of  Crocodiles  by  a  sort  of  whistling  noise  ; 
and  this  is  probably  the  origin  of  the  name  Monitor,  applied  to  the 
Reptiles.  A  species  of  this  genus,  the  Ilonitor  niloticus,  is  common 
in  Egypt,  where  it  attains  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet.  This  Animal 
is  said  to  devour  the  eggs  of  Crocodiles ;  and  it  is  probable  some 
such  opinion  was  entertained  by  the  ancient  Egyytians,  as  the 
Monitor  is  frequently  represented  upon  their  monuments.  Similar 
species  inhabit  the  neighbourhood  of  water  in  various  parts  of  the 
Old  World.  The  Hydrosaurus  Bellii  (Fig.  1626),  occurs  in  Aus- 
tralia. 

The  other  species  of  the  family  frequent  dry  sandy  places.  One 
species,  the  Psaininosaurus  sciiicus,  is  common  in  the  Egyptian 
deserts  ;  it  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  True  Skink  of  the  ancients. 


The  Thick-tongued  Isvzksji^—Pachyglossa. 

The  Geckos.— Of  the  Pachyglossa,  or  Thick-tongued  Lizards,  the 
first  family  is  that  of  the  Geckos  {GeckotidcB),  a  group  including  a 
great  number  of  species  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  These 
Lizards  are  of  a  depressed  form  with  a  distinct  neck,  and  the  whole 
upper  surface  of  the  body  is  covered  with  granular  scales.  The  eyes 
are  large  and  prominent,  but  furnished  with  no  true  eyelids  ;  the 
pupil  forms  a  perpendicular  cleft.  The  cars  are  exposed,  but  small. 
The  legs  are  short,  and  terminated  by  five  nearly  equal  toes,  which 
are  usually  destitute  of  claws,  but  are  furnished  beneath  with  a  pecu- 


Fig.  1626. — Hydrosauras  Bellii. 

liar  apparatus  for  clinging,  very  similar  in  its  action  to  that  by 
which  many  Insects  are  enabled  to  walk  upon  polished  perpendicular 
surfaces.  The  lower  part  of  each  toe  is  dilated,  forming  a  sort  of 
disc,  the  inferior  surface  of  which  is  composed  of  numerous  trans- 
verse, notched  laminffi,  between  which  a  sticky  fluid  exudes.  By 
means  of  this  apparatus  the  Geckos  are  enabled  to  run  up  a  perpen- 
dicular wall  with  great  facility,  and  even  to  cross  a  ceiling  with  their 
backs  downwards,  a  power  which  no  doubt  assists  them  greatly  in  the 
capture  of  the  Flies  and  other  Insects  which  constitute  their  principal 
food.  They  are  nocturnal  Animals,  and  very  active,  moving  about 
with  great  rapidity,  but  without  the  least  sound. 

The  Geckos  occur  in  great  abundance  in  warm  climates.  They 
are  generally  of  a  repulsive  appearance,  and  this  is  no  doubt  the 
reason  why  many  of  the  species  are  considered  venomous  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  countries  where  they  occur.  Three  species  are 
found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  of  which  the  best  known  is  the  Taren- 
tola,  or  Wall  Gecko  {Plafydacfyliis  mui-alis),  which  inhabits  all  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  It  receives  its  name  from 
its  habit  of  living  in  the  holes  of  old  walls  (Fig.  1627.) 


Fig.  1627.— Tlie  Wall  Gecko. 

The  name  Gecko,  applied  to  these  Lizards,  is  said  to  be  an  imita- 
tion of  the  sound  produced  by  one  of  the  species,  the  Gecko  verus, 
or  True  Gecko,  an  inhabitant  of  India  and  the  neighbouring  coun- 
tries. They  do  not  all  emit  a  ismilar  sound,  however;  for  the 
common  species  in  the  West  Indies,  Thecadacfyhts  laz'is,  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  Croaking  Lizard,  from  the  singular  noise  it 
makes.  Mr.  Gosse  states  that  this  Animal  is  to  be  seen  and  heard 
in  every  boiling-house  in  Jamaica,  where  it  reposes  during  the  day 
upon  the  rafters.  It  is  universally  regarded  as  venomous  in  the 
West  Indies  ;  but  this,  as  Mr.  Gosse  hints,  is  undoubtedly  due  to  its 
repulsive  appearance. 

The  Iguanas. — The  Iguanidce  constitute  another  exceedingly 
numerous  family.  They  are  frequently  of  considerable  size  ;  the  head 
is  usually  broad  and  flattened,  and  frequently  furnished  with  comb- 
like ridges,  or  membranous  lobes,  and  similar  appendages  are  usually 
continued  along  the  back.  The  throat,  also,  is  almost  always  furnished 
with  membranous  expansions  of  some  kind  ;  these  sometimes  take  the 
form  of  large,  loose,   inflatable  sacs,  which  are    often  brilliantly 


THE  IGUANAS. 


647 


coloured,  and  sometimes  constitute  large  frills  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck  (Fig-.  1628).  The  eyes  are  always  furnished  with  lids,  which 
can  be  completely  closed  ;  the  ears  arc  freely  exposed,  and  the 
tonijuc  is  short  and  thick,  and  free  only  at  the  tip. 


Fig.  162S. — Head  of  tlie  Chlamydosaurus  Kingii. 

The  Iguanidce  are  divisible  into  two  great  sections,  upon 
characters  derived  from  the  teeth,  and  these  also  correspond  with 
the  geographical  distribution  of  the  species.  Thus  the  American 
species,  or  the  true  Igttanidcs,  have  a  deep  furrow  in  all  the  jaws  ;  and 
the  teeth,  which  are  often  curiously  flattened  and  toothed  at  the  free 
edge  are  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  jaw-bone.  In  the 
species  inhabiting  the  Old  World,  on  the  contrary — composing  the 
sub-family  AgamidcB — the  teeth  always  grow  upon  the  edge  of  the 
jaw. 

The  Common  Iguana  {Iguana  iuberculata). — This  species  is  a 
native  of  Brazil,  Cayenne,  the  Antilles,  and  the  Bahamas,  &c.,  and 
attains  to  a  considerable  size,  measuring  in  total  length  sometimes 
si.^  feet.  We  have  seen  many  specimens  upwards  of  four,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  tail  surpasses  the  body.  Its  flesh  is 
accounted  a  great  luxury,  being  white  and  delicate,  but  it  does  not 
agree  with  some  constitutions.  In  some  of  the  Bahama  islands 
these  Iguanas  or  Guanas  are  still  common,  but  much  more  so 
formerly,  the  race  having  been  greatly  thinned.  Catesby,  in  his 
"  Natural  History  of  Carolina"  (1743),  informs  us  that  it  is  an  article 
of  traffic  in  the  Bahamas,  being  carried  alive  from  place  to  place, 
till  required  for  the  tables  of  the  wealthy.  These  Reptiles,  he  says, 
"  nestle  in  hollow  trees  ;  their  eggs  have  not  a  hard  shell  like 
those  of  alligators,  but  a  skin  only  like  those  of  a  turtle,  and  are 
esteemed  good  food.  They  lay  a  great  number  of  eggs  at  a  time 
in  the  earth,  which  are  hatched  by  the  sun's  heat.  The  guanas 
furnish  a  great  part  of  the  subsistence  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Bahama  islands  ;  for  which  purpose  they  visit  many  of  the  remote 
kayes  and  islands  in  their  sloops,  to  catch  them,  which  they  do  by 
dogs  trained  up  for  that  purpose,  and  which  are  so  dexterous  as  not 
often  to  kill  them.  If  they  do  so  however  the  guanas  serve  only  for 
present  use  ;  if  otherwise,  they  sew  up  their  mouths  to  prevent  their 
biting,  and  put  them  into  the  hold  of  their  sloop,  until  they  have 
obtained  a  sufficient  number,  which  they  either  carry  alive  for  sale 
to  Carolina,  or  salt  and  barrel  up,  for  the  use  of  their  families  at 
home.  These  guanas  feed  wholly  on  vegetables  and  fruit,  especially 
on  a  particular  kind  of  fungus  growing  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  on 
the  fruits  of  the  different  kinds  of  Ananas ;  their  flesh  is  easy  of 
digestion,  delicate,  and  well  tasted :  they  are  sometimes  roasted, 
but  the  more  common  mode  is  to  boil  them,  taking  out  the  fat, 
■which  is  melted  and  clarified  and  put  into  a  dish,  into  which  they 
dip  the  flesh  of  the  guana  as  they  eat  it.  Though  not  amphibious 
they  (the  guanas)  are  said  to  keep  underwater  above  an  hour.  They 
cannot  run  fast,  and  their  holes  are  a  greater  security  to  them  than 
their  heels.  They  are  so  impatient  of  cold  that  they  rarely  appear 
out  of  their  holes  but  when  the  sun  shines." 

In  Jamaica  this  Lizard  is  now  nearly  if  not  quite  extinct ;  formerly 
it  was  tolerably  common.  Brown,  in  his  History  of  that  island  (1756), 
says  that  the  Guana  lives  for  a  considerable  time  without  food  (as 
indeed  do  most  Reptiles),  and  changes  its  colour  with  the  weather, 
or  the  natural  moisture  of  its  place  of  residence.  "  I  have  kept," 
he  adds,  "  a  grown  guana  about  the  house  for  more  than  two  months  : 
it  was  very  fierce  and  ill-natured  at  the  beginning,  but  after  some 
few  days  it  grew  more  tame,  and  would  at  length  pass  the  greatest 
part  of  the  day  upon  the  bed  or  couch,  but  always  went  out  at  night. 
The  flesh  of  this  creature  is  liked  by  many  people,  and  frequently 
served  up  in  fricassees  at  their  tables,  in  which  state  it  is  often  pre- 
ferred to  the  best  fowls.  When  taken  young  the  guana  is  easily 
tamed,  and  is  both  a  harmless  and  beautiful  creature  in  that  state." 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  dark  green,  more  or  less 
tinged  with  olive,  sometimes  with  blue;  generally  a  few  brown  bands 
are  observable  on  the  sides ;  the  tail  is  alternately  ringed  with 
brown  and  greenish,  or  yellowish-green  ;  the  sides  of  the  neck  are 
covered  with  tubercles  ;  a  large  circular  scale  is  conspicuous  on  the 


lower  jaw  below  the  tympanic  membrane  of  the  auditory  orifice 
(See  Fig.  1629.) 


Fig.  1629. — The  Common  Iguana. 

The  Hooded  Basilisk  {Basiliscus  7nitratus).—T\io\x%\\  the 
Basilisk  of  the  ancients  was  a  fabulous  animal,  the  name  is  still 
retained  as  the  title  of  an  American  genus  of  Iguanian  Reptiles,  dis- 
tinguished by  an  elevated  fin-like  crest  on  the  back  and  basal  portion 
of  the  tail,  supported  by  the  elongated  spinous  processes  of  the  dorsal 
and  caudal  vertebaj :  the  skin  of  the  throat,  contrary  to  the  general 
rule,  in  the  present  Reptile  is  not  dilatable  ;  but,  to  counterbalance 
this,  there  is  a  large  membranous  sac  on  the  occiput,  capable  of  being 
distended  with  air  at  pleasure.  The  head  is  thick  and  short ;  the 
general  contour  stout ;  the  limbs  long  and  powerful  ;  the  tail  elong- 
ated, tapering,  and  compressed  at  the  sides  ;  the  toes  long  and 
armed  with  small  claws  ;  the  skin  is  covered  with  small  scales  of  a 
rhomboidal  form,  and  generally  speaking,  slightly  carinated.  Palatal 
as  well  as  maxillary  teeth.    No  femoral  pores.     (See  Fig.  1630.) 


Fig.  1630. — The  Hooded  Basilisk, 

In  their  habits  these  Animals,  like  the  Iguanas,  are  arboreal, 
climbing  with  great  ease  and  celerity ;  but  they  are  also  aquatic, 
swimming  with  great  address,  while  they  lash  the  water  from  side  to 
side  with  their  finny  tail.  They  are  said  to  live  on  grain  and  fruits. 
The  flesh  is  held  in  estimation. 

The  Hooded  Basilisk  is  a  native  of  Guiana,  Martinique,  and  the 
Tropical  countries  of  South  America  generally,  and  attains  to  a  con- 
siderable size,  the  tail  being  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  head  and 
body.  It  is  very  harmless,  though  of  a  formidable  aspect,  and  when 
alarmed  drops  off  the  branch  into  the  water  and  swims  rapidly  away. 
The  colour  is  yellowish  brown  passing  into  white  on  the 
under  parts  ;  the  throat  is  longitudinally  striped  with  leaden 
brown,  which  colour  prevails  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  a 
longitudinal  stripe,  which  is  edged  with  black,  extends  from  each 


64? 


THE  CHAMELEONS. 


eye  along  the  back  of  the  neck  to  the  sides  of  the  dorsal  region,  and 
there  blends  with  the  general  tint.  The  hood  and  crests  are  more 
developed  in  the  male  than  the  female. 

As  already  mentioned  many  of  the  TguaiiidcB  appear  to  be  par- 
tially aquatic  in  their  habits  ;  and  one  species,  the  Avihlyrhynchus 
cristafus,  which  is  common  on  the  Galapagos  Islands,  passes  the 
greater  part  of  its  time  in  the  sea.  Mr.  Darwin,  the  first  naturalist 
who  observed  this  Lizard,  describes  its  habits  in  the  following  words  : 
— "  It  lives  exclusively  on  the  rocky  sea  beaches,  and  is  never  found 
— at  least  I  never  saw  one — even  ten  yards  in-shore.  It  is  a  hideous- 
looking  creature,  of  a  dirty  black  colour,  stupid,  and  sluggish  in  its 
movements.  The  usual  length  of  a  full-grown  one  is  about  a  yard  ; 
but  there  are  some  even  four  feet  long.  I  have  seen  a  large  one, 
which  weighed  twenty  pounds.  These  Lizards  are  occasionally  seen 
some  hundred  yards  from  the  shore,  swimming  about ;  and  Captain 
CoUnett,  in  his  voyage,  says,  •  they  go  out  to  sea  in  shoals  to  fish.' 
With  respect  to  the  object,  I  believe  he  is  mistaken  ;  but  the  fact, 
stated  on  such  good  authority,  cannot  be  doubted.  When  in  the 
water  the  animal  swims  with  perfect  ease  and  quickness,  by  a  ser- 
pentine movement  of  its  body  and  flattened  tail — the  legs  during  this 
time  being  perfectly  motionless,  and  closely  collapsed  on  its  sides. 
A  seaman  on  board  sank  one  with  a  heavy  weight  attached  to  it, 
thinking  thus  to  kill  it  directly  ;  but  when,  an  hour  afterwards,  he 
drew  up  the  line,  the  Lizard  was  quite  alive.  Their  limbs  and  strong 
claws  are  admirably  adapted  for  crawling  over  the  rugged  and 
fissured  masses  of  lava  which  everywhere  form  the  coast.  In  such 
situations,  a  group  of  six  or  seven  of  these  hideous  reptiles  may  often- 
times be  seen  on  the  black  rocks,  a  few  feet  above  the  surf,  basking 
in  the  sun  with  outstretched  legs."  Ugly  as  they  are,  these  Lizards 
are  quite  harmless,  their  food  consisting  of  sea-weed. 

Some  of  the  Iguaiiidcs  are  of  the  most  brilliant  green  colour, 
with  the  large  sac  beneath  the  neck  of  a  beautiful  orange  tint ;  when 
irritated  or  alarmed,  however,  they  quickly  change  this  gay  livery  for 
a  more  sombre  colour,  and  many  of  them  become  perfectly  black 
under  these  circumstances. 

The  Agamides,  or  Old  World  Iguanas,  are  principally  inhabitants 
of  the  warmer  regions  of  Asia  and  Australia,  and  the  intervening 
islands;  a  few  are  found  in  the  south  of  Australia,  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  and  New  Zealand,  and  some  others  in  Africa,  from  Egypt  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  their  general  form,  and  in  the  character 
of  their  peculiar  appendages  they  closely  resemble  the  American 
species  ;  but  some  of  these  are  very  remarkable.  Amongst  these  is 
the  following  which  has  already  been  mentioned  : — 

The  Frilled  Lizard  {Chlamydosaurus  kingii).  (See  Fig. 
1628  ante.)  This  extraordinary  Lizard,  a  native  of  Australia,  is  at 
once  to  be  known  by  an  expanse  of  skin  supported  by  a  crescent- 
shaped  cartilage  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  forming  an  expanded 
frill,  capable  of  being  folded  up  or  spread  out ;  the  edge  of  this  frill 
is  serrated,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  small  keeled  scales  ;  the 
head  is  short ;  the  tail  long ;  the  feet  well  adapted  for  climbing. 
There  are  femoral  pores. 

When  fully  grown,  this  species  measures  nearly  three  feet  in  total 
length  ;  it  is  arboreal  in  its  habits,  and  was  first  discovered  by  Mr. 
Allan  Cunningham,  who  accompanied  Captain  King's  expedition  as 
botanical  collector.  He  found  the  specimen,  from  which  the  original 
description  was  taken,  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  in  Careening  Bay,  at 
the  bottom  of  Port  Nelson,  and  sent  it  to  Sir  E.  Home,  by  whom  it 
was  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  In 
his  Journal,  Mr.  Cunningham  thus  writes  : — "  I  secured  a  lizard  of 
extraordinary  appearance,  which  had  perched  itself  upon  the  stem  of 
a  small  decayed  tree  ;  it  had  a  curious  crenated  membrane,  with  a 
ruff,  or  tippet  round  its  neck,  covering  its  shoulders,  and  when  ex- 
panded by  means  of  slender  transverse  cartilages,  it  spreads  five 
inches  on  each  side,  in  the  form  of  an  open  umbrella.  Its  head  was 
rather  large,  and  its  eyes,  whilst  living,  rather  prominent ;  its 
tongue,  though  bifid,  was  thick  and  short,  and  appeared  to  be  tubular." 
Several  fine  specimens  of  this  Lizard  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

Captain  Grey  (see  his  "  Travels  in  Australia,"  vol.  i.,  p.  194)  says 
— "  As  we  were  pursuing  our  route  in  the  afternoon,  we  fell  in  with  a 
specimen  of  the  remarkable  frilled  lizard  {Chlamydosauriis  kingii). 
It  lives  principally  in  trees,  though  it  can  run  very  swiftly  along  the 
ground.  When  not  provoked  or  disturbed,  it  moves  quietly  about, 
with  its  frill  lying  back  in  plaits  upon  the  body  ;  but  it  is  very  iras- 
cible, and  directly  it  is  frightened  it  elevates  the  frill,  or  ruff,  and 
makes  for  a  tree,  where,  if  overtaken,  it  throws  itself  upon  its  stern, 
raising  its  head  and  chest  as  high  as  it  can  upon  the  fore-legs,  then 
doubling  its  tail  underneath  the  body,  and  displaying  a  very  formid- 
able set  of  teeth  from  the  concavity  of  its  large  frill,  it  boldly  faces 
an  opponent,  biting  fiercely  whatever  is  presented  to  it,  and  even 
venturing  so  far  in  its  rage  as  to  fairly  make  a  charge  at  its  enemy. 
We  repeatedly  tried  the  courage  of  this  lizard,  and  it  certainly  fought 
bravely  whenever  attacked.  From  the  anmial  making  so  much  use 
of  its  frill  as  a  covering  and  means  01  defence  for  its  body,  this  is 
most  probably  one  of  the  uses  to  which  nature  intended  the  appen- 
dage should  be  applied." 

The  general  colour  of  this  species  is  yellowish-brown,  variegated 
with  black  ;  tongue  and  inside  of  the  mouth  yellow. 


A  still  more  remarkable  development  of  the  dermal  system  is  pre- 
sented by  the  little  Flying  Dragons  of  the  East  Indies,  which  are 
furnished  with  a  broad  membranous  lobe  on  each  side  ;  this  is  sup- 
ported by  the  six  first  false  ribs,  which  are  extended  straight  outwards 
from  the  vertebral  column  (Fig.  1631.)  By  the  movements  of  these 
bones,  the  Dragons  are  enabled  to  stretch  their  broad  lateral  mem- 
branes, which  thus  form  a  sort  of  parachute  to  support  them  in  long 
leaps  from  branch  to  branch.  They  are,  however,  quite  destitute  of 
any  power  to  strike  the  air,  so  that  their  flight  is,  in  fact,  nothing 
but  a  floating  through  the  air.  The  Flying  Dragons  of  the  older 
writers  are  fabulous  creatures,  and  their  descriptions  are  known  to 
have  been,  in  some  instances,  founded  upon  articles  manufactured 
for  the  express  purpose  of  taking-in  the  too  credulous  naturalist. 


Fig.  1 63 1— The  Flying  Dragon  (Draco  volans). 

Some  other  species  of  the  Agamides  are  worthy  of  notice.  Amongst 
these  we  may  mention  the  Stellio  vulgaris,  the  Common  Stellio,  a 
common  Lizard  in  the  Levant,  and  especially  in  Egypt,  where  its 
excrements  were  formerly  collected,  and  used  as  a  cosmetic.  Cuvier 
states  that  the  Mahometans  destroy  this  Animal  wherever  they  see 
it,  because,  as  they  say,  it  insults  them  by  bowing  its  head,  in  imi- 
tation of  their  motions  when  engaged  in  prayer.  (See  Fig.  1632.) 
A  singular  species  of  this  group,  from  Australia,  has  been  described 
by  Dr.  Gray,  under  the  name  of  Aloiock  iwyridus.  The  whole  sur- 
face of  this  Lizard  is  covered  with  irregular  plates  and  strong  acute 
spines,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  bears  two  very  large  spines. 
The  larger  conical  spines  are  hollow,  forming  only  a  homy  sheath, 
placed  on  a  fleshy  process  of  the  exact  form  of  the  spine.  Dr.  Gray 
says  that  this  Lizard  is  the  most  ferocious-looking  of  any  with  which 
he  is  acquainted  ;  the  horns  on  the  head,  and  the  numerous  spines 
on  the  body,  giving  it  a  most  formidable  aspect.  The  back  of  the 
neck  is  furnished  with  a  large  rounded  protuberance,  covered  with 
granular  spinous  scales,  and  armed  on  each  side  with  a  long  conical 
spine  ;  this  appendage  greatly  increases  the  singularity  of  the 
Animal's  appearance. 

The  Chameleons— Family  ChamcBleontidcB. 

These  singular  Reptiles,  which  are  distributed  to  Africa.  India, 
and  its  islands,  the  Seychelles  Islands,  Bourbon,  and  Mauritius, 
Australia,  &c.,  but  not  America,  as  far  as  is  at  present  ascertained, 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  deep  compressed  form  of  the  body,  sur- 
mounted by  an  acute  dorsal  ridge  ;  by  the  toes  which  are  united 
together  as  far  as  the  last  joint,  and  armed  with  sharp  claws,  being 
disposed  in  two  se.s,  antagonizing  with  each  other,  three  being 
placed  anteriorly,  two  posteriorly,  and  forming,  like  the  foot  of  the 
Parrot,  efBcient  graspers  ;  by  the  surface  of  the  skin  being  covered, 
not  by  scales,  but  by  minute  horny  granules  ;  and  by  the  prehensile 
power  of  the  tapering  tail.  The  head,  we  may  add,  is  large,  and, 
from  the  shortness  of  the  neck,  seems  as  if  set  upon  the  shoulders ; 
it  is  somewhat  wedge-shaped  in  figure,  being  broad  across  the 
occiput,  which  is  surmounted  with  an  elevated  crest,  or  casque,  in 
some  species  greatly  developed  ;  an  abrupt  ridge  overtops  both  eyes, 
extending  thence  to  the  muzzle,  where  each  ridge  meets.  The  mouth 
is  very  wide,  and  the  jaw-s  are  armed  with  small  trilobed  teeth.  The 
tongue  is  a  most  extraordinary  organ,  and  is  the  instrument  by  means 
of  which  the  Animal  takes  its  Insect  prey.  It  consists  of  a  hollow 
tube,  with  a  fleshy  tuberculated  apex,  and  is  capable  of  being  darted 
out  instantaneously  to  a  great  distance,  and  as  instantaneously  re- 
tracted. When  retracted,  it  folds  up  within  itself,  somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  a  pocket  telescope  ;  it  is  lubricated  by  a  glutinous 
saliva,  and  when  fully  extended,  is  vermiform  in  appearance.  So 
rapidly  does  the  Animal  launch  this  instrument  at  a  Fly,  or  other 
Insect,  or  at  a  drop  of  water  on  a  leaf  or  twig,  and  so  rapidly  is  it 
withdrawn,  that  the  eye  can  but  just  follow  the  movement. 

The  eyes  of  the  Chameleon  have  a  singular  and  odd  expression. 
They  appear  mere  points  ■  the  whole  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
ball,  excepting  the  pupil,  being  covered  with  skin,  forming  a  single 
circular  eyelid.  The  balls  thus  covered  with  skin,  to  which  they  are 
attached,  are  set  each  in  a  large  orbit,  with  a  deep  furrow  around 
them,  and  roll  about  perfectly  independent  of  each  other;  so  that 


THE  CHAMELEONS 


649 


the  axis  of  one  eye  may  be  directed  backwards,  forwards,  upwards, 
or  downwards,  and  that  of  the  other  in  a  contrary  c'lrectinn,  the 
Animal  making-  two  distinct  surveys  at  the  same  moment,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  grotesque  effect. 

We  have  heard  of  the  Chameleon's  food  being  the  air ;  it  lives, 
however,  on  more  substantial  diet  ;  but  this  story  may  have  arisen 
from  the  following  circumstance  : — the  lungs  are  exceedingly  volu- 
minous, and  these  the  creature  is  able  to  fill  with  air,  so  as  to  puff 
itself  up,  and  in  this  state  it  often  remains  for  hours  without  any 
movement  of  respiration  being  perceptible  ;  on  exhausting  the  ungs 
of  the  air,  the  sides  of  the  body  fall  in,  and  the  frame  has  a  meagre 
appearance  till  the  lungs  are  again  inflated,  when  it  becomes  sud- 
denly bloated  as  before.  Certain  continuations  of  these  lungs  pene- 
trate the  numerous  cellules  into  which  the  abdominal  cavity  is  regu- 
larly divided,  while  others  penetrate  under  the  skin  between  the 
muscles,  to  which  the  former  adheres  only  by  lax  membranes,  espe- 
cially on  the  spine,  down  the  centre  of  the  under  parts,  and  on  the 
limbs  and  tail. 

It  may  be  asked,— Are  not  the  changes  in  the  colour  of  the  skin, 
for  which  the  Chameleon  has  been  long  celebrated,  dependent  in 


Fig.  1632.— The  Common  Stellio  and  Spine-footed  Stelli 

some  degree  on  the  respiration  and  differences  of  condition  in  the 
lungs  ?  Barrow,  indeed,  declares,  that  previously  to  the  Chameleon's 
changing  colour,  it  makes  a  long  inspiration,  swelling  out  twice  its 
usual  size,  and  that  as  the  inflation  subsides,  the  change  of  colour 
gradually  takes  place,  the  only  permanent  marks  being  two  small 
dark  lines  passing  along  the  sides.  From  this  account  some  have 
ascribed  the  transitions  of  tint  to  the  influence  of  oxygen  on  the  fluids 
and  tissues  of  the  body;  and  there  is  much  appearance  of  proba- 
bility in  the  theory. 

Dr.  Weissenborn  attributes  these  changes  to  the  varied  influence 
of  light  on  the  nervous  system. 


The  following  is  M.  Milne  Edwards's  theory,  which,  after  all,  does 
not  leave  the  subject  completely  explained.  (Sec  "Ann.  des 
Sciences  Nat.,"  Jan.,  1834.)     '^he  results  of  his  observations  are  :— 

1.  "  That  the  change  in  the  colour  of  chameleons  does  not  depend 
essentially,  cither  on  the  more  or  less  considerable  swelling  of  their 
bodies,  or  the  changes  which  might  hence  result  to  the  condition  of 
their  blood  or  circulation  ;  nor  does  it  depend  on  the  greater  or  less 
distance  which  may  exist  between  the  several  cutaneous  tubercles ; 
although  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  these  circumstances  probably 
exercise  some  influence  upon  the  phenomenon. 

2.  That  there  exist  in  the  skin  of  these  animals,  two  layers  of 
membraneous  pigment,  placed  the  one  above  the  other,  but  disposed 
in  such  a  way  as  to  appear  simultaneously  under  the  cuticle,  and 
sometimes  in  such  a  manner  that  the  one  may  hide  the  other. 

3.  "That  everything  remarkable  in  the  changes  of  colour  which 
manifest  themselves  in  the  chameleon,  may  be  explained  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  pigment  of  the  deeper  layer,  to  an  extent  more  or 
less  considerable,  in  the  midst  of  the  pigment  of  the  superficial  layer ; 
or  from  its  disappearance  beneath  this  layer. 

4.  "  That  these  displacements  of  the  deeper  pigment  do  in  reality 

occur;  and  it  is  a  probable  consequence 
that  the  chameleon's  colour  changes  dur- 
ing life,  and  may  continue  to  change  even 
after  death. 

5.  "That  there  exists  a  close  analogy 
between  the  mechanism,  by  the  help  of 
which  the  changes  of  colour  appear  to  take 
place  in  these  reptiles,  and  that  which 
determines  the  successive  appearance  and 
disappearance  of  coloured  spots  in  the 
mantles  of  several  of  the  cephalopods." 

How  the  mechanical  admixture  of  two 
pigments  can  produce  the  various  tints, 
exhibited  at  different  times  by  the  skin  of 
the  chameleon,  as  primary  yellow  and  red 
yellowish-grey,  brown  and  violet,  or  dull 
inky  blue,  is  not  very  clear.  Must  not  the 
pigments  themselves  change  colour  ?  We 
think  so. 

The  skeleton  is  remarkable  for  the 
strong  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebral 
column  ;  the  number  of  the  cervical  verte- 
br£e  is  only  five(^the  majority  of  Sauna 
having  eight) ;  it  is  represented  at  Fig. 
1633. 

Fig.     1634    represents    the     head    and 

tongue   of  the  Chameleon  in  the   act  of 

taking  prey. 

As  all  its  form  indicates,  the  Chameleon 

is  arboreal  in  its  habits ;   it  traverses  the  twigs  and  branches  in  a 

slow  and  cautious  manner,  clinging  by  the  tail,  and  grasping  with 

its  feet ;  on  the  ground  its  motions  are  awkward  and  irresolute,  and 

it  gropes  about,  using  its  limbs  in  succession  rather  than  in  pairs. 

We  have  had  abundant  opportunities  of  observing  the  Chameleon 
in  captivity,  and  cannot  say  that  it  is  very  attractive.  It  is  slow  and 
inanimate,  ever  seeking  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  in  the  rays  of  which 
it  will  bask  for  hours  together,  changing  its  tints  as  evening  draws 
on,  and  assuming  with  darkness  a  dusky  hue.  In  a  hothouse  it  will 
live  among  the  plants,  as  if  in  a  state  of  perfect  liberty,  but  never 
displays  any  intelligence  or  activity. 


Fig.  1633.— Skeleton  of  the  Chameleon, 


40 


650 


THE  CHAMELEONS. 


The  female  digs  an  excavation  in  tlio  ground  for  tlie  reception  of 
lier  eggs,  and  covers  them  with  earth  and  dried  herbage.  The  eggs 
are  numerous,  and  oval,  and  covered  with  a  tough  semicalcareous 
sort  of  parchment. 


Fig.  1634.— Head  and  Tongue  of  the  Chameleon. 

The  Common  Cha:\iei,eon  {Chameleo  vulgaris):  C.  afn'camis). 
— Tliis  species  is  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  the  northern  line  of  Africa, 
and  also  the  southern  districts  of  Spain  and  Sicily,  it  was  well  known  to 
the  ancients,  and  is  the  xn/|^^^5wv  of  Aristotle.  A  distinct  variety,  or 
nearly  allied  species,  inhabits  India.  Dr.  Weissenborn,  who  had  a 
Chameleon  for  some  months  in  his  possession,  remarks,  that  of  all 
the  circumstances  connected  with  the  variations  of  its  colour,  none 
were  more  surprising  than  the  difference  between  the  tint  of  one  side 
of  the  body  and  that  of  the  other  at  the  same  time  ;  and  he  attributes 
this  to  separate  galvanic  or  nervous  currents,  directed  independently 
of  each  other  to  the  two  sides  of  the  body. 

His  words  are:  "The  remote  causes  of  the  difference  of  colour 


Fig-  1635.— The  Common  Chameleon. 

in  the  two  lateral  halves  of  the  body  may  be  distinctly  referred  to  the 
manner  m  which  the  hght  acts  upon  the  animal.  The  statement  of 
Murrray,  that  the  side  turned  towards  the  light  is  always  of  a  darker 
colour,  is  perfectly  true ;  this  rule  holds  good  with  reference  to  the 
direct  and  diffused  light  of  the  sun  and  moon  as  to  artificial  light. 
Even  when  the  animal  was  moving  in  the  walks  of  my  garden,  and 
happened  to  come  near  enough  to  the  border  to  be  shaded  by  the 
bo.x  edging,  that  side  so  shaded  would  instantly  become  less  darkly 
coloured  than  the  other.  Now,  as  the  light  in  these  cases  seldom 
illumines  exactly  one  half  of  the  animal  in  a  more  powerful  manner 
than  the  other,  and  as  the  middle  line  is  constantly  the  line  of  de- 
marcation between  the  two  different  shades  of  colour,  we  must  evi- 
dently refer  the  different  effects  to  two  different  centres,  from  which 
the  nervous  currents  can  only  radiate,  under  such  circumstances,  to- 
wards the  organs  respectively  situated  on  each  side  of  the  mesial 
line.  Over  these  centres,  without  doubt,  the  organs  of  vision  imme- 
diately presides  ;  and  indeed  we  ought  not  to  wonder  that  the  action 
of  light  has  such  powerful  effects  on  the  highly  irritable  organization 
of  the  chameleon,  considering  that  the  eye  is  most  highly  developed 
The  lungs  are  but  secondary  effected,  but  they  are  likewise  inore 
strongly  excited  on  the  darker  side,  which  is  constantly  more  convex 
than  the  other. 

"  Many  other  circumstances  may  be  brought  forward  in  favour  of 
the  opinion  that  the  nervous  currents  in  one  half  of  the  chameleon  are 
going  on  independently  of  those  in  the  other  ;  and  that  the  animal 
has  two  lateral  centres  of  perception,  sensation,  and  motion  besides 
the  common  one  in  which  must  reside  the  faculty  of  concentration 
Notwithstanding  the  strictly  symmetrical  structure  of  the  chameleon', 
as  to  its  two  halves,  the  eyes  move  independently  of  each  other  and 
convey  different  impressions  to  their  different  centres  of  perception  ■ 
the  consequence  is,  that  when  the  animal  is  agitated,  its  movements 
appear  like  those  of  two  animals  glued  together.  Each  half  wishes 
to  move  its  own  way,  and  there  is  no  concordance  of  action.  The 
chameleon,  therefore,  is  not  able  to  swim  like  other  animals  ;  it  is  so 
frightened  if  put  into  water,  the  faculty  of  concentration  is  lost,  and 
it  tumbles  about,  as  if  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  On  the  other  hand 
when  the  creature  is  undisturbed,  the  eye  which  receives  the  stronn-est 
impression  propagates  it  to  the  common  centre,  and  prevails  upon%he 
other  eye  to  follow  that  impression  and  direct  itseU  to  the  same 
object.  The  chameleon  moreover  may  be  asleep  on  one  side  and 
awake  on  the  other.     When  cautiously  approaching  my  specimen  at 


night,  with  a  candle,  so  as  not  to  awaken  the  whole  animal  bv  the 
shaking  of  the  room,  the  eye  turned  towards  the  flame  would  onen 
and  begin  to  move,  and  tlie  corresponding  side  to  change  colour 
whereas  the  other  side  would  remain  for  several  seconds  longer  in  its 
torpid  and  changeable  state  with  its  eye  shut."  (See  "  Magazine  of 
Natural  History."  October,  1838,  p.  532.)  S   zine  01 

fll'^T"  •y,";'^^°^  ?^  Weissenborn  are  worth  consideration  ;  fuller 
details  will  be  found  in  the  work  referred  to 

n,^m;S'^r"''"f  l*"!.^''^"'  '".*^''°  views,  of  the  Fork -nosed 
Chameleon  (C//a//^«/,f<7^/;?,/«j)  a  native   of  the    continent  of  India, 


Fig.  1636.— Skulls  of  the  Fork-nosed  Chameleon. 

the  Moluccas,  Bourbon,  and  also  of  Australia.  The  top  of  the  head  is 
flat,  the  muzzle  is  prolonged  into  two  distinct  branches,  which  are 
compressed  and  dentelated  along  the  upper  and  under  margins.  In 
its  general  manners  this  strange  species  agrees  with  the  rest  of  its 
congeners,  and  we  cannot  imagine  the  end  to  be  answered  by  the 
singular  conformation  of  the  snout. 

Fossil  Saurians. 

The  ChamccIcontidcB  conclude  the  series  of  recent  ,SVz7/;7(r ;  but 
we  have  still  to  notice  a  few  groups  of  fossil  species,  which  have  no 
living  representative.  Perhaps,  in  no  branch  of  natural  history  can 
there  be  found  a  more  interesting  study  than  that  of  these  Fossil 
Saurians.  They  form  an  intermediate  link  between  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  the  upper  and  lower  Geological  Strata — the  recent  and  the 
ancient ;  and,  consequently,  they  have  become  the  subject  of  minute 
investigation  by  the  most  eminent  geologists  and  others.  Fortu- 
nately, the  British  Museum  is  rich  in  these  specimens,  particulars  of 
which  will  be  found  as  follows  : — 

The  Iguanodon.— In  the  Wealden  Fresh-water  formation  of  the 
South  of  England,  intermediate  between  the  Marine  Oolitic  deposits 
of  the  Portland  stone,  and  those  of  the  Greensand  formation  of  the 
Cretaceous  series,  the  remains  of  an  Extinct  Gigantic  Reptile  occur, 
closely  allied  to  the  Iguana  of  modern  days.  We  owe  the  discovery 
of  them  to  Dr.  Mantell.  The  teeth,  which  Cuvier  at  first  regarded 
as  those  of  a  Rhinoceros,  evidently  indicate  an  Herbivorous  appe- 
tite, and  were  fitted  for  grinding  tough  vegetables  to  a  pulp.  The 
length  of  this  Reptile  could  not  have  been  much  under  seventy  feet, 
and  was  perhaps  more.  A  description  of  the  dentition  of  the  Iguano- 
don has  been  given,  according  to  the  views  of  Professor  Owen,  at 
page  62 1  ante,  but  the  following  remarks  will  still  further  illustrate 
the  question  : — 

"The  teeth,"  writes  Dr.  Buckland,  "  exhibit  two  kinds  of  provision 
to  maintain  sharp  edges  along  the  cutting  surface,  from  their  first 
protrusion,  until  they  were  worn  down  to  the  very  stump.  The  first 
of  these  is  a  sharp  and  serrated  edge,  extending  on  each  side  down- 
wards, from  the  point  to  the  broadest  portion  of  the  body  of  the  tooth. 
The  second  provision  is  one  of  compensation  for  the  gradual  destruc- 
tion of  this  serrated  edge,  by  substituting  a  plate  of  thin  enamel,  to 
maintain  a  cutting  power  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  tooth,  until 
its  entire  substance  was  consumed  in  service.  Whilst  the  crown  of 
the  tooth  was  thus  gradually  diminishing  above,  a  simultaneous 
absorption  of  the  root  went  on  below,  caused  by  the  pressure  of  a 
new  tooth  rising  to  replace  the  old  one,  until,  by  this  continual  con- 
sumption at  both  extremities,  the  middle  portion  of  the  older  tooth 
was  reduced  to  a  hollow  stump,  which  fell  from  the  jaw  to  make 
room  for  a  more  efficient  successor."  The  young  tooth  somewhat 
resembled  a  serrated  lancet.  Dr.  Buckland  observes,  that  this 
serrature  ceased  at  the  broadest  diameter  of  the  tooth,  that  is,  pre- 
cisely at  the  line  below  which,  had  the  serrations  been  continued, 
they  would  have  had  no  effect  in  cutting.  As  these  saw-like  edges 
were  gradually  worn  away,  the  cutting  power  was  transferred  to  the 
enamel  in  front,  which  was  traversed  by  alternate  longitudinal 
ridges  and  furrows,  the  latter  serving  "  as  ribs  or  buttresses,  to 
strengthen  and  prevent  the  enamel  from  scaling  off,  and  forming, 
together  with  the  furrows,  an  edge  slightly  wavy,  and  disposed  in  a 
series  ot  minute  gouges,  or  fluted  chisels  ;  hence  the  tooth  became 
an  instrument  of  greater  power  to  cut  tough  vegetables  under  the 


FOSSIL  SAUR2ANS. 


651 


action  of  the  jaw,   than  if  the  enamel  had  been  in  a  continuous 
straight  line.     By  these  contrivances,  also,   it  continued   effective 


Fig.  1637. — Teeth  of  Fossil  Iguandon. 

during-  every  stage  through  which  it  passed,  from  the  serrated  lancet- 
point  of  the  new  tooth,  to  its  final  consumption." 


At  Fig.  1637  are  exhibited,  a,  the  crown  of  a  tooth  of  the  Iguano- 
don  not  worn  by  use,  closely  resembling  b,  the  magnified  tooth  of  a 
Recent  Iguana  ;  r,  is  a  portion  of  the  upper  jaw  of  a  Recent  Iguana 
with  eiglit  teeth  highly  magnified;  (/,  front  view  of  a  tooth  of  the 
Iguanodon,  natural  size,  the  point  is  worn  by  grinding  food;  c,  is  a 
back  view  of  the  same  tooth  ;  /,  front  and  back  view  of  a  tooth  of  the 
Iguanodon  worn  down  by  use  ;  /;,  tlie  worn  surface  ;  /i,  the  cavity 
formed  by  the  pressure  of  a  new  tooth,  as  in  the  teeth  of  the  Iguana, 
at  c.  ,' 

The  Pterodactyles.— We  next  advert  to  some  extinct  forms, 
which  at  some  remote  epoch  tenanted  our  globe,  realizing  the 
wildest  dreams  of  poetic  imagination,  and  forcibly  impress  upon  our 
minds  the  fact  of  the  great  difference  between  many  beings  which 
once  enjoyed  life  and  light,  and  those  which  after  the  lapse  of  ages 
occupy  their  places.  We  shall  first  draw  attention  to  the  Ptero- 
dactyles. These  extraordinary  animals,  which  were  regarded  by 
Blumenbach  as  Birds,  and  by  Professor  Hermann,  of  Strasburg,  as 
intermediate  between  Mammalia  and  Birds,  were  ascertained  by 
Cuvier  to  belong  to  the  Saicria,  or  Reptiles :  and  his  views  have 
been  since  amply  confirmed.  "They  are,"  he  says,  "  reptiles,  of 
which  the  principal  characters  are  a  very  short  tail,  a  very  long 
neck,  the  muzzle  much  elongated  and  armed  with  sharp  teeth  ;  the 
legs  also  long,  and  one  of  the  toes  of  the  anterior  extremity  exces- 
sively elongated,  having  probably  served  for  the  attachment  of  a 
membrane  adapted  for  supporting  them  in  the  air  ;  besides  this  there 
are  four  (or  three)  other  toes  of  the  ordinary  size,  tenninated  by  hooked 
claws."  The  remains  of  these  strange  beings  occur  in  the  Litho- 
graphic Limestone  of  the  Jura  formation  at  Aichstiidt  and  Solenhofen, 
in  the  Lias  of  Lyme  Regis,  and  the  Oolite  at  Stonesfield,  Banz,  &c. 
With  them  are  mixed  the  remains  of  Fishes,  crustaceous  creatures, 
and  large  Insects,  as  LibellulcB  and  Coleoptera.  Eight  species  are 
ascertained,  varying  in  size  from  a  Snipe  to  that  of  a  Cormorant ; 
viz.,  Pt.  longirostris  (Solenhofen)  ;  P.  brevirostrts  (Solenhofen)  ; 
P.  crassirostris  (Solenhofen) ;  P.  tnedius  (Miinster) ;  P.  jnVmsteri 
(Solenhofen)  ;  P.  macronyx  (Lyme  Regis,  and  Banz  in  Germany) ; 
P.  grandis  (Solenhofen) ;    and  P.  bucklandi  {?>\.<:i'^^%^t\A). 

The  Long-Muzzled  Pterodactvle  {Pterodactylus  Injigf- 
rostris). — (See  Fig.  1638.)  In  all  these  Pterodactyles  it  will  be 
observed  that,  while  the  head  as  a  whole  is  very  large  in  proportion 
to  the  body,  the  cranial  cavity  is  very  contracted  ;  the  orbits  are 
large,  and  extensive  facial  apertures  or  hollows  diminish  much  from 
the  weight  of  the  muzzle.  In  all  the  neck  is  very  long,  but  parti- 
cularly in  the  present  species  ;  the  vertebras  being  very  elongated 
individually,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  two.  At  the  same  time 
they  are  strong,  and  the  head,  neck,  and  jaws  were  no  doubt  moved 
by  voluminous  muscles.  The  length  of  the  jaws  armed  anteriorly 
with  sharp  teeth  is  extraordinary;  the  lower  jaw  is  slender.  The 
vertebral  column  of  the  back  and  loins  is  stout,  the  tail  short,  and 


Fig.  1638. — The  Long-muzzled  Pterodactyle. 


t'ii 


FOSSIL  SAUHIANS. 


the  ribs  slender.  This  species  equalled  a  Woodcock  in  size,  but  the 
extent  of  its  wing-membranes,  from  the  length  of  the  outer  finger  of 
the  fore-limbs,  must  have  been  very  great,  and  it  may  easily  be 
imagined  what  force  of  muscle  was  required  for  agitating  them. 
(See  Fig.  1638.) 

The  Short-Muzzled  Pterodactyle  (Pi.  brevirostris).—\-a 
this  small  species  the  muzzle  is  short,  and  Bird-like  in  its  outline, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  head  of  a  Goose,  and  the  neck  is  accord- 
ingly abbreviated.     (See  Fig.  1639.) 

The  Thick-Muzzled  Pterocactyle  {Pt.  crassirostris). — In 
this  species  the  muzzle  is  moderate  and  thick  ;  the  head  exceeds  the 
neck  in  length,  which  consists  of  enormously  stout  vertebrae,  ex- 
ceeding those  of  the  back ;  indeed  the  body  seems  disproportion- 
ately small  to  the  volume  of  the  head  and  neck  ;  but  the  anterior 
limbs  are  very  long,  and  paws  large,  and  the  finger  for  supporting 
the  membrane  greatly  developed  ;  and  no  doubt,  when  this  mem- 
brane on  each  side  was  unfolded,  it  advanced  so  as  to  prevent  the 
animal  from  necessarily  drooping  the  head  during  flight,  and  thus 
maintained  the  balance  of  the  body.  (Fig.  1640  is  a  delineation  of 
this  species). 

Dr.  Buckland  remarks  that  in  one  species  (the  Pt.  macronyx, 
from  the  Lias,  at  Lyme  Regis),  there  is  an  unusual  provision  for 
giving  support  and  movement  to  a  large  head  at  the  extremity  of  a 
long  neck,  by  the  occurrence  of  bony  tendons,  running  parallel  to 
the  cervical  vertebrae,  like  the  tendons  that  pass  along  the  back  of 
the  pigmy  Musk-deer,  and  of  many  Birds.  This  provision,  he  ob- 
serves, does  not  occur  in  any  Recent  Lizards,  whose  necks  are  short 
and  require  no  such  aid. 


and  Plesiosauri,  as  the  tyrant  of  the  waters,  its  remains  occurring 
in  strata  posterior  to  those  in  which  the  bones  of  these  latter  Rep- 
tiles are  imbedded.  It  exceeded  twenty-five  feet  in  length,  and  was 
expressly  formed  for  cleaving  the  ocean  with  wonderful  rapidity. 
The  tail  was  compressed  laterally,  high  and  deep,  in  the  vertical 
direction,  and  with  this  huge  oar  it  lashed  vigorously  from  side  to 


Fig.  1641. — Head  of  Camper's  Mosasaurus. 

side,   sculling  itself  onwards.      Instead  of  legs,  it  had  four  large 
flippers,  like  those  of  the  Plesiosaurus,  and  could,  therefore,  dive  and 


Fig.  1639. — The  Short-muzzled  Pterodactyle. 

With  respects  to  the  habits  and  food  of  these  Flying  Lizards — 
these  At;rial  Saurians,  we  can  only  form  a  conjecture.  Dr.  Buckland 
thinks  it  probable  that,  besides  having  the  power  of  flight,  they 
might  be  capable  of  swimming  also,  as  the  Rousette  Bat  of  the 
island  of  Benin  {Pteropus),  described  at  page  72  ante,  and  that  the 
larger  species  might  possibly  have  fed  upon  Fishes,  darting  at  them 
as  they  rose  to  the  surface  and  carrying  them  away ;  the  smaller 
were  probably  Insectivorous.  He  adduces  the  size  and  form  of  the 
hind  foot,  and  also  of  the  leg  and  thigh,  to  show  that  the  Pterodactyles 
had  the  power  of  standing  firmly  on  the  ground,  where,  with  their 
wings  closed,  they  possibly  moved  after  the  manner  of  Birds  ;  and 
that  they  could  also  perch,  on  trees  and  climb  on  rocks  and  clifts, 
with  their  hind  and  fore  feet  conjointly,  like  Bats  and  Lizards. 

Contemporary  with  these  strange  monsters — "  chimaeras  dirs" — 
were  monstrous  Ichthyosauri  and  Plesiosauri  ploughing  the  waters, 
while  on  the  shore  crawled  Gigantic  Crocodiles  and  Tortoises,  and 
huge  Crustaceous  Animals. 

Camper's  Mo.sasaurus  {Mosasaurus  camperi). — Head  fossil, 
(See  Fig.  1641.)'  In  the  Calcareous  hills  of  the  valley  of  the  Meuse, 
near  Maestricht,  in  the  Upper  Chalk  in  England,  and  also  in  the 
Greensand  of  Virginia,  occur  the  remains  of  a  huge  Aquatic  Lizard, 
the  head  of  which,  in  many  points,  resembles  that  of  the  Varans 
( Varatius  merseni)  of  the  present  day,  but  had  teeth  in  the  palate 
(pterygoid  bones)  as  well  as  in  the  jaws,  like  the  Iguanas.  This 
Gigantic  Reptile,  the  remains  of  which  have  been  by  some  mistaken 
for  those  of  the  Whale,  appears  to  have  succeeded  the  Iclitliyosaiiri 


Fig.  1640. — The  Thick-muzzled  Pterodactyle. 

mount  again  to  the  surface  with  the  utmost  ease.  The  ball-and- 
socket  union  of  the  vertebra;  forming  the  spinal  column  allowed  the 
utmost  flexibility  of  movement,  and  thus  was  it  organised  for  a  life 
of  aquatic  rapine,  destroying  the  largest  Fishes  with  a  snap  of  its 
tremendous  jaws.  The  head  measures  four  feet  in  length  ;  that  of 
the  largest  living  Varan  five  inches, 

Sommering's  Geosaurus  {Geosaurus  scemmertttgiij. — Fossil 
bones.     (See  Fig.  1642,  &c.) 

The  remains  of  this  Reptile  were  found  in  the  Canton  of  Meulen- 
hardt  (near  Mannheim),  at  the  depth  of  ten  feet,  and  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  remains  of  the  Crocodilus  priscus,  by  labourers 
employed  to  work  the  mines  of  granular  iron,  which  fill  the  fissures 
of  the  calcareous  schist.  Near  these  relics  were  the  shell  of  an 
Ammonite,  fragments  of  a  bluish  shell,  and  a  great  quantity  of  small 
scales.  Other  fragments  of  this  Reptile  have  been  found  in  the 
Solcnhofen  slate,  and  we  believe  in  America  (marl  of  the  Greensand,  ' 
New  Jersey).  This  species,  though  allied  to  the  preceding,  differs 
in  dental  characters  ;  and  the  orbit  presents  us  with  bony  laminae, 
which  belonged,  either  to  the  upper  eyelid,  or,  as  is  more  probable, 
to  the  sclerotic  coat  of  the  eye,  a  structure  occurring  in  the  recent 
Varans,  but  not  in  Crocodiles.  It  appears  to  have  measured  twelve 
or  thirteen  feet  in  length.  Fig.  1642,  a  and  b  represent  part  of  the 
head,  which  has  been  compressed  ;  some  of  the  sclerotic  plates  are 
still  visible  within  the  orbit,  at  b.  Fig.  1643,  c,  d,  e,  teeth  which  had 
preserved  their  shining,  hard,  and  brown  enamel.  Fig.  1644,  a  por- 
tion of  the  vertebral  column,  with  fragments  of  ribs,  &c.     Fig.  1645, 


FOSSIL  SAURIANS. 


653 


g,  another  portion  of  the  vertebral  column,  also  with  fragments  of 

The  Megalosaurus.— The  remains  of  this  enormous  Reptile 
have  been  found  in  the  Oolitic  slate  at  Stonesfield,  the  ferruginous 
Sandstone  of  Tilgate  Forest,  and  the  Oolite  cf  Normandy.  No  entire 
skeleton  has  been  discovered,  but  the  fragments  prove  its  colossal 
dimensions  ;  and  the  structure  of  its  teeth,  that  it  was  carnivorous. 
The  tliigh-bone  of  an  individual,  formerly  in  the  collection  of  Gideon 
Mantel],  Esq.,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum  (from  the  Tilgate 


Fig.  1642, — Head  of  Sommerlng's  Geosaurus. 

Forest),  measures  more  than  twenty  inches  in  circumference, 
equalling  in  magnitude  that  of  the  largest  Elephant.  Hence,^  if  the 
total  length  of  this  Reptile  was  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  its  ex- 
tremities, it  must  in  height  have  equalled  our  largest  Elephants,  and 

have  fallen  but  little  short  of  the 
largest  Whales  in  length  ;  making, 
however,  every  deduction,  it  v/ould 
not  have  measured  less  than  sixty 
or  seventy  feet.  To  such  a  Reptile 
our  hugest  Crocodiles  are  mere 
pigmies.  Thigh-bones  of  smaller 
individuals  are  in  the  Museum  of 
Oxford.  Of  these,  the  largest  is 
nearly  three  feet  in  length,  and  ten 
inches  in  circumference  at  its 
smallest  part.  Hence,  calculating 
according  to  the  ordinary  stand- 
ard of  the  Lizard  families,  the  in- 
dividual, when  alive,  could  not  have  been  less  than  from  six  to  seven 
feet  high,  nor  than  forty  feet  long.  The  teeth  of  this  Animal  were 
compressed,  sharp,  and  arched  backwards,  with  the  edges  finely 
denticulated  ;  the  germs  of  successive  teeth  (those  taking  the  place 
of  such  as  are  worn  out  and  fall)  are  in  distinct  sockets  by  the  side 
of  their  antecessors. 


Fig.  1643. — Teeth  of  Geosaurus. 


Fig.  1646  represents  a,  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  right  lower 
jaw,  seen  from  the  inside  ;  b,  the  same,  presenting  its  outer  side. 
Fig.  1647  shows  the  tooth  of  Megalosaurus,  two-thirds  the  natural 
size.  The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  conical  cavity  containing  pulp, 
within  the  root  of  the  growing  tooth  ;  a  is  a  transverse  section,  show- 
ing the  compressed  form,  rounded  back,  and  sharp  cutting-edge 
aiiteriorly. 


Fig.  1645.— Portion  of  the  Vertebral  Column. 

The  Ichthyosaurus  {Ichthyosatcriis commiaiis).—\i  is  in  the  Lias 
and  Oolitic  formations  that  the  remains  of  the  Ichthyosauri,  or  Fish 
Lizards,  abound.  They  have  been  found  chiefly  in  the  Lias  at  Lyme 
Regis  ;  but,  according  to  Dr.  Buckland,  they  exist  along  the  whole 
extent  of  this  formation  throughout  England,  from  the  coasts  of 
Dorset,  through  Somersetshire  and  Leicestershire,  to  the  coast  of 
Yorkshire.  They  are  found  also  in  the  Lias  of  France  and  Germany. 
The  range  of  the  genus  Ichthyosaurus,  says  Dr.  Buckland,  •'  seems 


Fig.  1646.— Portion  of  Lower  Jaw  of  the  Megalosaurus. 

to  have  begun  with  the  Muschelkalk,  and  to  have  extended  through 
the  whole  of  the  Oolitic  period  into  the  cretaceous  formation.  The 
most  recent  stratum  in  which  any  remains  of  this  genus  have  been 
found  is  in  the  chalk  marl  at  Dover,  where  they  have  been  discovered 
by  Dr.    Mantell.     I  have  found  them   in  the   gault,  near   Benson, 


Fig.  1644. — Vertebral  Column,  &c.,  of  SiJmmering's  Geosaurus, 


654 


FOSSIL  SAURIANS. 


Oxon."     The  general  form  of  this  extraordinary  animal  maybe  easily 
understood  from  a  sur\'ey  of  the  skeleton  as  restored  by  Conybeare, 
Fig.  1648,    Compared   with   Fig.  1649,  the   skeleton  merely    cleared 
from  the  Lias  in  which  it  was  imbedded.    Some  of  the  largest  of  these 
Aquatic  Reptiles  must  have  exceeded  thirty  feet  in  length.     Let  us 
suppose  a  Grampus,  with  sharp  muzzle,   with  four  broad  paddles, 
and  a  long  tail  laterally  compressed,  deep  and  high,  forming  a  cau- 
dal fin  for  lashing  the  water  from  side  to  side, 
large  eyes,  and  tremendous  jaws,  and  we  have 
a  tolerably  faithful  likeness  of  this  tenant  of  the 
ancient  seas.     The  whole  organization  of  the 
skeleton  demonstrates  that  the   habits  of  the 
Ichthyosaurus  were  e.\clusively  Aquatic.     The 
muzzle    is  elongated   and    pointed,   and  the 
teeth,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  eighty 
in   some   specimens,    are  set  in   a    furrow    of 
the  jaws,    and   their   succession  is  managed, 
as   in  the  Crocodile,  by  "  the  3'oung  tooth  bud- 
ding up  at  the  base  of  the  old  tooth,  where,  as 
it   grows  its   pressure  sets    the  absorbents  at 
work ;  the  base  of  the   old  tooth   is  thus  par- 
tially removed,  and  as  the  new  tooth  advances, 
is  finally  displaced  to  make  room  for  its  more 
efficient  successor."     The  nostrils    are  placed 
just  anterior  to  the  orbits,  in  which  we  observe 
still   remaining   the     osseous    sclerotic    ring, 
composed   of  distinct  portions,   placed  in   re- 
gular array.     The    eye  was   extremely  large  ; 
and  we  can  imagine  how  it  glared  with  ferocity 
as  the  monster  darted  towards  its   prey.     Tre- 
mendous  must   have   been   the   snap  of  the  jaws  when  the  Animal 
seized    his   victim,    and    as    they    are     long    and   slender,    some 
liability  to  fracture,   from  the  mere   force   of  the   muscles   produc- 
ing their  sudden  and  forceful   collision,  might  not  unreasonably  be 
expected  ;  indeed,  as  Dr.  Buckland  well  observes,  a  definite  provision 
is  made  against  this  in  the  lower  jaw,  each  ramus  of  which  consists 
of  six  pieces  of  unequal  length,  placed  together  on  the  same  principle 
as  the  plates  forming  the  steel  springs  of  carriages  ;  they  are  most 
numerous  and  strong  at  the  portion  of  the  jaw  where  the  greatest 
strength  is  required  to  be  exerted,  where   in  fact  the  main  stress  is, 
and   are  thinner  and   fewer  anteriorly.     This  arrangement  is  well 
seen  on  the  uppermost  skull,  Fig.  1650,  and  in  the  sketch  of  the 
lower  jaw,  Fig.  1651. 


Fig.  1647.— Tooth  of 
the  Megalosaurus. 


oval,  ball-and-socket  joint ;  and  Mr.  Conybeare  observes  that  this 
mode  of  articulation  co-operates  with  the  cup-shaped  form  of  the 
intervertebral  joints,  in  giving  Hexibility  to  the  vertebral  column,  and 
assisting  its  vibratory  motions  ;  for,  had  these  parts  been  consoli- 


Fig.  1650.— Upper  Skull  of  the  Ichthyosaurus. 

dated  as  in  Quadrupeds,  their  articulating  processes  must  have  locked 
the  whole  column  together,  so  as  to  render  such  a  motion  of  its  parts 
impossible. 

Every  one  knows  that  the  spinal  column  of  a  Recent  Fish  main- 


Fig.  1648. — The  Ichthyosaurus  restored. 


_  The  neck  is  short,  and  the  vertebral  column  very  peculiar ;  it  con- 
sists of  more  than  one  hundred  vertebra;,  which,  instead  of  resem- 
bling those  of  Saurian  Reptiles,  are  formed  on  the  type  of  those  of 
Fishes,  they  are,  in  fact,  concave  anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  and  were 
doubtless  filled  by  a  thick  fluid,  and  bound  together  by  elastic  cap- 
sules. "  The  sauroid  type,"  observes  Dr.  Buckland,  is  here  departed 
from,  in  favour  of  a  conformation  demanded  by  the  habits  of  the  ani- 
mal." Itis  further  noticed,  he  adds,  by  Sir  E.  Home,  that  the  annular 
part  of  the  vertebrae  (enclosing  the  spinal  cord  above)  is  neither  con- 
solidated with  the  body  of  the  separate  bones  as  in  Quadrupeds,  nor 
connected  by  any  suture  as  in  Crocodiles,  but  remains  always  dis- 
tinct, being  articulated  by  a  peculiar  joint  resembling  a  compressed, 


tains  itself  straight  (when  removed  from  the  Animal),  and  has  a 
certain  degree  of  springiness,  or  elasticity,  by  which,  when  bent,  it 
returns  to  the  same  form  ;  this  results  from  the  form  of  the  vertebras, 
the  elastic  capsules  binding  each  to  each,  and  the  presence  of  the 
fluid  which  fills  their  cup-shaped  cavities  ;  it  is  very  probable  that  in 
the  Ichthyosaurus  the  same  character  prevailed. 

Fig.  1652  represents  the  sternal  arch  and  anterior  paddles  of  this 
Animal,  in  which  it  will  be  seen  how  provision  is  made  for  the  strain 
of  the  latter,  while  breasting  the  rolling  waves ;  at  the  same  time 
the  broad  surface  of  the  clavicles,  besides  adding  to  the  strength  of 
the  chest,  afford  an  ample  and  solid  surface  for  the  attachment  of 
powerful  muscles.     The  blades  of  the  paddles,  if  we  may  use  the  ex- 


Fig.  1649. — The  Ichthyosaurus  as  found. 


FOSSIL  SAURIANS. 


65s 


pression,  consist  of  polvafonal  bones  disposed  in   regular  order,  exhi- 
biting a  tessellated  surface. 

It  is,  however,  not  only  the  external  form  and  jjeneral  habits  of 
this  beins:  of  an  antique  world,  that  the  anatomist  has  the  means  of 
ascertaining  ;  he  has  also  the  data  from  which  he  can  deduce  many 
important  inferences  with  respect  both  to  the  internal  structure  and 
the  nature  of  the  food;  indeed,  the  fossilised  contents  of  the  abdo- 
minal viscera,  termed  Coprolites,  are  often  found  in  abundance 
between  the  ribs  ;  and  without  entering  into  details,  we  may  observe 


Fig.  1651. — Lower  J.iw  of  the  Ichthyosaurus 

that  the  alimentary  canal  must  have  been  very  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Sharks  of  the  modern  ocean  ;  these  Coprolites  consist  principally  of 
the  scales  of  extinct  Fishes,  and  chiefly  of  those  of  a  species  (known  in 
a  fossil  state)  termed  Plwlido^lioriis  litnbatiis ;  these  scales  are  not 
only  found  in  most  of  the  Coprolites,  but  dispersed  throughout  the 
entire  region  of  the  ribs.  Fig.  1653  shows  the  ordinary  form  of  the 
Coprolites  :  «  is  a  magnified  scale  of  Pholidophortis  limbafus  im- 
bedded therein  (internal  surface) ;  b,  the  external  surface  of  the 
same. 


fig.  1652 — Sternal  Arch  and  Anterior  Paddles  of  the  Ichthyosaurus. 

With  respect  to  the  tegumentary  covering  of  the  Ichthyosaurus, 
■we  may  conclude,  from  the  absence  of  plates  or  large  scales,  or  the 
impressions  of  such,  in  the  Lias,  that  it  was  simple  and  naked,  re- 
sembhng  that  of  the  Grampus  and  other  cetaceous  Animals.     Thus 

then,  from  the  beds  of  Lias  in 
which  they  have  been  entombed 
for  ages,  have  the  relics  of  these 
Aquatic  Saurians  "been  sum- 
moned by  the  labours  of  the  geo- 
logist to  give  evidence  of  events 
that  passed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ancient  seas,  in  ages  long  preced- 
ing the  existence  of  man."  They 
tell  of  seas  over  which  the  canoe 
of  the  savage  never  floated,  yet 
teeming  with  life  ;  of  a  system  of 
warfare  and  destruction  in  which 
man  took  no  part  ;  of  alterations 
on  the  surface  of  our  planet,  them- 
selves being  the  historic  monu- 
ments ;  of  changes  in  the  forms  of 
organic  existence  ;  of  races  com- 
mencing, spreading  far  and  wide, 
and  then  blotted  out  of  the 
catalogue  of  living  things.  This 
is  no  dream  of  fancy,  no  theory 
i'lg.  1653 — Coprolite  of  the  Tchthyo- based  upon  an  unstable  founda- 
^^"'^"^'  tion  ;  the  proofs  aro  abundant,  and 

such  as  to  force  conviction.  We 
may  picture  to  ourselves  the  huge  Ichthyosaurus  ploughing  the  bil- 
lows, driving  the  shoals  of  Fish  before  him,  pursuing  them  with   un- 


relenting pertinacity,  and  thinning  their  numbers;  we  may  picture 
him  cruising  about  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  scattering  terror  in  the 
finny  hordes  around  ;  but  a  change  has  taken  place,  and  the  plough- 
man drives  his  team  where  the  Ichthyosaurus,  entombed  below,  once 
revelled  in  his  might. 

Several  distinct  species  of  Ichthyosaurus  are  recorded  by  Professor 
Owen,  viz.  :  IcMh.  communis,  Conybeare  ;  Iiitermedius,  Con.  ; 
Platyodon,  Con.;  Conchiodoti,  Owen;  Lafi/roiis,  Konig;  La(i- 
manus,  Owen ;  Thyreospondyliis,  Owen ;  Trigoiius,  Owen ; 
Tentn'rostris,  Con.  ;  and  Acutirostris,  Owen. 

This  admirable  anatomist,  comparing  the  paddles  of  these  Enalio- 
saurians— derived  from  H'dXiot,  marine  ;  tavpoq,  a  Lizard— as  they 
are  termed,  with  those  of  the  Ccfacea,  comments  on  the  development 
of  the  clavicles,  and  of  the  sterno-clavicular  and  coracoid  arches  in 
the  former,  an  apparatus  which  would  enable  the  animals,  if  stranded, 
to  raise  themselves  up  and  regain  the  water,  like  Seals,  w-hich  the 
Ccfacea  cannot  do  ;  and  he  adds,  "  Doubtless  the  anterior  paddles 
might  be  subservient  to  locomotion,  not  only  in  the  water,  but  on 
land  ;  that  when  applied  to  the  resisting  soil,  they  might  react  with 
due  force  upon  the  trunk.  It  is  very  conceivable  that  the  Ichthyo- 
saurus, like  the  Crocodile,  may  have  come  ashore  to  sleep,  or  to 
deposit  its  eggs,  supposing  them  to  have  been  oviparous,  as  the 
sum  of  their  analogies  deducible  from  their  osseous  texture  would 
indicate.  The  hind  paddles  would  also  be  serviceable  in  terrestrial 
progression,  while  in  the  strictly  marine  Ccfacea  they  can  readily  be 
dispensed  with." 

If  the  Ichthyosaurus  ever  came  on  shore,  its  motions  must  have 
been  awkward  and  shuffling,  not  perhaps  unlike  those  of  the  Marine 
Turtles,  which  perhaps  also  resemble  it  in  its  mode  of  depositing  and 
burying  its  eggs. 

The  Plesiosaurus  {Plenosatirtts  dolichodeirus). — ^\Ve  are  here 
presented  with  another  group  of  extinct  Enaliosaurians,  of  strange 
form,  the  existence  of  which  was  contemporary  with  that  of  the 
Ichthyosaurus,  their  remains  occurring  in  the  same  strata. 

The  skeleton  of  the  Plesiosaurus  (Fig.  1654)  was  found  in  1823,  at 
Lyme  Regis,  imbedded  in  the  Shale  or  Slate,  which  lies  between  the 
beds  of  Lias  Limestone,  and  is  crushed  almost  flat,  probably  by  the 
deposition  of  the  vast  mass  of  stone  above  it.  Its  components  parts, 
however,  are  easily  made  out  ;  the  bones  of  the  body  having  suffered 
the  most  distortion.  The  small  head,  elongated  neck,  four  ample 
paddles,  and  short  tail,  are,  with  the  exception  of  one  paddle,  very 
apparent  ;  the  vertebras  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  and  chest,  and 
the  ribs,  are  disunited  and  scattered  confusedly  ;  yet  from  these  may 
the  skeleton  be  rebuilt,  and  a  fair  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the 
living  Animal  deduced.  It  was  a  Reptile  with  large  flippers, 
adapted  for  Aquatic  progression,  with  a  flexible  neck,  exceeding  the 
body  in  length,  and  terminated  by  a  small  head,  the  jaws  being 
armed  with  formidable  teeth.  Dr.  Buckland  truly  observes  that  the 
discovery  of  this  genus  forms  one  of  the  most  important  additions 
that  geology  has  made  to  comparative  anatomy.  "  It  is  of  the 
Plesiosaurus,"  he  adds,  "  that  Cuvier  asserts  the  structure  to  have 
been  the  most  heteroclite,  and  its  characters  altogether  the  most 
monstrous,  that  have  been  yet  found  amidst  the  ruins  of  a  former 
world.  To  the  head  of  a  Lizard  it  united  the  teeth  of  a  Crocodile  ;  a 
neck  of  enormous  length,  resembling  the  body  of  a  serpent ;  a  trunk 
and  tail  having  the  proportions  of  an  ordinary  quadruped  ;  the  ribs 
of  a  chameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a  whale.  Such  are  the  strange 
combinations  of  form  and  structure  in  the  Plesiosaurus,  a  genus,  the 
remains  of  which,  after  interment  for  thousands  of  years,  amidst  the 
wreck  of  millions  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  ancient  earth,  are  at 
length  recalled  to  light  by  the  researches  of  the  geologist,  and  sub- 
mitted to  our  examination,  in  nearly  as  perfect  a  state  as  the  species 
that  are  now  existing  upon  the  earth." 

Conybeare,  who,  when  materials  were  far  more  scanty  than  at  pre- 
sent, with  singular  acumen,  restored  the  skeleton  of  this  wonderful 
extinct  Animal,  thus  deduces  a  rationale  of  its  probable  habits  and 
manners:  "That  it  was  aquatic,"  he  says,  "is  evident  from  the 
form  of  its  paddles  ;  that  it  was  marine  is  almost  equally  so,  from  the 
remains  with  which  it  is  universally  associated  ;  that  it  may  have 
occasionally  visited  the  shore,  the  resemblance  of  its  extremities  to 
those  of  a  turtle  may  lead  us  to  conjecture ;  its  motion,  however, 
must  have  been  awkward  on  land  ;  its  long  neck  must  have  impeded 
its  progress  through  the  water,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
organisation  which  so  admirably  fits  the  Ichthyosaurus  to  cut  through 
the  waves.  May  it  not,  therefore,  be  considered  (since  in  addition  to 
these  circumstances  its  respiration  must  have  required  frequent  ac- 
cess of  air)  that  it  swam  upon  or  near  the  surface,  arching  back  its 
long  neck  like  the  swan,  and  occasionally  darting  it  down  at  the  fish 
which  happened  to  float  within  its  reach  ?  It  may,  perhaps,  have 
lurked  in  shoal  water  along  the  coast,  concealed  among  the  seaweed, 
and,  raising  its  nostrils  to  the  surface,  from  a  considerable  depth, 
have  found  a  secure  retreat  from  the  assaults  of  dangerous  enemies  ; 
while  the  length  and  flexibility  of  its  neck  may  have  compensated 
for  the  want  of  strength  in  its  jaws  and  its  incapacity  for  swift  mo- 
tion through  the  water,  by  the  suddenness  and  agility  of  the  attack 
which  they  enabled  it  to  make  on  every  animal  fitted  for  its  prey 
which  came  .within  its  reach." — ("  Geol.  Trans."  vol.  i.  p.  388,  N.  S.) 


6s6 


FOSSIL    SA  URIANS. 


The  species  of  Plesiosaurus  determined,  are  even  more  numerous 
than  those  of  the  Ichthyosaurus,  among-  which  are  the  following — 
viz.  :  PL  ha'iVkcnsii,  Owen  ;  Dolichodcinis,  Conybearc  ;  Macrocc- 
fhahis,  Conybeare ;  Brachyccphalus,  Owen;  Jilacroiiuis,  Owen; 
Pachyoinus,  Owen;  Arctiahis,  Owen;  Siibfrigonous,  Owen;  Tri- 
gonous, Cuvier  ;  Brachyspondylus,  or  BrachistcEpondyliis,  Owen  ; 
Costatus,  Owen  ;  Dcedicomus,  Owen  ;  Rugosus,  Owen  ;  Grandis, 
Owen  ;  Trochantcrius,  Owen  ;  and  Affinis,  Owen.  Others  will  be 
named  at  the  end  of  this  article,  as  may  now  be  found  in  the  British 
Museum. 


morass  was  crowded  with  plants  apparently  resembling  the  equise- 
tum  ;  overhead  sailed  the  Pterodactyles ;  various  Insects  flitted 
about,  hovering  over  the  marsh,  along  the  borders  of  which  wandered 
the  huge  Megalosaurus ;  the  waters  teemed  with  life ;  Turtles, 
Fishes,  Ammonites,  Nautili,  Echini,  and  Cuttle-flsh,  with  varied 
Encrintes  and  Corals,  lived  and  perished  in  those  seas  whose 
billows  were  breasted  by  Ichthyosauri  and  Plesiosauri,  darting  after 
their  prey,  and  leaving  a  hoary  track  behind  them.  But  silence 
reigned,  save  when  some  monster  uttered  a  hideous  hiss  or  roar,  or 
lashed  the  water  into  foam  ;  no  Birds  saluted  the  morning  sun  with 


Fig.  1654. — The  Fossil  remains  of  the  Plesiosaurus,  as  found  .it  Lyme  Regis. 


We  shall  now  proceed  to  offer  a  few  general  observations  on  thebones 
of  this  genus,  of  which  we  have  some  interesting  pictorial  examples. 

Fig.  1655  represents  the  skeleton  of  the  P/esiosaurus  dolicho- 
darns  as  restored  by  Conybeare.  The  head  (Fig.  1656,  a,  the 
profile;  b,  the  upper  surface)  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  Crocodile  in 
general  form,  but  is  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  body  ;  in  the 
elongated  form  of  the  strong  cranial  bones,  and  also  in  other  details, 
it  exhibits,  as  Professor  Owen  remarks,  an  affinity  to  that  of  the  La- 
certian  Saurians.    The  nostrils  are  situated  just  anterior  to  the  orbits. 

The  usual  complicated  structure  observable  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the 
Saurians  appears  also  in  that  of  the  Plesiosaurus.  With  respect  to 
the  ribs,  their  free  extremities  are  connected  together  in  the  ab- 
dominal region,  by  a  series  of  intermediate  slender  pieces,  so 
adapted  to  each  other  as  to  admit  of  a  sliding  motion  of  their  com- 
ponent parts  on  each  other,  thus  favouring  the  expansion  of  the 
cavity  containing  the  lungs.  These  intermediate  bones  have  been 
termed  by  Conybeare  sterno-costal  arcs. 


their  voices,  or  made  the  woods  resonant  of  melody  ;  a  few  perhaps 
might  have  existed,  but  they  were  thinly  scattered  :  no  Deer  or 
Antelope  browsed  in  rich  meadows,  no  Cattle  wandered  over  the 
hills,  no  elephants  came  trampling  their  way  through  the  forests ; 
all  was  still  and  silent.  If,  indeed,  any  Mamalia  existed,  like  the 
Birds  they  were  few  and  local ;  for  it  is  not  till  we  arrive  at  the 
Tertiary  series  of  deposits  that  their  remains  in  abundance  prove 
the  earth  then  fairly  fitted  for  their  general  distribution.  During  the 
deposition  of  the  Oolitic  strata  of  the  Secondary  series,  few  spots 
perhaps  were  adapted  for  their  reception.  How  different  the  Animal 
and  Vegetable  kingdoms  of  that  far-distant  period  to  the  Animal 
and  Vegetable  kingdoms  of  the  present  day,  and  how  different  the 
relation  of  the  land  to  the  waters  !  What  are  islands  and  continents 
now,  was  a  wide  waste  of  ocean,  or  vast  lagoons  :  but  still  have  we 
in  the  solid  rock  the  monuments  of  time  which  proclaim  (how 
impressively  !)  the  primeval  phases  through  which  our  planet  has 


Fig.  1655.— Skeleton  of  the  Plesiosaurus  restored. 


Fig.  1654  represents  the  relics  of  Plesiosaurus  macroceihalus 
as  cleared  from  the  block  in  which  they  were  embedded.  In  this 
species  the  head  is  comparatively  larger  than  in  PL  dolichodeirus, 
and  the  neck  shorter  and  much  thicker. 

Such  then  is  an  outline  of  the  general  characters  of  these  Reptiles 
of  a  former  world,  beings  which  cannot  fail  to  excite  the  astonish- 
ment of  all,  who  for  a  moment  contemplate  their  form  and  proportions. 
In  the  British  Museum  a  splendid  series  of  their  remains  strikes  the 
attention  of  even  the  most  careless  visitors,  and  leads  the  reflective 
to  throw  themselves  back  upon  a  by-gone  time,  overleaping  all 
historic  periods,  and  calling  up  around  them  scenes  totally  dissimilar 
from  any  now  displayed  upon  the  surface  of  this  planet.  On  the 
land  grew  plants  such  as  Lepidodendron,  Stigmaria,  &c.,  now 
entirely  unknown,   towering  pines,  Zamias,  and  strange  ferns ;  the 


passed,  and  the  changes  and  succession  of  organic  beings  on  its 
surface.  They  prove,  moreover,  that  at  the  period  of  the  depositions 
taking  place  to  which  we  immediately  refer,  viz.,  the  Oolitic,  Lias, 
and  Jura  Limestone,  the  Saurian  order  had  assumed  its  full  develop- 
ment, and  exhibited  a  series  of  monstrous  forms,  the  contemplation 
of  which  fills  our  minds  with  astonishment. 

We  have  already  largely  exceeded  the  limits  which  our  work 
imposes  on  us  in  describing  some  of  the  Fossil  Saurians  ;  because, 
as  already  stated,  the  subject  is  of  the  highest  interest.  Those  who 
wish  to  pursue  the  study  may  consult  the  works  of  Owen,  Ansted, 
Morris,  Murray,  and  other  palseontologists.  Among  the  other 
fossil  remains,  beside  those  already  mentioned,  specimens  of 
the  following  may  been  seen  in  the  British  Museum,  viz.  : — 
{IclUhyosaurius    lunchiodon),    Lias,    Lyme   Regis;   {Id.    enthe- 


CROCODILES. 


657 


/vW.;0.  Kimmeridge  Clay,  K.mmcr.dge  ;  {Id.  lonsirostr^,-Lx^^, 
Whitby  ;  (Plcsiosaurus  laticcps).  Lower  Lias,  Charmouth  ,  Pies. 
,-;  Av7/«f  Lower  Lias,  Charmouth  ;  {Pics,  maiischi),  Kimmendge 
Clay,  Km^meridge  \{Plcs.  homalospondylus)  Upper  Lias,  WhUby  ; 
Y^cs.  ncocomicrmsi  Upper  Greensand  Cambridge  ;  {Mmmsaurus 
cardncri),  Gault,  Folkestone;  {Anthracosaurusrusselh),  Co?\ 
Measures,  Airdrie,  Scotland  ;  {Archigosaurus  dcchenu).C:^xhom- 
ferous  Sarbruck;  {Capitosaiirus  nasutus).  Trias,  N.  Germany; 
irrematosaurusbrauni).  New  Red  Sandstone  (Trias),  N.  Germany  ; 
iGcosaiiarus  scrmmeriiig  laccrta  gigantla).  Lithographic  Stone, 
Upper  Oolite  Manheim,  Franconia  ;  {Homceosaurus  maximiliana), 


Fig.  1656. — Head  of  the  Plesiosaurus. 

Upper  Oolite,  Solenhofen;  {Pleicrosaurus goldfiissii);  Sapheosaiirus 
laticcps).  Lithographic  Stone,  Kilheim  ;  {Dolichosaurus  longi- 
co/Ii's),  Lower  Chalk,  Kent ;  Sclerosaurus  armatus),  Trias, 
Warrabach,  Baden  ;  {Teleosaurus  chapinannii),  Upper  Lias, 
Whitby. 


^^s 


some  species,  produced  so  as  to  form  a  long  slender  snout,  and  the 
maxillary  bones  extend  nearly  to  the  apex  of  the  upper  jaw,  the 
intermaxillarics  being  of  small  size,  and  forming  only  its  extremity. 
(See  Fig.  1658.)  The  palatine  bones  form  a  complete  roof  to  the 
mouth,  and  separate  that  cavity  from  the  nasal  passages,  which 
communicate  with  the  pharynx  through  a  complete  foramen  at  the 
hinder  portion  of  this  bony  plate.  The  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  a 
process  arising  from  the  back  part  of  the  head,  which  projects  back- 
wards, as  in  the  Snakes,  but  is  immovably  attached  to  the  skull ; 


Fig.  1657. —The  Plesiosaurus,  as  embedded  in  the  Matrix  in  Strata. 


Order  \\\.—Loricata. 

The  present  order  of  the  Reptilia  includes  Animals  of  a  different 
type  to  any  yet  described.  On  some  of  their  peculiar  characteristics 
it  may  be  remarked  that  the  anal  aperture  is  longitudinal.  The 
dermal  or  skin  skeleton  is  composed  of  bony  matter.  The  order  only 
includes  the  living  Crocodiles,  and  their  extinct  relatives.  As  a  rule, 
the  form  of  the  body  resembles  that  of  the  Lizards.  Their  lesrs  are 
well  developed,  and  are  terminated  by  distinct  toes,  which  are  fre- 
quently united  by  a  swimming  membrane  or  webbed  foot. 

The  head  of  the  Crocodiles  is  usually  much  elongated,  bein'^,  in 


Fig.  1658.  — IlcaJ  of  the  Caiman. 

hence  the  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  when  in  the  act  of  opening,  it 
appears  as  though  both  jaws  moved,  which,  in  fact,  was  long  be- 
lieved to  be  the  case.  The  lower  jaw  is  composed  of  no  less  than 
six  bones  on  each  side,  arranged  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
give  the  greatest  amount  of  elasticity  and  strength,  with  the  least 
possible  expenditure  of  material  ;  and  it  is  only  the  last  and  longest 
of  these  bones  that  is  furnished  with  teeth. 

The  teeth  are  confined  to  the  jaws,  in  which,  however,  they  stand 
in  a  most  formidable  and  close  array.  They  are  inserted  into  regular 
sockets,  and  are  of  an  acutely  conical  form,  usually  striated  on  the 
surface,  as  in  the  Ichthyosauri  (See  Fig.  1650  ante),  with  which 
they  also  agree  in  the  mode  in  which  the  old  teeth  arc  replaced,  the 
new  ones  pushing  forward  into  the  cavity  of  the  root  of  their  prede- 
cessors, and  taking  their  place  when  the  old  teeth  fall  out  in  conse- 
quence of  the  absorption  of  their  roots.  One  of  the  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw,  on  each  side,  is  usually  much  larger  than  the  others,  and  fits 
into  a  notch  or  cavity  in  the  upper  jaw. 


Fig.  1659. — Tooth  of  the  Crocodile. 

The  cervical  vertebra;  are  furnished  with  small  false  ribs,  or  rib- 
like processes,  which,  by  their  contact,  greatly  diminish  the  flexibility 
of  this  part  of  the  body — to  such  an  extent,  in  fact,  that  it  is  said  the 
Crocodiles  have  considerable  difficulty  in  turning  when  on  land,  so 
that  they  may  easily  be  escaped  by  a  process  of  doubling.  (See 
Fig.  1660)  The  ribs  are  strong,  formed  each  of  two  bones,  and 
uniting  below  with  a  large  sternum,  which  is  continued  along  the 
whole  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen,  and  in  this  part  of  its  course 
gives  rise  to  false  ribs,  which  do  not  attain  the  spinal  column.  The 
caudal  vertebra;  are  furnished  with  long  spinous  processes,  which  give 
a  compressed  form  to  the  tail.  The  limbs  are  short  and  stout,  but  evi- 
dently incapable  of  supporting  the  whole  weight  of  the  creatures  when 
on  land,  accordingly,  the  belly  rests  upon  the  surface,  and  they  may 
rather  be  said  to  push  themselves  along  than  to  run.  The  anterior 
feet  are  furnished  with  five,  the  posterior  with  four  toes,  of  which  the 
three  innermost  on  each  foot  are  armed  with  claws  ;  the  toes  of  the 
anterior  feet  are  usually  nearly  free,  but  those  of  the  hinder  pair  arc 
entirely  or  partially  united  by  a  membrane.     (See  Fig.  1661.) 

The  nostrils  are  situated  quite  at  the  extremity  of  the  snout,  and 
furnished  with  a  valve,  by  means  of  which  the  ingress  of  water  into 
the  nasal  cavities  can  be  prevented  when  the  Animal  is  immersed  in 
that  element.  The  eyes  are  of  considerable  size,  placed  far  back 
upon  the  head,  and  furnished  with  well-developed  lids ;  their  pupils 
form  a  perpendicular  slit  when  exposed  to  daylight.  The  external 
ear  can  be  closed  at  pleasure  by  a  pair  of  valves.  The  tongue  is 
large  and  fleshy,  and  immovably  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the 
mouth,  a  character  which  occurs  in  no  other  Reptiles;  this  in- 
duced the  ancients  to  believe  that  the  Crocodile  was  destitute  of  this 
organ.  . 

The  structure  of  the  dermal  skeleton  in  these  Animals,  distin- 
guishes them,  at  the  first  glance,  from  all  other  Reptiles.  It  consists 
of  numerous  large,  square,  bony  plates,  developed  in  the  leathery 
corium,  and  forming  a  complete  shield,  covering  the  dorsal  surface  ; 
these  plates  are  more  or  less  distinctly  keeled,  and  the  keels  on  the 
caudal  plates  are  very  high,  forming  a  compressed  ridge,  which  be- 
comes double  towards  the  base.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  13 
covered  with  a  wrinkled  skin,  which  contains  only  small  scale-like 
plates.  The  scales  of  the  back  of  the  neck  are  usually  of  a  peculiar 
shape,  and  frequently  form  two  distinct  groups,  which  have  bcca 


OjS 


CROCODILES. 


denominated  nuclial  and  cervical  shields.  Their  number,  form,  and 
arrangement  are  often  employed  as  characters  for  the  discrimination 
of  the  species.  Under  the  throat  there  are  two  small  orifices,  that 
communicate  with  glands,  from  which  the  peculiar  musky  secretion 
characteristic  of  these  Animals  is  produced.      (See  Figs.  1662  and 

The  lungs  do  not  penetrate  into  the  abdomen,  as  in  other  Reptiles  ; 
and  there  'is  even  a  trace  of  diaphragm,  or  partition  between  the 
thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities,  in  the  form  of  a  few  muscular  fibres. 
In  other  respects  their  anatomy  greatly  resembles  that  of  the  Lizards 
except  that  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  are  completely  separated,  and 
that  the  male  generative  organ  is  retracted  within  the  cloaca,  which 
opens  externally  by  a  longitudinal  slit. 


days  under  water,  until  it  begins  to  putrify,  before  they  commence 

eating  it. 

Sub-Divisions.— The  Recent  Crocodiles  form  only  a  single  family, 
but  two  others  have  been  established  for  the  reception  of  so.reFossil 
forms.  These  arc  characterised  particularly  by  differences  in  the 
structure  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebra.  In  the  Tdcosauruics  these 
bones  are  concave  at  both  extremities,  like  those  of  Fishes  ;  whilst 
in  the  StoieosauridcB  they  arc  convex  in  front,  and  concave  behind. 
In  their  general  form,  the  Reptiles  composing  both  these  families 
closely  resembled  the  Gangetic  Crocodile  {Gavialis  ganffcfica); 
their  remains  occur  principally  in  the  Lias,  Oolite,  and  Wealden 
formations.  ,     -r. 

In  the  family  Crocodilidce,  or  True  Crocodiles,  including  the  Recent 


Fig.  1660.  — Slseletoii  (<;)  and  Sternum  {I)  of  the  Pike-nosed  Caiman  or  Alligator. 


They  are  all  Oviparous  Animals.  Their  eggs,  which  are  enclosed 
in  a  hard  covering,  are  laid  by  the  females  in  warm  sandy  places,  or 
in  a  heap  of  mud  and  vegetable  matters,  where  they  are  hatched  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  "it  appears  that  the  parents  take  no  further 
care  of  their  progeny.     They  abound  in  the  fresh  waters  of  all  warm 


Fig.  1661. — Hind  Leg  of  the  Caiman  {a),  and  of  the  Crocodile  (A). 

climates,  and  are  exceedingly  voracious  creatures,  generally  destroy- 
ing their  prey  by  drowning  it,  although  they  are  unable  to  swallow 
anything  under  water.     They  are  said  to  hide  their  prey  for  some 


and  some  Fossil  species,  the  bodies  of  the  vertebra:  are  convex  behind, 
and  concave  in  front.  In  the  general  form  oi  the  body,  tlicse  Animals 
exhibit  a  very  great  similarity  ;  but  the  structure  of  the  head  at 
once  distinguishes  the  Gangetic  Crocodile,  or  Gavial  [Gavialis 
gaiigetica),  from  all  others.    In  this  Animal  the  jaws  are  produced 


Fis 


1662. — Cervical  Plates  of  the 
Spectacled  Caiman. 


Fig.  1663. — Cervical  Plates  of  the 
Crocodile. 


to  an  enormous  length,  forming  a  long  slender  snout,  at  the  extremity 
of  which  there  is  a  large  cartilaginous  protuberance,  in  which  the 
nostrils  are  situated.  The  teeth  are  very  numerous,  and  nearly 
equal  in  size  throughout  the  whole  of  the  jaws.  The  hind  feet  are 
palmated  to  the  e.xtremities  of  the  toes.    This  species  is  found  abun- 


CROCODILES. 


6S9 


dantly  in  the  fresh  waters  of  India,  where  it  sometimes  attains  a 
length  of  twenty-five  feet.  It  was  known  to  the  ancients,  ^han 
mentioning  the  existence  of  a  Crocodile  in  the  Ganges  wliich  had  a 
horn  at  the  extremity  of  its  nose. 

With  respect  to  some  characteristics  of  the  Crocodile  family,  the 
late  Dr.  Gray  adduced  many  interesting  facts,  in  a  paper  read  before 
the  Zoological  Section  of  the  British  Association,  in  1862.  He 
stated  that  the  Crocodile,  on  being  first  hatched,  has  the  front  face 
short,  and  rounded,  even  in  those 'that  have  an  elongated  beak  when 
full  grown  ;  the  nose  gradually  assuming  that  length  which  charac- 
teris"  s  individual  species.  After  the  Animal  has  gained  the  adult 
size,  the  bones  of  the  head  dilate,  and  the  forehead  and  nose  become 
more  swollen  ;  the  dilation  of  the  sides,  and  increase  in  thickness  of 
the  bones  of  the  head,  being  intended  to  give  support  to  the  large 
teeth,  which  are  gradually  developed  as  the  Animal  grows.  With 
respect  to  the  African  Crocodile,  he  observed,  that  the  Green  Cro- 
codile, from  West  Africa,  was  identical  with  that  found  in  the  rivers 
of  the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  that  continent,  and  pointed 
out  the  essential  difference  in  the  dentition  between  the  African 
Crocodile  and  the  American  Alligator.  The  Crocodiles  of  India  had 
been  much  misunderstood,  some  considering  that  the  common 
African  species  was  identical  with  that  of  India.  He  remarked  that 
the  latter  country  possessed  four  distinct  species  ;  two  being  confined 
to  the  brackish  water  at  the  mouth  of  rivers,  as  the  C.  ^orostis, 
common  to  Java,  Borneo,  &c.  ;  and  another  species,  chiefly  found 


i'  ig.  1664. — The  Common  Crocodile. 

on  the  coast  of  Pondicherry.  The  other  two  species  frequent  the 
inland  rivers,  and  even  ascend  so  high  as  parts  where  the  water  is 
occasionally  frozen.  These  River  Crocodiles,  which  have  been  con- 
founded with  the  African  species,  may  be  distinguished  from  them  by 
the  short,  broad  shape  of  the  intermaxillary  bone,  which  is  separated 
from  the  maxilla  by  a  straight  suture  ;  the  African  species  having 
the  intermaxillary  bone  produced  behind  and  between  the  edge  of 
the  maxilla.  One  of  these  two  latter  species  is  generally  distributed 
over  the  remote  parts  of  India  ;  whilst  the  other  seems  to  be  chiefly 
confined  to  Siam,  in  the  rivers  of  which  country  they  are  found  in 
large  numbers.  The  various  species  of  the  Crocodile  arc  more 
specially  described  as  follows  : — 

The  Common  Crocodile  {Crocodilus  vulgaris). — The  Crocodile, 
which  is  by  most  writers  regarded  as  the  Leviathan  of  the  Book  of 
Job,  was  by  some  of  the  Egyptians  regarded  as  sacred,  but  not,  as 
it  would  appear  from  the  statement  of  Herodotus,  by  all.  His 
words  are,  "  Among  some  of  the  Egyptians  the  Crocodile  is  sacred, 
while  others  pursue  him  as  an  enemy.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Thebais  and  the  shores  of  the  Lake  Mceris  regard  him  with  venera- 
tion. Each  person  has  a  tame  crocodile  ;  he  puts  pendants  of  glass 
and  gold  in  its  ear-lids,  and  gives  it  a  regular  allowance  of  food 
daily.  When  it  dies  it  is  embalmed,  and  placed  in  the  sacred  re- 
pository. But  the  inhabitants  of  the  territory  of  Elephantine  cat  the 
crocodile,  not  at  all  regarding  it  as  sacred.  This  animal  is  not 
called  in  Egypt  crocodile  (k-poKoOtiXoc),  but  champsa ;  for  the 
former  appellation  was  originally  applied  to  it  by  the  lonians,  on  ac- 
count of  its  resemblance  to  a  Lizard  so  called,  which  they  find  in 
their  hedges."     (See  Fig.  1664.) 

With  respect  to  the  word  Chamsa  (x«/Ji/'a),  it  differs  but  little 
from  the  modern  appellation  for  the  Crocodile  in  Egypt.  In  Coptic, 
it  is  Amsah,  or  Hamsa,  which,  as  we  learn,  with  the  feminine  article 
prefixed,  has  made    the  Arabic  word  Timsah,  or  Temsah,  now  in 


common  use  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.     According  to  Str.ibo,  a 
Sacred  Crocodile  was  in  his  time  kept  in  a  tank,  in  the  city  called 
Crocodinopolis,  afterwards  termed  Arsinoe,  and  attended  by  priests. 
The    animal  was  tame,    and  went  under  the   name   of  Suchus,  or 
Suchis  (SoDxoc  or  Souxi'c),    a   word,  as  it  would  appear,  applicable 
only  to  this  distinguished  individual.     The  poor  beast  was  fed  most 
unnaturally.     "  Our  host,"  says  Strabo,  "  who  was  a  person  of  im- 
portance, and  our  guide  to  all  the  sacred  things,  went  with  us  to  the 
tank,  taking  with  him  from  table  a  small  cake,  some  roasted  meat, 
and  a  small  cup  of  mulled  wine.     We  found  the  crocodile  lying  on 
the  margin.     The  priests  immediately  went  up  to  him,   and  while 
some  of  them  opened  his  mouth,  another  put  in  the  cake,  crammed 
down   the   flesh,    and   finished   by   pouring   down   the   wine.      The 
crocodile  then  jumped  into  the  pond,  and   swam   to   the   opposite 
side."     Glad,  no  doubt,  was  the  Animal  to  escape  its  tormentors. 
As  we  have  stated,  the  Crocodile  was  not  held  sacred  in  all  parts 
of  EjTypt,  but  appears  to  have  been  sometimes   kept  tame,  as   is 
attested  by  one  of  the  marbles,  in    the   Townley  Collection,  in   the 
British  Museum,  which  apparently  represents  an  Egyptian  tumbler, 
exercising  his  feats  on  the  back  of  one  of  these  Animals. 
'"  The  Egyptian  notions  as    to    sacred  things  seem  not  a  little 
strant^e  and  contradictory  ;  the  crocodile  was  also  one  of  the  symbols 
of  Typhon,  the  evil  genius,  and  the  murderer  of  Osiris.     It  was  an 
Eevptian  notion  that  Typhon  assumed  this  form  to  avoid  the  ven- 
geance of  Horus,  the   son   of  Osiris.      Between    Harpocrates,   an 
Egyptian  deity  not  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
tus (but  known  to  the  later  Greeks  by  this 
corrupted   name),  and  Horus,    there   were 
some  points  of  resemblance." 

We  must  not  omit  to  notice  that  Hero- 
dotus, in  his  account  of  the  Crocodile, 
says,  "  that  as  it  so  constantly  frequents 
the  water,  its  mouth  becomes  inlected 
with  bdcUa  (/3c!fX\ui).  which  are  by  most 
scholars  supposed  to  mean  leeches  ;  and 
he  adds,  that  a  small  Bird,  called  the 
Trochilus  [tpoxi-^^oq),  relieves  him  of  these 
pests,  boldly  entering  within  his  jaws, 
opened  to  receive  the  western  breeze,  and 
picking  them  out,  while  the  huge  beast, 
pleased  with  the  service  rendered,  offers  no 
injury  to  its  little  benefactor." 

By  M.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,  these  Bdcllcc 
or  sucking  creatures  were  considered  to 
be  some  species  of  Gnat,  and  the  Trochilus 
one  of  the  Plover  tribe ;  and  we  learn 
from  M.  Descourtils  that  a  species  of 
Gnat  infests  the  gums  and  palate  of  the 
Caimans  of  America. 

We  learn  from  Pliny  that  the  Romans 
first  saw  Crocodiles  in  the  xdilcship  of 
Scaurus,  about  twenty-eight  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  that  he  exhibited 
five.  Augustus  introduced  thirty-six  of 
them  into  the  amphitheatre,  where  they 
were  encountered  and  killed  by  gladiators,  as  an  amusement  to  the 
spectators. 

Though  the  Crocodile  is  no  longer  seen  in  the  Delta,  it  is  abun- 
dant in  the  Thebaid  and  the  Upper  Nile,  and  in  the  tributary 
branches  throughout  Nubia  and  Abyssinia.  In  Dongola  it  is 
killed  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  regarded  as  a  delicacy.  The- 
venot,  who  tasted  Crocodile's  flesh  in  Egypt,  found  it  good,  though 
rather  insipid.  The  skin  of  the  Crocodile  has  been  tanned  for  use 
in  place  of  common  leather. 

The  mode  in  which  this  powerful  and  ferocious  animal  is  captured 
in  Angola  is  described  as  follows  by  Dr.  Ruppell,  who  often  witnessed 
it: — "The  most  favourable  season,"  he  observes,  "is  either  the 
winter,  when  the  animal  usually  sleeps  on  sandbanks,  luxuriating  in 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  the  spring,  after  the  pairing  time,  when  the 
female  regularly  watches  the  sand-islands  where  she  has  buried  her 
eggs.  The  native  finds  out  the  place,  and  on  the  south  side  of  it, 
that  is  to  the  leeward,  he  digs  a  hole  in  the  sand,  throwing  up  the 
earth  to  the  side  which  he  expects  the  animal  to  take.  There  he 
conceals  himself;  and  the  crocodile,  should  it  fail  to  observe  him, 
comes  to  the  accustomed  spot,  and  soon  falls  asleep.  The  huntsman 
then  darts  his  harpoon,  with  all  his  force,  at  the  animal,  for  in  order 
that  the  stroke  may  be  successful,  the  iron  ought  to  penetrate  to  the 
depth  of  at  least  four  inches,  in  order  that  the  barb  be  fixed  firmly  in 
the  flesh.  The  crocodile,  on  being  wounded,  rushes  into  the  water, 
and  the  huntsman  retreats  to  a  canoe,  with  which  a  companion 
hastens  to  his  assistance.  A  piece  of  wood,  attached  to  the 
harpoon  by  a  long  cord,  swims  on  the  water,  and  shows  the  direction 
in  which  the  crocodile  is  moving.  The  huntsmen,  pulling  at  this 
rope,  drag  the  beast  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  it  is  again 
pierced  by  a  second  harpoon.  The  skiU  of  the  harpooner  consists  m 
giving  to  the  weapon  sufficient  impluse  to  pierce  through  the  coat  of 
mail  which  protects  the  crocodile. 


66o 


CROCODILES. 


"  When  the  animal  is  struck,  it  by  no  means  remains  inactive; 
on  the  contrary,  it  lashes  violently  with  its  tail,  and  endeavours  to 
bite  the  rope  asunder.  To  prevent  this,  the  rope  is  made  of  about 
thirty  separate  slender  lines,  not  twisted  together,  but  merely  placed 
in  juxtaposition,  and  bound  round  at  intervals  of  every  two  feet. 
The  thin  lines  get  between  the  teeth,  or  become  entangled  about 
them. 

"  It  frequently  happens  that  the  harpoons,  by  the  pulling  of  the 
men,  break  out  of  the  animal's  body,  and  it  escapes. 

"  If  I  had  not  seen  the  fact  with  my  own  eyes,  I  could  hardly  have 
believed  that  two  men  could  drag  out  of  the  water  a  crocodile  four- 
teen feet  long,  fasten  his  muzzle,  tie  his  legs  over  his  back,  and 
finally  despatch  him,  by  plunging  a  sharp  instrument  into  his  neck, 
so  as  to  divide  the  spinal  chord. 

"  The  iron  part  of  the  harpoon  which  is  used  by  the  huntsman  is  a 
span  long,  and  formed  towards  the  point  like  a  penknife,  being 
sharp  on  one  edge  ;  beyond  this  edge  there  is  a  strong  barlD,  while 
on  the  back  of  the  blade  a  piece  projects  to  which  the  rope  is 
fastened.  This  iron  head  is  affi.xed  to  a  shaft  of  wood  eight  feet  in 
length.  The  flesh  and  fat  of  the  crocodile  are  eaten  by  the  Barabas 
or  Berberincs,  who  consider  them  excellent ;  both,  however,  have  an 
odour  of  musk  so  strong  that  I  could  never  eat  crocodile's  flesh  with- 
out sickness  following.  The  musk-glands  of  the  animal  form  a 
great  part  of  the  profit  which  results  from  this  capture  ;  as  the 
Berberines  will  give  as  much  as  two  dollars  for  them,  the  unguent 
being  used  as  a  perfume  for  the  hair. 

"In  some  of  the  rivers  of  Africa,  the  negroes  are  bold  enough, 
and  indeed  skilful  enough,  to  combat  the  crocodile  in  his  own 
element.  Armed  only  with  a  sharp  dagger  they  dive  beneath  him, 
and  plunge  the  weapon  into  his  belly.  It  often  happens,  however, 
that  the  combat  is  fatal  to  the  man,  and  frequently  his  only  chance 
of  escape  is  to  force  his  dagger,  or  if  this  be  lost,  his  thumbs,  into 
the  animal's  eyes,  with  all  his  might,  so  as  to  produce  great  pain 
and  blindness." 

Herodotus  explains  the  mode  of  Crocodile-hunting  in  his  time, 
which  was  managed  by  means  of  a  hook,  baited  with  the  chine  of  a 
Pig,  while  the  attention  of  the  monster  was  aroused  by  the  cries  of  a 
living  Pig,  which  the  fishers  had  with  them  on  the  shore.  In 
anticipation  of  prey  he  dashed  into  the  river,  and  meeting  the  baited 
hook  instantly  seized  and  swallowed  it,  and  was  then  dragged 
ashore  :  the  men  then  endeavoured  to  blind  his  eyes  with  mud,  and 
when  this  was  accomplished,  his  destruction  was  easy,  but  if  not, 
so  violent  were  his  struggles,  and  so  dangerous  was  it  to  approach 
him,  that  it  was  not  without  difficulty  that  he  was  despatched. 

Fish,  floating  carrion,  Pigs,  Dogs,  and  other  Animals  surprised 
on  the  banks  of  the  river,  are  the  food  of  the  Crocodile  ;  yet  on  land 
escape  is  by  no  means  difficult,  as  the  legs  are  ill-formed  for  running, 
and  the  little  false  ribs,  or  appendages  to  the  vertebrae  of  _the  neck, 
limiting  the  lateral  motion  of  that  part,  render  sudden  turns  a  matter 
of  difficulty.  In  the  water,  on  the  contrary,  the  Animal  is  prompt 
and  rapid ;  lashing  his  tail  from  side  to  side,  he  cleaves  the  waters 
like  an  arrow,  leaving  a  track  behind  him  from  the  impetuosity  of  his 
progress.  Sometimes,  it  is  said,  he  will  dart  forward  into  the  middle 
of  the  river,  uttering  a  loud  bellowing  his  eyes  glaring  and  his  body 
swollen,  while  with  his  powerful  tail  he  lashes  the  surrounding  water, 
till  it  is  worked  into  a  foam.  This  exhibition  of  excitement  ended, 
he  darts  off  to  his  accustomed  covert,  and  regains  his  concealment. 
The  eggs  of  the  Crocodile  are  of  an  oblong  shape,  hard,  and  some- 
what larger  that  those  of  a  Goose ;  and  the  j'oung,  compared  with 
their  gigantic  parents,  are  very  small,  but  display,  even  at  that  early 
period  their  innate  ferocity.  Numbers,  both  of  young  and  eggs,  are 
destroyed  by  Beasts  and  Birds  of  prey.  The  Ichneumon  has  been 
from  an  ancient  date  celebrated  for  the  havoc  it  makes  among  them. 

The  Gavial  {^Gavialis  gangetic2is \  Gangetic  Crocodile,  Croco- 
diliis  fetiith-ostris,  Daudin  ;  Cr.  lo7igu-ostris,  Schn.) — The  Gavial 
is  subject  to  considerable  variations  in  its  progress  from  youth  to 
maturity.  It  is  characterised  by  the  jaws  being  very  much  elongated 
and  narrow,  and  somewhat  depressed  beak,  armed  with  formidable 
teeth  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  eighteen,  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty.  The  first  and  fourth  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
the  longest,  and  are  received  not  into  cavities  of  the  upper  jaw,  but 
into  conspicuous  notches.  This  long  and  formidable  beak  sinks 
suddenly  from  the  forehead,  and  is  expanded  at  its  extremity,  where 
the  valvular  nostrils  form  a  large  oval  cartilaginous  mass.  The  eye- 
lid contains  in  its  substance  the  rudiment  of  a  bony  plate. 

At  Fig.  i66s  are  represented,  a,  the  skull  of  the  Great  Gavial, 
seen  from  above  ;  b,  the  lower  jaw ;  c,  the  profile  of  the  skull  ;  d,  an 
outline  of  the  head  of  the  Gavial,  covered  with  the  integuments. 
There  are  musk  glands  under  the  lower  jaw.  The  hind  feet  of  the 
Gavial  closely  resemble  those  of  the  True  Crocodiles,  but  the  cervical 
plates  are  arranged  more  nearly  like  those  of  the  Caiman  ;  formino-  a 
long  band  commencing  on  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  proloncin-T 
themselves  to  the  dorsal  plates.  There  is,  however,  some  diversity 
in  some  kinds.  The  scales  of  the  flanks  are  oval  and  fiat,  the  keels 
of  the  plates,  forming  the  dorsal  cuirass,  are  low,  but  the  crest  of  the 
tail  is  much  elevated. 

The  Gavial  is  a  native  of  the  Ganges,  ai.d  is  the  largest  of  the  living 


Smirz'a,  often  exceeding  twenty-five  feet  in  length  ;  it  is  one  of  the 
scourges  of  the  river,  and  is  very  formidable  from  its  strength  and 
ferocity.  The  dying  Hindoo  exposed  upon  the  bank,  or  the  dead 
body  consigned  to  the  sacred  waters,  often  becomes  the  prey  of  this 
dreaded  monster. 


Fig.  1665.— Head  of  the  Gavial. 

Several  species  of  Fossil  Crocodile  have  been  discovered  ;  they  be- 
long to  a  distinct  genera,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  those  examples 
alone,  which  have  elongated  beaks,  approximating  to  the  Recent 
Gavial,  occur  in  formations  anterior  to,  and  including,  the  Chalk, 
whilst  those  with  a  short  broad  snout,  like  that  of  the  Caiman,  ap- 
pear for  the  first  time  in  Tertiary  strata,  containing  in  abundance  the 
remains  of  MaDimalia.  "The  discovery  of  crocodilean  forms," 
says  Dr.  Buckland,  "so  nearly  allied  to  the  living  Gavial,  in  the 
same  early  strata  that  contain  the  first  traces  of  the  Ichthyosaurus 
and  Plesiosaurus,  is  a  fact  which  seems  wholly  at  variance  with 
every  theory  that  would  derive  the  race  of  crocodiles  from  Ichthyo- 
sauri and  Plesiosauri,  by  any  process  of  gradual  transmutation  or 
development.  The  first  appearance  of  all  these  three  families  of 
reptiles,  seems  to  have  been  nearly  simultaneous  ;  and  they  all  con- 
tinued to  exist  together  until  the  termination  of  the  secondary  forma- 
tions, when  the  Ichthyosauri  and  Plesiosauri  became  extinct,  and 
forms  of  crocodiles  approaching  the  cayman  and  alligators  were 
for  the  first  time  introduced."      ("  Bridgewater  Treatise,"  vol.  i.,  p. 

254-) 

Of  the  long-beaked  Fossil-forms,  that  which  approaches  the  nearest 
to  the  living  Gavial  is  the  Stctieosaiirus,  of  which  Fig.  i666  repre- 
sents the  muzzle,  from  a  specimen  procured  at  Havre  ;  according  to 
Dr.  Buckland,  the  relics  of  the  same  species  are  met  with  in  the 
Kimmeridge  clay  of  Shotover  Hill,  near  O.xford.      In  another  Fossil 


Fig.  1666.— Muzzle  of  the  Fossil  Stencosauvus. 

genus,  viz.,  Teleosanrus,  the  beak  is  also  narrow  and  elongated,  but 
the  nasal  orifice,  instead  of  opening  upwards,  terminates  the  anterior 
apex  of  the  upper  jaw,  as  seen  at  Fig.  1667).  Referring  to  Fig.  1668, 
a  represents  the  head  of  Teleosatirus  chapnianni,  seen  from  above  ; 
b,  the  head  of  another  individual  of  the  same  species,  seen  from  be- 
low, showing  the  lower  jaw;  c,  an  inside  view  of  the  extremity  of  the 
lower  jaw.  This  species  is  found  in  the  Lias,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Whitby,  and  in  the  Great  Oolite  of  Oxfordshire. 

In  Crocodilus  spencer i  (Fig.  1669),  the  skull  approaches  closely 
to  that  of  the  Caimans,  and  is  broad  with  a  short  and  heavy  snout. 
1 1  is  found  in  the  London  clay  of  the  Isle  of  Sheppey. 

A  third  group  is  formed  by  the  Alligators,  or  Caimans,  of  the 
American  continent,  which  have  a  broad,  obtuse  snout,   and  the 


THE  TORTOISES. 


661 


canine  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  received  into  a  pit  of  the  upper.    Their 

hind  feet  are  never  completely  webbed,  and  in  some  instances  the 
membrane  is  almost  entirely  absent.  These  Animals  are  pretty 
generally  distributed  over  the  continent  of  America  ;  but  are  more 
abundant,  and  attain  a  larger  size,  in  the  warmer  regions.  The  best 
known  species  is  the  Alligator  mlsslssi- 
^iciisis  {\"\s;.  1670),  which  is  common  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
where  it  inhabits  both  the  rivers  and  the 
pieces  of  stagnant  water  in  the  morasses. 
Its  ordinary  length  seems  to  be  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  feet,  but  it  is  occa- 
sionally met  with  of  larger  size ;  and 
Bartram  says,  that  in  Florida,  the 
Alligators  are  sometimes  upwards  of  twenty-three  feet  long. 
They  prey  upon  almost  any  Animal  that  comes  m  their  way  ; 
and  Dr.  Holbrook  states,  that  in  places  where  they  abound,  no 
Animal  of  the  size  of  a  Dog  can  cross  even  small  streams  without 
being  dragged  down,  drowned,  and  devoured.  They  are  also  said 
to  strike  their  prey  from  the  banks  with  their  tails,  bending  the  body 


Fig.  1667. — Nasal  Orifice 
of  the  Teleosaurus, 


Fig.  166S. — Head  of  the  Fojsil  Teleosaurus. 

nearly  into  a  circular  form,  so  that  the  victim  is  thrown  into  the 
mouth,  or,  at  all  events,  into  its  immediate  neighbourhood  ;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  they  defend  themselves  from  danger  by  power- 


ful blows  with  the  tail.  At  the  approach  of  winter,  the  North 
American  Alligators  bury  themselves  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  thoi- 
aquatic  abodes,  and  pass  the  cold  season  in  a  state  of  torpidity.  At 
this  time  tlicy  are  often  dug  out  of  their  retreats  by  the  negroes,  who 
esteem  the  tail  a  delicacy  ;  and  Dr.  Holbrook  states  that  it  is  tolcra- 
ble  eating,  although  Catesby  found  its  peculiar  taste  and  odour  dis- 
agreeable. They  are  also  taken  by  means  of  a  sharp-hook,  baited 
with  a  piece  of  flesh,  at  which  they  bite  readily.     In  the  spring  and 


Fig.  1669. — Skull  of  a  Fossil  Crocodile. 

early  summer  months,  they  make  what  Catesby  calls,  "  a  hideous 
bellowing  noise;"  this  is  especially  the  case  during  the  breeding 
season,  when  the  males  often  have  tremendous  combats  amongst 
themselves. 

Order  IV. — Chclonia,  Tortoises,  &c. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Chelonian  Reptiles,  and 
the  one  which,  in  fact,  enables  us  to  recognise  the  members  of  this 
order  at  the  first  glance,  consists  in  their  possession  of  a  complete 
bony  case,  within  which  the  head  and  limbs  can  frequently  be,  more 
or  less,  completely  retracted.  This  case  consists  of  two  large  bony 
plates,  of  which  the  upper,  that  is  more  or  less  convex,  is  called  the 
carapace;  whilst  the  lower  one,  which  is  usually  perfectly  flat,  is 
denominated  the  ^plastron.  These  two  plates  are  united  at  their 
lateral  margins,  leaving  an  anterior  and  posterior  aperture  for  the 
protrusion  of  the  head,  tail,  and  limbs.  At  the  first  glance  it  would 
seem  almost  impossible  to  refer  these  singular  Animals  to  the  or- 
dmary  Vertebrate  type ;    but  a  little  e.xamination  of  their  anatomy 


Fig.  1670. — The  Alligator, 


662 


THE  TORTOISES. 


shows  that  their  different  parts  are  only  modifications  of  the  same 
structure  that  we  have  seen  to  prevail  throughout  the  preceding 
groups. 

When  viewed  from  beneath  (Fig.  1671),  the  central  line  of  the 
upper  shield,  or  carapace,  is  seen  to  be  composed  of  the 
bodies  of  the  dorsal  vertebrse,  on  each  side  of  which  are  the 
broad  flattened  ribs,  usually  eight  in  number  on  each  side,  that  are 
immovably  attached  to  each  other  by  dentated  sutures.  The  ribs 
run  almost  to  the  margin  of  the  carapace,  which,  however,  is  com- 
pleted by  a  series  of  bones  called  marginal  f>latcs,  that  have  been 
regarded  as  analogous  to  the  sternal  or  cartilaginous  portion  of  the 
ribs  in  other  Verfebrata,  but  which  are  now  generally  considered  to 
be  dermal  bones.  The  costal  plates,  as  the  flattened  ribs  are  called, 
are  also  regarded  as  belonging  partly  to  the  dermal  skeleton.  In 
some  instances  the  ribs  are  only  dilated  near  their  basal  portion,  and 
taper  off  towards  the  margin  of  the  carapace,  so  as  to  leave  con- 
siderable spaces  between  them,  which  are  covered  only  by  the 
horny  epidermal  shields,  or,  in  some  instances,  by  a  leathery 
skin  ;  in  these  cases,  however,  the  marginal  plates  are  completely 
developed. 

Externally,  the  centre  of  the  carapace  is  composed  of  a  single 
series  of  bony  plates,  supported  upon  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebras,  of  which  they  have  been  considered  as  mere  expansions. 
It  appears,  however,  that  these  also  partly  belong  to  the  dermal 
system,  the  spinous  processes  only  taking  part  in  the  formation  of 
eight  of  these  plates  (the  second  to  the  ninth),  whilst  the  first,  or 
nuchal  jilate,  and  some  of  the  last  of  the  central  plates  of  the  cara- 
pace, are  entirely  developed  in  the  corium. 

The  plastron,  which  usually  consists  of  four  pairs  of  bony  plates, 
and  of  a  single  median  one,  is  regarded  as  consisting  of  a  greatly 
expanded  sternum,  probably  united  with  peculiar  dermal  ossifica- 
tions ;  it  is  usually  firmly  attached  by  suture  with  the  marginal  plates 
of  the  carapace,  and  thus  forms  a  solid  bony  box,  open  at  each  ex- 
tremity. The  outer  surface  of  the  whole  of  this  bony  case  is  covered 
with  numerous  horny  epidermal  plates,  which  vary  greatly  in  number 


Fig.  1671. — Skeleton  of  a  Tortoise,  with  the  plastron  removed. 
cv,  cervical  vertebra; ;  co,  coracoid  bone ;  dv,  dorsal  vertebrae ;  r,  ribs ;  mt, 
marginal  plates ;  /,  tibia  ;  /,  pelvis  ;   /,  fibula  ;  /•,   femur ;  s,  scapula  : 
d,  clavicle. 

size,  and  form,  and  by  no  means  correspond  in  their  arrano-ement 
with  the  bony  plates  beneath  them.  They,  however,  present  some 
analogy  in  this  respect,  the  horny  plates  of  the  carapace  being  gene- 
rally divisible  into  three  groups— namely,  a  central  series,  'Cai'dorsal 
shields  ;  a  series  on  each  side  of  these,  the  lateral  shields  ;  and  a 
series  surrounding  the  whole  carapace,  the  marginal  shields. 

From  either  extremity  of  the  fixed  portion  of  the  vertebral  column, 
which,  with  its  appendages,  constitute  the  case  or  shell  of  these 
Animals,  projects  a  flexicle  portion  of  the  same  column.  The 
anterior  flexilale  portion  consists  of  the  cervical  vertebra;,  which  are 
quite  destitute  of  transverse  processes,  and  are  thus  endowed  with 
so  much  freedom  of  motion,  that,  although  the  neck  is  not  unfre- 
quently  of  considerable  length,  it  can  frequently  be  retracted, 
together  with  the  head,  beneath  the  carapace.  The  skull  is  of  a 
semi-oval  form,  abruptly  truncated  behind,  and  somewhat  pointed  in 


front,  and  the  orous  are  completely  enclosed.  The  jaws  are  strong', 
but  short,  and  the  upper  jaw  and  palatine  bones  are  firmly  attached 
to  the  skull.  Tlierc  is  no  appearance  of  teeth  in  any  part  of  the 
mouth,  but  the  jaws  are  very  sharp  at  the  edge,  and  covered  with 
horny  plates,  so  that  they  present  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
beak  of  a  Bird.  The  tail,  or  posterior  movable  portion  of  the  verte- 
bral column,  is  composed  of  numerous  vertebrm  ;  it  is  usually  short 
and  tapering,  but  sometimes  attains  a  considerable  length. 

The  most  singular  point  in  the  remaining  osteology  of  these 
Animals,  is  the  fact  that  the  scapular  arch,  wliich  is  usually  applied 
to  the  exterior  of  the  ribs,  is  here  completely  hidden  witliin  the  bony 
case.  The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade,  articulates  with  the  carapace, 
and  the  clavicle  with  the  plastron,  and  there  is  a  third  bone  of  large 
size  (fi^Q  coracoid  bone) ,  which  assists  in  the  formation  of  the  shoulder- 
joint,  but  instead  of  articulating  with  the  sternum,  as  in  the  Birds, 
has  its  posterior  extremity  free.  The  pelvic  arch  is  immovably 
attached  to  the  interior  of  the  carapace.  The  limbs  are  always  four 
in  number,  and  fully  developed,  but  short  and  stout ;  they  exhibit 
several  modifications  of  form,  which  are  characteristic  of  the  different 
families.  All  these  movable  portions  of  the  Animals  are  merely 
covered  with  a  sort  of  scaly  skin. 

In  their  general  internal  structure  the  Chelonia  agree  pretty 
closely  with  the  other  Reptiles.  The  heart  is  composed  of  three 
cavities,  the  partition  between  the  ventricles  being  very  incomplete, 
so  that  the  venous  and  arterial  blood  can  mix  freely  in  that  cavity. 
The  lungs  are  of  very  large  size,  and  extend  far  into  the  cavity  of 
the  body  ;  but  as  the  ribs  are  immovable,  respiration  is  effected,  as 
in  the  Batrachia  (which  are  destitute  of  those  bones),  by  a  process 
very  analogous  to  swallowing.  The  tongue  is  short,  fleshy,  and 
completely  movable  ;  the  ears  are  distinctly  visible,  and  the  eyes 
well  formed,  and  furnished  with  movable  lids.  The  urinary  bladder 
is  of  large  size,  and  discharges  its  contents  into  the  cloaca,  which 
also  contains  the  male  generative  organ,  and  opens  by  a  longitu- 
dinal slit,  or  a  circular  orifice,  in  the  base  of  the  tail. 

The  Chelonian  Reptiles  are  usually  sluggish  and  inactive  Animals, 
the  slowness  of  the  terrestrial  species  being  even  proverbial.  They 
are,  however,  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life  ;  they  will  live  for  a  long 
period  without  any  nourishment,  and  will  even  continue  to  give  signs 
of  life  for  some  time  after  they  have  been  deprived  of  their  heads. 
They  are  found  principally  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth,  where 
they  generally  subsist  upon  vegetable  substances,  although  many  of 
the  Aquatic  species  also  devour  small  Animals.  They  arc  Oviparous, 
and  the  eggs  are  covered  with  a  hard  shell. 

Sub-divisions. — These  Reptiles  may  be  divided  into  five  families. 
In  the  CheloniidcB,  or  Turtles,  which  are  pre-eminently  aquatic  in 
their  habits,  the  limbs  are  all  converted  into  large,  flattened,  fin-like 
organs,  the  toes  being  completely  concealed  by  a  common  skin. 
The  anterior  pair  of  members  is  always  considerably  longer  than  the 
posterior,  and  both  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs  are  frequently 
furnished  with  one  or  two  nails  on  the  outer  margin,  which,  however, 
sometimes  disappear  as  the  Animal  increases  in  age.  The  bony 
case  of  these  Animals  is  too  small  for  the  reception  of  the  head  and 
limbs,  and  these  parts  are,  consequently,  always  more  or  less  pro- 
truded. The  ribs  are  narrowed  towards  the  extremity,  so  as  to  have 
spaces  between  them  at  that  point,  and  the  bony  plates,  of  which 
the  plastron  is  composed,  are  also  separated  by  intervals,  which  are 
filled  up  with  cartilage.  The  head  is  flattened  above,  and  the  jaws 
horny,  very  sharp,  and  beak.like.  The  following  is  a  description  of 
some  of  the  best  known  species  : — • 

The  Green  Turtle  {Chelonia  midas). — The  Turtles  are  found 
in  all  the  seas  of  the  warm  climates,  but  principally  towards  the 
Torrid  zone  in  the  Equinoctial  ocean  ;  on  the  shores  of  the  Antilles, 
Cuba,  Jamaica,  the  Caiman  Islands,  and  Hayti ;  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  ;  at  the  Cape  de  Verd  and  Ascension  Islands  ;  in  the  Indian 
Ocean ;  at  the  Isles  of  France,  Madagascar,  Seychelles,  and 
Rodriguez  ;  at  Vera  Cruz,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  and  at  the  Sand- 
wich and  Galapagos  Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Often  are  they 
seen  slumbering  motionless  on  a  calm  sunlit  sea,  several  hundred 
miles  from  land.  They  have  their  favourite  breeding-places,  to 
which  thousands  periodically  resort,  often  travelling  thither  from 
immense  distances.  The  eggs  of  most  of  the  species  are  excellent, 
but  the  albuminous  portion,  or  "white,"  does  acquire  firmness  by 
boiling.  Of  the  estimation  in  which  the  flesh  of  the  Green  Turtle 
is  held,  little  need  be  said  :  in  our  island  it  is  a  luxury,  but  it  also 
forms  a  useful  and  salutary  portion  of  the  stores  of  vessels  engaged 
in  the  commerce  of  the  Tropical  and  Southern  seas.  It  is  the 
Hawksbill  Turtle  [Chelonia  imbricata)  which  furnishes  the  horny 
plates,  covering  the  carapace,  known  under  the  name  of  tortoiseshell. 
This  will  be  subsequently  described. 

Most  of  the  Turtles  feed  upon  various  marine  plants,  and  dive  to 
tear  them  up  from  their  beds  ;  some  however,  feed  upon  Crustacea, 
Shell-fish,  Cuttle-fishes,  Echini,  &c.,  as  the  Hawksbill,  Logg-erhead, 
and  Leathery  kinds.  They  exhale  a  musky  odour.  Audubon  says 
"  The  hawksbilled  species  feeds  on  sea-weeds,  crabs,  various  kinds 
of  shell-fish,  and  fishes  ;  the  loggerhead  mostly  on  the  fish  of  conch- 
shells  of  large  size,  which  by  means  of  its  powerful  beak  it  is  enabled 
to  crush  to  pieces,  apparently  with  as  much  ease   as  a  man  cracks  a 


7IIE  TURTLES. 


6C3 


■walnut.     The  trunk  (leathery)  turtle  feeds  on  mollusca,  fish   crus- 
taceous  animals,  sea  urchins  (echini),  and  various  marine  plants." 

Most,  especially  the  Leathery  Turtle,  utter,  when  entangled  in 
nets,  or  when  wounded,  loud  roars,  resounding  to  a  great  distance. 

It  is  on  a  low  sandy  beach  that  the  Turtles  deposit  their  eggs, 
taking  care  that  they  are  placed  beyond  high  water  mark.  "  On 
rearing  the  shore,"  says  M.  Audubon,  "and  mostly  on  fine  calm 
moonlight  nights,  the  turtle  raises  her  head  above  the  water,  being 
still  distant  thirty  or  forty  yards  from  the  beach,  looks  around  her, 
and  attentively  examines  the  objects  on  shore.  Should  she  observe 
nothing  likely  to  disturb  her  intended  operations,  she  emits  a  loud 
hissing  sound,  by  which  such  of  her  enemies  as  are  unaccustomed 
to  it  are  startled,  and  so  apt  to  remove  to  another  place,  although 
unseen  by  her,  Should  she  hear  any  more  noise,  or  perceive  any 
indications  of  danger,  she  instantly  sinks  and  goes  off  to  a  distance  ; 
but  should  everything  be  quiet,  she  advances  slowly  towards  the 
beach,  crawls  over  it,  her  head  raised  to  the  full  stretch  of  her  neck, 
and  when  she  has  reached  a  place  fitted  for  her  purpose  she  gazes 
all  around  in  silence.  Finding  all  well,  she  proceeds  to  form  a.  hole 
in  the  sand,  which  she  efi'ects  by  removing  it  from  under  her  body 
with  her  hind-flappers,  scooping  it  out  with  so  much  dexterity  that  the 
sides  seldom  if  ever  fall  in.  The  sand  is  raised  alternately  with 
each  flapper,  as  with  a  large  ladle,  until  it  has  accumulated  behind 
her,  when,  supporting  herself  with  her  head  and  fore-part  on  the 
ground,  she  with  a  spring  from  each  flapper  sends  the  sands  around 
her,  scattering  it  to  the  distance  of  several  feet.  In  this  manner  the 
hole  is  dug  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  or  sometimes  more  than 
two  feet.  This  labour  I  have  seen  performed  in  the  short  period  of 
nine  minutes.  The  eggs  are  then  dropped  one  by  one,  and  disposed 
in  regular  layers,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  or 
sometimes  nearly  two  hundred.  The  whole  time  spent  in  this 
operation  may  be  about  twenty  minutes.  She  now  scrapes  the  loose 
sand  back  over  the  eggs,  and  so  levels  and  smooths  the  surface, 
that  few  persons  seeing  the  spot  would  imagine  that  anything  had 
been  d(5ne  to  it.  This  accomplished  to  her  mind,  she  retreats  to 
the  water  with  all  possible  despatch,  leaving  the  hatching  of  the 
eggs  to  the  heat  of  the  sand.  When  a  turtle  or  loggerhead,  for 
example,  is  in  the  act  of  dropping  her  eggs,  she  will  not  move, 
although  one  should  go  up  to  her,  or  even  seat  himself  on  her  back  ; 
but  the  moment  it  is  finished,  off  she  starts,  nor  would  it  then  be 
possible  for  one,  unless  he  were  as  strong  as  Hercules,  to  turn  her 
over  and  secure  her." 

It  is  at  this  period  that  the  Turtle  fishery  is  carried  on.  "  In 
spite,"  says  Count  Lacepede,  "  of  the  darkness  which  is  chosen  by 
the  female  tortoises  for  concealment  when  employed  in  laying  their 
eggs,  they  cannot  effectually  escape  from  the  pursuit  of  their 
enemies  ;  the  fishers  wait  for  them  on  the  shore,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  night,  especially  when  it  is  moonlight,  and,  as  they  come  from 
the  sea,  or  as  they  return  after  laying  their  eggs,  they  either  despatch 
them  with  blows  of  a  club,  or  turn  them  quickly  over  on  their  backs, 
not  giving  them  time  either  to  defend  themselves,  or  to  blind  their 
assailants,  by  throwing  up  the  sand  with  their  fins.  When  very 
large,  it  requires  the  efforts  of  several  men  to  turn  them  over,  and 
they  must  often  employ  the  assistance  of  handspikes  or  levers  for 
that  purpose.  The  buckler  of  this  species  is  so  flat  as  to  render  it 
impossible  for  the  animal  to  recover  the  recumbent  posture,  when  it 
is  once  turned  on  its  back. 

"  A  small  number  of  fishers  may  turn  over  forty  or  fifty  tortoises, 
full  of  eggs,  in  less  than  three  hours.  During  the  day,  they  are 
employed  in  securing  those  which  they  had  caught  in  the  preceding 
night.  They  cut  them  up,  and  salt  the  flesh  and  the  eggs.  Some- 
times they  may  extract  above  thirty  pints  of  a  yellow  or  greenish  oil 
from  one  large  individual  ;  this  is  employed  for  burning,  or,  when 
fresh,  is  used  with  different  kinds  of  food.  Sometimes  they  drag  the 
tortoises  they  have  caught,  on  their  backs,  to  enclosures,  in  which 
they  are  reserved  for  occasional  use. 

"The  tortoise-fishers  from  the  West  Indies  and  the  Bahamas, 
who  catch  these  animals  on  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  its  adjoining 
islands,  particularly  the  Caimans,  usually  complete  their  cargoes  in 
six  weeks  or  two  months  ;  they  afterwards  return  to  their  own  islands 
with  the  salted  turtle,  which  is  used  for  food,  both  by  the  whites  and 
the  negroes.  This  salt  turtle  is  in  as  great  request  in  the  American 
colonies  as  the  salted  cod  of  Newfoundland  is  in  man)'  parts  of 
Europe  ;  and  the  fishing  is  followed  by  all  these  colonists,  particu- 
larly by  the  British,  in  small  vessels,  on  various  parts  of  the  coast  of 
Spanish  America,  and  the  neighbouring  desert  islands. 

"  The  green  turtle  is  likewise  often  caught  at  sea  in  calm  weather, 
and  in  moonlight  nights.  For  this  purpose  two  men  go  together  in 
a  small  boat,  which  is  rowed  by  one  of  them,  while  the  other  is  pro- 
vided with  a  harpoon,  similar  to  that  used  for  killing  whales. 
Whenever  they  discover  a  large  tortoise,  by  the  froth  which  it 
occasions  on  the  water  in  rising  to  the  surface,  they  hasten  to  the 
spot  as  quickly  as  possible,  to  prevent  it  from  escaping.  The 
harpooner  immediately  throws  his  harpoon  with  sufficient  force  to 
penetrate  through  the  buckler  to  the  flesh  ;  the  tortoise  instantly 
dives,  and  the  fisher  gives  out  a  line,  which  is  fi,\ed  to  the  harpoon, 


and  when  the  tortoise  is  spent  with  loss  of  blood,  it  is  hauled  into  the 
boat  or  on  shore." 

The  H.\WK's-niLL  Turtle  {Chchnia  imbricata).  La  Caret, 
Lacepede.  — I  his  species  is  well  known,  and  much  sought  after  for 
the  sake  of  the  scales  of  the  carapace,  which  are  the  Tortoiseshell 
of  commerce;  and  which  are  cruelly  separated  from  the  living 
animal  by  presenting  the  convex  surface  to  a  glowing  fire  ;  as  is 
done  at  Exeter  Island,  and  other  places,  where  the  fishery  of  this 
Animal  is  earned  on.  It  appears  that  after  this  barbarous  operation 
the  poor  creatures  are  set  at  liberty,  in  order,  as  the  shell  grows 
again,  that  another  crop  of  tortoiseshell  may,  in  a  future  year,  be 
taken;  thesecond  shell,  however,  is  ver/ thin  and  inferior.  The 
eggs  of  this  Turtle  are  excellent,  but  the  flesh  is  bad.  The  Hawk's- 
bill  Turtle  is  not  only  an  inhabitant  of  the  warmer  latitudes  of  the 
American  seas,  it  frequents  the  Islands  of  Bourbon,  the  Seychelles, 
Amboyna,  New  Guinea,  and  the  Indian  Seas.  Some  instances  arc 
on  record  of  its  having  been  captured  on  our  shores.  It  attains  to  a 
large  size,  but  seldom  equals  the  Green  Turtle,  just  described.  (Sec 
Fig.  1672.) 


Fig.  1672.— The  Ilawk's-biU  Tuitlc, 

The   Leathery  Turtle    {Spargis    coriacca;    Testudo  lyra, 
Bechst).     Tortue  Luth  of  the  French. 

In  the  ^e.nw^  Spargis  the  osseus  structure  of  the  carapace  and 
plastron  is  covered  with  a  leathery  skin,  instead  of  plates,  tuber- 
culous in  the  young,  smooth  in  adults,  with  seven  longitudinal- 
ridged  dorsal  lines,  slightly  serrated.  The  plastron  has  five  tuber- 
culous ridges.  The  paddles  have  no  distinct  nails.  In  the 
Leathery  Turtle  the  muzzle  is  pointed,  the  jaws  are  of  enormous 
power,  and  the  upper  has  an  acute  tooth-like  prominanco  at  the 
anterior  part  on  each  side,  with  a  deep  indentation  behind,  and  a 
triangular  excavation  anteriorly  between  the  two  teeth,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  sharp  turned-up  apex  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  opening  of 
the  eyelids  is  almost  vertical,  and  when  closed  the  edge  of  the 
posterior  (or  lower)  covers  that  of  the  anterior.  The  anterior  paddles 
are  immensely  developed.  This  gigantic  Tortoise  occasionally 
weighs  from  t, 600  to  1,700  pounds;  and  stray  individuals  have  been 
captured  both  on  our  shores  and  those  of  the  adjacent  continent, 
w-eighing  700  or  800.  This  species  is  found  in  the  Atlantic,  the 
Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans.  It  regularly  visits  the  Tortugas,  or 
Turtle  islands  of  Florida,  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  eggs, 
arriving  there,  according  to  Audubon,  later  than  the  other  species, 
and  being,  moreover,  less  cautious  in  choosing  a  place  for  their  con- 
cealment. The  number  of  eggs  which  it  deposits  is  about  350,  in 
two  sets.  It  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  saiil 
by  Latreille  to  breed  on  the  sandy  shores  of  Barbary.  When 
attacked  and  wounded,  this  Turtle  utters  loud  and  piercing  cries, 
which  have  been  heard  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  league. 
Though  very  fat,  the  flesh  is  coarse  and  hard,  and  has  been  known 
to  produci*  most  severe  effects  in  persons  who  have  partaken  of  it ; 
we  cannot,  however,  affirm  that  it  is  poisonous.     (See  Fig.  1673.) 


Fig.  1673. — The  Leatheiy  Tiirllc. 


664 


THE  TURTLES. 


The  Loggerhead  Turtle.— One  of  the  largest  species  is  the 
Loggerhead  Turtle  [C/!elo>tia  ca/'c/fa),  which  presents  some  resem- 
blance to  the  Hawk's-bill  Turtle  in  the  form  of  its  upper  jaw.  This 
Animal  not  only  inhabits  the  seas  of  the  Tropics,  but  also  extends  to 
a  considerable  distance  beyond  those  regions,  and  occurs  not  unfre- 
quently  in  the  Mediterranean.  Its  size  is  sometimes  enormous  : 
Dr.  Shaw  mentions  a  skull  of  this  species,  which  measured  more  than 
a  foot  in  length,  and  was  said  to  have  been  obtained  from  a  speci- 
men weighing  above  1,600  pounds.  If  is  exceedingly  voracious, 
feeding  principally  upon  AIolluscu,  the  shells  of  which  it  crushes 
between  its  powerful  jaws.  Its  flesh  is  good  for  nothing,  and  its 
epidermal  scales  are  thin,  and  want  the  beauty  which  causes  those 
of  the  Hawk's-bill  Turtle  to  be  so  highly  prized  ;  but  it  furnishes  a 
a  considerable  quantity  of  an  oil  that  burns  well.  (Fig.  1674  repre- 
sents its  skeleton.) 


Fig.  1674, — Skeleton  of  the  Loggerhead  Turtle. 

In  the  second  family,  the  Trionycidce,  or  Soft  Tortoises,  the  cara- 
pace is  still  more  incomplete  than  in  the  Turtles,  the  ribs  being  only 
expanded  and  united  at  the  base,  and  running  out  to  the  margin  in 
the  form  of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  This  imperfect  carapace  is 
covered  with  a  tough  leathery  skin,  which  is  flexible  at  the  margin  ; 
and,  as  in  the  Turtles,  the  head  and  limbs  are  incapable  of  being 
retracted  within  the  bony  case.  The  head  is  rather  small,  and 
pointed  in  front  ;  the  neck  is  very  long  ;  the  horny  jaws  are  covered 
with  fleshy  lips  ;  and  the  nostrils  are  produced  into  a  short  cylindrical 
trunk.  The  feet  are  all  short,  and  strong,  furnished  with  five  toes, 
which  are  united  by  a  strong  web,  three  on  each  foot  being  furnished 
with  claws. 

The  Soft  Tortoises  live  in  the  rivers  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  one  or  two  species  are  found  in  the  North  American 
waters.  They  are  active  predaceous  Animals,  feeding  principally 
upon  Fish,  but  occasionally  concealing  themselves  amongst  the  reeds 
and  sedges  of  the  banks,  whence  tliey  rush  out  and  seize  Birds  and 
small  Reptiles.  Thus  the  Trionyx  ferox,  or  Snapping  Turtle  (Fig. 
1675),  which  inhabits  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  North  America,  destroys 


Fig.  1675.— The  Snapping  Turtle; 

great  quantities  of  young  Alligators;  and  another  species,  the 
Trionyx  iitloticiis,  which  is  found  in  the  African  fresh  waters,  is 
said  to  be  equally  destructive  to  the  young  of  the  Crocodile.  They 
seize  their  prey  by  suddenly  darting  forward   the  long  neck,  and. 


when  provoked,  the  Trionyx  fcrox  bites  very  severely ;  it  is  even 
said  occasionally  to  attack  men  when  bathing,  and  to  bite  pieces 
out  of  them.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  superior  to  that  of  any  of  the 
Chclonia. 

The  ChelydidcB,  which  form  the  third  family,  present  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  Trionycidce  ;  but  the  head  and  neck  are  capable 
of  being  retracted  to  a  certain  extent  beneath  the  carapace,  which  is 
covered  with  horny  shields.  The  head  is  broad  and  depressed,  with 
the  nose  usually  prolonged  into  a. proboscis,  and  the  mouth  is 
furnished  with  soft  lips ;  both  the  head  and  neck  are  frequently 
adorned  with  membranous  lobes  of  remarkable  forms.  The  feet, 
which  are  not  capable  of  being  retracted  within  the  shell,  are  short 
and  stout,  furnished  with  five  toes,  which  are  more  or  less  united 
by  a  web,  and  either  four  or  five  of  them  are  always  armed  with  claws. 

Like  the  Soft  Turtles,  these  Animals  live  in  the  ponds  and  rivers 
of  warm  climates,  where  they  feed  principally  upon  Fish.  The 
species  figured,  Clielys  matamata  (Fig.  1676),  is  an  inhabitant  of 
South  America,  and  was  formerly  very  abundant  in  the  rivers  of 
Guiana  ;  but  it  is  said  to  have  become  scarce  in  that  locality,  from 
the  great  numbers  that  are  taken  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh,  which  is 
considered  very  good. 


Fig.  1676.— The  Matamata. 

Nearly  allied  to  these  is  the  great  family  of  the  Emydidcs,  the 
species  of  which  are  very  generally  distributed  over  the  globe.  They 
agree  with  the  preceding  in  the  structure  of  the  feet,  but  the  cara- 
pace is  completely  ossified,  and  its  bones  united  by  sutures ; 
the  jaws  are  horny,  and  destitute  of  lips ;  and  the  head  and 
neck  can  be  completely  retracted  within  the  front  of  the  shell.  The 
nostrils  are  placed  at  the  apex  of  the  snout,  but  not  prolonged  into  a 
proboscis. 

Like  the  preceding  families,  the  Emydidcs  are  principally  aquatic 
in  their  habits,  although  their  feet  are  certainly  well  adapted  for 
terrestrial  progression.  They  feed  upon  small  Fishes  and  Aquatic 
Insects,  and  are  generally  of  small  size.  They  are  found  most  abun- 
dantly in  warm  climates,  but  some  of  the  species  extend  far  into  the 
temperate  regions  of  the  earth,  several  being  inhabitants  of  the 
North  American  continent,  whilst  two  are  found  in  Europe,  of  which 
one  occurs  as  far  north  as  Prussia.  The  most  remarkable  species 
are  the  Box  Tortoises  {Cistudo),  in  which  the  plastron  is  divided  by 
a  transverse  suture  into  two  portions,  united  together,  and,  with  the 
carapace,  by  elastic  ligaments,  so  that  they  are  capable  of  being 
brought  close  to  the  carapace,  closing  the  apertures  of  the  shell 
completely  when  the  Animal  is  retracted.  In  some  other  species,  on 
the  contrary,  such  as  the  Alligator  Tortoise  {Chelydea  serpeaiina) 
of  North  America,  the  limbs  and  feet  are  too  large  to  be  retracted 
within  the  shell. 

The  Alligator  Tortoise  {Emysaurus  serpetiiinus ;  Chelydea 
serpe>iti)ia.  Schweigger). — This  extraordinary  species  seems  to  unite 
initsaspectthe  forms  of  the  Tortoise  and  Crocodile.  Its  jaws  arc 
strong  and  hooked  ;  its  head  large  and  covered  with  small  plates  ; 
its  neck  long,  powerful,  and  capable  of  being  retracted  ;  its  limbs  are 
thick  ;  and  the  feet  are  armed  with  five  robust  claws  before,  four 
behind  ;  the  tail  is  long,  and  surmounted  by  a  scaly  crest,  and 
neither  this  nor  the  limbs  are  capable  of  being  retracted  within  the 
shell ;  along  the  back  of  the  fore-limbs  hangs  a  loose  expansion  of 
coarse  granulated  skin  ;  two  small  barbies,  or  rounded  excrescences, 
are  under  the  chin.     The  plastron  is  small,  but  immovable. 

The  aspect  of  this  Animal  is  ferocious,  and  its  character  accords 
with  its  aspect ;  it  is  a  native  of  the  lakes,  rivers,  and  morasses  of 
Carolina,  and  when  adult,  attains  to  very  large  dimensions,  and  is 
much  to  be  dreaded.  It  swims  with  great  rapidity,  and  pursues 
Fish  with  avidity,  tearing  them  in  pieces  by  means  of  its  talons.  It 
also  lurks  amidst  the  luxuriant  herbage  of  oozy  swamps,  or  the  reedy 
vegetation  about  the  margin  of  rivers  and  lakes,  ready  to  pounce 
upon  Aquatic  Birds,  or  other  Animals  which  come  within  its  reach, 
and  upon  which  it  suddenly  darts,  catching  them  with  a  snap  of  its 
formidable  mandibles.  Mr.  Bell  records  that  he  has  known  a  stick 
of  half  an  inch  in  diameter  at  once  snapped  asunder  by  the  jaws  of 
one  of  this  species  ;  and,  as  we  can  afiirm,  it  is  not  safe  to  approach 
them  unguardedly,  they  will  not  only  snap  at  the  hands,  if  brought 
too  near  them,  but  repeat  the  attack,  with  every  demonstration  of 
malice.  The  individual  which  came  under  our  observation  was  very 
young,  and  only  two  feet  six  inches  in  length  ;  yet,  from  the  strength 
and  fierceness  it  displayed,  we  were  easily  enabled  to  form  an  i.lja 


IHE  TORTOISES. 


065 


of  the  danger  to  be  apprehended,  in  the  case  of  a  person,  in  the 
midst  of  one  of  the  morasses  of  Carolina,  suddenly  coming  in 
contact  with  an  adult  of  large  dimensions  lurking  in  his  hiding-place. 
The  carapace  of  this  species  is  of  an  oblong  figure,  depressed, 
with  three  longitudinal  ridges  above  ;  the  general  colour  is  brown  ; 
the  jaws  and  head  are  of  an  olive  tint.     (See  Fig.  1677.) 


Fig.  1677.— The  Alligator  Tortoise. 

The  last  family  is  that  of  the  Tcsticdinidcc,  or  Land  Tortoises,  in 
which  the  carapace  is  convex  and  solid,  the  ribs  being  united  to- 
gether throughout  their  length  ;  the  plastron  is  also  solid  ;  the  feet 
short,  stout,  and  somewhat  clubbed  ;  the  toes  being  almost  entirely 
concealed  under  the  skin,  and  terminated  by  blunt  nails,  there  being 
usually  five  upon  each  of  the  anterior,  and  four  upon  each  of  the 
posterior  feet.  The  head  is  rather  small,  and  covered  with  shields ; 
the  jaws  are  horny,  and  destitute  of  lips.  The  head,  limbs,  and  tail 
can  be  completely  retracted  within  the  cavity  of  the  shell,  and,  in 
some  cases,  the  plastron  is  furnished  with  movable  lobes,  by  which 
the  aperture  can  be  completely  closed.  The  surface  of  the  carapace 
is  covered  with  horny  shields,  which  touch  each  other  at  the  edges, 
and  exhibit  concentric  lines  of  growth  ;  at  the  hinder  part  of  the 
carapace,  immediately  over  the  tail,  the  shields  {caudal  shields), 
which  in  the  preceding  families  are  usually  separate,  are  here 
united  into  a  single  broad  plate.  The  Land  Tortoises  are  generally 
of  small  size.  They  are  terrestrial  in  their  general  habits,  although 
most  of  them  can  swim  when  immersed  in  the  water.  They  are  very 
slow  in  their  movements,  and  live  entirely  upon  vegetable  matter. 
Like  the  rest  of  the  Chelonian  Reptiles,  they  are  far  more  abun- 
dant in  warm  than  in  temperate  climates  ;  a  single  species  only,  the 
Teshido  grcrca  (Fig.  1678),  is  found  in  Europe,  and  this  is  confined 
to  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  this  species 
that  may  be  so  frequently  seen  hawked  about  the  streets  of  London 
during  the  summer,  and  that  are  sold  for  a  few  pence  each. 


Fig.  1678.— Common  European  Tortoise— from  above  <?,  and  below  h. 

One  of  the  largest  species  is  the  Tcsttido  uidtca,  or  Indian 
Tortoise,  which  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  three  feet ;  and  a 
species  of  equal  size,  inhabiting  the  Galapagos  Islands,  has  been 
described  by  Dr.  Gray  under  the  name  of  Testudo  plankcps.  The 
Indian  Tortoise  is  also  found  in  those  Islands,  and  Mr.  Darwin  has 
given  the  following  interesting  account  of  its  habits.  Fig.  1679  re- 
presents the  skull  of  this  Tortoise. 

The  day  on  which  Mr.  Darwin  visited  the  little  craters  in  the 
Galapagos  Archipelago  was  glowing  hot,  and  the  scrambling  over 
the  rough  surface,  and  through  the  intricate  thickets,  was  very 
fatiguing.  "But,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "I  was  well  repaid  by  the 
Cyclopean  scene.  In  my  walk  I  met  two  large  tortoises,  each  of 
which  must  have  weighed  at  least  two  hundred  pounds.  One  was 
eating  a  piece  of  cactus,  and  when  I  approached,  it  looked  at  me, 
and  then  quietly  walked  away  ;  the  other  gave  a  deep  hiss  and  drew  in 
his  head.  These  huge  reptiles,  surrounded  by  the  black  lava,  the  leaf- 
less shrubs,  and  large  cacti,  resemble  some  antediluvian  animals." 

Mr.  Darwin  states  his  belief  that  these  Tortoises  are  found  in 
all  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  ;  certainly  in  the  greater  number; 
and  thus  continues  his  description  :— "  They  frequent,  in  preference, 


the  high  damp  parts,  but  likewise  inhabit  the  lower  and  arid  districts. 
Some  individuals  grow  to  an  immense  size.  Mr.  Lawson,  an 
Englishman,  who  had,  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  charge  of  the  colony, 
told  us  that  he  had  seen  several  so  large  that  it  required  six  or  eight 
men  to  lift  them  from  the  ground,  and  that  some  had  afforded  as 
much  as  two  hundred  pounds  of  meat.  The  old  males  are  the 
largest,  the  females  rarely  growing  to  so  great  a  size.  The  male  can 
readily  be  distinguished  from  the  female  by  the  greater  length  of  its 
tail.  The  tortoises  which  live  on  those  islands  where  there  is  no 
water,  or  in  the  lower  and  arid  parts  of  the  others,  chiefly  feed  on 
the  succulent  cactus.  Those  which  frequent  the  higlier  and  damp 
regions  eat  the  leaves  of  various  trees,  a  kind  of  berry  (called  guay- 
avita)  which  is  acid  and  austere,  and  likewise  a  pale  green 
filamentous  lichen,  that  hangs  in  tresses  from  the  boughs  of  the  trees. 
"  The  tortoise  is  very  fond  of  water,  drinking  large  quantities,  and 
wallowing  in  the  mud.  The  larger  islands  alone  possess  springs, 
and  these  are  always  situated  towards  the  central  parts,  and  at  a 
considerable  elevation.  The  tortoises,  therefore,  which  frequent  the 
lower  districts,  when  thirsty,  are  obliged  to  travel  from  a  long  dis- 
tance.    Hence,  broad  and  well-beaten  paths  radiate  off  in   every 


Fig.  1679. — Skull  of  the  Indian  Tortoise. 

direction  from  the  wells  even  down  to  the  sea-coast ;  and  the 
Spaniards,  by  following  them  up,  first  discovered  the  w-atering- 
places.  When  I  landed  at  Chatham  Island,  I  could  not  imagine 
what  animal  travelled  so  methodically  along  the  well-chosen  tracks. 
Near  the  springs  it  was  a  curious  spectacle  to  behold  many  of  these 
great  monsters  ;  one  set  eagerly  travelling  onwards  with  outstretched 
necks,  and  another  set  returning,  after  having  drunk  their  fill. 
When  the  the  tortoise  arrives  at  the  spring,  quite  regardless  of  any 
spectator,  it  buries  its  head  in  the  water  above  its  eyes,  and  greedily 
swallows  great  mouthfuls,  at  the  rate  of  about  ten  in  a  minute.  The 
inhabitants  say  that  each  animal  stays  three  or  four  days  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  water,  and  then  returns  to  the  lower  country  ; 
but  they  differed  in  their  accounts  respecting  the  frequency  of  these 
visits.  The  animal  probably  regulates  them  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  food  which  it  has  consumed.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  tor- 
toises can  subsist  even  on  those  islands  where  there  is  no  other 
water  than  what  falls  during  a  few  rainy  days  in  the  year. 

"I  believe  it  is  well  ascertained  that  the  bladder  of  the  frog  acts 
as  a  reservoir  for  the  moisture  necessary  to  its  existence  ;  such  seems 
to  be  the  case  with  the  tortoise.  For  some  time  after  a  visit  to  the 
springs,  the  bladder  of  these  animals  is  distended  with  fluid,  which 
is  said  gradually  to  decrease  in  volume,  and  to  become  less  pure. 
The  inhabitants,  when  walking  in  the  lower  district,  and  overcome 
with  thirst,  often  take  advantage  of  this  circumstance,  by  killing  a 
tortoise,  and  if  the  bladder  is  full,  drinking  its  contents.  In  one  I 
saw  killed,  the  fluid  was  quite  limpid,  and  had  only  a  very  slightly 
bitter  taste.  The  inhabitants,  however,  always  drink  first  the  water 
in  the  pericardium,  which  is  described  as  being  best.  The  tortoises, 
when  moving  towards  any  definite  point,  travel  by  night  and  by  day, 
and  arrive  at  their  journey's  end  much  sooner  than  would  be  ex- 
pected. The  inhabitants,  from  observation  on  marked  individuals, 
consider  that  they  can  move  a  distance  of  about  eight  miles  in  two 
or  three  days.  One  large  tortoise  which  I  watched,  I  found  walked 
at  the  rate  of  sixty  yards  in  ten  minutes,  that  is,  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty  in  the  hour,  or  four  miles  a  day — allowing  also  a  little 
time  for  it  to  eat  on  the  road.  During  the  breeding  season,  when 
the  male  and  female  are  together,  the  male  utters  a  hoarse  roar  or 
bellowing,  which,  it  is  said,  can  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  more 
than  a  hundred  yards.  The  female  never  uses  her  voice,  and  the 
male  only  at  such  times  ;  so  that  when  the  people  hear  this  noise, 
they  know  that  the  two  are  together.  They  w^ere  at  this  time 
(October)  laying  their  eggs.  The  female,  where  the  soil  is  sand, 
deposits  them  together,  and  covers  them  up  with  sand ;  but  where 
the  ground  is  rocky,  she  drops  them  indiscriminately  in  any  hollow. 
Mr.  Bynoe  found  seven  placed  in  a  line  in  a  fissure.  The  egg  is 
white  and  spherical  ,  one  which  I  measured  was  seven  inches  and 
three-eighths    in  circumterenee.       The    young    animals,    as    soon 

4Q 


666 


THE  FROG   TRIBE,    OR  BATRACHIA. 


as  they  are  hatched,  fall  a  prey  in  great  numbers  to  the  buzzard 
with  the  habits  of  the  caracara.  The  old  ones  seem  generally  to  die 
from  accidents,  as  from  falling  down  precipices.  At  least  several  of 
the  inhabitants  told  me  they  had  never  found  one  dead  without  some 
such  apparent  cause.  The  inhabitants  believe  that  these  animals  are 
absolutely  deaf ;  certainly  they  do  not  overhear  a  person  walking 
close  behind  them.  I  was  always  amused,  when  overtaking  one  of 
these  great  monsters  as  it  was  quietly  pacing  along,  to  see  how  sud- 
denly, the  instant  I  passed,  it  would  draw  in  its  head  and  legs,  and 
uttering  a  deep  hiss,  fall  to  the  ground  with  a  heavy  sound,  as  if 
struck  dead.  I  frequently  got  on  their  backs,  and  then,  upon  giving 
a  few  raps  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  shell,  they  would  rise  up  and 
walk  away ;  but  I  found  it  very  difBcuIt  to  keep  my  balance.  The 
flesh  of  this  animal  is  largely  employed,  both  fresh  and  salted  ;  and 
a  beautifully  clear  oil  is  prepared  from  the  fat.  When  a  tortoise  is 
caught,  the  man  makes  a  slit  in  the  skin  near  its  tail,  so  as  to  see 
inside  its  body,  whether  the  fat  under  the  dorsal  plate  is  thick.  If 
it  is  not,  the  animal  is  liberated  ;  and  it  is  said  to  recover  soon  from 
this  strange  operation.  In  order  to  secure  the  tortoises  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  turn  them  like  turtle,  for  they  are  often  able  to  regain 
their  upright  position. 

"  It  was  confidently  asserted  that  the  tortoises  coming  from 
different  islands  in  the  archipelago  were  slightly  different  in  form  ; 
and  that  in  certain  islands  they  attained  a  larger  average  size  than 


in  others.  Mr.  Lawson  maintained  that  he  could  at  once  tell  from 
which  island  any  one  was  brought.  Unfortunately,  the  specimens 
wliich  came  home  in  the  Beagle,  were  to  5  small  to  institute  any  cer- 
tain comparison.  This  tortoise  which  goes  by  the  name  of  Tcsfiido 
indicus,  is  at  present  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Boll  and  some  others  who  have  studied  reptiles,  that 
it  is  not  improbable  that  they  all  originally  came  from  this  archi- 
pelago. When  it  is  known  how  long  these  islands  have  been  fre- 
quented by  the  buccaneers,  and  that  they  constantly  took  away 
numbers  of  these  animals  alive,  it  seems  very  probable  that  they 
should  have  distributed  them  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  If  this 
tortoise  does  not  originally  come  from  these  islands,  it  is  a  reiriark- 
able  anomaly ;  inasmuch  as  nearly  all  the  other  land  inhabitants 
seem  to  have  their  birthplace  here." 

Fossil  Tortoises. — Small  as  the  existing  species  of  Tortoises 
are,  it  appears  that  in  former  periods  of  the  earth's  history,  at  least 
one  species  of  gigantic  size  belonging  to  this  family,  dragged  its 
ponderous  bulk  over  the  soil  of  India  ;  this  is  the  ColossocJielys  atlas, 
the  remains  of  which  were  discovered  in  the  SewaUc  Hills  by  Fal- 
coner and  Cautley.  Those  gentlemen  thought  it  possible  that  this  gi- 
gantic Reptile,  which  measured  about  eighteen  feet  in  length,  probably 
existed  down  to  the  human  era,  and  that  it  may  thus  have  given  rise 
to  the  extraordinary  traditions  of  the  Hindoos,  which  attribute  most 
important  parts  in  the  creation  of  the  world  to  gigantic  Tortoises. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

CLASS  IV.— BATRACHIA— FROGS,  ETC. 


OR  reasons  already  stated  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter,  the  Batraciiia  or  Frog 
Tribe  have  been  separated  by  naturalists 
from  the  Rcptilia.  In  fact,  as  will  ap- 
pear in  further  description,  they  really 
form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between 
the  Fishes  and  Reptiles,  both  in  their 
functions  and  habits  of  life,  and  afford  a 
distinct  transition  from  the  strictly  Aquatic 
Fishes  to  the  strictly  Air-breathing  Rep- 
tiles. As  might  be  expected  in  a  group 
of  this  nature,  the  forms,  and  even  the 
organisation  of  the  Animals  composing  it, 
are  exceedingly  various.  Thus,  in  the 
lower  orders,  which  approach  most  closely  to  the 
preceding  class,  we  meet  with  completely  Fish-like 
creatures,  possessing  permanent  branchis,  and  in 
which  the  limbs  are  reduced  to  a  rudimentary  con- 
dition, and  the  tail  is  flattened  and  surrounded  by  a 
fin.  Indeed,  zoologists  are  still  divided  in  opinion 
as  to  whether  one  of  these  orders  should  be  referred 
to  this  or  the  preceding  class.  With  the  exception  of 
a  remarkable  order  of  Apodal  Terrestrial  Animals,  we 
find  that,  as  we  advance  in  the  class,  the  limbs  are  gradually  more 
and  more  developed,  and  fitted  more  especially  for  terrestrial  pro- 
gression ;  many  of  the  higher  forms  are  capable  of  very  active 
motion  on  the  ground,  and  some  even  have  their  habitual  residence 
in  trees. 

The  structure  of  the  skeleton  also  exhibits  great  differences.  The 
spinal  column  in  some  is  composed  of  a  continuous  chorda  dorsalis, 
inclosed  in  a  fibrous  sheath,  but  furnished  with  bony  superior  and 
inferior  arches,  for  the  protection  of  the  spinal  cord  and  principal 
blood-vessels.  In  others,  we  meet  with  a  repetition  of  the  vertebral 
column  of  the  Bony  Fishes,  composed  of  separate  vertebra;,  of  which 
the  bodies  contain  double  conical  cavities  ;  whilst  in  the  highest 
forms,  the  vertebra;  are  articulated  together  by  a  sort  of  ball-and- 
socket  joint.  The  vertebra;  are  usually  furnished  with  long  trans- 
verse processes,  which  appear  to  take  the  place  of  ribs;  the 
latter  arc  deficient  throughout  the  whole  class.  The  development 
of  the  skull  partakes  of  this  variable  character.  In  the  species  with 
a  chorda  dursalis,  the  skull  is  formed  of  a  simple  cartilaginous 
capsule,  with  which  the  chorda  is  completely  continuous  ;  and  the 
only  indications  of  ossification  are  to  be  found  in  the  lateral  portions 
of  the  occipital  bone.  In  the  higher  forms  the  skull  is  completely 
ossiiied  ;  it  is  always  of  a  broad  and  flattened  form,  with  enormously 
large  orbits,  and  possesses  one  constant  character,  which  enables  us 
to  distinguish  readily  between  the  skull  of  a  Batrachian  and  that  of 
a  True  Reptile  ;  the  occipital  bone  is  always  furnished  with  two 
lateral  condyles,  which  fit  into  corresponding  sockets  in  the  first 
vertebra  of  the  neck.  The  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  form  a 
broad  arch,  which  is  always  firmly  attached  to  the  skull ;  the  maxil- 
lai-y  and  intermaxillary  bones  assist  in  the  formation  of  the  edge  of 


the  mouth,  and  both  these  and  the  palatine  bones  arc  usually  fur- 
nished with  teeth.  The  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  a  bony  process, 
which  usually  projects  more  or  less  backwards  from  its  point  of 
attachment  to  the  skull,  so  that  the  opening  of  the  mouth  may  not 
unfrequently  extend  beyond  the  base  of  the  skull.  The  hyoid  bone 
is  generally  of  considerable  size,  and,  in  many  cases,  gives  attach- 
ment to  a  series  of  branchial  arches,  which,  however,  rarely  reach 
the  skull,  and  in  the  higher  forms  are  reduced  to  a  rudimentary 
condition. 

Very  few  of  the  Bdtrdchia  are  quite  destitute  of  limbs,  but  several 
possess  only  a  single  pair.  In  the  most  Fish-like  forms,  the  an- 
terior limbs  are  attached,  as  in  the  Fishes,  to  the  back  of  the  skull ; 
but  in  all  the  others  the  scapular  arch  is  distinct.  The  structure  of 
the  pelvic  arch,  and  the  development  of  the  movable  bones  of  the 
limbs,  vary  greatly  in  the  different  orders  into  which  the  class  is 
divided  ;  but  as  their  modifications  will  be  described  in  charac- 
terising those  groups,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  dwell  further  upon 
them  here. 

In  the  majority  of  the  Batrachia,  the  skin  is  smooth  and  naked. 
It  is  composed  of  a  soft  corium,  which  usually  lies  loosely  about  the 
body,  and  is  covered  b}'  a  thin  colourless  epidermis  ;  it  frequently 
contains  numerous  glandular  organs,  which  secrete  an  acrid  fluid  of 
a  disagreeable  odour.  A  few  species  are  covered  with  minute  horny 
scales,  resembling  those  of  the  Bony  Fishes  in  their  structure  and 
arrangement ;  and  some  have  larger  scales  of  a  peculiar  composite 
nature,  which  have  been  regarded  as  analogous  with  those  of  the 
Ganoid  Fishes. 

In  the  development  of  the  nervous  system  and  the  organs  of  the 
senses,  the  Batrachia,  as  a  class,  exhibit  a  slight  advance  upon  the 
Fishes ;  and  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  generally,  constitute  the 
greater  part  of  the  brain.  The  nasal  cavities  are  separated  by  a 
partition,  and  always  open  into  the  mouth.  The  eyes  are  sometimes 
rudimentary,  and  even  concealed  beneath  the  skin  ;  but,  in  most  of 
these  Animals  the  organs  of  sight  are  well  formed.  In  the  Frogs 
they  are  e.xceedingly  movable,  protected  by  eyelids,  and  furnished 
with  a  nictitating  membrane.  In  most  of  the  Tailed  Batrachia,  the 
ear  exhibits  but  little  advance  from  the  condition  of  that  organ  in 
Fishes  ;  but  in  the  Frogs  it  has  an  external  opening  furnished  with 
a  tympanic  membrane  ;  and  the  labyrinth  consists  of  three  semi- 
circular canals,  and  a  sac,  which  is  filled  with  microscopic  calcareous 
crystals. 

The  mouth  in  these  Animals  is  always  of  large  size,  and,  in  most 
cases,  armed  with  small  conical  teeth.  In  a  few  species  the  jaws 
are  unarmed  ;  and,  in  others,  the  teeth  are  m  the  form  of  small 
perpendicular  plates.  The  tongue  is  usually  of  large  size,  and  is 
often  capable  of  being  protruded  from  the  mouth  to  a  considerable 
distance,  when  it  is  employed  in  the  capture  of  Insects.  The  intes- 
tinal canal  is  short ;  the  liver  is  large,  and  usually  divided  into 
two  lobes ;  the  gall-bladder,  pancreas,  and  spleen  are  always 
present. 

The  structure  of  the  respiratory  organs  indicates  more  clearly  than 
any  other  part  of  their  organisation,  the  intermediate  nature  of  these 


THE  FROG  TRIBE. 


6C7 


Animals.  They  all  possess  lungs  ;  but  during  their  young  or  larval 
condition,  they  arc  always  furnished  -with  branching,  and  these,  in 
many  instances,  are  persistent  throughout  the  life  of  the  animal. 
The  form  and  arrangement  of  the  branchial  organs  will  be 
described  hereafter.  The  heart  is  composed  of  three  chambers,  a 
single  muscular  ventricle,  and  two  membranous  auricles  ;  but,  in 
some  species,  the  partition  between  the  latter  is  imperfect.  The 
arterial  bulb  is  surrounded  by  a  distinct  muscular  coat,  as  in  the 
Ganoid  and  Selachian  Fishes ;  and  from  the  continuation  of  this, 
the  arteries  running  to  the  branchia;  and  lungs  are  given  off. 

The  DafracJiia  are  all  strictly  Oviparous  Animals,  although,  in 
some  species,  the  eggs  are  retained  in  or  upon  the  body  of  the  parent, 
until  the  young  have  attained  a  certain  degree  of  development.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  ova  are  impregnated  by  the  male  at  the 
moment  of  their  leaving  the  abdomen  of  the  female  ;  the  eggs  are 
united  by  a  glutinous  matter  into  masses  or  long  chains,  which 
may  be  constantly  seen  floating  in  the  waters  frequented  by  these 
Animals. 

The  development  of  the  young  exhibits  many  points  of  great 
interest.     On  leaving  the  &gg,  the  young  Animals  are  very  different 

in  form  from  their  parents,  and 
they  undergo  a  considerable  series 
of  transformations  before  arriving 
at  their  final  state.  In  their 
earliest  stage  (Fig.  1680  a)  they 
are  well  known  as  Tadpoles — 
little.  Fish-like  creatures,  with 
broad  heads,  followed  immediately 
by  a  sac-like  belly,  and  terminat- 
ing posteriorly  in  a  long  com- 
pressed tail.  The  mouth  is 
placed  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
front  of  the  head,  and  is  fur- 
nished with  a  pair  of  horny  jaws, 
with  which  the  little  creatures  feed 
upon  the  animalcula  which  form  its 
nourishment. 

Whilst  still  very  young,  the 
Tadpole  is  furnished  with  external 
gills  ;  these  soon  disappear  in  the 
young  of  the  Frog ;  but  in  the 
Tadpoles  of  the  Newts  they  re- 
main for  some  time,  and  acquire 
considerable  size  (Fig.  1681.)  As 
the  Tadpole  increases  in  size,  the 
acquires     greater    breadth ; 


Fig.   16S0.- 


-Development  of  the 
Frog. 
a.  Tadpole  in  its  first  stage  ;  b,  with  tai 
hind  legs  ;  c,  with  two  pairs  of  legs  and,  by  degrees,  the  limbs  ;burst 
and  well-developed  tail  ;  </,  young  forth.  It  is  remarkable  that  in 
Frog,  with  the  remains  of  the  tail ;  the  Frogs  the  hinder  legs  are  the 
e,  when  completely  developed.  first    to    make    their    appearance 

(Fig.  1680,  b),  whilst  in  the  Newts, 
the  fore-legs  precede  the  posterior  pair.  In  the  Tadpole  of  the 
Frog,  the  hind-legs  generally  appear  some  little  time  before  the 
others  ;  and  even  after  the  fore-limbs  have  been  developed,  the  tail 
still  continues  to  be  the  principal  organ  of  motion  (c,  Fig.  1680); 
but  when  these  are  fully  formed,  the  large  tail  gradually  disappears  ; 
and  even  before  it  has  quite  gone,  the  young  Frogs  often  quit  the 
water  (^/,  Fig.  1680),  and  the  remainder  of  the  useless  appendage  is 
got  rid  of  afterwards  (c,  Fig.  1680).  In  the  Newts,  and  the  other 
tailed  ISatrachia.  the  process  is  very  similar,  except  that  the  tail  is 
not  cast  off.  But  during  the  progress 
of  these  external  changes,  modifica- 
tions of  a  not  less  important  character 
are  taking  place  in  the  internal  organs. 
The  branchial  apparatus  at  first  exhibits 
the  arrangement  shown  in  F'ig.  1682,  in 
which  the  circulation  goes  on  exactly 
as  in  the  Fishes  Thus  the  blood,  driven 
from  the  arterial  bulb  through  the 
branchix,  is  again  collected  in  the  bran- 
chial veins,  of  which  two  pairs  assist  in 
the  formation  of  the  great  aorta  of  the 
body,  whilst  the  other  pair  is  distributed 
in  the  head.  The  pulmonary  arteries 
first  make  their  appearance  in  a  very 
rudimentary  form,  springing  from  the 
branchial  vessels  ;  but,  as  the  lungs  arc 
developed,  and  the  aerial  respiration 
commences,  they  rapidly  increase  in 
size,  whilst  the  branchia;  contract  in  the 
same  proportion.  This  condition  of  the 
respiratory  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig. 
1683,  which  may  also  be  considered  to  represent  the.  state  of  these 
organs  in  the  Az//-ac/«'a  with  persistent  branchia:.  In  the  strictly 
Air-breathing  species,  however,  the  change  goes  still  further — 
the  branches  (i,  2,  3)  uniting  the  branchial  arteries  acquire  a 
much  greater  development,  and  gradually  divert  more  and   more  o£  j 


Fig.  16S1.— The  T.idpole. 


the  blood  from  the  branchia;,  which  quickly  disappear  altogether 
(fig.  1684);  the  anterior  branchial  arches  then  become  converted 
into  the  arteries  for  the  head  and  eyes,  the  second  ,)air  go  to  form 
theaorta  whilst  the  place  of  the  third  is  taken  by  the  pTeliminary 
arteries,  by  the  agency  of  which  the  whole  business  of  respiration 
IS  now  carried  on.  *^ 


«■»         2    o        „„   „„  c    ub  3 


Fig.  1682.— Breathing  Apparatus  of  the  Larva  of  a  Salamander. 
a.  the  arterial  bulb,  giving  rise  to  three  pairs  of  biancliial  artcrie.s  "/' ;  l>. 
I,  2,  3,  the  three  pairs  of  branchiae ;  /,  arteries  running  lo  the  liead,  formed, 
from  the  first  branchial  vein  ;  c,  vessel  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two 
hinder  branchial  veins,  and  uniting  with  that  of  the  other  side  to  form  the 
aorta,  av;  «/,  rudimentary  pulmonary  artery  ;  i,  2,  3,  branches  uniting  the 
branchial  arteries  and  veins. 

The  Batrachia  are  essentially  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  countries 
of  the  earth ;  they  abound  particularly  in  the  Tropical  zones. 
Although  they  are  by  no  means  confined  to  the  water,  they  are 
always  found  in  damp  places,  as  moisture  appears  to  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  their  existence.  The  larvae  feed  entirely  upon  animal- 
cula ;  but  the  mature  Animals  derive  their  subsistence  principally 


Fig.  16S3. — The  Vessels  of  the  same  Larva,  after  the  commencement  of  aerial 
respiration.     The  letters  have  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  preceding  figure. 

from  Insects  and  Worms,  in  the  capture  of  which  they  often  display 
great  agility.  In  Temperate  climates,  they  pass  the  winter  in  a 
torpid  state,  buried  in  the  mud  of  ponds  and  ditches,  without  food  or 
air;  but,  under  other  circumstances,  tlie  access  of  air  rnust  certainly 
be  necessary  ;  and  the  accounts  which  have  repeatedly  been  given  of 
the  occurrence  of  Toads  in  tlie  heart  of  a  solid  block  of  stone,  must 
always  be  received  with  some  little  allowance  for  the  surprise  which 
would  naturally  be  created  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  creature 
in  an  unexpected  situation,   such  as  the  inside  of  a  tree,  or  of  an 


■    k 


Fig.  1684.— The  Vessels  in  the  Perfect  Animal. 


668 


THE  FROG  TRIBE— THE  AXOLOTL. 


aj>parently  solid  stone.  It  is  well  known  that,  under  favourable 
circumstances  of  air  and  moisture,  the  Toads  will  live  for  months  with- 
out food,  so  that  if  those  two  grand  requisites  be  granted,  we  may 
account  for  the  most  surprising  of  these  cases  without  much  difficulty. 
Sub-divisions. — The  class  Bafrachia  may  be  readily  divided  into 
five  very  distinct  orders — namely,  the  Lepidota,  with  a  Fish-like 
scaly  body,  four  simple  limbs,  and  permanent  gills  ;  the  Apoda,  with 
a  Vermiform  body  and  no  legs;  \he.  Amphipncusta,  with  naked  skin, 
two  or  four  legs,  and  permanent  gills ;  the  Urodela,  breathing  by 
lungs  alone,  and  retaining  the  tail  in  the  perfect  state  ;  and  the 
Anura,  in  which  the  tail  is  wanting  in  the  fully  developed  Animal. 

Order  I.— Lepidota. 
This  order  includes  only  three  singular  Animals.     The  body  is 


completely  Fish-like  in  its  form, 


Lepidosiren  paradoxa. 


covered  with  rounded  scales,  laid 
over  one  another  exactly  like  Fish 
scales ;  and  immediately  behind 
the  head  there  is  a  small  branchial 
aperture.  The  limbs  are  simple 
styliform  organs  ;  the  anterior  pair, 
like  the  pectoral  fins  of  a  Fish, 
being  attached  to  the  back  of  the 
I  head,  and  the  fin  that  runs  round 
the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body 
is  supported  by  a  series  of  horny 
rays.  The  scales  with  which  the 
body  is  covered  are  of  a  peculiar 
structure  ;  they  appear  to  be  com- 
posed of  numerous  small  mosaic- 
like pieces.  The  skeleton  consists 
of  a  continuous  chorda,  with  bony 
arches,  and  the  skull  is  cartilaginous,  with  a  few  bony  plates. 
The  teeth  are  in  the  form  of  perpendicular  cutting  plates.  The 
branchiffi  are  attached  to  three  complete  arches,  between  which 
there  is  a  similar  number  of  slits  opening  into  the  pharynx,  and  there 
are  also  two  other  arches  which  bear  no  branchial  laminae.  The 
nasal  cavities  open  into  the  mouth,  and  an  opening  into  the 
pharnyx  leads  to  a  pair  of  cellular  lungs,  which  receive  venous 
blood  from  the  heart,  and  return  it,  whenarterialised,  into  the  aorta. 
These  cliaracters  appear  to  prove  that  the  Animals  of  this  order 
belong  rather  to  the  Batrachia  than  to  the  Fishes.  Another  impor- 
tant character  is,  that  one  species,  at  least,  possesses  external 
branchia:  in  the  perfect  state,  a  structure  which  does  not  occur  in 
any  Fish. 

Three  species  of  this  curious  order  are  already  known  ;  they  are 
found  in  tlie  fresh  waters  of  the  hot  regions  of  South  America  and 
Africa.  The  South  American  species  Lepidosiren  paradoxa,  (Fig. 
1685)  is  between  two  and  three  feet  in  length  ;  and  another  species 
(the  L.  an>iecfens),  of  about  a  foot  long,  is  found  in  the  Gambia. 
During  the  dry  season,  these  creatures  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  ; 
and  one  of  them  is  said  to  make  itself  a  sort  of  nest,  in  which  to  pass 
the  period  of  torpidity.  In  these  burrows  they  await  the  return  of  the 
wet  season,  which  recalls  them  to  their  aquatic  life.  The 
Gambian  species  is  said  to  pass  nine  months  of  the  year  in  this 
torpid  state. 

Order  II.— Apoda. 

The  animals  belonging  to  this  order  also  present  such  anomalous 
characters,  that  naturalists  have  long  been  doubtful  whether  they 
should  be  placed  amongst  the  Batrachia,  or  with  the  Snakes 
amongst  the  Reptiles.  In  the  form  of  the  body  they  closely  resemble 
large  Earth-worms  ;  they  are  totally  destitute  of  limbs,  and  covered 
with  a  soft,  viscous  skin,which  is  annulated  and  wrinkled,  and  contains 
numerous  minute  horny  scales,  exactly  resembling  those  of  Fishes. 
The  mouth  is  of  a  moderate  size  ;  the  eyes  very  small,  and  sometimes 
entirely  wanting ;  and  the  anus  is  situated  at  the  hinder  extremity 
of  the  body,  without  the  least  indication  of  a  tail. 

The  Apodal  Batrachia  form  a  single  family,  the  CceciliidcB,  so 
called  in  consequence  of  the  minute  size  and  occasional  absence  of 
the  eyes.  They  live  in  the  Tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres, 
where  they  burrow  in  marshy  ground,  like  Earthworms,  in  pursuit  of 
the  larvae  of  Insects,  upon  which  they  feed.  The  species  generally 
measure  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length  ;  but  Cuvier  states  that  he 
possessed  the  skeleton  of  a  Cacilia  which  was  more  than  six  feet  in 
length,  and  contained  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  vertebrae.  (Fig. 
1686  represents  a  species  of  this  family,  a  illustrating  the  scaly 
covering.) 

Order  III.— Amphipneusta. 

General  Characters. — This  and  the  following  order  agree  in 
having  the  skin  perfectly  naked,  the  body  elongated,  and  produced 
behind  into  a  permanent  tail,  and  the  limbs  more  or  less  developed. 
The  Amphipneusta  are  distinguished    principally  by  the  perma- 


nent nature  of  the  branchial  organs  already  described  when  speaking 
of  the  respiration  of  the  Batrachia  in  general  ;  which  project 
from  the  sides  of  the  neck  during  tlie  whole  life  of  the  Animal.  The 
lungs,  although  existing,  are  in  a  comparatively  rudimentary  state, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  respiration  is  essentially  aquatic. 
The  eyes  are  always  small,  sometimes  completely  concealed  beneath 
the  skin, but  never  furnished  with  eyelids;  the  legs  are  small  and  weak, 
sometimes  only  two  in  number,  and  terminated  by  rudimentary  toes. 


Fig.  16S6. — The  Two-banded  Cacilia. 

Sub-divisions. — These  singular  Animals,  which  are  generally  of 
small  size,  are  divisablc  into  two  families,  the  Proteidce  and  the 
Sirenida;.  The  former  have  a  compressed  tail,  large  branchiae,  and 
four  legs.  Of  these  the  best  known  is  the  Proteus,  or  Hypoclithon 
anguiiius,  an  extraordinary  creature,  which  is  only  found  in  the  sub- 
terranean waters  of  some  caves  in  the  south  of  Europe  (Carinthia, 
and  some  other  parts  of  the  Austrian  dominions).  It  is  about  afoot 
long,  and  sometimes  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
It  is  of  a  pale  flesh  colour,  or  perfectly  white,  with  the  exception  of 
the  three  pairs  of  branchial  tufts,  which  are  of  a  fine  bright  crimson  ; 
the  body  is  cylindrical,  and  a  good  deal  longer  than  the  tail,  which 
is  broad,  and  much  compressed.  The  legs  are  very  weak,  and  the 
anterior  pair  terminate  in  three  toes,  the  posterior  in  two.  Although 
apparently  a  weak  and  sluggish  Animal,  the  Proteus  swims  with 
considerable  ease,  with  a  leech-like  undulation  of  the  body ;  and 
like  the  Lepidosiren,  it  is  said  to  bury  itself  in  the  mud,  at  the 
bottom  of  its  place  of  abode,  when  the  water  happens  to  dry  up. 

Several  species  of  this  group  are  found  in  different  parts  of 
America ;  of  these,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Axolotl 
{Siredon pisci/orme),  of  which  the  following  is  a  description  : — 

The  Axolotl  {Siredon  pisciforme,  Wagler ;  Siren  pisciformis, 
Shaw  ;  Gyrinus  edulis,  Hernandez  ;  Mcnobranchiis  pisciformis, 
Harlan.) — This  Fish-like  amphibian  is  remarkable  for  the  three  long 
fringed  processes  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  forming  conspicuous  gill- 
tufts.  The  limbs  are  four ;  the  anterior  are  furnished  with  four  toes, 
the  hinder  with  five  ;  there  are  teeth  in  both  jaws  as  well  as  palatal 
teeth,  aggregated  in  numerous  rows,  and  rasp-like,  as  in  certain 
Fishes  ;  the  tail  is  compressed  at  the  sides  like  that  of  a  Water-Newt, 
and  furnished  above  and  below  by  a  membranous  fin  ;  the  muzzle  is 
blunt,  and  the  eyes  small.  Referring  to  Fig.  1687  the  sketch  accom- 
panying the  figure  represents  the  Under  Jaw  and  Throat  of  the  Animal 
as  seen  from  beneath,  in  order  to  show  the  singular  form  of  the  gills. 
The  Axolotl  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  common  in  the  lake  sur- 
rounding the  city  of  that  name  ;  and  according  to  Baron  Humboldt 
is  also  found  in  cold  waters  of  mountain  lakes  at  a  much  greater 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea  than  the  plain  in  which  the  city 
of  IVIexico  is  situated.  This  Animal  is  commonly  sold  in  the  markets 
of  that  city,  and  is  esteemed  a  luxury  by  the  inhabitants  ;  it  is 
dressed  after  the  manner  of  stewed  Eels,  and  served  up  with  a  rich 
sauce.  Hernandez  says  that  it  is  agreeable  and  wholesome.  For  a 
long  time  the  Axolotl  was  regarded  as  the  Tadpole  or  larva  of  some 
unknown  Batrachian,  and  was  so  regarded  by  Cuvier,  till  he  pre- 
pared the  last  edition  of  his  "  Regne  Animal,"  and  even  there  he 
seems  to  retain  a  degree  of  doubt  respecting  it. 

The  length  of  the  Animal  is  from  eight  to  ten  inches  ;  the  general 
colour  is  uniform  deep  greyish-brown,  everj'where  thickly  mottled 
with  small  round  black  spots.  The  communications  which  open 
from  the  gills  into  the  mouth  are  four  in  number  and  of  a  size  consi- 
derably larger  than  in  the  allied  genera.  They  are  covered  externally 
by  a  species  of  operculum  formed  by  a  fold  in  the  skin  of  the  head. 
The  largest  species  appear  to  belong  to  the  genus  ilenobra/ichus, 
of  which  one,  the  M.  lateralis,  which  is  found  in  the  Great  North 
American  lakes,  attains  a  length  of  from  two  to  three  feet. 

The  Sirenida;  have  only  the  two  a-.terior  legs  ;  the  body  is  elon- 
gated, and  somewhat  cylindrical,  a;  id  the  branchial   tufts   small. 


CHAMELEONS. 


THE  SALAMANDERS. 


66() 


They  have  no  operculum.  The  best  known  species  is  the  Siren 
laccrtina,  which  inhabits  the  marshy  rice-grounds  of  Carolina.  It 
is  of  an  Eel-Iikc  form,  and  occasionally  measures  as  much  as  three 
feet  in  length.  The  feet  are  small,  and  furnished  with  four  toes,  and 
the  tail  is  "compressed  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  blunt  fin.  The  Siren 
laccrtiiia  generally  keeps  in  tlie  mud  and  muddy  water  of  the  rice 
swamps,  but  is  said  occasionally  to  come  upon  land  ;  it  feeds  upon 
Worms  and  Insects.     Its  original  discoverer,  Dr.  Garden,  who  fur- 


Fig.  16S7.— The  Siredon,  or  Axolotl. 

nished  Linna;us  with  specimens,  accompanied  them  with  some  won- 
derful stories  relating  to  its  supposed  habits.  He  stated  that  the 
Siren  fed  habitually  on  Serpents,  and  that  it  had  a  sort  of  singing 
voice.  From  the  latter  circumstance  Linnjcus  gave  the  name  of 
Siren  to  the  genus.  Dr.  Garden's  statements  have,  however,  been 
denied  by  subsequent  observers.     Several  smaller  species  are  also 


Fig.  16SS.— Skeleton  of  the  Striated  Siren. 

found  in  di'Terent  parts  of  the  United  States.     (Fig.  1688  represents 
the  skeleton  of  a  species  of  Siren.) 

Order  IV.— Urodela. 

General  Characters.— The  Urodeia,  in  the  general  form  of 
the  body,  frequently  present  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Lizards,  with 
which  they  were  arranged  by  Linnasus  and  the  older  naturalists. 
They  have  a  persistent  tail,  four  limbs,  which  are  sometimes  very 
small,  and  occasionally  the  toes  are  furnished  with  claws.  There 
are  no  e.xternal  branchiae,  and  the  lungs  are  well  developed ;  but,  in 
a  few  species,  there  is  a  branchial  aperture  on  each  side  of  the  neck, 
within  which  are  the  branchial  arches,  with  their  laminaj.  The  skin 
is  either  quite  smooth  or  covered  with  w^arty  prominences  ;  it  is 
usually  furnished  with  numerous  glands,  which  secrete  an  acrid, 
viscid  fluid  ;  and  this  has  no  doubt  obtained  for  these  animals  the 
reputation  for  venom  which  many  of  them  enjoy. 

SuB-DlvisiONS.— The  Urodela  form  two  great  families.     In  the 


Am^hiumidcB  the  limbs  are  of  very  small  size  ;  the  neck  has 
usually  a  branchial  .aperture  on  each  side  ;  and  the  eyes  are  minute 
and  destitute  of  eyelids.  These  Animals  are  generally  of  large  size, 
the  Ampliiiuna  tridactybtm  attaining  a  length  of  three  feet.  Like 
the  Sirenida,  which  they  a  good  deal  resemble  in  form,  they  are 
particularly  partial  to  the  mud  of  shallow  waters. 

The  Three-toed  Amphiuma  {Amphiuma  tridactylum).^ 
These  Animals  inhabit  the  stagnant  pools  and  ditches  of  Louisiana, 
Georgia,  Florida,  and  South  Carolina,  and  great  numbers  are  often 
found  in  clearing  out  ponds,  buried  deep  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom. 
The  body  is  extremely  long,  and  covered  with  a  smooth  skin,  which, 
together  with  their  general  form,  gives  them  an  Hcl-Iike  appearance  ; 
the  limbs  are  four  in  number,  but  extremely  minute  ;  in  one  species 
the  toes  on  each  limb  are  three  in  number,  in  the  other  only  two ; 


Fig.  i68g.— The  Three-toed  Amphiuma. 

they  are  little  jointless  divisions.  There  are  no  ribs,  and  the  verte- 
bra resemble  in  their  structure  those  of  Fishes ;  the  eyes  are  very 
small ;  there  are  two  longitudinal  ranges  of  palatal  teeth.  These 
Animals  are  essentially  formed  for  the  water,  where  they 
obtain  their  prey  ;  on  the  approach  of  winter  they  bury 
themselves  in  the  mud  and  there  hybernate ;  occa- 
sionally, however,  they  creep  on  land,  and  burrow 
in  spongy  places,  or  under  decaying  logs,  or  fallen 
trunks  of  trees  in  swamps  and  marshes.  Dr.  Harlan, 
speaking  of  the  small  two-toed  species,  says,  "  I  am  in- 
formed by  Major  Wace,  that  they  are  sometimes  dis- 
covered two  or  three  feet  under  mud  of  the  consistence 
of  mortar,  in  which  they  burrow  like  worms,  as  was 
instanced  in  digging  near  a  street  in  Pensacola,  where 
great  numbers  were  thrown  up  during  the  winter  season. 
It  is  called  in  Florida  the  congo  snake  by  the  negroes, 
who  believe  it  to  be  poisonous,  but  without  foundation." 
The  Three-toed  Amphiuma  attains  the  length  of  three 
feet ;  the  two-toed  is  only  about  eighteen  inches  long. 
(See  Fig.  16S9.) 

The  SalamandridcB,  the  only  family  of  Tailed  Batra- 
chia  of  which  examples  occur  in  our  own  country,  is 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  family  by  the  total 
absence  of  all  traces  of  a  branchial  apparatus  after  the 
Animals  have  attained  their  mature  form,  and  also  by 
the  structure  of  the  eyes,  which  are  very  prominent,  and 
protected  by  eyelids. 

This  family  is  divisible  into  two  very  distinct  groups,  or 
subfamilies — namely,  the  Tritons,  or  Aquatic  Sala- 
manders, in  which  the  tail  is  much  compressed,  and  which  frequently 
visit  the  water ;  their  reproduction  is  oviparous,  their  eggs  pro- 
ducing Tadpole-like  larvae.  These  gradually  acquire  the  form  of 
their  parents,  after  swimming  about  for  some  time  in  the  water, 
respiring  by  means  of  gills.  The  Salamandra:,  or  Land  Sala- 
manders, have  a  cylindrical  tail,  and  live  on  land  in  damp  places, 
producing  their  young  alive. 

These  divisions  into  Terrestrial  and  Aquatic  species,  must  not, 
however,  be  received  in  the  strictest  sense,  as  it  appears,  from  the 
observations  of  Mr.  Higginbottom  upon  our  British  Tritons,  that 
these  little  Animals  really  pass  a  great  part  of  their  time  on_  land, 
and  only  visit  the  water  during  the  breeding  season.  Mr.  Higgin- 
bottom also  states,  that  the  Tritons  do  not  breed  until  they  are  fully 
three  years  old,  and  that  the  interval  between  their  quittmg  the 
Tadpole  state,  and  retiring  to  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  breedmg, 
is  entirely  spent  on  the  ground.  During  this  period,  the  young 
Tritons  conceal  themselves  for  the  winter  in  solitary  holes,  often  at  a 
considerable  depth  in  the  ground ;  but  the  full-grown  ones  frequently 


6/0 


WATER-NEWTS. 


collect  together  into  a  mass  as  large  as  a  cricket-ball,  and  thus 
hybemate  in  company.  At  the  approach  of  the  breeding  season, 
which  commences  in  March  or  April,  the  Tritons  begin  to  acquire 
peculiar  appendages,  consisting  principally  of  a  fin-like  crest  run- 
ning along  the  back  and  tail,  and  some  similar  membranous  appen- 
dages to  the  toes.  When  in  the  water  they  are  exceedingly  vora- 
cious, devouring  almost  all  small  Aquatic  Animals,  and  not  even 
sparing  the  Tadpoles  of  their  own  species.  These  are  generally  ex- 
cluded about  the  month  of  June  or  July;  and,  in  the  course  of  July 
or  August,  the  old  Tritons  quit  the  water,  and  again  betake  them- 
selves to  a  Terrestrial  existence  ;  whilst  the  Tadpoles,  according  to 
Mr.  Higginbottom,  remain  for  the  most  part  without  much  change 
until  the  following  spring,  when  they  acquire  legs,  and  are  enabled 
to  quit  the  water. 

The  species  of  Triton  are  very  diiBcult  to  distinguish,  as  it  appears 
that  the  characters  of  the  same  species  vary  greatly  in  accordance 
with  sex  and  age — the  crests  and  other  appendages,  which  make 
their  appearance  during  the  breeding  season,  having  been  particu- 
larly fertile  sources  of  confusion.  It  appears,  however,  that  we  pos- 
sess at  least  two  distinct  species,  of  which  the  larger,  Triton 
^ahistris,  measures,  when  full-grown,  about  six  inches  in  length  ; 
whilst  the  smaller  and  commoner  one,  T.  aquaficus,  is  only  a  little 
more  than  half  that  length.  We  quote  from_  another  authority  a 
more  detailed  description  of  the  Tritons,  or  British  Newts. 

Newts. — Fig.  i6go  represents  a  group  of  British  Water-Newts  a, 
the  Common  Water-Newt  {Triton  cristatiis) ;  b,  the  Common  Smooth 
Newt  {Lissotriton  punctatm)  ;  c,  the  Straight-lipped  Water-Newt 
(Triton    bibroniij  ;    d,    the    Palmated    Water-Newt  {Lissotriton 


Fig.  1690.— British  Water-Newts. 

f>ahnif>cs).  Of  the  Water-Newts,  four  species  inhabit  the  ponds, 
ditches,  and  clear  sluggish  or  standing  waters  of  our  island.  Lizard- 
like  as  these  Reptiles  are  in  appearance,  they  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Lacertine  group,  with  which  Linna:us,  overlooking 
their  true  charactistics,  associated  them  under  the  common  term  of 
Lacerta.  Like  the  Frog,  the  Newts  begin  their  existence  in  a  Tad- 
pole state,  furnished  with  tufted  gills  or  branchia;  for  aquatic 
respiration,  which  become  ultimately  lost,  and  arc  replaced  by  true 
lungs  adapted  for  a  different  medium.  The  process  of  this  structural 
change,  which  is  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  Frog,  we  shall  sketch 
as  briefly  as  possible  consistent  with  clearness. 

On  its  first  exclusion  from  the  e^g^,  the  Tadpole  of  the  Water-Newt 
exhibit  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  the" lobes  of  the  branchia;  in  a  simple 


state,  anterior  to  which  are  a  pair  of  holders,  by  which  the  animal 
attaches  itself  to  objects  in  the  water.  In  about  three  weeks  on  the 
average,  the  anterior  limbs  have  become  developed,  with  terminal 
feet,  four-toed  and  distinct,  the  holders  have  disappeared,  the 
branchial  tufts  have  acquired  a  fringed  character,  and  the  eyes  have 
assumed  a  definite  outline  ;  the  little  creature  now  moves  about  with 
considerable  rapidity,  propelling  itself  through  the  water  by  the 
undulatory  movements  of  its  laterally  flattened  tail.  -In  a  short  time 
after  this,  the  anterior  limbs  become  more  perfect,  the  hind  limbs 
begin  to  sprout,  and  the  branchial  tufts,  three  on  each  side,  are  much 
enlarged  and  finely  plumed.  In  a  short  time,  the  hind  limbs,  and 
feet  with  five  toes,  are  completely  formed,  the  body  has  attained  its 
nearly  perfect  figure,  and  the  branchia;  have  assumed  a  deeper 
colour  and  firmer  texture.  The  lungs  are  now  rapidly  developing,  a 
change  in  the  routine  of  the  circulation  is  gradually  taking  place, 
and  the  branchia;  are  becoming  absorbed  :  towards  the  middle  or 
close  of  autumn  they  disappear,  and  air  instead  of  water  becomes 
the  medium  of  respiration.  A  similar  transformation  takes  place  in 
the  Tadpole  of  the  Frog,  as  already  explained,  with  this  addition,  that 
the  hind  limbs  first  appear,  and  the  compressed  tail  becomes 
absorbed  with  the  obliteration  of  the  branchia;.  In  the  branchix  of 
the  Tadpole  of  the  Newt  and  Frog,  when  the  limbs  have  made  some 
progress,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  when  viewed  through  a  good 
microscope,  is  calculated  to  excite  the  greatest  admiration  ;  their 
transparency  is  such  as  to  permit  the  currents  of  globules  rapidly 
coursing  each  other  to  be  distinctly  seen,  as  they  ascend  the 
arteries  and  return  by  the  veins  to  the  aorta.  We  may  here  state 
that  in  the  Tadpole  condition  of  these  animals,  the  circulation  of 

the  blood  resembles  that  of  Fishes. 
The  heart  consists  of  one  auricle  and 
one  ventricle ;  the  auricle  receives 
the  blood  of  the  general  system,  and 
immediately  transmits  it  to  the  ven- 
^^b^  tricle,   which    is   muscular ;    from   this 

ventricle  it  is  propelled  into  an  arterial 
bulb  {Bulhus  arteriosus),  and  thence 
through  a  system  of  minute  branchial 
arteries,  and  becomes  subjected  to  the 
action  of  o.xygen  ;  from  these  arteries  it 
merges  into  the  branchial  veins  or  re- 
turning vessels,  which  ultimately  unite 
to  form  a  systematic  aorta,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  second  ventricle.  As 
the  branchia;  become  obliterated,  the 
pulmonary  arteries  develop,  and  the 
lungs  begin  to  expand,  till  at  last  the 
branchia;  are  lost,  and  the  heart  and 
circulation  have  assumed  new  charac- 
ters. The  heart  now  consists  of  two 
auricles  and  one  ventricle  ;  one  auricle 
of  small  size  receives  the  arterialized 
blood  from  the  lungs ;  the  other, 
which  is  capacious,  the  venous  blood 
from  the  system,  and  both  transmit 
their  contents  through  valvular  doors 
into  the  common  chamber  of  the  ven- 
tricle. The  fluid  thus  mixed  is  sent 
through  the  hulbus  arteriosus,  and 
thence  partly  to  the  general  system  and 
partly  through  the  pulmonary  arteries, 
to  undergo  in  the  lungs  the  action  of 
oxygen.  The  development  of  the  Tad- 
pole of  I'riton  cristatus,  as  observed 
by  Rusconi,  may  be  easily  understood 
by  reference  to  the  following  illustra- 
tions : — 

Fig.  1691  exhibits  the  evolution  of  the 

egg  kept  on  the  leaf,  as  deposited  by 

the  female.     The  stages  are  denoted  by 

dates,  from  the  beginning  to  the  time  in 

which  the   young  Animal     is  about  to 

emerge.      Each   phase*  of  the   egg  is 

shown  of  the  natural  size,  accompanied 

by  a  magnified  view  of  the  same  below. 

Fig.  1692  shows  the   Tadpole   on  the  day   of  its   leaving  the  egg, 

May  6th  ;  a,  as  magnified  and  seen  from  below  ;  b  b,  are   the   two 

eminences  formed  by  the  globes  of  the  eyes,  and  between  them  is  a 

slight  depression  which  afterward  becomes  the  mouth  ;  c,  is  the  holder 

of  the  right  side;  o',  the  gills  of  the    same    side;  c,  a   rudiment  of 

the  fore  limbs  of  the  same   side  _/,  the  same   Animal  in  profile ;  g, 

the  same  seen  from  above. 

Fig.  1693  shows  the  developemnt  on  the  i8th  of  May,  twelve  days, 
after  exclusion  :  a  and  b  are  magnified  representations.  The  fore 
limbs  are  tolerably  developed,  and  the  branchia;  are  becoming 
fringed.  Fig.  1694  represents  the  same  Animal,  as  it  appears  on 
May  28th  and  June  12th  ;  a  a,  natural  size  ;  b,  magnified.  In  the 
latter,  the  branichm   are  beautifully  fringed,  and  the  hinder  limbs 


WATER-NEWTS. 


are  in  process  of  development.     Y\g.  1695  shows  the  youn.<j  Newt  in 
its  last  stage,  July   18th,  the  branicha;  now  beginning  to  shorten. 

April  23.       April  2(i.       April  28.        .iprU  30. 


Fig.  1691.— Eggs  of  Watei-Newt, 
May  C. 


Fig.  1692. — Tadpole  on  leaving  the  egg. 


Fig.  1693. — Tadpole  at  twelve  days  old. 


671 

This  obliteration  of  the  branicha:  goes  on  for  five  or  six  days  more, 
when  they  become  reduced  to  mere  bud-like  eminences  ;  the  bran- 
chial  apertures  have  closed,  the  skeleton  has  become  firmer,  teeth 
have  appeared,  and  by  the  27th  of  July  all  traces  of  its  former  condi- 
tion have  entirely  ,,asscd  away  :  it  has  changed  from  the  state  of  a 
!•  ish  to  that  of  a  Reptile.  It  would  appear  that  the  changes  described 
are  retarded  or  accelerated  according  to  the  temperature.  In  our 
island  the  process  is  more  protracted  than  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  continent.  ' 


Fig.  1694.— Tadpole  at  twenty-two  and  tliirty-seven  days. 


Fig.  1695.— Last  stage  of  Young  Water-Newt. 

The  Great  Water-Newt  {Triton  cristatus)  attains  to  the  length  of 
more  than  six  inches,  and  is  one  of  the  most  Aquatic  of  its  genus 
residing  almost  constantly  in  the  water  ;  we  have,  however,  captured 
it  in  meadows  at  the  latter  part  of  summer.     Its   bright   orano-e- 
coloured  abdomen,  with  distinct  round  spots  of  black,  together  w?th 
its  size,  prevent  the  possibility   of  confounding  it  with  any  other 
species,  except  perhaps  the  Trifo7i  palmi[pes,  of  which  the  under 
surface  is  saffron  yellow,  or,  as  Latreille  states,  white  without  spots. 
The  great  Water-Newt  is  active  and  voracious  ;  it  feeds  during  the 
spring  and  summer  on  the  Tadpole  of  the  Frog,  and  also  upon  the 
smaller  species  of  Newt,  which  it  attacks  and  seizes  with  the  utmost 
determination  ;  it  will  also  prey  upon  Worms,  Insects,  and  Mollusks, 
and  may  be  taken  by  means  of  a  hook  baited  with  a  small  Worm.' 
It  swims  vigorously,  lashing  its  compressed  tail  from  side  to  side,  its 
limbs  being  so  disposed  as  to  offer  no  resistance  to  the  water ;  we 
have  seen  it  crawl  slowly  at  the  bottom  of  clear  ditches,  as  well  as  on 
the  land,  where,  however,  its  movements  are  inert.     It  hybcrnates 
like  the  Frog,   generally  in  the   mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and 
ditches.     Mr.  Bell  however  states  that  he  has  found  it  hybernating 
under  stones,  and  we  ourselves  on  one  occasion,  early  in  the  spring, 
saw  several  creeping  out  from  under  some  large  flags  placed  to  sup- 
port a  bank ;  on  taking  up  one  by  the  tail,  as  we  well  remember,  the 
tail,  to  our  dismay,  broke  short  off,  and  continued  for  some  time  to 
be  rapidly  agitated.     On  awaking  from  its  lethargy  in  the   spring, 
the  male  begins  to  assume  a  membranous  dorsal,  and  caudal  cresT 
by  which  he  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the  female.     The  dorsai 
crest  has  its  edge  indented,  but  that  along  the  tail  has  its   edge 
even  ;  with  the  completion  of  the  crest  the  colours  become  brio-hter 
and  more  decided,  and  the  Animal  is  more  lively  and  vigorous?"    At 
the  latter  end  of  April  and  during  the  months  of  May  and  June,  the 
female  deposits  her  eggs,  not  as  in  the  case  of  the  Frog,  in  multi- 
tudes all  agglutinated  together  in  a  gelatinous  medium, "but  one  by 
one  each  in  a  distinct  spot  from  the  other.     Resting  on  the  leaf  of 
some  Aquatic  plant,  she  folds  it  by  means  of  her  two'hinder  feet,  and 
in  the  duplication  of  the  leaf  thus  made,  deposits  a  single    egg, 
gluing  at  the  same  time  the  folded  parts  together,  thus  concealing 
and  protecting  the  enclosed  deposit.    This  process  was  first  described 
by  Rusconi,  and  has  been  minutely  detailed  by  Mr.  Bell  from  per- 
sonal observation.     The  membranous  dorsal  crest  of  the  male  con- 
tinues till  autumn,  when  it  is  gradually  absorbed  ;  a  trace,  however, 
of  the  caudal  crest  still  remains.     In  this  species  the  upper  lip  is 
slightly  pendulous,  the  teeth  are  numerous   and  minute,  a  double 
longitudinal  series  occuring  on   the   palate  ;  the  tongue   is    semi- 
globular,  slightly  free  at  the  sides,  and  pointed  behind  ;  the  head  is 
flattened,  the  body  cylindrical,  corrugated,  and  covered  with  minute 
tubercles  ;  there  are  two  patches  of  simple  pores  along  each  side  of  the 
head,  and  a  line  of  similar  pores  at  distant  intervals  along  each  side  of 
the  body.     The  upper  parts  are  dusky  black   or  yellowish-brown, 
with  darker  round  spots  ;  the  under  parts  are  orange  red,  with  round 
spots  of  black ;  the  sides  are  dotted  with  white,  and  the  sides  of 
the  tail  are  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  a  silvery  white. 

The  Common  Smooth  Newt  [Lissolrifon piincfaius,  Bell)  differs 
considerably  in  its  habits  from  the  Great  Water-newt.  It  is  much 
more  terrestrial,  frequenting  damp  places,  and  is  often  found  in 
cellars  and  underground  vaults.  Shaw,  indeed,  in  his  "  General 
Zoology,"  asserts  that  the  Common  Newt  is  altogether  a  terrestrial 
species,  and  contradicts  the  statement  of  Linna;us  that  during  its 
Tadpole  condition  it  inhabits  the  water  ;  he  says,  "  I  can  safely 
afiii-m  that  I  have  met  with  specimens  in  perfectly  dry  situations  so 
e.\tiemely  minute  as  scarcely  to  equal  lialf  an  inch  in  length,  which 


672 


TOADS  AND  FROGS. 


appear  to  differ  in  no  respect,  except  in  magnitude,  from  the  full- 
grown  animal."  We  have  seen  the  same  in  damp  cellars  in  abund- 
ance, and  whatever  difficulties  there  may  be  in  accountings  for  their 
presence  in  such  situations,  they  had  doubtless  been  previously  in 
a  Tadpole  condition,  from  which  they  had  recently  emerged.  It  is 
a  query,  however,  whether  they  require  as  much  water  as  the  other 
species,  and  whether  they  will  not  undergo  their  change  in  extremely 
humid  spots,  where  water  trickles  freely  about,  and  occasionally 
gushes  up,  as  well  as  in  ponds  or  ditches  ;  certainly  the  specimens 
we  have  seen  could  not  have  crawled  many  yards ;  they  were  pallid, 
and  slow  in  their  movements.  The  Common  Water-newt  is  found  in 
clear  ponds  and  ditches  ;  in  the  spring,  the  males  appear  ornamented 
with  a  continuous  membranous  crest  from  the  head  down  the  back 
to  the  end  of  the  tail ;  this  crest  they  lose  in  the  month  of  June  or 
July,  when  both  adults  and  young  quit  the  water  for  the  land,  where 
they  creep  about,  lodging  in  damp  places,  under  stones,  and  in 
crevices  of  the  ground.  Early  in  the  winter,  the  crest  of  the  male 
reappears,  and  is  complete  in  the  beginning  of  the  spring,  at  which 
time  he  assumes  a  richer  colouring.  Aquatic  Insects  and  their 
larvae.  Worms,  &c. ,  constitute  the  food  of  this  species.  The  female 
deposits  her  eggs  much  in  the  same  manner  as  already  described, 
generally  within  a  folded  leaf,  but  not  unfrequently  at  the  junction 
of  the  leaf  with  the  stalk.  Mr.  Bell  states  that  he  has  sometimes 
seen  the  females  in  the  act  of  placing  their  eggs  not  only  singly, 
but  by  two,  three,  and  four  together. 

In  the  Common  Newt  the  skin  is  smooth  ;  on  the  head  there  are 
two  rows  of  pores,  but  none  on  the  back  or  sides.  The  crest  of  the 
male  is  not  only  much  developed  in  the  spring,  but  the  margin  is 
crenate,  the  tips  of  the  crenations  being  sometimes  tinged  with  fine 
red,  sometimes  with  violet ;  the  general  colour  above  is  yellowish  or 
brownish  grey,  bright  orange  below,  and  everywhere  marked  with 
dark  spots,  some  of  an  irregular  figure.  The  female  is  yellowish 
brown,  with  scattered  spots,  and  without  the  rich  orange  of  the 
under  surface.  The  upper  lip  is  quite  straight.  Length,  nearly  four 
inches. 

The  Straight-lipped  Water-Newt  {Triton  bibronii,  Bell)  differs 
from  the  Great  Water-Newt  in  having  the  upper  lip  perfectly  straight 
and  not  overhanging  the  lower  at  its  sides.  Its  skin  also  is  more  rugous 
and  strongly  tuberculated,  and  its  colour  darker.  Habits  the  same 
as  in  T.  cristatus. 

The  Palmated  Water-Newt  {Lissofrifon  -palmipes,  Bell)  is  allied 
to  the  Common  Water-Newt,  from  which  it  differs  in  having  the 
upper  lip  pendulous  at  the  sides,  and  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet 
fringed  permanently  by  a  short  membrane,  which  is  seen  in  the  male 
of  L.  pii7icfatus  only  during  the  breeding  season.  It  is  also  of  a 
larger  size,  and  the  spots  are  more  numerous  and  definite.  The 
head  also  is  marked  with  brown  longitudinal  lines  ;  like  the  common 
species,  however,  which  it  resembles  in  its  habits,  it  is  liable  to  some 
variations  of  markings. 

These  Animals  are  provincially  termed  Efts  and  Askers.  The 
power  which  these  Sa Id ?!ta?id rides  possess  of  renewing  the  limbs 
and  the  tail  when  removed,  and  that  repeatedly  in  succession,  is  very 
surprising.  According  to  Bonnet,  the  reproduction  of  these  parts  is 
favoured  by  heat,  and  retarded  by  cold  ;  in  one  instance,  after  the 
total  extirpation  of  an  eye,  the  organ  was  reproduced,  and  perfect  in 
its  structure  at  the  end  of  a  year  Dufay  has  recorded  their  faculty 
of  remaining  frozen  in  ice  for  a  long  period  without  perishing. 
Though  we  mention  these  experiments,  which  are  not  without  their 
physological  importance,  we  would  distinctly  state  that  their  repeti- 
tion for  mere  curiosity  must  be  condemned  as  wanton  and  unpar- 
donable cruelty. 

The  terrestrial  species,  or  True  Salamanders,  have  a  rounded  tail ; 
and  the  young,  instead  of  being  developed  in  the  water,  are  retained 
within  an  enlarged  part  of  the  oviduct,  where  they  pass  through  the 
first  part  of  their  metamorphoses  in  albuminous  fluid.  The  Sala- 
manders have  a  large  gland  behind  the  ear,  which  secretes  a  yellow 
matter  ;  and  small  glands  of  a  similar  nature  are  scattered  through 
the  skin.  The  matter  thus  secreted  is  so  abundant,  that  it  was  long 
a  vulgar  superstition  that  the  Salamander,  if  put  upon  a  fire,  imme- 
diately discharged  a  quantity  of  water,  sufBcient  to  put  the  fire  out ; 
and  many  of  these  unfortunate  Ampiiibia  have  no  doubt  been 
sacrificed  in  consequence  of  this  belief.  The  Salamanders  are 
generally  of  small  size  ;  none  are  found  in  this  country,  but  several 
occur  on  the  continent.     They  rarely  exceed  six  inches  in  length. 

In  the  collection  of  the  Zoological  Society,  in  their  Gardens,  at 
Regent's  Park,  London,  is  a  specimen  of  the  Gigantic  Salamander, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  description  : — 

"The  Gigantic  Salamander  {Sieboldia maxima].— T\i\% kri\- 
mal,  remarkable  as  the  largest  existing  form  of  the  Tailed  Batra- 
chians,  is  a  native  of  the  clear  hill-streams  of  Japan.  It  is  a  sluggish 
creature,  seldom  moving  unless  disturbed,  and  remarkable  chiefly 
for  its  voracity,  which  renders  it  unsafe  to  keep  more  than  one 
specimen  in  the  same  tank.  Our  example,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  A. 
J.  Gower  in  1868,  measures  upwards  of  four  feet  in  length." 

A  Fossil  Salamander,  of  a  species  allied  to  the  above,  was  found 
in  the  CEningens  beds  (the  Miocene  period  of  Lyell)  early  in  the  last 
century. 


Order  V.— Anura. 

General  Characters. — The  general  form  of  the  Animals  in- 
cluded in  this  order,  of  which  the  well-known  Frog  may  be  taken  as 
the  type,  is  shorter  and  broader  than  that  of  any  of  the  preceding 
groups,  and  the  tail  is  entirely  wanting.  The  head  is  broad,  and 
the  opening  of  the  mouth  very  large.  The  limbs  are  of  unequal 
length,  the  hinder  pair  being  usually  much  longer  than  the  anterior, 
supplied  with  powerful  muscles,  and  fitted  to  enable  the  Animals  to 
perform  considerable  springs.  The  skin  is  quite  naked,  smooth, 
and  extremely  dilatable  ;  in  many  cases  it  is  furnished  with  a  great 
number  of  glands,  which  secrete  an  acrid  liquid. 

The  organs  of  the  senses  always  exhibit  a  much  greater  degree  of 
perfection  than  in  the  preceding  groups  ;  the  eyes  are  almost  always 
of  very  large  size,  prominent,  but  retractile,  and  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  eyelids,  of  which  the  lower  one  is  large  enough  to  cover 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  eye.  The  external  ear  is  situated  imme- 
diately behind  the  eye,  and  the  internal  portions  of  the  auditory 
organ  present  a  much  greater  perfection  of  organisation  than  in  any 
of  the  preceding  Vertebrata. 

The  upper  jaw  is  usually  armed  with  small,  hooked  teeth,  and 
similar  teeth  are  occasionally  distributed  in  the  lower  jaw  and  pala- 
tine bone.  The  tongue  is  sometimes  wanting,  but  is  generally  of 
large  size,  filling  up  nearly  the  whole  space  between  the  two  sides  of 
the  lower  jaw.  It  is  usually  fixed  to  the  front  of  the  mouth,  so  that 
its  hinder  part  is  quite  free,  and  can  be  pushed  out  of  the  mouth  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  employed  in  the  capture  of  prey.  The  fore 
legs  are  usually  terminated  by  four  free  toes,  which  are  of  nearly 
equal  length  ;  the  hind  legs  generally  have  five  toes,  more  or  less 
united  by  a  membrane,  and  of  unequal  length,  the  innermost  being 
by  far  the  shortest,  and  the  fourth  usually  the  longest.  The  spinal 
column  of  the  Anura  is  very  short,  consisting,  as  a  general  rule,  only 
of  eight  vertebra  ;  it  is  terminated  posteriorly  by  a  long  slender 
bone,  which  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  elongated  opening  of  the 
pelvis  ;  the  latter  is  composed  of  two  very  long  parallel  bones,  which 
lie  in  the  same  direction  as  the  axis  of  the  spine.  The  thighs  are 
articulated  at  the  extremity  of  this  pelvis.    (See  Fig.  1696.) 


Fig,  1696. — Skelelon  of  the  Common  Frog. 

The  habits  of  these  Animals  are  very  various.  Many  of  them  live 
constantly  in  the  water,  whilst  others  only  visit  that  clement  for  the 
purpose  of  depositing  heir  ova,  which  give  origin  to  tailed  Tadpoles, 
the  development  of  which  has  already  been  described  at  page  667 
anie.  Of  the  species  which  only  visit  the  water  occasionally  in  this 
manner,  some  live  constantly  on  the  ground  in  moist  places,  or  hide 
themselves  under  stones,  and  come  out  in  search  of  food  generally  in 
the  evening ;  whilst  others  pursue  their  Insect  prey  upon  the  trees 
and  bushes,  the  extremities  of  their  toes  being  furnished  with  adhe- 
sive organs,  which  enable  them  to  climb  about  with  great  ease  and 
security. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order,  including  the  well-known  Frogs  and 
Toads,  is  divisible  into  three  distinct  and  well-marked  families.  Of 
these,'  the  Pipidca  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  tongue  ; 
the  tympanum  of  the  ear  is  concealed,  the  head  is  triangular,  and 
the  small  eyes  are  placed  low  down  towards  the  mouth.  The  body 
is  broad  and  thick,  and  the  hind  legs  exceedingly  large  and  power- 
ful, the  toes  being  completely  united  by  an  ample  membrane. 


THE  TOADS. 


673 


In  the  typical  genus  Pipa,  the  teeth  are  wanting ;  whilst  in 
Dactylcthra,  which  is  also  distinguished  by  having  hoof-like  claws 
on  some  of  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet,  the  upper  jaw  is  armed  with 
small  pointed  teeth.  The  Surinam  Toad  described  as  follows  is  an 
illustration  of  the  Fi'pidcs  : — 

The  Surinam  Toad  {Pipa  americana,  Laur ;  Bufo  dorsigcr, 
Latr.) — In  this  strange  Reptile,  the  head  is  large,  flattened,  and 
triangular,  with  the  nostrils  prolonged  in  the  form  of  a  little  cutan- 
eous tube  ;  the  eyes  are  very  minute  and  vertical,  the  eyelids  reduced 
to  a  simple  rudiment  incapable  of  closing  over  the  eyes.  There  are 
no  teeth,  either  on  the  jaws  or  palate,  nor  are  parotid  glands 
apparent.  The  anterior  paws  have  each  four  fingers,  terminating 
in  four  star-like  points  ;  the  hind  limbs  are  short  and  thick,  the  feet 
large,  and  the  toes,  five  in  number,  completely  webbed.  The  body 
is  broad  and  flat ;  a  little  barbule  (barbillon)  hangs  on  each  side  of 
the  upper  jaw,  and  an  ear-like  appendage  on  each  angle  of  the 
mouth.  The  skin  differs  from  that  of  all  other  Batrachians,  being 
covered  with  minute  hard  granules  ;  amongst  which  are  scattered 
small  conical  tubercles  of  a  horny  consistence.  The  male  is  dis- 
tinguished by  an  enormous  larynx  formed  like  a  triangular  bo.x  of 
bone,  within  which  are  two  movable  pieces,  the  action  of  which  in- 
fluences the  intonation  of  the  voice.     (See  Fig.  1697.) 


Fig.  1697. — The  Surinam  Toai 

The  mode  in  which  the  eggs  of  this  Reptile  are  hatched,  and  the 
circumstances  connected  with  the  development  of  the  young,  are 
most  extraordinary.  It  would  appear  that  as  fast  as  the  female  de- 
posits her  eggs,  the  male  who  attends  her  arranges  them  on  her 
broad  back,  to  the  number  of  fifty  or  upwards.  The  contact  of  the 
skin  with  these  eggs,  appears  to  produce  a  sort  of  inflammation  ;  the 
skin  of  the  back  swells,  and  becomes  covered  with  pits,  or  cells, 
which  enclose  each  a  single  eg^,  the  surface  of  the  back  resembling 
the  closed  cells  of  a  honeycomb.  The  female  now  betakes  herself  to 
the  water,  and  in  these  cells  the  eggs  are  not  only  hatched,  but  the 
Tadpoles  undergo  their  metamorphosis,  emerging  in  a  perfect  con- 
dition, though  very  small,  after  a  lapse  of  eighty-two  days  from  the 
time  in  which  the  eggs  were  placed  in  their  respective  pits.     M. 

Bibron  says,  that  the  cells  occupy- 
ing the  middle  portion  of  the  back 
are,  according  to  his  own  observa- 
tions, those  which  are  the  first 
cleared  of  the  young,  "because, 
doubtless,  they  are  the  first  which 
are  formed,  or  the  first  occupied." 
It  would  seem  that  in  females 
which  have  not  as  yet  laid  eggs, 
these  pits  are  not  to  be  seen  ;  they 
begin  to  be  developed  when  the 
eggs  are  first  arranged  on  the 
back,  the  skin  of  which,  after  the 
I  young  have  quitted  their  tene- 
ments, appearing  honeycombed 
all  over.  The  cells  afterwards  be- 
come gradually  obliterated.  These 
pits  are  only  in  the  skin,  and  do 
not  penetrate  into  the  muscular  tis- 
sue beneath,  nor  communicate  with 
the  interior  of  the  body.  (Fig. 
1698  shows  the  disposition  of  these 
cells  and  their  situation  on  the  skin,  which  is  thrown  back  so  as  to 
expose  the  muscles  below.) 


Fig.  169S.— rils  on  the  back  of 
the  Surinam  Toad. 


The  ripa,  or  Surinam  Toad,  is  of  large  size,  of  a  brown  or  olive 
colour  above,  whitish  below;  it  inhabits  the  marshes  and  swamos  in 
the  forests  of  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  other  parts  of  South  America".  It 
frequents  the  dark  corners  of  houses.  According  to  Seba  and 
Madame  Merian,  the  negroes  eat  its  flesh. 

The  Biifo7iidce,  or  Toads,  are  always  provided  with  a  well- 
developed  tongue,  a  character  which  serves  to  distin.guish  them  at 
once  from  the  preceding  family.  The  body  in  these  Animals  is  thick 
and  heavy,  and  the  skin  is  usually  covered  with  glandular  warts, 
from  which  an  acrid  juice  exudes.  The  hind  legs  are  but  little 
longer  than  the  others,  and  the  Animals  are  consequently  unable  to 
perform  those  great  springs  which  are  characteristic  of  the  following 
family.  But  the  most  important  distinction  between  these  Animals 
and  the  Frogs,  consists  in  the  absence  of  the  teeth  in  the  Toads,  the 
jaws  being  rather  sharp  at  the  edge,  but  quite  unarmed.  The  Toads 
are  generally  regarded  with  but  little  favour  ;  and  there  is  certainly 
not  much  in  their  appearance  to  recommend  them.  They  generally 
come  abroad  in  search  of  food  in  the  dusk  of  the  evening,  when  they 
may  often  be  seen  in  gardens,  woods,  and  lanes. 

The  Toads  generally  live  out  of  the  water,  but  visit  that  clement 
during  the  breeding  season,  which  is  in  March  or  April  ;  during 
winter  they  lie  in  a  torpid  state,  concealed  in  holes,  or  under  stones. 
They  produce  an  immense  number  of  eggs,  which,  instead  of  being 
inclosed  in  a  mass  of  gelatinous  matter,  as  in  the  Frogs,  are  united 
into  long  strings,  inclosed  in  a  similar  substance.  Of  these  strings 
or  necklaces  of  eggs,  there  are  generally  two,  which  the  male  draws 
out  of  the  body  of  the  female  with  his  hind  feet. 

We  have  two  species  of  Toads  in  this  country — the  Common  Toad 
{^Bufo  vulgaris),  and  the  Natter-jack  {D.  calamita),  of  which  the 
following  are  descriptions  : — 

The  Common  Toad  {Bufo  vulgaris).— 1\\\s  species  is  too  well 
known  to  need  a  detailed  description.     Though  not  very  attractive 


Fig.  1699. — The  Common  Tcid. 

in  its  appearance,  the  Toad  is  far  from  meriting  the  opprobrium 
which  has  been  lavished  upon  it.  To  the  gardener  it  is  a  useful 
assistant,  as  it  devours  Slugs,  Earwigs,  Caterpillars,  and  Beetles. 
It  has  been  celebrated  for  two  things — namely,  the  brightness  of  its 
eyes,  and  its  poison.  Its  eyes  are  certainly  brilliant,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  poet's  assertion,  the  only  jewel  it  wears  in  its  head. 
With  regard  to  its  being  poisonous,  we  may  obser\'e  that  the  glan- 
dular tubercles  of  its  skin  pour  out  an  acrid  secretion  ;  and  this  is 
intended  evidently  as  a  defence,  for  we  have  often  seen  a  Dog  seize 
one  of  these  Animals  and  instantly  drop  it,  shaking  his  head  in  evi- 
dent distress,  while  frothy  saliva  tilled  his  mouth,  and  continued  to 
flow  for  a  considerable  time.  The  parotid  glands  open  externally 
by  numerous  pores,  and  give  out  a  milky  fetid  humour.  The  com- 
mon belief  that  the  Toad  "  spits  venom  "  is  absurd. 

T  he  Toad  is  easily  rendered  familiar.  Mr.  Bell  records  a  notice  of 
one  which  would  sit  on  one  of  his  hands,  and  eat  from  the  other ; 
and  the  story  of  Mr.  Arscott's  Toad,  in  Devonshire,  which  lived  for 
thirty-six  years  domesticated,  and  was  killed  by  accident,  has  been 
often  quoted  from  Pennant.  It  is  to  Mr.  Bell  that  we  owe  the  first 
authentic  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Toad  disengages  itself 
from  its  slough  ;  the  cuticle  slits  down  the  middle  of  the  back  and 
belly,  thereby  allowing  the  legs  to  be  withdrawn  in  rotation  ;  it  is 
then  rolled  into  a  ball,  pushed  by  the  two  paws  into  the  mouth,  and 
sw^allowed  at  a  single  gulp.  Like  the  Frog,  the  Toad  deposits  its 
eggs  in  the  water,  but  rather  later  in  the  spring.  In  August,  the 
Tadpoles  have  completed  their  transformation,  and  creeping  ashore 
disperse  themselves  over  the  land.  Large  troops  of  these  young 
Toads  may  often  be  met  with. 

Most  persons  have  heard  of  the  marvellous  accounts  of  living  Toads 
found  imbedded  in  the  hearts  of  trees,  or  in  solid  blocks  of  stone  ; 
and  it  must  be  confessed  that  many  of  the  instances  are  supported  by 

4  K 


674 


THE  FROGS. 


no  mean  anthority;  Smellie(in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Natural  History"), 
Guettard  (in  "  Memoire  sur  differentes  Parties  des  Sciences  at  des 
Arts"  1771),  Edwards,  and  Mr.  Thomas,  (in  "  Silliman's  Journal  ") 
respectively  notice  examples  of  the  occurrence  in  question.  Be  it 
however  observed,  that  the  stone  or  wood  was  never  rigidly  examined 
nor  is  anything  ever  stated  to  disprove  the  possibility  of  a  srnall 
aperture,  communicating  with  the  external  surface,  through  which 
air,  moisture,  and  Insects  may  have  entered  ;  indeed,  as  Dr.  Buck- 
land  says.  "  The  attention  of  the  discoverer  is  always  directed  more 
to  the  toad  than  to  the  minutis  of  the  state  of  the  cavity  in  which  it 
was  contained." 

M.  Herissant  in  1777,  Dr.  Edwards  in  1817,  and  Dr.  Buckland  in 
1825-26,  have  proved  by  a  series  of  experiments,  that  when  deprived 
of  air  these  Animals  speedily  perish  ;  but  that  they  will  sur\'ive  for 
many  months  without  food.  Dr. Buckland's  conclusions  are  that  Toads 
cannot  live  a  year  excluded  totally  from  atmospheric  air,  and  from 
experiments  made  by  enclosing  these  Animals  in  cells  cut  out  in 
Oolite  that  they  cannot  in  all  probability  survive  two  years  entirely 
excluded  from  food.     ("  Zool.  Journal,"  vol,  v.) 

It  would  seem  then  that  accident  must  have  introduced  the  Toads 
in  question  into  the  prisons  in  which  they  have  occasionally  been 
found  ;  that  there  they  received  food  and  air,  and  grew  till  too  large  to 
make  their  exit  by  the  aperture  which  once  admitted  them  ;  and  which 
itself  became  much  narrowed  or  partially  blocked  up  ;  but  still  allow- 
ing sufficient  air  and  moisture  (most  probably  also  minute  Insects)  for 
the  support  of  the  system  in  a  sort  of  torpid  condition.  Here  then 
they  would  live  till  the  blow  of  the  hammer  or  axe  set  them  at  liberty 
destroying  at  the  same  time  all  trace  of  the  orifice  or  fissure  which 
admitted  them,  and  through  which  they  received  their  scanty  nutri- 
ment. To  suppose  that  Toads  imbedded  in  stone  are  thousands  of 
years  old,  the  living  relics  of  a  world  gone  by  and  coeval  with  the 
rock  around  them,  is  palpably  absurd. 

The  N.\tter-jack  {Bitfo  calamita ;  Biifo  viridis,  Laurenti ; 
Bufo  cruciatus,  Schneid.  ;  Bttfo  variabilis,  Marr). — This  species  is 
spread  through  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  as 
well  as  Northern  Africa.  In  England  it  is  tolerably  common  in  cer- 
tain localities  ;  it  has  been  found  on  Blackheath,  Putney  Common, 
in  various  parts  of  Lincolnshire,  Cambridgeshire,  and  Norfolk.  Mr. 
Bell  quotes  Sir  W.  Jardine's  account  of  the  occurrence  of  this 
Reptile  in  a  marsh  on  the  coast  of  the  Solway  Frith,  in  brackish 
water,  and  within  a  hundred  yards  of  spring-tide  high-water  mark. 
They  were,  it  is  added,  very  abundant  for  six  or  seven  miles  along 
the  coast.  Dry  spots,  however,  are  its  favourite  haunts,  excepting 
at  the  breeding  season,  when  it  visits  the  water.  It  is  less  crawling 
and  slow  in  its  movements  than  the  Common  Toad  :  and  will  even 
run  with  alertness  for  a  short  distance.  Its  general  colour  varies, 
being  grey,  brown,  yellow,  or  olive,  with  markings  of  a  darker  tint, 
mostly  with  a  yellowish  line  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  (See  Fig. 
1700.) 


Fig.  1700. — The  Natter-jack. 

Several  other  species  are  found  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
amongst  which,  the  most  remarkable  in  its  habits  is  perhaps  the 
species  called  the  Accoucheur  Toad  {B.  obsfetricans),  of  which  the 
male  not  only  assists  the  female  in  the  exclusion  of  the  eggs,  but 
attaches  them  afterwards  to  his  own  hind-legs,  where  the  young  are 
developed  until  they  arrive  at  the  Tadpole  state,  when  the  male 
visits  the  water,  and  the  young  animals  escape.  This  species  is 
very  common  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris. 

The  Ranida,  or  Frogs,  of  which  the  Common  Frog  {Rana  tempo- 
aria,  Fig.  I70i)is  a  well-known  example,  have  the  body  of  a  lighter 
and  more  elegant  form  than  the  Toads,  and  the  hind-legs  are  much 
longer,  exceedingly  muscular,  and  fitted  for  the  performance  of 
considerable  leaps.  The  upper  jaw  is  always  armed  with  teeth  ; 
the  skin  is  usually  smooth,  but  in  some  cases  is  covered,  as  in  the 
Toads,  with  glandular  warts.  In  the  structure  of  the  tongue,  they 
resemble  the  Toads. 


The  Frogs,  undoubtedly,  form  the  highest  group  of  the  Batrachian 
class.  They  are  active  creatures,  living  on  Insects  and  Worms, 
and  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-families,  in  accordance  with  im- 
portant differences  in  their  structure  and  mode  of  life. 

The  Ranida;,  or  Frogs,  which  live  upon  the  ground,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  standing  water,  and  pass  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
lives  in  the  water,  have  their  toes  pointed,  and  those  of  the  hinder 
feet  united,  almost  to  the  tips,  by  a  membrane. 


Fig.  1701, — The  Common  Frog. 

The  Common  Frog  is  a  very  abundant  and  well-known  animal. 
It  is  constantly  to  be  found  hopping  about  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
water,  especially  in  damp  evenings.  It  generally  deposits  its  eggs 
in  the  water  in  the  month  of  March  ;  they  are  enveloped  in  a  mass 
of  gelatinous  matter,  within  which  the  eggs  are  seen  gradually  to 
increase  in  size  for  a  month  or  five  weeks  ;  and,  at  the  end  of  that 
time,  the  young  Tadpoles  may  be  seen  moving.  (See  ante,  p.  667). 
When  ready  to  enter  upon  their  aquatic  existence,  they  eat  their  way 
through  the  surrounding  jelly,  and  thus  escape.  In  the  course  of 
six  or  eight  weeks  the  four  legs  are  fully  formed  ;  the  tail  then 
gradually  disappears,  and  the  young  Frog  usually  quits  the  water 
immediately.  In  this  way  they  often  suddenly  make  their  appear- 
ance in  prodigious  numbers  in  particular  spots,  giving  rise  to  the 
popular  superstition  of  "  Frog-rains  ;"  and,  in  some  cases,  it  is  said 
that  the  little  creatures  have  been  taken  up  and  carried  to  a  distance 
by  high  winds,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
districts  in  which  they  descended. 

The  Common  Frog  is  said  to  be  five  years  in  attaining  its  full  size, 
and  its  life  is  supposed  to  extend  to  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  It 
passes  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  either  in  holes  in  the  earth, 
or  buried  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds,  without  the  possibility 
of  feeding  or  breathing.  The  voice  of  the  Frog  is  a  peculiar  hoarse 
cry,  well  known  as  O'oakitig.  In  the  males,  there  is  a  large  sac  on 
each  side  of  the  neck,  which  is  inflated  with  air  during  the  croaking, 
and  probably  serves  to  increase  the  sound. 

The  species  of  Frogs  are  very  numerous,  and  distributed  very 
generally  over  the  globe  ;  they  are  especially  abundant  in  Tropical 
countries.  Their  habits  are  generally  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
Common  Frog.  Of  the  European  species,  the  most  celebrated  is 
the  Edible  Frog  {R.  esctilenta),  which  is  exceedingly  common  in 
standing  water  on  the  Continent,  although  in  England  it  appears  to 
be  rare.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the  Common  Frog  ;  and  its  noctur- 
nal croakings  are  said  to  be  so  exceedingly  loud  and  disagreeable, 
that  temporary  dwellers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ponds  frequented 
by  it,  are  often  prevented  from  sleeping  by  its  clamorous  chorus.  It 
is  this  species  that  is  most  approved  of  on  the  Continent  for  culinarj' 
purposes. 

Of  the  Exotic  species,  one  of  the  largest  :s  the  Bull-frog  {Rana 
pipiens,  See  Fig.  1702)  which  inhabits  North  America,  and  has 
received  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its  croak  resembles  the  distant 
lowing  of  a  Bull.  The  body  of  this  species  measures  sometimes  as 
much  as  eight  inches  in  length,  without  including  the  hind-legs, 
which  are  large,  and  have  the  toes  broadly  webbed.  This  Frog  is 
said  to  confine  itself  exclusively  to  the  small  pools  formed  at  the 
issue  of  springs,  each  of  which,  according  to  some  observers,  is 
taken  possession  of  by  a  pair  of  Bull-frogs.  The  inhabitants  believe 
that  the  Frogs  keep  the  water  clean  ;  consequently  leave  them  with- 
out molestation,  although  they  are  often  destructive  to  young  Ducks 
and  Goslings,  which  they  swallow  whole. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  species  is  the  Jakie  {Rana paradoxa) 
of  Guiana,  in  which  the  Tadpole  is  of  such  large  size,  and  possesses 
such  an  enormously  developed  tail,  that  the  earlier  observers  des- 
cribed it  as  a  Frog  which  became  converted  into  a  Fish. 

The  Hylides,  or  Tree-frogs,  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
Animals  by  their  having  the  extremities  of  the  toes  dilated  into 
small  knobs  which  usually  produce  a  sticky  secretion,  of  the  greatest 
service  to  the  animal  in  its  active  arboreal  life.  These  animals  are 
usually  of  a  more  elegant  form,  and  of  brighter  colours  than  the 
other  Frogs,  and  thoy  are  particularly  active  during  the  day — thus. 


THE  FROGS. 


675 


in  many  respects,  presenting  a  great  approach  to  the  Lizards.     (See 
Fi.t;-.  1703). 

The  Tree-frogs  are  active  little  creatures,  pursuing  their  Insect 
prey  upon  the  trees  and  bushes ;  sometimes  steahng  cautiously 
towards  their  victims,  and  sometimes  springing  upon  them  with  a 
sudden  leap.     In  all  these  evolutions  it  is  greatly  assisted  by  the 


Fig.  1702. — The  Bull-Frog. 

sticky  palette-like  terminations  of  its  toes,  and  also  by  some  gland- 
ular organs  imbedded  in  the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  which  secrete  a 
viscous  fluid.  The  Tree-frogs  have  a  very  loud  croak,  and  are 
observed  to  be  particularly  clamorous  at  the  approach  of  rain. 
During  the  winter  they  bury  themselves,  like  the  other  Frogs,  in  the 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  pools.  They  breed  in  the  spring,  depositing 
their  spawn  in  the  water. 


A  curious  property  is  attributed  by  Linnscus  and  the  older  writers 
to  an  American  species  of  this  group,  the  Hyla  tinctoria.  It  was 
said  that  the  natives  of  South  America  were  in  the  habit  of  pulling 
out  the  feathers  from  young  green  parrots,  and  rubbing  the  blood  of 
this  frog  upon  the  bare  place;  when  it  was  believed  that  the 
feathers  produced  upon  these  spots  would  be  of  a  yellow  or  red 
colour. 


Fig.  1703.— Green  Tree-Frogs. 

A  singular  species  of  this  sub-family  has  been  described  by  Dr. 
Weinland,  of  Berlin,  under  the  name  of  Notodelphys  ovifera.  In 
this  animal  the  back  of  the  female  is  furnished  with  a  large  double 
sac  under  the  skin,  in  which  the  eggs  are  retained,  and  the  embryo 
developed  as  far  as  the  production'"  of  the  feet ;  the  further  progress 
of  the  young  is  not  known.     This  species  is  from  Venezuela. 


676 


FISHES. 


CHAPTER     XXVII  I. 

CLASS  V.-PISCES,  OR  FISHES. 


The 


present  Class  ranks  among  the  inost  important  in  the  range  of  Natural 
History.  Fish,  as  an  article  of  diet,  has  been  universally  esteemed. 
Fisheries  form  a  valuable,  and  often  the  chief  item  of  industry  in 
many  countries,  and  so  important  has  the  question  of  the  breeding 
of  Fish  become,  that  what  was  once  an  art,  has  now  become  a  prac- 
tical application  of  science  under  the  name  of  Pisiciilture.  On  the 
coasts  of  some  parts  of  Europe  fishing  farms  exist,  whose  produce  is 
of  great  value.  The  preservation  of  Salmon  in  our  country,  is  now 
accompanied  by  the  artificial  hatching  of  the  f^gg.  The  legislature 
has,  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  but  especially  of  recent 
years,  passed  several  Acts  for  protecting  both  sea  and  fresh  water 
fisheries,  and  possibly  in  the  course  of  time,  when  our  rivers  cease  to 
be  polluted,  fish  of  all  kinds  will  again  rank  among  the  cheapest,  as  it 
certainly  forms  one  of  the  most  nutritious,  and  easily  digestible  kind 
of  food. 

General  Characters. — The  Animals  of  this  class,  as  already 
stated,  are  exclusively  aquatic,  and  all  the  particulars  of  their 
structure  indicate  an  adaptation  to  this  mode  of  existence.  The 
head  is  large,  and  set  upon  the  trunk  without  the  intervention  of  any 
distinct  neck ;  the  body  is  usually  of  a  spindle-shape,  tapering 
gradually  towards  the  posterior  extremity  ;  and  the  surface  is  usually 
smooth,  without  any  irregularities  which  might  impede  the  motions 
of  the  creature  in  its  native  element.  In  its  general  form,  the  body, 
is  usually  rounded,  or  slightly  compressed  at  the  sides  ;  sometimes 
this  flattening  proceeds  to  a  much  greater  extent,  so  that  the  animal 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  broad  band  or  oval  disc,  of  which  the 
edges  correspond  with  the  dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces  ;  in  other 
cases  the  flattening  takes  place  from  above,  downwards,  producing 
a  disc-like  body,  of  which  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  are  dorsal 
and  ventral. 

Locomotion  is  always  effected  principally  by  lateral  strokes  of  the 
hinder  extremity,  accompanied,  in  the  elongated  species,  by  an  un- 
dulating motion  of  the  whole  body.  In  accordance  with  this 
arrangement,  the  great  bulk  of  the  body  of  a  Fish  is  made  up  of 
powerful  longitudinal  muscles,  whose  office  is  the  flexion  of  the 
spine. 

The  skeleton  exhibits  a  great  diversity.  In  the  lowest  form  of 
Animal  referred  to  this  class,  which  has  been  described  by  some 
naturalists  as  an  Annelide,  and  regarded  by  others  as  a  transition 
form  connecting  the  A?uielidce  with  the  F^ishes,  the  only  trace  of 


Fig.  1704. — Skeleton  of  the  Perch. 

the  vetebrate  internal  skeleton  consists  in  a  semi-gelatinous  cord 
(the  chorda  dorsalis),  which  runs  through  the  body  of  the  Animal, 
and  supports  the  central  axis  of  the  nervous  system,  presenting,  in 


fact,  a  great  analogy  with  the  earliest  form  in  which  the  skeleton 
presents  itself,  in  the  embryonic  states  of  other  Vertehrata.  In  the 
Lampreys,  the  development  of  the  skeleton  makes  a  little  step  in  ad- 
vance ;  the  chorda  dorsalis  acquires  a  firmer  or  somewhat  cartil- 
aginous consistence,  and,  in  some  cases,  exhibits  slight  indications 
of  the  segmentation  of  the  vertebral  column.  In  these  Animals,  also, 
the  brain  is  enclosed  within  a  cartilaginous  skull.  As  we  advance, 
we  find  the  skeleton  gradually  acquiring  greater  firmness,  becoming 
first  cartilaginous,  and  afterwards  bony.  In  some  cases,  however, 
the  centre  of  the  vertebral  column  retains  almost  its  original  consis- 
tency, when  the  peripheral  parts  have  arrived  at  the  state  of  cartilage. 

In  nearly  all  Fishes  which  have  the  vertebral  column  in  a  bony  or 
cartilaginous  condition,  and  formed  of  distinct  vertebra;,  the  bodies 
of  the  latter  are  hollowed  out,  both  before  and  behind,  into  conical 
cavities,  the  apices  of  which  usually  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  verte- 
bra. These  cavities  are  filled  with  a  gelatinous  matter,  the  remains  of 
the  embryonic  chorda  dorsalis.  Only  a  single  Fish  is  known  in 
which  the  ossification  of  the  centres  of  the  vertebra;  proceeds  further 
than  this  ;  this  is  the  Lcpidostcus,  or  Bony  Pike  of  America,  in  which 
each  vertebra  is  furnished  with  an  anterior  convex,  and  a  posterior 
concave  articulating  surface.  The  superior  or  neural  arches  of  the 
vertebras  usually  terminate  in  very  long  spinous  processes.  The  in- 
ferior, or  hajmal  arches,  exhibit  a  similar  structure  in  the  caudal 
region  of  the  body,  where  they  form  a  bony  canal  for  the  passage  of 
the  principal  vessels  ;  and,  in  a  few  instances,  the  same  conformation 
extends  into  the  abdominal  region  ;  but  here  we  generally  find  a 
series  of  processes  extending  laterally  from  the  bodies  of  the  vertebra; 
bearing  ribs  which  inclose  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  lower  extremity 
of  the  ribs  is  always  free,  as  there  is  no  sternum  for  their  attach- 
ment.    (See  Fig.  1704.) 

The  structure  of  the  skull  in  Fishes,  partakes  of  the  variable 
character  of  the  rest  of  the  skeleton.  In  the  lowest  forms  it  is  a 
nearly  membranous  expansion  of  the  soft  cord  that  here  takes  the 
place  of  the  vertebral  column,  which  gradually  acquires  cartilaginous 
supports.  In  the  higher  Fishes,  with  cartilaginous  skeletons — such 
as  the  Sharks  and  Rays — the  skull  is  a  cartilaginous  case,  formed  of 
a  single  piece  ;  but  in  the  Bony  Fishes,  this  becomes  ossified  from 
numerous  centres,  and  the  skull  in  these  is  usually  of  a  very  compli- 
cated construction.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  primitive  cartila- 
ginous skull  is  more  or  less  persistent,  so  that  in  some  instances  the 
bony  plates  may  be  removed  after  the  head  has  been  boiled,  leaving 
the  brain  for  the  most  part  still  inclosed  in  its  cartilaginous  covering. 

The  skull  of  a  Bony  Fish  (Fig.  1705)  is  of  very  complicated  struc- 
ture, the  number  of  bones  of  which  it  is  composed  being  very  con- 
siderable. The  principal  bones  forming  the  cranium,  are  the  occi- 
pitals,  the  sphenoid,  the  ethnoid,  the  parietals,  the  frontals,  and  the 
temporals  ;  the  basi-occipital  bone,  forming  the  lower  boundary  of 
the  aperture  through  which  the  spinal  cord  quits  the  skull,  exhibits, 


Fig.  1705. — Bones  of  the  Head  of  the  Pike. 
c,    cranium ;    or,   orbit ;    71,    nasal   cavities ;    im,    intermaxillary    bone ;    m, 
superior  maxillary   bone  ;  ?',  lateral  partition,  separating  gills  from   mouth  ; 
/,  iOy  op,  bones  of  operculum,  or  gill  cover. 

on  its  posterior  surface,  the  conical  cavity,  which  has  already  been 
described  as  characteristic  of  the  body  of  the  piscine  vertebra,  and 
articulates  in  the  usual  way  with  the  first  vertebra  of  the  spinal 
column.  The  general  form  of  the  head  is  that  of  a  pyramid  with 
the  base  directed  backwards  ;  the  orbits  are  placed  on  the  sides,  and 
the  nasal  aperture  is  a  little  in  front  of  them.  The  upper  jaw  is 
formed  of  the  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones,  of  which  the  latter 
usually  bear  teeth,  and  form  the  actual  margin  of  the  mouth  ;  whilst 
the  former,  as  a  general  rule,  are  unarmed,  and  lie  concealed  in  the 
flesh  behind  the  intermaxillaries.  These  are  bent  back  at  an  angle 
at  their  interior  portion,  so  that  they  consist,  in  fact,  of  two  branches, 
of  which  one  serves,  as  just  described,  to  form  the  biting  edge  of 
the  mouth,  whilst  the  other  is  received  in  a  groove  at  the  end  of  the 


SKELETON  OF  FISHES. 


677 


nose,  in  which  it  can  move  freely  in  those  Fishes  which  have  a  pro- 
tnisible  mouth.  The  palate  is  formed  of  three  bones  :  the  palatine 
bone,  which  is  usually  armed  with  teeth  ;  the  transverse  bono,  by 
which  the  palate  is  generally  articulated  to  the  cranium  ;  and  the 
pterj'goid  bone.  The  vomer  also  assists  in  the  formation  of  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  and  is  usually  armed  with  teeth. 

The  two  sides  of  the  lower  jaw  are  usually  firmly  united  at  the 
anterior  extremity,  but  rarely  joined  by  ossification.  Each  side  is 
composed  of  several  pieces,  usually  three,  but  sometimes  four  or  more 
in  number.  Of  these,  only  one — the  anterior — is  furnished  with 
teeth  ;  the  basal  bone  articulates  with  a  sort  of  bony  partition, 
formed  of  several  bones  immovably  articulated,  which  are  also  firmly 
attached  to  the  skull  in  several  places.  The  opercula,  or  gill  covers, 
are  also  dependent  from  these  bones.  These  are  usually  composed 
of  four  bony  plates,  of  which  the  first — the  pre-operculum — is  a  some- 
what crescent-shaped  piece,  e.xtending  from  the  cranium  to  the 
articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  (Fig.  1706)  ;  whilst  the  others,  which 
are  distinguished  by  particular  names,  descriptive  of  their  relative 
position,  are  movably  articulated  to  the  pre-operculum,  and  serve  to 
close  the  branchial  aperture.  The  relative  size  of  these  plates,  their 
forms  and  general  structure,  furnish  the  zoologist  with  e.xcellent 
characters  for  the  discrimination  of  genera  and  species. 

Below  these  bones,  we  find  the  hyoid  arch,  which  attains  a  great 
development  in  Fishes,  and  ser\-cs  to  support,  not  only  the  tongue, 
but  also  the  respiratory  apparatus  (Fig.  1706.)  From  the  point  of 
this  arch,  a  peculiar  bone  (the  lingual  ox giossi)hoyal)^ene\.ra.ics  to 
the  apex  of  the  tongue,  where  it  is  frequently  covered  with  teeth. 
Behind  this,  the  hyoid  bone  forms  two  branches,  each  of  which  is 
attached  to  the  pre-operculum  of  its  own  side  by  a  small  bone  called 
the  styloid,  or  siylokyal.  To  the  side  of  each  branch  a  variable  number 
of  slender  curved  bones  is  articulated ;  these  are  called  bra^ichio- 
stegal;  they  support  a  membrane  called  the  branchio-stegal  mem- 
brane, whose  office  is  to  close  the  gill-slit  from  beneath.  Behind 
these,  supported  at  one  extremity  upon  the  hyoid  bone,  and  articu- 
lated at  the  other  to  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  are  four  pairs  of  bony 
arches,  formed  of  two  pieces  in  the  Cartilaginous  F'ishes,  but  usually 
consisting  of  four  in  the  Bony  species.  On  the  outside  these  arches 
bear  the  branchial  lamina;,  but  their  inner  surface  is  usually  armed 
with  spines,  or  teeth.  They  articulate  with  the  cranium  by  small 
bones  called  the  superior  pharyjigcals,  which,  like  all  the  other 
bones  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth,  are  often  armed  with 
teeth. 


-dp 


Fig.  1706.— Bones  of  the  head  of  tlte  Perch,  after  the  removal  of  the  jaws, 
lateral  partition,  and  operculum,  on  one  side,  to  show  the  interior  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  hyoid  apparatus. 

e,  cranium  ;  or,  orbit  ;  v,  vomer  (armed  with  teeth)?  im,  intermaxillary;  d/', 
teeth  implanted  on  the  palatine  arch  ;  »«',  lower  jaw  ;  /,  lingual  bone  ;  b, 
lateral  branches  of  the  hyoid  apparatus;  s,  process  for  the  attachment  of 
these  to  the  lateral  partition  ;  r,  r,  branchio-stegal  r.iys  ;  a,  branchial  arches  ; 
//;,  superior  phaiyngeal  bones  ;  ar,  articular  surface  by  which  the  lateral 
partition  is  attached  ;  o  to  /;,  bony  framework  supporting  the  pectoral  fin,  /> ; 
0  and  0,  scapula  divided  into  two  pieces ;  /;,  humerus  ;  ad,  bone  of  the  fore 
arm  ;  ai,  bone  of  the  carpus ;  co,  coracoid  bone. 

The  surface  presented  by  Fishes  to  the  surrounding  element,  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  peculiar  organs  called  ^us,  These  are  of 
two  kinds.  Some,  placed  in  pairs  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body, 
are  the  analogues  of  the  limbs  of  the  higher  Vertebrated  Animals  ; 
whilst  the  others,  situated  singly  on  the  median  line  of  the  body,  are 
to  be  regarded  as  appendages  or  developments  of  the  cutaneous 
system.  The  former  never  exceed  four  in  number  ;  but  one  or  both 
pairs  are  frequently  absent. 

These  organs  have  received  different  names  in  accordance  with 


their  position  on  the  body  (Fig.  1707.)  Of  the  two  pair  of  fins  corres- 
ponding with  the  limbs  of  other  Verfcbrata,  one  pair  has  received 
the  name  oi  pectoral  fins,  from  their  being  situated  on  the  breast, 
immediately  behind  the  branchial  aperture  ;  they  are  the  analogues 
of  the  anterior  members.  The  representatives  of  the  hind  limbs  of 
other  Vertebrated  Animals  are  denominated  ventral  fins,  their 
normal  position  being  on  the  belly,  close  to  the  anus/  These  fins, 
however,  are  liable  to  great  changes  of  position,  being  often  advanced 
close  under  the  pectoral  fins,  or  even  sometimes  placed  before  these, 
quite  on  the  throat  of  the  Animal.  The  single,  or  median  fins,  are 
rather  variable  in  number.  The  dorsal  surface  usually  bears  one  or 
more  of  these  organs,  called  (/orja/Tfwj-;  similar  fins  occur  on  the 
ventral  surface  behind  the  anus,  called  atialfijts ;  and  the  extremity 


Fig. 
/,  pectoral  fin  ; 


1707. — Bearded  Mullet,  showing  the  position  of  Fins. 

V,  ventral  fin  ;  dl,  first  dorsal ;  d2,  second  dorsal;  c,  caudal 
a,  anal  ;  0,  opening  of  gill  covers. 


of  the  tail  is  almost  always  furnished  with  a  broad  expansion,  the 
caudal  fins,  which  is  the  principal  agent  in  progression.  In  some 
Fishes,  the  median  fins  are  continuous  round  the  wdiole  posterior 
portion  of  the  body  ;  and  this  is  the  condition  in  which  these  organs 
first  make  their  appearance  during  the  development  of  the  embryo  in 
all  Fishes,  the  subsequent  changes  whicii  take  place  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts,  being  due  to  the  unequal  development  of  the  bony 
rays,  which  support  and  stretch  the  membrane  of  which  the  fins  are 
composed.  The  structure  and  arrangem.ent  of  the  rays,  vary 
greatly  in  the  different  groups  of  Fish,  and  will  be  referred  to  here- 
after. 

The  pectoral  fin,  in  all  Fishes,  consists  essentially  of  the  same 
parts  as  the  anterior  limb  of  any  other  Vertebrated  Animal.  Con- 
cealed within  the  skin,  immediately  behind  the  branchial  openings, 
we  find  a  bony  circle  composed  of  several  pieces,  representing  the 
shoulder  blade,  with  the  coracoid  bone  and  clavicle  (see  Fig.  1706.) 
This  supports  the  bones  of  the  arm,  which  are  usually  very  short,  and 
bear  a  scries  of  carpal  bones  at  their  extremity  ;  the  latter  support  a 
number  of  short  cylindrical  joints,  from  which  the  rays  of  the  fin  take 
their  rise.  The  internal  supports  of  the  ventral  fins  never  present 
such  a  close  resemblance  to  the  pelvis  of  the  higher  Vcrtchrata,  as 
do  those  of  the  pectorals  to  the  scapular  arch.  When  situated  in 
their  normal  position  in  the  abdomen,  they  always  consist  of  cartila- 
ginous, or  bony  pieces  lying  freely  in  the  muscles,  and  quite  uncon- 
nected with  the  vertebral  column  :  but  when  the  fins  are  advanced 
from  this  position  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  pectorals,  their 
internal  supports  are  attached  to  the  scapular  arch  of  the  latter 
members. 

The  skin  of  the  Animals  of  this  class  is  almost  always  protected 
by  a  covering  of  scales,  which  are  sometimes  of  a  horny,  and  occa- 
sionally of  a  bony  texture.  Very  few  Fishes  are  destitute  of  this 
scaly  covering,  which,  however,  is  very  variable  in  its  distribution — 
its  component  parts  being  sometimes  placed  so  close  that  one  scale 
lies  over  the  other,  like  the  tiles  upon  the  roof  of  a  house  ;  at  others 
they  are  fitted  together  exactly  by  their  edges,  and  sometimes 
scattered  irregularly  over  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  differences 
in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  scales  are  of  great  importance  in  the 
classification  of  Fishes  ;  and  Professor  Agassiz  even  considered  that 
they  stand  in  such  intimate  relation  with  the  general  organisation  of 
the  Animals,  that  he  has  proposed  to  employ  them  as  primary  cha- 
racters for  dividing  this  great  group  into  orders.  This  system  has 
only  been  partially  adopted  by  succeeding  naturalists — as,  although 
it  is  admitted  on  all  hands  to  have  been  of  great  service,  especially 
in  facilitating  the  study  of  Fossil  Fishes,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  has  the  defect  common  to  all  systems  founded  upon  characters 
derived  from  a  single  set  of  organs — that  of  separating  nearly  allied 
Animals,  and  bringing  others  which  have  no  mutual  affinity  into 
close  juxtaposition.  The  most  ordinary  form  is  the  thin  horny  scale, 
such  as  we  meet  with  upon  most  of  the  common  eatable  Fish.  These 
consist  of  small  horny  plates,  generally  of  a  more  or  less  oval  form, 
which  lie  one  over  another,  exactly  like  tiles,  and  are  usually 
arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  each  scale,  being  partially  covered 
by  two  scales  of  the  preceding  row,  only  exhibits  a  somewhat  tri- 
angular portion  of  its  own  surface.  These  scales  arc  peculiar  to  the 
Osseous  Fishes.  They  are  found  to  consist  of  two  layers,  of  which 
the  lower  is  of  a  horny  texture,  whilst  the  upper  resembles  enamel. 
The  scales  are  usually  marked  with  concentric  and  radiating  lines. 


678 


ORG42^S  OF  FISHES. 


of  which  the  former  appear  to  belong  to  the  outer,  and  the  latter  to 
the  inner  layer.  In  some  Fishes  they  present  a  smooth  outline — 
these  are  the  Cycloidei  (Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle)  of  Agassiz  ;  wliilst  in 
others,  forming  the  order  Cteiioidei{Gx.  ktenis,  a  comb)  of  the  same 
author,  the  hinder  margins  of  the  scales  are  set  with  spines. 

Another  form  of  scale,  exhibited  by  very  few  living  species, 
although  the  Fishes  of  which  it  is  characteristic  were  at  one  time 
almost  the  only  representatives  of  the  Vertcbrata  existing  on  our 
planet,  is  composed  of  a  hard  bony  substance  covered  with  a  coating 
of  enamel,  which  often  resembles  the  enamel  of  the  teeth  in  structure. 
These  scales  are  much  thicker  and  larger  than  the  horny  scales,  and 
are  usually  of  a  rhomboidal  form,  arranged  side  by  side  without 
overlapping,  although,  in  a  few  instances,  they  resemble  the  horny 
scales  in  arrangement.  The  Fishes  furnished  with  this  bony  armour 
are  called  Gaiioi'dei  {Gv.  ganos,  splendour)  by  Agassiz.  In  a  third 
form  the  bony  matter  and  enamel  are  distributed  more  or  less  irregu- 
larly over  the  surface  of  the  skin  ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  Sharks,  pro- 
jecting from  all  parts  in  the  form  of  small  grains,  and  at  others,  as 
in  the  Rays,  forming  larger  discoid  organs,  from  the  centre  of  which 
acute  spines,  resembling  teeth  in  their  structure,  frequently  project. 
These  are  the  Placoidci  (Gr.  phix,  a  plate)  of  Agassiz. 

A  line  of  peculiar  scales,  each  of  whicli  is  furnished  with  a  minute 
tube,  may  be  observed  running  along  the  sides  of  most  Fishes  ;  it  is 
called  the  lateral  line,  and  its  peculiarities  are  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  discrimination  of  genera  and  species.  The  little 
tubes  lead  into  a  canal,  which  follows  the  course  of  the  lateral  line, 
and  which  has  been  generally  considered  as  subservient  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  slimy  matter  with  which  the  surface  of  Fishes  is  usually 
so  plentifully  indued.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  this  slime 
is,  in  reality,  the  representative  of  the  outermost  layer  of  the  skin, 
and  that  the  so-called  mucous  ducts  are  connected  with  the  exercise 
of  some  special  sense,  as  they  communicate  with  a  very  singular 
apparatus  of  tubes  inclosed  in  the  bones  of  the  head,  and  furnished 
with  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  nerves. 

The  colours  of  Fishes  are  due  to  the  presence  of  coloured  fatty 
matters  in  the  skin  ;  but  the  beautiful  metallic  tints  displayed  by  so 
many  of  them,  are  produced  by  numerous  microscopic  plates, 
apparently  of  a  horny  nature,  which  are  distributed  over  the  surface. 
In  their  nervous  system.  Fishes  exhibit  a  striking  inferiority  to  the 
generality  of  Vertebrate  Animals.  The  cranial  cavity  is  small ;  but 
even  this  is  only  partially  occupied  by  the  brain,  which  is  of  very 
small  size  when  compared  with  the  body,  or  even  with  the  other 
parts  of  the  nervous  system.  It  is  distinctly  divided  into  three  parts, 
of  which  the  anterior,  representing  the  cerebral  hemispheres  of  the 

higher  Vertebrata,  is  usually 
small  ;  whilst  the  middle  division, 
from  which  the  optic  nerves  take 
their  rise,  generally  forms  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  brain.  In 
the  Sharks,  however,  the  general 
perfection  of  which  contrasts 
strongly  with  the  cartilaginous 
nature  of  their  skeleton,  the  cere- 
bral hemispheres  generally  pre- 
dominate over  the  other  parts  of 
the  brain  (Fig.  1708,  B) ;  and  from 
this  and  other  circumstances, 
these  Fishes  appear  to  be  entitled 
to  take  the  first  rank  in  the  class, 
although  zoologists  generally,  look- 
ing only  at  the  imperfect  ossifica- 
„     ^    .       .  „.  ,  tion  of  their   skeletons,   have  as- 

i7oS.-Eiams  of  Fishes.  signed  them  a  very  different 
B,  Shark,  ol,  olfactory  position.  The  olfactory  lobes  con- 
ch,  cerebral  hemispheres ;  stitute  an  interior  prolongation  of 
op,  middle  brain,  giving  rise  to  the  brain,  and  are  usually  of  very 
optic  nerves ;    ce,   cerebellum ;  sf,  large  size 

spinal  cord.  The  organs  of  the  special  senses 

are,  as  usual,  situated  upon  the 
head.  The  nose  is  usually  formed  by  a  double  cavity  lined  with  a 
folded  membrane  ;  each  cavity  opens  on  the  snout  by  one  or  two 
apertures  ;  but,  except  in  one  or  two  instances,  there  is  no  communi- 
cation between  the  interior  of  the  nasal  cavity  and  the  mouth,  or 
pharynx.  The  eyes  are  large  and  flat,  usually  placed  on  the  sides  of 
the  head,  and  furnished  with  six  muscles  for  their  movement.  The 
auditory  organ  is  completely  enclosed  within  the  bones  of  the  head, 
and  usually  consists  of  a  sac  containing  two  otolithes,  and  a  vestibule 
supporting  three  semicircular  canals.  In  the  Sharks,  and  their 
allies,  we  also  find  traces  of  a  communication  between  the  internal 
ear  and  the  outer  world.  The  sense  of  taste  is  probably  by  no  means 
acute  in  Fishes;  and,  as  their  scaly  covering  must  necessarily  render 
their  general  surface  rather  insensible  to  external  impressions,  they 
are  often  furnished  with  special  tractile  organs,  in  the  shape  of  fila- 
ments, surrounding  the  mouth  (Fig.  1707),  or  detached  from  the 
pectoral  fins,  which  probably  assist  them  in  their  search  for  prey. 

A  few  Fishes  are  furnished  with  a  peculiar  apparatus,  which  con- 
fers upon  them  the  singular  power  of  communicating  an  electric 


Fig. 

A,    Cod 

lobes  ; 


shock  to  any  animal  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The  appara- 
tus consists,  in  all  cases,  of  a  mass  of  gelatinous  columns,  separated 
by  membranous  partitions,  which  are  richly  furnished,  both  with 
vessels  and  nerves.  The  only  Fishes  by  which  this  curious  property 
is  undoubtedly  possessed,  are  the  Gynmotus,  or  Electric  Eel  of 
South  America,  the  Fishes  of  the  genus  Torpedo,  and  the  Mala- 
pfeniriis  and  Mormyrus  of  the  Nile. 

The  structure  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  often  very  complicated. 
There  is  scarcely  a  bone  that  assists  in  the  formation  of  the  oral 
cavity  that  is  not  often  furnished  with  teeth,  although  these  organs 
are  usually  developed  upon  particular  bones.  The  upper  jaw 
generally  bears  two  parallel  rows  of  teeth  (Fig.  1706),  one  attached 
to  the  intermaxillary  bones,  and  the  other  to  the  palatine  bones  ;  the 
vomer  also  is  commonly  armed  with  teeth.  The  teeth  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  mouth  are  usually  confined  to  the  lower  jaw  and  lingual 
bone.  Besides  these,  the  branchial  arches,  and  the  superior  and 
inferior  pharyngeal  bones,  are  almost  always  furnished  with  teeth, 
forming  a  sort  of  trap  at  the  entrance  of  the  oesophagus.  The  teeth 
are  not  inserted  into  sockets,  as  in  Man  and  many  other  Vertebrata  ; 
they  are  merely  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  bone  upon  which  they 
are  supported.  In  some  cases,  they  are  simply  imbedded  in  the 
skin  of  the  mouth  ;  in  others,  they  are  attached  by  means  of  liga- 
mentous filaments,  and  these  are  frequently  movable.  In  most 
Fishes  the  teeth  are  constantly  changing  during  the  life  of  the 
Animal,  the  older  ones  falling  out  to  give  place  to  others  which  are 
developed  in  their  neighbourhood.  They  vary  greatly,  both  in  their 
external  form  and  in  their  internal  structure.  The  simplest  form  is 
that  of  a  cone  ;  but  they  are  frequently  compressed  so  as  to  consti- 
tute cutting  organs,  or  widened  into  grinders.  The  conical  teeth 
are  often  minute,  and  set  very  close  together,  so  as  to  form  a  velvet- 
like surface. 

The  oesophagus  is  usually  very  muscular,  and  the  stomach  large. 
The  pyloric  aperture  is  generally  furnished  with  a  membranous 
valve  ;  and  behind  the  pylorus  there  are,  in  most  Bony  Fishes,  a 
variable  number  (from  one  to  sixty)  of  blind  appendages  or  cccca 
(called  the  pyloric  appendages,  or  caca),  that  are  considered  to  be 
the  representatives  of  the  pancreas,  which,  in  fact,  occupies  their 
place  in  the  Cartilaginous  Fishes.  From  this  point  the  intestine  is 
more  or  less  convoluted  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  until  it  terminates 
at  the  anus.  In  some  Fishes,  the  colon  is  furnished  with  a  spiral 
arrangement  of  valves,  serving  to  increase  its  surface.  The  anal 
aperture  is  usually  placed  at  the  posterior  portion  of  the  abdomen  ; 
but,  in  many  cases,  it  is  removed  further  fonvard,  and  sometimes  even 
opens  close  under  the  throat.  The  liver  is  usually  of  great  size  ;  it 
is  almost  always  furnished  with  a  gall-bladder,  and  the  gall-ducts 
open  into  the  intestine,  close  behind  the  pyloric  aperture.  The 
spleen  is  also  invariably  present. 

Almost  all  Fishes  are  Predaceous  Animals,  attacking  and  destroy- 
ing indiscriminately  all  the  weaker  inhabitants  of  the  waters,  such 
as  Insects,  Worms,  Crustacea,  and  Molliisca,  and  preying  with 
avidity  upon  the  smaller  individuals  of  their  own  class.  Many  of 
them  are  excessively  voracious,  seizing  upon  everything  that  comes 
in  their  way  ;  these  are  always  furnished  with  a  formidable  appara- 
tus of  teeth  ;  others,  which  are  not  provided  with  such  powerful 
offensive  weapons,  confine  their  depredations  to  the  smaller  and  more 
helpless  aquatic  Animals.     Very  few  feed  upon  vegetable  matters. 

The  respiration  in  all  Fishes  is  aquatic,  and  we  meet  with  no 
instance  of  true  lungs  in  any  members  of  the  class.  Many  species, 
however,  possess  a  large  sac-like  organ,  containing  air,  which,  as  it 
is  often  connected  with  the  oesophagus  by  a  tube,  must  be  regarded 
as,  to  a  certain  extent,  analogous  to  the  lungs  of  air-breathing  Ver- 
tebrata. This  sac,  which  is  known  as  the  air-bladder,  has,  however, 
nothing  to  do  with  respiration  ;  it  receives  blood  from  the  arteries, 
and  returns  it  into  the  veins,  and  the  air  which  it  incloses  is  probably 
derived  from  this  fluid.  Its  ofBce  is  to  lessen  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  Fish  ;  and  it  is  furnished  with  a  muscular  apparatus,  often  of 
very  curious  construction,  by  means  of  which  its  capacity  may  be 
changed,  so  as  to  render  the  Animal  heavier  or  lighter  than  the 
surrounding  medium. 

The  mechanism  by  which  the  respiration  is  affected  is  as  follows : — 
The  gills  are  composed  of  a  number  of  membranous  laminse,  fur- 
nished with  minute  blood-vessels,  and  supported  upon  bony,  or 
cartilaginous  arches,  which  surround  the  pharynx.  These  arches 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  slits  ;  and  the  water  which  is 
drawn  into  the  pharynx  by  a  movement  of  deglutition,  passes  off 
through  these  slits,  and  escapes  by  the  opercular  aperture.  These 
organs  are  fitted  exclusively  for  aquatic  respiration.  Unless  the  gill 
laminae  are  surrounded  by  moisture,  and,  as  it  were,  suspended  in 
the  surrounding  medium,  the  majority  of  Fishes  soon  die,  from  the 
clogging  of  those  delicate  organs,  and  the  rapid  desiccation  of  their 
surface.  Some  species,  however,  are  furnished  with  a  special  appa- 
ratus to  keep  their  breathing  organs  moist  when  in  the  air  ;  and  a 
few  others,  which  have  no  such  provision,  appear  to  be  very  little 
affected  by  a  temporary  absence  from  their  native  element. 

With  but  a  single  exception,  all  Fishes  possess  a  muscular  heart, 
which  is  situated  under  the  throat,  usually  within  the  angle  formed 
by  the  two  sides  of  the  scapular  arch  (Fig.  1709.)     It  is  composed  of 


CLA  SSTFTCA  TION  OF  FTSTIES. 


two  cavities — an  auricle,  which  receives  the  blood  on  its  return  from 
the  body,  and  a  ventricle,  which  drives  it  again  into  the  system. 
The  blood,  on  leaving-  the  ventricle,  passes  through  a  main  artery, 
which  is  usually  bulbous  at  the  base,  and,  in  many  Fishes,  is  covered 
in  the  same  part  with  a  powerful  muscular  coat,  and  furnished  with 
a  valvular  apparatus.  From  the  continuation  of  this  arterial  bulb, 
which  runs  forward,  the  branchial  vessels  are  given  off  on  each  side; 
these  conduct  the  blood,  which  is  still  in  the  venous  state,  into  thegills, 
where,  in  passing  through  the  numerous  capillary  vessels  with  which 
the  surface  of  those  organs  is  covered,  it  conies  in  contact  with  the 
water,  and  undergoes  that  change  which  it  is  the  object  of  respiration 
to  produce  in  the  blood.  After  passing  through  this  network  of  minute 
vessels,  the  blood  is  again  collected  in  larger  vessels,  and  conveyed 
to  the  aorta,  or  principal  artery,  which  runs  down  the  whole  length 
of  the  body  immediately  below  the  vertebral  column,  giving  off 
branches  to  the  various  organs  during  its  passage.  After  passing 
through  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  body,  the  blood  is  again  collected 
in  the  veins,  which  convey  it  into  a  great  vein,  running  up  towards 

the  heart,  called  the  ve7ia  cava.  In 
its  course  towards  the  heart,  a  por- 
tion of  the  venous  blood  is,  how- 
ever, diverted  into  a  peculiar  system 
of  veins,  called  the  system  of  the  vena 
forta,  which  ramifies  through  the 
substance  of  the  liver ;  the  kidneys 
are  also  supplied  with  venous  blood. 
Thus,  the  heart  in  Fishes  acts  both 
as  a  systemic  and  a  respiratory 
heart,  a  single  contraction  of  the 
ventricle  serving  to  propel  the  blood, 
not  only  through  the  vessels  and 
capillaries  of  the  respiratory  appa- 
ratus, but  also  through  those  of  the 
general  circulation  ;  whilst  a  portion 
of  the  fluid  also  passes  through  the 
capillaries  of  the  liver  and  kidneys. 

The  last-mentioned  organs  are 
usually  of  very  large  size,  and  lie 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  vertebral  column.  The 
ureters  are  much  branched  at  their 
origin,  but  afterwards  unite  to  form 
a  single  canal,  which  often  assumes 
the  form  of  a  bladder  ;  and  the  secre- 
tion is  discharged  sometimes  into 
the  rectum,  and  sometimes  by  sepa- 
rate apertures  situated  close  behind 
the  anus. 

These  Animals  are  all  essentially 
Oviparous.  The  ovaries,  well  known 
under  the  name  of  roe,  are  generally 
of  large  size,  and,  when  fully  dis- 
tended with  ova,  occupy  a  consi- 
derable portion  of  the  abdominal 
cavity,  which  they  often  distend  to 
a  great  extent.  The  number  of  ova 
contained  in  the  ovaries  of  a  single 
Fish  is  often  enormous.  In  most 
Fishes,  the  mature  ova  are  carried 
arterial  out  by  means  of  an  oviduct,  which 
bulb  ;  c,  ventricle  ;  d,  auricle  ;  opens  either  into  the  last  portion  of 
t,  venous  sinus  ;  f,  vena  porta,  the  intestine,  or  by  a  separate  aper- 
liver,  &c.  ;  g,  intestine  ;  h,  vena  ture,  immediately  behind  the  anus. 
cava;  i,  vessels  of  the  gills;  In  a  few,  the  oviduct  is  wanting,  and 
k,  dorsal  artery  ;  /,  kidneys  ;  m,  the  ova,  when  ready  to  be  deposited 
dorsal  artery  or  aorta.  break    through     the    walls    of    the 

ovaries  into  the  abdominal  cavity 
whence  they  escape  by  one  or  more  apertures.  The  male  organs 
occupy  the  same  position  as  those  of  the  female  ;  they  are  commonly 
known  as  the  soft  roe.  The  mode  in  which  their  contents  are  evacua- 
ted presents  much  the  same  difference  as  in  the  female.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  products  of  these  organs  are  discharged  at  once  into  the 
water  ;  tlie  fish  usually  resorting  in  crowds  to  the  same  spot  for  the 
purpose  of  spawning,  so  as  to  secure  the  impregnation  of  the  ova. 
This  is  evidently  the  object  of  the  curious  instinct  which  prompts  so 
many  Fishes  to  undertake  migrations  in  vast  shoals,  and  often  to 
great  distances.  The  Herring,  the  Pilchard,  and  the  Mackerel  are 
e.xamples  of  Fishes  which  perform  considerable  journeys  in  search  of 
a  proper  place  in  which  to  deposit  their  spawn.  The  Salmon  is  also 
very  remarkable  in  this  respect,  from  the  pertinacity  with  which  it 
continues  its  course  from  the  sea,  in  which  it  habitually  resides,  in 
order  to  deposit  its  ova  in  the  small  streams  near  the  sources  of 
rivers.     The  spawning  appears  to  take  place  only  once  a  year. 

Many  Fishes,  however  are  what  is  called  Ovo-viviparous  ;  that  is 
to  say,  the  ova  are  retained  within  the  oviduct  until  the  complete 
evolution  of  the  embryo.  The  mode  in  which  the  impregnation  of 
the  ova  is  effected  in  these  cases  is  not  exactly  known. 


Fig.  1709. 
branchial    arteiy ;  b. 


•Circulatory  System 
of  Fish 


Fishes  appear  always  to  select  shallow  water  for  the  deposition  of 
their  ova  ;  but,  beyond  this,  they  do  not  generally  exhibit  any  care 
for  their  offspnng.  A  few,  however,  form  a  sort  of  nest  for  the  pro- 
tection of  their  eggs  and  young  ;  and  in  some  instances,  the  male 
remains  as  a  guard  over  the  fry  until  they  have  acquired  sudicient 
strength  and  agility  to  venture  forth  into  the  world.  The  little 
Sticklebacks  {Gastcrostcus),  so  common  in  all  our  ponds,  furnish  an 
interesting  example  of  the  exercise  of  this  instinct. 

SUB-DIVI.SIONS. 

The  classification  of  Fishes  has  always  presented  considerable 
difficulties  1 1  the  naturalist.  Linnxus  who  placed  the  Cartilaginous 
Fish  amongst  the  Amphibia,  divided  the  Bony  Fishes  into  orders 
according  to  the  position  of  the  ventral  fins ;  Cuvier  founded  his 
primary  groups  upon  characters  derived  from  the  consistence  of  the 
skeleton  (cartilaginous  or  bony),  sub-dividing  these  into  orders  in 
accordance  with  the  characters  presented  by  the  fins  and  gills  ;  and 
Professor  Agassiz  afterwards  proposed  the  system  to  which  we  have 
already  referred,  founded  upon  the  structure  of  the  scales.  The 
arrangement  here  followed  is  nearly  identical  with  that  proposed  by 
Professor  Miiller  in  his  valuable  memoir  on  the  Ganoid  Fishes,  pub- 
lished in  the  Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Academy  for  1844  ;  in 
which,  by  combining  the  systems  of  Cuvier  and  Agasssiz,  and 
making  such  alterations  as  his  own  extensive  acquaintance  with  the 
Animals  suggested  to  him,  he  has  succeeded  in  arranging  the 
members  of  this  difficult  class,  in  a  far  more  satisfactory  manner  than 
any  of  his  predecessors. 

We  divide  the  class  of  Fishes  into  five  great  orders.  In  the  first, 
the  Leptocardia,  the  heart  is  entirely  absent,  and  the  circulation  is 
effected  by  the  pulsations  of  the  great  vessels.  The  vertebral  column 
is  represented  by  a  gelatinous  band  supporting  the  spinal  cord,  and 
the  latter  exhibits  scarcely  any  traces  of  cerebral  organs  at  its  ante- 
rior extremity.  The  Fishes  of  the  other  four  orders  have  a  distinct 
muscular  heart,  composed  of  two  chambers.  In  the  first  and  second 
the  aperture  leading  from  the  ventricle  into  the  artery  is  furnished 
with  two  valves,  and  the  base  of  the  artery  is  destitute  of  a  muscular 
coating  :  in  the  others,  the  valves  at  the  entrance  of  the  artery  are 
wanting  ;  but  the  inner  surface  of  the  latter  is  furnished  with  numer- 
ous valves,  and  its  outer  surface  is  clothed  with  a  muscular  coating. 
Of  the  former,  the  Cyclostomata  are  further  distinguished  by  their 
cartilaginous  skeleton,  their  sac-like  branchije  opening  by  a  series  of 
apertures  along  the  sides  behind  the  head,  and  their  round  sucking 
mouth  without  jaws  ;  whilst  the  Teleostia  have  a  well-developed  bony 
skeleton,  a  mouth  furnished  with  jaws,  and  free  branchial  organs 
concealed  under  an  operculum. 

The  Ganoidea,  forming  the  first  order  of  Fishes  with  a  muscular 
arterial  bulb,  resemble  the  Teleostia,  in  having  free  branchia;,  covered 
by  an  operculum.  The  skeleton,  in  this  order  is  sometimes  bony, 
sometimes  cartilaginous  ;  and  the  skull  is  more  or  less  covered  with 
bony  dermal  plates.  In  the  second  order,  the  Selachia,  the  skeletor. 
is  always  cartilaginous,  the  gills  are  fixed,  the  water  used  in  respira- 
tion passing  off  through  a  series  of  openings,  corresponding  in 
number  to  the  gills,  and  the  head  is  never  covered  by  bony  plates. 

In  accordance  with  the  views  of  Professor  Owen,  and  many  other 
naturalists,  we  have  removed  the  Selachia  (including  the  Sharks  and 
Rays)  to  the  head  of  the  class,  a  position  to  which  they  are  undoubt- 
edly entitled,  on  account  of  the  evident  approach  which  they  make, 
in  many  important  particulars,  to  the  higher  groups  of  the  Verte- 
brata.  This  alteration  has  also  necessitated  the  removal  of  the  Gan- 
oid Fishes,  which  in  any  system  must  occupy  a  position  intermediate 
between  the  Teleostia,  or  Bony,  and  the  Selachia,  or  Cartilaginous 
Fishes. 

Professor  Miiller  includes  a  sixth  group,  (the  Dipnoi)  in  the  present 
class,  for  the  reception  of  the  Protoptcrus  and  Lepidosiren — singular 
Animals,  which  appear  to  partake  almost  equally  of  the  characters 
of  this  and  the  preceding  class.  It  has,  in  fact,  long  been  a  matter 
of  dispute  in  which  of  these  great  groups  these  curious  creatures 
should  be  placed  ;  and  we  have  preferred  arranging  them  amongst 
the  Batrachia,  as  they  agree  with  those  Animals  in  possessing  lungs 
and  a  pervious  nasal  cavity.     (See  a7ite  p.  668.) 

Order  I.— Leptocardi.\. 

This  order  includes  only  a  single  small  Fish,  which  rarely  attains 
a  length  of  two  inches,  but  which  presents  so  many  remarkable 
characters,  that  its  title  to  a  place  in  the  Vertebrate  division  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom  has  been  disputed  by  some  authors.  Ihis  is  the 
Amphioxus  lanceolatus,3.\\\.t\e.,  slender  transparent  creature,  which 
is  found  on  sandy  coasts  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Its  body  is 
of  an  elongated  lanceolate  form,  with  a  narrow  membranous  border, 
running  along  the  whole  of  the  dorsal  and  a  part  of  the  ventral  surface 
and  expanding  at  the  caudal  extremity  into  a  lancet-shaped  hn  ; 
which,  however,  is  traversed  by  the  tail  itself.  The  vertebral  column 
is  represented  by  a  gelatinous  column  {chorda  dorsalis),  which  sup- 
ports the  axis  of  the  nervous  system  ;  the  latter  terminates  anteriorly 
by  a  rounded  extremity,  without  any  signs  of  a  brain.     The  head 


68o 


BONY  OR  OSSEOUS  FISHES. 


bears  a  pair  of  eyes,  which  are  connected  with  the  end  of  the  nervous 
axis,  by  short  filaments  ;  and  between  these,  is  a  small  ciliated  pit, 
apparently  the  first  rudiment  of  an  olfactory  organ.  The  mouth  is 
placed  at  the  front  of  the  head,  where  it  forms  an  oval  opening-,  quite 
destitute  of  jaws,  but  surrounded  by  a  number  of  cartilaginous  points, 
the  oral  cavity  leads  into  a  large  branchial  sac,  at  the  hinder  extremity 
of  which  is  the  entrance  of  the  intestinal  canal.  By  the  action  of 
cilia,  with  which  these  cavities  are  lined,  currents  are  produced  in 
the  water ;  and  the  water,  thus  carried  into  the  branchial  sac,  passes 
off  through  numerous  slits  in  its  walls  into  the  general  cavity  of  the 
body,  wlience  it  escapes  by  an  opening  in  the  ventral  surface.  The 
circulation  of  the  blood  is  effected  entirely  by  the  contractile  power 
of  the  arteries  ;  no  trace  of  a  muscular  heart  is  to  be  detected  in  the 
transparent  body  of  the  creature.  The  blood  itself,  unlike  that  of 
all  other  Vcrtebrata,  is  perfectly  colourless 

Order  ii. — Cyclostomata. 

The  Cychsfomafa  still  retain  a  good  deal  of  the  embryonic 
character  so  characteristic  of  the  preceding  order,  although  in  their 
general  organisation  they  exhibit  a  very  great  advance. 

They  are  of  an  elongated,  cylindric,  and  somewhat  worm-like 
form  (Fig.  1710)  ;  the  skin  is  tough,  and  quite  destitute  of  scales; 
the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  are  wanting;  and  the  continuous  fin, 
which  runs  round  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body,  contains 
scarcely  any  rays.     The   skeleton   is   cartilaginous,    and    consists 


Fig.  1710. — The  Lamprey.  ■ 

simply  of  a  dorsal  cord  and  of  a  rudimentary  skull,  without  any  trace 
of  nbs  or  other  appendages.  The  mouth  is  destitute  of  jaws,  and 
usually  forms  a  circular  sucking-cup,  supported  by  a  curious  carti- 
lage. The  inner  surface  of  the  mouth  is  often  armed  with  teeth. 
The  branchiffi  are  in  the  form  of  little  sacs,  on  the  inner  surface  of 
which  the  blood-vessels  ramify.  These  usually  open  externally  by 
separate  orifices. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  Cylcostomata  is  effected,  as  in 
all  the  remaining  Fishes,  by  means  of  a  muscular  heart,  composed 
of  two  chambers.  The  orifice  through  which  the  blood  passes  from 
the  ventricle  into  the  branchial  artery,  is  provided  with  a  pair  of 
semi-lunar  valves,  and  the  base  of  this  vessel  is  not  furnished  with  a 
muscular  coat. 

SuB-uivisiONS. — This  order  contains  only  two  families.  In  the 
lilyxinidcs.  the  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  number  of  cirri  or 
tentacles  ;  the  lip  bears  a  single  tooth,  and  the  tongue  is  sometimes 
armed  with  a  few  teeth.  The  eyes  are  completely  concealed,  and 
the  nasal  cavity  opens  into  the  mouth.  These  Fishes  appear  to  eat 
their  way  into  the  bodies  of  other  Fishes,  in  which  they  are  often 
found  by  the  fisherman.  The  best-known  species  is  the  Myxine 
ghitinosa,  called  the  Hag  by  the  British  fishermen.  It  was 
described  by  Linna;us  as  a  parasitic  Worm,  and  receives  its  specific 
name,  "  g/utinosa,"  from  the  immense  quantity  of  mucus  which  it 
can  give  off  from  its  skin,  and  which  is  said  to  be  so  great,  that  if 
put  into  a  vessel  of  water,  it  will,  in  a  very  short  period,  convert  the 
whole  of  it  into  a  glutinous  mass,  capable  of  being  drawn  out  into 
threads. 

In  the  second  family,  the  Petro7nyzonid<z,  the  mouth  has  the  form 
of  a  circular  funnel,   formed  either  of  one  or  two  lips.     They  are 
_  always   destitute  of  cirri,  but  the  inside  of  the 

mouth  is  usually  armed  with  numerous  teeth 
(Fig.  171 1).  The  nasal  cavities  never  lead  into 
the  mouth;  the  eyes  are  usually  well-formed, 
and  there  are  generally  seven  branchial  sacs, 
which  open  directly,  by  a  corresponding  number 
of  apertures  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  whilst 
they  communicate,  internally,  with  the  pharynx 
by  the  intervention  of  a  common  canal. 
Fig.  1711. — Mouth  of  This  family  includes  the  various  species  of 
the  Lamprey.  Lampreys,  which  generally  inhabit  fresh  water, 
although  some  species  are  found  in  the  sea. 
They  commonly  adhere  to  stones  in  the  water  by  means  of  their 
funnel-shaped  mouth  ;  and  are  said  also  to  attach  themselves,  by 
the  same  means,  to  the  bodies  of  other  Fishes,  so  as  to  feed  at  leisure 
upon  their  substance.  This  statememt,  however,  is  very  doubtful ; 
and  it  appears  more  probable  that  the  Lampreys  derive  their  nourish- 
ment entirely  from  small  Aquatic  Animals. 

The  Sea  Lamprey  {Petrojnyzon  mai-ititts)  attains  a  length  of 
three  or  four  feet.  It  quits  the  sea  early  in  the  spring,  and  proceeds 
up  the  larger  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  ;  it  is  at  this  period 
that  it  is  generally  taken.     In  former  days  the  Lamprey  was  regarded 


as  a  great  delicacy ;  and  one  of  our  English  kings  is  said  to  have 
died  in  consequence  of  indulging  too  freely  in  a  dish  of  these  Fish. 
They  have  gone  somewhat  out  of  repute  in  the  present  day  ;  but 
great  numbers  of  the  River  Lamprey  \P.  fluviatilis)  are  still  taken 
"in  some  parts  of  Germany,  where  they  abound  ;  they  are  packed  in 
jars,  with  vinegar,  spices,  and  bay  leaves,  and  exported  to  other 
countries.  Some  epicures  have  resorted  to  the  ingenious  experiment 
of  drowning  Lampreys  in  wine  ;  a  process  which  is  supposed  to  give 
them  a  very  superior  flavour.  Formerly  the  River  Lamprey  was  very 
abundant  in  the  Thames,  and  its  capture  formed  a  most  important 
part  of  the  business  of  the  Thames  fishermen.  But  this,  like  many 
other  kinds  of  fisheries,  has  been  destroyed  by  the  pollution  of  the 
river  by  sewage.  They  were  sold  in  great  quantities  to  the  Dutch, 
to  be  employed  as  bait  in  the  Turbot  and  Cod  fisheries.  Mr.  Yarrell 
states,  that  as  many  as  400,000  of  these  Fish  have  been  sold  for  this 
purpose  in  one  season. 

Order  hi.— Teleostia 

General  Characters. — The  Fishes  of  this  order,  which  corre- 
sponds almost  exactly  with  Cuvier's  great  section  of  Osseous  Fishes, 
must  be  regarded  as  the  types  of  the  class.  They  are  all  furnished 
with  a  perfect  bony  skeleton,  the  structure  of  which  has  already  been 
described  in  our  introductory  remarks.  The  skull  is  always  of  a 
very  complicated  structure,  and  composed  of  numerous  bones  ;  the 
gills  are  supported  upon  free  bony  arches,  and  the  water  passes  away 
from  them  by  a  single  aperture,  protected  by  a  bony  operculum  or 
gill  cover.  The  mouth  is  always  formed  by  a  pair  of  regular  jaws, 
and  usually  armed  with  teeth.  The  arterial  bulb,  situated  immedi- 
ately in  front  of  the  ventricle  of  the  heart,  is  always  composed  of 
the  thickened  walls  of  the  vessel,  and  is  never  provided  with  a 
muscular  coat.  The  only  valves  in  this  vessel  are  a  pair  placed  at 
the  point  where  it  communicates  with  the  heart. 

Many  of  these  Fishes  have  a  perfectly  naked  skin,  but  the  majority 
are  covered  with  scales  of  various  forms.  These  are  generally  of  a 
horny  consistency,  and  e.xhibit  the  two  principal  types  of  form  already 
described  as  cycloid  and  ctenoid.  In  some  cases,  however,  the 
surface  of  the  body  is  covered  with  bony  scales  and  plates,  which 
sometimes  unite  so  as  to  form  a  complete  suit  of  bony  armour,  pre- 
senting a  considerable  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Ganoid  Fish, 
amongst  which  the  Fishes,  thus  protected,  were  actually  placed  by 
Agassiz. 

We  have  already  stated  that,  besides  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins, 
the  representatives  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs,  Fishes  are 
furnished  with  a  series  of  perpendicular  fins  placed  on  the  median 
line  of  the  body,  and  denominated,  according  to  their  position,  the 
dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal  fins.  The  folds  of  skin  of  which  these,  as 
well  as  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins,  are  composed,  are  extended  by 
means  of  an  apparatus  of  rays,  which  present  themselves  under  two 
very  distinct  forms  in  the  Bony  Fishes — namely,  as  spines  and  soft 
rays.  The  former  are  simple,  bony  spines,  tapering  gradually  to  a 
point.  They  are  generally  stiff,  and  project,  more  or  less,  beyond 
the  membranous  part  of  the  fin,  so  that,  in  some  instances,  they 
become  dangerous  weapons.  The  soft  rays  are  also  usually  com- 
posed of  bony  matter ;  but,  instead  of  being  composed  of  a  single 
piece,  like  the  spines,  they  are  divided  transversely  into  numerous 
short  joints,  and  are  also  constantly  dividing  and  subdividing  longi- 
tudinally as  they  diverge  from  their  point  of  insertion  ;  so  that, 
starting  from  the  body  as  a  single-jointed  ray,  they  become  split  up, 
before  reaching  the  margin  of  the  fin,  in  a  bundle  of  smaller,  but 
similarly  jointed  branches.  The  soft  rays  are  of  universal  occurrence 
throughout  the  series  of  Bony  Fishes ;  the  spiny  rays  occur  in  a  great 
number,  but  are  often  absent.  The  spiny  rays  are  to  be  found  in  all 
the  fins  except  the  caudal ;  they  always  occupy  the  anterior  part  of 
the  fin,  the  remainder  being  composed  of  soft  rays.  In  some  Fishes, 
with  two  dorsal  fins,  such  as  the  Perch,  the  first  dorsal  is  often 
entirely  supported  by  spiny  rays  ;  but,  in  these  cases,  we  must  con- 
sider the  whole  of  the  dorsal  appendages  as  constituting  one  large 
fin.  In  some  Fishes,  one  or  more  of  the  spinous  rays  are  completely 
separate  from  the  fins.  These  are  generally  employed  as  weapons 
of  offence  and  defence. 

The  rays  of  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  are,  of  course,  articulated 
to  the  bones  representing  the  anterior  and  posterior  members,  which, 
in  Fishes,  are  usually  entirely  concealed  within  the  skin.  The  rays 
of  the  median  or  perpendicular  fins,  articulate  with  a  series  of  bones 
(Fig.  17 1 2),  which  are  plunged  into  the  median  line  of  the  body, 
between  the  great  longitudinal  masses  of  muscles,  and  which,  from 
their  extremities  passing  in  between  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebral  column,  have  been  denominated  interspinous  bones.  Small 
muscles,  attached  at  one  extremity  to  the  interspinous  bones,  and  at 
the  other  to  the  fin  rays,  enable  the  Fish  to  raise  or  depress  the  fin 
at  pleasure.  In  some  Fishes,  a  small,  thick  fin,  without  true  rays, 
occurs  behind  the  true  dorsal  fin  ;  this  is  called  the  adipose  fin. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  includes  a  vast  majority  of  the  living 
species  of  Fish  ;  and  as  the  characters  by  which  the  genera  and 
species  are  distinguished  from  each  other,  are  often  by  no  means 
strongly  marked,  there  are  few  groups  of  Animals  which  present 


THE  EELS. 


C8i 


greater  diiBculties  to  the  student  than  this.  It  is  divided  into 
numerous  families,  which  may,  however,  be  distributed  under  six 
sub-orders,  although  these  are  sometimes  rather  imperfectly  defined. 


Fig.  1712. — Dorsal  Fin,   supported  on   spiny  rays,  r,r,  and  these  resting  on 
interspinous  bones,  i,  i. 


Sub-order  I.— Physostomata. 

The  Fishes  belonging  to  this  group  are  usually  furnished  with  a 
complete  series  of  fins,  which  are  always  composed  entirely  of  soft 
rays,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  ray  in  the  dorsal,  anal,  and 
pectoral  fins,  which  are  sometimes  spinous.  The  ventral  fins  are 
sometimes  wanting ;  when  present,  they  are  always  abdominal  in 
position — that  is  to  say,  they  are  situated  on  the  ventral  region, 
behind  the  pectorals.  There  is  never  more  than  one  rayed  dorsal 
fin  ;  but  behind  this  there  is  occasionally  a  second  adipose 
fin.  The  skin  is  sometimes  naked,  and  occasionally  more  or  less 
covered  with  bony  plates ;  in  most  cases,  however,  it  is  thickly 
clothed  with  scales,  which  always  exhibit  the  cycloid  character. 
The  air-bladder  is  always  connected  with  the  pharynx  by  a  sort  of 
duct — a  most  important  character,  as  it  only  occurs  in  these  fishes 
amongst  all  the  Teleostia. 

The  Physostomata  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  inhabit  both 
salt  and  fresh  waters.  They  include  amongst  them  some  of  the 
most  important  of  the  Fishes  that  are  sought  for  by  man  as  food  ; 
and  also  the  only  species  of  this  order  which  possess  electrical 
powers. 

SUB-DmsiONS. — Professor  Mliller  divides  the  Physostomata  into 
two  principal  groups — the  Apoda,  in  which  the  ventral  fins  are 
deficient,  and  the  Abdominalia,  in  which  they  are  placed  on  the 
belly. 

The  former — of  which  the  Common  Eel  is  an  example — are  always 
Soft-finned  fishes,  of  an  elongated.  Snake-like  form,  which  often  want 
both  pairs  of  members,  and  in  which  the  median  fins  usually  present 
the  same  embryonic  form  as  in  the  Cyclostomata,  except  that  they 


are  supported  by  distinct  rays.  The  head  is  covered  with  a  thick  skin, 
which  leaves  only  a  small  branchial  opening.  Within  this  is  a  large 
sac,  from  which  a  second  sac  is  given  off;  and  it  is  to  this  arrange- 
ment that  these  Fishes  are  indebted  for  their  power  of  supporting  a 
long  separation  from  their  native  clement.  They  live  both  in  the 
sea  and  in  fresh  water,  where  they  swim  along  with  an  undulating 
movement  of  the  body;  they  are  exceedingly  voracious  Animals. 

The  Apodal  Physostomata  form  three  families.  Of  these,  the 
best  known  are  the  MurcsnidcB,  or  Eels,  of  which  several  species 
are  eaten  in  this  and  other  countries.  They  have  the  branchial 
apertures  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  intestine  without 
pyloric  appendages,  and  the  reproductive  organs  without  efferent 
ducts.  Many  species  of  Eels  constantly  inhabit  the  ocean  ;  whilst 
others  usually  live  in  fresh  water,  but  migrate  to  the  sea  at  particular 
periods,  it  is  supposed  to  deposit  their  spawn.  It  is  a  very  general 
belief  that  Eels  are  Viviparous  ;  but  this  is  quite  a  mistake  ;  and 
the  opinion  has  no  doubt,  taken  its  rise  from  the  passage  of  intesti- 
nal worms  through  the  anus.  The  marine  species  attain  a  large 
size  ;  the  Common  Conger  of  our  coasts  measuring  sometimes  as 
much  as  ten  feet  in  length. 

(Fig.  1713  is  a  characteristic  representative  of  the  head  of  the 
Eel.) 


Head  of  an  Eel. 


The  Sharp-nosed  Eel  (Atiguilla  aciitirostris,  Yarrell). — In 
the  genus  Anguilla  the  body  is  elongated  and  cylindrical,  becom- 
ing more  and  more  compressed  to  the  tail ;  the  mucous  glands  of 
the  skin  are  large  ;  the  air-bladder  is  long  :  there  are  teeth  in  each 
jaw,  and  a  few  on  the  vomer.  The  pectoral  fins  are  close  to  the 
small  branchial  aperture.  There  are  no  ventral  fins,  and  the  dorsal 
fins,  the  caudal  fin,  and  the  posterior  below  are  all  united. 

Cuvier  in  his  last  edition  of  the  '  Regne  Animal,'  in  reference  to 
the  True  Eels  (Anguilles  vraies)  says,  "  Our  fishermen  recognise 
four  kinds,  which  they  regard  as  forming  so  many  species,  but  which 
authors  confound  under  the  general  term  of  j\lur(e}ia  a7igitilla, 
Linnaeus,  viz.  :  the  '  Anguille  vemiaux,'  which  is,  I  believe,  the  most 
common;  the  'Anguille  long-bee,'  of  which  the  muzzle  is  more 
compressed  and  pointed  ;  the  'Anguille  plat-bee,'  Grig-Eel  of  the 
English,  which  has  the  muzzle  more  flattened  and  obtuse,  and  the 
eye  smaller;  and  the  '  Anguille  pimperneux,'  Glut-eel  of  the  English 


Fig.  1714. — The  Sharp- nosed  EeL 


4  s 


682 


THE  EELS. 


which  has  the  muzzle  shorter  in  proportion,  and  eyes  larger  than 
those  of  the  others." 

Mr.  Yarrell,  in  his  work  on  Fishes,  distinguishes  the  following- 
species  as  indigenous  in  the  British  Islands  : — ^The  Sharp-nosed 
Eel  {A.  aciitirostris).  Long-bee  of  Cuvier  ;  the  Broad-nosed  Eel 
{A.  latirost>-is ;  Glut-Eel,  Bowdich  (Pimpernaux,  Cuvier)  ;  the  Snig 
\A  .  mcdiorosfn's).  Besides  these  he  introduces  the  figure  of  a 
fourth  Eel,  with  the  following  observation  :  "  The  term  Grig  in  and 
about  London  is  applied  to  a  particular  Eel  of  small  size,  of  which  the 
figure  here  introduced  represents  the  head.  This  eel  is  the  Anguille 
plat-bee  of  Cuvier,  '  R(-gne  An.,  torn.  ii.  p.  349,  who  considers  it  as 
a  distinct  species.  It  is  the  Grig-eel  also  of  Mrs  Bowdich's  '  British 
Freshwater  Fishes,'  No.  28,  in  which  work  the  three  Eels  already 
spoken  of  here  are  well  figured  ;  and  the  species  were  considered  by 
Cuvif^r  as  identical  with  those  of  the  '  Regne  Animal.'  " 

If,  then,  this  last  be  distinct  from  A.  latirostris,  we  have  four 
species  of  Eels  in  the  waters  of  our  islands,  and  the  same  occur  in 
those  of  France.  With  respect  to  the  term  Grig  we  may  observe, 
that  in  most  parts  of  England  it  is  merely  applied  to  any  small  Eel, 
when  not  above  nine  or  ten  inches  long,  and  of  which  from  eight  to 
ten  are  required  to  make  up  a  pound  weight. 

In  their  habits  and  manners  these  Eels  are  very  similar,  and  their 
flesh  equally  excellent.  Eels  inhabit  ponds,  rivers,  and  the  brackish 
water  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  ;  and  further,  they  may  be  regarded  as 
Migratory  Fishes  ;  in  the  autumn  they  make  their  way  to  the  sea  in 
vast  numbers,  as  it  is  believed,  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their 
spawn  ;  whether  they  ever  return  up  the  river  again,  is  not  very  clear, 
but  in  spring  myriads  of  minute  Eels  not  above  three  or  four  inches 
in  length  make  their  way  from  the  brackish  water,  up  the  rivers, 
which  they  ascend,  dispersing  themselves  as  they  proceed.  These 
migrations  have  been  observed  in  various  rivers,  as  the  Thames, 
Severn,  Dee,  &c.  Some  writers  consider  that  the  parent  Eels,  as 
well  as  their  countless  fry,  return  from  the  brackish  water  of  the 
estuary,  and  regain  their  haunts  in  the  river. 

"In  a  tideway  river,"  says  INIr.  Yarrell,  "  the  descent  of  eels  to- 
wards the  brackish  uatcr  takes  place  during  the  autumn,  and  various 
devices  are  employed  in  different  streams  to  intercept  them  in  their 
progress."  Among  these  are  frames  of  wood  supporting  wicker  bas- 
kets or  traps,  which  form  very  picturesque  objects,  and  are  common  at 
various  places  along  the  Thames ;  yet  it  is  very  clear  that  all  the 
adult  Eels  in  tidal  rivers  do  not  descend  to  the  estuary,  for  it  is  well 
known  that  thousands  lie  buried  in  the  mud  to  the  depth  of  twelve  or 
sixteen  inches,  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  and  quantities  are  often  taken 
in  this  condition  by  means  of  Eel-spears.  In  Somersetshire,  says 
Mr.  Yarrell,  "  the  people  know  how  to  find  the  holes  in  the  banks  of 
rivers,  in  which  eels  are  laid  up,  by  the  hoar-frost  not  lying  over 
them,  as  it  does  elsewhere,  and  dig  them  out  in  heaps.  The  practice 
of  searching  for  eels  in  cold  weather  is  not  confined  to  this  country. " 
Dr.  Mitchell  in  his  paper  "  On  the  Fishes  of  New  York,"  published  in 
the  "  Transactions  "  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  that 
city,  says,  "  In  the  winter,  eels  lie  concealed  in  the  mud,  and  are 
taken  in  great  numbers  by  spears."  The  torpidity  of  the  Eel  is  con- 
nected with  a  low  degree  of  respiration  ;  and,  as  Dr.  Marshall  Hall 
has  shown,  with  this  low  grade  of  respiration  co-exist  great  muscular 
irritability,  a  low  temperature,  and  great  tenacity  of  life,  together 
with  the  power  of  long  sustaining  the  privation  of  air  and  food. 
These  peculiarities  are  characteristic  of  these  Fishes,  and,  as  Mr. 
Yarrell  observes,  the  muscular  irritability  of  Eels  accounts  for  their 
restless  motions  and  agitation  during  thunder-storms,  at  which  time, 
hundreds,  roused  from  their  haunts,  rush  tumultuously,  and  arc 
captured  in  v.Trious  traps,  which  imprison  all  that  enter.  He  adds 
also,  that  their  power  of  enduring  a  low  temperature  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  Eels  exposed  on  the  ground  till  frozen,  then  buried  in  the 
snow,  and  at  the  end  of  four  days  put  into  water,  and  so  thawed, 
slowly  discover  signs  of  life,  and  soon  perfectly  recover.  Now  this 
power  of  bearing  cold  is  at  singular  variance  with  the  opinion  that 
they  are  averse  to  a  low  temperature,  and  consequently  that  none 
exist  in  the  rivers  of  Siberia,  the  Wolga,  the  Danube,  or  any  of  its 
tributary  streams ;  nay,  more,  that  they  are  killed  by  cold  or  frost. 
Mr.  Thompson,  in  "Ann.  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,"  March,  1841, 
says,  "  On  the  6th,  7th.  and  8th  of  the  present  month,  February, 
1841,  great  quantities  of  this  fish  in  a  dead  state  floated  down  the 
river  Lagan  to  the  quays  at  Belfast.  Here,  upon  these  days,  and 
along  the  coast  of  the  river  within  the  tideway,  collecting  dead  eels 
was  quite  an  occupation  at  low  water.  Three  examples  sent  me  by 
my  friend  Edmund  Getty,  Esq.,  were  the  Common  Eel  (A.  aaiiiros- 
iri's,  Yarr.)  They  were  found  dead,  of  all  sizes,  up  to  the  laro-est." 
It  appears  that  a  piercing  east  wind,  accompanied  by  a  hard'^frost 
prevailed  ;  and  as  at  low  water  a  great  extent  of  mud-banks  is  un- 
covered, the  Eels  there  imbedded  are  supposed  to  have  perished 
from  the  intense  cold  arising  from  the  rapid  evaporation  occasioned 
by  the  bitter  gale.  In  January,  1814,  great  quantities  of  Eels  in  the 
same  river  met  with  a  similar  fate,  an  east  wind  prevailing,  with  an 
intense  frost.  In  1841,  during  the  month  of  March,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  Eels  perished  in  the  Lagan,  multitudes  of  Conger  Eels, 
varying  from  a  foot  to  five  or  six  feet  in  length,  perished  in  the  river- 
Lee,  about  six  miles  below  Cork.  Other  instances  of  a  like  nature 
are  on  record. 


That  Eels  breed  in  the  fresh  water  of  inland  rivers  and  lakes, 
from  which  they  are  unable  to  visit  the  sea,  is  a  point  on 
which  little  doubt  exists;  indeed,  Mr.  Yarrell  expressly  states,  that 
in  the  Mole,  the  Wey,  and  the  Longford  river,  and  in  various 
large  ponds,  from  which  there  is  no  possible  egress,  the  Eel  does  not 
deposit  its  spawn  till  near  the  end  of  April,  while  in  Eels  from  the 
brackish  water  of  higher  temperature  the  breeding  season  takes 
place  much  earlier. 

Eels  often  quit  the  water,  and  wander  during  warm  dewy  nights  on 
the  grass,  either  in  quest  of  Worms,  Frogs,  and  other  food,  or  in 
order  to  change  their  locality ;  hence  they  often  travel  from  rivers 
into  adjacent  ponds,  where  the  fry  of  other  Fishes  are  thinned  by 
their  rapacity.  On  one  occasion  we  ourselves  saw  three  or  four  Eels 
on  the  banks  of  the  Severn,  near  Bewdiey  ;  it  was  dusk,  the  weather 
was  warm,  and  the  grass  wet  with  dew  ;  several  small  pools  close  by 
seemed  at  the  same  time  alive  with  Eels. 

The  passage  of  the  shoals  of  young  Eels  up  the  Thames  in  spring, 
■R'hich  is  continued  for  several  days  is  called  Eclfare,  the  Saxon 
■s\'ord/»r(?  signifying  to  travel  (as  in  wayfare,  seafaring,  thoroughfare), 
and  Mr.  Yarrell  thinks  that  the  term  Elvei-,  applied  along  the 
Severn  to  a  young  Eel,  is  a  corruption  of  Eclfare.  The  London 
market  is  largely  supplied  with  Eels  from  Holland  by  Dutch  fisher- 
men. The  vessels  are  built  with  capacious  wells  for  their  preserva- 
tion alive,  and  each  brings  a  cargo  of  several  thousand  pounds' 
weight  of  live  Eels. 

The  Eel  is  among  the  Fishes  of  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Ellis,  in 
his  "  Polynesian  Researches,"  vol.  ii.  p.  286,  says  : — "  In  Otaheite 
eels  are  great  favourites,  and  are  tamed  and  fed  until  they  attain 
an  enormous  size.  These  pets  are  kept  in  large  holes,  two  or  three 
feet  deep,  partially  filled  with  -n-ater.  On  the  sides  of  these  pits  they 
generally  remained,  excepting  when  called  by  the  person  who  fed 
them.  I  have  been  several  times  with  the  young  chief,  when  he  has 
sat  down  by  the  side  of  the  hole,  and  by  giving  a  shrill  sort  of 
whistle  has  brought  out  an  enormous  eel,  which  has  moved  about  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  eaten  with  confidence  out  of  its  master's 
hand." 

In  the  Gyni7iot!dcB,  the  maxillary  bones  take  part  in  the  formation 
of  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the 
MiiranidcB.  The  branchial  apparatus  is  situated  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding family ;  the  intestine  is  furnished  with  pyloric  appendages ; 
and  the  generative  organs  with  efferent  ducts.  The  dorsal  fin  is 
entirely  wanting ;  but  the  anal  fin  is  very  long,  running  from  the 
anus,  which  is  situated  near  the  throat,  to  the  hinder  extremity  of 
the  body. 

The  most  remarkable  Fish  of  this  family  is  the  Electrical  Eel 
{Gymnotus  elecin'cus,  Fig.  1715),   which  frequents  the  ponds  and 

marshy  places  of  South  America. 
This  Fish  possesses  a  most  wonder- 
ful power  of  communicating  an  elec- 
trical shock  to  anything  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact;  and  this  is  sufli- 
ciently  strong  to  knock  down  a  man, 
and  deprive  him  of  the  use  of  a 
limb  for  some  time.  The  Electrical 
Eels  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six 
feet ;  and,  as  the  apparatus  from 
which  the  electricity  is  evolved  ex- 
tends throughout  the  greater  part  of 
its  body,  it  may  readily  be  imagined 
that  the  discharge  of  such  a  battery 
must  be  a  formidable  affair.  The 
apparatus  is  composed  of  four  longi- 
tudinal bundles,  placed  one  on  each 
side  of  the  dorsal,  and  one  each  side  of  the  ventral  region  of  the  body. 
These  bundles  are  composed  of  a  multitude  of  horizontal  parallel 
plates,  which  are  intersected  by  transverse  vertical  plates ;  the 
quadrangular  canals  thus  formed  being  filled  with  a  gelatinous 
matter.  The  whole  apparatus  is  liberally  supplied  with  nerves,  and 
may  be  considered  to  represent  an  exceedingly  complicated  voltaic 
battery.  So  powerful,  in  fact,  is  the  current  of  electricity  evolved  by 
it,  that  it  can  decompose  chemical  compounds,  and  magnetise  steel 
needles.  It  appears  that  the  anterior  portion  of  the  apparatus  is 
positive,  and  the  posterior  negative  ;  and  that  those  parts  of  it  only 
which  are  in  contact  with  an  object  are  implicated  in  the  production 
of  the  current.  Nevertheless,  it  is  said  that  the  Animal  can  make 
use  of  it  in  benumbing  small  Fishes  at  some  distance  from  it  in  the 
water.  The  Indians  of  South  America,  when  tliey  wish  to  capture 
this  Fish,  commence  their  operations  by  driving  a  number  of  Horses 
and  Mules  into  the  ponds  inhabited  by  them  ;  the  Eels,  alarmed  at 
the  disturbance,  immediately  attack  the  intruders  upon  their  quiet 
domain,  usually  applying  their  entire  length  to  the  bellies  of  the 
unfortunate  quadrupeds,  and  thus  giving  the  full  effect  of  the  whole 
electrical  apparatus.  Some  of  the  Horses  soon  become  disabled,  and 
falling  down  in  the  water  are  drowned  ;  the  others,  being  driven  back 
by  the  shouts  and  whips  of  the  Indians,  continue  the  conflict  until 
the  powers  of  the  Gytunoti  3xe.,  for  the  time,  exhausted.  These  then 
endeavour,  in  their  turn,  to  escape  from  the  scene  of  warfare,  and 


Fig.  1715.— TheEIectr!cr.l  Eel. 


THE  HERRING  FAMILY. 


683 


for  this  purpose  approach  the  shore,  where  another  enemy  awaits 
them  ;  the  Indians  armed  with  harpoons  attaclied  to  long  cords,  strilce 
at  all  that  come  within  reach,  and  by  jerking  them  rapidly  out  of  the 
water,  so  as  to  keep  the  cord  from  getting  wet,  contrive  to  secure  their 
booty  without  receiving  any  shock.  Several  other  species  of  this 
family  are  found  in  the  waters  of  South  America,  but  none  of  them 
appear  to  possess  electrical  properties.  Mr.  Wallace  found  ten 
species  in  the  small  streams  near  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Negro  and 
Orinoco ;  he  says  that  they  are  all  eaten,  but  that,  owing  to  the 
number  of  forked  bones  which  they  contain,  they  are  but  little 
esteemed.  The  Indians  informed  him  that  a  rostrated  species,  com- 
mon in  those  rivers,  has  a  very  singular  and  ingenious  manner  of 
obtaining  its  nourishment.  They  stated  that  its  principal  food  con- 
sisted of  Ants  and  White  Ants,  Insects  which  are  exceedingly  abun- 
dant in  those  regions  ;  and  that,  to  procure  them,  it  approached  the 
shore,  and  laid  its  tail  upon  the  ground.  The  Ants,  attracted  by 
the  slimy  matter  with  which  this  tempting  morsel  is  covered,  soon 
crawl  thickly  upon  it,  when  the  Fish  suddenly  dives  into  the  water, 
leaving  its  prey  struggling  on  the  surface,  from  which  it  can  pick 
them  off  at  its  leisure. 

The  third  family  is  that  of  the  SymhranchidcB,  in  which  the 
branchial  apertures,  instead  of  being  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  head, 
as  in  the  two  preceding  families,  unite- to  form  a  single  opening,  often 
divided  by  a  longitudinal  partition  in  the  throat.  They  are  all  in- 
habitants of  Tropical  countries,  and  live  in  fresh  water. 

Of  the  abdominal  Physostomata,  the  first  family  contains  only  a 
single  little  blind  Fish,  which  is  found  in  the  subterranean  caves  of 
North  America.  The  head  is  broad  and  rounded  ;  the  eyes  com- 
pletely covered  by  an  opaque  skin,  or  entirely  absent ;  and  the  anus 
is  situated  on  the  throat,  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fins.  The  young  are 
brought  forth  alive.     It  forms  the  family  Amblyopsidcs. 

The  Fishes  of  the  second  family,  the  ClupeidcB,  are  always  covered 
with  large  thin  scales  ;  the  mouth  is  wide,  and  both  the  maxillary 
and  intermaxillary  bones  assist  in  the  formation  of  the  margin  of  the 
upper  jaw.  The  dorsal  fin  is  single,  and  there  is  no  adipose  fin. 
Most  of  them  are  furnished  with  pyloric  coeca  and  air-bladders. 

This  family  includes  many  of  the  most  important  of  all  Fishes,  in 
an  economic  point  of  view.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  species  are 
described  as  follows  : — 

The  Herrixg— Family  Chipeidcs. 

The  Vilchard  {C/upca  pi'lc/iardus).  Gipsey  Herring,  in  Scot- 
land.— The  Pilchard  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Herring  (see 
Fig.  1716),  but,  instead  of  being  found  on  every  part  of  the  coasts  of 
Britain,  like  that  Fish,  its  geographical  distribution  is  exceedingly 
limited,  and  in  this  country  it  is  only  found  in  any  great  numbers  on 
the  shores  of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  chiefly  from  Dartmouth  to  Pad- 
stow,  round  the  Land's  End.  It  requires  a  warmer  and  more  genial 
latitude  than  the  Herring,  and,  though  occasionally  taken  at  Yar- 
mouth, and  as  far  north  as  Dublin  and  Belfast,  yet  these  are  only 
individuals  separated  by  accident  from  the  great  shoal. 


Fig.  1716.— The  Pilchard. 

Pilchards  frequent  the  French  coasts,  as  well  as  those  of  Spain 
but  not  m  great  numbers :  the  French  fish  for  them  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  attractmg  them  to  their  nets  by  throwing  overboard  laree 
quantities  of  the  salted  roes  of  Fishes,  of  which  they  are  very  fond 
Un  the  southern  coast  of  Ireland  large  shoals  sometimes  make  their 
appearance  and  several  years  ago  a  tolerably  productive  fishery  was 
tnere  carried  on. 

5, nv''%r""''''''""'i'"u^°''T',  of  England,  stretching  further  south  than 
any  other  part  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  however,  their  most 
favoured  haunt ;  and  individuals  are  there 'to  be  found  at  all  seaTons 
^Irf^  H^^'"'"^  /''^  "'T"^"  ''■'"'^''-  regulate  their  movements  were 
wn  fn  K^  "i^derstood,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  their  habits 
ould  be  found  directed  by  as  wonderful  a  degree  of  instinct  as  that 
Wn^^°''"°^  °l  ^y  portions  of  the  unreasoning  creation,  with  whose 

accouT,tnft:f^.^''"■/'''5^^"'"'^•     ^^'-  Yarrell,  in  his  interesting 
account  of  the  Pilchard  (vol.  11.  p.  96},  says-"  In  January  they  keep 


near  the  bottom,  and  are  chiefly  seen  in  the  stomachs  of  ravenous 
fishes ;  in  March  they  sometimes  assemble  in  schulls  (shoals),  and 
thousands  of  hogsheads  have  in  some  years  been  taken  in  scans,  but 
this  union  is  only  partial,  and  not  permanent:  and  it  is  not  until 
July  that  they  regularly  and  permanently  congregate  so  as  to  be 
sought  after  by  the  fishermen."  The  Pilchard  sometimes  spawns  in 
May,  but  the  usual  season  is  October.  Pennant  stated  that  their 
winter  retreat  was  the  same  as  the  Herring,  and  that  the  same  im- 
pulses brought  them  from  thence  to  our  shores  ;  but  it  is  now  clear 
that  their  migration  consists  merely  of  a  change  from  the  deep  sea 
to  the  shore,  and  again  from  the  shore  to  the  deep  adjacent  sea. 
Their  course  generally  appears  to  be  from  the  west,  but,  like  the 
Herring,  the  Pilchard  is  very  uncertain  in  its  movements.  Dr. 
Forbes  says— "  Both  the  period  of  their  arrival  and  departure,  and 
also  the  course  they  take,  are  uncertain,  and  have  varied  greatly  in 
different  years.  Fifty  or  sixty  years  since  they  remained  on '  the 
coasts  till  Christmas,  and  the  fishermen  were  engaged  in  their  cap- 
ture five  or  six  months,  but  now  the  season  does  not  last  more  than 
two  or  three  months.  Some  years  ago,  indeed,  they  either  did  not 
appear  at  all  on  the  Cornish  coast,  or  only  for  a  few  weeks,  or  even 
days.  In  former  years  they  also  appeared  first  on  the  northern 
coasts  of  Cornwall,  towards  the  east,  from  whence  they  proceeded 
westward  round  the  Land's  End,  and  then  eastward  along  the 
southern  coasts.  Lately,  however,  they  have  on  some  occasions 
scarcely  touched  on  the  northern  coasts,  but  have  made  their  first 
appearance  on  the  eastern  parts  of  the  south  coast."  The  Pilchard 
measures  from  nine  to  eleven  inches  in  length  ;  it  contains  more 
oleaginous  matter  than  the  Herring ;  the  body  is  thicker  and  rounder, 
and  less  compressed  ;  the  under  jaw  shorter;  the  scales  larger,  and 
forming  a  closer  texture  than  those  of  the  Herring,  which  drop  off; 
and  are  smaller  and  thinner ;  the  line  of  the  abdomen  smooth.  The 
upper  part  of  the  Pilchard  is  a  bluish-green  ;  the  belly  a  silvery  white  ; 
head  golden-coloured  yellow ;  tail  dusky.  The  Pilchard  has  no 
teeth,  in  which  respect  it  differs  from  the  Herring.  The  dorsal,  or 
back  fin  of  the  Pilchard  being  placed  in  the  centre  of  gravity,  the 
body  will  rest  in  an  exact  horizontal  position  if  taken  up  by  this 
part,  whereas  in  the  Herring,  the  dorsal  fin  being  more  backwards 
than  the  centre,  the  Fish,  on  being  taken  up  by  it,  will  not  remain 
equipoised,  but  the  head  drops  downwards. 

The  stations  of  the  Pilchard  fishery  are  St.  Ives,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Cornwall ;  Mount's  Bay,  on  the  southern  coast  ;  thence 
eastward  at  St.  Mawes,  at  Mevagissey,  and  to  the  coasts  of  Devon. 
There  are  two  modes  of  fishing,  one  with  scans,  and  the  other  with 
drift-nets.  The  former  requires  a  considerable  capital :  about 
eighteen  men  are  employed  in  conducting  the  operations  of  a  single 
"concern,"  and  three  boats  are  necessary  ;  while  the  drift-nets  are 
managed  by  from  four  to  six  men  in  a  single  boat.  The  sean-fishery 
is  carried  on  near  the  shore,  the  drift-tishcry  further  at  sea ;  and 
while  the  former  supplies  the  foreign  demand,  the  latter  is  chiefly 
engaged  in  providing  for  the  immediate  consumption  of  the  home 
market,  as  from  the  manner  in  which  the  Fish  are  taken  they 
are  not  so  well  adapted  for  curing  as  those  caught  by  the  scans. 

The  nets  used  in  the  sean-fishery  are,  a  stop-scan,  with  lead 
weights  at  the  bottom,  and  corks  at  the  top  to  keep  it  float- 
ing, being  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  nearly 
100  feet  in  depth  ;  and  a  tuck-sean,  which  is  made  with  a 
hollow  in   the    middle,  is  one-half  the  size  in  length,   and 
eighteen  feet   deeper  than   the  larger  net.      Two  "boats,  of 
about  fifteen  tons  each,  are  used,  in   one  of  which  the  stop- 
sean  is  carried  ;  the  other,  which  carries  the   tuck-sean,  is 
required  to  assist   in   enclosing   the  Fish,  and  is  called  the 
"  volyer,"  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  "  follower ;"  the 
smaller  boat,  of  from   two  to   four  tons'  burthen,  is  used  to 
carry  the  men  to  and  from  the  shore,  besides  being  useful 
when   the   men   are   engaged  with  the  nets  ;  it  is  called  a 
"lurker,"  and  the  crew  consists  of  the  master-seaner  with 
three  of  the  men,  while  the  remainder  are  equally  divided 
between  the   other  two  boats.     The   most  favourable  place 
for  the   sean-fishing  is   a  fine  sandy  bay.    The  fishermen 
commence   their  labours  towards   evening,  proceeding  at 
that  time  to  the   place  which   the  Fish  may  be  expected  to 
visit,  and   there   they  cast   anchor.     Should  a  shoal   make   its  ap- 
pearance,   the   master-seaner   and  his   men   are   instantly  on    the 
alert,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  shoal,  and  the  nature  of 
the  ground  over  which  it  is  passing.     As  soon  as  the  shoal  is  within 
the  depth  of  the  scan,  the  boat  containing  it  is  rowed  round,  and 
when  they  have  reached  the  proper  place,  the  three  men  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  attend  to  the  net,  heave  it  out  with  the  greatest  des- 
patch.    This  great  body  of  net,  rope,  corks,  and  lead,  is  thrown  into 
the  sea  in  less  than  five  minutes.     During  the  whole  of  these  pro- 
ceedings the  movements  of  the  fishermen  are  directed  by  signs  from 
the  master-seaner  in  the  lurker,  as  the  Pilchard  is  easily  alarmed. 
We  learn  from  Mr.   Yan-ell's  work  that  "The  scan  at  first  forms  a 
curved  line  across  the  course  of  the  fish  ;  and  while  the  two  larger 
boats  are  employed  in  warping  the  ends  together,  the  lurker's  station 
is  in  the  openings,  where,  by  dashing  the  water,  the  fish  are  kept 
away  from  the  only  place  of  escape.     When  the  sean  is  closed  and 


684 


THE  HERRING. 


the  ends  are  laid  together,  if  the  body  of  the  fish  be  great,  and  the 
sea  or  tide  strong,  the  net  is  secured  by  heavy  grapnels,  which  are 
attached  to  the  head-ropes  by  hawsers.  When  the  evening  has 
closed  in,  and  the  tide  is  low,  they  proceed  to  take  up  the  fish.  For 
this  purpose,  leaving  the  stop-sean  as  before,  the  volyer  passes 
within  it,  and  lays  the  tuck-sean  round  it  on  the  inner  side  ;  it  is 
then  drawn  together  so  as  gradually  to  contract  the  limits  of  the 
fish,  and  raise  them  from  the  bottom.  When  disturbed  they  become 
exceedingly  agitated ;  and  so  great  is  the  force  derived  from  their 
numbers  "and  fear,  that  the  utmost  caution  is  used  lest  the  net  should 
either  sink  or  be  burst.  When  the  tuck  sean  is  thus  gradually  con- 
tracting, and  the  boats  surround  it,  stones  suspended  from 
ropes,  called  minnies,  are  repeatedly  plunged  into  the  water 
at  that  part  where  escape  alone  is  practicable,  until  the  fish 
then  to  be  taken  are  supported  in  the  hollow  or  blunt  of  the 
sean." 

It  is  stated  that  it  is  not  more  difficult  to  take  a  thousand 
hogsheads  of  Fish  than  to  take  a  single  hogshead ;  and  as 
the  movements  of  a  large  body  are  slower  than  a  smaller, 
the  difficulty  is  probably   less.     Instances   have   occuiTed   in 
which  two  thousand  hogsheads,  or  about  five  million  Fish,  have 
been  caught  at  once  ;  but  when  a  very  large  number  are  caught, 
only  so  many  are  taken   out  of  the  net  at  one  time  as  the 
boats  can  conveniently  carry,  and  a  week  or  ten  days  may 
elapse  before  the  whole  are   secured.     By  this  arrangement, 
the  process    of    salting    or    curing   is   properly  performed ; 
whereas,  if  the  whole  were  compelled  to  be  brought  on  shore  at  once, 
many  would  be  spoiled,  from  the  impossibility  of  getting  through  the 
work  in  proper  time.      The  Fish  are  brought  to  the  surface  by  a 
small  net,  and  two  men  with  a  large  basket  bale  them  out  of  the  net 
into  the  boat.     When  the  fishery  is  carried  on  beyond  the  usual  dis- 
tance from  the  coast,  as  at  Mount's  Bay,  the  Fish  are  conveyed  to 
the  shore  in  small  sloops  of  a  few  tons'  burthen.     In  ordinary  cases 
they  are  conveyed  by  the  sean  boats. 

The  fishing  by  drift  or  driving  nets,  is  generally  carried  on  in 
common  fishing-boats,  manned  by  four  men  and  a  boy.  These  boats 
have  generally  either  lug-sails  or  sprit-sails  ;  and  there  are  often  as 
many  as  twenty  nets  to  each  boat,  the  whole  of  which  being  joined 
together  extend  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  length,  though  they  may 
be  much  shorter, — the  excellence  and  superiority  of  tfie  tackle  de- 
pending upon  the  extent  of  the  fisherman's  capital. 

The  Fish,  on  being  brought  to  the  shore,  are  at  once  taken  to  the 
cellars  or  store-houses,  where  they  are  salted  and  ranged  in  heaps, 
from  five  to  six  feet  in  height,  and,  in  some  instances,  ten  or  twelve 
feet  wide.  After  remaining  in  this  state  for  five  or  six  days,  they  are 
packed  into  hogsheads.  By  the  application  of  a  poweri^ul  lever  at 
the  top  of  the  hogshead,  the  oil  is  extracted,  and  runs  out  of  the 
casks  through  holes  made  for  the  purpose.  The  pressing  continues 
for  about  a  fortnight.  The  refuse  salt,  which  is  mixed  with  the 
scales  and  blood  of  the  Fish,  is  sold  as  manure  to  the  farmers,  and 
is  applied  with  great  advantage  to  the  land.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
refuse  of  each  Pilchard  will  manure  one  square  foot  of  land.  At  the 
present  day  large  quantities  of  Pilchards  are  dried  and  smoked  for 
sale  in  the  London  and  other  markets. 

The  Herring  {Clupea  harengiis). — Contrary  to  the  opinion  of 
Pennant  and  other  naturalists,  the  Herring  is  a  resident  in  the  deep 
water  all  round  our  coast,  and  only  approaches  the  shores  for  the  pur- 
pose of  depositing  its  spawn,  which  accomplished,  it  returns  to  the 
deep.  Pennant,  however,  describes  the  shoals  as  making  the  Arctic 
circle  their  winter  rendezvous  ;  and  on  their  return,  he  says,  they 
first  make  their  appearance  off  the  Shetland  Isles  in  April  and  May  ; 
but  these,  he  adds,  "  are  only  forerunners  of  the  grand  shoal  which 
comes  in  June  ;  and  their  appearance  is  marked  by  certain  signs,  by 
the  number  of  Birds,  such  as  Gannets  and  others,  which  follow  to 
prey  on  them  :  but  when  the  main  body  approaches,  its  breadth  and 
depth  are  such  as  to  alter  the  very  appearance  of  the  ocean.  It  is 
divided  into  distinct  columns  of  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and  three 
or  four  in  breadth,  and  they  drive  the  water  before  them  with  a  kind 
of  rippling  ;  sometimes  they  sink  for  the  space  often  or  fifteen  minutes 
then  rise  again  to  the  surface,  and  in  bright  weather  reflect  a  variety 
of  splendid  colours.  The  first  check  this  army  meets  in  its  march 
southward  is  from  the  Shetland  Isles,  which  divide  it  into  two  parts. 
One  wing  takes  to  the  east,  the  other  to  the  western  shores  of  Great 
Britain,  and  fill  every  bay  and  creek  with  their  numbers.  Others  pass 
on  towards  Yarmouth,  the  great  and  ancient  mart  of  Herrings  ;  they 
then  pass  through  the  British  Channel,  and  after  that  in  a  manner 
disappear.  Those  which  take  to  the  west,  after  offering  themselves 
to  the  Hebrides,  where  the  great  stationary  fishery  is,  proceed  towards 
the  north  of  Ireland,  where  they  meet  with  a  second  interruption,  and 
are  obliged  to  make  a  second  division.  The  one  takes  to  the 
western  side,  and  is  scarce  perceived,  being  soon  lost  in  the  immen- 
sity of  the  Atlantic  ;  but  the  other,  which  passes  into  the  Irish  Sea, 
rejoices  and  feeds  the  inhabitants  of  most  of  the  coasts  that  border 
on  it." 

Now  so  far  from  this  migration  to  and  from  the  Arctic  circle  taking 
place,  it  would  appear  that  the  Herring  has  never  been  seen  by  voya- 
gers or  Whale-fishers   in  those   high   northern  latitudes.     On  tht 


southern  coast  of  Greenland  "  some  few  of  the  large  sort  of  herrings 
are  taken,"  says  Crantz,  and  he  previously  states  that  the  Angmarset, 
a  small  Herring  about  six  inches  long,  is  the  common  food  of  the 
Greenlanders,  and  this  species  was  found  by  Sir  John  Franklin  on  the 
shore  of  the  Polar  basin.  No  great  shoals  of  the  Common  Herring, 
however,  have  been  observed.  If  this  Fish  does  not  make  the  Arc- 
tic circle  its  asylum,  so  on  the  other  hand  it  never  visits  the  warmer 
latitudes,  nor  farther  south  than  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  coast  of 
France.  The  extent  of  its  migratory  movements  then  is  very  limited : 
from  the  shore  to  the  deep  sea,  and  from  the  deep  sea  to  the  shore. 
The  Common  Herring  spawns  in  October  or  the  beginning  of  Novem- 


Fi^.  1 7 17. — The  Herring. 

ber  ;  and  two  or  three  months  previous  to  this,  generally  in  the  mid- 
dle of  July,  when  the  Fish  are  in  high  condition,  the  shoals  collect 
oft'  various  parts  of  our  coast,  at  which  period  the  fishery,  of  such 
national  importance,  is  carried  on  ;  after  spawning  the  shoals  depart, 
but  young  Herrings,  which  unlike  the  Salmon,  do  not  mature  their 
roe  for  the  first  year,  abound  in  the  shallows  around  the  coast  through- 
out the  winter,  and  during  the  whole  of  the  summer,  and  are  often 
caught  in  small  meshed  nets  used  for  taking  Sprats,  Atherine,  and 
other  Fishes. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  history  of  the  Herring,  that 
the  shoals  are  extremely  capricious  with  respect  to  the  localities  they 
visit,  and  that  too  without  any  accountable  reason.  For  years  they 
will  resort  by  myriads  to  a  given  station,  which  will  then  be  deserted, 
and  some  portion  of  a  coast  where  they  have  previously  been  extremely 
rare  will  become  thronged  with  countless  multitudes.  There  is 
scarcely  a  fishing  station,  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  round  the  British  Islands 
that  has  not  experienced  in  the  visits  of  this  Fish  the  greatest  varia- 
tions, both  as  to  time  and  quantity.  These  frequent  changes  of  their 
haunts  have  led  to  many  speculations.  "  Ordinary  philosophy,"  says 
Dr.  McCulloch,  "  is  never  satisfied  unless  it  can  find  a  solution  for 
everything,  and  is  satisfied  for  this  reason  with  imaginary  ones. 
Thus  in  Long  Island,  one  of  the  Hebrides  (a  great  fishing  station  in 
the  time  of  Charles  the  First),  it  was  asserted  that  the  fish  had 
been  driven  away  by  the  manufacture  of  kelp  ;  some  imaginary  coin- 
cidence having  been  found  between  their  disappearance  and  the 
establishment  of  that  business.  But  the  kelp  fires  did  not  drive  them 
away  from  other  shores,  which  they  frequent  and  abandon  indifferently 
without  regard  to  this  work.  It  has  been  a  still  more  favourite  and 
popular  fancy  that  they  were  driven  away  by  the  firing  of  guns,  and 
hence  this  is  not  allowed  during  the  fishing  season.  A  gun  has 
scarcely  been  fired  in  the  Western  Islands,  or  on  the  west  coast  since 
the  days  of  Cromwell,  yet  they  have  changed  their  places  many  times 
in  that  interval.  In  a  similar  manner,  and  with  equal  truth,  it  was 
said  they  had  been  driven  from  the  Baltic  by  the  battle  of  Copenha- 
gen It  is  amusing  to  see  how  old  theories  are  revived.  This  is  a 
very  ancient  Highland  hypothesis,  with  the  necessary  modification. 
Before  the  days  of  gunpowder  the  Highlanders  held  that  they  quitted 
the  coasts  where  blood  had  been  shed  ;  and  thus  ancient  philosophy 
is  renovated.  Steam-boats  are  now  supposed  to  be  the  culprits, 
since  a  reason  must  be  found  :  to  prove  their  effect.  Loch  Fyne 
visited  by  steam-boats  daily,  is  now  their  favourite  haunt,  and  they 
have  deserted  other  lochs  where  steam-boats  have  never  yet  smoked. 
Mr.  Yarrell  gives  a  ludicrous  example  of  one  reason  why  Herrings 
desert  an  old  station  ;  his  words  are, — "  A  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons  during  the  session  of  1835,  in  a  debate  on  the  tythe  bill, 
stated  that  a  clergyman  having  attained  a  living  on  the  coast  of 
Ireland,  signified  his  intention  of  taking  the  tythe  of  fish,  which  was, 
however,  considered  to  be  so  utterly  repugnant  to  their  privileges 
and  feelings,  that  not  a  single  herring  had  ever  since  visited  that 
part  of  the  shore." 

The  food  of  the  Herring  consists  of  small  Crustaceous  Animals  and 
Fishes  ;  and  it  would  appear  that  they  do  not  spare  the  young  of 
their  own  race,  for  Dr.  Neill  found  five  young  Herrings  in  the  stom- 
ach of  a  large  female.  They  have  been  caught  by  anglers  with  an 
artificial  fly,  and  the  fishermen  have  not  unfrequently  taken  them 
with  lines,  the  hooks  having  been  baited  with  Limpets.  It  is  doubt- 
less to  the  quality  and  supply  of  food  which  different  stations  present 
that  the  superiority  of  the  Herrings  of  one  place  to  those  of  another 
is  to  be  attributed.  Mr.  Jesse,  in  his  "  Gleanings  in  Natural  His- 
tory states  that  the  Herrings  of  Cardigan  Bay  are  much  superior 
to  those  taken  at  Swansea.     From  personal  experience  we  assert  that 


THE  HERRING  AND  SPRAT. 


68s 


the  Herrings  caught  during  June,  July,  (Src,  in  Loch  Fyne,  just 
alluded  to,  exceed  in  flavour  any  other  obtained  round  the  British 
Isles,  whether  eaten  fresh,  or  after  salting  and  smoking,  if  the  latter 
be  done  by  peat-smoke.  Abundance  of  nutritive  food,  we  may  readily 
suppose  will  tend  to  the  development  of  the  roe  ;  and  shoals  that  have 
luxuriated  on  a  perpetual  feast  are  perhaps  those  which  appear  the 
soonest  on  our  coasts.  At  all  events  the  Herring  season  is  not  at  pre- 
cisely the  same  time  in  every  place.  For  example,  on  the  western  coast 
of  Scotland  the  fishery  has  sometimes  terminated  before  that  on  the 
eastern  coast  has  commenced  ;  it  has  sometimes  in  a  southern  part 
of  the  coast  than  farther  north,  and  on  the  western  coast  of  the  county 
of  Cork  before  any  other  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  These  facts, 
moreover,  militate  against  the  once  universally  received  theory  of 
their  simultaneous  Arctic  migration  and  return. 

The  Herring  dies  almost  the  instant  that  it  is  taken  out  of  the 
water,  and  this,  in  some  measure,  results  from  the  width  of  the  gill- 
openings.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  "those  fish  which  swim  near 
the  surface  of  the  water,  have  a  high  standard  of  respiration,  a  low 
degree  of  muscular  irritability,  and  great  necessity  for  oxygen,  die 
soon — almost  immediately — when  taken  out  of  water,  and  have  flesh 
prone  to  rapid  decomposition  :  mackerel,  salmon,  trout,  and  herrings 
are  examples.  On  the  contrary,  those  Fish  that  live  near  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  have  a  low  standard  of  respiration,  a  high  degree  of 
muscular  irritability  and  less  necessity  for  oxygen  ;  they  sustain  life 
long  after  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water,  and  their  flesh  remains 
good  for  several  days :  carp,  tench,  eels,  the  different  sorts  of  skate, 
and  all  the  flat-fish  may  be  quoted  "  (Yarrell). 

The  destruction  made  by  Man,  by  Gannets,  and  other  Water- 
birds,  and  by  larger  Fishes,  amongst  the  shoals  of  Herrings,  is 
almost  incalculable  ;  yet  their  numbers  appear  undiminished, 
myriads  supplying  the  places  of  the  myriads  destroyed.  The  roe  of 
the  Herring  weighs  480  grains,  and  is  composed  of  eggs  varying  in 
number  from  3,000  to  4,000.  Thus  it  is  then  that  this  Fish,  by  the 
economy  of  a  wise  Providence,  yields  to  Man  a  never-failing 
supply,  the  balance  between  loss  and  increase  being  duly  main- 
tained. 

As  we  have  said,  the  Herring  fishery  is  only  carried  on  during 
spawning  season,  or  rather  before  it,  when  the  Fish  are  in  the  highest 
perfection.  The  Yarmouth  Herring  Fishery  commences  about  the 
middle  of  September,  but  the  season  varies  at  different  parts  of  the 
coast.  On  the  coast  of  Sutherland  the  early  Herring  fishery  com- 
mences in  June  ;  the  late  fishery  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  con- 
tinues until  September.  On  the  coast  of  Cromarty  large  shoals 
appear  as  early  as  the  month  of  May.  The  great  object  is  to  obtain 
a  supply  for  the  purpose  of  curing,  although,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  large  numbers  of  fresh  Herrings  are  brought  to  the  London 
market  from  Yarmouth  ;  and  the  consumption  at  Norwich  and  inland 
places,  such  as  Birmingham,  &c.,  is  also  considerable.  The  Fish 
are  sometimes  so  rich  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  as  to  be  unfit 
for  curing,  and  on  this  account  they  are  brought  into  the  market  for 
immediate  consumption.  The  spawning  season  being  over  by  the 
end  of  October  or  the  beginning  of  November,  the  fishing  terminates, 
as  the  Herrings  are  then  in  a  poor  and  exhausted  condition. 

The  size  of  the  boat  used  in  the  Herring  fishery  depends  upon  the 
distance  from  the  shore  at  which  the  fishery  is  intended  to  be  carried 
on,  and  also  as  to  whether  the  intention  be  to  cure  Red  Herrings  or 
White  Herrings.  As  Red  Herrings  must  be  cured  on  shore,  while 
White  Herrings  require  only  to  be  salted  and  put  into  barrels,  those 
who  are  engaged  in  the  Red  Herring  trade  find  it  convenient  to  keep 
within  a  certain  distance  of  the  coast.  The  White  Herrings  may  be 
cured  on  board  the  vessel ;  and,  as  the  fishermen  may  go  out  to  sea 
wherever  the  Fish  are  to  be  found,  this  is  called  a  deep-sea  fishery, 
and,  of  course,  a  vessel  of  a  larger  description  is  required  than 
when  the  cargo  has  to  be  taken  as  speedily  as  possible  to  the  drying- 
house.  The  business  at  Yarmouth  is  mostly  in  Red  Herrings, 
which  are  in  the  greatest  demand  for  the  home  market,  while  the 
export  trade,  carried  on  at  other  ports,  chiefly  consists  of  White 
Herrings.  The  same  men  are,  in  general,  acquainted  with  each  mode 
of  curing.  The  vessels  fitted  out  for  the  deep-sea  fishery  meet  with 
the  earliest  and  best  Herrings  ;  and,  owing  to  the  manner  in  which 
Herrings  desert  parts  of  the  coast  which  they  have  been  accustomed 
to  frequent,  it  is  a  more  permanent  source  of  profit  than  the  boat 
fishery,  though  it  requires  a  large  capital.  The  vessels  must  con- 
tain sufficient  room  in  the  hold  for  the  stowage  of  salt,  nets,  barrels, 
and  provisions.  They  lie  low  in  the  water,  and  the  sides  are 
furnished  with  rollers  and  lee-boards  to  facilitate  the  drawing  in  of 
the  nets.  The  Dutch,  who  pursued  the  deep-sea  fishery,  and  once 
carried  it  on  with  great  spirit  and  success,  were  usually  provided  with 
a  double  set  of  nets  for  fear  of  accident ;  as  their  distance  from  port 
would  have  rendered  the  loss  or  destruction  of  one  set,  a  matter  of 
serious  consequence,  and  the  hopes  of  a  whole  season  might  have  been 
lost.  The  Yarmouth  boats  are  generally  of  about  fifty  tons'  burthen, 
and  manned  with  eleven  or  twelve  men,  of  whom  one-fourth  are 
usually  landsmen.  In  addition,  there  are  two  landsmen  who  are 
employed  in  ferrying  to  and  from  the  decked  vessel,  and  in  curing 
the  Herrings  on  shore.     The  fishing-places  are  from  fifteen  to  thirty 


miles  north  of  Yarmouth,  from  thirty  to  forty-five  miles  to  the  east- 
ward. The  depth  of  water  in  which  the  fishery  is  carried  on  is  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  fathoms.  The  nets  and  ropes  generally  require  to 
be  renewed  nearly  every  fourth  year,  owing  to  the  destructive  effects 
of  the  sea  and  the  ravages  of  Dog-fish,  which,  in  preying  upon  the 
Herrings  when  they  are  inclosed  within  the  nets,  injure  the  nets 
themselves. 

We  may  here  observe  that  a  second  species  of  Herring  (Leach's 
Herring,  Chipea  Leachii,  Yarrell)  visits  our  coast  in  autumn  ;  it  is 
of  superior  quality.  This  species  deposits  its  spawn  in  February, 
and  is,  perhaps,  the  first  of  the  three  kinds  said  .to  visit  the  Baltic  ; 
these  are  the  Strombling  or  small  Spring  Herring,  which  spawns 
when  the  ice  begins  to  molt,  a  larger  Summer  Herring,  and,  lastly, 
the  Autumn  Herring,  which  makes  its  appearance  towards  the 
middle  of  September.  The  length  of  Leach's  Herring  is  only  seven 
and  a  half  inches  ;  it  is,  however,  deeper  than  the  Common  Herring 
in  proportion  to  its  length. 

The  Sprat  {Clupea  spratlus).  Garvie  Herring  in  Scotland. — 
For  a  long  period  this  fish  was  regarded  by  naturalists  as  the  young 
of  the  Herring  or  the  Pilchard,  but  the  specific  ditTerence  is  now  well 
established,  and  a  momentary  glance  is  sufficient  to  enable  the 
observer  to  detect  the  Sprat  among  the  young  of  the  Pilchard  or 
Herring  of  its  own  dimensions.  In  the  Sprat  the  line  or  ridge  of  the 
abdomen  is  strongly  serrated,  so  that  by  the  feel  alone  the  distinction 
may  be  appreciated.     (See  Fig.  1718  .) 


Fig.  1718.— The  Sprat. 

Like  the  Herring,  the  Sprat  moves  in  vast  shoals,  which  in 
summer  frequent  the  deep  water,  advancing  towards  the  close  of 
autumn  towards  the  shore  ;  they  then  enter  bays,  and  advance  up 
rivers,  in  numbers  incalculable.  Early  in  the  month  of  November 
the  fishing  season  commences,  and  continues  during  the  winter  ;  and 
not  only  are  the  London  and  other  markets  supplied  by  bushels,  but 
tons  are  used  as  manure,  for  the  wheat  lands  and  hop-grounds  of 
our  sea-bound  counties  ;  and  if  judicious  regulations  were  adopted, 
the  demand  for  this  purpose  might  benefit  the  fisherman  without  a 
decrease  of  the  quantity  sent  into  the  markets  for  consumption. 

The  fishing  season  commences,  as  we  have  said,  in  November 
and  the  foggy  and  gloomy  nights  which  prevail  at  that  period  are 
considered  most  favourable  to  the  fisherman.  The  finest  Fish  are 
caught  in  the  same  manner  as  Mackerel,  but  the  largest  quantities 
are  taken  by  the  stow-boats,  manned  with  five  or  six  men.  Mr. 
Yarrell  (p.  123,  vol.  ii.  '  British  Fishes')  gives  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  this  mode  : — "  The  stow-boat  net  goes  with  two  horizontal 
beams  :  the  lower  one,  twenty-two  feet  long,  is  suspended  a  fathom 
above  the  ground ,  the  upper  one,  a  foot  shorter  in  length,  is  sus- 
pended about  six  fathoms  above  the  lower  one.  To  these  two 
beams,  or  'balks,'  as  they  are  called,  a  large  bag-net  is  fixed,  to- 
wards the  end  of  which,  called  the  hose,  the  mesh  is  fine  enough  to 
stop  very  small  fry.  The  mouth  of  the  net,  twenty-two  feet  wide  and 
thirty-six  feet  high,  is  kept  square  by  hanging  it  to  a  cable  and 
heavy  anchor  at  the  four  ends  of  the  beams.  The  net  is  set  under 
the  boat's  bottom  :  and  a  rope  from  each  end  of  the  upper  beam 
brought  up  under  each  bow  of  the  boat,  raises  and  sustains  the  beam, 
and  keeps  the  mouth  of  the  net  always  open,  and  so  moored  that  the 
tide  carries  everything  into  it.  A  strong  rope,  which  runs  through 
an  iron  ring  at  the  middle  of  the  upper  beam,  and  is  made  fast  to 
the  middle  of  the  lower  beam,  brings  both  beams  together  parallel, 
thus  closing  the  mouth  of  the  net  when  it  is  required  to  be  raised." 
The  meshes  of  the  net  are  so  small,  that  a  pen  could  scarcely  be  in- 
serted in  them,  and  nothing  but  water  will  pass  through.  Hence  the 
destruction  of  small  fry  is  immense,  and  it  is  alleged  that  the  scarcity 
of  Turbots,  Brills,  Soles,  and  other  Fish  in  those  parts  of  the  coast 
where  they  were  once  abundant  is  occasioned  by  the  stow-boats. 
Some  of  the  fishermen  state  that  about  twenty  years  ago  large  quan- 
tities of  Soles  and  a  few  Turbots  were  caught  off  the  coast  of  Kent 
without  difBculty,  but  that  these  Fish  have  now  become  scarce,  and 
the  Fishermen  are  not  in  consequence  so  well  off.  The  same  com- 
plaint has  arisen  in  respect  to  the  Sprat  fishery  in  the  Thames,  but 
arising  in  this  case  from  the  great  pollution  of  the  river  by  the  influx 
of  sewage  from  the  metropolis. 

The  Sprat  is  most  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
Essex,  and  Kent ;  but  like  the  Herring  this  Fish  is  capricious  in  its 
movements.  About  fifty  years  since  vast  shoals  made  their  appear- 
ance off  the  coast  of  Devon,  which  is  now    regularly  visited.     On 


686 


THE  SALMON  FAMILY. 


one  occasion  we  saw  Sprats  sold  retail  in  Bristol  at  the  rate  of 
twent3'-ei,a:Iit  pounds  for  sixpence.  In  Cornwall,  the  True  Sprat  is 
seldom  seen,  but  the  name  is  appropriated  to  the  fry  of  the  Herring 
and  Pilchard  ;  and  -per  contra  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England, 
where  the  True  Pilchard  is  rare,  the  term  Pilchard  is  given  to  tlie  fry 
of  the  Shad,  and  the  half-grown  Herring.  The  Sprat  is  occasionally 
taken  on  the  coasts  of  Cork,  Dublin,  and  Belfast. 

Those  who  live  in  or  near  London,  and  those  who  have  passed  a 
winter  in  London,  well  know  the  abundance  of  the  Sprat  in  the 
markets.  Bushels  are  seen  from  day  to  day  in  the  fishmongers' 
shops,  and  bushels  are  cried  about  the  streets  ;  London  and  its 
suburbs  are  deluged  with  Sprats,  sold,  not  by  the  dozen,  but  by 
rough  measurement,  at  a  cheap  rate.  Nor  is  their  consumption  con- 
fined to  the  humbler  classes  ;  though  rich  and  oily,  the  Sprat  is  an 
excellent  Fish,  and  a  dish,  hot  from  the  gridiron,  iinds  favour  even 
with  the  wealthy.  It  is  always  present  at  the  Lord  Mayor's  dinner 
on  the  gth  of  November,  in  pursuance  of  an  old  custom.  An  immense 
quantity  of  dried  and  smoked  Sprats  is  sold  in  the  metropolis,  and 
also  in  some  provincial  towns  as  a  relish  for  breakfast,  &c. 

The  TWAITE  Shad  {Alosa  finhi,  Clii;pea  alosa);  in  the  genus 
Alosa  there  is  a  deep  notch  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  jaw.  Two 
species  of  Shad  inhabit  our  seas,  the  Allice  Shad  [Alosa  communis), 
and  the  present,  both  sea  Fishes,  which  enter  high  up  our  rivers  to 
deposit  their  spawn  ;  the  latter  being  abundant  in  the  Severn,  but 
little  known  elsewhere. 

The  Twaite  Shad,  which  is  the  Chipea  alosa  of  Linnasus,  differs 
from  the  Allice  Shad,  with  which  many  have  confounded  it,  in  being 
of  much  smaller  size,  averaging  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  in 
length,  in  having  a  lateral  row  of  spots,  in  possessing  teeth,  while 
the  Allice  Shad  is  toothless,  and  in  the  last  fin  below  being  compara- 
tively smaller.  The  Twaite  Shad  moreover  is  much  more  widely 
distributed.  It  is  common  in  the  Thames.  It  visits  the  Severn,  and 
is  occasionally  taken  off  the  coast  of  Norfolk.  Northwards  its  range 
is  very  extensive  ;  Professors  Nilsson  and  Reinhardt  enumerate  it 
among  the  Fishes  of  Scandinavia. 

It  is  in  the  month  of  May  that  this  Fish  works  its  way  up  our  rivers, 
and  those  of  the  adjacent  continent,  in  order  to  deposit  its  spawn, 
which  accomplished,  it  returns  to  the  sea  towards  the  end  of  July. 
The  flesh  of  the  Twaite  Shad  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  Allice, 
being  dry  and  full  of  bones. 

The  young  both  of  the  Twaite  and  Allice  appear  to  grow  very 
slowly.  With  respect  to  the  former,  INIr.  Yarrell  says,  "  I  have  ob- 
tained the  young  only  two  inches  and  a  half  long  in  October;  "  and 
he  adds  that  in  the  following  spring  he  found  them  only  four  inches 
long,  and  the  young  of  the  larger  Allice  Shad  (which  when  adult  is 
from  two  to  three  feet  in  length)  only  six  inches.  The  food  of  the 
Shad  consists  of  Small  Fishes  and  various  kinds  of  Crustacea,  as 
Shrimps,  &c.  The  Twaite  Shad  has  the  line  of  the  abdomen 
strongly  serrated  ;  the  top  of  the  head  and  back  is  dusky  blue  with 
brown  and  green  reflexions  ;  the  sides  are  silvery  white,  with  a  cop- 
pery tinge,  and  a  row  of  six  or  more  dark  spots  from  the  edge  of  the 
gill-orifice  to  the  tail.  The  mucous  vessels  on  the  surface  of  the 
gill-covers  are  beautifully  arborescent.     (See  Fig.  1719.) 


^p     ^ 


Fig.  1719.— The  Twaite  Shad. 

Whitebait  {Clupca  a!lia).—li\\\%  favourite  delicacy,  is  another 
of  the    C/iipeidcB.      It   was  formerly  regarded  as  the  fry  of  other 
species,  but  it  is  now  regarded  as  an  individual  species.     It  is  too  ; 
well  known,  especially  in  respect  to  its  repute  in  London  to  require  ' 
further  description.    At  certain  seasons  it  is  abundant  in  the  Thames    ' 
and  has  given  the  name  of  the   "Whitebait  dinner,"   usually  given 
by  her  Majesty's  ministers  to  their  supporters  at  Greenwich,  just 
before  Parliament  is  prorogued  in  the  autumn. 

The  Anchovy  {Engraulis  encraskolus  ;  CluJ>ea  encrasicolus, 
Linn. ;  Engrauiis  vulgaris,  Cuv.}— In  the  genus  Engraulis,  the 


head  is  pointed,  the  upper  jaw  the  longest ;  the  mouth  deeply  divi- 
ded, the  gape  extending  backwards  beyond  the  line  of  the  eyes. 
Branchial  apertures  large,  the  ventral  fins  somewhat  anterior  to  the 
line  of  the  commencement  of  the  dorsal.  Abdomen  smooth.  Bran- 
chiostegous  rays  twelve.     (See  Fig.  1720.) 


Fig.  1720. — The  Anchovy, 

From  the  earliest  times,  the  Anchovy  has  been  celebrated,  and  a 
sauce  or  condiment  prepared  from  it,  called  garum,  or  yapov,  was  in 
high  estimation  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Anchovy  is 
abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  along  the  coasts  of  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  France,  and  extends  thence  northwards,  being  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  Baltic.  It  has  occurred  on  various  parts  of  our 
coast,  as  Hampshire,  Cornwall,  Wales,  &c. 

In  general,  the  Anchovy  measures  from  four  to  hve  inches  in 
length,  but  occasionally  it  is  found  much  larger.  Mr.  Yarrell  quotes 
a  statement  of  Mr.  Couch,  who  says — "  I  have  seen  it  in  the  Cornish 
seas  of  the  length  of  seven  inches  and  a  half;  and  1  have  met  with 
specimens  from  autumn,  through  winter,  to  the  middle  of  March." 
In  preparing  this  fish  for  use,  the  head  and  viscera  are  always  re- 
moved, otherwise  t'ne  pickle  would  be  intensely  bitter ;  it  was,  in 
fact,  once  supposed  to  have  the  gall  in  its  head. 

The  Sardine  {Clupea  sardina). — In  the  Mediterranean,  the 
place  of  the  Herring  is  taken  by  the  Sardine  (C  sardina),  a  Fish 
which  closely  resembles  the  Pilchard,  but  is  rather  smaller  in  size. 
It  is  also  taken  in  great  abundance  on  the  coasts  of  Brittany  ;  and 
its  flesh  is  regarded  as  a  most  delicate  article  of  food.  It  is  im- 
ported into  the  United  Kingdom  in  small  cases,  filled  with  sweet  oil. 
During  recent  years  our  fish-curers  have  similarly  preserved  the 
Herring,  and  others  of  the  Clupcidcs.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that 
the  Common  Sprat  has  frequently  to  do  the  duty  of  a  substitute  for 
the  Sardine,  although,  of  course,  their  flavour  is  entirely  different. 

The  Fishes  of  the  third  family,  the  Scopelidcs,  present  a  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  Salmons,  and,  like  these,  are  furnished  with 
a  small  adipose  second  dorsal  fin.  They  differ,  however,  in  the 
structure  of  their  upper  jaw,  of  which  the  biting  edge  is  entirely 
composed  of  the  intermaxillary  bones.  They  are  sometimes  naked  ; 
at  others,  covered  with  large,  brilliant  scales  ;  the  air-bladder  is 
usually  wanting,  and  the  pylorus  furnished  with  coeca.  The  Sco- 
pelidcc  are  found  principally  in  salt  water.  A  few  occur  in  the 
Mediterranean,  but  most  of  them  inhabit  the  Tropical  Seas.  Some 
— such  as  SiernoJ>tyx — present  very  singular  forms. 

The  Salmon  7 .^^nin—Salmomdes. 

The  great  family  of  Salmomdcv,  which  includes  some  of  the  most 
esteemed  of  our  ordinary  Edible  F"ishes,  agrees  with  the  preceding 
in  some  respects,  especially  in  the  presence  of  an  adipose  dorsal  fin ; 
but  the  maxillary  bone  assists  in  the  formation  of  the  edge  of  the 
upper  jaw,  and  the  air-bladder  is  always  present.  The  pylorus  is 
furnished  with  numerous  cceca  ;  the  skin  is  covered  with  cycloid 
scales.  The  SalmonidcB  differ  from  most  other  Bony  Fishes  in  the 
structure  of  the  ovaries  in  the  females.  These  organs  form  closed 
sacs,  destitute  of  any  oviduct,  and  the  ova  escape  into  the  cavity  of 
the  body,  whence  they  pass  through  an  opening  behind  the  anus. 

The  Fishes. of  this  family,  in  general,  furnish  a  highly-prized 
article  of  food.  They  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  fresh  waters  ot 
the  northern  parts  of  the  world  ;  a  few  only,  like  the  Salmon,  passing 
a  portion  of  their  existence  in  the  sea,  and  ascending  into  the  rivers 
during  the  spawning  season.  They  are  exceedingly  active  and 
voracious  Fishes,  generally  of  a  slender  form,  and  adorned  with 
brilliant  colours,  or  elegantly  spotted.  They  are  usually  of  small 
or  moderate  size — our  Common  Salmon  being  one  of  the  largest 
species. 

The  Salmon  [Sahno  saldr). — In  the  genus  Satmo  the  head  is 
smooth  ,  there  are  two  dorsal  fins,  the  second  of  which  is  fleshy 
without  rays.  There  are  teeth  on  the  maxillary  bones,  the  vomer 
and  palatal  bones,  and  a  row  of  hooked  teeth  runs  along  each  side 
of  the  tongue  ;  branchiostegous  rays  ten  or  twelve.     (See  Fig.  1721.) 

The  unrivalled  excellence,  among  Fishes,  of  the  Salmon,  as  an 
article  of  diet,  its  abundance,  and  its  commercial  importance,  require 
no  comments.  A  Salmon  fishery  is  valuable  property ;  the  rights 
and  privileges  connected  with  it,  and  the  regulations  to  be  observed 
in  conducting  it,  have  been  settled  by  repeated  legislative  enact- 
ments. 

The  Salmon  is  a  Migratory  Fish,  existing  during  one  part  of  the 
year  in  fresh  water,  the  other  in  the  sea.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
former,  and  shoals  of  Salmon  annually  work  their  way  up  the  rivers 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  of  the  northern  portions  of  the  con- 


THE  SALMON  FAMILY. 


687 


tinent,  for  the  sake  of  depositing  their  spawn  ;  in  their  progress  they 
surmount  rapids  and  cataracts,  still  with  unwearied  perseverance 
pursuing  their  course,  till  they  arrive  at  the  suitable  locality.  In 
America  the  Salmon  ascends  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  and  enters  the 
tributary  streams  of  Lake  Ontario  ;  but  its  progress  within  the 
United  States  is  arrested  by  the  falls  of  Niagara.  Gesner,  a  natura- 
list of  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  observed  that  "  there 
was  no  better  salmon  than  in  England;  "  and  Isaac  Walton  states, 
that,  "  though  some  of  our  northern  counties  have  as  large  and  as 
fat  as  the  river  Thames,  yet  none  of  so  excellent  a  taste."  Owing 
to  the  progress  of  population,  the  influx  of  sewage,  (Src,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  manufactures,  the  Salmon  rivers  in  England  arc  far  less 
productive  than  formerly.     A  Thames  Salmon  is  now  a  myth ;  and 


Fig.  1721. — The  Salmon. 

the  rivers  of  the  north  of  England,  as  well  as  those  of  the  west, 
though  they  have  not  declined  to  the  same  extent  as  the  Thames,  or 
the  Avon  in  Hampshire,  are  not  now  of  much  commercial  importance, 
except  the  Severn.  The  case  is  different  in  Scotland,  the  principal 
supply  of  Salmon  being  derived  from  the  Tay,  the  Tweed,  the  Dee, 
the  Don,  and  most  of  the  streams  along  the  coast.  The  Salmon  rivers 
in  Ireland  are  the  Erne,  the  Moy,  the  Bann,  the  Blackwater,  the 
Shannon,  and  nearly  all  the  principal  streams  along  the  northern 
and  western  coasts. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  is  in  autumn  that  the  Salmon  leaves  the  sea 
or  mouth  of  the  estuary,  and  pushes  up  the  rivers  and  their  tributary 
streams,  whence  they  do  not  return  till  the  spring,  having  in  the 
interval  deposited  their  eggs,  which  have  become  hatched  (if  the 
term  be  allowed),  the  young  fry  or  smolts  being  carried  down  to  the 
sea  in  the  months  of  April  and  May. 

In  some  rivers  the  Salmon  do  not  make  their  appearance  until  the 
middle  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  as  the  Esk,  for  instance,  in 
Cumberland  ;  and  this  delay  is  attributed  to  the  lower  temperature 
of  the  water,  compared  with  that  of  even  adjacent  streams.  "  Rivers," 
says  Mr.  Yarrell,  "  issuing  from  large  lakes,  afford  early  salmon, 
the  waters  having  been  purified  by  deposition  in  the  lakes  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  rivers  swollen  by  melting  snows  in  the  spring  months  are 
later  in  their  season  of  producing  Fish,  and  yield  their  supply  when 
the  lake  rivers  are  beginning  to  fail." 

"  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  variation  in  the  season  depended 
on  the  warmth  of  the  waters,  and  that  those  highland  rivers  which 
rose  from  large  lochs  were  all  early,  owing  to  the  great  mass  and 
warmer  temperature  of  their  sources,  and  that  the  spawn  there  was 
sooner  hatched.  There  are  two  rivers  in  Sutherlandshire  which  show 
this  late  and  early  running  under  peculiar  circumstances.  One,  the 
Oikel,  borders  the  county,  and  springs  from  a  small  alpine  lake, 
perhaps  about  half  a  mile  in  breadth  ;  the  other,  the  Shin,  is  a  tribu- 
tary to  the  Oikel,  joins  it  about  five  miles  from  the  mouth,  but  takes 
its  rise  from  Loch  Shin,  a  large  and  deep  extent  of  water,  and  con- 
nected by  a  chain  of  other  deep  lochs.  Early  in  the  spring,  all  the 
salmon  entering  the  common  mouth  diverge  at  the  junction,  turn  up 
the  Shin,  and  return  as  it  were  to  their  own  and  warmer  stream, 
while  very  few  keep  the  main  course  of  the  Oikel  until  a  much  later 
period." 

Whether  it  be  in  the  autumn  or  spring  that  the  Salmon  ascends 
the  river,  it  does  not  return  to  the  sea  till  after  the  spawn  is  depo- 
sited ;  and  the  females  are  the  first  to  ascend,  the  males  coming 
after.  The  migration  does  not  take  place  immediately  on  the  Fish 
leaving  the  sea,  but  they  advance  up  the  river  or  estuary,  as  far  as 
the  tideway  is  felt,  ascendmg  with  each  flood-tide,  and  descending 
with  the  ebb  ;  and  thus,  remaining  partly  in  salt  and  partly  in  fresh 
water,  are  better  prepared  for  a  long  continuance  in  the  latter. 
Here  stake-nets  are  placed  for  miles  on  both  sides,  and  multitudes 
of  Fish  captured. 

The  precise  period  at  which  the  Salmon  enters  the  river  does  not 
appear  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  state  of  the  ova,  for,  while  some 
Fish  proceed  far  up  the  river,  the  roe  of  others  is  in  so  mature  a  state 
that  they  can  advance  but  half  way,  and  others  are  compelled  to 
seek  out  a  suitable  place  in  the  shallows  nearer  its  mouth.  The 
great  majority,  however,  as  they  get  full  of  roe,  ascend  beyond  the 
tideway,  after  a  short  continuance  in  the  brackish  water,  and  push 


on  tow'ards  the  sources  of  the  stream,  overcoming  impediments  which 
might  be  thought  insurmountable.  They  will  clear  rapids  or  weirs 
which  arc  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height,  and,  tliough  at  first  baffled  in 
tlieir  efforts,  resume  the  attempt  with  surprising  vigour.  Sometimes 
they  overshoot  or  mistake  their  mark  and  throw  themselves  upon  dry 
land.  Though  they  seldom  spring  out  of  the  water  more  than  ten 
feet,  they  have  been  known  to  descend  a  fall  of  the  height  of  thirty 
feet,  and  to  leap  over  a  dry  rock  of  considerable  height  and  drop  into 
the  water  on  the  other  side.  There  is  a  fall  (the  fall  of  Kilmorac)  on 
the  Beauly,  in  Invcrncss-shire,  where,  according  to  Mr.  Mudie,  in 
the  "  British  Naturalist,"  the  sight  of  a  voluntarily  cooked  Salmon 
has  been  witnessed.  A  kettle,  it  is  said,  was  placed  upon  the  flat 
rock  on  the  south  side  of  the  fall,  close  by  the  edge  of  the  water,  and 
kept  full  and  boiling  until  a  Salmon  fell  into  the 
kettle  and  was  cooked  on  the  spot.  This  was  one 
of  the  wonders  which  the  Erasers  of  Lovat,  the  lords 
of  the  manor,  used  to  show  their  guests.  This  fall 
was  said  to  be  literally  thronged  with  Salmon  en- 
deavouring to  pass  higher  up  the  river.  It  is  an  old 
opinion,  and  still  very  generally  entertained,  that 
previous  to  making  a  spring  the  Fish  curves  its  body 
and  puts  its  tail  in  its  mouth.  The  fact,  however, 
has  been  ascertained  by  observation,  that  Salmon 
spring  up  nearly  in  a  perpendicular  line,  and  with 
a  strong  tremulous  motion  ;  but  we  have  repeatedly 
seen  the  curve  of  the  tail  towards  the  mouth,  while 
watching  Salmon  leap  on  the  river  Nith  near  Dum- 
fries. 

Having  gained  the  upper  and  shallower  part  of  the 
river  the  Fish  seek  out  clear  gravelly  beds,  where 
there  is  a  strong  current,  and  prepare  to  deposit 
their  ova.  They  proceed,  generally  in  the  morning,  or  during 
the  twilight  of  evening,  to  make  a  furrow  with  their  noses  in 
the  gravel,  working  against  the  stream,  for  the  reception  of 
the  spawn.  At  this  season,  both  males  and  females  are  unfit  for 
food,  and  undergo  a  considerable  alteration  in  appearance.  The 
male  becomes  marked  on  the  cheeks  with  orange-coloured  stripes, 
and  a  golden  orange  tinge  pervades  the  surface  of  the  body,  while 
the  lower  jaw  elongates,  and  a  cartilaginous  projection  turns  up  from 
the  point,  occupying,  when  the  jaws  are  closed,  a  deep  recess  between 
the  intermaxillary  bones  of  the  upper  jaw.  In  this  state  the  Salmon 
is  called  a  "  red-fish."  The  females  have  acquired  a  dark  colour, 
and  are  called  "black-fish." 

In  making  their  furrow,  we  have  said  that  the  Fish  works  against 
the  stream  ;  it  cannot,  in  fact,  work  with  the  head  down  the  stream, 
for  the  water  forcing  into  the  gills  the  wrong  way  would  drown  it. 
The  deposition  of  the  spawn  requires  from  eight  to  twelve  days  ;  and 
when  this  process  is  completed  and  the  ova  covered  up,  the  Fish  be- 
take themselves  to  the  pools  and  deeper  parts  of  the  river  to  recruit. 
They  are  much  out  of  condition,  and  are  called  ' '  kippers, "  or  "  kelt- 
fish." 

Experiments  have  been  made  at  different  times,  relative  to  the 
vivification  of  the  ova  of  the  Salmon,  the  most  interesting  of  which 
are  the  two  following  :  the  first  is  detailed  by  Dr.  Knox,  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  On  the  2nd  of  November 
he  observed  the  ova  of  a  Salmon  deposited  in  the  usual  manner  near 
the  sources  of  the  Tweed.  On  the  25th  of  February,  or  a  hundred 
and  sixteen  days  afterwards,  the  ova  were  dug  up  and  found  to  be 
unchanged.  On  the  23rd  of  March,  twenty  weeks  from  the  period 
of  their  deposition,  the  ova  were  changing,  the  fry  lying  in  the  gravel, 
after  having  cast  the  outer  shell.  On  the  first  of  April  the  fry  had 
quitted  the  spawning-bed  by  ascending  through  the  gravel.  The 
ova  may  be  hatched  artificially  by  being  put  into  bottles  of  water  in 
warm  rooms,  but  they  cannot  be  preserved  alive  longer  than  ten  days, 
during  which  they  eat  nothing.  The  other  experiment  was  made 
by  Mr.  Hogarth,  of  Aberdeen,  and  is  still  more  minute  in  its  details 
than  the  former  one ;  it  is  exemplified  by  the  following  figures,  show- 
ing the  progress  of  the  spawn  of  Salmon.  In  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  London,  the  process  of  hatching  the  ova  of 
Salmon  may  be  seen. 

In  the  rivers  and  streams  the  ova  become  vivified  during  the 
months  of  March  and  April,  according  to  the  stateof  the  season.  By 
the  end  of  May  the  water  is  full  of  the  fry,  from  an  inch  in  size,  per- 
fectly formed,  to  the  size  of  a  minnow.  At  first  they  keep  in  shallow 
water,  but  as  their  strength  increases  they  may  be  seen  in  the  middle 
of  the  river  or  stream,  moving  towards  the  sea.  The  first  flood  or 
fresh  which  occurs  at  this  period  hurries  them  to  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  where  for  a  short  time  they  remain  in  the  tideway,  and  then 
proceed  at  once  to  the  sea.  In  June,  not  a  single  "  smolt,"  or 
"  smoult,"  which  is  the  name  given  to  the  fry,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fresh  water. 

Referring  to  our  illustrations,  we  may  observe  that,  at  Fig.  1723, 
A  shows  the  <i^^  of  the  natural  size  after  the  vital  principle  has  been 
developed.  The  body  of  the  Fish  in  tliis  stage  has  a  pinkish  tinge, 
and  the  eyes  are  very  large  ;  B,  the  shell  of  the  ovum  just  burst,  and 
the  head  of  the  Fish  protruding  from  it. 

Fig.  1723: — C,  the  state  of  the  ovum  eight  hours  after  the  bursting 


688 


THE  SA  LAION  FA  MIL  V. 


of  the  shell,  when  the  pulsations  of  the  heart  become  visible  ;  D,  the 
shell  just  thrown  off,  the  tail  droopins? ;  about  a  third  part  of  the 
shell,  which  is  transparent,  is  fractured  by  the  Fish  in  its  exertions 
to  extricate  itself.  Before  the  shell  is  broken,  the  tail  envelops  the 
yoke,  which  is  seen  attached  to  the  body  of  the  Fish  ;  E,  the  tail  in 
a  short  time  becomes  straight,  and  the  Fish  more  lively  ;  the  mouth 
assumes  a  distinct  form,  and  the  lower  and  pectoral  fins,  which  are 
quite  transparent,,  are  in  motion  simultaneously  with  the  action  of 
the  heart  which  beats  from  sixty  to  sixty-five  times  in  a  minute. 

Fig.  1724  : — F  is  a  magnified  representation  of  C,  Fig.  1723, 
the  Fish  adhering  to  the  shell  which  is  partly  broken.  G  represents 
E  magnified  :  the  heart  is  before  the  pectoral  fins,  under  the  throat. 

Fig.  1725  is  a  still  more  enlarged  view  of  E,  showing  the  direction 
in  which  the  blood  circulates,  as  seen  by  a  microscope.  The  blood 
flows  from  under  the  body  of  the  Fish  through  the  blood-vessels, 
ramified  along  the  sides  of  the  back,  and  is  then  collected  into  the 
large  vessel  which  runs  along  the  front  and  bottom  of  the  bag, 
communicating  directly  with  the  heart.  An  equal  quantity 
of  air,  or  some  transparent  matter,  circulates  with  the  blood. 
The  blood  is  drawn  by  the  heart  from  the  large  vessel  alluded  to,  and 
thrown  in  regular  pulsations  into  the  vessels  of  the  head  and  throat, 
where  it  assumes  a  darker  colour.  The  rays  of  the  gills  are 
visible,  and  the  Fish  soon  begins  to  assume  a  brownish  colour. 

Salmon  fry,  or  Smolts,  for  some  time  wander  about  the  sides  of  the 
stream,  where  the  current  is  obstructed,  but  as  they  acquire  strength 
they  trust  themselves  to  the  mid-stream,  play  in  the  pools  and  deep 
spots,  and  on  the  setting  in  of  the  spring  rains  are  carried  down  to 
the  junction  of  the  river  with  the  salt-water,  where  they  remain  till 
habituated  to  the  novel  element,  into  which  they  then  proceed.  The 
growth  of  the  Smolts  or  Young  Salmon  is  very  rapid,  especially  after 
they  have  reached  the  sea  where  food  is  in  abundance.  Fry  marked 
in  April  or  May,  as  Mr.  Yarrell  informs  us,  have  returned  by  the  end 
of  June  weighing  from  two  to  three  pounds  and  upwards,  and  a 
month  or  two  later  they  have  been  found  to  weigh  as  much  as  si.x 
pounds.  The  small-sized  Fish  under  the  weight  of  two  pounds,  are 
called  "  Salmon-peal,"  all  above  that  weight  "  Grilse."  These  Fish 
hatched  in  the  spring  breed  the  first  winter,  and  for  that  purpose 
return  from  the  sea  to  the  rivers  rather  earlier,  as  it  would  appear, 
than  the  adult  Fish,  and  though  fewer  ova  are  perfected,  each  egg 
individually  is  nearly  as  large  as  in  the  latter.  The  growth  of  the 
Grilse  during  the  second  visit  to  the  sea  and  for  several  subsequent 
years  equals,  if  it  does  not  exceed,  that  of  the  first  year.  The  Sand- 
launce  (A mmoclUes  /a^!cea)  and  other  Fishes  constitute  the  food  of 
the  Salmon  when  out  at  sea  ;  and  that  it  is  a  voracious  feeder  may  be 
inferred  both  from  its  rapid  increase  of  size  and  its  dental  arrangement 
It  has  been  stated  that  the  food  of  the  Salmon  consists  principally  of 
the  eggs  of  various  kinds  of  Echinodermata  and  some  of  the  Crus- 
tacea, and  that  to  a  certain  extent  the  excellent  flavour  of  its  flesh 
depends  on  the  richness  of  its  food.  Salmon  when  in  rivers  rise  at 
flies,  like  the  Trout,  and  have  been  taken  with  a  Minnow  for  a  bait, 
and  also  with  a  Worm. 

Though  few  Salmon,  perhaps  none,  that  haunt  our  coast  and  visit 
our  estuaries  and  rivers,  ever  attain  to  their  full  growth,  or  the  com- 
pletion of  their  natural  term  of  existence  (so  extensive  and  incessant  is 
the  destruction  made  amongst  them),  yet  enormous  specimens  have 
often  been  captured.  Some  have  weighed  over  eighty  pounds,  but  such 
is  a  rare  case. 

There  are  numerous  methods  of  catching  Salmon.  Angling  is  only 
resorted  to  as  a  recreation,  and  for  taking  Fish  for  private  consump- 
tion ;  other  modes  of  wholesale  capture  are  adopted  for  the  supply 
of  the  markets.  Of  these  one  is  by  the  stake-net.  The  stake-net 
was  first  brought  into  use  on  the  Solway  about  a  hundred  years  since 
and  was  termed  the  raise  or  rise  net.  Improvements  were  afterwards 
made  in  its  construction,  and  gradually  it  became  general  ;  these 
nets  were  introduced  on  the  Frith  of  Tay  about  the  year  1797,  and 
proved  so  advantageous,  being  efficient  both  during  the  flood  and 
ebb  tide,  that  double  the  number  of  Salmon  were  taken  than  before 
they  were  in  use.  As  many  as  five  hundred  Salmon  and  Grilses 
have  been  taken  at  one  time  in  a  stake-net.  Stake-nets  are  only 
used  where  the  tide  is  constantly  ebbing  and  flowing,  and  are  con- 
fined within  the  limits  of  low-water  mark,  as  they  are  not  adapted  to 
the  middle  of  the  channel.  They  are  fixed  by  stakes  driven  into  the 
rocky  ground  ;  and  are  visible  at  several  miles  distance,  serving  to 
warn  vessels  off  rocks  and  shallows,  both  by  day  and  night,  the  noise 
made  by  the  water  rushing  through  them  indicating  their  vicinity 
when  they  themselves  cannot  be  distinctly  seen. 

The  stage-net  has  been  greatly  superseded  by  the  stake-net  ;  it  is 
adapted  for  the  coast  or  tide-way  of  a  river,  and  is,  like  the  latter, 
stretched  between  high  and  low  water  mark.  The  leader,  which 
terminates  at  high-water  mark,  is  formed  of  stakes  and  rough  wicker- 
work  ;  the  fishermen  are  stationed  on  a  platform  or  stage  above  the 
bag-nets,  and  see  or  feel  when  a  Fish  enters  one  of  them,  Vfhen  it  is 
irrhnediately  drawn  up  to  the  top  of  the  stage  and  the  Fish  taken  out 
and  killed.  We  may  enumerate  cobble-nets,  used  in  the  higher 
parts  of  the  river,  and  in  pools,  above  the  tidal  rise ;  but  as  the  nets 
are  trailed  over  the  top  of  the  spawning  beds,  raking  them  up,  this 
mode  is  justly  regarded  as  injurious.     Cruives  are  formed  by  artificial 


dykes,  which  act  as  leaders,  conducting  the  Fish  into  a  trap,  or  recep- 
tacle in  the  dam-wall,  through  which  the  water  rushes,  and  in  which 
grating  of  a  peculiar  structure  prevents  the  exit  of  the  Fish. 

A  mode  of  spearing  Salmon  is  practised  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  ; 
it  is  often  termed  stream-fishing.  A  dyke  of  loose  stones  is  constructed 
in  the  river,  which  acts  as  a  leader  to  the  Fish  coming  up  the  stream, 
directing  them  to  the  channel  nearest  the  bank  ;  at  the  end  of  the 
dyke  there  is  a  hut  in  which  the  fisherman  waits  the  approach  of  the 
Salmon,  which  he  strikes  with  a  five-pronged  instrument. 

Salmon-spearing,  by  torch-light,  is  an  animated  mode  requiring 


D 

Fig.  1723. 


Fig.  1724. — Progress  of  Spawn  of  the  Salmon. 


Fig.  1725. — Young  Salmon. 

great  skill  and  dexterity.  In  the  long  pools  of  deep  clear  water,  nets 
are  placed  in  various  directions;  the  disturbance  of  the  water  by  the 
boats,  and  the  glare  of  the  lights,  terrify  the  Fish,  which  rush  into 
the  nets,  while  those  passing  within  reach  are  speared  and  killed. 
A  somewhat  varied  method  is  graphically  described  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  in  "  Guy  Mannering,"  and  which  may,  as  he  says,  be  called  a 
kind  of  Salmon-hunting.  The  account  is  as  follows  : — "  The  chace, 
in  which  the  fish  is  pursued  and  struck  with  barbed  spears,  or  a  sort 
of  long-shafted  trident,  called  a  vsraster,  is  much  practised  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Esk,  and  in  the  other  salmon  rivers  of  Scotland.  The 
sport  is  followed  by  day  and  night,  but  most  commonly  in  the  latter, 
when  the  fish  are  discovered  by  means  of  torches  or  fire-grates  filled 
with  blazing  fragments  of  tar-barrels,  which  shed  a  strong,  though 
partial,  light  upon  the  water.  Upon  the  present  occasion  the  prin- 
cipal party  were  embarked  in  a  crazy  boat,  upon  a  part  of  the  river 
which  was  enlarged  and  deepened  by  the  restraint  of  a  mill-weir. 


THE  SALMON  FAMILY. 


689 


while  others,  like  the  ancient  Bacchanals  in  their  gambols,  ran 
along  the  banks  brandishing  their  torches  and  spears,  and  pursuing 
the  salmon  ;  some  of  which  endeavoured  to  escape  up  the  stream, 
while  others,  shrouding  themselves  under  roots  of  trees,  fragments  of 
stones,  and  large  rocks,  attempted  to  conceal  themselves  from  the  re- 
searches of  the  fishermen.  These  the  party  in  the  boat  detected  by  the 
slightest  indications  ;  the  twinkling  of  a  fin,  the  rising  of  an  air-well 
was  sufficient  to  point  out  to  these  adroit  sportsmen  in  what  direction 
to  use  their  weapons."  A  hundred  Salmon  were  often  taken  during 
one  of  these  animated  excursions,  and  it  is  added  that,  "  the  best 
were  selected  for  the  use  of  the  principal  farmers  ;  the  others  divided 
among  their  shepherds,  cottars,  dependents,  and  others  of  inferior 
rank  who  attended.  These  fish,  dried  in  the  turf-smoke  of  their 
cabins  or  slieahngs,  formed  a  savoury  addition  to  the  mess  of  pota- 
toes, mixed  with  onions,  which  were  the  principal  part  of  their  win- 
ter food. " 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  mode  of  spearing  Fish  by  the 
Chippeway  Indians  on  the  River  Thames,  which  rises  in  the  country 
between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Huron,  and  falls  into  Lake  St.  Clair. 
This  manner  of  fishing  "requires  a  dexterity  in  its  management 
which  scarcely  any  but  an  Indian  can  achieve.  Two  Indians  occupy 
a  canoe  in  the  centre  of  the  stream  :  one  poises  himself  on  each  edge 
of  the  vessel  in  front,  the  other  in  a  similar  way  behind  :  each  has  a 
fish-spear.  The  canoe,  though  probably  in  the  centre  of  a  rapid 
stream,  amid  rocks,  and  shoals,  and  eddies,  is  kept  perfectly  steady, 
and  in  a  straight  course,  by  occasional  thrusts  and  shoves  at  any 
object  which  presents  itself, — an  overhanging  or  sunken  rock,  or  the 
broken  trunk  of  a  fallen  tree.  The  labour  of  keeping  the  boat  steady 
does  not  interfere  with  the  spearing  of  the  fish,  which  is  carried  on 
in  silence,  and  with  unceasing  attention.  The  fish,  as  caught,  are 
jerked  off  the  spear  into  the  boat ;  they  are  afterwards  handed  over 
to  the  women,  who  clean  them,  and  dry  them  by  suspending  them 
from  a  stick  over  a  smoky  fire.  This  mode  of  catching  fish  never 
fails  to  attract  the  attention  of  Europeans,  from  the  dexterity  with 
which  it  is  done,  and  the  seeming  danger  of  the  operation.  The 
Indians  resort  to  the  streams  and  rapids  in  spring  and  autumn,  as 
the  fish  are  then  running — attempting  the  passes  in  shoals." 

The  lakes  and  rivers  of  North  America  yield  an  abundance  of 
excellent  Fish.  The  only  lake  in  the  great  chain  of  lakes  which 
yields  such  fish  as  make  migratory  excursions  to  the  sea,  Salmon, 
&c.,  is  Lake  Ontario — the  falls  of  Niagara  presenting  an  effectual 
barrier  to  their  visiting  the  other  lakes.  But  the  fresh-water  stock 
of  Fish  in  these  lakes  is  sufficiently  diversified ;  amongst  the 
favourite  sorts  are  White-fish,  particularly  those  of  the  Detroit  river, 
the  Grey  or  Salmon  Trout,  Black  and  Rock  Bass  (there  are  also 
White  and  Striped  Bass),  Pickerel,  Pike,  and  Fresh-water  Herrings. 
Some  of  the  outlets  of  the  lake  abound  with  Sturgeon,  but  in  general 
the  flesh  of  the  American  Sturgeon  is  but  little  esteemed.  A  species 
of  Pike,  called  the  Muskanungee,  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  is  con- 
sidered by  many  an  excellent  Fish.  In  the  very  small  lakes  of  Noith 
America  the  Grey  or  Salmon  Trout  is  never  found  to  exceed  four  or 
five  pounds  in  weight ;  in  the  larger  lakes  it  is  to  be  found  of  ten  or 
twelve  pounds  ;  but  in  the  "  great  lakes"  it  will  sometimes  be  found 
of  the  weight  of  thirty  or  forty  pounds.  All  the  rivers  and  small 
streams  are  stocked  with  Trout  of  delicious  flavour. 

Another  species  of  Salmon  {Salmo  rossii)  is  found  in  great  abun- 
dance in  the  Arctic  Sea,  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  which  fall  into 
that  ocean  from  the  northern  portion  of  the  American  continent. 
This  Fish  occurs  in  such  vast  shoals,  according  to  Dr.  Richardson, 
its  discoverer,  that,  during  one  of  the  Arctic  expeditions,  as  many  as 
3,378  were  obtained  at  one  haul  of  a  small  seine.  It  is  of  a  more 
slender  form  than  the  Common  Salmon  ;  the  under  jaw  is  very  long, 
and  projects  considerably  in  front  of  the  upper  ;  and  the  scales  are 
small,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  bare  space  of  skin.  The 
sides  are  adorned  with  numerous  bright  crimson  spots. 

Immense  quantities  of  preserved  Salmon  are  imported  into 
England  from  the  United  States.  The  Fish  is  generally  packed  in 
air-tight  tin  cans  containing  about  one  pound  in  weight.  Norway 
supplies  the  English  markets  with  abundant  and  excellent  fresh 
Salmon.  As  a  rule  Salmon  is  rarely  seen  in  the  London  Markets 
before  the  beginning  of  February.  But  poaching  is  carried  on  in  the 
British  rivers  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  the  Fish  are  sold  by  retail 
as  coming  from  Norway  or  other  places  abroad.  Consequent  on 
this,  numerous  Acts  have  been  passed  during  the  present  century 
for  the  purpose  of  protecting  Salmon  and  other  fish,  and  the  follow- 
ing general  account  of  them,  as  existing  in  1879,  may  be  of  interest : 
Under  the  Salmon  Fishery  Acts,  1861,  1863,  1865,  1870,  and  1873, 
Salmon  are  protected,  and  a  close-time  of  not  less  than  154  days  is 
fixed  for  England  and  Wales,  during  which  all  fishing  for  Salmon, 
except  with  rod  and  line,  is  prohibited.  The  commencement  and 
termination  of  the  close  season  may  be  varied  by  the  local  boards  of 
conservators,  but  it  must  never  begin  later  than  ist  November. 
For  rod  and  line  minimum  close-time  of  ninety-two  days  is  fixed, 
which  must  commence  not  later  than  ist  December.  No  Salmon 
may  be  sold  after  the  3rd  November  in  any  year,  except  such  as  can 
be  proved  to  come  from  parts  beyond  the  seas  :  in  those  rivers  or 
districts  in  which  the  capture  of  Salmon  is  legal,  after  the  ist  Sep- 


tember, their  sale  is  allowed,  provided  their  capture  in  such  river  or 
district  wis  lawful  by  any  means  other  than  by  rod  and  line. 

In  those  rivers  and  districts  where  no  bye-law  on  the  subject  has 
been  made,  and  these  greatly  vary,  the  close-time  for  nets  begins  on 
1st  Sept..  and  ends  on  2nd  Feb.;  and  for  rods  it  begins  on  ist 
Nov.,  and  ends  on  the  2nd  Feb. 

A  weekly  close  season,  during  which  net-fishing  for  Salmon  is 
prohibited,  is  fixed  in  England  at  not  less  than  forty-two  hours,  nor 
more  than  forty-eight  hours,  to  be  determined  by  the  boards, 
between  Friday  at  midnight  and  noon  on  Monday.  Licences,  to  be 
obtained  from  local  boards,  and  available  only  within  the  limits  of 
the  district  in  which  they  are  issued,  must  be  taken  out  for  instru- 
ments employed  in  fishing  for  Salmon,  and  the  use  of  spears,  lights, 
snatches,  and  similar  instruments  is  prohibited.  During  the  open 
season  no  Unclean  Salmon  maybe  taken.  The  word"  salmon" 
includes  all  migratory  Sahnoaida:,  and  for  the  purposes  of  the 
sections  applying  to  spears  and  Unclean  Fish,  'J'roii i  a.nd  Char  a.xa 
included.  The  capture  of  Trout  and  Char  in  fishery  districts  in 
England  and  Wales,  and  their  sale,  wherever  caught,  are  prohibited 
between  2nd  Oct.  and  ist  Feb. 

By  an  Act  passed  in  1876,  the  Trout  close-time  may  be  varied  by 
bye-law,  made  by  boards  of  conservators  in  various  districts,  so, 
however,  that  the  close-time  does  not  commence  earlier  than  the  2nd 
September  nor  later  than  the  2nd  November,  and  shall  not  be  less 
than  123  days. 

There  were  in  1879  forty-three  fishery  districts  in  England  and 
Wales,  each  with  its  board  of  conservators.  These  boards  have 
power  to  make  bye-laws  for  the  regulation  of  Salmon-fishing,  and, 
during  the  Salmon  close-time,  of  all  other  kinds  of  fishing ;  and 
heavy  penalties  are  fixed  for  infractions  of  the  law. 

In  Scotland  there  were  in  the  same  year  120  fishery  districts,  and 
thirty  boards,  with  similar  powers.  There  the  annual  close-time 
must  never  be  less  than  168  days,  and  varies  between  the  extreme 
dates  of  27th  August  and  25th  February.  The  weekly  close-time  is 
fixed  at  not  less  than  thirty-six  hours,  between  6  p.m.  Saturday  and 
6  a.m.  Monday.  The  River  Tweed  is  specially  regulated  by  the 
Tweed  Fishery  Acts.  Its  close-time  is  from  14th  September  to  15th 
February. 

Eels. — By  an  Act  passed  in  1876,  a  close-time  for  Elvers,  or  the 
fry  of  Eels,  is  provided,  from  ist  January  to  the  last  day  of  February, 
and  from  26th  April  to  24th  June  ;  this  Act  only  applies  to  the  River 
Severn  in  England.  By  the  Salmon  Fishery  Acts  it  is  illegal  to 
place  in  any  other  Salmon  river  any  fixed  engines  for  the  capture  of 
Eels,  or  Elvers,  between  ist  January  and  24th  June.  In  Ireland  a 
similar  close-time  for  Eels  exists,  between  loth  January  and  1st 
July. 

Fresh-water  Fish. — By  the  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  Fisheries  Act, 
1877,  a  close-time  for  the  capture  of  Coarse  Fresh-water  Fish  was 
established  in  those  counties. 

Crabs  and  Lobsters. — By  the  Oyster,  Crab  and  Lobster  Fishery 
Act  1877,  the  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations  for  local  close- 
times  for  these  Shell-fish. 

In  the  case  of  the  sale  of  Salmon  after  3rd  September,  it  must  be 
proved  that  this  exception  is  legalised  by  a  bye-law  of  the  district  in 
which  the  fish  has  been  caught.  The  onus  of  proof  that  the  Fish 
were  caught  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Acts,  or  that  they  were  caught 
during  the  legal  open  season  by  legal  means,  lies  on  the  person 
selling  or  exposing  for  sale.  The  exportation  of  Salmon  is  pro- 
hibited between  3rd  September  and  30th  April  (Salmon  Acts, 
Amendment  Acts,  1863  and  1870),  unless  it  can  be  proved  that  the 
Salmon  exported  or  entered  for  exportation  was  caught  during  the 
time  at  which  its  sale  would  be  legal  in  the  United  Kingdom  : 
the  onus  probandi  lies  on  the  person  exporting.  Hence,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  the  attempts  on  the  part  of  fishmongers 
to  account  for  the  possession  and  sale  of  Salmon  as  from  foreign 
parts,  during  the  British  close-time. 

The  Trout  {Salino  fario). — This  excellent  Fish  is  spread  over 
the  continent,  and  is  common  in  the  British  islands.  It  delights  in 
clear  and  sparkling  rivers,  w'hich  have  a  rapid  current,  bubbling  over 
stones,  and  tumbling  down  weirs  and  little  falls,  where  the  pictur- 
esque water-mill  well  accords  with  the  attractive  scenery.  In  such 
rivers  Trout  lurk  in  the  deep  pools,  in  the  shadow  of  large  stones,  or 
under  the  precipitous  banks  during  the  day,  bestirring  themselves 
towards  evening,  when  they  eagerly  pursue  their  prey.  The  Trout 
is  abundant  also  in  our  stream-fed  lakes,  and  those  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  The  great  difference  in  size  and  colour  which  this  Fish 
displays  in  different  localities  is  very  remarkable,  and  has  led  to  the 
suspicion  that  it  was  connected  with  distinction  of  species  ;  but  when 
we  take  into  account  the  variety  in  the  character  of  the  water,  and 
the  influence  which  the  soil  and  the  several  strata  over  which  it 
passes  in  its  course  have  in  producing  modifications  in  its  quality, 
connected  with  the  nature  and  respective  abundance  of  food  which 
different  rivers  afford,  according  to  the  soil  and  general  aspect  of  the 
country  through  which  they  pass,  we  may  perhaps  account  for  the 
difference  of  size  and  colour  exhibited.  Still  it  is  by  no  means  im- 
possible that  distinctions  of  species  as  well  as  of  mere  variety  may 
be  ascertained. 

4T 


690 


THE  SA  LMON  PA  MIL  Y. 


In  the  Wye,  the  Dove,  and  Derwent  (Derbyshire),  the  Trout  are 
numerous,  but  small,  measuring  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length  on 
the  average  ;  and  in  some  inky  streams  that  flow  over  shale  \\\  the 
hills  near  Buxton,  and  are  impregnated  with  iron,  we  have  seen 
numerous  Trout  of  small  size,  and  so  dark  that,  by  way  of  distinc- 
tion, they  might  be  called  black,  while  those  in  the  Wye  at  Bake- 
well  and  in  the  Derwent  and  Dove,  are  brightly  coloured.  Black 
Trout  occur  in  Loch  Knitching,  and  also  in  Loch  Katrine,  the  colour 
being  attributed  to  the  drainage  from  the  boggy  moors. 

There  are  fine  Trout-streams  in  Hampshire,  Surrey,  Wiltshire,  and 
other  counties,  and  splendid  Trout  are  frequently  caught  in  the 
Thames  above  Hampton  ;  we  have  seen  Trout  from  the  latter  locality 
from  nine  to  eleven  pounds  weight,  but  larger  have  been  taken,  some 


Fig.  1726. — The  Trout. 

of  the  weight  of  fifteen  pounds.  These  noble  Fish  are  generally 
caught  by  trolling  or  spinning  with  Bleak,  Gudgeon,  or  Ivlinnows, 
but  they  will  rise  at  the  May-fly.  To  land  one  of  these  Trout 
requires  no  ordinary  skill  and  patience.  There  are  some  deep 
pools  in  the  Thames  above  Oxford  where  fine  Trout  are  to  be  cap- 
tured. 

Various  kinds  of  files,  as  May-fiies,  stone-flics,  &c.,  the  ova  of 
other  Fishes,  the  aquatic  larvae  of  Insects,  and  small  Fishes,  consti- 
tute the  food  of  the  Trout.  From  experiments  which  liave  been  made 
by  feeding  Trout  placed  in  separate  tanks,  respectively  on  Worms, 
Minnows,  and  dark-coloured  Water-flies,  it  was  found  that  those  fed 
with  Worms  grew  slowly,  and  had  an  emaciated  aspect ;  those 
nourished  witli  Minnows,  on  which  they  darted  with  voracity,  became 
much  larger ;  while  those  to  which  Flies  only  were  given,  attained 
in  a  short  time  prodigious  dimensions,  though  the  quantity  of  food 
swallowed  by  them  was  nowise  so  great.  The  breeding-season  of 
the  Trout  is  generally  in  October,  at  which  period  the  adult  Fish 
ascend  the  river  and  deposit  their  spawn  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Salmon  ;  the  under  jaw  of  the  male  becomes  also  elongated  and 
curved  upwards.  In  May  the  Trout  comes  into  full  season,  and  then 
acquires  the  brightest  tints  and  deepest  spots,  the  flesh  also  being  of 
a  livelier  pink  and  superior  flavour.  This  condition  of  the  Fish  con- 
tinues during  the  summer,  depending,  however,  on  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  food ;  hence  in  some  rivers  the  Fish  becomes  out  of 
season  sooner  than  in  others.     (See  Fig.  1726.) 

In  its  habits  the  Trout  is  shy  and  wary,  and  the  angler's  success 
will  depend  much  on  the  wind,  the  sky,  the  choice  of  the  fly,  and  his 
knowledge  of  the  river  in  which  he  angles.  On  these  points,  how- 
ever, we  must  refer  to  works  which  professedly  treat  on  the  subject 
of  angling. 

We  may  here  observe,  that  in  Lough  Neagh,  and  other  loughs  in 
Ireland,  a  variety  of  the  Trout,  called  the  Gillaroo,  which  attains  to 


a  considerable  size,  is  found.  The  internal  surface  of  the  stomach 
of  one  examined  by  Mr.  Yarrell  presented  nn  indurated  cuticle,  but 
the  parietes  were  not  thicker  than  those  of  other  Trouts  ;  the  teeth 
are  small,  but  in  number  and  situation  like  those  of  the  ordinary 

^  Deformed  Trout  with  the  upper  jaw  truncated,  or  stunted  in  growth, 
and  the  lower  jaw  protruding,  occur  in  some  of  the  lakes  in  Wales, 
and  have  been  taken  also  in  a  small  loch  called  Lochdow,  near 
Pitmain  in  Inverness-shire.  They  are  of  small  size.  The  Salmon 
Trout  iSalmo  trutta)  is  a  British  species,  which,  however,  unlike 
the  above,  chooses  the  sea  as  a  habitual  residence,  ascending  the 
rivers  only  to  spawn.  t,     t  ■  r.  , 

The  Northern  Char,  or  Charr  [Sa/mo  zimbla,  Linn,  iialmo 
alpinus,  Pennant ;  Ombre  Chevalier  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva. — When  Walton  published 
his  "  Angler,"  he  stated  his  belief  that  the 
Char  was  only  to  be  found  as  a  British  Fish 
in  Lake  Windermere.  This,  however,  is 
not  correct :  it  inhabits  many  of  the  lakes 
of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Lan- 
cashire, as  Keswick,  Cruramock  Water, 
Buttermere,  Coniston,  &c. ;  it  is  also  found 
in  many  of  the  lochs  of  Scotland,  as  well 
as  of  Ireland,  as  Loughs  Esk,  Egesh, 
Neagh,  Dan,  &c.  The  lakes  of  the  Tyrol 
are  famous  for  Char.  Speaking  of  this 
Fish,  Sir.  H.  Davy  says  :—"  They  gene- 
rally haunt  deep  cool  lakes,  and  are  seldom 
found  at  the  surface  till  late  in  the 
autumn."  At  this  period  they  will  take 
either  Fly  or  Minnow,  and  he  mentions,  as 
something  remarkable,  having  caught  a 
Char  in  summer  in  one  of  the  beautiful 
small  deep  lakes  of  the  upper  Tyrol,  but 
it  was  where  a  cool  stream  entered  from 
the  mountain,  and  the  Fish  did  not  rise  but 
swallowed  the  artificial  Fly  under  water. 
Char  afi^ord  the  angler  but  little  sport ;  yet 
the  Fly-fisher  whipping  for  Trout,  which 
often  abound  in  the  same  lakes, occasionally 
hooks  one  of  the  former,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  a   common  occurrence.     (See  Fig. 

Except  at  the  spawning  season,  Novem- 
ber and  December,  the  Char  never  leaves 
the  deep  clear  water  of  the   lake  ;  at  that 
period   however,  they  make   their  way  up 
the  rivers,   preferring  those  with  a   rocky 
channel :    as   an    instance   in  point,    Mr. 
Yarrell  remarks  that  of  the   two  principal 
feeders  of  Windermere  (viz.,    the  Rothay 
and   Brathay),  the   Rothay  has    a   sandy 
bottom,   but  the  channel  of   the   Brathay 
is  rocky.     Before  merging  into  the   lake, 
these  streams  unite  at  the  western  corner  of 
the  head  of  the  lake,  and  the  shoals  of  Char  entering  to  spawn,  push 
their  way  up  both  of  these  rivers,  but  those  Fish  which  have  ascended 
the  sandy-bedded  Rothay  (a  river  to  which  the  Trout  gives  the  pre- 
ference), finding  it  unsuitable,   invariably  return,  and  pass   up  the 
rocky  channel  of  the  Brathay,  where  they  deposit  their  eggs. 

From  some  cause  or  other,  the  Char,  even  at  the  same  season  of 
the  year,  exhibit  great  differences  in  their  tints  and  the  intensity  of 
their  colour.  Hence  the  terms  Case  Char,  Gilt  Char,  Red  Char, 
and  Silver  Char,  which  have  been  applied  to  the  different  varieties. 
Food,  age,  or  individual  vigour  may  in  some  measure  perhaps  modi- 
fy the  tints;  but  after  all  the  explanation  is  not  very  easy.  According 
to  M.  Jurine,  in  the  Lake  of  Geneva  the  females  are  the  finest  in 
colour,  but  Mr.  Mascall  states  that  in  the  Lake  Ennerdale,  Cumber- 
land, he  found  the  males  of  the  richest  hue. 

The  Char  is  not  a  large  Fish  ;  it  seldom  exceeds  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches  in  length,  though  some  occasionally  attain  to  eighteen  inches 
and  even  two  feet.  As  a  delicacy  for  the  table,  it  is  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  first  of  fresh-water  Fish,  combining  the  flavour  of  the  Trout  with 
that  of  the  Mullet.  The  following  adds  some  interesting  particulars 
respecting  the  Char  : — 

"  On  account  of  these  interesting  and  valuable  fish,  some  sections 
of  both  Windermere  and  Coniston  Lakes  rent  pretty  high  a  s  fisheries, 
and  although  they  do  not  yield  any  great  quantities,  the  price  these 
fish  command  in  the  market  commonly  remunerates,  in  a  moderate 
degree,  the  persons  employed  in  the  fisheries.  The  common  size  of 
the  Windermere  char  certainly  does  not,  on  the  average,  equal  half 
a  pound  each  :  some  few  are  caught  that  weigh  a  pound,  or  some- 
thing more ;  but,  probably,  six  ounces  would  be  nearer  the  average 
weight  of  those  that  are  annually  taken.  On  accout  of  their  small 
size,  it  will  at  once  appear  obvious  that  they  are  not  well  adapted  for 
being  dressed  and  brought  to  table,  in  the  ordinary  way,  that  is 
boiled, — neither  are  they  commonly  broiled  or  dressed  as  a  pau  fish, 


THE  SALMON  FAMILY. 


6gi 


and,  when  they  are  so,  they  are  scarcely,  if  at  all,  superior  to  good 
trout.  They  possess  a  flavour,  however,  that  connoisseurs  seem 
greatly  to  admire  ;  and  the  flesh  when  dressed  has  a  rich  and  inviting 
appearance,  being  beautifully  flaky,  and  of  a  deep  orange  tinge.  But 
the  general  way  of  dressing  these  fish  is  that  of  potting— that  is, 
seasoning  them  with  certain  condiments  after  they  have  been  stewed 
and  the  bones  taken  out,  and  afterwards  placing  them  in  courses  in 
shallow  pots  (hence  potting),  of  seven,  eight,  or  nine  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  pouring  the  finest  melted  fresh  butter,  over  the  fish,  until 
they  are  w^ell  covered,  and  thus  secured  from  the  action  of  the  air. 
They  are  so  highly  seasoned,  that  with  this  simple  covering  of  but- 
ter, the  pots  containing  the  char  may  be  sent  to  any  part  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  fish  will  remain  untainted  for  some  months.  This 
enables  the  persons  connected  with  the  char  fisheries  to  send  them 
to  the  best  markets,  our  luxurious  metropolis  being  undoutedly  at  the 
head  of  the  list. 


Fig.  1727. — The  Northern  Char. 

"Disavowing  all  malice  or  ill-will  towards  the  char-potters  of 
Bowness,  Ambleside,  Coniston,  and  others  in  the  vicinity  of  those 
lakes  where  this  profitable  business  is  carried  on,  I  cannot  abstain 
from  stating  that  which  I  know  to  be  an  undeniable  fact,  namely, 
that  in  many  cases  a  smaller  quantity  of  char  is  mixed  with  a  larger 
quantity  of  trout,  or  some  other  inferior  fish,  and  the  adulterated 
pots  then  sold  as  genuine  char.  This  is  only,  it  is  urged,  a  common 
trick  with  most  manufacturers,  and  not  considered  any  serious  impo- 
sition to  substitute  a  few  nice  plump  trout  in  the  place  of  as  many 
char.  An  acquaintance  of  mine,  who  resided  on  the  banks  of  Win- 
dermere, and  who  possessed  opportunities  of  ascertaining  the  produce 
ot  the  fisheries  in  real  char,  as  well  as  the  quantities  exported  from 
thence,  in  pots  alone,  amused  himself  with  making  calculations,  and 
the  result  was,  that  he  found  nearly  three  times  the  quantity  exported 
that  were  actually  caught. 

"Except  in  the  spawning  season,  the  common  haunts  of  these  fish 
are  in  the  clear  and  deep  water  ;  and  the  usual  way  of  taking  them 
is  in  sunken  nets,  or  trammels  as  they  are  called,  which  are  furnished 
with  bait  to  allure  the  fish  ;  and  which  sometimes  remain  set  for  several 
days  before  any  of  them  are  enticed  into  the  snare.  Their  haunts  are 
generally  badly  calculated  for  employing  drag-nets,  on  account  of 
the  rocky  nature  of  those  lakes.  It  has  already  been  stated  that 
these  fish  do  not  afford  the  angler  much  amusement ;  nevertheless 
they  are  now  angled  for  far  more  than  they  formerly  were.  An  expert 
angler,  however,  may  think  himself  fortunate  if  he  succeed  in  killing 
more  than  a  dozen  during  the  day.  They  are  occasionally  allured  to 
the  surface  by  a  templing  artificial  fly  ;  but  trolling  with  a  small 
minnow  several  feet  below  the  surface  is  a  more  likely  mode  of  not 
being  forced  to  leave  the  fishing-ground  with  an  entirely  empty 
fishing-basket. 

"  In  its  shape  this  Fish  approaches  that  perfect  symmetry  for 
which  many  of  the  Salino  species  are  so  very  remarkable  ;  not  dif- 
fering materially  from  the  common  trout,  though,  perhaps,  a  little 
more  slender  and  tapering  than  a  trout  that  is  plump  and  well  fed. 


The  colour  of  the  Red  Char — for  there  is  another  variety  called  Case 
Char,  and  the  fishermen  would  make  out  a  third,  which  they  call  Gilt 
Char — ^may  be  described  as  follows  :  The  head  terminates  in  rather  a 
blunt  point,  the  under  jaw  scarcely  at  all  projecting.  The  pupil  of 
the  eye  is  black,  in  a  silver  iris,  surrounded  with  a  circle  of  gold. 
The  body  is  covered  with  very  minute  scales.  The  dorsal  fin,  which 
is  yellow,  is  marked  with  a  few  dark  spots  ;  the  back  is  dark  with  a 
peculiarly  beautiful  greenish  cast,  shading  into  the  most  delicate 
white  on  the  lower  parts,  and  tinted  with  a  bluish-likc-hue  that  is 
difficult  to  describe.  All  the  fins,  except  the  dorsal,  are  reddish  ; 
and  during  the  season  of  spawning,  the  belly  for  the  most  part  be- 
comes as  red  as  the  fins.  The  body  all  over  is  sprinkled  with  pale 
spots,  of  a  considerable  size  for  so  small  a  fish."  At  the  present 
time.  Char  both  fresh  and  potted  is  a  great  rarity  in  England. 

The  Welsh  Char,  or  Torgoch  (red-belly),  found  in   Lyn  Cawellyn, 
and  a  piece  of  water  near   Barmouth    in    Merionethshire,    called 

"  Coss-y-gedawl,"  is  a  distinct 
species ;  it  is  a  deeper  and  shorter 
_,      ,  Fish   with    a    larger    eye    and    teeth 

and  more  ample  fins  than  the  Win- 
dermere species.  It  is  described  and 
figured  by  Donovan,  and  also  by  Mr. 
Yarrell,  under  the  title  of  Salmo  save- 
li}nis. 

The  Great  Grey  Trout  {Salmo 
ferox ;  Lake  Trout,  Salino  laais- 
fris,  Berkenhout.) — This  noble  species, 
which  according  to  M.  Agassiz  dif- 
fers from  any  of  the  large  Continental 
species,  is  a  native  of  many  of  the 
larger  and  deeper  lakes  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland  It  occurs  in  Loch  Awe, 
Loch  Laggan,  Lochs  Shin,  Loyal, 
and  Assynt,  in  Lough  Neagh.  in  Ire- 
land, where  it  is  called  Buddagh,  and 
in  UUswater  Lake  in  Cumberland. 
Dr.  Heysham  records  it  in  his  cata- 
logue of  Cumberland  Animals,  and  ob- 
serves that  some  specimens  have  been 
found  to  weigh  between  fifty  and  sixty 
pounds. 

It  is  probably  the  Trout  mentioned 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Lowe,  in  his"  Fauna 
Orcadensis,"  as  occuring  in  the  Ork- 
neys and  Shetlands,  and  weighing 
thirty-six  pounds  and  upwards.  We 
have  seen  specimens  from  Lough 
Neagh  thirty-five  inches  long. 

This  species  roves  about  indiscrimi- 
nately, and  feeds  almost  entirely  upon 
the  smaller  Fish.    By  persons  residing 
on  the  banks  of  the  lakes  which  they  in- 
habit, they  are  often  taken   by  night 
lines,  "  few  rising  at  the  artificial  fly,  but  they  may  be  always  taken  by 
strong  trolling  tackle  baited  with  a  small  trout  ;  they  are   extremely 
voracious,  and  having  seized  the  bait,  will  allow  themselves  to  be 
dragged  by  the  teeth  for  forty  or  fifty  yards,  and  when  accidentally 
freed,  will  immediately  again  seize  it."     Young  Fish  will  rise  freelv 
at  the  Fly.     This  species  seldom  ventures  either  up  or  down  any  of 
the   streams   connected  with  the   lakes ;    it  spawns  in  September. 
(See  Fig.  1728.) 


Fig.  1728.— The  Great  Grey  Trout. 

The  Smelt  {Osmerus  cspcrlanus).  Sparling  and  Spirling, 
Provincial. — In  the  genus  Osmerus  the  body  is  elongated  and 
covered  with  small  scales ;  there  are  two  dorsal  fins ;  the  first 
with  rays,  the  second  fleshy  without  rays.  The  ventral  fins 
are  placed  in  a  vertical  line  under  the  common  cement  of  the  dorsal 
fin  ;    teeth  on  the  jaws,  and  tongue   long  and  sharp  ;    two  distinct 


692 


THE  SALMON  FA  MIL  Y. 


Branchiostearous 


rov/s  on  each  palatal  bone,  none  on  the  vomer, 
rays  ei.sjht.     (See  Fig.  1729.) 

The  True  Smelt  seems  to  be  confined  as  a  British  Fish  to  the  east- 
ern and  western  coasts  of  our  island ;  its  place  along  the  southern 
coast  being  occupied  by  the  Atherine,  or  Sand-smelt  {Atherina 
presbyter, "Q.w-^.),  which  is  very  plentiful,  of  excellent  quality,  and 
■with  a  slight  odour  of  cucumbers.  Like  the  Salmon,  the  Smelt 
visits  the  rivers,  which  it  inhabits  from  August  to  May ;  it  spawns  in 
March  or  April,  after  which  the  shoals  return  to  the  sea.     In  the 


Fig.  1729. 


-The  Smelt. 


month  of  August  the  young  fry  may  be  seen  in  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
swimmino-  near  the  surface,  ascending  and  descendmg  with  the  tide  ; 
at  this  period  the  adults  are  making  their  way  up  the  river.  For- 
merly these  Fish  abounded  at  the  proper  season  in  the  Thames  from 
Wandsworth  to  Hammersmith  ;  but,  at  present,  owing  to  the  pol- 
luted state  of  the  water,  none  advance  so  high  as  London.  The 
Medway  produces  Smelts  of  excellent  quality.  The  peculiar  odour 
of  this  Fish,  resembling  that  of  a  cucumber,  is  well  known  ;  it  is 
very  powerful  when  the  fish  is  just  taken  from  the  water,  but  a  few 
days'  exposure  to  the  air  greatly  diminishes  or  even  destroys  it,  and 
the  delicate  flavour  of  the  flesh  is  lost. 

Experiments  seem  to  prove  that  the  Smelt  will  not  only  live,  but 
thrive  and  multiply  in  the  fresh  water  of  ponds  or  lakes.  Colonel 
Meynell,  of  Yarm,  in  Yorkshire,  introduced  Smelts  into  a  fresh-water 
pond  of  about  three  acres,  having  no  communication  with  the  sea  ; 
here  they  remained  for  four  years,  and  greatly  multiplied  ;  they  were 
not  affected  by  the  freezing  over  of  the  pond,  though  the  ice  was 
EuflBciently  strong  to  admit  of  skating  ;  and  when  at  last  the  pond 
was  drawn,  they  proved  to  be  equal  in  size  and  flavour  to  the  finest 
which  had  enjoyed  their  natural  range. 

The  Smelt  is  a  voracious  little  Fish  ;  it  devours  young  Fry,  and 
small  Crustacea,  Shrimps,  and  Molluscs.  In  the  Thames  and 
Medway  this  Fish  is  taken  by  means  of  small  meshed  nets,  from  the 
end  of  August  tiU  April.  Along  the  eastern  coast,  and  especially 
Lincolnshire,  numbers  are  taken  in  shallow  bays.  They  occur  in 
the  Swale,  in  Essex.  The  Smelt,  as  seen  in  the  shops,  is  seldom 
above  six  or  seven  inches  in  length  ;  occasionally,  specimens  of  ten 
or  eleven  inches  occur  ;  and  Pennant  mentions  one  which  measured 
thirteen  inches  long,  and  weighed  eight  ounces. 

The  back  of  the  Smelt  is  of  a  pale  greyish-green,  passing  on  the 
sides  into  silvery  white,  which  is  the  colour  of  the  gill-covers  and 
under  parts. 

Before  concluding  our  outline  of  the  Salmonidce,  we  may  observe 
that,  as  respects  the  genus  Salmo,  great  difficult  exists  in  dis- 
criminating between  many  of  the  species,  especially  when  young. 

The  Parr,  or  Samlet,  has  been,  and  still  is  in  some  places,  regarded 
as  the  young  of  the  Salmon.  Mr.  Yarrell  says  :— "The  fry  of  the 
different  species  of  migratory  Sahnonidce  are  even  now  probably 
accurately  known  only  to  a  few  persons  ;  their  great  similarity,  when 
very  small,  has  so  frequently  deceived  even  those  who  have  lived  the 
greater  part  of  their  lives  on  the  Salmon  river  banks,  that  the  fry 
marked  by  them  in  their  experiments,  have  been  re-taken  as  Grilse, 
Bull-trout,  Salmon-trout,  and  River-trout." 

The  species  of  the  genus  Salmo,  described  as  British  by  Mr. 
Yarrell,  are— the  Salnion  {S.  salar),  the  Bull-Trout  (.S".  eriox),  the 
Salmon-Trout  {S.  trutta),  the  Parr,  or  Samlet  (.S".  salnmlus),  the 
Common  Trout  {S.  fan'o).  the  Great  Grey  Trout  {S.  ferox),  the 
Northern  Charr  {S.  iimbla),  and  the  Welsh  Charr  {S.  savcliiius). 
The  other  Salmoindcc  are  the  Smelt  {Osmeriis  esperlaniis),  the 
Grayling  {Thymalltcs  vulgaris),  represented  with  a  Perch  in  Fig. 
1730,  the  Gwyniad  {Coregonus  fera  ?),  the  Vendace  f  Cortf^o«o?/j 
zv?/tug!ibuj,  and  the  Argentine  {Scopelus  hzunboldtii). 

The  Norwegian  Salmon,  already  mentioned,  which  are  large,  and 
of  excellent  quality,  are  caught  in  various  ways.  One  of  their 
methods  deserves  a  description,  and  seems  to  be  very  effective.  In 
descending  one  of  the  longest  and  most  picturesque  of  the  fiords 
(Sostrand  "fiord),  Mr.  Twining's  attention  was  caught  by  a  number 
of  small  barrels  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  "These 
barrels,"  he  says,  "at  a  short  distance  from  each  other,  were 
secured  each  by  a  thin  rope  or  cord,  and  all  these  cords  were  joined 
tcether  at  the  end  of  a  high  scaffold  that  projected  over  the  fiord  : 
it  was  a  sort  of  platform,  long  and  narrow,  one  end  of  which  rested 
on  the  bank,  while  the  other,  at  a  slight  angle  of  elevation,  was  sup- 
ported by  long  poles  on  the  edge  of  a  rock  that  advanced  into  the 
water.  It  was  not  long  before  I  saw  the  head  and  arm  of  a  man, 
whose  body  was  concealed  behind  a  sort  of  screen,  made  of  planks 


at  the  end  of  the  platform.  Although  he  did  not  make  the  least 
motion,  he  appeared  very  much  occupied,  and  was  evidently  not 
perched  on  that  frail  observatory  for  motives  of  mere  curiosity.  My 
boatman  explained  the  enigma  by  telling  me  that  he  was  fishing  for 
salmon.  A  large  net  is  suspended  horizontally  under  the  barrels, 
and  the  extreme  transparency  of  the  water  of  the  fiord  permits  the 
fisherman  to  see  all  the  fish  that  swim  in  it.  When  a  shoal  of  salmon 
passes  over  his  net,  he  rapidly  draws  up  in  one  clue  all  the  cords 
attached  to  the  different  barrels  ;  the  barrels  thus  close  together  at 
one  point, — the  net  is  shut,  and  all  the  fish  in  it  are  taken.  Although 
the  fiords  abound  with  fish,  as  do  also  the  mountain-streams  that 
discharge  themselves  into  them,  it  appears  that  these  men  often  lie 
in  ambush  the  best  part  of  a  day  without  taking  anything, — but  one 
fortunate  capture  is  an  ample  reward." 


Fig.  1730. — Grayling  and  Perch. 

On  the  rivers  and  streams  there  is  a  very  simple  method  of  taking 
Salmon  in  large  quantities.  They  either  make  artificial  embank- 
ments, or  avail  themselves  of  ledges  of  rocks  that  divide  the  stream 
into  several  narrow  channels.  On  each  of  these  channels  they  place 
two  sluices,  the  one  above  and  the  other  below,  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  can  be  opened  and  shut  at  pleasure.  The  Fish,  having 
once  entered  these  locks,  are  prevented  from  proceeding  or  return- 
ing, and,  the  water  being  let  off,  they  are  taken  by  the  hand  without 
any  troutile.  The  method  is  also  common  in  Sweden,  where,  on  the 
river  Deje,  they  often  thus  take  from  five  to  eight  hundred  Salmon  in 
a  single  day.  The  greater  part  of  the  Salmon  caught  in  the  fiords 
are  salted  and  exported,  but  many  of  the  Fish  are  sold  fresh  in  the 
neighbouring  country,  at  the  rate  of  about  an  English  penny  the 
pound.  Large  quantities,  preserved  in  ice,  are  now  sent  to  England. 
Angling  seems  too  slow  an  operation  for  the  Norwegians  ;  but  several 
English  gentlemen,  who  of  late  years  have  been  attracted  by  the 
romantic  beauty  of  the  country  and  the  love  of  fishing,  have  found 
excellent  sport  in  that  way,  particularly  on  the  fiord  where  Dron- 
theim  is  situated,  and  in  the  streams  leading  to  it,  which  abound 
with  Salmon,  Salmon-Trout,  and  other  species  of  Salinonida. 

We  here  venture  to  introduce  the  name  of  a  fisherman  of  the  olden 
time,  one  famous  for  his  skill  in  the  gentle  craft,  right  eloquent  in 
the  commendation  of  the  art  which  he  loved  so  vifell,  and  happy  in 
the  elucidation  of  its  details.  It  is  that  of"  one  well  known  and  as  well 
beloved  of  all  good  men," — of  no  less  a  personage  than  honest  Izaak 
Walton  himself,  "  the  father  of  angling."  It  was  in  1655  that  he 
published  "  The  Complete  Angler,  or  Contemplative  Man's  Recrea- 
tion," a  work  which,  to  use  the  words  of  Sir  Nicholas  Harris, 
"  whether  considered  as  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  angling,  or  as  a 
beautiful  pastoral,  abounding  in  exquisite  descriptions  of  rural 
scenery,  in  sentiments  of  the  purest  morality,  and  in  an  unaffected 
love  of  the  Creator  and  his  works,  has  long  been  ranked  among  the 
most  popular  compositions  in  our  language."  Izaak  Walton  was 
born  at  Stafford,  on  the  9th  of  August,  ^593,  and  died  at  Winchester 
on  the  15th  of  December,  1683.  His  remains  lie  in  Winchester 
Cathedral. 

Close  to  the  Satmoutdce  Professor  Muller  places  a  small  family, 
the  Gataxiidce,  which  he  has  established  lor  the  reception  01"  a  single 


THE  PIKE. 


693 


genus  of  Fishes  {Galaxrns),  placed  bv  Cuvier  amona;st  the  Esncidcs, 
or  Pikes.  They  agree  with  the  Salmons  in  their  Sfeneral  structure, 
and  in  the  mode  in  which  the  ova  are  excluded,  and  are  distin- 
guished principally  by  the  absence  of  the  adipose  fin,  and  the  want 
of  scales. 

The  Pike — Family  Esocidm. 

In  the  Esocidcs,  the  biting  edge  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed  as  in 
the  Salmonida;,  both  by  the  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones  ;  but 
the  adipose  fin  and  the  pyloric  cceca  are  wanting.  The  mouth  is 
furnished  with  a  most  formidable  apparatus  of  teeth  ;  almost  all  the 
bones,  which  assist  in  the  formation  of  that  cavity,  being  thus  armed. 

All  the  known  Fishes  of  this  family  inhabit  fresh  waters,  and  only 
occur  in  temperate  climates.  They  are  of  an  elongated  form,  clothed 
with  cycloid  scales,  and  furnished  with  powerful  fins  ;  their  whole 
conformation  being  eminently  adapted  for  that  rapid  motion  through 
their  native  element,  without  which  their  voracious  propensities 
would  stand  but  a  poor  chance  of  gratification.  The  only  Fish  now 
placed  in  this  family  are  the  True  Pikes  {Esoces),  and  a  few  small 
Fishes  forming  the  genus  Umbra,  of  which  one  species  is  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Austria.  The  Common  Pike  {Esox  lucius)  of  this 
country  may  be  taken  as  an  example. 


Yarrell  states  that  the  result  of  four  days'  Pike-fishing  at  the  above 
Mere  and  Ileigham  Sounds,  according  to  information  which  he 
received  from  a  q:entleman  of  celebrity  in  wild-sports,  was  256  Pike, 
weighing  altogether  1,135  pounds.  Yet,  as  Isaak  Walton  correctly 
observes,  "  old  or  very  great  pike  have  in  them  more  of  state  than 
goodness,  the  smaller  or  midc.le-sized  pikes  being  by  the  most  and 
choicest  palates  observed  to  be  the  best  meat." 

The  Pike  is  certainly  a  very  long-lived  Fish  ;  Walton  says,  Sir 
Francis  Bacon  "  computes  it  to  be  not  usually  above  forty  years,  and 
others  think  it  to  be  not  above  ten  years."  But  this  is  erroneous. 
Pennant  refers  to  one  ascertained  to  be  ninety  years  of  age,  and 
Gesner,  as  Walton  remarks,  mentions  a  Pike  taken  in  Suabia,  in  the 
year  1497,  at  Hailbrun,  on  which  was  a  brazen  ring  with  these  words 
in  Greek  :— "  I  am  the  fish  which  was  first  of  all  put  into  this  lake, 
by  the  hands  of  the  Governor  of  the  Universe,  Frederick  the  Second, 
the  5th  of  October,  1230."  The  Fish,  therefore,  was  26/  years  old'. 
Mr.  Yarrell  states  in  addition,  that  the  skeleton,  nineteen  feet  in 
length,  was  long  preserved  at  Manheim, 
natural  history. 


as  a  great   curiosity  in 


Fig.  1 73 1.— The  Pike. 

Iw^  'PlYi-E  {Esox  lucius).  Jack,  Luce,  Pickerel;  in  Scotland, 
Gedd.— This  voracious  Fish  is  common  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the 
greater  portion  of  Europe:  and  though,  as  its  rarity  at  one  time 
proves.  It  IS  not  an  aboriginal  of  the  waters  of  our  island  there 
are  few  lakes,  meres,  or  rivers,  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  in  which  it  is  not  abundant.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
First  the  value  of  the  Pike,  as  established  by  royal  ordinance,  ex- 
ceeded that  of  fresh  Salmon,  and  was  ten  times  greater  than  that  of 
the  best  Turbot  or  Cod.  In  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  so  scarce 
was  this  Fish,  that  a  large  one  sold  for  double  the  price  of  a  house- 
lamb  in  February,  and  a  small  one,  or  Pickerel,  for  more  than  a  fat 
Capon.  The  Pike  is  still  in  repute  for  the  table,  and  in  ihe  North  of 
Europe  large  quantities  are  taken  and  dried  for  winter  consumption. 
Horsea  Mere,  and  Heigham  Sounds,  two  large  sheets  of  water  in 
JNoriolk,  covering  a  surface  of  six  hundred  acres,  are  celebrated  for 
the  quantity  and  excellent  quality  of  the  Pike;  and  those  of  the 
Medway,  as  Mr.  Yarrell  observes,  when  feeding  on  the  smelt,  acquire 
excellent  condition,  with  peculiarly  fine  Havour. 

The  Pike  grows  rapidly,  and,  in  favourable  localities,  attains  to 
very  large  dimensions.  In  Horsea  Mere,  Pike  have  been  caug-ht 
weighing  trom  twenty-eight  to  thirty-four  pounds  each;    and  Mr 


The  voracity  of  the  Pike,  and  the  destructio'n  it  makes  among 

other  Fish  are  notorious.     "  Eight  pike,"  says  Mr.  Jesse,  ''  of  about 

five  pounds  weight  each,   consumed  nearly   800  g-udgeons  in  three 

weeks  ;    and  the  appetite  of  one  of  these  pike  was  almost  insatiable. 

One  morning  I  threw  to  him  five  roach,  each 

about  four   inches  in    length;    he  swallowed 

four  of  them,  and  kept  the  fifth  in  his  mouth 

for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  when  it  also 

disappeared." 

It  is  not  only  among  Fish  that  the  Pike 
makes  havoc :  Frogs,  Water-rats,  Field- 
mice,  also  young  Clucks,  Dabchicks,  Moor- 
hens, and  other  Aquatic  Birds  are  seized  and 
devoured,  and  instances  are  on  record  of  other 
Animals,  and  even  man,  being  attacked. 
Gesner,  says  Izaak  Walton,  relates  that  a 
man  "going  to  a  pond,  where  it  seems  a  pike 
had  devoured  all  the  fish,  to  water  his  mule, 
had  a  pike  bite  his  mule  by  the  lips,  to  which 
the  pike  hung  so  fast  that  the  mule  drew 
him  out  of  the  water  ;  and  by  that  acci  lent 
the  owner  of  the  mule  angled  out  the  pike. 
And  the  same  Gesner  observes  that  a  maid 
in  Poland  had  a  pike  bite  her  by  the  foot,  as 
she  was  washing  clothes  in  a  pond.  And  I 
have  heard  the  like  of  a  woman  in  Killing- 
worth  pond,  not  far  from  Coventry.  But  I 
have  been  assured  by  my  friend  Mr.  Sea- 
grave,  that  keeps  tame  otters,  that  he  hath 
known  a  pike  in  extreme  hunger,  fight  with 
one  of  his  otters  for  a  carp  that  the  otter 
had  caught,  and  was  bringing  it  out  of  the 
water." 

At  the  breeding  season,  which  occurs  in 
March  or  early  in  April,  the  Pike  leaves  the 
deep  water,  and  seeks  the  weedy  shallows 
arfd  creeks,  where  its  spawn  is  deposited.  In 
the  fens  in  the  neighbouihood  of  Ely  this  Fish 
is  bred  in  great  numbers  ;  and  in  spring, 
shoals  migrate  thence  into  the  river  Cam. 

We  may  here  allude  to  one  of  the  modes 
of  catching  Pike,  as  practised  on  the  meres 
of  Norfolk,  where  the  species  abounds.  It 
is  by  what  is  called  a  ligger,  or  trimmer, 
which,  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  "is  a  long  cylin- 
drical float,  made  of  wood  or  cork,  or  rushes 
.  tied  together  at  each  end  ;  to   the  middle  of 

this  float  a  string  is  fi.xed,  in  length  from  eight  to  fifteen  feet  ;  this 
string  is  wound  round  the  float  except  two  or  three  feet,  when  the 
trimmer  is  to  be  put  into  the  water,  and  slightly  fixed  by  a  notch  in 
the  wood  or  cork,  or  by  putting  it  between  the  ends  of  the  rushes. 
The  bait  IS  fixed  on  the  hook,  and  the  hook  fastened  to  the  end  of 
the  pendent  string,  and  the  whole  then  dropped  into  the  water. 
When  the  bait  is  seized  by  a  Pike,  the  jerk  looses  the  fastening, 
and  the  whole  string  unwinds,  the  wood,  cork,  or  rushes,  floating  at 
the  top,  indicating  what  has  occurred."  The  common  modes  of 
trolling  need  not  be  described. 

The  Pike  is  admirably  formed  for  velocity  in  the  water;  the  body, 
the  tail  muscular,  with  the  dorsal  fin  opposite  the  last  undcr-fin  ;  the 
head  is  long  and  depressed,  with  considerable  brendth  ;  the  gape  is 
extensive  ;  the  vomer  is  furnished  with  small  sharp  teeth,  and  there 
are  numerous  large  teeth  on  the  palatal  bones,  the  largest  being 
seated  on  the  line  of  the  inner  edges.  The  superior  maxillary  bones 
have  no  teeth.  The  lower  jaw  exceeds  the  upper,  and  is  armed 
anteriorly  with  numerous  small  teeth,  while  along  the  sides  are  live 
or  six  teeth,  apart  from  each  other,  very  long  and  sharp.  On  the 
top  of  the  head  are  several  raucous  orifices  placed  in  pairs.     (See 


694 


THE  CARP  FAMILY. 


In  the  lakes  of  North  America,  a  Pike  of  huge  size,  called  the 
Muskanunofee,  is  abundant,  and  affords  excellent  sport. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Pikes  is  a  small  family  of  Fishes,  the 
Morinyridcs,  the  members  of  which  have  hitherto  only  been  found 
in  the  Nile,  and,  according  to  Cuvier  in  the  Senegal.  They  re- 
semble t\i&  Esoa'dcc  m  the  form  of  the  body  and  the  position  of  the 
fins,  and  the  maxillary  bones  assist  in  the  formation  of  the  edge  of 
the  upper  jaw  ;  but  the  intermaxillary  bones  are  completely  united  in 
front,  so  as  to  form  a  single  bone,  without  any  trace  of  suture — a 
structure  which  does  not  occur  in  any  other  Fishes.  The  mouth  is 
small ;  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  varies  ;  and  the  pylorus  is 
furnished  with  two  coeca.  The  air-bladder  is  simple.  The  skin  of 
the  body  is  covered  with  scales,  but  the  head  is  clothed  with  a  thick, 
naked  skin,  which  incloses  the  opercula,  and  only  leaves  a  small 
perpendicular  branchial  aperture,  presenting  a  considerable  re- 
semblance to  a  spiracle.  The  sides  of  the  tail  are  thickened,  and 
contain  a  small  eletrical  organ.  The  Mormyri  of  the  Nile  are 
reckoned  amongst  the  best  Fish  produced  by  that  river. 

The  Carp — Family  Cyprinidce. 

The  large  family  of  Cypri7iid(B,  or  Carps,  which  includes  the 
greater  number  of  the  Fresh- water  Fishes  of  temperate  climates,  is 
distinguished  by  its  small  mouth  and  toothless  jaws,   of  which  the 


Fig.  1732.— The  Carp. 

upper  is  entirely  composed  of  the  intermaxillary  bones.  To  make 
up  for  the  want  of  teeth  in  the  mouth,  the  inferior  pharyngeal  bones  are 
armed  with  very  powerful  teeth,  which  work  against  a  singular 
process  of  the  lower  part  of  the  skull,  covered  with  horny  plates. 
The  body  is  usually  compressed,  and  always  clothed  with  scales, 
sometimes  of  very  large,  at  others  of  very  small  size;  the  head  is 
small  ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  single,  and  there  is  no  adipose  fin  ;  but  in  some 
cases  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  have  a  single-toothed  spinous  ray. 
The  air-bladder  is  usually  divided  by  a  constriction  into  two  parts, 
and  communicates  with  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear  by  a  series  of  small 
bones  ;  the  intestine  is  destitute  of  cceca. 

The  Fishes  of  this  family  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  all  the 
fresh  waters  of  Europe.  Many  of  them  are  much  sought  after  by 
anglers ;  but  rather  for  the  sake  of  sport  than  for  the  goodness  of 
their  flesh,  which  is  usually  watery  and  insipid.  In  fo'rmer  times, 
however,  when  the  transportation  of  marine  productions,  in  a  fresh 
state,  to  great  distances  from  the  coast  was  attended  with  greater 
difficulties  than  in  the  present  day,  these  Fish  were  regarded  as  of 
sorne  importance,  especially  as  a  change  from  the  salt-fish  diet  to 
which  many  good  Catholics  were  condemned  during  Lent. 

The  Cyprmidcs  feed  principally  upon  aquatic  plants  and  Worms ; 


but  a  few  of  them  seem  occasionally  to  prey  upon  small  Fishes. 
One  of  the  finest  and  best  of  the  European  species  is  the  Carp 
{Cyp}'!iuis  carpi'o),  to  the  breeding  of  which,  in  ponds,  great 
attention  is  still  paid  in  many  places,  although  in  this  country  the 
abundant  supply  of  Sea  Fish  has  rather  thrown  it  out  of  favour, 
except  amongst  anglers.  Another  Fish  belonging  to  this  family, 
which  is  a  great  favourite  with  the  disciples  of  Walton,  although  its 
flesh  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Carp,  is  the  Barbel  {Biirdus 
vulgaris).  It  is  one  of  the  largest  species,  measuring  sometimes  as 
much  as  three  feet  in  length,  and  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  all  the 
larger  rivers  of  this  country.  Its  name  appears  to  refer  to  the  great 
length  of  the  tentacles  surrounding  the  mouth,  which  it  possesses  in 
common  with  several  other  species  of  Cyprinida:.  These  tentacles 
are  also  very  long  in  the  Loaches  [Cobitis),  a  group  of  small  Fishes 
belonging  to  this  family. 

Many  Cypn'uidcB  are  distinguished  by  the  beautiful  silvery  hue 
of  their  bodies  ;  they  form  the  genus  Leucisctis,  of  which  the  Roach 
(Z.  riitilus),  the  Dace  (Z.  vulgaj-is)  the  Chub  (Z.  cephalus),  and 
the  Bleak  (Z.  albu?-?itts),  ars  species  well  known  to  anglers.  The 
scales  of  these  Fish,  and  especially  those  of  the  Bleak,  are  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  pearls.  The  beautiful  Gold  and 
Silver  Fish  {Cypn'm's  auratus)  of  China,  which  are  now  completely 
naturalised  in  this  country,  also  belong  to  this  family. 

The  Carp  {Cypriiuis  carpid). — In  the  genus  Cyprinus  the  body 
is  protected  by  large  scales  ;  there  is  a 
single  elongated  dorsal  fin  ;  the  lips  are 
fleshy ;  pharyngal  but  not  maxillary 
teeth  ;  branchiostegous  rays  three.  (See 
Fig.  1732.) 

This  beautiful  Fish,  rich  with  burnished 
gold,  is  not  an  original  of  our  country, 
common  as  it  is  in  our  ponds,  lakes,  and 
rivers,  but  was,  at  some  period  not  as- 
certained, introduced  into  our  island 
from  the  continent,  where  it  is  widely 
spread.  Mr.  Yarrell  says,  "  Leonard 
Mascall  takes  credit  to  himself  for  having 
introduced  the  carp,  as  well  as  the  pippin  ; 
but  notices  of  the  existence  of  the  carp  in 
England  occur  prior  to  Mascall's  time, 
1600.  In  the  celebrated  '  Boke  of  St. 
Albans,'  by  Dame  Juliana  Barnes  or 
Berners,  the  Prioress  of  Sopewell  Nun- 
nery, printed  at  Westminster,  by  Wynkyn 
de  Worde,  in  1496,  Carp  is  mentioned  as 
a  '  deyntous  fisshe ;  '  and  in  the  privy 
purse  expenses  of  King  Henry  VIII.,  in 
1532,  various  entries  are  made  of  rewards 
to  persons  for  bringing  '  carpes  to  the 
king.'  " 

The  Carp  is  very  prolific,  and  prefers 
ponds  and  lakes  with    a    muddy  bottom 
to  clear  rivers,  in  which  it  is  the  opposite 
of  the  Trout.     In  favourable  waters  often 
it  attains   to  an  enormous  size.     Daniel, 
in   his    "Rural   Sports,"  says  that  "Mr. 
Ladbroke,  from   his  park  at  Gatton,  pre- 
sented Lord  Egremont  with  a  brace  that 
weighed  thirty-five  pounds,  as   specimens 
to  ascertain  whether  the  Surrey  could  vie 
with  the   Sussex   carp."     Mr.  Yarrell  ad- 
duces two    instances,  in   one   of  which  a 
Carp  taken  at  Stourheadwas  thirty  inches 
long,   upwards   of  twenty-two  broad,  and 
eighteen  pounds  in  weight  ;  the  other  is 
that  of  a  Carp  taken  from  the  White-Sitch 
Lake,  at  Weston  Hall,  Statfordshire,  the  seat  of  the  Earl   of  Brad- 
ford, which  weighed  nineteen  pounds  and  a-half ;  a  painting  of  it  is 
preserved.     The  growth   of  the    Carp,  however,  is  not  very  rapid, 
yet  it  would  appear  that   some  have   attained    a   weight  of  three 
pounds  by  their  sixth  year,  and   of  six  pounds  before  their  tenth 
year.     The  breeding  time  of  this  Fish  is  towards   the  end  of  May 
or  at  the  beginning  of  June  ;   Bloch  found  six   hundred   thousand 
eggs  in  the  roe  of  a  female  of  nine  pounds  weight. 

Few  Fish  are  more  tenacious  of  life,  out  of  the  water,  than  the 
Carp ;  in  wet  moss  they  will  live  for  weeks,  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
continent  they  are  thus  kept,  refreshed  occasionally  by  water  thrown 
over  them,  and  the  moss  freely  saturated  ;  while  thus  mewed  up,  they 
are  fed  upon  bread  steeped  in  milk. 

In  the  winter.  Carp  appear  to  undergo  a  partial  state  of  torpor, 
burying  themselves  in  the  mud,  or  in  deep  holes  under  the  bank. 
White,  in  his  "Natural  History  of  Selbourne,"  says  : — "  In  the 
Garden  of  the  Black  Bear  Inn,  in  the  town  of  Reading,  is  a  stream 
or  canal,  running  under  the  stables,  and  out  into  the  fields  on  the 
other  side  of  the  road.  In  this  water  are  many  carps,  which  lie 
rolling  about  in  sight,  being  fed  by  travellers,  who  amuse  themselves 
by  tossing  them  bread.     But  as  soon  as  the  weather  grows  at  all 


THE  CARP  FAMILY. 


69s 


severe,  these  fishes  are  no  lon_a:er  seen,  because  they  retire  under 
the  stables,  where  they  remain  till  the  return  of  Spring."  The  Carp 
is  in  season  from  October  to  April :  its  flesh  has  been  much  praised, 
but  we  think  undeservedly  ;  it  is  not  to  be  compared  to  that  of  the 
Tench.  Boccius  says  that  those  which  are  more  than  twenty  years 
old  are  hideously  coarse  ;  and  Mr.  Yarrell  considers  it  more  indebted 
to  the  cook  for  the  estimation  in  which  it  is  held,  than  its  intrinsic 
flavour.  Isaac  Walton  seems  to  have  been  of  the  same  opinion, 
notwithstanding  that  he  calls  this  Fish  the  "queen  of  rivers." 
Carp  are  said  to  live  to  150  or  200  years  old,  but  they  lose  their  fine 
colour  and  become  grey.  Worms,  the  larva;  of  Insects,  and  soft 
aquatic  plants  are  their  food. 

The  first  dorsal  fin  ray  is  short,  stout,  and  bony;  the  second  also 
is  bony,  and  strongly  serrated  behind  ;  the  other  rays  are  flexible  ; 
the  first  ray  of  the  last  fin  below  is  also  bony,  strong,  and  serrated 
posteriori}',  it  consists  of  two  slips  soldered  together.  Two  small 
barbules  at  each  corner  of  the  mouth. 

The  beautiful  Gold-fish  from  China  [Cyprinus  auratus)  is  an 
allied  species,  as  already  mentioned. 

The  Barbel  (Barbus  vulgaris  ;  Cypriiius  barbus,  Linn.) — In 
the  genus  Barbus  the  dorsal  fin  is  short,  with  the  first  ray,  strong, 
bony,  and  serrated;  mouth  with  four  barbules,  two  near  the  point 
of  the  nose,  and  one  on  each  side  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth.     (See 

Fig-  I7S3)- 

The  Barbel  is  a  native  of  the  rivers  of  the  wanner  parts  of 
Europe,  but  is  very  common  in  the  Thames,  from  Richmond  upwards ; 
it  is  also  found  in  the  River  Lea,  in  Essex. 

In  the  summer,  Barbel  frequent  the  weedy  parts  of  the  river  in 
shoals,  and  retire  on  the  approach  of  winter  to  deeper  waters,  often 
sheltering  themselves  under  steep  banks,  the  wood-work  of  artificial 


FiS-  1733.— The  Barbel. 

falls,  old  sunken  boats,  and  the  like,  crowded  together  in  dense 
masses ;  they  are  then  easily  taken  by  means  of  a  net.  As  the 
weather  becomes  cold,  they  sink  into  a  torpid  state,  and  may  be 
captured  by  the  hand,  without  any  resistance.  Their  flesh,  however, 
is  worthless.  In  summer,  the  Barbel  affords  excellent  sport  to  the 
angler;  it  will  bite  at  worms  ;  and  requires  a  strong  rod  and  line,  as 
it  is  very  vigorous.  It  is  often  taken  by  anglers,  when  trolling  with 
Bleak  or  Minnows,  for  large  Thames  Trout. 

So  numerous  were  Barbel  at  Shepperton  and  Walton,  that,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Yarrell,  150  pounds  weight  have  been  caught  in  five  hours, 
and  on  one  occasion,  it  is  said  that  280  pounds  weight  of  large 
sized  Barbel  were  taken  in  one  day.  He  adds,  that  the  largest  Fish 
he  can  find  recorded,  weighed  fifteen  pounds  and  a-half. 

In  searching  for  food,  the  Barbel  turns  up  the  mud  with  its  snout, 
and  bores  into  the  loose  soil,  in  quest  both  of  vegetable  ailment,  and 
Molluscs,  Worms,  the  larvae  of  Aquatic  Insects,  &c  It  breeds  in 
May  and  June. 

In  its  habits  the  Barbel  is  shy  and  retiring.  Mr.  Jesse,  describ- 
ing" the  manners  of  various  Fishes  kept  in  a  vivarium,  says,  that  of 
all  the  Barbel  were  the  shyest  and  most  impatient  of  observation  : 
they  are,  notwithstanding,  very  playful  ;  "in  the  spring,  when  they 
could  not  perceive  any  one  watching  them,  they  would  roll  about, 
and  rub  themselves  against  the  brickwork,  and  show  considerable 
playfulness."  The  general  colour  of  this  Fish  above  is  greenish- 
brown,  assuming  a  yellow  tinge  on  the  sides,  and  passing  into  white 
beneath  ;  the  sides  of  the  muzzle  and  the  gill-covers  are  tinged  with 
bronze  ;  the  dorsal  and  caudal  fins  are  brown,  the  rest  fleshy  red. 
The  tail  is  forked,  the  muzzle  long,  the  head  wedge-shaped  ;  the 
upper  jaw  exceeds  the  under,  which  is  short ;  the  upper  lip  is 
fleshy,  and  doubtless  endowed  with  considerable  sensibility,  to  which 
probably  the  barbules  contribute. 

The  Gudgeon  [Gobw  Jluviatt'hs  :  Cyfrinus  gobio,  Linn.) — The 
genus  Gobio  has  the  dorsal  fin  short,  and  the  angles  ot  the  mouth 
furnished  with  barbules,  but  is  destitute  of  the  strong  serrated  bony 
ray  of  the  dorsal  and  last  under  fin,  as  seen  in  the  Carp. 

This  pretty  little  Fish  is  very  common  on  the  Continent,  and  in 
our  island,  frequenting  clear  rivers  and  streams,  where  it  swims 
about  in  shoals,  displaying  considerable  alertness.     It  feeds   on 


Worms,  Aquatic  Insects,  and  their  larva;,  small  Molluscs,  &c.  Iq 
the  Thames,  the  Kennet,  the  Mersey,  and  Avon,  tlic  Gudgeon  is 
particularly  abundant ;  and  to  those  who  like  to  pull  out  Fish  one 
after  another,  with  the  utmost  despatch,  Gudgeon-fishing  affords 
excellent  sport,  for  no  Fish  bites  more  freely,  and  the  small  red 
Worm  is  a  captivating  bait. 

Small  as  this  Fish  is,  seldom  exceeding  six  or  seven  inches,  its 
flesh  is  very  delicate,  and  as  weight  can  be  made  up  by  numbers,  it 
forms  an  e.'ccellent  dish.     In  the    Thames    the  fishermen    enclose 


F'g-  I734- — The  Gudgeon. 

shoals  of  Gudgeong  in  their  casting  nets  with  small  meshes,  and 
keep  them  in  their  well-boats  alive  for  sale  ;  and  many  of  the  fish, 
mongers  preserve  them  in  tanks  or  cisterns,  supplying  them  with 
fresh  water. 

The  breeding  time  of  the  Gudgeon  is  in  May;  the  shoals  then 
seek  shallow  water,  exposed  to  the  sun  ;  in  a  short  time  the  young 
are  hatched,  and  may  be,  soon  after,  seen  swimming  about,  near 
the  margin  of  the  stream,  in  many  a  mazy  curve,  and  darting  away 
when  alarmed  into  deeper  retreats.  To  the  Pike,  Trout,  and  Perch, 
&c.,  the  Gudgeon  offers  a  perpetual  repast.     (See  Fig.  1734.) 

The  Bream  {Abramis  brama). — In  this  genus  there  are  neither 
bony  rays  nor  barbules  ;  the  body  is  deep  and  compressed,  forming 
an  oval  outline  ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  short,  the  posterior  fin  below 
long. 


Fig.  1735. — The  Bream. 

The  Bream  is  common  on  the  Continent  as  far  north  as  Norway 
and  Sweden,  inhabiting  rivers  and  lakes.  In  our  island  it  is  local. 
It  exists  in  the  Mole,  and  the  Medway,  the  Trent,  and  also  in  other 
rivers  that  are  slow  and  deep  ;  as  well  as  in  canals,  and  extensive 
ponds,  where  it  is  often  very  abundant.  The  lakes  of  Cumberland 
and  Westmoreland,  and  many  of  the  Irish  lakes,  abound  with  Bream 
of  a  large  size,  many  weighing  from  ten  to  fourteen  or  fifteen 
pounds.  The  flesh  is  not  held  in  much  estimation,  but  it  is  said  to 
be  best  in  spring  and  autumn.  Formerly,  indeed,  it  appears  to  have 
been  in  high  request,  and,  we  believe,  is  still  esteemed  on  the  Conti- 
nent, where  Freshwater  Fish  are  more  valued  than  in  our  island, 
which  enjoys  an  ample  supply  of  Sea-fish,  not  only  around  the 
coast,  and  in  the  metropolis,  but  (such  is  the  rapidity  of  carriage- 
conveyance)  even  in  the  most  central  counties,  and  carried  by 
railway. 

If  we  may  credit  Daniel,  Bream-fishing  must  afford  excellent 
sport  to  the  angler,  as  the  Fish  bites  eagerly  and  plays  vigorously. 
He  thus  describes  a  day  of  Bream-fishing  at  New  Hall  Pond,  in 
Essex  "  The  weather  was  cloudy,  and  the  wind  brisk  ;  there  were 
seven  rods  used  by  the  party,  and  very  frequently  there  were  bites  at 
them  all  at  the  same  time.  When  a  fish  was  hooked,  and  played  at 
the  top,  01   near  the  surface  of  the  water,  numbers  were  seen  to 


696 


THE  CARP  FAMILY. 


follow  him,  and  so  soon  as  the  hooks  were  fresh  baited,  were  alike 
greedily  taken.  Some  few  perch  and  tench  were  caught,  but  princi- 
pally bream,  which  averaged  at  least  two  pounds  a  fish  ;  and  of 
these,  from  six  in  the  morning  till  dark  in  the  evening,  some 
hundredweight  were  taken.  The  bait  used  was  the  large  red  worm, 
and  the  spot  had  been  baited  on  the  morning  and  evening  previous 
to  the  day  of  fishing ;  the  ground-bait  used,  was  boiled  wheat  and 
tallow-melters'  greaves  mi.xed  together."  The  Bream  herd  together 
in  large  shoals  ;  in  the  lakes  of  Ireland  several  hundredweight  have 
been  taken  in  a  short  time  ;  the  peasantry  split  and  dry  them,  and 
thus  preserve  them  for  food.  The  breeding  season  of  this  Fish  is 
May. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Bream  is  golden  brown  ;  the  cheeks  and 
gill-covers  silvery  white  ;  the  fins  are  pale,  with  a  tinge  of  brown, 
except  the  pectoral  and  ventral,  which  are  tinted  with  red  ;  iris 
golden  yellow.  Young  Fish  are  of  a  yellowish-white.  This  species 
is  often  called  the  Carp-bream.  An  allied  species  of  smaller  size, 
the  White  Bream,  or  Breamflat  [Abramis  bticca)  is  found  in  several 
of  our  rivers,  as  the  Trent,  Cam,  and  others,  and  is  common  in  the 
lakes  and  rivers  of  the  Continent.  It  rarely  exceeds  ten  or  twelve 
inches  in  length,  and  is  of  a  silvery  bluish-white,  with  silvery  white 
irrides.     It  is  of  little  value  for  the  table.     (See  Fig.  1735.) 

The  Dace  and  Roach. — In  the  genus  Ze^^c/jc«j  the  dorsal  and 
last  fin  below  are  short,  and  destitute  of  spines  ;  there  are  no  bar- 


the  venerated  angler  on  this  point.  Roach  fishing,  indeed,  is  ex- 
cellent practice  for  beginners ;  and  almost  as  much  quickness  and 
dexterity  are  required  as  in  fly-fishing.  To  the  more  experienced, 
even,  the  Fish  affords  excellent  sport :  Walton  added,  "especially 
the  great  roaches  about  London,  where  I  think  there  be  the  best 
roach  anglers."  Neither  Roach  nor  Dace  are  in  much  estimation 
for  the  table.  They  both  make  good  bait  for  Pike,  the  Dace  for  his 
silvery  whiteness  ;  and  the  Roach,  being  more  tenacious  of  life  as 
well,  is  used  for  night-hooks.  Roach  are  in  the  best  condition  in 
October,  and  Dace  in  February,  though  on  this  point  there  are 
different  opinions.  Both  spawn  at  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  June, 
and  recover  their  strength  in  about  a  fortnight  afterwards.  Roach 
ascend  the  upper  parts  of  the  Thames  preparatory  to  spawning ; 
and  vast  shoals  leave  Loch  Lomond  at  the  same  season,  and  during 
three  or  four  days  are  caught  on  their  migration  in  large  numbers. 
The  Dace  seldom  exceeds  nine  or  ten  inches  in  length,  but  the 
Roach  attains  a  larger  size.  Mr,  Jesse  caught  a  Thames  Roach 
which  weighed  three  pounds.  Walton  thought  one  of  two  pounds 
worthy  of  special  notice.  "  The  Thames,"  he  says,  "  affords  the 
largest  and  fullest  in  this  nation,  especially  below  London  Bridge." 
He  would  have  some  difiiculty  in  proving  the  truth  of  this  statement 
at  the  present  day  ! 

Mr.  Yarrell  observes    that   "  Mr.    Donovan,   in  his   '  History   of 
British  Fishes,'  says,  '  In  the  River  Thames,  the  finest  roach  are 


Fig.  1736.— The  Dace  {a)  and  the  Roach  [b.) 


bules  about  the  lips.     The  species  termed,  collectively,  White-fish 
are  numerous.     Fig.  1736  shows  the  Dace  {Leuciscus  vulgaris)   la 
Vaudoise  of  the  French,  m  comparison   with  the  Roach  {Leuciscus 
rutihis),  la  Rosse  of  the  French.     The  lower  figure  is  the  Dace  a 
the  upper  the  Roach,  b.  '    ' 

These  two  Fish  are  common  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe  and 
are  abundant  in  our  island;  especially  the  Roach,  which  is  also 
more  extensively  spread  on  the  Continent.  In  many  respects  they 
are  alike  in  their  habiis,  and  do  not  greatly  differ  from  each  other 
in  appearance.  "They  be  much  of  a  kind,"  says  Walton,  "in 
matter  of  feeding,  cunning,  and  goodness,  and  usually  in  size." 
The  Dace,  however,  is  longer,  and  not  so  broad  as  the  Roach,  and 
Its  fins  and  eyes  have  a  less  brilliant  colour,  but  they  have  both  a 
handsome  silvery  appearance. 

Roach  prefer  deep  and  quiet  rivers,  and  will  breed  well  in  ponds  • 
but  Dace  love  streams  deep  but  clear,  with  a  gentle  current,  and  do 
not  thrive  so  well  in  ponds.  By  day  Roach  haunt  deep  water  in 
and  near  beds  of  weeds,  or  under  the  shade  of  the  trees  which  over- 
hang the  banks.  Walton  terms  this  Fish  the  "  water-sheep,  for  his 
simplicity  or  foolishness  ;  "  but  several  writers  do  not  coincide  with 


caught  about  the  middle  ot  l\Iay,  or  early  in  June,  when  those  fish 
come  up  in  shoals  from  the  sea  to  deposit  their  spawn  in  the  higher 
parts  of  the  river.'  But  the  roach  in  this  instance  came  from  the 
direction  only  in  which  the  sea  lies,  not,  I  apprehend,  from  the  sea 
itself."  The  attempt  to  gain  a  higher  station  in  the  river,  where  the 
o.xygen  is  in  greater  quantity  at  this  season,  accounts  for  the  migra- 
tory movements  of  this  and  other  Fishes  ;  but,  adds  Mr.  Yarrell, 
"  I  have  never  known  a  roach  to  be  taken  in  the  sea  into  which  the 
fish  had  entered  voluntarily."  Montagu,  in  his  MS.,  referring  to 
Donovan's  statement  of  this  migration  from  the  sea,  expresses  his 
belief  that  Mr.  Donovan  was  mistaken,  and  his  conviction  that  the 
Roach  could  not  exist  in  sea  water  at  all ;  quoting  the  following 
fact  which  came  under  his  own  observation.  "  In  a  small  river  that 
runs  into  a  large  piece  of  water  of  nearly  two  miles  in  extent,  close 
to  the  sea  on  the  south  coast  of  Devon,  there  is  no  outlet  but  by 
means  of  percolation  through  the  shingle  that  forms  a  barrier  be- 
tween it  and  the  sea;  in  this  situation  roach  thrive  and  multiply 
beyond  all  example.  About  eight  or  nine  years  ago  the  sea  broke 
its  boundary  and  flowed  copiously  into  the  lake  at  every  tide  for  a 
considerable   time,  by  which  every  species  of  fish  were  destroyed." 


THE  CARP  FAMILY. 


697 


The  follo\vin,q^  account  of  the  alteration  which  has  taken  place  with 
respect  to  the  locaUties  of  Roach  and  other  Fish  in  the  river  Thames 
is  a  very  intrrestinj^  communication  : — 

"  Punt-tishing-  for  roach  by  the  starlings  of  Old  London  Bridge, 
was  once  a  common  amusement  of  the  city  anglers,  which  tliey  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  George  I.  Sir  John 
Havvkms,  in  his  edition  of  Walton's  'Angler,'  published  in  1760, 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  their  latter-day  exploits.  '  The 
Thames,'  he  says,  '  as  well  above  as  below  bridge,  was  formerly 
much  resorted  to  by  London  Anglers  ;  and,  which  is  strange  to  think 
on,  consiilcring  the  unpleasantness  of  the  station,  they  were  used  to 
fish  near  the  starlings  of  the  bridge.  This  will  account  for  the  many 
fishing-tackle  shops  that  were  formerly  in  Crooked  Lane,  which  leads 
to  the  bridge.  In  the  memory  of  a  person  not  long  since  living,  a 
waterman  tliat  plied  at  Esse.x  Stairs,  his  name  John  Reeves,  got  a 
comfortable  living  by  attending  anglers  with  his  boat :  his  method 
was  to  watch  when  the  shoals  of  roach  came  down  from  the  country, 
and  when  he  had  found  them,  to  go  round  to  his  customers  and  give 
them  notice.  Sometimes  they  (the  fish)  settled  opposite  the  Temple  ; 
at  others  at  Blackfriars  or  Queenhithe  ;  but  most  frequently  about 
the  chalk  hills  (waste  rubble)  near  London  Bridge.  His  hire  was 
two  shillings  a  tide.  A  certain  number  of  persons  who  were  accus- 
tomed thus  to  employ  him,  raised  a  sum  sufficient  to  buy  him  a 
waterman's  coat  and  silver  badge,  the  impress  whereof  was  '  Him- 
self, with  an  angler  in  his  boat,"  and  he  had  annually  a  new  coat  to 
the  time  of  his  death,  which  might  be  about  the  year  1730.'  In 
1760,  Shepperton  and  Hampton  were  much  resorted  to  by  London 
anglers  for  roach  fishing.  If  the  respectable  old  angler  who  joyfully 
put  his  tackle  in  order  when  John  Reeves  announced  a  shoal  of  roach 
at  London  Bridge,  could  now  see  half-a-dozen  steamboats  at  one 
time  movmg  between  Queenhithe  and  Blackfriars,  he  would  easily 
conclude  that  his  sport  in  that  quarter  was  destroyed.  But  he  would 
not  at  once  perceive  all  the  other  causes  which  had  driven  the  fish 
away,  such  as  improved  sewers,  disgorging  the  impurities  of  treble 
the  population  of  the  London  of  his  day,  the  increase  in  a  still  larger 
proportion  of  manufactories,  and  the  establishment  of  works  he  never 
dreamt  of,  for  converting  coal  into  a  gas  for  lighting  shops  and  streets. 
Turning  to  one  of  the  Parliamentary  Reports  on  the  state  of  the 
water  supplied  to  the  inhabitants  from  the  river,  he  would  learn  by 
the  evidence  of  fishermen,  that  since  1820,  flounders,  eels,  roach, 
smelt,  salmon,  and  other  fish,  had  been  unable  to  live  in  that  part  of 
the  Thames  between  Woolwich  and  Putney.  In  this  Report,  issued 
in  1828,  Mr.  Goldham,  the  clerk  of  Billingsgate-market,  states,  that 
about  1817  there  were  400  fishermen,  each  of  whom  was  the  owner 
of  a  boat  and  employed  a  boy,  and  they  obtained  a  good  livlihood  by 
the  exercise  of  their  craft  between  Deptford  and  London,  taking 
roach,  plaice,  smelts,  flounders,  salmon,  shad,  eels,  gudgeon,  dace, 
dabs,  &c.  Mr.  Goldham  states,  that  about  1810,  he  had  known 
instances  of  as  many  as  ten  salmon  and  3,000  smelts  being  taken  at 
one  haul  up  the  river  towards  Wandsworth,  and  50,000  smelts  were 
brought  daily  to  Billingsgate,  and  not  fewer  than  3,000  Thames 
salmon  in  the  season.  Some  of  the  boats  earned  £,b  a  week,  and 
salmon  was  sold  at  three  shillings  and  four  shillings  the  pound.  The 
fishery  was  nearly  destroyed  at  the  time  when  this  evidence  was 
given.  The  masters  of  the  Dutch  eel-ships  stated,  before  the  same 
committee,  that  a  feu  years  before  they  could  bring  their  live  eels  in 
'wells'  as  far  as  Gallions'  Reach,  below  Woolwich:  but  in  1828 
they  were  obliged  to  stop  at  Erith,  and  that  they  had  sustained 
serious  losses  from  the  deleterious  quality  of  the  water,  which  killed 
the  fish.  Many  other  facts  might  be  mentioned  to  the  angler  of  the 
old  school  still  more  perplexing — of  salmon  brought  from  Scotland  in 
ships  moved  by  steam,  and  in  such  large  quantities  as  frequently  to 
sell  at  sixpence  and  eightpence  the  pound  ;  of  the  supplies  of  fish 
from  the  coast  being  conveyed  to  London  in  three  or  four  hours  by 
railroads  ;  and  that  by  these  means  fresh  fish,  once  the  most  diffi- 
cult commodity  to  put  into  extensive  circulation,  was  now  regularly 
sold  in  the  markets  of  most  inland  parts  of  the  country  not  very 
many  hours  after  being  caught." 

The  Chub  [Leuciicus  cephalus). — In  most  of  our  rivers  in  Eng- 
land the  Chub  is  common.  In  some  parts  of  the  Thames  it  is  very 
abundant,  preferring  deep  spots  under  banks,  sheltered  by  trees,  and 
the  tranquil  water  along  the  margin  of  willow-aits,  where  it  shrouds 
itself  from  observation.  It  feeds  on  Worms,  Insects,  and  their 
larvae,  and  bites  eagerly  at  the  Chafer-beetle,  which  forms  the  most 
killing  bait.  The  Chub  seldom  acquires  a  very  large  size,  and 
specimens  of  even  three  and  four  pounds  weight  are  very  rare.  The 
breeding  season  is  from  the  end  of  April  to  the  middle  of  May.  The 
flesh  of  this  species  is  of  inferior  quality.  The  general  colouring  above 
is  bluish-black  passing  into  bluish-white  on  the  sides,  and  silvery 
beneath.  Top  of  the  head  blackish-brown  ;  pectoral  fins  reddish- 
brown;  caudal  fin  dusky;  gills  and  iris  golden-yellow.   (See  Fig.  1737.) 

As  species  of  the  same  genus,  we  may  enumerate  the  Ide  (Z.  idus) ; 
the  Dobule  Roach  (Z.  Dobiila) ;  the  Graining  (Z.  lancastriensis, 
Yarrell)  ;  the  Redeye,  or  Rudd  (Z.  crythropthalinus)  ;  the  Azurine 
(Z.  ccsruleus,  Yarrell) ;  the  Bleak  (Z.  alburnus)  ;  and  the  Mmnow 
[L.  phoxinus). 


All  these  Fish  afford  more  or  less  sport  to  the  honest  angler,  who 
"loves  the  sweet  air  of  the  sweet  savour  of  flowers,"  and  the 
"  melodious  harmony  of  fowls,"  and  we  may  add  those  sylvan  scenes, 
those  quiet  nooks,  where  the  water  now  flows  smoothly  and  slowly 
along,  and  now  with  quicker  current  "  makes  sweet  music  to  the 
enameU'd  meads,"  such  scenes  as  our  own  rivers,  winding  their  way 
"  to  the  wide  bosom  of  the  ocean,"  present  at  every  step — such  as 
we  see  along  the  banks  of  the  Avon,  where  the  poet  of  nature  once 
wandered,  who,  in  three  lines,  describes  the  "contemplative  man's 
recreation  :  " — 

"The  pleasantest  angling  is  to  see  the  fish 
Cut  wilh  her  golden  oars  the  silver  stream 
And  greedily  devour  the  treacherous  bail." 
Nor  must  he  forget  the  injunction  of  Dame  Juliana   Berners  : — "Ye 
shall  use  this  foresaid  crafty  sport  for  no  covetyseness  to  the  cncreas- 
ing  and  sparing  of  your  money  only,  but  principally  for  your  solace, 
and  to  the  cause  of  the  health  of  your  body,   and  specially  of  your 
soul." 


V'^^^V^^ 


Fig.  1737.— The  Chub. 

We  have  just  given  a  quotation  in  respect  to  the  state  of  the 
Thames  in  1828.  It  may  be  interesting  to  give  some  account  of  the 
river  in  1878.  The  following  facts  were  arrived  at  by  personal  ex- 
amination carried  on  by  the  Editor  of  this  work,  but  fuller  details 
may  be  found  in  the  two  volumes  of  Engineering,  issued  in  1X78, 
and  also  in  several  articles  in  the  same  journal  for  previous  years. 

Commencing  at  Richmond,  the  issue  in  July  and  August,  1878,  of 
sewage  matter  rendered  the  Thames  simply  offensive  as  far  as  Kew. 
The  banks  on  each  side  of  the  river  were  a  mass  of  decomposing 
sewage  matter.  From  Kew  to  Westminster  Bridge,  matters  were  a 
little  better  ;  but  not  a  sign  of  Fish  could  be  seen.  From  London 
Bridge  to  Blackwall  the  Thames  could  only  be  compared  with  a  stink- 
ing ditch.  At  the  Barking  and  Crossness  outfalls  of  the  London 
sewage,  north  and  south,  amounting  to  about  220,000,000  gallons 
daily,  of  course  the  state  of  the  river  became  worse.  From  these 
points  up  to  Gravesend,  with  an  ebb-tide,  the  river  was  little  better 
than  a  common  sewer;  and  perhaps  at  Gravesend,  on  the  instant  of 
the  flow  of  the  tide  the  worst  point  of  actual  pollution  was  arrived  at. 
The  then  condition  of  the  Thames  may  be  generally  better  imagined 
when  it  is  stated  that  owing  to  a  terrible  collision  off  Margaret-ness, 
or  Tripcock  Point,  near  Woolwich,  between  the  Byiuell  Castle,  a 
steam  collier,  and  the  Princess  Alice,  a  favourite  river  steam  plea- 
sure-boat, by  which  about  700  lives  were  sacrificed  on  September  3rd, 
1878,  the  medical  evidence  showed  that  many  must  have  died  by 
poisoning  through  the  filthy  condition  of  the  Thames.  The  bodies 
recovered,  to  the  extent  of  about  600,  showed  signs  of  decomposition, 
at  least  two  days  earlier  than  would  have  ordinarily  occurred  by  the 
usual  cause  of  death.  Here  is  a  truthful  description  of  a  river 
which  at  one  time  was  crowded  by  Salmon,  but  which  in  the  year  of 
grace  and  science,  1879,  was  simply  a  foul  ditch  for  an  extent  of  at 
least  forty  miles,  between  Richmond  and  Gravesend. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Cyprinidcc  are  two  small  families,  the 
Pceciliida  and  the  Characinida.  The  Fishes  of  the  former  of  these 
families  resemble  the  Carps  so  closely  in  their  general  form  and 
in  the  position  of  their  fins,  that  they  were  formerly  included  with 
them  in  the  same  family.  They  differ  from  the  Cypriiiidcs,  however, 
in  having  both  jaws  armed  with  numerous  small  teeth  ;  the  large 
pharyngeal  teeth  and  the  cranial  plate  of  the  Carps  are  replaced  by 
teeth  of  the  same  form  as  those  of  the  mouth  ;  and  the  air-bladder 
is  simple,  and  presents  no  traces  of  the  series  of  bones  communi- 
cating with  the  ear.  They  are  all  small,  scaly  Fish,  inhabiting  the 
fresh  waters  of  warm  climates.  In  some  of  them  the  oviduct  is 
dilated  into  a  sac,  in  which  the  eggs  are  retained  until  the  young  are 
hatched,  so  that  the  Fish  brings  forth  living  young.  In  some 
curious   little    Fish   belonging   to   this   family,   forming   the   genus 

4U 


698 


THE  SPINELESS  FISHES— THE  CODFISH. 


Anableps,  the  cornea  and  iris  of  each  eye  are  divided  into  two  parts 
by  transverse  bands,  which  give  the  creature  the  appearance  of 
having  four  eyes,  ahhough  all  the  inner  portions  of  the  eye  are  single. 
The  best  known  species  is  the  Anableps  tetraphthalmus,  or  Four- 
eyed  Loach,  a  native  of  the  rivers  of  Guiana. 

The  CharacinidcB  appear  to  be  intermediate  between  the 
Cyprttn'dcs  and  SalmonidcE,  with  the  latter  of  which  they  were 
placed  by  Cuvier.  Like  these,  they  have  usually  a  small  adipose  fin 
on  the  back,  behind  the  true  dorsal  fin  ;  the  upper  jaw  is  composed 
of  the  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones,  and  the  jaws  are  usually 
furnished  with  teeth  ;  the  pyloric  cceca  are  numerous  ;  but  the 
ovaries  are  provided  with  continuous  oviducts,  and  the  air-bladder  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  and  communicates  by  a  series  of  bones  with 
the  auditory  organs.  These  Fishes  are  found  in  the  rivers  and  lakes 
of  Tropical  countries,  where  some  of  them  attain  a  considerable  size. 
A  few  are  very  voracious  ;  Scrrasa/mones  of  the  South  American 
rivers  are  said  to  seize  upon  Water-fowl,  and  even  to  attack  Men 
when  bathing  in  the  rivers. 

This  sub-order  is  closed  by  the  curious  family  Silurid(B,  including 
Fresh-water  Fishes,  usually  of  considerable  size,  of  which  the  skin  is 
either  naked  or  more  or  less  covered  with  bony  plates,  especially 
about  the  head.  The  mouth  is  usually  furnished  with  teeth,  and 
always  surrounded  by  tentacles  ;  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaws  is 
formed  entirely  by  the  intermaxillary  bones,  and  the  opercula  are 
formed  only  of  three  pieces.  All  the  fishes  of  this  family  possess  an 
air-bladder,  which  is  connected  with  the  ear  by  a  series  of  small 
bones.  The  first  ray  of  the  pectoral  fins  is  usually  converted  into  a 
strong  spine,  which  constitutes  a  formidable  weapon  ;  and  the 
wounds  inflicted  by  this  have  often  been  considered  venomous,  al- 
though apparently  without  any  sufficient  foundation.  The  dorsal  fin 
is  often  very  large  ;  but  in  some  species  the  rayed  dorsal  is  entirely 
deficient,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  an  adipose  fin. 

These  Fibhes  are,  for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  Tropical  climates  ;  only  a  single  species  {Siliiriis  glanis)  is 
found  in  the  European  waters  ;  but  this  often  attains  a  length  of 
from  six  to  eight  feet,  and  weighs  several  hundredweight.  They 
swim  slowly,  and  appear  to  take  their  prey  by  concealing  themselves 
in  the  mud,  and  lying  in  wait  for  the  approach  of  any  unlucky  Fish, 
a  proceeding  which  is  greatly  favoured  by  their  dark  colour. 

A  species  inhabiting  the  rivers  of  Africa,  especially  the  Nile  and 
the  Senegal,  the  Malapferuriis  electricus,  which  attains  a  length  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches,  is  remarkable  from  its  possessing  electrical 
properties,  although  in  a  comparatively  slight  degree.  Some  nearly 
allied  species  inhabiting  South  America,  which  have  the  whole  body 
covered  with  an  armour  of  bony  plates,  and  in  which  the  air-bladder, 
with  its  series  of  bones,  is  entirely  wanting,  have  been  formed  into  a 
distinct  family  under  the  name  oi  Lor icar tides. 

We  may  observe  before  closing  our  remarks  on  this  sub-order  that 
both  British  Salmon  and  Trout  have  become  acclimatised  both  in 
Australia  and  Tasmania.  Some  years  ago  ova  were  transported  to 
those  colonies,  and  the  result  has  been  a  great  success.  We  have 
seen  Tasmanian  Trout  exceeding  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and 
evidently  in  an  excellent  condition  when  caught,  the  specimens  we 
inspected  having  been  preserved  in  the  ordinary  manner.  Immense 
quantities  of  preserved  Salmon  are  now  imported  into  England 
from  the  United  States,  in  tin  cans  similar  to  those  employed  for  the 
preserved  meats  of  Australia,  (Sic.  Tlie  economy  of  food  production 
and  preservation,  in  regard  to  Fish  especially,  has  become  a  feature 
of  the  age. 

Sub-order  II. — Anacanthina. 

The  sub-order  Anacanf/iina,  or  Spineless  Fishes,  presents  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  the  preceding  group  ;  the  fins  are  entirely 
supported  upon  soft  rays  ;  and  even  the  single  spine,  which  occa- 
sionally occurs  in  some  of  the  fins  of  the  Physostomatous  Fishes,  is 
wanted  here.  Like  the  Physostomata,  these  Fishes  are  also  divisible 
into  two  groups,  characterised  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  the 
ventral  fins  ;  but  these  organs,  when  present,  are  always  placed  on 
the  chest  or  throat,  and  supported  by  the  same  bony  arch  which 
bears  the  pectoral  fins. 

They  also  present  an  important  difference  in  the  structure  of  the 
air-bladder,  which  instead  of  communicating  with  the  oesophagus  by 
a  duct,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Physostomata,  is  here  completely  closed  ; 
and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  duct,  which  exists  in  the  embryo,  has 
entirely  disappeared,  so  that  there  is  no  connection  between  the 
anterior  part  of  the  air-bladder  and  the  oesophagus.  The  inferior 
pharyngeal  bones  are  always  separated. 

Sob-Divisions. — The  Anacaniliina  constitute  four  families,  of 
which  two  are  destitute  of  ventral  fins  [Apoda),  whilst  the  others 
have  these  organs  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  pectorals 
{Subbrachiala).  The  apodal  species  usually  agree  very  closely  with 
the  Eels,  not  only  in  the  absence  of  the  ventral,  and  sometimes  of 
the  pectoral  fins,  but  also  in  the  general  form  of  the  body,  which  is 
elongated,  and  often  serpentiform  ;  they  may,  however,  always  be 
distinguished  from  the  Apodal  Physostomata  by  the  greater  freedom 
of  the  opercular  apparatus,  which  is  never  inclosed  in  a  thick  skin, 
as  in  the  Eels. 


The  first  family,  the  Ammodytida;,  is  further  distinguished  from 
the  Eels  by  the  form  of  the  caudal  fin,  which  is  well  developed,  distinct 
from  the  dorsal  and  anal,  and  considerably  forked  at  the  extremity. 
The  skin  is  naked,  but  of  a  beautiful  silvery  lustre  ;  the  dorsal  fin 
commences  a  little  behind  the  head,  and  runs  nearly  to  the  root  of 
the  caudal  fin  ;  the  anal  fin  extends  about  a  third,  or  one-half,  the 
length  of  the  body  ;  and  both  the  dorsal  and  anal  are  supported  upon 
soft,  but  simple  rays. 

There  are  two  British  species,  which  are  much  used  by  the  fisher- 
men as  baits  for  other  Fish.  They  are  known  by  the  names  of  Sand- 
lances,  or  Sand-eels,  from  their  habit  of  burying  themselves  in  the 
sand,  to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven  inches,  during  the  ebb  of  the  tide, 
generally  selecting  for  this  purpose  those  parts  of  the  beach  which 
are  left  dry  at  low  water  ;  it  is  in  this  position  that  they  are  mostly 
taken  by  the  fishermen,  who  rake  them  out  by  means  of  iron  hooks 
and  rakes.  The  largest  British  species  {Ammodytes  tobianus) 
usually  measures  about  a  foot  in  length  ;  the  smaller  one  {A .  lancea) 
only  five  or  six  inches. 

In  the  OphidiidcB  the  Eel-like  form  makes  its  appearance  with 
still  greater  distinctness ;  as  in  the  Eels,  the  median  fins  are  con- 
tinuous, forming  a  border  round  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  body; 
the  caudal  fin  is  rounded  or  pointed,  but  never  forked,  and  the  pec- 
toral fins  are  occasionally  wanting.  The  body  is  sometimes  naked, 
sometimes  covered  with  minute  scales  imbedded  in  the  skin ;  the 
anus  is  situated  sometimes  in  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  occasion- 
ally under  the  throat,  the  air-bladder  is  alwavs  present,  and  quite  desti- 
tute of  a  duct.  These  are  generally  small  Fishes,  inhabiting  only  the 
sea  :  several  species  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  two  or 
three  have  occurred  upon  the  British  coasts. 

The  Siibbrachiate  anacanthina,  or  those  with  ventral  fins 
attached  to  the  breast  or  throat,  include  two  families  of  Fishes, 
which  are  of  the  greatest  importance  as  articles  of  food — the 
Gadidce,  or  Cod  family,  and  the  Pleuronectidce,  or  Flat  Fishes. 

In  the  former,  the  body  is  of  an  elongated  spindle-shape,  produced 
behind  into  a  long  tail ;  the  skin  is  usually  furnished  with  very  small, 
soft  scales,  which  are  entirely  enclosed  in  separate  sacs  ;  the  median 
fins  are  of  very  large  size,  and  usually  divided  into  several  portions  ; 
the  mouth  is  wide,  furnished  with  numerous  small  teeth,  and  the 
margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  entirely  formed  by  the  intermaxillary 
bones.  The  lower  jaw  is  frequently  furnished  with  a  single  cirrus, 
or  beard,  beneath  its  extremity,  and  the  nose  sometimes  bears  one 
or  two  pairs  of  similar  appendages  ;  the  ventral  fins,  also,  are  some- 
times reduced  to  a  single  ray,  so  as  to  acquire  the  appearance,  as 
they  no  doubt  perform  the  office,  of  cirri.  These,  in  some  species 
{such  as  the  Forked  Hake — Phycis  fiircatis — of  our  own  coasts),  are 
of  considerable  length,  and  give  off  a  branch  from  about  their 
middle,  which  is  sometimes  longer  than  the  main  stalk. 

The  GadidcB  are  active  and  exceedingly  voracious  Fishes,  feeding 
indiscriminately  upon  almost  all  the  smaller  Aquatic  Animals.  Mr. 
Yarrell  states,  that  "  Mr.  Couch  has  taken  thirty-five  crabs,  none 
less  than  the  size  of  a  half-crown  piece,  from  the  stomach  of  one 
cod."  They  are  nearly  all  marine;  their  flesh  is  exceedingly  firm 
and  well-flavoured ;  and  as  many  of  the  species  occur  in  the  greatest 
profusion,  their  importance,  in  furnishing  an  abundant  supply  of 
agreeable  and  nutritious  food  to  the  human  race,  is  almost  incal- 
culable. The  principal  species  found  in  our  markets  are  the  Cod 
[Morrhua  inilga?'is),  the  Haddock  [M.  cBglefinus),  the  Whiting 
{Merlangus  vulgaris),  and  the  Ling  {Lota  niolva) ;  but  many 
others  are  taken  on  various  parts  of  the  coast,  although  they  rarely 
find  their  way  to  London.  These  Fishes  are  all  taken  by  hook  and 
line,  baited  with  common  Mollusca,  such  as  Limpets,  Whelks,  &c., 
or  with  pieces  of  Fish.  For  the  deep-sea  fishing  very  long  lines  are 
used  ;  these  are  fixed  to  the  bottom  by  means  of  a  small  anchor,  the 
other  end  being  supported  by  a  buoy,  and  the  hooks  are  placed  at 
the  extremities  of  short  lines,  usually  about  six  feet  in  length, 
attached  at  intervals  to  the  main  line.  The  long  lines  are  usually 
left  for  about  six  hours,  or  for  a  whole  tide,  when  they  are  taken  up 
and  examined.  In  the  interval  the  fishermen  are  not  idle  ;  they 
carry  on  the  work  of  destruction  by  means  of  hand-lines,  of  which 
each  man  manages  a  pair.  In  this  manner  an  immense  quantity  of 
these  and  other  valuable  Fish  are  taken  at  almost  all  parts  of  the 
British  coasts.  Besides  the  consumption  in  a  fresh  state,  several 
species  of  this  family  are  commonly  preserved  by  drying,  either  with 
or  without  salt ;  of  these,  the  most  important  are  Cod,  Haddock,  and 

Ling- 

In  spite  of  the  enormous  consumption  constantly  going  on,  the 
numbers  of  these  Fish  do  not  appear  to  decrease  ;  and  this,  perhaps, 
is  the  less  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  consider  that  the  roe  of  a 
single  female  Cod,  has  been  found  to  contain  no  fewer  than  nine 
millions  of  ova.  Their  general  spawning-time  appears  to  be  the 
winter,  or  very  early  in  the  spring  ;  they  are  full  of  roe,  and  in  their 
greatest  perfection  during  the  early  winter  months. 

The  species  of  Gadidcs  appear  to  be  principally  confined  to  the 
seas  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world  ;  the  common  Cod  is  distri- 
buted from  Iceland  to  the  coasts  of  Spain,  without  entering  the 
Mediterranean  ;  and  most  of  the  other  species  abound  especially  in 
northern  latitudes.     One  species,  the  Burbot  {Lota  vulgaris),  nearly 


THE  FLATFISH— THE  FLOUNDER. 


690 


allied  to  the  Ling,  is  found  in  the  rivers  and  Likes  of  several  countries 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  of  an  elongated  form,  and  presents  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  the  Eel  in  its  habits,  from  which  circum- 
stance it  is  called  the  Eelpout,  in  some  places.  It  inhabits  a  few 
English  rivers,  but  it  is  not  generally  known,  although  its  flesh  is 
said  to  be  most  excellent. 

Flatfish— Family  Pleufotiectidcs. 

The  family  of  Pleuronectidcs,  or  Flatfish,  which  concludes  the 
present  sub-order,  consists  of  numerous  Fishes,  which,  in  their 
general  appearance,  are  remarkably  different  from  those  of  the 
preceding  groups,  and,  indeed,  from  all  other  Fishes.  They  have  a 
broad,  flat  body,  margined  almost  throughout  by  long  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  ;  the  head  is  singularly  twisted,  so  that  the  eyes  are  both 
brought  to  one  side  of  the  body  ;  and  this,  which  is  always  upper- 
most, is  usually  of  a  dark  colour,  and  often  spotted,  whilst  the 
opposite  side  is  ahvays  white.  These  surfaces  are  often  regarded 
as  the  back  and  belly  of  the  Fish,  but  incorrectly  ;  the  gill-openings 
and  the  paired  fins  being  situated  on  both  surfaces,  the  pectorals  a 
little  behind  the  apertures  of  the  gills,  and  the  ventrals  in  front  of 
these  on  the  throat  (Fig.  1738).  The  abdominal  cavity  is  very 
small,  and  the  anus  opens  under  the  throat ;  so  that,  as  remarked 
by  Professor  Vogt,  the  whole  body  is  nothing  but  an  exceedingly 
compressed,  disc-like  tail.  The  mouth  is  small,  and  armed  with 
small  teeth,  and,  in  most  species,  the  skin  is  covered  with  ctenoid 
scales. 


Fig.  173S.— The  Plaice 

The  Flatfishes  swim  with  the  dark  side  uppermost,  and  with  a  sort 
of  undulating  motion  of  the  whole  body  ;  they  generally  keep  close 
to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  viihere  they  feed  upon  small  Fishes, 
MoUiisca,  Worms,  Crustacea,  &c.  Some  species  attain  a  large 
size ;  the  Halibut  {Hippoglossus  vutgaris)  is  said  sometimes  to 
weigh  as  much  as  50Q  pounds  ;  and  a  specimen  measuring  "  seven 
feet  six  inches  in  length,  three  feet  six  inches  in  breadth,  and 
weighing  320  pounds,  was  taken  (in  April,  1828)  off  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  sent  to  Edinburgh  market."  The  Turbot  [E/ioinbus inaximtis), 
which  is  regarded  as  the  finest  Fish  of  the  family,  does  not  appear 
to  reach  quite  such  gigantic  dimensions  ;  the  largest  recorded  by 
Mr.  Yarrell  weighed  190  pounds,  and  measured  six  feet  across. 

These  Fish  are  caught  either  by  means  of  hooks  and  lines  or  by 
the  trawl-net ;  the  former  method  is  employed  during  the  warmer 
men  lis  of  the  year.  The  species  most  esteemed  are  the  Turbot  and 
the  Sole  {Solea  vulgaris) ;  but  several  others,  although  inferior  in 
the  quality  of  their  flesh,  are  of  great  importance,  as  they  are  caught 
in  such  numbers  that  they  can  be  sold  at  a  very  cheap  rate.  Of 
these,  the  best  known  are  the  Plaice  [Ptatessa  vulgaris,  Fig.  1738). 
the  Brill  {Ehombus  vulgaris),  and  the  Flounder  (Platessa  Jlesus). 

All  the  Pleuro7iectid(B  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  although  they 
sometimes  ascend  the  brackish  waters  of  tidal  rivers ;  and  the 
Flounder  even  appears  capable  of  thriving  in  perfectly  fresh  water. 
They  are  rather  voracious  Fishes  ;  and,  in  spite  of  their  singular 
form,  are  often  very  active  in  their  habits.  They  conclude  the  sub- 
order Anacaiithiiia.  Of  some  of  these,  the  following  affords  a  more 
particular  description  : — 

The  Dab  {Platessa  limanda).— The  Dab  or  Saltie  of  the  Scotch, 
is  common  on  all  the  sandy  parts  of  our  coast,  and  is  easily  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  Plaice  and  Flounder,  with  which  it  is  com- 
monly caught,  by  the  roughness  of  its  scaly  upper  side,  whence  the 
term  Limaiida,  from  lima,  a  file.  The  flesh  of  this  Fish  is  good, 
and  Cuvier  says  that  the  Dab  (la  Limando), 'though  small,  is  more 
esteemed  in  Paris  than  the  Plaice  (la  Pile),  because  it  bears  carriage 
better.  In  the  London  markets  it  is  very  abundant,  and  also  in  those 
of  Edinburgh.  The  breeding  season  of  this  species  is  in  May  or 
June.  It  is  caught  both  by  nets  and  lines  ;  small  Fish,  Molluscs, 
and  minute  Crustacea  constitute  its  food.  The  Dab  measures  on 
an  average  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  length  ;  the  laferal  line  forms 
an  arch  over  tlie  pectoral  fin  ;  the  colour  of  the  upper  side  is  of  a 
uniform  pale  brown  ;  of  the  under  side  white. 


The  Flounder  {Platessa  flesus).  Flook,  Fluke,  or  FIcuke ; 
Mayock  Fleuke,  Edmburgh  ;  Butt,  Yarmouth.— The  Flounder, 
though  really  a  Sea-fish,  and  extremely  common  around  our  coast, 
where  a  soft  muddy  or  sandy  bed  prevails,  ascends  the  rivers,  and 
thrives  alike  m  saline,  brackish,  or  fresh  water.  It  is  abundant  in 
the  mouth  of  the  Thames.  The  mode  of  fishing  for  it  is  by  a  tuck- 
net,  one  end  of  which  is  fixed  to  a  grapple  ;  the  boat  is  then  sculled 
by  an  assistant  so  as  to  describe  a  circle,  while  the  fisherman  hands 
out  the  net  gradually  into  the  water ;  when  the  circle  is  completed 
and  the  space  enclosed,  the  net  is  hauled  in,  near  the  startinff- 
pomt,  the  Fish  extricated,  and  put  into  the  well  of  the  boat,  and  the 
net  again  cast  as  before.  The  Flounder  will  live  in  fresh-water 
ponds,  though  most  probably  it  will  not  breed  there,  unless  they  be 
of  considerable  extent,  but  we  are  not  aware  to  what  degree  experi- 
ments on  this  point  have  been  carried.  As  the  Flounder  lives  Ion"- 
out  of  water,  its  transportation  from  place  to  place  is  elTected  with 
but  little  difficulty.  We  have  seen  this  Fish  in  the  Severn  ;  and 
Colonel  Montague  notices  it  as  being  found  up  the  Avon,  within 
three  miles  of  Bath.  Along  our  southern  coast,  and  about  Margate 
and  Ramsgate,  shoals  of  Flounders  abound,  and  also  along  the 
shores  of  the  adjacent  continent,  where  other  species  of  Flatfish  are 
very  common. 

The  Flounder  feeds  on  small  Crustacea,  Worms,  Insects,  and 
small  Fishes.  Mr.  Jesse  states  that  he  has  seen  it  pursue  minnows 
with  great  eagerness  in  the  shallows  where  the  Mole  runs  into  the 
Thames  at  Hampton  Court.  It  breeds  in  February  or  March.  The 
Flounders  we  commonly  see  in  the  fishmongers'  shops  are  of  small 
size  ;  Mr.  Yarrell  says  that  some  have  been  known  to  acquire  the 
weight  of  four  pounds,  but  such  instances  are  rare.  The  flesh  is 
agreeable  and  delicate. 


Fig.  1739. — The  Flounder. 

Cuvier  observes  that  reversed  individuals  (tournes  en  sens  con- 
traire)  are  very  frequent  ;  and  Mr.  Yarrell  says  "  Varieties  of  the 
flounder  occur  more  commonly  than  those  of  any  other  species  of 
flat-fish.  I  have  before  me,  while  now  writing,  specimens  without 
any  colour  on  either  side  ;  specimens  with  colour  on  both  sides ; 
and  specimens  with  eyes  and  the  whole  of  the  colour  on  the  left 
side,  instead  of  the  right.  Those  without  any  colour  on  either  side 
are  albino  varieties,  through  the  transparent  skins  of  which  the 
colour  of  the  blood-vessels  and  muscles  has  suggested  the  names  of 
rosea  and  carnaria  to  the  authors  who  considered  them  species." 

The  Flounder  is  subject  to  great  variations  of  colour,  and  those 
taken  from  spots  where  there  is  a  considerable  deposit  of  mud,  are 
far  darker  than  those  which  inhabit  sandy  places.  The  Flounders, 
for  example,  caught  in  the  backwaters  behind  Yarmouth,  on  a  bed 
of  mud,  are  so  dark  that  they  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
Black  Butts.  Generally,  however,  the  upper  side  is  of  an  olive-grey, 
or  brownish-olive  tint,  mottled  with  irregular  dusky  spots  and 
marblings  ;  the  fins  are  paler  than  the  body. 

The  Turbot  (Rhombus  maximus). — From  the  time  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the  present,  the  Turbot  has  been 
celebrated  as  one  of  the  luxuries  of  the  table,  and  is  often  seen  of 
extraordinary  weight  and  dimensions.  The  ordinary  weight  of  this 
Fish  is  from  five  to  ten  pounds,  but  instances  are  not  unfrequent  in 
which  it  is  found  to  weigh  fifteen  or  twenty,  and  even  thirty  pounds. 
Mr.  Crouch,  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  "notices  in  his  MS.  a  record  of  one 
taken  in  1730,  at  Cawsand,  near  Plymouth,  which  weighed  seventy 
pounds.  On  the  i8tli  of  February,  1853,  a  turbot  was  caught  at 
Staiths,  near  Whitby,  which  weighed  190  pounds,  and  measured  six 
feet  across.  Rondelctius,  however,  states  that  he  had  seen  a  turbot 
five  cubits  in  length,  four  in  breadth,  and  a  foot  in  thickness."  It 
must  have  been  such  a  Turbot  which  was  taken  during  the  reign  of 
Domitian,  and  which  not  only  puzzled  his  cooks,  but  even  the  senators 
of  Rome,  called  together  by  command,  in  order  to  devise  the  best 
mode  of  bringing  it  to  table. 

The  Turbot  is  taken  on  nearly  all  the  coasts  of  our  island,  and  is 
found  from  Scotland  to  Cornwall.  In  Ireland  it  is  principally  con- 
fined to  the  south-western  coast.  Like  most  other  Fishes,  the 
Turbot  has  its  favourite  haunts,  where  it  is  found  in  greater  abun- 


700 


THE  TURBOT,  BRILL,  AND  SOLE. 


dance  and  perfection  than  in  other  places.  The  sandbanks  between 
Dover  and  the  French  coast,  and  those  between  the  English  and 
Dutch  coast,  which  extend  in  a  parallel  line  to  the  eastern  shores 
of  Great  Britain,  are  the  most  valuable  fishing-grounds.  The  coast 
extending  from  the  North  Foreland  to  the  Land's  End  also  abounds 
with  this  esteemed  Fish.  On  the  Flemish  banks  the  finest  Turbots 
are  taken  in  abundance  by  the  Dutch  fishermen  for  the  London 
market.  The  fishing  begins  towards  the  end  of  March,  and  the 
fishermen  then  "  assemble  a  few  leagues  to  the  south  of  Scheveling  ; 
as  the  warm  weather  comes  on,  the  fish  advance  to  the  northward, 
and  during  the  months  of  April  and  May  they  are  found  in  great 
shoals  on  the  banks  called  the  Broad  Forties.  Early  in  June  they 
have  proceeded  to  the  banks  which  surround  the  small  island  of 
Heligoland,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  where  the  fishery  continues 
to  the  middle  of  August  (the  spawning  season),  when  it  terminates 
for  that  year." 

A  preference  is  sometimes  given  in  London  to  the  Dutch  Turbot, 
■which  it  deserves  to  some  extent.  The  fiesh  on  the  dark-coloured 
side  is  considered  as  the  best,  and  the  Dutch  Turbot  are  of  a  darker 
hue  than  those  obtained  on  some  parts  of  our  own  coast  ;  but  those 
taken  on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  England  are  equal  to  the  Dutch 
in  this  respect,  while  those  which  the  south-western  coast  produces 
are  lighter. 

The  Dutch  adopt  two  methods  of  Turbot-fishing  :  when  the  Fish 
are  on  a  smooth  sandy  bottom  in  shallow  water,  they  use  the  haul- 
net,  which  brings  up  other  kinds  of  Flat-fish,  as  Soles,  Plaice,  &c., 
■with  the  Turbot ;  but  when  the  weather  becomes  warm,  and  the 
Fish  have  retired  to  deeper  water,  with  rough  and  broken  banks  at 
the  bottom,  they  have  recourse  to  long  many-hooked  lines,  baited 
with  Smelts,  Garfish,  &c.  The  Turbot  is  a  dainty  feeder;  and 
though  very  voracious,  it  is  not  every  bait  that  will  tempt  him  ;  if  it 
be  not  very  fresh,  he  refuses  it,  but  if  bright-coloured  and  living,  it 
immediately  attracts  his  notice. 

According  to  Mr.  Crouch,  "  the  turbot  keeps  in  sandy  ground,  and 
is  a  great  wanderer,  usually  in  companies  ;  "  and  he  adds,  "  though 
its  proper  habitation  is  close  to  the  bottom,  it  sometimes  mounts 
aloft,  and  I  have  known  it  upon  the  surface  over  a  depth  of  thirty 
fathoms.  I  have  been  informed  also  of  its  pursuing  to  the  surface  a 
companion  that  was  drawn  up  by  the  line,  when  both  were  taken 
together." 

On  the  English  coasts  the  Turbot  fishery  is  carried  on  both  with  lines 
and  by  trawling.  The  former  is  the  most  general  mode  pursued  on 
the  north-eastern  coast,  and  trawling  is  practised  to  a  greater  extent 
on  the  south-western  coasts.  The  Turbot  is  too  well  known  to  need 
minute  description  ;  the  upper  side  is  tuberculous,  with  little  starlike 
bones  imbedded  in  the  skin.  It  is  called  Bannock  Fleuk  in  Scot- 
land. 

The  Brill  [Rhombus  vulgaris). — This  well-known  Fish  is  taken 
in  the  same  localities,  and  by  the  same  modes  of  fishing,  as  the 
Turbot ;  in  the  firmness  and  flavour  of  its  flesh,  however,  it  is  very 
inferior  to  the  latter,  though  there  is  a  good  sale  for  it  in  the  London 
markets  ;  numbers  are  brought  from  the  deep  waters  and  bays  of  our 
southern  coast,  where  it  is  very  common,  spawning  in  the  month  of 
August.  On  the  Devonshire  and  Cornish  coasts  it  is  termed  the 
Kite,  and  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  the  Bonnet  Fleuk.  Like  the 
Turbot,  the  Brill  feeds  on  small  Fish,  Crustacea,  Molluscs,  &c.,  and 
is  equally  ravenous  ;  its  mouth  is  large  and  deeply  cleft,  and  the 
under  jaw  is  longer  than  the  upper.  The  weight  of  the  Brill  seldom 
exceeds  seven  or  eight  pounds.  It  is  more  oval  than  the  Turbot, 
and  the  skin  is  destitute  of  tubercles,  its  surface  being  perfectly 
smooth. 

The  Sole  {Solea  vulgaris). — In  the  genus  Solea  both  the  eyes 
and  colour  are  on  the  right  side ;  there  are  small  teeth  in  both  jaws, 
but  confined  to  the  under  side  only,  none  being  on  the  same  side  as 
the  eyes.  The  form  of  the  body  is  oblong.  This  well-known  and 
excellent  Fish  is  found  all  round  our  coasts  where  the  bed  of  the  sea 
is  sandy,  its  range  extending  northwards  to  the  Baltic,  and  south- 
wards to  the  Mediterranean.  The  principal  fisheries  of  the  Sole  for 
the  London  markets  are  along  the  southern  coast  of  England,  from 
Dover  to  Devonshire ;  and,  as  the  Fish  seldom  takes  the  bait, 
trawling.nets  are  used,  by  means  of  which  enormous  quantities  are 
captured  ;  they  are  sent  to  market  packed  up  in  baskets. 

The  Sole  is  in  season  throughout  the  greatest  portion  of  the  year, 
and  is  full  of  roe  in  February.  In  March  or  April  it  spawns,  and  is 
then  for  a  few  weeks  soft  and  flabby,  but  soon  recovers.  Its  food 
consists  of  small  shelled  Molluscs,  and  the  spawn  and  fry  of  other 
Fishes.  The  flesh  of  the  sole  is  firm,  white,  and  of  excellent  flavour ; 
■were  it,  indeed,  a  rare  Fish,  instead  of  being  abundant,  it  would 
command  a  high  price  in  the  market ;  as  it  is,  this  delicacy  finds 
its  way  to  the  tables  of  all  classes. 

Mr.  Yarrell  records  a  pair  of  soles  taken  in  Torbay  which 
measured  each  in  length  twenty-three  inches,  and  weighed  together 
ten  pounds  ;  and  he  adds,  "  For  the  particulars  of  the  largest  I  have 
heard  of,  I  am  indebted  to  the  Rev.  W.  F.  Cornish,  of  Totnes. 
This  specimen,  a  remarkably  fine-grown  Fish,  and  very  thick,  was 
twenty-six  inches  long,  eleven  inches  and  a  half  ■n'ide,  and  weighed 
nine  pounds. — Totness  market,  June  21,  1826." 


Though  the  Sole  is  a  Sea-fish,  it  thrives  well  in  fresh  water,  to 
which,  indeed,  it  may  be  transferred  without  difficulty.  Dr. 
MacCuUock,  in  his  papers  in  the  Royal  Institution  Quarterly 
Journal,  1825,  on  changing  the  residence  of  certain  Fishes  from  salt 
to  fresh  water,  instances  a  sole  that,  for  many  years,  was  kept  in  a 
pond  of  fresh  water  in  a  garden.  The  following  interesting  letter 
from  a  gentleman  residing  on  the  banks  of  the  Arun  contains  an 
important  statement : — 

"  I  succeeded  yesterday  in  seeing  the  person  who  caught  the  soles 
about  which  you  inquire,  and  who  has  been  in  the  constant  habit  of 
trawling  for  them  with  a  ten-feet-bream  trawl  in  this  river  (the 
Arun)  for  the  last  forty  years.  The  season  for  taking  theni  is  from 
May  to  November  :  they  breed  in  the  river,  frequenting  it  from  its 
mouth,  five  miles  upwards,  which  is  nearly  to  the  town  of  Arandel, 
and  remain  in  it  the  whole  year,  burying  themselves  in  the  sand 
during  the  cold  months.  The  fisherman  has  occasionally  taken 
them  of  large  size,  two  pounds  weight  each,  but  frequently  of  one 
pound,  and  they  are  thicker  in  proportion  than  the  soles  usually 
caught  at  sea  ;  in  other  respects,  precisely  the  same  ;  and  it  is 
evident  they  breed  in  great  numbers  in  the  river,  from  the  quantity 
of  small  ones,  about  two  inches  long,  that  are  constantly  brought 
ashore  when  drawing  the  net  for  grey  mullet." 

Reversed  Soles,  that  is,  with  the  left  side  dark  coloured  and  the 
eyes  sinistral,  are  not  uncommon.  Mr.  Yarrell  informs  us  that  he 
had  a  curious  specimen  of  the  usual  dark  colour,  with  rough  ciliated 
scales,  on  both  sides  alike. 

We  owe  the  recognizance  of  a  distinct  species  of  British  Sole,  the 
Lemon  Sole  {Solea  ;pegusa),  to  that  excellent  naturalist,  Mr. 
Yarrell,  who  obtained  a  specimen  at  Brighton,  in  February,  1829. 
Since  that  time  two  or  three  other  specimens  have  been  obtained  in 
the  London  market ;  those  which  were  presented  by  Mr.  Yarrell  to 
the  Museum  of  the  Zoological  Society  we  have  often  examined. 

Mr.  Yarrell  states  that  "  this  sole  is  occasionally  taken  with  the 
common  sole  when  trawling  over  a  clear  bottom  of  soft  sand,  about 
sixteen  miles  from  Brighton,  in  a  direction  towards  the  coast  of 
France,  from  which  circumstance  this  fish  is  known  to  some  of  our 
fishermen  by  the  name  of  French  sole ;  others  call  it  by  that  of 
lemon  sole,  in  reference  to  its  prevailing  yellowish  colour.  In  shape 
the  lemon  sole  is  wider  in  proportion  to  its  length  than  the  common 
sole  ;  it  is  also  somewhat  thicker,  and  the  head  is  smaller.  The 
prevailing  colour  is  a  mixture  of  orange  and  light  brown,  speckled 
over  with  numerous  small  round  spots  of  dark  nutmeg  brown,  giving 
a  mottled  appearance  to  the  whole  upper  surface." 

The  scales  differ  in  character,  and  the  tail  is  narrower  than  in  the 
ordinary  species ;  the  under  surface  of  the  head  is  almost  smooth, 
without  any  of  those  papillary  eminences  so  numerous  and  remark- 
able in  the  Common  Sole ;  and  the  nostril  is  pierced  in  a  prominent 
tubular  projection,  which  is  wanting  in  the  other  ;  the  scales,  more- 
over, of  the  under  surface,  are  more  strongly  marked  than  those  of 
the  upper.  Another  rare  Sole,  the  Variegated  Sole  {Monochirus 
linguatulus,  Cuv.)  is  also  occasionally  taken  ofiE  our  shores.  There 
are  other  varieties  occasionally  met  with. 

Sub-order  III.— Pharyngognatha. 

General  Characters. — This  sub-order  includes  an  assem- 
blage of  Fishes  that  undoubtedly  presents  a  very  great  diversity  of 
form,  and  in  which  we  not  only  meet  with  species  having  all  the  fins 
supported  upon  soft  ravs,  but  also  with  others  which  possess 
spinous  rays,  as  strong  and  well  developed  as  those  of  any  Fishes 
belonging  to  the  remaining  groups.  The  principal  character  which 
serves  to  unite  the  Pharyngognatha  is  derived  from  the  structure  of 
the  inferior  pharj-ngeal  bones,  which,  in  all  the  Fishes  of  this  sub- 
order, are  completely  coalescent,  so  as  to  form  a  single  bone, 
usually  armed  with  teeth.  So  complete  is  the  union  in  most  cases, 
that  no  trace  of  the  original  separation  of  the  bones  can  be  dis- 
covered. In  other  respects,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  Fishes 
referred  to  this  order,  present  but  few  characters  in  common ; 
the  fins,  as  already  stated,  are  sometimes  entirely  composed  of  soft 
rays  [Malacopterygii.  Miiller),  and  occasionally  partially  spinous 
{Acatithopterygii,  Miiller),  The  ventral  fins  are  sometimes  placed 
on  the  belly  ;  in  others  on  the  chest  or  throat ;  and  the  scales  are 
cycloid  in  some  species,  ctenoid  in  others.  The  air-bladder  is 
always  completely  closed. 

Sub-divisions. — Professor  Miiller  divides  the  Pharyngognatha 
into  two  grjups,  for  which  he  adopts  the  names  of  Malacopterygii 
and  Acamhopterygii,  proposed  by  Cuvier  for  his  primary  divisions 
of  Osseous  Fishes.  The  former  group,  including  the  soft-finned 
species,  contains  only  a  single  small  family,  the  Scojnberesocidce,  so 
called  from  the  mingled  resemblance  which  the  Fishes  composing  it 
appear  to  bear  to  the  Scomberes,  or  Mackerels,  and  the  Esoces,  or 
Pikes.  They  are  usually  of  an  elongated  form,  and  clothed  with 
cycloid  scales.  The  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  placed  far  back,  and  a 
series  of  small  fins  often  intervenes  between  these  and  the  caudal 
fin  ;  the  ventral  fins  are  placed  on  the  abdomen,  and  the  pectorals 
usually  removed  far  back,  and  often  of  considerable  size.  In  the 
true  Flying-fishes  {Exoccelus),  which  belong  to  this  family,    the 


THE  FLYING-FISH. 


701 


pectoral  fins  attain  a  pfreat  length,  and  possess  sufEcient  force  to 
serve  the  Fishes  as  wing-s,  upon  which  these  creatures  can  rise 
from  the  water,  and  support  themselves  in  the  air  for  a  considerable 
time.  One  species  of  Flying-fish,  the  Exoccetus  exiliens,  inhabits 
the  Mediterranean,  and  has  been  found  dead  on  the  south  coast  of 
England  ;  a  second  smaller  species  is  found  in  the  ocean,  especially 
in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Flymg-fishes  exhibit  a  good  deal  of  the  form  of  the  Herring, 
and,  like  it,  are  covered  with  tolerably  large  scales  ;  but,  in  the 
typical  species  of  the  family,  the  body  is  very  long,  and  the  texture 
of  the  surface  resembles  that  of  the  Mackerel.  These  also  present 
the  conformation  of  the  jaws  which  has  led  to  their  comparison  with 
the  Pike,  and  even  to  their  being  included  amongst  the  Esocidce  by 
many  ichthyologists'  The  jaws  are  much  produced,  forming  a 
slender  snout,  not  unlike  that  of  the  Gangetic  Crocodile,  and  are 
often  armed  with  strong  teeth.  In  the  genus  HemirainpJuis  the 
lower  jaw  only  is  produced  in  this  manner ;  hence  these  Fishes 
have  received  the  name  of  the  Under  Sword-fish. 

The  Fishes  of  this  family  inhabit  the  sea  exclusively  ;  and  several 
species  are  taken  on  our  coasts,  where  they  are  commonly  known  by 
the  names  of  Garfish,  Sea-pike,  Sea-needle,  &c.  The  commonest 
species,  Bclone  vulgaris  (Fig.  1740)  is  sometimes  called  the 
Mackerel-guide. 


Fig.  1740. — The  Garfish. 

The  Garfish  {Belone  vulgaris).  Sea-pike,  Mackerel-guide. — 
The  Garfish  is  abundant  in  the  seas  of  Europe,  and  is  found  along 
the  coasts  of  Norway  and  Sweden.  In  April  or  May  shoals  of  this 
Fish  visit  the  shores  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  for  the  purpose  of  deposit- 
ing their  spawn ;  and  from  their  appearing  a  short  time  before  the 
Mackerel,  has  arisen  one  of  the  names  appropriated  to  the  species — 
viz.,  Mackerel-guide.  During  their  stay,  which  is  not  of  long  con- 
tinuance, numbers  are  taken  for  the  London  market  ;  their  flesh  has 
some  resemblance  in  flavour  to  that  of  the  Mackerel,  but  is  more 
insipid,  and  their  bones  are  green.  Various  parts  of  the  Irish  coast 
are  visited  by  this  Fish  ;  and,  according  to  Mr.  Couch,  it  is  per- 
manent on  the  Cornish  coast,  though  most  abundant  in  summer. 
Great  numbers  are  taken  off  the  coast  of  Holland  ;  but  the  Garfish  is 
there  only  used  as  a  bait  for  more  valued  kinds. 

As  its  form  would  lead  us  to  predict,  the  Garfish  is  quick  and 
active  in  the  water,  swimming  with  considerable  rapidity  near  the 
surface,  and  leaping  and  gambolling  as  if  in  the  exuberance  of  viva- 
city.    Length,  from  fifteen  inches  to  two  feet. 

The  Flying-fish  (.£',vo(:fi?/'«j  i'6»///(7;zj).^The  Flying-fish  is  met 
with  in  shoals  in  the  warmer  latitudes  of  the  ocean,  and  has  been 
seen  also  off  different  parts  of  our  coast,  although  the  exact  species 
has  not  been  determined. 

Pursued  by  Dorados  and  other  Fishes  of  prey,  the  Flying-fishes 
eijdeavour  to  escape  by  rising  out  of  the  water,  and  skimming 
through  the  air,  an  action  which  they  repeat,  successively  rising  and 
descending,  till  out  of  sight  in  the  distance.  In  the  meantime  their 
pursuers  below  keep  up  the  chase,  while  Gulls  and  Albatrosses 
pounce  upon  them  from  above.  "  The  greatest  length  of  time,"  says 
Mr.    G.    Bennett  ('  Wanderings,'   &c.),    "  that   I    have   seen  these 


Fig.  r74l. — The  Flying-fish, 

volatile  fish  on  the  fiji  has  been  thirty  seconds  by  the  watch,  and 
their  longest  flight,  mentioned  by  Captain  Hall,  has  been  two  hun- 
dred yards,  but  he  thinks  that  subsequent  observation  has  extended 
the  space.      The  most  usual  height  of  flight,   as   seen   above   the 


surface  of  the  water,  is  from  two  to  three  feet,  but  I  have  known 
them  come  on  board  at  a  height  of  fourteen  feet  and  upwards,  and  they 
h.ave  been  well  ascertained  to  come  into  the  channels  of  a  line-of-battle 
ship,  which  is  considered  as  high  as  twenty  feet  and  upwards.  But 
it  must  not  be  supposed  they  have  the  power  of  elevating  themselves 
into  the  air  after  having  left  their  native  element,  for  on  watchin;^ 
them  I  have  often  seen  them  fall  much  below  the  elevation  at  which 
they  first  rose  from  the  water,  but  never  in  any  instance  could  I  ob- 
serve them  raise  themselves  from  the  height  to  which  they  first 
sprang ;  for  I  regard  the  elevation  they  take  to  depend  on  the  power 
of  the  first  spring  or  leap  they  make  on  leaving  their  native  ele- 
ment." The  food  of  these  Fishes  appears  to  consist  of  Molluscs, 
and  small  Fish  ;  their  flesh  is  accounted  of  excellent  flavour,  and  is 
often  eaten  by  mariners.     (See  Fig.  1741.) 

The  following  lines  by  the  celebrated  Irish  Poet,  Thomas  Moore, 
beautifully  describe  the  habits  of  the  Flying-fish  : — 

TO  THE  FLYING-FISH. 
When  I  have  seen  thy  snow-white  wing 
From  the  blue  wave  at  evening  spring. 
And  give  those  scales  of  silvery  white 
So  gaily  to  the  eye  of  light, 
As  if  thy  frame  were  form'd  to  rise, 
And  live  amid  the  glorious  skies  ; 

Oh  !  it  h.is  made  me  proudly  feel, 
How.hke  thy  wing's  impatient  zeal 
Is  the  pure  soul,  that  rests  not,  pent 
Within  this  world's  gross  element. 
But  takes  the  wing  that  God  has  given. 
And  rises  into  light  and  heaven  ! 

But  when  I  see  that  wing,  so  bright. 
Grow  languid  with  a  moment's  flight. 
Attempt  the  paths  of  air  in  vain. 
And  sink  into  the  waves  again  ; 
Alas  !  the  fljltering  pride  is  o'er ; 
Like  thee,  awhile,  the  soul  may  soar. 
But  erring  man  must  blush  to  think. 
Like  thee,  again  the  soul  may  sink. 

O  Virtue  !  when  thy  clime  I  seek. 
Let  not  my  spirit's  flight  be  weak  : 
Let  me  not,  like  this  leeble  thing. 
With  brine  still  drojiping  from  its  wing. 
Just  sparkle  in  the  solar  glow. 
And  jilunge  again  to  depths  below  ; 
But  when  I  leave  the  grosser  throng. 
With  whom  my  soul  hath  dwelt  so  long, 
Let  me,  in  that  a-piring  day, 
Cast  every  lingering  stain  away, 
And  panting  for  thy  purer  air, 
Fly  up  at  once  and  fix  me  there  ! 

The  Aca?iihoJ>tcrygiotis  OT  spiny-finned  division  of  this  sub-order,  is 
characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  single  long  dorsal  fin,  of  which  the 
anterior  portion  is  spinous,  the  posterior  supported  only  on  soft  rays. 
Near  the  extremity  of  each  of  the  spinous  rays  there  is  usually  a 
small  membranous  appendage  ;  and  the  ventral  fins  are  generally 
placed  upon  the  breast  or  throat.  Most  of  them  are  handsome 
Fishes,  frequently  most  beautifully  variegated  with  brilliant  colours  ; 
and  some  are  remarkable  for  the  eccentricity  of  their  forms.  They 
form  three  families. 

The  ChromidfB  are  characterised  by  their  fleshy  lips,  and  by  their 
interrupted  lateral  line,  the  anterior  portion  of  which  terminates 
about  the  middle  of  the  body  ;  whilst  the  anterior  portion  commences 
where  this  disappears,  but  at  some  distance  below  it.  The  greater 
part  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  spinous,  and  the  spines  are  usually  furnished 
with  membranous  appendages ;  the  head  and  body  are  covered  with 
ctenoid  scales  ;  the  edge  of  the  pre-operculum  is  almost  always 
smooth  ;  the  inferior  pharyngeals  are  united  by  a  suture  ;  and  the 
lamina?  of  the  fourth  branchial  arch  are  of  equal  length.  The 
stomach  has  a  ccecum,  but  the  pyloric  caeca  are  wanting. 

The  C/zrowzi/(Z  generally  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of  warm  climates. 
One  small  species  is  caught  in  great  quantities  in  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  and  another,  which  inhabits  the  Nile,  and  attains 
a  length  of  two  feet,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  Fishes  to  be 
found  in  Egypt. 

The  PomacentridcB  resemble  the  Chro7md<B  in  their  general  form, 
and,  like  these,  are  principally  found  in  hot  climates  ;  but  they  are 
exclusively  inhabitants  of  the  sea.  They  have  the  ctenoid  scales  and 
interrupted  lateral  line  of  the  Fishes  of  the  preceding  family,  but  are 
destitute  of  the  fleshy  lips,  and  of  the  appendages  to  the  spiny  rays 
of  the  dorsal  fin.  The  inferior  phar>'ngeal  bones,  also,  are  com- 
pletely fused  together ;  the  fourth  branchial  arch  has  two  rows  of 
unequal  lamina  ;  and  the  pre-operculum  is  usually  toothed,  or  even 
armed  with  spines.  The  stomach  is  furnished  with  a  ccecum,  and 
the  intestines  with  pyloric  appendages. 

In  the  third  familv,  the  Labridcs,  the  fleshy  lips  again  make  their 
appearance,  and  the  body  is  clothed  with  large  cycloid  scales  ;  the 
lateral  line  is  uninterrupted.     The  mouth  is  protrusible,  and  armed 


702 


THE  SPINY-FINNED  FISHES. 


with  formidable  teeth  in  the  jaws  ;  the  palate  is  unarmed  ;  but  the 
lower  pharyngeal  bones,  which,  as  in  the  preceding'  family,  are 
completely  coalescent,  are  furnished  with  broad  grinders.  In  some 
species  (such  as  those  of  the  genus  Scarus),  the  jaws  are  formed 
into  a  sort  of  beak,  which  is  covered  with  a  modification  of  the 
teeth,  giving  them,  in  some  cases,  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the 
beak  of  a  Parrot,  whence  some  of  these  Fishes  are  denominated 
Parrot-tishes.  (See  Fig.  1742.)  The  fourth  branchial  arch  has  only 
a  single  series  of  lamina ;  the  stomach  is  simple,  and  the  pyloric 
cceca  are  wanting. 


Fig.  1742. — Head  and  Mouth  of  the  Parrot-fish. 

The  Labi-ides  are  distributed  in  the  seas  of  most  parts  of  the 
world  ;  they  are  generally  of  moderate  size,  of  a  stout  and  somewhat 
compressed  form,  and  in  many  instances  adorned  with  the  most 
beautiful  colours.  Some  of  our  British  species  scarcely  yield  in  this 
respect  to  those  of  the  Tropical  seas.  They  are  known  by  different 
names  on  different  parts  of  the  coast — Wrasse,  Rock-fish,  &c.  In 
some  places  they  are  called  O/d  Wives  ;  and  the  French  give  them 
a  similar  name.  The  Labrus  niaculatus ,  or  Ballan  Wrasse,  is  a 
common  British  species.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  species  is  the 
Blue-striped  Wrasse  (Z.  variegatus),  of  which  the  general  colour  is 


Fig.  1743. — Labrus  maculatus. 

orange,  becoming  reddish  on  the  back,  yellow  on  the  belly ;  the 
sides  are  striped  with  blue  ;  the  anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  is 
blue,  edged  with  orange,  and  the  hinder  part  orange,  with  blue 
spots.  The  remaining  fins  are  orange,  with  blue  edges.  We  select 
the  British  species  as  a  type  of  the  Labndcs. 

The  Ballan  Wrasse  {Labrus  maculaius). — The  Ballan  Wrasse 
haunts  submarine  rocks  off  our  coast  and  that  of  the  adjacent  con- 
tinent. It  has  been  taken  also  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  It  feeds  on 
various  kinds  of  Crustacea,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Couch,  takes  a 
bait  freely ;  the  fishermen,  he  says,  remark  that  when  they  first  fish 
in  a  place  they  take  but  few,  and  those  few  of  large  size,  but  on 
trying  the  same  spot  a  few  days  afterwards,  they  catch  a  greater 
number,  and  those  smaller,  whence  they  conclude  that  the  laro-e 
Fish  assume  the  dominion  of  a  district  and  keep  the  younger  at  a 
distance.  They  breed  in  April,  and  the  young  are  seen 
swimming  about  the  rocks  in  clear  shallow  water  during  the 
summer. 

The  flesh  of  the  Ballan  Wrasse  is  soft  and  worthless ;  in  beauty 
of  colouring,  however,  it  is  exceeded  by  few.  The  head  and  cheeks 
are  of  a  rich  deep  bluish-green,  reticulated  with  lines  of  fine  orange- 
red.  The  back  and  sides  are  of  a  deep  bluish-green,  becommg 
paler  on  the  belly ;  and  every  scale  is  margined  with  orange-red. 
The  fins  are  spotted  with  verditer,  the  fin-rays  being  reddish-orange. 
Lips  flesh  colour.     Length  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches.     (See  Fig. 

I744-) 

A  fine  specimen  of  this  beautiful  Fish,  some  years  ago,  came 
under  our  immediate  notice.  When  put  into  spirits,  for  the  sake  of 
preservation,  its  fine  blue  tints  began  rapidly  to  fade ;  and  the 
colouring  matter  being  dissolved  by  the  spirits,  rendered  the 
liquor  blue.  In  a  few  days  the  Fish  had  lost  its  splendour,  so  that 
no  idea  could  have  been  formed  from  its  appearance  of  its  original 
colours. 


This  species  is  subject  to  some  variety.  A  specimen  taken  in 
January,  183 1,  in  Swansea  Bay,  was  red,  becoming  pale  orange  on 
the  belly;  the  body  ornamented  with  bluish-green  oval  spots;  the 
fins  and  tail  green,  with  a  few  red  spots  ;  the  dorsal  fin  had  spots 
along  the   base  only.     (See  Yarrell.)      The  specimen  which  came 


Fig.  1744. — The  Ballan  Wrasse. 

under  our  notice  (see  "  Zool.  Proceeds.,"  Dec,  1830,  p.  17)  was 
marked  with  orange,  as  described,  on  a  deep  rich  blue.  Specimens 
may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum. 

Sub-order  IV.— Acanthoptera. 

General  Characters. — This  sub-order  includes  those  of  the 
Acaiithopterygii,  or  Spiny-finned  Fishes  of  Cuvier,  which  have  the 
inferior  pharyngeal  bones  distinctly  separated.  The  rays  of  the  first 
dorsal  fin  are  always  spinous  ;  and  the  first  rays  of  the  remaining 
fins  (with  the  exception  of  the  caudal)  are  often  of  the  same  structure. 
The  membranous  portion  of  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  sometimes  wholly 
or  partially  deficient,  when  the  spinous  rays  stand  freely  on  the  back, 
and  constitute  formidable  defensive  weapons.  The  ventral  fins  are 
almost  always  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  pectorals,  on  the 
breast  or  throat ;  the  bones,  forming  the  upper  jaw,  are  free  and 
movable  ;  and  the  air-bladder,  when  present,  is  completely  closed. 

Sub-divisions. — The  number  of  Fishes  belonging  to  this  sub- 
order, which  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  typical  of  the  class,  is 
exceedingly  great — more  so,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other  of  the 
equivalent  groups ;  the  families,  also,  as  might  be  expected,  are 
rather  numerous,  and  present  a  considerable  diversity  of  structure. 

The  first  of  these  is  rendered  remarkable  by  the  form  assumed  by 
the  heads  of  the  Fishes  composing  it — the  bones  of  the  face,  and 
some  of  those  of  the  head,  being  drawn  out  into  a  longish  tube,  at 
the  extremity  of  which  is  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  which  is  very 
small,  and  composed  of  the  usual  maxillary  and  mandibular  bones 
(Fig.  1745.)  Hence  the  names  of  Sea  Snipes,  Trumpet  Fishes, 
Bellows  Fishes,  &c.,  applied  to  these  Animals;  and  the  scientific 
name  of  the  family,  AulosiomidcB,  also  refers  to  the  same  peculiarity 
of  structure.  The  skin  is  sometimes  naked,  and  sometimes  clothed 
with  small  ctenoid  scales  ;  and  in  one  genus  {Amjihisyle)  the  back 
is  covered  with  large  scaly  plates. 

In  one  genus,  the  spiny  fin-rays  are  entirely  wanting,  and  the 
ventral  fins  are  always  placed  upon  the  belly,  indicating  a  certain 
approach  to  the  Physostoma.  The  first  dorsal  fin  is  sometimes  re- 
presented only  by  a  series  of  small  spines,  running  along  the  back 
of  the  Animal  ;  and  the  second  soft  dorsal  is  placed  far  back,  close 
to  the  tail;  in  other  cases  (Fig.  1745),   the  first  ray  of  the  dorsal  Is 


Fig.  1745.— The  Sea  Snipe. 

produced  into  a  long  spine,  which  is  generally  placed  on  the  back  of 
the  Animal  ;  but  in  the  genus  Amphisyle,  already  referred  to,  this 
spine  forms  the  actual  hinder  extremity  of  the  Animal,  projecting 
backwards  in  the  same  line  as  the  axis  of  the  body,  and  havino-  the 
second  dorsal  and  the  true  caudal  fin  in  front  of  it,  on  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  Fish. 

These  Fishes  are,  for  the  most  part,  inhabitants  of  the  seas  of 
wnrm  climates.  The  species  (Fig.  1745),  Ccntriscus  scolopax,  is 
found  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  most  northern  locality  regularly  in- 
habited by  any  Fish  of  this  family,  although  a  single  specimen  has 
been  cast  ashore  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall.  It  is  about  four  or  five 
inches  long,  reddish  on  the  back  and  sides,  and  silvery  on  the  belly, 


THE  PERCHES. 


?03 


with  more  or  less  of  a  ffolden  tinge.  In  others,  principally  inhabit- 
ing the  eastern  seas,  the  body  is  elongated  and  cylindrical ;  one  of 
these,  the  Tobacco-pipe  Fish  {Fistularia  tabacaria),  attains  a 
length  of  three  feet.  ■ 

The  second  family  of  spiny-finned  Fishes,  the  TrigUdcv,  or  Cafa- 
Mracta,  is  characterised  by  having  tlie  series  of  dermal  bones, 
which  occupy  the  lower  portion  of  the  orbit  (the  itifra-orbitals) 
greatly  expanded  and  coalescent,  forming  bony  plates  which  cover 
the  cheeks,  and  articulate  with  the  pre-operculum.  The  head  is 
also  usually  more  or  less  armed  with  spines  and  other  angular  pro- 
minences, or  furnished  with  membranous  appendages,  which  not  un- 
frequently  give  these  Fishes  a  most  singular  appearance.  The  fins 
are  generally  greatly  developed  ;  the  dorsal  is  sometimes  separated 
into'two  distinct  fins,  and  sometimes  forms  a  single  continuous  fin, 
of  which  the  anterior  portion  is  spinous,  the  posterior  soft.  In  some 
cases,  as  in  the  Common  Sticklebacks  {Gasterosteus),  the  mem- 
branous portion  of  the  first  or  spinous  dorsal  is  wanting,  and  the 
rays  form  a  more  or  less  numerous  series  of  acute  spines  on  the  back 
of  the  Fish.  The  pectoral  fins  are  always  of  large  size,  sometimes 
remarkably  developed,  as  in  the  genus  Dactyloptera  (Fig.    1746), 


Fig.  1746. — Dactyloptera  Mediterranea. 

where  they  attain  such  a  length  as  to  enable  the  animal  to  support 
itself  in  the  air  for  a  short  time.  Hence  these  Fishes  are  commonly 
known  z.s  flying fisli  ;  one  species  is  common  in  the  Mediterranean. 
In  the  common  Gurnards  (Trigld),  which  we  so  often  see  in  the 
fishmongers'  shops,  the  pectoral  fins  are  also  of  considerable  size  ; 
the  three  first  rays  of  each  are  destitute  of  membrane,  and  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  fin,  so  as  to  form  cirri  or  tentacles.  The  ventral 
fins  are  usually  of  small  or  moderate  size,  and  placed  on  the  breast 
beneath  the  pectorals  ;  in  the  Sticklebacks,  they  are  replaced  by  a 
single  strong  spine  on  each  side,  which  constitutes  a  powerful  offen- 
sive weapon  for  these  pugnacious  little  creatures. 

The  skin  is  rarely  naked — usually  covered  with  small  ctenoid 
scales.  In  the  Sticklebacks,  and  some  other  genera,  the  scales  are 
replaced  by  bony  plates  (Fig.  1748).  The  majority  of  these  Fishes 
are  inhabitants  of  the  sea  ;  only  a  few  species  of  the  genera  Gas- 
terosteus,  or  Sticklebacks,  and  Cottus,  or  Bull-heads,  being  found 
in  fresh  water.  The  best  known  species  are  the  Gurnards  [TriglcB), 
of  which  several  species  are  taken  round  the  British  coasts.  Of 
these  the  commonest  is  the  Sapphirine  Gurnard  [T.  hiruado),  which 
may  often  be  seen  in  the  shops,  with  its  broad  pectoral  fins  skewered 
in  a  most  ludicrous  manner  over  its  large  angular  head.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  British  species,  occasionally  measuring  two  feet  in 
length,  and  its  flesh  is  considered  to  be  very  good.  The  Gurnards 
generally  inhabit  deep  water,  from  which  they  are  taken  by  the 
trawl  net  ;  they  may  also  be  caught  by  line-fishing.  The  Bull-heads 
[Cottus),  of  which  several  species  inhabit  the  European  seas,  and 
one  of  which  is  found  commonly  in  our  fresh  waters,  are  remarkable 
for  the  large  size  of  their  heads,  which  are  frequently  armed  with 
spines  in  a  most  formidable  manner.  A  nearly  allied  species,  the 
Aspidophoriis  Em-opaus  (Fig.  1747),  is  {Scorjxeitce),  and  some 
allied  genera,  perhaps  present  the  most  singular  appearance  of  any 
Fishes,  their  heads  being  not  only  armed  with  spines  and  angular 
projections  of  the  most  remarkable  foim,  but  also  frequently  fur- 
nished with  curious  membranous  lobes  and  filaments. 


Fig.  1747. — The  armed  Bull-head. 

The  Sticklebacks  {Gasterostais). — The  most  interesting  species 
of  this  family,  as  regards  their  habits,  are  the  Sticklebacks,  of  whi(  li 
several  are  found  abundantly  in  our  fresh  waters.  They  are  small 
Fishes,  measuring  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length.  The  sides 
are  more  or  less  covered  with  bony  plates  ;  and  those  parts  of  the 
skin  which  are  not  thus  protected,  are  quite  free  from  scales.  These 
little  creatures  present  almost  the   only  known   instance  amongst 


Fishes  in  which  the  parents  take  any  further  care  of  their  offspring- 
than  that  of  depositing  their  ova  in  a  suitable  place,  the  young  fry 
being  usually  left  to  shift  for  themselves  as  soon  as  they  are  excluded. 
The  Stickleback,  on  the  contrary,  seems  to  approach  the  Birds  in 
the  attention  which  it  pays  to  the  protection  of  its  young  from  danger. 
About  the  time  of  oviposition,  the  male  takes  possession  of  some 
particular  spot  in  the  pond  which  he  inhabits,  and  this  he  defends 
with  the  greatest  pertinacity,  attacking  all  intruders  on  his  domain 
with  great  fury,  and  endeavouring  to  wound  them  with  the  ventral 
spines.  According  to  an  observer,  quoted  by  Mr.  Yarrcll,  he  even 
sometimes  succeeds  in  ripping  up  and  destroying'  his  opponent  by 
means  of  these  formidable  weapons.  The  object  of  all  tins  exertion 
soon  becomes  apparent  ;  the  Fish  begins  to  collect  small  fragments 
of  vegetable  matter,  with  which  he  forms  a  sort  of  nest.  In  this  the 
female  deposits  her  spawn  ;  and  it  seems  not  improbable,  that  during 
the  operation  of  nest-building,  the  male  Fish  endues  the  materials  of 
his  nest  with  the  milt,  as  he  is  observed  to  pass  frequently  over  the 
nest  whilst  in  progress,  apparently  exuding  a  glutinous  matter  at 
each  time  of  so  doing.  Be  this  as  it  may,  after  the  deposition  of  the 
ova,  the  male  still  keeps  watch  over  his  treasure,  attacking  all  in- 
truders with  the  same  ferocity  as  before.  Nor  does  his  care  cease 
when  the  young  fry  are  evolved  :  he  still  continues  to  watch,  and 
carries  back  any  incautious  straggler  to  the  security  of  the  nest.  It 
is  very  singular  that,  in  every  case,  it  is  the  male  that  takes  upon 
himself  all  the  duties  of  nidification. 

The  Gasierosteus  spinachia,  or  Fifteen-spined  Stickleback,  a 
marine  species  which  is  not  uncommon  round  our  coasts,  also  forms 
a  nest  for  its  ova.  The  Common  Stickleback  {G.  trachurus),  which 
has  three  spines  on-  the  back,  and  bony  plates  along  the  whole 
length  of  its  sides,  is  found  both  in  salt  and  fresh  water.  It  is  found 
in  the  sluggish  streams  and  pools  of  the  Lincolnshire  fens,  in  such 
vast  quantities  that  it  is  occasionally  employed  as  manure.  Mr. 
Yarrell  gives  the  following  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Fifteen- 
spined  Stickleback,  as  supplied  by  Mr.  Couch.  "  It  keeps  near 
rocks  and  stones  covered  with  seaweeds,  among  which  it  lakes  refuge 
upon  any  alarm.  Though  less  active  than  its  brethren  of  the  fresh  water, 
it  is  scarcely  less  rapacious.  On  one  occasion  I  noticed  a  specimen 
six  inches  in  length  engaged  in  taking  its  prey  from  a  clump  of  ore- 
weed,  during  which  it  assumed  every  posture  from  the  horizontal 
and  perpendicular,  with  its  head  downward  or  upward,  thrusting  its 
snout  into  the  crevices  of  the  stems,  and  seizing  its  prey  with  a 
spring.  Having  taken  this  fish  with  a  net,  and  transferred  it  to  a 
vessel  of  water  in  company  with  an  Eel  three  inches  in  length,  it  was 
not  long  before  the  latter  was  attacked,  and  devoured  head  foremost ; 
not  indeed  altogether,  for  the  Eel  -ft'as  too   large  a  morsel   to   be 


Fig.  1748. — The  Fifteen  spined  Stickleback. 

managed,  so  that  the  tail  remained  hanging  out  of  the  mouth  ;  and 
it  was  obliged  at  last  to  disgorge  the  eel  partly  digested.  It  also 
seized  from  the  surface  a  moth  that  fell  on  the  water,  but  threw  up 
the  wings.  The  effect  of  the  passions  on  the  colour  of  the  skin  of 
this  species  is  remarkable ;  and  the  specimen  now  spoken  of,  under 
the  influence  of  terror,  from  a  dark  olive  with  golden  sides,  changed 
to  pale  for  eighteen  hours,  when  it  as  suddenly  regained  its  former 
tints.  It  spawns  in  spring,  and  the  young,  not  half  an  inch  in  length, 
are  seen  in  considerable  numbers  at  the  margin  of  the  sea  in  summer. " 
(See  Fig.  1748.) 

The  Perches— Family  Percidce. 

The  vast  family  of  the  Perches,  or  Percfda-,  of  which  the  Common 
Perch  may  be  taken  as  the  type,  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
by  the  freedom  and  small  size  of  the  infra-orbital  bones  in  the  Fishes 
of  which  it  is  composed.  The  mouth  is  large,  and  jaws,  vomer,  and 
palatine  bones  are  armed  \\'ith  numerous  small  teeth,  amongst  which, 
a  few  longer  fangs  are  often  present.  The  head  is  generally  free 
from  those  angles  and  spines,  which  give  so  many  of  the  Catapliracta 


704 


THE  PERCHES. 


such  a  remarkable  appearance  ;  but  the  edges  of  the  opercula  and 
pre-opercula  are  usually  toothed,  or  even  armed  with  spines  ;  and  if 
either  of  these  bones  be  smooth  at  the  margin,  the  other  is  always 
toothed.  The  fins  are  well  developed  ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  sometimes 
continuous  (Fig.  1749,  the  Japan  Perch),  sometimes  divided  into 
two  parts ;  the  ventrals  are  placed  either  on  the  breast  or  throat. 
The  skin  is  clothed  with  ctenoid  scales,  the  free  surface  of  which  is 
often  beset  with  spiny  processes.  The  branchiostegous  rays  are 
generally  seven  in  number ;  sometimes  more,  but  very  rarely 
fewer. 


Fig.  1749. — Priacanthus  japonicus. 

The  PercidcB  are  generally  handsome  Fishes,  often  of  consider- 
able size,  and  have  beautiful  colours.  They  abound  in  the  seas  of 
most  parts  of  the  world,  but  some  species  only  live  in  fresh 
water. 


Fig.  1750.— The  Perch. 

The  Common  Perch  {Percafluviatms  Fig.  1750).— This  is  the 
best  known  species  of  the  family,  and  is  a  very  common  denizen  of 
almost  every  piece  of  clear  fresh  water.  It  is  one  of  the  best  and 
handsomest  of  our  fresh-water  Fishes.  Its  body  is  broad  and 
compressed  ;  the  back  has  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  anterior  is 
supported  upon  stiff,  sharp,  spinous  rays,  which  are  said  to  serve  as 
a  defence  even  against  the  voracity  of  the  Pike.  The  colour  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  is  greenish-brown,  gradually  passino-  to  a 
golden  yellowish-white  on  the  belly  ;  and  the  sides  are  adorne°d  with 
from  five  to  seven  broad  blackish  bands  ;  the  dorsal  and  pectoral  fins 
are  brownish,  and  the  ventral,  anal,  and  caudal  fins  of  a  brjc^ht  Ver- 
million colour,  which  adds  great  liveliness  to  the  appearanc?  of  the 
irisn.     Ihe  Perch  does  not  usually  attain  a  large  size,  one  of  three 


or  four  pounds  being  considered  a  heavy  Fish  ;  but  a  few  instances 
of  the  capture  of  Perch  twice  this  weight  are  on  record  ;  and  Pennant 
mentions  his  having  heard  of  a  specimen,  taken  in  the  Serpentine, 
which  weighed  nine  pounds. 

Mr.  Yarrell  gives  many  instances  of  enormous  Perch,  having  been 
taken  in  different  places,  varying  from  five  to  nine  pounds  in  weight. 
The  flesh  of  the  Perch  is  firm,  white,  and  of  good  flavour.  The 
spawning  time  is  at  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May.  The  roe 
of  a  small  Perch,  only  half  a  pound  in  weight,  has  been  found  to 
contain  280,000  eggs.  The  form  and  colours  of  the  Perch  are  too 
well  known  to  need  description.  We  may  observe,  however,  that 
there  are  two  external  openings  to  each  nostril,  surrounded  by  the 
orifices  of  numerous  mucous  ducts,  from  which  oozes  a  secretion  for 
defending  the  skin  from  the  action  of  the  water.  On  this  Mr.  Yar- 
rell remarks,  "  the  distribution  of  the  numerous  orifices  over  the  liead 
is  one  of  those  beautiful  and  advantageous  provisions  of  nature, 
which  are  so  often  to  be  observed  and  admired.  Whether  the  fish 
inhabits  the  stream  or  the  lake,  the  current  of  water  in  one  instance, 
or  progression  through  it  in  the  other,  carries  this  defensive  secre- 
tion backwards  and  spreads  it  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  body. 
In  fishes  with  small  scales  this  defensive  secretion  is  more  abundant 
in  proportion  ;  and  in  those  species  which  have  the  body  elongated, 
as  the  eels,  the  mucous  orifices  may  be  observed  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  lateral  line." 

As  the  Perch  bites  freely,  it  is  much  sought  after,  especially  by 
young  anglers.  Like  the  other  species  of  the  family,  it  is  an 
exceedingly  voracious  Fish,  feeding  indiscriminately  upon  any 
animal  it  can  master,  especially  Worms,  Insects,  and  small  Fishes. 
It  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  will  live  for  a  considerable  time  out 
of  the  water.  Mr.  Yarrell  states,  that  in  Catholic  countries,  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  bring  the  Perch  to  market  alive,  when,  if  not 

sold,  they  are  returned  to  the  ponds 
from  which  they  were  taken,  to  remain 
there  until  they  are  again  wanted. 
Another  fresh-water  species,  the  Sander 
{Lucioperca  sandra),  is  common  in 
Germany  and  the  east  of  Europe.  It  is 
of  a  much  more  elongated  form  than 
the  Perch,  and  attains  a  length  of  three 
or  four  feet ;  its  flesh  is  considered  ex- 
cellent. A  small  species,  nearly  resem- 
bling the  Perch  in  its  general  form,  but 
having  a  continuous  dorsal  fin,  is 
found  in  almost  all  the  rii'ers  of  this 
country.  This  is  the  Ruffe  {Aceriiia 
vulgaris) ;  it  rarely  exceeds  seven  or 
eiglit  inches  in  length,  but  its  flesh  is 
said  to  be  very  good. 

Of  the  marine  species,  very  few  are 
found  in  the  British  seas.  The  best 
known  of  these  is  the  Basse  (Labrax 
lupus),  sometimes  called  the  Sea  Perch. 
Tiie  Basse  is  exceedingly  abundant  in 
the  Mediterranean,  which  is  also  inha- 
bited by  several  other  Fishes  of  this 
family,  some  of  them  of  large  size.  The 
following  is  a  more  particular  description 
of  this  Fish  : — 

The  Basse  {Labrax  lupus  ;  Perca 
labrax,  Linn.) — In  its  generic  charac- 
ters, Labrax  closely  approximates  to 
Perca  ;  the  cheeks,  praeoperculum  and 
operculum  are  covered  with  scales  ;  the 
praeoperculum  is  notched  below,  and 
serrated  posteriorly;  the  operculum 
ends  in  two  points  directed  backwards ; 
the  tongue  is  covered  with  small  teeth. 

This   Basse   may  be  regarded   as  a 

Marine  Perch,  and  was  known  to  the 

Greeks  by  the  name  of  Labrax  (Xa/lpaK), 

from    Labros    (Xa/3pof),    voracious;    the 

Romans,  from   its    disposition,     called 

it  Lupus,  or  Wolf.    It  was  caught  abun- 

,,        ,  .  dantly  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  highly 

esteemed  for  the  table.      It  is  found  along  the  whole  line  of  our 

southern  coast,   and  in  St.   George's  and  the  Bristol  Channel      It 

also  frequents  the  eastern   shore   of  the    Irish   coast.     The    Basse 

associates    in  shoals,  which,   at    the  spawning  time,    frequent    the 

mouths  of  rivers,  or  even  advance  up  the  stream  to  a  considerable 

distance  ;  indeed,  as  has  been  proved  by  Mr.   Arnold,  this  Fish  will 

not  only  live,  but  thrive  m  fresh  water  altogether,  the  flesh  acquiring  a 

superior    flavour.     This   Fish    generally   measures    from  twelve    to 

f '^:f,'^en   'nches  in   length,  but  is  often  caught  much  larger,  and 

NVillughby  states  that  individuals  have  been  captured  of  the  weight 

of  fifteen   pounds.     Its  food  consists  of  small   Fishes  and   various 

Crustaceans  ;  and,   as  it  takes  the  bait  freely,   it  may  be   captured 

with  the  rod  and  hue.     Ihe  net  is  most  generally  employed. 


THE  PERCHES,  MULLETS,  &>c. 


70s 


iu  its  form  this  Fish  is  more  elongated  than  the  Perch.  The 
nostrils  have  two  orifices ;  the  mucous  pores  are  numerous.  The 
~al  colour  of  the  back  is  dusky  blue,  passmg  on  the  under- 
^arts  tnto  silvery  white  ;  the  fins  are  brown  ;  the  indcs  silvery ;  the 
scales  are  moderate,  and  adhere  firmly.     (See  Fig.  1751). 

We  have  separated  from  the  Pcrcidca  of  Professor  MuUer  the 
three  following  small  families,  as  they  appear  to  possess  characters 
of  ■sufficient  value  to  justify  such  a  proceeding. 

7^  Trachuudcv,^^^o^vn  in  England  as  the  tVcevcrs  have  two 
dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  anterior  is  small,  but  very  strongly  spinous  ; 
fhe  ventm  fins  are  situated  in  front  of  the  pectorals  on  the  throat; 
and  insead  of  thorough  ctenoid  scales  of  the  True  Perches  the 
skin  IS  covered  with  smooth  cycloid  scales.  They  are  generally  of 
an  elongated  form,  with  a  broad  head,  on  which  the  eyes  are  p  aced 
fn  such  a  manner  as  to  look  more  or  less  upwards;  in  fact,  one 
eenus  has  received  the  name  of  Um,wscoJ>us,  or  Star-gazer,  from 
•  ^iTs  circumstance.  The  second  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  of  nearly 
equal  length,  and  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  of  the  body  ;  the  anus  is  thrown  very  far  forwards.  They 
have  no  air-bladder. 


Fig.  1751. — Head  of  the  Basse, 

The  strong  spines,  with  which  the  first  dorsal  fin  and  the  opercula 
of  these  Fishes  are  armed,  enable  them  to  inflict  severe  wounds 
upon  those  who  handle  them  incautiously  ;  and  the  effects  of  these 
wounds  are  so  exceedingly  painful,  that  there  is  a  general  belief 
amongst  the  fishermen  that  the  species  possesses  some  venomous 
property.  Two  species  are  found  in  the  British  seas  ;  the  largest  of 
which,  the  TracJihiiis  draco,  attains  a  length  of  twelve  or  eighteen 
inches.  They  appear  to  prefer  deep  water,  and  are  very  voracious 
in  their  habit.^i.  They  live  for  a  considerable  time  after  being  taken 
out  of  the  water ;  and  the  flesh — at  least,  that  of  the  larger  species — 
is  highly  esteemed. 

A  second  small  family,  which  is  still  included  with  the  Percidcshy 
many  authors,  is  composed  of  the  Mullets  {Mnilidcs).  They  agree 
with  the  Perches  in  the  position  of  their  fins  ;  but  the  opercular 
bones  are  entirely  unarmed,  and  the  branchiostegal  membrane  has 
only  four  rays.  The  scales  are  very  large,  and  readily  fall  off ; 
their  hinder  margins  have  scarcely  any  indications  of  the  ctenoid 
structure.  In  most  of  the  species  the  under  jaw  is  furnished  with 
cirri. 

A  well-known  example  of  this  group  is  the  Common  Red  Mullet 
{Mulitts  surmulletus),  which  is  often  taken  in  considerable  num- 
bers off  the  British  coasts.  The  Mullet,  although  comparatively  a 
small  Fish,  is  in  high  esteem  ;  its  flesh  is  white,  firm,  well-flavoured, 
and  easy  of  digestion.  Amongst  the  epicures  of  ancient  Rome,  its 
reputation  stood  very  high  ;  and  large  sums  were  often  paid  by 
them  for  particularly  fine  Fish.  Thus,  a  Mullet  of  six  pounds  is 
said  to  have  produced  a  sum  equal  to  ;^48  sterling ;  and  a  larger 
one  as  much  as  ^64  ;  whilst  no  less  than  ;^240  were  given  for  three 
large  Mullets,  which  were  procured  on  the  same  occasion,  for  a 
repast  of  more  than  usual  magnificence,  according  to  Yarrell.  The 
Romans  also  kept  Mullets  in  glass  vases  ;  but  these  appear  to  have 
been  specimens  of  the  smaller  species,  the  MiiUiis  harbatus  (Fig. 
1707  ante),  which  is  of  a  still  more  beautiful  colour  than  the  Common 
Mullet  of  our  shops.  Both  species  are  abundant  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  occur  also  in  the  British  seas,  although  here  the  AT 
barbatus  is  far  from  being  common. 


The  third  of  these  groups,  which  were  referred  by  MuUcr  and 
Cuvier  to  the  Perches,  is  the  family  of  Sphyrcr7tidcr,  of  which  a  few 
species  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  although  the  greater  num- 
ber live  in  the  seas  of  Tropical  climates.  The  Fishes  of  this  family 
are  of  an  elongated  form,  somewhat  resembling  the  Pikes  [Esocidcv], 
with  which  Linnaius  placed  those  species  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  :  in  the  form  of  the  head  and  jaws,  and  the  formidable  nature 
of  the  teeth,  they  also  somewhat  remind  one  of  those  soft-finned 
Fishes.  They  are,  however,  furnished  with  two  dorsal  fins,  separated 
by  a  considerable  interval,  of  which  the  anterior  is  strongly  spinous  ; 
and  the  air-bladder  is  completely  closed.  They  differ  from  the 
PercidcB  in  having  the  ventral  fins  placed  on  the  belly,  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  behind  the  pectorals  ;  the  margins  of  the  opercula 
and  pre-opercula  perfectly  smooth  ;  and  the  scales,  which  cover  not 
only  the  body,  but  also  the  sides  of  the  head,  of  the  description 
called  cycloid. 

The   SphyrcsnidcB  are   all   exceedingly  predaceous  Fishes,    and 
some  of  them  attain  a  considerable  size.     The  best  known  species, 
the  Sphyrcena  vulgaris,  which  appears  to  be  tolerably  common  in 
the  Mediterranean,  often  measures  as  much  as  three  feet  in  length, 
and  is  a  handsome,   silvery  Fish,  with  a  bronzed  or  bluish  back. 
It  is  said  that  the  fluid  called  "  essence  d' orient,"  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artificial  pearls,  is  prepared  from  the  scales  of  this  tish, 
too-ether  with  the  minute  silvery   particles   of  its   air-bladder.     A 
sp1;cies  inhabiting  the  seas  of  Tropical  America,  the  S.  barracuda, 
grows  to  a  much   larger  size,  and  is  almost  as  much  dreaded  as  the 
Shark,  by  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries.     Its  flesh  is  said  to  be 
exceedingly  good,  and  not  unlike  that  of  the  Pike ;  it  is  eaten  both 
salted  and  fresh.     At  certain  times,  however,  it  is  found  to  be  un- 
wholesome ;  and  this  quality  is  said  to  be  derived  from  its  feeding  at 
those  periods  upon  the  fruit  of  the  manchineel-tree,  although  this 
appears  to  be  exceedingly  improbable.     The  symptoms  produced  by 
eating  it,  when   thus  out  of  condition,   are   sickness,   nausea,  and 
violent  pains  in  the  joints  ;  the  latter  are  said  to  have  lasted  for 
twenty-five  years,  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  hair  and  of  the  nails.     It 
is  asserted  that  the  poisonous  individuals  may  be  recognised  by  the 
bitterness  of  the  liver,  and  by  the  flowing  of  a  white  fluid  from  them 
when  cut;  when  salted,  they  are  said  to  lose  their  injurious  pro- 
perties. .  . 

The  Scicenidcs  are  also  neariy  allied  to  the  Perches,  with  which 
they  agree  in  the  arrangement  of  their  fins,  and  in  having  the 
opercula  and  pre-opercula  dentated;  but  the  vomer  and  palatine 
bones,  which,  in  the  Percidce,  are  always  armed  with  teeth,  are 
toothless  in  these  Fishes.  Some  of  the  bones  of  the  head  are  inflated 
and  cavernous,  giving  a  more  or  less  convex  appearance  to  the 
forehead  ;  the  mouth  is  large,  and  the  jaws  are  usually  armed  with 
powerful  fangs,  interspersed  amongst  the  smaller  teeth.  '1  he  body 
is  always  covered  with  ctenoid  scales,  which,  as  in  the  Sphynxnida:, 
frequently  extend  over  the  head.  The  air-bladder  is  of  very  singular 
construction  ;  it  is  completely  closed,  and  furnished  with  numerous 
ccecal  appendages,  which  are  often  branched,  and  sometimes 
surround  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  fringed 
bag.  This  peculiar  form  of  the  air-bladder  is  very  striking  in  the 
Maigre  {Scicena  aqiiild),  as  figured  by  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes, 
and  by  Mr.  Yarrell. 

The  ScicenidcB  are  large  and  powerful  rapacious  Fishes.  The 
species  just  referred  to  is  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  occurs 
occasionally  on  our  own  coasts,  where  specimens  upwards  of  five 
feet  in  length  have  been  taken.  In  the  Mediterranean,  it  often 
grows  to  six  feet.  Its  flesh  is  considered  pretty  good,  and  was  in 
great  repute  with  the  Roman  epicures. 

The  Maigres  swim  in  small  shoals,  uttering  a  peculiar  grunting 
noise,  which  is  said  to  be  audible  even  when  the  Fishes  are  at  a  con- 
siderable depth.  When  taken,  their  strength  often  renders  their 
struggles  very  inconvenient  in  the  boats,  as  they  are  said  to  be 
capable  of  knocking  over  their  captors.  To  avoid  such  a  disagree- 
able interruption  to  their  labours,  the  fishermen  usually  knock  them 
on  the  head  as  soon  as  they  are  got  into  the  boat.  The  bones  of  the 
ear  in  the  Sciconidai,  are  usually  larger  than  in  most  other  Fishes, 
and,  in  former  days,  extraordinary  properties  were  attributed  to  them  ; 
they  were  said  to  prevent  and  cure  the  colic,  and  for  this  reason  were 
often  honoured  with  a  gold  setting,  and  suspended  from  the  neck. 
It  was  necessary,  however,  that  the  colic-sto72e,  as  it  was  called, 
should  have  been  presented  to  the  wearer,  otherwise  it  was  of  no 
efiScacy.  Numerous  species  of  this  family  inhabit  the  seas  of  the 
warmer  regions,  and  many  of  them  furnish  excellent  food. 

The  Sparidw,  in  their  general  form,  and  in  their  toothless  palates, 
present  a  great  similarity  to  the  Fishes  of  the  preceding  family ; 
but  the  bones  of  their  opercula  are  not  toothed  or  spinous,  and  the 
forehead  does  not  exhibit  the  inflated  appearance  characteristic  of 
the  Sa'anidcc.  The  ctenoid  structure  of  the  scales  is  very  indistinct 
in  this  family  ;  the  scales,  as  in  the  preceding  family,  cover  the  sides 
of  the  head,  but  never  extend  over  any  portion  of  the  fins.  The  body 
is  usually  broad  and  much  compressed,  with  a  single  long  dorsal  fin, 
of  which  the  anterior  portion  is  supported  upon  strong  spinous  rays; 
the  ventral  fins  are  placed  on  the  breast,  under  the  pectorals.  The 
1  teeth  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  acute  fangs,  of  which  some  are 

4X 


7o5 


THE  MACKEREL  FAMILY. 


often  of  considerable  size  ;  whilst,  in  other  species,  they  are  broad 
and  rounded,  constitutinga  powerful  grinding  apparatus,  with  which 
the  Fishes,  thus  provided,  crush  the  hard  shells  of  the  MoHusca,  on 
which  they  principally  feed. 

The  SparidcB  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  and  most  of  them  are 
found  in  warm  climates,  although  the  Mediterranean  possesses 
several  species  ;  and  a  few  are  not  unknown  on  our  own  coasts. 
They  are  divisible  into  two  groups,  which,  in  fact,  were  regarded  as 
distinct  families  by  Cuvier.  In  one  of  these  groups  (the  Mccnides) 
the  mouth  is  protrusible,  the  pedicles  of  tlie  intermaxillary  bones 
being  very  long,  so  as  to  give  the  upper  jaw  a  considerable  power 
of  motion.  Some  species  are  very  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean  ; 
but  their  flesh  is  very  little  esteemed.  A  West  Indian  species 
{Gerrcs  rhombeus)  is  said  occasionally  to  find  its  way  to  the   coast 


Fig.  1752. — The  Braize  or  Becker. 

of  Cornwall,  accompanying  pieces  of  wood  covered  with  barnacles, 
which  are  conveyed  across  the  ocean  by  the  currents. 

In  the  other  group  (the  True  Sparides),  the  upper  jaw  is  firmly 
attached  to  the  head,  and  not  protrusible  ;  of  these,  several  species 
are  occasionally  taken  off  the  British  coasts.  Some  of  them  attain 
a  length  of  upwards  of  two  feet ;  and  several  are  highly  prized  as 
food  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  as  the  Braize  or 
Becker  [Pagriis  vulgaris,  or  Sparies  pagrtis.  See  Fig.  1752), 
where  they  occur  in  great  abundance.  They  appear  to  be  voracious 
Fishes,  feeding  on  Mollnsca,  Crustacea,  and  small  Fishes  ;  but 
some  of  them  vary  this  diet  by  devouring  sea-weeds,  which  they 
tear  from  the  rocks. 

The  great  family  of  the  Chcstodo?iiidcs  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  groups  by  the  exceedingly  compressed  form  of  the  body, 
and  by  the  singular  manner  in  which  the  soft  parts  of  the  perpendi- 
cular fins  are  clothed  with  scales,  often  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
boundary  between  the  body  and  fin  is  quite  undiscoverable  (Fig.  1753). 
The  Fishes  of  this  family  are  generally  of  a  discoid  form,  like  many 
of  the  common  Flat  Fishes,  but  the  eyes  are  placed  on  each  side  of 
the  head  ;  both  sides  of  the  body  are  similarly  coloured,  and  the 
Fishes  swim  upright  in  the  water.  The  mouth  is  usually  small,  and 
furnished  with  bristle-like  teeth  ;  in  a  few  species  it  is  larger,  and 


F'S-  '753 — Hcniochus  moiwcerns. 


armed  with  cutting  teeth,  or  fangs.  The  whole  body,  including  the 
sides  of  the  head,  and  the  base  of  the  median  fins,  are  covered  with 
ctenoid  scales  ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  single,  with  a  few,  usually  short, 
spinous  rays  at  its  anterior  part.  The  first  soft  rays  of  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  are  sometimes  produced  into  long  filaments,  or  the  fins 
themselves  are  very  long,  and  pointed  anteriorly,  gradually  de- 
creasing in  depth  towards  the  hinder  part  of  the  body,  so  that  the 
whole  Fish  assumes  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  the  tail  projecting 
from  the  centre  of  the  concavity.  The  ventral  fins  are  placed  under 
the  pectorals. 

The  Chatodontida:  are  generally  of  small  or  moderate  size,  and 
most  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  the  Tropical  seas.  They  are  re- 
markable for  the  exceedingly  magnificent  colours  with  which  they 
are  generally  adorned,  and  which  are  rendered  still  more  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  by  the  broad  black  bands  which,  in  most  cases,  traverse  the 
body  from  the  dorsal  to  the  ventral  margin.  One  of  these  bands 
generally  passes  down  the  region  of  the  eye. 

The  flesh  of  these  Fishes  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  delicate  and 
well  flavoured.  Only  a  single  species  (the  Brama  rati)  inhabits 
the  British  seas,  where  it  is,  by  no  means,  common  ;  although  in 
the  Mediterranean,  it  occurs  in  great  abundance.  It  is  said  occa- 
sionally to  measure  two  feet  six  inches  in  length  ;  but  the  largest 
specimen  seen  by  Mr.  Yarrell  did  not  exceed  sixteen  .inches.  Its 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed.  A  singular  species,  the  Chehnon  ros- 
trafus,  inhabiting  the  Chinese  seas,  has  the  jaws  very  much  pro- 
longed, forming  a  sort  of  beak,  but  so  inclosed  in  the  skin,  that  only 
a  small  opening  is  left  at  its  extremity  for  the  mouth.  This  Fish  is 
said  to  exhibit  a  very  curious  instinct ;  it  projects  a  drop  of  water 
from  its  mouth  at  any  insect  that  it  perceives  within  reach  of  such  a 
missile,  so  as  to  bring  it  down  into  the  water,  where,  of  course,  it 
falls  an  easy  prey  to  its  dexterous  assailant.  The  Chinese  keep 
these  Fishes  in  basins,  and  amuse  themselves  by  watching  their 
efforts  to  bring  down  a  fly,  suspended  over  them  by  a  thread.  A 
Javanese  species,  the  Toxotes  jaciilator,  which  has  a  wide  mouth, 
with  the  lower  jaw  considerably  prolonged,  exhibits  the  same  pecu- 
liar instinct ;  it  is  said  to  throw  the  water  to  a  height  of  three  or  four 
feet,  and  rarely  to  miss  its  aim. 

The  family  Tcuthidce  includes  a  small  number  of  Fishes,  w'hich  are 
all  inhabitants  of  the  seas  of  hot  climates,  and  which  are  remarkable 
for  having  the  sides  of  the  tail  armed,  either  with  several  sharp 
prickles,  or  with  a  large  curved  spine  (Fig.  1754).  They  are  of  a 
broad  compressed  form,  with  a  single  dorsal  fin,  in  front  of  which 


Fig.  1754. — The  Surgeon  Fish. 

there  is  often  a  free  spine.  The  body  is  covered  with  ctenoid  scales, 
which,  however,  do  not  extend  over  any  part  of  the  fins ;  and  the 
jaws  are  furnished  with  a  single  series  of  cutting  teeth. 

The  Teuthidoi  are  Herbivorous  Fishes,  feeding  upon  sea-weeds. 
The  species  with  spinous  tails,  if  incautiously  handled,  inflict  severe 
wounds  upon  their  captors  ;  and  the  common  West  Indian  species 
{Acanthiirus  chirurgus)  has  received  the  name  of  the  surgeon, 
from  this  circumstance. 

The  next  four  families  were  included  by  Cuvier  in  a  single  group. 
They  are  all  composed  of  active  Fishes,  with  powerful  fins  and 
smooth  bodies,  usually  covered  with  small  scales,  which  are  often 
concealed  in  the  skin  ;  the  opercula  are  unarmed.  The  pyloric  coeca 
are  numerous. 

The  Mackerels — Family  Scombcridce. 

In  the  great  family  of  the  Scomberidce,  or  Mackerels,  many  of 
which  are  of  such  great  importance  as  food,  the  skin  is  sometimes 
quite  naked,  occasionally  more  or  less  clothed  with  cycloid  scales  ; 
and  the  tail,  which  is  slender,  and  furnished  with  a  powerful,  usually 
forked,  fin,  is  almost  always  marked  with  scaly  ridges.  The  Fishes  of 
this  family  have  sometimes  one,  and  even  two  dorsal  fins  ;  in  some 
cases  the  spinous  rays  of  the  first  dorsal  are  very  short,  and  desti- 
tute of  membrane  ;  in  others,  the  fin  is  well  developed,  and  the  rays 
are  furnished  with  long  filamentous  appendages  (Fig.  1755).  The 
second  dorsal,  and  the  anal,  also  exhibit  a  considerable  diversity  of 
structure  ;  the  spinous  portion  of  the  anal  fin  is  frequently  separated 
from  the  soft  part ;  and  the  latter,  both  in  the  anal  and  second 
dorsal,  may  either  form  an  entire  fin,   or  give  rise  to  a  series  of 


TTTE  MACKEREL  FAMILY. 


707 


small  fins,  runninq:  alonff  tlic  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  the  tail— a 
structure  which  is  readily  seen  in  the  Common  Mackerel.  Ihe 
teeth  are  generally  confined  to  the  jaws  ;  they  are  almost  always 
acute  and  often  of  large  size. 

The  Fishes  of  this  family  are  all  marine,  and  usually  prcdaceous 
in  their  habits.  In  the  form  of  their  bodies,  they  present  two  dis- 
tinct types,  which  might  perhaps  be  regarded  as  sufficient  for  their 
division  into  two  families.  In  one,  the  Zem'dcs,  the  body  is  short, 
broad,  and  compressed,  presenting  a  great  resemblance  in  form  to 
the  Chatodontidcc,  with  which  these  Fishes  also  agree  in  the  consi- 
derable development  of  the  perpendicular  fins,  that  are  often  fur- 
nished with  filamentous  processes.  The  mouth  is  usually  protrusible, 
and  the  teeth  small  and  weak. 

Of  this  group,  the  commonest  species  is  the  Doree,  or  John  iJory 
iZcusfabcr,  Fig.  1756),  which  is  taken  abundantly  on  our  southern 
coasts,  and  was  regarded  by  the  epicure  Quin  as  such  a  dehcacy. 


Mr. 
'  that 


round  whitish  spots ;  the  fins  are  of  a  fine  vermilion  colour. 
Yarrell  tells,  that  a  person,  looking  at  a  specimen,  observed,^ 
it  looked  like  one  of  Neptune's  lords  dressed  for  a  court  day." 

The  second  division  of  the  family,  the  Scombcrtdcs,  includes  a 
great  number  of  exceedingly  valuable  Fishes,  which  present  more 
or  less  resemblance  to  the' Common  Mackerel.  The  body,  instead 
of  being  compressed,  is  elongated  and  spindle-shaped,  or  occa- 
sionally almost  cylindrical  ;  the  mouth  is  large,  not  protrusible,  and 
frequently  armed  with  large  teeth.  The  type  of  this  section  is  the 
Common  Mackerel. 

The  Mackerel  {Scomber  sconibrus). — This  beautiful  Fish  re- 
splendent in  green  and  silver  barred  with  a  dusky  tint,  is  well  known 
for  its  excellence  as  an  article  of  food,  prized  alike  at  the  table  of 
the  wealthy  and  of  the  humble.     (See  Fig.   1757.) 

The  Mackerel  approaches  the  coast  in  large  shoals,  and  it  was 


FiS-  I755-— The  Blephaiis. 

that  it  was  worth  the  trouble  of  a  journey  from  Bath  to  Plymouth, 
then  by  coach,  and  back  again,  in  order  to  eat  Doree  boiled  in  sea- 
water.  The  origin  of  the  English  name  of  this  Fish  has  frequently 
exercised  the  ingenuity  of  zoological  etymologists  ;  but  the  most 
rational  derivation  appears  to  be  from  the  French  doree,  or  jaune 
doree,  which  refers  to  the  golden-yellow  colour  of  the  Fish  when 
fresh.  Roman  Catholic  legends  point  to  it  as  the  Fish  from  which 
St.  Peter  took  the  tribute-money  ;  the  black  marks  on  its  sides  being 
ascribed  to  the  pressure  of  the  Apostle's  fingers.  Hence  it  is  known 
in  several  countries  of  Europe  as  SL  Peter's  Fish;  although  the 
Haddock,  which  also  exhibits  a  blackish  mark  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  is  considered  by  many  to  dispute  its  title  to  this  honour.  The 
Doree  attains  a  weight  of  ten  or  twelve  pounds  ;  but  the  ordinary 
weight  of  those  brought  to  the  London  market,  is  between  four  and 
six  pounds. 

Two  other  species  of  this  section  of  the  family  are  occasionally 
taken  in  the  British  seas,  although  they  are  apparently  rare.  One 
of  these,  the  Opah,  or  King-fish  \Lamj>ris  guttains),  appears'to  be 


Fig.  1756.— The  Doree. 

distributed  over  nearly  the  whole  globe,  as,  according  to  Mr.  Yarrell, 
it  has  not  only  been  taken  in  the  European  seas,  but  is  also  said  to 
occur  on  tlie  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  appears  to  be  well  known 
both  in  China  and  Japan.  In  the  latter  empire  the  Opah  was 
sacred  to  the  Japanese  Neptune.  It  is  a  magnificent  Fish  ;  the 
back  and  sides  are  of  a  fine  green,  with  purple  and  gold  reflections, 
fading  into  yellowish-green  on  the  belly,  aud  covered  with  numerous 


Fig.  1757. — ^The  Mackerel. 

formerly  considered  that  its  annual  movements  were  from  northern 
to  southern  latitudes,  and  from  southern  to  northern  ;  but  it 
is  to  be  met  with  in  our  own  seas  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
though  in  the  winter  they  are  not  found  in  great  numbers); 
and  the  situation  of  those  parts  of  the  coast  where  they  make 
their  first  appearance  disproves  the  fact  of  their  migrating  only  in  a 
southern  direction  when  the  season  has  become  more  genial,  as  they 
frequently  appear  on  a  southern  part  of  the  coast  before  they  have 
visited  its  northern  limits.  On  the  Cornish  coast,  which  they  often 
visit  so  early  as  the  month  of  March,  the  course  of  the  shoals  seems 
to  be  from  west  to  east.  When  the  fishermen  commence  very  early 
in  the  year,  they  have  to  proceed  a  considerable  distance  out  to  sea, 
as  the  Fish  do  not  approach  the  coast  until  a  more  advanced  period. 
May  and  June  are  the  busiest  months  for  Mackerel  fishing.  In  the 
latter  month  they  spawn,  the  female  roe  containing  above  half  a  million 
ova.  The  process  of  depositing  spawn  takes  place  earlier  on  a  sandy 
and  shallow  shore  than  on  a  rugged  coast,  the  former  being  also 
more  favourable  to  vivification.  Previous  to  winter,  the  young  retire  to 
deep  water.  The  Mackerel  maybe  considered  as  frequenting  nearly 
every  part  of  the  coasts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  but  it  is  most  abundant 
on  the  southern  portion  of  Great  Britain,  on  the  coasts  of  Sussex, 
Kent,  Hampshire,  and  the  western  counties,  and  on  those  of  Suffolk 
and  Norfolk.  They  do  not  make  their  appearance  on  the  Scotch 
coast  until  late  in  the  summer.  Whatever  may  be  the  fact  as  to 
their  migration  to  the  Arctic  seas,  the  following  statement,  taken 
from  the  "  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Science,"  shows  that  they  are 
found  in  those  latitudes  under  singular  circumstances  : — "  Admiral 
Pleville-Lepley,  who  had  had  his  home  on  the  ocean  for  half  a  cen- 
tury, assured  M.  Lacepede,  that  in  Greenland,  in  the  smaller  bays 
surrounded  with  rock,  so  common  on  this  coast,  where  the  water  is 
always  calm,  and  the  bottom  generally  soft  mud  and  juice,  he  had 
seen,  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  myriads  of  mackerel,  with  their 
heads  sunk  some  inches  in  the  mud,  their  tails  elevated  verti- 
cally above  its  level ;  and  that  this  mass  of  fish  was  such,  that  at  a 
distance  it  might  be  taken  for  a  reef  of  rocks.  The  admiral  sup- 
posed that  the  mackerel  had  passed  the  winter  torpid  under  the  ice 
and  snow ;  and  added,  that  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days  after  their 
arrival,  these  fishes  were  affected  with  a  kind  of  blindness,  and  that 
then  many  were  taken  with  the  net  ;  but  as  they  recovered  their 
sight,  the  net  would  not  answer,  and  hooks  and  lines  were  used."_ 

The  Mackerel  fishery  is,  perhaps,  the  liveliest,  if  not  the  most  in- 
teresting, of  any  which  are  carried  on  in  the  British  Islands.  The 
flesh  of  the  Mackerel  being  very  tender,  the  greatest  despatch  is 
used  in  conveying  it  to  market,  another  incentive  to  exertion  being 
the  high  price  obtained  for  those  Fish  which  first  arrive.  The  boats 
are  frequently  putting  off  and  returning  to  the  shore,  the  cargoes 
being  conveyed  by  railway  to  the  metropolis;  or,  from  some  parts  of 
the  coast,  by  vessels  towed  by  a  steam-tug.  A  light  gale,  which 
gently  ripples  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  is  called  a  Mackerel 
gale,  is  most  favourable  to  the  fisherman,  who  chiefly  follows  his 
employment  during  the  night.  There  are  tliree  modes  of  fishing, — 
with  drift-nets,  with  scans,  and  with  the  line.  By  the  latter  mode  a 
couple  of  men  will  take  from  500  to  1,000  Fish  in  one  day,  if  the 
weather  be  favourable.     The  Frc'nch  boats  frequently  go  out  with  si^i 


7o8 


THE  MACKEREL  FAMILY. 


or  eight  people  on  board,  all  of  whom  fish  with  the  line  ;  and  some 
of  them  are  sufficiently  adroit  to  pay  attention  to  a  couple  of  lines  at 
the  same  time.  The  Fish  bite  voraciously,  and  are  taken  with  great 
rapidity  by  a  bait  cut  from  its  own  kind,  and  made  to  resemble  a 
living  Fish.  They  will  seize,  and  may  be  taken  by,  a  piece  of  scarlet 
cloth  or  leather.  The  scan  fishing  requires  two  boats,  and  resembles 
in  some  respects  the  same  mode  applied  to  the  taking  of  Pilchards, 
though  on  a  smaller  scale.  The  scan,  however,  is  sometimes  hauled 
on  shore.  The  drift-net  fishing  is  the  most  common,  and  by  this 
mode  a  larger  number  of  Fish  can  be  taken  than  in  any  other  way. 
Mr.  Yarrell's  work  contains  the  following  minute  account  of  the 
drift-net  fishing  : — "  The  drift-net  is  twenty  feet  deep  by  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  long,  well  corked  at  the  top,  but  without  lead 
at  the  bottom.  They  are  made  of  small  fine  twine,  which  is  tanned 
of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  to  preserve  it  from  the  action  of  the  sea- 
water  ;  and  it  is  thereby  rendered  much  more  durable.  The  size  of 
the  mesh  about  two  inches  and  a-half,  or  rather  larger.  Twelve, 
fifteen,  and  sometimes  eighteen  of  these  nets  are  attached  length- 
ways, by  tying  along  a  thick  rope,  called  the  drift-rope,  and,  at  the 
ends  of  each  net,  to  each  other.  When  arranged  for  depositing  in 
the  sea,  a  large  buoy  attached  to  the  end  of  the  drift-rope  is  thrown 
overboard,  the  vessel  is  put  before  the  wind,  and,  as  she  sails  along, 
the  rope  with  the  nets  thus  attached  is  passed  over  the  stern  into  the 
water  till  the  whole  of  the  nets  are  run  out.  The  net  thus  deposited, 
hangs  suspended  in  the  water  perpendicularly  twenty  feet  deep  from 
the  drift-rope,  and  extending  from  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to  a  mile, 
or  even  a  mile  and  a-half,  depending  on  the  number  of  nets  belonging 
to  the  party  or  company  engaged  in  fishing  together.  When  the 
whole  of  the  nets  are  thus  handed  out,  the  drift-rope  is  shifted  from 
the  stern  to  the  bow  of  the  vessel,  and  she  rides  by  it  as  if  at  anchor. 
The  benefit  gained  by  the  boat's  hanging  at  the  end  of  the  drift- 
rope  is,  that  the  net  is  kept  strained  in  a  straight  line,  which  with- 
out this  pull  upon  it  would  not  be  the  case.  The  nets  are  shot  in  the 
evening,  and  sometimes  hauled  once  during  the  night  ;  at  others 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  water  all  night.  The  fish  roving  in  the  dark 
through  the  water  hang  in  the  meshes  of  the  net,  which  are  large 
enough  to  admit  them  beyond  the  gill-covers  and  pectoral  fins,  but 
not  large  enough  to  allow  the  thickest  part  of  the  body  to  pass 
through.  In  the  morning  early,  preparations  are  made  for  hauling 
the  nets.  A  capstan  on  the  deck  is  manned,  about  which  two  turns 
of  the  drift-rope  are  taken.  One  man  stands  forward  to  untie  the 
upper  edge  of  each  net  from  the  drift-rope,  which  is  called  casting- 
off  the  lashings ;  others  hand  in  the  net  with  the  fish  caught,  to 
which  one  side  of  the  vessel  is  devoted  ;  the  other  side  is  occupied 
by  the  drift-rope,  which  is  wound  in  by  the  men  at  the  capstan." 
The  most  active  period  of  the  fishery  has  already  been  stated.  The 
seasons  fluctuate  considerably,  an  abundant  year  being  succeeded 
by  a  scarce  one  :  or  several  of  the  latter  may  occur  together,  and 
afterwards  may  be  compensated  by  successive  years  of  plenty.  On 
some  nights  two  or  three  thousand  Fish  will  be  caught  by  one  boat, 
and  another  not  more  than  a  mile  distant  may  not  take  one  hundred. 
This  uncertainty  contributes  to  render  the  fishery  a  precarious  source 
of  subsistence  to  those  who  can  only  embark  capital  in  it  on  a  small 
scale,  and  cannot  stand  against  the  unforeseen  reverses  which  may 
occur  in  a  short  period,  but  are  counterbalanced  on  an  average  of 
years. 

The  boats  employed  are  generally  about  thirty  feet  in  the  keel, 
built  of  oak  or  ash,  and  copper-fastened.  They  possess  great  depth 
of  waist  and  breadth  of  beam,  are  noted  for  their  durability,  and 
considered  as  fast  and  safe  a  class  of  boats  as  are  to  be  found  in  the 
fisheries  on  any  coast  of  the  United  Kingdom.  From  Hastings  to 
Dungeness  the  beach  and  coast  are  bold  and  rocky,  and  the  strength 
of  the  boats  is  severely  attested  in  attempting  to  "  beach,"  besides 
the  frequent  loss  of  life ;  but  latterly  a  different  method  has  been 
adopted  of  gammg  the  beach,  by  which  this  object  is  effected  in  a 
more  skilful  and  less  dangerous  manner. 

The  Tunny  (Thyunus  vulgaris)  a  Fish  belonging  to  this  family, 
which  IS  very  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  grows  nearly  to 
twenty  feet  in  length,  and  weighs  sometimes  as  much  as  ten  hun- 
dredweight. (See  Fig.  1758).  Like  the  Mackerel,  this  large  Fish 
approaches  the  shores  m  large  shoals  for  the  purpose  of  spawning, 
when  It  IS  captured  by  means  of  a  large  net,  called  a  mandrague. 

This  is  composed  of  nets  arranged 
in  a  funnel-like  form,  so  that  the 
Fish,  entering  the  wide  mouth, 
are  gradually  led  up  to  a  narrow 
prison,  when  they  are  destroyed  by 
spears  and  harpoons.  Professor 
Vogt,  who  has  given  a  most  ani- 
mated description  of  the  Tunny 
fishery,  states  that  these  nets  extend  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  cost  as 
much  as  30,000  francs.  The  flesh  of  the  Tunny  is  highly  prized  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  where 
its  capture  has  been  an  important  object  from  the  most  remote 
antiquity.  Several  allied  species  are  also  found  in  that  sea  ;  amongst 
which  the  most  celebrated  is  the  Bonito  {Thyiinus  jbelamys). 


Fig.  175S.— The  Tunny. 


One  of  the  most  remarkable  Fishes  of  this  family  is  the  Pilot-fish 
{Naticrates  diictor,  see  Fig.  1759),  which  receives  its  name  from  its 
habit  of  accompanying  ships  for  weeks  together ;  the  ancients  even 
asserted  that  it  pointed  out  the  proper  course  to  the  mariner  when 
he  was  at  a  loss  how  to  proceed,  leaving  him  when  he  had  arrived 
in  sight  of  the  desired  haven.  It  appears  probable,  however,  that 
the  Pilot-fish  only  attends  the  voyager  for  the  sake  of  the  numerous 
pieces  of  food  which  are  constantly  being  thrown  overboard  ;  and  a 
community  of  feeling  in  this  respect  may,  perhaps,  account  for  the 
frequent  association  of  the  Pilot-fish  and  the  Shark.  It  is,  however,  a 


Fig.  1759.— The  Pilot  Fish. 

general  opinion  amongst  navigators  that  the  Pilot-fish  really  attends 
upon  the  Shark  as  a  guide ;  and  an  instance  has  been  related,  in 
which  two  of  them  led  a  Shark  to  a  baited  hook  that  had  been  thrown 
out  for  him.  Another  observer,  however,  quoted  by  Dr.  Hamilton 
Smith,  in  Gx\^\h'^A7timal  Kingdom,  states  that  he  repeatedly  saw 
a  Shark,  which  was  inclined  to  swallow  a  bait  put  out  for  him,  pre- 
vented from  doing  so  by  one  or  other  of  four  Pilot-fishes  which  accom- 
panied him  ;  and  that  when  at  length  the  Shark  had  swallowed  the 
tempting  morsal,  and  was  being  hauled  out  of  the  water,  one  of  his 
diminutive  friends  clung  to  his  side  for  some  little  time.  Colonel 
Hamilton  Smith  also  states  that  he  had  witnessed  a  similar  circum- 
stance. The  Pilot-fish  attains  a  length  of  about  a  foot.  It  is  some- 
what of  the  form  of  the  Mackerel,  of  a  silvery  grey  colour,  bluish  on 
the  back,  and  adorned  with  five  dark-blue  bands,  which  go  round 
the  whole  body.     Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  very  good. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Mackerels  are  the  Sword-fishes  {Xij>hiidcB), 
which  are  rendered  remarkable  by  the  prolongation  of  the  upper  jaw 
into  a  long,  spear-like  weapon.  They  are  also  characterised  by  the 
structure  of  the  branchia;,  the  laminae  of  each  branchial  arch  being 
united  so  as  to  form  a  band-like  organ,  in  which  the  separation  of 
the  lamina;  is  only  indicated  by  superficial  marks.  This  structure 
occurs  in  no  other  Bony  Fishes.  In  the  form  of  the  body  they  resem- 
ble the  Mackerels ;  the  spinous  dorsal  fin  commences  close  to  the 
neck,  where  it  is  high  and  sickle-shaped,  and  runs  thence  nearly  to 
the  tail,  where  it  is  followed  by  a  small  soft  fin ;  the  anal  fin  exhibits 
a  very  similar  construction,  although  it  is  much  shorter.  The 
ventral  fins  are  wanting,  or  represented  only  by  a  pair  of  spinous 
rays,  situated  on  the  throat ;  the  caudal  is  deeply  forked,  and  the 
sides  of  the  tail  have  large  ridges. 

The  Sword-fish  [XiJ)hias  gladius;  Xijikias  imperator, 
Schn.) — This  formidable  Fish,  which  was  well  known  to  the  ancients, 
is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is  common  ;  it  does  not, 
however,  confine  itself  to  that  sea,  but  passing  through  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  into  the  wide  ocean,  takes  either  a  northward  or  a  south- 
ward course,  seldom  continuing  its  direction  westward.  It  has  been 
found  along  the  coast  of  Europe  as  far  as  the  Baltic,  and  along  that 
of  Africa  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Captain  Beechy  met  with  it 
near  Easter  Island,  in  the  Pacific.  This  species  was  first  noticed  in 
our  seas  by  Sibbald,  and  subsequently  many  naturalists  have  had 
opportunities  of  examining  specimens  taken  along  the  coast  of  Scot- 
land. In  1834  a  dead  Sword-fish,  ten  feet  long,  was  found  on  the 
Essex  coast;  and  Daniel,  in  his  "  Rural  Sports,"  relates  that  "in 
the  Severn,  near  Worcester,  a  man  bathing  was  struck  and  abso- 
lutely received  his  death-wound  from  a  sword-fish  ;  the  fish  was 
caught  immediately  afterwards,  so  that  the  fact  was  ascertained 
beyond  a  doubt."  The  Sword-fish  attains  to  the  length  of  twelve 
and  even  fifteen  feet,  and  is  prodigiously  active  and  powerful ;  it  is 
said  to  go  in  pairs.  Its  food  consists  of  Fish,  Cuttle-fish,  &c.  It  is 
said  to  be  a  great  enemy  to  the  Tunny,  a  Fish  of  the  Mediterranean 
[Thyniiits  vulgaris),  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  flesh,  and 
already  described.  Belon  affirms  that  the  shoals  of  Tunnies  are  as 
much  alarmed  at  the  appearance  of  a  Sword-fish,  as  a  flock  of  Sheep 
at  the  sight  of  a  Wolf.  It  pursues  them  with  great  pertinacity,  and 
transfixes  them  with  its  spear.     (See  F'ig.  1760). 

In  that  sea  the  fishery  of  this  formidable  species  is  regularly 
practised  by  the  fishermen  of  Sicily,  Capri,  and  other  places,  for  in 
many  places  it  is  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food,  especially  by  the 
Sicilians,  who  buy  it  up  eagerly  at  any  price  at  the  commencement 
of  the  season,  which  lasts  from  May  to  August.  They  cut  it  into 
pieces,  and  salt  it  for  future  use.  This  process  was  in  ancient 
times  particularly  performed  at  the  town  of  Thuri,  in  the  bay  of 
Tarentum,  whence  the  fish  was  called  Tomus  Thurianus.  A 
description  of  the  ancient  manner  of  taking  this  Fish  has  been  left 


THE  SWORD-FISH. 


709 


us  by  Strabo,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  process  was  nearly  the 
same  as  that  now  in  use.  A  man  mounts  upon  a  cliff  that  overhangs 
the  sea  ;  and  as  soon  as  he  discovers  the  Fisli,  gives  notice  to  a  boat 
in  attendance  of  the  course  it  has  taken.  A  man  in  the  boat  tlien 
mounts  the  mast,  and  on  seeing  the  Sword-fish  directs  the  rowers 
towards  it.  As  soon  as  they  think  themselves  within  reach,  the  man 
on  the  mast  descends,  and,  taking  in  his  hand  a  harpoon,  to  which 
a  cord  is  attached,  strikes  it  into  the  Fish,  sometimes  at  a  consider- 
able distance.  After  being  wearied  with  its  agitations  and  attempts 
to  escape,  as  well  as  exhausted  by  its  wound,  the  Fish  is  seized  and 
drawn  into  the  boat.  The  operation  has  considerable  resemblance 
to  the  Whale  fishery  on  a  small  scale.  The  superstitious  Sicilian 
fishermen  have  an  unintelligible  chant,  which  they  regard  as  a  most 
essential  part  of  their  apparatus.  Brydone  thinks  it  is  Greek  :  but 
be  that  as  it  may,  the  fishermen  are  convinced  of  its  efficacy  as  a 
charm,  its  operation  being  to  attract  and  detain  the  Fish  near  tlie 
boat.  There  are  certainly  some  Italian  words  in  it,  although  it  is 
said  that  the  men  believe  that  the  Fish  would  dive  into  the  water 
and  be  seen  no  more  if  it  happened  to  hear  a  word  of  Italian. 
The  reported  hostility  of  the  Sword-fish  to  the  Whale,  which  it 


The  captain  of  an  East  Indiaman  sent  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  an  ac- 
count of  an  astonishing  but  not  singular  instance  of  the  strength  of 
an  individual  of  this  broad-finned  species  ;  the  bottom  of  his  ship 
was  pierced  through  by  its  sword  in  such  a  manner  that  it  was  com- 
pletely imbedded,  or  driven  llirough  almost  to  its  base— the  Animal 
having  been  killed  with  tlie  violence  of  the  shock.  It  is  a  fortunate 
circumstance  that  the  Fish  is  generally  either  killed  or  else  perishes 
from  being  unable  to  withdraw  its  weapon,  for  could  it  effect  this 
object,  the  vessel  must  inevitably  founder  in  consequence  of  the  leak  ; 
and  indeed,  instances  are  recorded  in  which  some  wooden  vessels, 
probably  old,  or  a  slight  description,  have  been  greatly  endangered, 
or  even  lost,  in  consequence  of  having  been  struck  by  a  Sword-fish. 

Pliny  mentions  the  power  of  the  Sword-fish  to  transfix  vessels  ; 
and  this  was  for  a  long  time  regarded  as  one  of  the  exaggerated 
statements  which  are  so  common  in  the  works  of  the  ancient  natura- 
lists. Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  Pliny,  not  being  acquainted  with  the 
distinction  of  species,  must  have  attributed  to  the  Common  Sword- 
fish  what  is  true  only  of  another  species  ;  but  the  operation  seems  to 
be  as  often  performed  by  the  Common  Fish  as  by  that  with  the 
broad  fin.     (See  Fig.  1761.) 


Fig.  1760.— The  Sword-Fish. 


attacks  with  fury,  seems  to  have  some  foundation.  Captain  Crow 
gives  the  following  fact  as  having  been  witnessed  by  himself  during 
a  voyage  to  Memel.  "  One  morning,  during  a  calm,  when  near  the 
Hebrides,  all  hands  were  called  up  at  three  A.M.  to  witness  a  battle 
between  several  of  the  fish  called  thrashers  or  fox-sharks  (Crtrc/^ar/aj 
I'ulpcs),  and  some  sword-fish  on  one  side,  and  an  enormous  whale 
on  the  other.  It  was  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  the  weather 
being  clear,  and  the  fish  close  to  the  vessel,  we  had  a  fine  opportu- 
nity of  witnessing  the  contest.  As  soon  as  the  whale's  back 
appeared  above  the  water,  the  thrashers  springing  several  yards 
into  the  air,  descended  with  great  violence  on  the  object  of  their 
rancour,  and  inflicted  upon  him  the  most  severe  slaps  with  their  long 
tails,  the  sounds  of  which  resembled  the  reports  of  muskets  fired  at 
a  distance.;  The  sword-fish  in  return  attacked  the  distressed  whale, 
stabbing  from  below  ;  and  thus  beset  on  all  sides  and  wounded, 
when  the  poor  creature  appeared,  the  water  around  him  was  dyed 
with  blood.  In  this  manner  they  continued  tormenting  and  wound- 
ing him  for  many  hours,  until  we  lost  sight  of  him  ;  and  I  have  no 
doubt  they,  in  the  end,  completed  his  destruction."  It  is  a  well 
established  fact  that  this  species  of  Sword-fish,  and  .another  of  still 
more  gigantic  size,  found  chiefly  in  the  Indian  and  Brazilian  seas, 
Istiophorus  platy^ferus  [Xipktas  ;platyptertis,  Shaw),  often  drive 
violently  against  vessels,  mistaking  them,  as  it  is  supposed,  for 
Whales. 


In  the  CoryJ)hcc!2idcs  the  body  is  much  compressed,  with  a  broad 
dorsal  fin  running  along  the  whole  of  the  back  ;  all  the  rays  of  this 
fin  are  almost  equally  flexible,  although  those  of  the  anterior  portion, 
are  not  articulated.  The  ventral  fins  are  frequently  wanting  ;  when 
present,  they  are  usually  very  small,  and  placed  under  the  pectorals, 
although  sometimes  situated  on  the  throat.  The  abdominal  cavity 
is  small,  so  that  the  anal  opening  is  placed  far  forwards  ;  and  the 
anal  fin  usually  occupies  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ventral  sur- 
face, sometimes  extending  forwards  to  the  levels  of  the  pectorals. 
The  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  generally  very  high  ;  and  in  one  genus 
{Ptcraclis)  they  attain  such  a  development,  as  to  make  the  lateral 
surface  of  the  whole  Fish  at  least  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
body  The  tail-fin  also  is  very  large,  and  usually  deeply  forked. 
The  mouth  is  of  moderate  size,  and  armed  with  acute  teeth.  (See 
Fig.  1762.) 

The  CoryphcBtiida  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  salt  water,  and  gene- 
rally occur  only  in  the  seas  of  warm  climates.  The  only  European 
sea  in  which  they  are  found  is  the  IMediterranean,  which  possesses 
several  species.  Amongst  these  the  best  known  is  the  Dorado 
{CoryphcBiia  hippurus),  sometimes  called  the  Dolphin,  a  Fish 
adorned  with  the  most  beautiful  metallic  tints,  and  which  is  also 
remarkable  for  the  swiftness  of  its  course,  and  for  the  continual  war 
of  destruction  which  it  wages  with  the  Flying-fish  (See  Fig.  1763.) 
It  attains  a  length  of  about  five  feet;  the  head  is  large;  and  the 


,710 


THE  MULLET  FA  MIL  Y. 


body  tapers  gradually  from  this  to  the  tail.     The  back  is  bluish,  the  I 
belly  yellow,  and  the  whole  surface  spotted  with  a  darker  blue.     In 
the  water,  it  presents  a  splendid  golden  lustre  ;    which,  however, 
rapidly  vanishes  when  it  is  taken  out  of  its  native  element. 
It  is  the  poet's 

•  Dolphin,  whom  each  pang  embues 


With  a  new  colour  as  it  gasps  away. 

The  last  still  loveliest,  till  'tis  gone  and  all  is  grey." 


Eyron. 


The  fourth  and  last  of  the  families,  formed  by  modern  authors  at 
the  expense  of  the  Cuverian  Scombcroides,  is  that  of  the  Notacdti- 
thidcr,  in  which  the  body  is  much  elongated,  and  more  or  less  Eel- 
like in  form,  and  has  its  hinder  extremity  usually  surrounded  by  the 
same  continuous  fin  that  is  characteristic  of  the  Eels.  The  spinous 
portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  destitute  of  membrane,  so  that  the  rays 


Fig.  1761. — Tush  of  the  Sword-fish  driven  into  timbers  of  a  ship, 

form  a  scries  of  spines  running  along  the  back ;  the  second  or 
soft  dorsal  is  frequently  wanting  altogether.  A  further  point  of  re- 
semblance to  the  Eels  is  presented  by  the  pectoral  fins,  which  are 
attached  to  the  spinal  column  at  some  distance  behind  the  head  ; 
the  ventral  fins  are  sometimes  wanting,  and,  when  present,  are 
situated  on  the  abdomen.  The  whole  surface  is  covered  with  small 
cycloid  scales ;  and  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw  is  usually  produced 
into  a  sort  of  beak.  Most  of  the  species  of  this  family  occur  in  the 
Tropical  regions  ;  but  one,  the  Notacanthus  7iastcs,  is  found  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean.      Some  of  them  live  in  fresh  water. 


Fig.  1762.— The  Ocellated  Pteraclis. 

In  the  exceedingly  elongated  form  of  their  bodies,  the  Fishes  of 
the  next  family,  the  Ccpoltda,  or  Ribbon-fishes,  present  a  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  Notacanthidcc  ;  but  their  bodies  are  much 
compressed,  so  as  to  acquire  a  ribbon-like  form.  The  dorsal  fin, 
which  always  commences  close  to  or  upon  the  head,  is  completely  fur- 
nished witii  membrane  ;  and  the  caudal,  when  present,  is  usually 
quite  distinct  from  the  other  perpendicular  fins.     The  position  of  the 


caudal  fin  in  some  of  these  Fishes  is  very  peculiar  ;  instead  of  being 
placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  body,  as  in  most  Fishes,  it  is  set  on  at 
a  right  angle,  forming  a  fan-like  organ,  extending  upwards  from  the 
extremity  of  the  tail.  The  ventral  fins  are  sometimes  altogether  de- 
ficient ;  when  present,  they  are  placed  under  the  pectorals,  vary  in 
size,  and  occasionally  are  represented  by  one  or  more  long  spines. 
The  body  is  covered  with  very  small  scales. 

These  singular  Fishes  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  sea ;  some  species 
have  been  taken  on  our  own  coasts,  although  they  are  of  rare  occur- 
rence. Several  of  them  attain  a  considerable  length  ;  the  one  here 
figured,  Gymnet>-us  banksii  (Fig.  1764),  having  been  found  as 
much  as  twelve  feet  long.  With  this  extraordinary  length,  its 
greatest  thickness  was  two  inches  and  three-quarters.  It  is  of  a 
beautiful  silvery  colour,  with  a  few  blackish  streaks  and  spots. 
Some  of  the  species,  although  rarely  met  with,  appear  to  have  a  very 
wide  geographical  distribution  ;  LeJ>idoj>us  argy?-cus,  or  Scabbard- 


Fig.  1763. — The  Dorado  or  Dolphin. 

fish,  is  found  on  the  English  coasts,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
and  the  Ti-ichiurus  lepturus  inhabits  the  seas  of  both  America  and 
the  Old  World.  Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  the  Fishes  of  this 
family. 

The  family  MugiHdcs,  of  which  the  Grey  Mullet  is  a  typical 
example,  includes  only  a  few  Fishes,  with  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
or  spindle-shaped  body,  covered  with  large  scales,  which,  although 
in  reality  ctenoid  in  their  structure,  lose  their  denticulations  so 
easily,  that  they  often  appear  to  be  cycloid.  The  head,  which  is 
somewhat  flattened  above,  is  covered  with  similar  scales,  or  with 
polygonal  plates  ;  the  mouth  is  rather  small,  and  furnished  with  ex- 
cessively fine  teeth,  which  are  sometimes  almost  imperceptible.  In 
their  appearance,  these  Fishes  present  a  great  resemblance  to  some 
of  the  more  elongated  Cyp?-i?t!dcs,  but  are  easily  distinguishable 
from  these  by  the  distinct,  spinous,  first  dorsal  fin,  which  is  rarely 
supported  upon  more  than  four  rays,  and  is  separated  from   the  se- 


Fig.  1764. —  Cymndriis  banksii. 

cond  dorsal  by  a  considerable  interval.  The  ventral  fins  are  placed 
on  the  abdomen  a  little  behind  the  pectorals.  The  pharyngeal  bones 
are  very  large  ;  the  stomach  is  furnished  with  a  sort  of  fleshy  gizzard  ; 
and  the  intestine  with  a  few  pyloric  cceca. 

The  J\Iugilid(B  generally  inhabit  salt  water,  keeping  by  preference 
about  the  mouths  of  rivers,  which  they  usually  ascend  and  descend 
with  the  flow  and  ebb  of  the  tide.  Our  Common  Grey  Mullet  [Mi/gil 
capitd)  is  regarded  as  a  very  delicate  Fish,  and  the  county  of  Sussex 
is  especially  celebrated  for  it.  Two  other  species  of  Miigil  are  found 
upon  the  British  coasts,  but  they  appear  to  be  rare  ;  the  Mediterranean 
possesses  five  species.  The  following  is  a  more  particular  descrip- 
tion of  the  Common  Grey  IMulIet  : — 

The  Grey  Mullet  {Mngil  capito,  Cuv.)— This  species  con- 
founded by  Linnaeus  with  the  Mtigil  cephahis,  is  an  inhabitant,  not 
only  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  also  of  the  western  shores  of  tem- 
perate Europe.  It  is  common  along  our  southern  coast,  and  that  of 
Essex,  and  is  found  also  along  many  parts  of  the  Irish  coast ;  it 
occurs  in  the  Baltic. 

Mr.  Couch,  a  gentleman  who  paid  much  attention  to  the  habits  of 
Fish  on  the  shores  of  Cornwall,  communicated  the  following  interest- 
ing facts  respecting  the  Grey  Mullet  to  Mr.  Yarrell : — "  The  fish 
never  goes  to  a  great  distance  from  land,  but  delights  in  shallow 
water  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  fine  ;  at  which  time  it  is  seen 
prowling  near  th.e  margin  in  search  of  food,  and  imprinting  a  ripple 
on  the  placid  surface  as  it  snatches  beneath  any  oily  substance  that 
may  be  swimming.      It  ventures  to  some  distance  up  rivers,  but 


THE  MULLETS. 


7" 


always  returns  with  the  tide.  Carew,  the  Cornish  historian,  had  a 
pond  of  salt  water,  in  which  these  fish  were  kept ;  and  he  says  that 
liavinCT  been  accustomed  to  feed  them  at  a  certain  place  every  even- 
ing, they  became  so  tame  that  a  knocking  like  that  of  chopping 
would  certainly  cause  them  to  assemble.  The  intelligence  this 
argues  may  also  be  inferred  from  the  skill  and  vigilance  this  fish 
displays  in  avoiding  danger,  more  especially  in  effecting  its  escape 
in  circumstances  of  great  peril.  When  enclosed  within  a  ground- 
sean  or  sweep-net,  as  soon  as  the  danger  is  seen,  and  before  the 
limits  of  its  range  are  straightened,  and  when  even  the  end  of  the 
net  might  be  passed,  it  is  its  commoa  habit  to  prefer  the  shorter 
course,  and  throw  itself  over  the  head-line  and  so  escape  ;  and  when 
one  of  the  company  passes  all  immediately  follow." 

The  Grey  Mullet  will  rise  freely  at  Flies,  like  the  Trout,  and  affords 
good  sport  to  the  angler,  as  it  is  a  vigorous  Fish  and  requires  skilful 
management  It  feeds  upon  soft  and  unctuous  substances,  and  is 
often  seen  thrusting  its  mouth  into  the  mud  in  search  of  small  de- 
composing morsels,  for  the  selection  of  which  its  lips  appear  to  be 
endowed  with  a  high  sense  of  taste.  It  avoids  large  and  hard  sub- 
stances, and  will  often  take  the  bait  between  its  lips  and  immediately 
reject  it  if  suspicion  be  at  all  e.xcited.  The  best  bait  for  ordinary 
fishing  according  to  Mr.  Couch,  is  a  small  bit  of  the  fat  intestine  of 
a  Fish,  or  cabbage  boiled  in  broth.  Midsummer  is  the  breeding 
season  of  this  species. 


to  this  family.  It  resembles  the  Grey  Mullet  in  the  habit  of  ascend- 
ing the  mouths  of  rivers  with  the  tide.  The  Sand-smelt  is  about  five 
or  six  inches  in  length,  and  is  considered  to  have  some  resemblance 
to  the  Smelt  in  its  llavour.  It  is  a  favourite  Fish  with  visitors 
to  the  southern  watering  places,  but  seldom  reaches  the  London 
market. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Miigilidcc  is  the  singular  family  of  the  Ana- 
baiidcc,  the  remarkable  habits  attributed  to  one  member  of  which, 
has  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  tlie  Climbing  Perch.  The  Fishes  of 
this  family  are  very  variable  in  form— sometimes  broad  and  flat, 
sometimes  elongated  and  cylindrical ;  they  have  a  single  dorsal  fin, 
of  which  the  anterior  portion  is  usually  strongly  spinous  ;  but  in  some 
species,  the  rays  of  this  part  of  the  fin,  although  undivided,  are  very 
flexible.  The  anal  fin  is  also  single,  with  a  spinous  anterior  portion. 
The  whole  surface  is  covered  with  scales,  which,  in  the  soft-finned 
species,  are  truly  cycloid  ;  whilst  those  of  the  spiny  forms  are  ctenoid. 
The  ventral  fins  are  placed  under  the  pectorals  ;  one  of  the  rays  is 
frequently  much  elongated ;  and  in  some  species  the  ventral  fin  is 
represented  by  a  single  long  filament. 

The  most  remarkable  character  presented  by  these  Fishes,  how- 
ever, consists  in  the  structure  of  the  superior  pharyngeal  bones  (Fig. 
1766),  which  are  dilated  into  voluminous  folded  lamina;,  inclosed  in 
a  large  cavity  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  forming  numerous  cells, 
in  which  a  supply  of  water  may  be    carried,    for   the   purpose    of 

moistening  the  gills,  when  the  crea- 
ture, as  its  habit  is,  quits  the  water 
for  a  time. 


Fig.  1766. — Head  of  the  Anabas  scandcns, 
^  with  operculum  removed. 


Fig.  1765.— The  Grey  Mullet. 

_  Mr.  Yarrell,  alluding  to  the  old  proverb,  that  the  county  of  Sussex 
IS  celebrated  for  six  good  things,  gives,  as  one,  the  Arundel  Mullet. 
The  town  of  Arundel,  on  the  Arun,  is  ten  miles  from  the  sea,  and, 
he  continues,  "  during  the  summer  of  1834,  probably  owing  to  the 
warmth  of  it,  the  grey  mullet  migrated  much  farther  up  "the  river 
than  usual,  and  numbers  were  caught  above  even  where  the  spring 
tides  flow,  as  high  up  as  Amberg  Castle,  which  is  by  the  river  nearly 
ten  miles  above  the  town  of  Arundel,  and  nearly  twenty  miles  from 
the  sea." 

That  the  Grey  Mullet  will  not  only  live  entirely  in  fresh  water,  but 
even  thrive,  has  been  proved  by  Mr.  Arnould,  who  put  a  number  of 
the  fry  into  his  pond  at  Guernsey,  covering  about  three  acres  ;  and 
a  few  years  afterwards  Mullet  of  four  pounds  weight  were  caught, 
fatter,  deeper,  and  heavier,  for  their  length,  than  those  obtained 
from  the  sea. 

_  The  colour  of  this  species  above  is  dusky  bluish-grey,  passin<r 
into  silvery  white  on  the  sides  and  belly,  marked  with  parallel 
longitudinal  dusky  lines  ;  irides  reddish-brown ;  pupil  black.  (See 
Fig.  1765.) 

I  he  Sand-smelt  {Atherina  ^resdyier),  a  small  Fish  which  is 
tolerably  abundant  along  the  south  coast  of  our  island,  also  belongs 


This  peculiar  structure  attains  its 
greatest  development  in  the  Aiiabas 
sca7idens,  or  Climbing  Perch  of  India 
(Fig.  1767),  which  is  by  this  means 
enabled  to  live  out  of  the  water  for  as 
long  a  period  as  six  days.  They  fre- 
quently quit  the  ponds  or  streams 
which  they  inhabit,  and  wander  for 
a  considerable  distance  over  the  land — 
a  circumstance  which  has  led  the  in- 
habitants of  the  countries  frequented 
by  them,  to  suppose  that  these  Fishes 
fell  from  the  skies.  They  are  even 
said  to  climb  trees ;  and  Daldorii 
states  that  he  once  took  a  specimen, 
at  a  height  of  five  feet  from  the  ground, 
on  the  stem  of  a  palm-tree;  but  this 
habit  has  been  denied  by  some  other 
naturalists.  Daldorff's  statement, 
however,  receives  some  support  from 
the  Tamul  name  of  the  Fish — Paneiri, 
or  the  Climber  of  Trees.  This,  and 
some  other  species  of  the  family,  are  commonly  exhibited  by  the 
jugglers  of  India  and  China,  to  which  countries  the  Fishes  of 
this  family  are  almost  entirely  confined  ;  their  flesh  is  exceedingly 
good  ;  and  one  species,  the  Gourami  {Osphromentis  o/fax),  which 
grows  to  the  size  of  the  Turbot,   is  considered  even  to  excel  that 


Fig.  1767. — The  Climbing  Perch. 

highly-prized  European  Fish.     The  Gourami  is  a  native  of  China  ; 
but  has  been  naturalised  in  the  Mauritius,  and  even  in  Cayenne. 


713 


THE  BLENNIES. 


The  great  tenacity  of  life  possessed  by  these  Fishes  enables  the 
fishermen  to  bring  them  to  market  alive  ;  and  the  larger  species 
are  often  cut  up  alive  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  smaller  con- 
sumers. 

-  The  GobiidcB,  or  Gobies,  are  usually  distinguishable,  at  the  first 
glance,  by  having  the  ventral  fins,  which  are  situated  on  the  breast, 
united  into  a  funnel-shaped  disc.  These  fins  are  sometimes  dis- 
tinctly separated,  or  united  only  at  their  bases  ;  but,  even  in  these 
cases,  they  are  usually  capable  of  being  formed  into  a  funnel,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  animal.  The  pectoral  fins  are  large,  and  the  entire 
rays  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  soft  and  flexible.  The  skin  is  some- 
times naked,  occasionally  clothed  with  large,  finely  ctenoid  scales  : 
the  edges  of  the  opercula  are  unarmed,  and  the  opercular  aperture 
small,  so  that  these  Fishes  are  enabled  to  live  for  some  time 
out  of  the  water.  The  stomach  and  intestines  are  both  destitute  of 
coeca. 

Some  of  the  Fishes  of  this  family  produce  living  young  ;  but  the 
majority  appear  to  be  Oviparous.  The  male  of  a  species  of  Gobius, 
inhabiting  the  Mediterranean,  has  been  observed  to  make  a  nest 
amongst  the  sea-weeds,  with  the  roots  oiihe Zosiera,  orGrasswrack  ; 
in  this  he  awaits  the  females,  which  soon  come  to  deposit  their 
spawn ;  this  is  fecundated  by  the  male,  and  he  then  remains  as  a 
guard  over  the  precious  deposit,  which  he  defends  with  the  greatest 
courage.  This  habit  of  the  Gobius  was  probably  known  to  the 
ancients,  as  Aristotle  mentions  a  Fish,  called //y'«!s-,  which  he  says 
is  the  only  Fish  that  constructs  a  nest ;  we  have  already  seen,  however, 
that  it  is  certainly  equalled  in  this  respect  by  our  common  Stickle- 
backs, already  described. 

The  Gobiidce  are,  for  the  most  part,  small  Fishes,  which  keep  close 
to  the  shore,  usually  amongst  rocks  ;  they  often  attach  themselves, 
by  means  of  their  disc-like  ventral  fins,  to  the  lower  surface  of 
stones  and  other  objects.  Some  species  are  also  abundant  in  tidal 
rivers. 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  singular  species  is  the  Lump-fish 
{Cyclojiterus  lumpus),  which  inhabits  the  northern  European  seas, 
and  may  often  be  seen  hanging  up  in  the  shops  of  London  fish- 
mongers. It  is  also  called  the  Lump-sucker,  and  is  the  Cock-paddle 
of  the  Scotch.  The  Lump-fish  sometimes  weighs  as  much  as  seven 
pounds,  and  is  of  a  thick,  massive  form  ;  but  its  flesh  is  very  soft  and 
insipid.  It  is  of  a  purplish-black  colour,  variegated  with  red  and 
brown,  and  the  belly  is  crimson.  The  back  and  sides  have  rows  of 
tubercles,  and  the  appearance  of  the  Fish  is  extremely  grotesque. 
The  sucker,  formed  of  the  ventral  fins,  is  of  a  somewhat  oval  form, 
and  of  great  size  and  power.  So  firmly  does  it  adhere  by  means  of 
this  organ,  that,  according  to  Pennant,  on  putting  a  freshly-caught 
specimen  into  a  pail,  containing  several  gallons  of  water,  it  fixed 
itself  so  firmly  to  the  bottom,  that  the  whole  pail,  with  its  contents, 
could  be  lifted  by  taking  hold  of  the  tail  of  the  Fish.  It  is  said  to 
feed  upon  Mediiscs  and  other  Gelatinous  Marine  Animals,  and,  in  its 
turn,  affords  a  favourite  repast  for  the  Seals,  which,  however,  reject 
the  skin. 

A  still  more  remarkable  and  celebrated  Fish,  belonging  to  this 
family,  is  the  Remora,  or  Sucking-fish  {Echeneis,  Fig.  1768),  of  which 
a  few  species  are  found  in  the  seas  of  various  parts  of  the  world.    In 

this  genus,  the  ventral  fins  are 
only  united  at  the  base,  and  do 
not  appear  to  be  applicable  to 
the  attachment  of  the  Animal 
to  submarine  bodies  ;  but,  to 
compensate  for  this,  the  upper 
surface  of  the  head  is  furnished 
with  a  singular  disc,  formed  of  transverse,  cartilaginous,  denticu- 
lated plates,  by  means  of  which  the  Remora  attaches  itself  to  rocks, 
ships,  and  even  to  the  bodies  of  large  Fishes. 

The  habit  which  this  Fish  has  of  fixing  itself  to  the  bottoms  of 
ships,  gave  rise,  in  ancient  times,  to  the  opinion  that  it  could  thus 
instantaneously  arrest  the  course  of  a  ship  in  full  sail ;  and  the  names 
still  applied  to  it,  in  several  countries,  refer  to  this  fable,  which  is 
related  in  the  most  circumstantial  manner,  and  with  the  utmost  good 
faith,  by  several  ancient  authors.  Thus,  amongst  other  marvellous 
tales,  we  are  told  that,  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  Antony's  ship  was 
held  motionless  by  a  Remora,  notwithstanding  the  exertions  of  several 
hundred  sailors  ;  and,  on  another  occasion,  we  are  informed  that 
Caligula,  when  on  a  voyage,  was  arrested  by  one  of  these  Fishes, 
which  attached  itself  to  the  rudder,  and  manifested  such  an  invin- 
cible determination  that  the  emperor  should  not  proceed  on  his 
voyage,  that  the  efforts  of  400  able  seamen  were  of  no  avail,  until  one 
of  them,  more  knowing  than  his  fellows,  ascertained  the  cause  of  this 
disagreeable  occurrence,  and,  by  detaching  the  obstinate  Remora, 
set  the  ship  free  to  pursue  her  course.  The  Common  Remora  is 
about  a  foot  long,  and  somewhat  of  the  form  of  the  Herring.  It 
occurs  commonly  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  also  found  in  the 
ocean,  and  occasionally  on  the  British  coasts.  Some  of  the  other 
species  are  larger,  and  more  elongated. 

The  Dragoncts  [Calliojiymus),  of  which  two  species  are  found  on 
our  coasts,  are  arranged  amongst  the  GobiidcB,  although  they  appear 
to  possess  characters  which  might  entitle  them  to  form  the  types  of 


Fig.  1768.— The  Sucking  Fish. 


a  distinct  family.  Their  branchial  apertures  are  very  small,  and 
placed  at  the  upper  part  of  the  opercula,  close  to  the  back  ;  and  their 
ventral  fins  are  very  large  and  distant.  The  eyes  are  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  head,  looking  upwards  ;  the  skin  is  smooth  and  scaleless, 
and  the  first  dorsal  fin  has  bristle-like  rays,  of  which  the  first  is 
sometimes  exceedingly  elongated.  They  are  handsome  Fishes,  of 
moderate  size,  often  adorned  with  brilliant  colours,  and  their  flesh  is 
said  to  be  very  good.     (See  Fig,  1769.) 


Fig.  1769. — The  Gemmeoiis  Dr.agonet. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  are  the  Blenniida;,  which  were,  in 
fact,  placed  in  the  same  family  with  the  Gobies  by  Cuvier.  They  are 
distinguished,  however,  by  the  structure  of  the  ventral  fins,  which  are 
placed  on  the  fore  part  of  the  breast,  or  on  the  throat,  and  consist 
only  of  a  few,  usually  two,  rays.  In  the  Sea-wolf  [Anarrkicas 
lupus.  Fig.  1770)  the  ventral  fins  are  entirely  wanting.  They  agree 
with  the  GobiidtS  in  the  structure  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  in  the 


Fig.  1770.— The  Sea-wolf. 

absence  of  the  air-bladder ;  the  skin  is  either  naked,  or  furnished 
with  very  small  concealed  scales,  and  is  covered  with  a  great  quan- 
tity of  mucous  matter;  from  the  latter  circumstance  the  name  of  the 
typical  genus,  Ble?inii/s  (Gr.  bleiinos,  mucous),  is  derived.  T  he 
dorsal  fin  is  very  long,  usually  extending  throughout  the  whole  length 
of  the  back  ;  the  entire  rays  of  this  and  of  all  the  other  fins  are 
fiexible,  as  in  the  preceding  family.  The  pectoral  fins  also  are  very 
large.  The  mouth  is  usually  armed  with  acute  fangs,  which,  in  the 
Sea-wolf,  acquire  most  formidable  dimensions,  and  are  accompanied 
by  an  inner  series  of  blunt  molars,  that  serve  to  crush  the  shells  of 
the  Molluscous  Animals  upon  which  this  creature  usually  feeds.  The 
abdominal  cavity  is  short,  and  the  anal  fin  consequently  of  con- 
siderable length.  The  head  is  frequently  furnished  with  tentacular 
filaments,  which  are  sometimes  singularly  branched  (Fig.  1771.) 

Of  the  British  species,  the  Shanny  i^Blennius pholis)  is  remarkable 
for  the  habit  e.xhibited  by  the  larger  specimens,  of  creeping  out  of 


Fig.  1771.— The  Ocellated  Blenny. 

the  water,  with  the  aid  of  their  pectoral  fins,  as  the  tide  recedes,  and 
hiding  themselves  in  holes  amongst  the  rocks,  where  they  remain 
until,  on  the  return  of  the  tide,  the  water  again  covers  them,  and  sets 
them  at  liberty.  They  place  themselves  singly  in  these  caves,  with 
their  heads  outwards  ;  and  if  any  danger  shows  itself  at  the  mouth 
of  their  retreat,  they  immediately  retire  backwards  to  its  more 
sheltered  recesses.  This  Fish  has  even  been  known  to  survive  a  con- 
finement of  thirty  hours  in  a  dry  box  ;  but  it  is  soon  killed  by  being 
put  into  fresh  water. 

Many  of  these  Fishes  produce  living  young  ;  and,  in  general,  the 
outlet  of  the  male  generative  organs  is  situated  in  a  small  prominence 
near  the  anal  opening,  which  gives  considerable  support  to  the 
opinion,  that  a  genuine  copulation  must  take  place  between  these 
Fishes. 


tifcr 


SEA-HORSES  AND  PIPE-FISH. 


THE  SEA-HORSES. 


7«3 


Of  the  British  Blennics,  one  species,  the  Zoarcns  vivipartts, 
exhibits  this  peculiarity  of  bringing  forth  its  young  alive  ;  and  they 
are  said  to  be  perfectly  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  from  the 
moment  of  their  exclusion.  The  young  appear  to  be  of  different 
sizes,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  females  producing  them. 
Thus,  Mr.  Yarrell  mentions,  that  a  specimen  of  fifteen  inches  long, 
which  was  brought  to  the  Edinburgh  fish-market,  contained  several 
dozens  of  young,  which  were  still  alive,  and  measured  from  four  to 
five  inches  long  ;  whilst  the  young  of  another  female,  seven  inches 
in  length,  were  only  about  an  inch  and  a-half  long. 

The  Blennies  are  generally  of  small  size,  and  of  little  or  no  value. 
They  swim  together  in  small  shoals  amongst  the  rocks  of  the  sea- 
shore, and  are  constantly  to  be  found  in  the  small  rock  pools  left  by 
the  retiring  tide.  They  are  exceedingly  active,  and  difficult  to 
catch,  even  when  confined  within  a  small  space,  dashing  and  leaping 
about  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  and  concealing  themselves  under 
the  sea-weeds  which  fringe  their  pool.  Like  the  GobiidcE,  they  are 
able  to  live  for  a  considerable  time  out  of  the  water  ;  and  one 
species,  the  Salai'ias  scandens  of  Ehrenberg,  which  inhabits  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea,  is  able  to  climb  and  leap  about  the 
rocks  of  the  shore.  It  is  so  exceedingly  active  in  this  somewhat 
anomalous  position,  that  it  has  been  taken  by  some  observers  for  a 
small  Lizard  ;  and,  as  it  can  take  leaps  of  four  or  five  feet,  it  is  by 
no  means  easy  to  catch. 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  formidable  Fishes  of  our  seas  is  the 
Sea-wolf  (Aiiarrliicas  hipus.  Fig.  1770  ante),  w-hich  belongs  to 
this  family,  and  the  dentition  of  which  has  already  been  referred  to. 
In  the  British  seas,  this  Fish  attains  a  length  of  six  or  seven  feet  ; 
and  in  more  northern  and  colder  latitudes  it  is  said  to  grow  still 
larger.  The  back  of  this  formidable  Fish  is  of  a  brow-nish-grey  or 
olive-brown  colour,  with  transverse  black  or  brown  stripes,  which 
extend  more  or  less  over  the  whitish  belly.  Its  common  food  con- 
sists of  Crustaceous  and  Molluscus  animals,  for  crushing  which,  its 
powerful  apparatus  of  teeth  is  especially  adapted  ;  and  the  strength 
of  its  jaws  is  exceedingly  great.  When  captured,  it  defends  itself 
vigorously,  attacking  the  fishermen  with  the  greatest  ferocity,  and 
often  inflicting  severe  wounds  upon  those  who  are  not  very  careful 
in  their  approaches  :  this  ferocity,  however,  is  the  means  of  shorten- 
ing the  captive's  life  ;  for  the  fishermen,  knowing  its  habits,  gene- 
rally contrive  to  knock  it  on  the  head  before  it  has  an  opportunity  of 
doing  any  mischief.  Its  appearance  is  completely  in  accordance 
with  its  nature  ;  for  few  Fishes  look  more  savage  than  the  Sea-wolf. 
Its  fiesh,  however,  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  good  ;  and,  as  it  bears 
salting  well,  it  is  of  no  small  importance  to  the  inhabitants  of  Iceland, 
where  it  is  found  in  great  abundance.  The  skin  is  converted  into  a 
sort  of  shagreen,  which  is  much  used  for  making  bags  and  pouches  ; 
and  Cuvier  states,  that  the  Icelanders  employ  its  liver  in  place  of 
soap. 

The  Lo;phiidce,  forming  the  last  family  of  the  Spiny-finned  Fishes, 
present  a  great  resemblance  to  the  Gobiida,  and  especially  to  the 
Callionymi  and  their  allies  ;  they  are  particularly  distinguished  by 
having  the  carpal  bones  very  long,  forming  a  sort  of  arm,  at  the 
extremity  of  which  the  pectoral  fins  are  supported.  The  ventral  fins 
are  placed  in  front  of  these,  on  the  flattened  lower  surface  of  the 
body  ;  and  the  pectoral  fins  thus  form,  as  it  were,  a  pair  of  hinder 
legs,  upon  which  many  of  the  creatures  are  able  to  hop  about  upon 
the  sea-beach  in  a  very  curious  manner.  Most  of  these  Fishes  have  a 
large  head,  and  a  short,  stout  body,  terminated  by  a  slender  tail. 
They  are  covered  with  a  naked  skin,  which  is  usually  roughened 
with  warts  and  tubercles  of  different  kinds.  The  branchial  aperture, 
placed  behind  the  pectoral  fins,  is  very  small  ;  whilst  the  branchial 
cavity  itself  is  of  large  size  ;  and,  as  is  usual  in  Fishes  which  exhibit 
this  conformation,  the  Lopliiidcc  are  able  to  endure  a  tolerably  pro 
longed  absence  from  the  water. 


Fig.  1772. — The  Fishing  Frog. 

The  best  known  of  these  Fishes  is  the  Lophitts  fiscatorius  (Fig. 
1772),  commonly  known  under  the  names  of  Angler,  Fishing  Frog, 
and  Sea  Devil.  It  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  ugliest  of  all  Fishes;  its 
head  is  of  enormous  size,  forming  nearly  half  the  entire  body,  and  is 


cleft  in  front  by  a  most  formidable  transverse  mouth,  armed  with 
numerous  pointed  teeth.  The  head  is  much  depressed,  and  the  eyes 
are  placed  upon  the  top  of  it,  rather  close  together.  The  body  is 
very  short,  and  terminated,  posteriorly,  by  the  pectoral  fins,  behind 
which  it  runs  off  into  a  gradually  tapering  tail,  bearing  two  dorsal 
fins,  and  the  caudal  and  anal  fins. 

The  Fishing  Frog  is  a  sluggish  Fish,  and  as  its  voracious  appear- 
ance by  no  means  belies  its  character,  it  might  be  supposed  that  it 
would  have  some  difficulty  in  gratifying  the  enormous  appetite  which 
must  apparently  be  associated  with  such  a  tremendous  mouth.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  the  Fish  possesses  a  stratagem  by  which  to 
satisfy  the  cravings  of  its  maw,  without  the  necessity  of  subjecting 
its  unwieldly  person  to  any  violent  exertion.  On  the  upper  surface 
of  the  front  of  the  head  are  two  long,  movable,  bony  filaments  ;  the 
foremost  of  these  is  dilated  at  its  tip,  which  has  a  silvery  lustre. 
Lying  close  to  the  ground,  the  Fish  disturbs  the  sand  or  mud,  so  as 
to  obscure  the  water  around  it,  justly  thinking,  no  doubt,  that  its 
appearance  is  not  sufficiently  amiable  to  inspire  much  confidence  in 
the  weaker  inhabitants  of  the  deep  ;  it  then  elevates  the  filamentous 
appendages  just  described,  and  waves  them  to  and  fro  in  the  water, 
when  the  small  Fishes,  which  are  soon  attracted  by  the  hope  that 
this  silvery  object  is  something  to  eat,  become,  instead,  the  prey  of 
their  artful  foe.  This  is  said  to  be  the  ordinary  mode  followed  by 
this  Fish  for  procuring  its  food,  but  it  certainly  at  times  seeks  its 
prey  by  other  methods.  Thus,  Mr.  Yarrell  quotes  a  case,  in  which 
one  of  these  Fishes  seized  a  Cod  which  had  just  been  hooked  by  a 
fisherman,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  drawn  up  to  the  surface,  where 
he  was  only  compelled  to  quit  his  hold  by  a  severe  blow  on  the  head  ; 
and  on  another  occasion,  a  Fishing  Frog  seized  a  Conger  Eel  that 
had  just  been  hooked,  when  the  latter  wriggled  himself  through  the 
narrow  branchial  aperture  of  his  second  captor,  and  in  this  manner 
both  Fishes  were  drawn  up  together. 

The  Lophitts  piiscatorius  is  a  large  Fish,  sometimes  attaining  a 
length  of  no  less  than  five  feet.  The  most  common  size,  however,  is 
about  three  feet ;  and  specimens  of  this  size  are  not  unfrequcntly 
taken  at  various  parts  of  the  coast.  In  itself,  the  Fish  is  of  no 
value ;  but  many  of  the  Fish  found  in  its  capacious  stomach  are 
generally  uninjured,  sometimes  even  alive ;  and  the  fishermen  fre- 
quently make  a  little  money  by  exhibiting  the  Fish  itself  to  sea-side 
visitors,  generally  accompanying  their  exhibition  with  a  most  doleful 
lamentation  upon  the  ravages  committed  by  their  not  very  preposess- 
ing  captive. 

Sub-order  V.— Lophobranchia. 

General  Characters. — In  all  the  groups  of  Bony  Fishes  which 
we  have  hitherto  had  under  consideration,  the  gills  are  formed  of 
comb-like  series  of  lamina;  ;  but  in  the  LophobrancJiia,  these  organs 
are  arranged  in  little  tufts,  disposed  in  pairs  along  the  branchial 
arches,  a  conformation  which  is  not  exhibited  by  any  other  Bony 
Fishes.  The  opercula  are  very  large,  but  are  confined  throughout  by 
a  membrane  w'hich  only  leaves  a  very  small  aperture  for  the  exit  of 
water ;  and  the  branchiostegous  rays  are  entirely  wanting.  The 
body  is  very  elongated  in  its  form,  and  covered  with  bony  plates, 
which  are  usually  of  considerable  comparative  size,  so  that  the  body 
becomes  more  or  less  angular.  The  fins  are  usually  very  imperfectly 
developed  ;  the  pectorals  are  small,  the  ventrals  usually  altogether 
absent,  and  the  caudal  and  anal  fins  are  also  often  wanting.  The 
bones  of  the  face  are  much  prolonged,  forming  a  sort  of  snout  or 
proboscis,  at  the  extremity  of  which  the  oral  aperture  is  situated — a 
structure  very  similar  to  that  which  we  have  seen  in 
the  family  Fistularidce,  in  the  preceding  sub-order. 

This  sub-order  includes  only  a  single  family,  the 
Syngnathidcs,  composed    of  small    Fishes  of   very 
singular  appearance.     The  best  known  form   is  the 
Hippocampus,  or  Sea-horse   (Fig.  1773),    so   called 
from  the  remarkable  resemblance  which  they  present 
to  that  Mammal,  when  the  elongated  head  is  bent  at 
about  a  right  angle  to  the  axis  of  the  body.     One 
species  is  found  in  the  British  seas  ;  but   specimens 
of  Tropical  species  are  often  brought  home  by  sailors, 
and  may  commonly  be  seen   in  the  shops  of  dealers 
in   curiosities.     They   possess    no  caudal    fin,    and 
make  use  of  the  long  tapering  tail  to  support  them- 
selves, by  twisting  it  around  the  stems  of  sea-weeds 
Fig.  1773.— Sea- and  other  objects.     In  this  position  they  present  a 
Horse.         very  curious  appearance,  wonderfully  justifying  the 
popular  comparison  with  the  Horse.        " 
The  true  Syngnathi  are  of  still  more  elongated  form  than  the 
Hippocampi,  and  have  the  head  in  the  same  direction  as  the  axis  of 
the  body.     They  are  commonly  known  as  Pipe-fish,  and  some  species 
are  tolerably  abundant  on   some  parts  of  our   coast ;    the  largest 
British  species  is  said,  by  some  authors,  to  attain  a  length  of  three 
feet.     The  habits  of  all  the  species  appear  to  be  very  similar  ;  they 
swim  about  slowly  amongst  the    sea-weeds,  feeding  upon  minute 
Criislacca,  ^^'orms,  MoUiisca,  &c.     (See  Fig.  1774). 

4X 


714 


THE  PIPE  FISH— THE  TRUNK  FISH. 


The  most  singular  part  of  the  history  of  these  creatures,  however, 
Js  their  mode  of  reproduction.  Individuals  are  found  furnished  with 
a  curious  pouch  or  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  which  is  either  com- 
pletely closed,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  opening-,  or  concealed 
by  a  pair  of  membranous  folds.  In  the  course  of  the  summer  this  is 
found  filled  with  eggs  ;  and  at  a  later  period,  when  the  fry  are 
hatched,  it  appears  that  they  continue  for  a  time  to  seek  shelter  from 
danger  in  this  singular  cavity.  The  attachment  of  the  Syngnatlii  to 
their  young  has  been  noticed  by  several  authors  ;  and  Mr.  Yarrell 
says,  that  he  has  been  assured  by  fishermen,  that  if  the  young  be 
shaken  out  of  the  pouch  into  the  water,  close  to  the  boat,  they  do 
not  swim  away  ;  but  when  the  parent  fish  is  held  in  the  water,  in  a 
favourable  position,  the  young  again  enter  the  pouch.  The  most 
remarkable  circumstance,  however,  connected  with  this  is,  that  the 
pouch-bearer  is  the  male  Fish,  and  that  the  female  is  quite  destitute 
of  any  such  organ,  so  that  the  ova  must  actually  be  deposited,  by  the 
latter,  in  the  abdominal  receptacle  of  her  mate. 


The  Deep-nosed  Pipe-fish. 


Mr.  Walcott's  observations  upon  a  British  species,  the  Syjignathus 
acus,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Yarrell,  are  as  follows  :— "  The  male  differs 
from  the  female,  in  the  belly,  from  the  vent  to  the  tail-fin,  being 
much  broader,  and  in  having,  for  about  two-thirds  of  its  length, 
two  soft  flaps,  which  fold  together,  and  form  a  false  belly  (or 
pouch).  They  breed  in  the  summer ;  the  females  casting  their  roe 
into  the  false  belly  of  the  male.  This  I  have  asserted  from  having 
examined  many,  and  having  constantly  found,  early  in  the  summer, 
roe  in  those  without  a  false  belly,  but  never  any  in  those  with  ; 
and,  on  opening  them  later  in  the  summer,  there  has  been  no  roe 
in  those  which  I  have  termed  the  female,  but  only  in  the  false 
belly  of  the  male."  Mr.  Yarrell  also  remarks,  that  he  has  ascer- 
tained the  correctness  of  these  statements  by  the  dissection  of 
specimens,  and  found  that  the  individuals  with  the  ventral  pouch 
were  actually  furnished  with  the  usual  internal  organs  of  the  male 
sex  ;  whilst  those  which  had  no  pouch,  possessed  ovaries  crowded 
in  the  usual  manner  with  eggs. 

The  mode  in  which  the  ova  are  introduced  into  the  ventral  pouch 
of  the  male  is  still  unknown;  but  it  is  remarkable,  that  amongst 
Fishes,  wherever  any  unusual  care  is  taken  of  the  eggs  and  young, 
this  duty  always  devolves  upon  the  male  ;  whereas,  amongst  other 
classes,  it  appears  to  be  a  general  rule  that  the  care  of  the  young  is 
the  special  business  of  the  mother ;  although,  in  many  cases,  the 
male  undoubtedly  shares  in  the  labours  of  his  partner.  Thus,  the 
males  of  many  Birds  assist  in  collecting  materials  and  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  nest,  and,  in  some  instances,  even  take  a  share  in 
the  work  of  incubation  ;  but  we  know  of  only  one  instance,  amongst 
BirdSj  in  which  the  eggs  and  young  are  dependent  upon  paternal  care. 

Sub-order  VI.— Plectognatha. 

General  Characters.— In  this,  the  last  group  of  the  Teleostia, 
we  meet,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  a  combination  of  the  characters  of 
this  and  the  following  orders.  The  bones  of  the  head  are  perfectly 
ossified  ;  but  the  rest  of  the  skeleton,  and  especially  the  vertebral 
column,  often  remains  in  a  state  very  similar  to  that  which  prevails 
in  many  of  the  Ganoid  and  Cartilaginous  Fishes.  The  union  of  the 
bones  of  the  head,  also,  is  much  closer  than  in  the  other  Fishes  of 
the  present  order ;  and  the  principal  character  of  the  group  consists 
in  the  firm  attachment  of  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  to 
those  of  the  cranium.  The  principal  part  of  the  upper  jaw  is  made 
up  of  the  intermaxillary  bones,  which  constitute  the  entire  margin  of 
that  part  of  the  mouth ;  and  these  are  firmly  fixed  to,  or  rather 
amalgamated  with,  the  cranial  and  maxillary  bones.  The  bones  of 
the  palate,  also,  are  immovably  attached,  by  a  suture,  to  those 
of  the  cranium.  The  head  is  large ;  the  mouth  small ;  and 
the  opercula  are  so  covered  by  skin  and  muscles,  that  only  a  small 
aperture  is  left  for  the  exit  of  the  water  employed  in  respiration. 
The  body  is  usually  short  and  stout,  and  covered  with  a  thick  skin, 
which  is  sometimes  roughened  by  scattered  points,  like  those  in  the 
skin  of  the  Shark,  and  occasionally  more  or  less  covered  with  bony 
plates.  The  fins  are  small  and  soft ;  the  ventrals  usually  entirely 
deficient.  The  intestinal  canal  is  short,  and  destitute  of  pyloric 
coeca,  and  most  of  them  possess  a  large  air-bladder. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Plectognatha  form  only  two  families.  The 
Sclerodcrmata  have  the  head  more  or  less  produced  into  a  snout,  in 


front  of  the  eyes  ;  at  the  extremity  of  this  is  the  mouth,  armed  with  a 
series  of  distinct  teeth,  which  are  received  into  sockets  of  the  jaws, 
and  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  front  teeth  in  man.  The  body  is 
covered  w'ith  bony  plates,  which,  in  some  cases,  as  in  the  Trunk-fish 
[Ostracio/i,  Fig.  1775),  are  of  large  size  and  regular  shape,  covering 
the  whole  surface  of  the  body  with  a  suit  of  inflexible  bony  armour. 
The  tail  is  inclosed  in  a  sort  of  bony  tube  ;  and  this  and  the  pectoral 
fins  are  the  only  movable  parts  of  the  Fish  ;  the  vertebra;,  even,  are 
usually  immovable.  The  dorsal  fin  is  single,  small,  and  entirely 
composed  of  soft  rays.  They  are  generally  of  small  size,  and  are 
found  only  in  the  seas  of  warm  climates. 

In  the  Fishes  of  the   genus   Batistes  (Figs.  1776  and  1777),  and 
their  allies,  on  the  other  hand,  the  dermal  skeleton  takes  the   form 

of  regular  scales  or  grains, 
leaving  the  skin  a  certain 
amount  of  flexibility.  The 
ventral  fins  are  often  repre- 
sented by  a  pair  of  powerful 
denticulated  spines,  and  the 
back  bears  two  dorsal  fins,  of 
which  the  anterior  is  formed  of 
strong  spinous  rays,  the  first 
being  usually  very  large,  and  denticulated  in  front.  This  first  dorsal 
fin  is  sometimes  reduced  to  a  single  strong  spine  ;  it  is  supported  upon 
a  bone  attached  to  the  head,  and  can  be  retracted  within  a  groove 
formed  in  the  latter.  These  Fishes  are  generally  of  rather  small 
size  ;  they  inhabit  the  Tropical  seas,  and  are  often  adorned  with  the 
most  brilliant  colours.  One  species  occurs  on  the  British  coasts. 
They  are  but  indifferent  food,  and  are  said  to  become  poisonous  at 
certain  seasons,  from  feeding  upon  the  coral  Polypes  ;  this,  however, 
is  probably  a  mistake,  as  Cuvier  states,  that  in  all  specimens  opened 
by  him,  he  found  nothing  but  sea-weeds. 


775.— The  Trunk-fish. 


-^ 


Fig.  1776. — The  Eallsta  gi'ograplikus. 

The  second  family,  the  Gymnndonta,  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  the  structure  of  the  mouth,  which,  instead  of  teeth, 
has  the  surfaces  of  the  jaws  covered  with  a  plate  of  an  ivory-like 
substance.  They  feed  upon  sea-weeds,  and  also  upon  Crustacea 
and  Molliisca,  in  breaking  up  the  shelly  coverings  of  which,  these 
solid  jaws  are  of  great  service  to  them.  The  skin  is  thick  and 
leathery,  usually  beset  with  spines  ;  and  the  branchial  aperture  is 
reduced  by  it  to  a  very  small  size. 

Like  those  of  the  preceding  family,  the  majority  of  these  Fishes 
are  found  only  in  the  seas  of  warm  climates,  very  few  occurring  in 
the  waters  of  Europe.  Some  of  them,  belonging  to  the  genera 
Diodon  and  Tctraodoii,  have  a  large  air-bladder,  and  possess  the 
singular  power  of  inflating  the  body  with  air,  so  as  to  swell  it  up  into 


Fig.  1777. — The  Batistes  pcmcilligerns. 

a  more  or  less  globular  form.  This  inflation  is  effected  by  the  pas- 
sage of  air  into  a  large  sac,  which  opens  into  the  oesophagus,  and 
extends  over  the  whole  of  the  belly,  beneath  the  skin.     The  air. 


THE  SUNFISH—THE  GANOID  FISHES. 


71S 


according  to  Mr.  Darwin's  observations,  is  swallowed,  and  then 
forced  into  the  sac,  where  it  is  retained  by  a  muscular  contraction. 
This  sac  was  formerly  described  as  a  crop,  or  first  stomach.  When 
thus  distended,  the  j^reat  quantity  of  air  collected  in  the  ventral 
region,  causes  the  fisii  to  float  with  its  belly  upwards  at  the  surface 
of  the  water,  in  a  most  helpless  position,  although  it  appears  to  have 
some  little  power  of  directing  its  course  by  the  aid  of  the  pectoral 
fins.  The  distention  of  the  skin  also  causes  the  spines,  with  which 
it  is  covered,  to  erect  themselves  in  a  most  formidable  manner, 
affording  an  efficient  protection  against  the  attacks  of  ordinary 
enemies.  Mr.  Darwin  states,  that  a  species  observed  by  him  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  was  able  to  bite  most  severely;  and  that  it  could 
eject  water  from  its  mouth  to  some  distance,  at  the  same  time 
making  a  curious  noise,  by  the  movement  of  its  jaws.  A  singular 
phenomenon  presented  by  this  Fish  was,  "  that  it  emitted  from  the 
skin  of  its  belly,  when  handled,  a  most  beautiful  carmine-red  secre- 
tion, which  stained  ivory  and  paper  in  so  curious  a  manner,  that  the 
tint  is  retained  with  all  its  brightness  to  the  present  day."  These 
Fishes,  some  of  which  are  well  known  as  Sea  Porcupines,  are  of 
moderate  size,  many  of  them  measuring  .above  two  feet  in  length. 
They  are,  however,  of  little  value  ;  their  flesh  being  very  indifferent, 
if  not  absolutely  unwholesome.  One  species  has  been  taken  on  the 
coast  of  Cornwall ;  it  was  first  described 
by  Pennant,  who  considered  it  identical 
with  the  I'ctrodon  Icevigatiis  of  Lin- 
naeus— -a  species  found  in  Carolina.  Mr. 
Yarrell  considers  it  to  be  distinct  from 
this,  and  has  described  it  under  the  name 
oi  T.  pennantii.  It  attains  a  length  of 
more  than  a  foot  anda-half;  and  the 
diameter  of  the  inflated  belly,  in  a  speci- 
men of  this  size,  is  about  a  foot.  A 
species  found  in  the  Nile,  the  2\  lineatus, 
which  is  said  to  possess  electrical  proper- 
ties, is  often  deposited  on  the  banks 
of  that  river,  by  its  periodical  inunda- 
tions ;  on  finding  themselves  hopelessly 
deserted  by  the  water,  they  always  swell 
up  their  ventral  sac,  and  become  dried 
in  this  inflated  condition,  when  they  are 
collected  by,the  children,  and  used  asballs. 
The  largest  species  of  this  family,  and 
indeed  of  the  whole  sub-order,  are  the 
Ortliagorisci,  which  have  a  soft  skeleton, 
and  a  short,  thick  body,  destitute  of  tail ; 
the  air-bladder  and  the  ventral  sac  of 
the  preceding  Fishes  are  entirely  absent,  and  the  Fishes  possess  no 
power  of  inflating  their  bodies.  Their  appearance  is  very  peculiar  ; 
they  look  like  the  anterior  portion  of  some  very  large  Fish,  cut  off 
through  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  and  then  closed  behind,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  broad  caudal  fin.  Of  this  curious  group,  two  species 
are  found  in  the  British  seas,  although  they  appear  to  be  rather  rare 
in  the  waters  surrounding  our  ccasts.  One  of  these,  the  Short  Sun- 
fish,  or  the  Sun-fish ^«r  excellence  {Orthagorisciis  mola),  is  almost 
of  a  circular  form,  with  long  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  projecting  like 
handles  from  its  hinder  part,  the  space  between  these  being  occupied 
by  a  broad  caudal  fin.  About  the  centre  of  the  body,  on  each  side, 
is  a  small  pectoral  fin,  and  in  front  of  this  the  orifice  of  the  bran- 
chial cavity.  The  other  British  species,  the  O.  oblongus,  is  of  an 
oblong  form  ;  it  has  the  fins  in  the  same  position  as  a  circular 
species.  Both  these  Fishes  attain  a  large  size  ;  the  Short  Sun-fish, 
in  particular,  sometimes  weighs  three  or  four  hundred  pounds,  and 
measures  four  or  five  feet  in  length.  The  flesh  of  the  Ot'tkagorisci  is, 
soft  and  veryindifferent,  and  possesses  a  disagreeable  odour  ;  qualities 
which  cause  it  to  be  very  little  esteemed.  It  is,  however,  fat,  and 
yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil.  When  alive,  these  Fishes  have 
a  silvery  appearance,  and  at  night  they  are  said  to  be  e.'cceedingly 
phosporescent ;  from  which  circumstance,  coupled  with  their  more 
or  less  rounded  form,  it  is  probable  that  the  names  of  Sun-fish  and 
Moon-fish,  applied  to  them  in  different  places,  are  derived. 

Order  IV.— Ganoidea. 

General  Characters.— Of  the  remarkable  Fishes  belonging  to 
this  order,  very  few  exist  at  present  in  our  waters.  But  their  Fossil 
remains  occur  in  abundance  in  almost  all  the  Fossiliferous  strata  of 
the  earth,  and,  in  some  of  the  older  formations,  constitute  almost  the 
only  indications  of  the  existence  of  Vertebrated  Animals  upon  our 
planet  at  the  period  of  the  deposition  of  these  strata.  It  was,  in 
fact,  the  abundance  and  variety  of  these  Fossil  remains,  that  first 
called  the  attention  of  naturalists  to  these  Fishes,  and  thus  introduced 
a  new  and  important  element  into  ichthyological  classification. 
Professor  Agassiz,  in  his  great  work  on  the  Fossil  Fishes,  found  it 
necessary  to  adopt  a  different  system  from  that  generally  is  use 
amongst  zoologists,  as,  in  many  instances,  the  organs  upon  which 
the  latter  relied  for  the  characters  of  their  groups,  were  absent  or 
unrecognisable  in  the  remains  of  the  Fishes  of  former  ages.     Under 


Fig.  177S.— The  Short 
Sun-fiili. 


these  circumstances  he  derived  the  leading  characters  of  his  general 
classification  of  Fishes  from  the  form  and  structure  of  the  scales,  or 
dermal  appendages,  these  organs  being  generally  well  preserved  in 
Fossil  specimens  ;  .and  this  has  undoubtedly  been  of  gre.il  service  to 
the  study  of  Fossil  Ichthyology.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that, 
as  is  always  the  case  where  the  structure  of  a  single  systenj  of  organs 
is  adopted  as  the  basis  of  classification,  the  arrangement  of  Fishes 
proposed  by  Professor  Agassiz  is  evidently  artilicial,  and  often 
violates  the  natural  affinities  of  the  Animals,  removing  closely-allied 
species  to  a  distance  from  each  other  ;  and  bringing  others  into  close 
juxtaposition,  which  have  nothing  in  common  but  the  general  form 
of  their  scales. 

This  is  abundantly  evident  from  the  study  of  the  characters  of  the 
Bony  Fishes,  previously  described;  and  it  is  equally  true  with  regard 
to  the  Ganoidea  of  Agassiz,  the  establishment  of  which,  as  a  distinct 
order,  is  the  most  important  zoological  point  in  the  work  of  that 
eminent  naturalist.  In  strict  accordance  with  his  principle  of 
arrangement,  he  includes  under  this  order  all  the  Fishes  which  are 
either  entirely  or  partially  covered  with  bony  plate — .a  character 
which  is  exhibited  by  many  of  the  Fishes  already  referred  to  amongst 
the  Teleustia,  such  as  the  Lophobranchia,  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  Plectognatha  and  Siluridce,  and  many  other  Fishes  belonging 
to  different  groups  of  Bony  Fishes.  But  a  great  many  of  the  living 
representatives  of  the  order  of  Ganoidea,  as  originally  circumscribed 
by  Agassiz,  were  well  known  to  be  nearly  allied  to  other  species  and 
groups  in  which  the  dermal  skeleton  never  presented  the  Ganoid 
structure,  so  that  it  became  necessary  either  to  violate  these  natural 
affinities,  by  preserving  the  order  in  the  form  originally  proposed  by 
its  founder,  or  to  introduce  into  it  new  elements  which  did  not  exhibit 
the  peculiarities  by  which  it  was  characterised,  and  which,  of  course, 
would  have  entirely  effaced  the  boundaries  of  the  order.  The  per- 
ception of  this  difficulty  induced  Professor  Miiller  to  investigate  the 
structure  of  the  living  species  of  Ganoidea,  3.n<\  to  compare  it  with 
that  of  the  Bony  Fishes  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  that  of  the 
Cartilaginous  Fishes  on  the  other ;  and  it  appears,  from  his  re- 
searches, that  a  portion  of  the  Ganoidea  of  Agassiz  present  cha- 
racters entitling  them  to  rank  as  a  distinct  order,  intermediate 
between  the  Teleosiia  and  Selachia,  but  that  a  considerable  number 
of  the  Fishes,  originally  referred  to  the  order,  must  occupy  places 
amongst  the  Teleostia. 

The  character  by  which  the  Ganoidea  were  first  distinguished 
from  other  Fishes,  was  the  nature  of  the  dermal  skeleton.  This  con- 
sists of  smooth,  bony  plates,  covered  with  a  layer  of  enamel,  which 
are  sometimes  distributed  over  the  whole  surface,  or  confined  to  the 
region  of  the  head,  and  occasionally  arranged  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  with  intervals  of  greater  or  less  extent  between  them.  They 
are  frequently  of  a  rhomboidal  form,  arranged  edge  to  edge,  in 
obliquely  transverse  rows,  the  plates  forming  each  of  these  being 
attached  to  those  of  the  next  row  by  a  distinct  process.  In  other 
cases,  the  covering  of  these  Fishes  is  formed  of  rounded  scales,  very 
similar,  both  in  form  and  arrangement,  to  the  horny  scales  of  the 
Teleostia,  but  often  very  distinct  from  these  in  their  structure.  Like 
the  scales  of  the  Teleostia,  these  bony  plates  are  formed  in  capsules 
of  the  skin,  and  the  membrane  of  this  capsule  appears  to  extend  in 
the  form  of  a  very  thin  pellicle  over  their  surface.  In  a  few  species 
the  skin  is  quite  naked. 

The  skeleton  of  the  Ganoid  Fishes  presents  a  considerable  diversity 
in  its  structure,  and  especially  in  the  extent  to  which  ossification 
takes  place  in  it.  Thus,  in  some  forms,  the  centre  of  the  vertebral 
column  is  reduced  to  a  mere  dorsal  cord  (cltorda  dorsalis)  termi- 
nated by  a  cartilaginous  skull,  which  is  usually  protected  by  external 
bony  plates.  The  processes  forming  the  arches  for  the  passage  of 
the  spinal  cord  anti  aorta,  in  these  Fishes,  arc  distinctly  ossified. 
By  degrees,  however,  the  ossification  extends  further ;  the  skull  and 
vertebral  column  are  seen  to  be  composed  of  distinct  bones ;  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebra  exhibiting,  in  some  cases,  the  same  structure 
as  in  the  Selachia,  of  a  series  of  cartilaginous  rings,  inclosing  a 
larger  or  smaller  portion  of  the  gelatinous  matter  of  the  original 
dorsal  cord ;  whilst,  in  others,  the  vertebrae  acquire  the  form 
exhibited  by  those  of  the  Teleostia,  or  even,  as  in  the  Lepidosteus, 
arrive  at  a  still  higher  development ;  the  anterior  surface  of  the  body 
of  each  vertebra  being  furnished  with  a  convex  process,  which  fits 
into  a  cavity  of  the  posterior  surface  of  the  preceding  one.  Thus  the 
structure  of  the  spinal  column  shows  that  the  Ganoid  Fishes  should 
occupy  a  position  intermediate  between  the  Teleostia  and  Selachia, 
as  the  peculiarities  of  both  these  groups  are  reproduced  in  different 
members  of  the  order.  The  Lepidosteus  even  appears,  in  this 
respect,  to  approach  the  higher  classes  of  Vertebrata,  the  Reptilia 
and  Batrachia  in  which  its  peculiar  vertebral  conformation  is  first 
met  with.  In  the  compound  structure  of  the  lower  jaw,  also,  the 
Lepidosteus  presents  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Reptiles. 

The  structure  of  the  fin-rays  partakes  of  the  same  diversity  as  that 
of  the  skeleton.  They  are  all,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  rays 
in  some  of  the  fins,  of  a  soft  and  flexible  consistence  ;  but,  in  some 
cases,  they  are  entire  ;  in  others,  divided  like  the  soft  rays  in  most  of 
the  Teleostia.  In  many  cases,  the  edges  of  the  caudal  fin,  and  the 
anterior    margins   of  the  other   fins,   arc    covered  by   a   series   of 


7i6 


THE  GANOID   FISHES. 


small  bony  pieces,  called  fulcra,  which  are  often  so  acutely 
pointed  as  to  give  the  edge  of  the  fin  a  strongly  serrated  appear- 
ance. 

In  number  and  position,  the  fins  resemble  those  of  many  of  the 
Bony  Fishes.  Tlie  pectorals  are  always  present,  as  are  the  ventrals, 
with  a  few  doubtful  exceptions  ;  the  latter  are  always  placed  on  the 
abdomen  ;  and,  from  this  circumstance,  the  living  Ganoid  Fishes 
were  arranged  by  Cuvier  and  other  naturalists  with  the  abdominal 
Physostumaia.  The  dorsal  and  anal  fins  present  much  the  same 
differences  of  size  and  position  as  the  corresponding  organs  in  the 
Teleostia  ;  but  the  arrangement  of  the  caudal  fin  is  frequently  very 
different.  In  some  cases  the  spinal  column  terminates  at  the  middle 
of  the  caudal  fin,  which  thus  occupies  the  extremity  of  the  body,  as 
in  the  Fishes  of  the  preceding  order ;  whilst,  in  others,  the  extremity 
of  the  spine  is  continued  in  the  form  of  a  pointed  process,  beneath 
which  the  rays  of  the  caudal  fin  are  attached.  Of  these  two  forms  of 
the  caudal  extremity,  the  former,  which  is  denominated  homocercal, 
is  characteristic  of  the  Teleostia  ;  the  latter,  called  heterocercal,  of 
the  Selaclua  ;  and  the  Ganoid  Fishes  exhibit  a  tolerably  gradual 
passage  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

In  their  internal  anatomy,  the  Ganoidea  present  the  same  peculiar 
combination  of  the  characters  of  the  other  two  great  orders  of  Fishes. 
Thus  the  arterial  bulb— as  that  portion  of  the  branchial  artery,  which 
is  situated  immediately  in  front  of  the  heart,  is  called— instead  of 
being  formed  merely  by  a  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  vessel,  as  in 
the  Bony  Fishes,  is  furnished  with  a  distinct  muscular  coat  (Figs. 
IVQO  and  1780),  (by  which  it  is  enabled  to  act  as  a  sort  of 
supplementary  heart,  or  elongated  ventricle,  in  the  propulsion 
of  the  blood  through  the  branchial  vessels  ;  and,  to  fit  it  more 
completely  for  the  performance  of  this  oflSce,  it  is  furnished 
internally  with  a  great  number  of  valves  (Fig.  1780),  to  pre- 
vent the  return  of  the  blood.  This  conformation  is  exhibited  also 
by  the  Selacliia,  although  the  number  of  valves  contained  in  the 
arterial  bulb  is  much  smaller  in  them  than  in  \}a(iGanoidea  ;  but 
the  Teleostia  are  only  furnished  with  a  single  pair  of  valves  at  the 
aperture  leading  from  the  heart  into  the  artery ;  and  the  latter  is 
quite  destitute  of  the  muscular  coat. 

In  the  structure  of  the  branchias,  the  Ganoidea  agree  with  the  true 
Bony  Fishes.  They  have  all  free,  pectinated  gills,  contained  in  a 
cavity  which  is  protected  by  an  operculum,  and  closed  beneath 
by  a  branchiostegal  membrane,  which  is  frequently  furnished  with 
branchiostegal  rays.  In  addition  to  the  regular  branchia;,  there  is 
frequently  a  supplementary  branchial  organ  (the  opercular  bra>icliia) 
attached  to  the  interior  of  each  operculum  ;  and  below  this  is  a  false 
gill  or  pseudobranchia,  which  receives  only  arterialised  blood.  In 
some  cases  the  top  of  the  head  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  spiracles, 
a  structure  which  occurs  amongst  the  Selachia,  but  is  never  met  with 
in  the  Bony  Fishes.  An  air-bladder  is  always  present ;  it  communi- 
cates with  the  pharynx  by  a  duct,  as  in  the  Physostomata. 


Fig. 


1779. — Heart  and  arterial  bulb 
of  Lepidosteus, 

a,  ventricle  ;  b,  auricle ;  <-,  arterial 
bulb ;  d,  branchial  artery ;  ece, 
branches  leading  to  the  branchiae  ; 
/,  continuation  of  the  artery ;  g, 
branches  leading  to  the  opercular 
branchiae. 


Fig.  17S0. — The  arterial  bulb  cut 
open. 

a,  ventricle ;  b,  valve  of  the  aper- 
ture leading  from  the  auricle  ;  c, 
muscular  coat  of  the  arterial  bulb  ; 
d,  opening  for  the  posterior 
branch  from  which  ece,  the 
branches  leading  to  branchiae  rise. 


The  intestine  is  often  furnished  with  a  spiral  valve,  as  in  the  Sharks 
and  Rays.  The  arrangement  of  the  optic  nerves  is  also  very  different 
from  that  which  prevails  amongst  the  Bony  Fishes.  In  the  latter, 
these  nerves  cross,  so  that  each  nerve  runs  to  the  eye  of  the  side 
opposite  to  that  from  which  it  takes  its  rise.  In  the  Ganoidea,  on  the 
contrary,  the  optic  nerve  runs  to  the  eye  of  its  own  side,  and  the  two 
nerves  meet  and  unite  at  some  little  distance  from  their  origin. 


Sub-divisions. — Professor.Miiller  divides  the  living  Ganoid  Fishes 
into  two  great  groups — the  Holostea,  with  a  perfectly  bony  skeleton, 
and  the  Cho)idrostca,  with  the  skeleton  cartilaginous,  and  the  centre 
of  the  vertebral  column  composed  of  a  continuous  soft  chorda.  The 
application  of  this  rule  to  the  Fossil  Fishes  of  this  order  is,  however, 
attended  with  considerable  difficulties,  as,  according  to  Agassiz, 
species  agreeing  closely  in  their  general  characters  with  the  former 
section,  exhibit,  in  the  structure  of  their  skeleton,  an  approach  to  the 
second.  Professor  Vogt,  deriving  his  classification  from  the  forms 
of  the  dermal  skeleton,  divides  the  Ga?widea  into  three  principal 
groups  or  sub-orders — the  Cyclifera,  in  which  the  scales  or  plates 
covering  the  body  are  rounded,  and  lie  over  each  other  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  of  the  true  Bony  Fishes ;  the  Rhombifera,  which 
have  the  body  clothed  with  quadrangular  bony  plates ;  and  the 
Loricata,  which  are  either  entirely  naked,  or  have  the  head,  and 
often  the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  more  or  less  covered  with  irregular 
plates  of  bone.  The  last  of  these  groups  corresponds  with  the 
Chondrostca  of  Professor  Miiller;  and  the  two  others  maybe  re- 
garded as  equivalent  to  his  Holostea.  As  they  appear  to  be  more 
nearly  related  to  each  other  than  to  the  Chondrostea,  and  may  very 
well  be  included  in  a  single  group,  we  shall  retain  Professor  Miiller's 
sections,  especially  as  the  principal  characters,  upon  which  they  are 
founded,  are  exactly  applicable  to  all  the  living  species,  the  only 
examples  to  which  we  can  satisfactorily  appeal. 

Sub-order  I. — Holostea. 

General  Characters.— The  Fishes  belonging  to  this  sub-order, 
both  Recent  and  Fossil,  are  distinguished  by  having  the  entire  sur- 
face covered  either  with  scales  or  bony  plates.  In  the  //iv/V/^ species, 
the  skeleton  acquires  a  bony  consistence  :  and,  in  some  cases,  the 
ossification  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  even  proceeds  to  such  an 
extent,  as  to  depart  entirely  from  the  ordinary  piscine  type,  and  to 
present  no  small  resemblance  to  the  structure  prevailing  in  many 
Reptiles.  In  the  form  of  the  body,  and  the  structure  of  the  head, 
these  Fishes  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  order ;  the  head,  in 
particular,  is  never  covered  with  a  system  of  dermal  bones. 

SUB^DIVISIONS.— The  differences  in  the  structure  of  the  dermal 

covering,  exhibited  by  the  Fishes  of 
this  sub-order,  enable  us  to  divide 
them  readily  into  two  principal 
groups.  In  one  of  these,  the  Cycli- 
fera of  Vogt,  the  body  of  the  Fish 
is  covered  with  rounded  overlying 
scales  (Fig.  1781  b),  presenting  a 
considerable  resemblance,  both  in 
form  and  disposition,  to  those  of  the 
ordinary  Bony  Fishes.  In  some  in- 
stances they  are  even  of  the  same 
horny  texture  ;  and  this  is  the  case 
in  the  only  living  representative 
of  the  group,  the  species  of  the 
genus  Amia  (Fig.  1782),  which,  in  fact,  have  generally  been  regarded 
as  true  Teleostia.  Others  have  similar  horny  scales,  covered  with  a 
layer  of  enamel ;  whilst  others,  again,  are  furnished  with  scale-like 
bony  plates. 

The  character  of  the  dermal  covering  is  not,  however,  the  only 
point  in  which  the  Cyclifera  depart  somewhat  from  the  normal 
Ganoid  type,  and  approach  the  True  Bony  Fishes  ;  the  fins  are 
entirely  destitute  t^i fulcra,  and,  in  other  respects,  exactly  resemble 
those  of  the  Teleostia;  the  arterial  bulb  (Figs.  1779  and  1880)  has 
but  a  scanty  muscular  coat ;  contains  only  two  rows  of  small  valves  ; 
and  the  spiral  valve  in  the  intestine  becomes  exceedingly  small. 
None  of  these  Fishes  have  opercular  branchis. 

The  nearest  approach  to  the  Teleostia,  is  made  by  the  family 
Amiidcs,  the  only  family  of  this  group  of  which  we  have  living  repre- 
sentatives (Fig.  1782.)     They   are   clothed  with  small  horny  scales 


Fig.  1781. — Scales  of  Ganoid  Fishes. 
a,  of  Lepidotus  ;  b,  of  Glyptolepis. 


Fig,  17S2.— The  Amia 


maniuvata. 


usually  covered  with  a  layer  of  enamel,  as  are  also  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  over  which  a  very  thin  skin  is  extended.  They  are  nearly 
homocercal  (the  caudal  fin  occupying  the  whole  posterior  extremity 
of  the  body)  ;  but  the  spinal  column  turns  up  slightly  at  its 
extremity,  so  that  the  larger  portion  of  the  fin  is  situated  below 
its  termination,  giving  it,  as  it  were,  an  indication  of  the  heterocercal 
structure,  which  prevails  amongst  many  of  the  other  members  of  the 
order.     The  species  of  the  genus  Amia  inhabit  the  rivers  of  the 


THE    GANOID   FISHES. 


warmer  parts  of  America,  where  they  feed  on  minute  Crustacea. 
They  are  of  small  size,  and  but  little  valued  as  food. 

In  the  Fossil  Cyclifera,  the  scales  are  of  a  bony  consistence. 
They  form  two  families,  of  which  one,  the  Ccclacaiifhidcu,  is  charac- 
terized by  havina^  the  scales  rather  small,  and  the  perpendicular  tins 
of  extraordinary  size,  all  placed  upon  the  hinder  extremity  of  the 
body,  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  a  single  enormous  fin. 
There  are  always  two  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  and  the  caudal  is  gener- 
ally symmetrical;  although  one  genus  {GlyJ>toleJi!s  Fig.  1781  b)  is 
heterocercal. 

In  the  Holoptychiidcc,  the  scales  are  much  larger  and  thicker  than 
in  the  preceding  family,  and  the  whole  surface,  both  of  the  bony 
scales  and  head,  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  enamel,  and  often  adorned 
with  elegant  raised  patterns.  They  were  Heterocercal  Fishes,  often 
of  large  size,  and  furnished  with  a  formidable  apparatus  of  conical 
teeth,  which  proves  them  to  have  been  of  a  most  predaceous  disposi- 
tion. The  arrangement  of  the  dentine  and  enamel,  in  these  teeth,  is 
exceedingly  curious  and  complicated. 

In  the  second  section  of  the  Holostea,  the  i?/i(?;«5y^ra  of  Vogt, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  types  of  the  Ganoid  Fishes,  the  bony 
scales  are  always  of  a  more  or  less  quadrangular  form,  usually  rhom- 
boidal  (Fig.  1781a.)  They  are  arranged  in  oblique  rows,  and  the 
edges  are  generally  so  bevelled  that  each  side  slightly  overlaps  the 
one  beneath  it ;  whilst  the  plates  in  each  row  are  usually  connected 
with  those  in  the  ne.xt  by  means  of  peculiar  processes.  These  plates 
are  composed  of  true  bony  matter,  and  covered  with  a  beautiful  layer 
of  glassy  enamel.  The  fins  in  the  Rhombifera  are  always  well 
developed,  and,  generally,  furnished  with  fulcra  ;  the  ventral  fins  are 
abdominal  in  position,  and  the  caudal  extremity  exhibits  either  the 
Homocercal  or  Heterocercal  character. 

'J'he  Fossil  remains  of  Fishes  of  this  group  are  distributed  through 
almost  all  the  strata  of  the  earth  ;  but,  in  our  present  world,  it  has 
but  few  representatives  belonging  to  two  genera.  The  group  may 
be  divided  into  two  sections,  characterised  by  the  presence  or  absence 
of  fulcra  on  the  fins  ;  and  each  of  these  sections  possesses  one  living 
genus. 

Of  the  group  in  which  the  fulcra  are  deficient,  the  only  living  repre- 
sentatives belong  to  the  family  Po/yp/cri'dcc.  These  Fishes  are 
distinguished  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  dorsal  fin,  which  is 
broken  up  into  a  number  of  separate  spines,  occupying  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  the  back,  and  each  furnished  with  a  soft  fin,  attached 
to  its  posterior  surface.  The  pectoral  fins  are  broad,  rounded,  and 
fan-like,  supported  upon  a  sort  of  short,  scaly  arm  ;  the  ventrals  are 
placed  very  far  back  ;  the  anal  fin  is  single,  and  the  tail  slightly 
heterocercal.  The  body  is  very  elongated  and  cylindrical ;  the  head 
depressed,  and  furnished  with  a  pair  of  spiracles,  which  can  be  closed 
by  a  bony  valve.  The  opercular  branchiie  and  pseudo-branchiffi  are 
wanting ;  and  the  branchiostegal  rays  are  replaced  by  a  singular 
large  triangular  bony  plate. 

The  only  known  species  of  this  family  inhabit  the  African  rivers. 
One  {Polypterus  bi'chir),  which  is  found  in  the  Nile,  has  sixteen 
dorsal  fins,  whilst  another  {P.  senega/us),  with  twelve  dorsal  fins, 
inhabits  the  Senegal.  The  Nilotic  species  attains  a  length  of  about 
eighteen  inches.  It  keeps  in  the  muddy  bottom  of  the  river,  and 
is  only  occasionally  taken ;  it  is  regarded  as  an  excellent  Fish  for  the 
table. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Polyptcridcs  are  the  Dipteridcs,  a  family  of 
Fossil  Fishes  which  have  hitherto  occurred  only  in  the  Old  Red- 
sandstone.  The  Dipfcrida:  are  decidedly  Heterocercal :  the  upper 
lobe  of  the  caudal  fin  being  much  larger  than  the  lower,  and  the  tail 
running  almost  to  its  extremity.  The  upper  surface  of  the  tail  is 
bordered,  like  the  lower  surface,  with  a  rayed  fin,  but  there  are  no 
traces  of  spines  or  fulcra,  either  on  this  or  on  any  of  the  other  fins  ; 
the  pectorals  are  of  considerable  size  ;  the  ventrals  are  small ;  and 
there  are  two  large  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  situated  opposite  to  each 
other,  near  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  body. 

The  Acanfhodidce  were  also  Heterocercal  Fishes,  in  which  the 
upper  surface  of  the  tail  was  furnished  with  a  small  rayed  fin,  but 
quite  destitute  of  spines  or  fulcra  ;  whilst  the  remaining  fins  were  all 
iurnished  with  a  single  strong  spinous  ray.  The  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
were  single. 

The  Fishes  of  this  family  were  of  small  size,  and  covered  with  very 
small  bony  plates.  They  are  found  entirely  in  some  of  the  oldest 
fossiliferous  strata,  the  Old  Red-sandstone  and  Carboniferous  groups; 
and  they  are  remarkable  amongst  the  Fishes  of  these  early  periods 
from  having  the  skeleton  more  distinctly  ossified. 

The  family  Pycitodoiitidcs  is  composed  of  Homocercal  Fishes,  of  a 
broad,  compressed  form,  which  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
Ganoidce  by  the  absence  of  ventral  fins.  They  are  small  Fishes, 
which  probably  derived  their  nourishment  from  INIolluscous  Animals  ; 
all  the  teeth  of  the  jaws  and  palate,  with  the  exception  of  the 
front  teeth  in  the  jaws,  which  resemble  the  human  incisors,  being 
broad  and  flat,  so  as  to  adapt  them  especially  for  crushing  the  hard 
shells  of  these  Animals.  Their  remains  are  found  in  several  strata, 
but  disappear  after  the  Tertiary  period. 

Of  the  species  in  which  the  fins  are  furnished  with  fulcra,  some  are 
distinguished  by  having  a  double  row  of  those  organs  along  the  edge 


7'7 

of  the  tail,  whilst  others  have  only  a  single  row.  The  only  livine 
forms  belong  to  the  former  series,  and  constitute,  with  several  fossil 
genera  the  family  Lepidosteida:.  These  are  elongated  Pike-like 
i-ishes  (iMg.  1785),  which  were  formerly  associated  with  \.\-^c  Esocidcc, 
and  are  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Bony  Pikes.  Thcv  are 
Heterocercal,  and  both  edges  of  the  caudal  fin  are  furnished  with  a 
double  series  of  fulcra,  as  are  also  the  anterior  margins  of  the  other 
fins.  The  jaws  are  usually  produced  into  a  long  narrow  snout  pre- 
senting a  great  resemblance  to  that  of  tlie  Gangetic  Crocodile'  and 
armed  with  a  double  series  of  formidable  conical  teeth,  the  internal 
structure  of  which  is  very  remarkable.  The  nostrils  are  situated  quite 
at  the  extremity  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  composed  of  several 
pieces,  bearing  teeth  ;    the  lower  jaw,  in  like  manner,  consists  of 


Fig.  17S3.— The  Bony  Pike  {Lepidostetcs osseus), 

several  portions,  presenting,  in  this  respect,  a  close  resemblance  to 
that  of  many  Reptiles.  The  vertebral  colnmn  also  presents  a  struc- 
ture such  as  we  meet  with  in  no  other  Fishes,  the  bodies  of  the  verte- 
bra being  regularly  articulated  together.  The  Lepidosteida  are 
furnished  with  opercular  branchia;  and  pseudo-branchiae  ;  the  bran- 
chiostegal membrane  contains  rays,  and  the  air-bladder  is  of  large 
size,  and  divided  into  numerous  cells. 

The  Fishes  of  the  genus  Lcpidosfeus  inhabit  the  rivers  and  lakes 
of  America,  especially  in  tlie  warmer  regions.  Several  species  have 
been  described  by  American  authors  as  inhabiting  the  fresh  waters 
of  the  United  States  ;  but,  of  tnese,  some  are,  no  doubt,  mere 
varieties.  They  attain  a  considerable  size,  many  of  them  being  be- 
tween two  and  three  feet  in  length,  and  their  flesh  is  said  to  be  very 
good. 

The  LepidotidcB — a  nearly  allied  family,  with  two  rows  of  fulcral 
scales  on  the  margins  of  the  fins — are  distinguished  from  the  preced- 
ing family  by  their  Homocercal  structure  and  smaller  teeth,  which 
never  exhibit  the  peculiar  folded  arrangement  of  their  constituent 
parts,  which  is  characteristic  oithQ  Lepidosteidce.  The  species  of 
this  family  are  all  Fossil. 

The  Ganoid  Fishes,  with  a  single  row  of  fulcral  scales  on  the  fins, 
are  also  known  to  us  only  by  their  Fossil  remains.  Like  the  forms 
with  double  fulcra,  they  may  be  divided  into  two  families,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  structure  of  the  caudal  extremity.  The  Heterocercal 
species  constitute  the  family  of  Pal cconisc idee,  examples  ot  which  are 
found  only  in  the  older  formations  up  to  the  Oolitic  period.  They 
have  a  single  dorsal  fin  placed  about  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  the 
anal  fin  is  also  single,  and  situated  near  the  caudal.  The  Homocer- 
cal forms,  forming  the  family  DapediidcB,  resemble  the  preceding  in 
the  number  and  position  of  their  fins  ;  but  the  bodies  of  the  vertebraj 
are  ossified.     They  make  their  appearance  in  the  Oolite. 

Sub-order  II.— Chondrostea,  or  Loricata. 

General  Characters. — The  Fishes  belonging  to  this  sub-order 
were  arranged  by  most  of  the  earlier  naturalists  amongst  the  Carti- 
laginous Fishes,  of  which  they  formed,  with  Cuvier,  a  peculiar  order, 
characterised  by  having  the  free  branchia;  and  opercular  apparatus 
of  the  ordinary  Bony  Fishes.  They  are,  in  fact,  distinguished  from 
the  other  liviiig  species  of  the  order  Ga7ioidea  by  the  nature  of 
their  skeleton,  in  which  the  centre  of  the  vertebral  column  is  repre- 
sented by  a  simple,  soft  chorda  dorsalis,  without  any  indication  of 
a  division  into  separate  vertebral  bodies.  The  processes  of  the 
vertebra;  are,  however,  generally  distinctly  ossified.  The  character 
of  the  dermal  skeleton  is  also  diiferent.  It  consists  of  large, 
cellular  bony  plates,  which  are  usually  collected  together  so  as  to 
form  a  strong  covering  for  the  head,  where  they  are  firmly  united  to 
the  cartilaginous  skull ;  whilst  the  remainder  of  the  body  is  either 
entirely  naked,  or  furnished  with  a  few  bony  plates,  separated  by 
intervals  of  skin  of  greater  or  less  extent.  In  a  few  species  the  skin 
is  completely  naked.  In  the  recent  forms,  the  mouth  is  always 
placed  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  head,  at  some  little  distance  from 
the  tip  of  the  snout ;  but  in  some  of  the  Fossil  species,  which  agree 
with  this  group  in  the  general  characters  of  the  skeleton,  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  dermal  plates,  it  is  situated,  as  in  the  ordinary 
Fishes,  at  the  front  of  the  head. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Fossil  species  belong  to  the  family  Cep/ia- 
la':pid(r,  in  which  not  only  the  head,  but  even  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  body,  was  covered  with  bony  plates,  giving  these  creatures  a 
most  singular  aspect.  So  anomalous  is  the  appearance  of  some  of 
the  species,  in  fact,  that  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  discovery 
of  their  remains,  palaeontologists  were  much  divi.led  in  opinion  with 
ret'ard  to  their  nature  ;  and  some  of  them  were  said  to  be  gigantic 
Water  Beetles  ;  whilst  others  (such  as  the  Pterichihys,  Fig.  1784) 


f 


7i8 


THE  SELACIIIA,  OR  SHARK  TRIBE. 


were  considered  to  be  allied  to  the  King-crabs  {Limicli),  or  to  the 
Trilobites.  The  fins  in  these  Fishes  were  very  imperfectly  developed, 
and  some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  often  entirely  wanting. 
Thus,  in  the  Pterichtliys,  the  only  representatives  of  the  fins  appear 
to  be  the  singular  jointed  organs,  which  project  on  each  side  of  the 
anterior  part  of  the  body,  and  are  undoubtedly  the  pectoral  fins, 
although  certainly  under  a  very  curious  form.  The  perpendicular  fins 
are  also  very  slightly  developed,  and  the  caudal  fin  appears  to  have 
been  always  deficient. 


Fig.  17S4.— The  Pterlchthys. 

The  remains  of  these  Fishes  are  found  only  in  the  most  ancient 
fossiliferous  strata  of  the  earth's  crust ;  they  occur  in  the  greatest 
abundance  in  the  Old  Red-sandstone,  and  entirely  disappear  in  the 
strata  above  the  Carboniferous  rocks. 

Sub-divisions. — -The  recent  Cho?idrosiea  form  two  families, 
which,  however,  agree  very  closely  in  their  general  form  and  organi- 
sation, and  differ  principally  in  the  character  of  the  dermal  covering. 
In  the  family  of  the  Sturgeons,  or  Acipe7iserid(B,  the  body  is 
elongated  and  fusiform  ;  the  head  depressed,  produced  into  a  trian- 
gular snout,  and  covered  with  bony  plates,  and  the  body  furnished 
with  rows  of  large  tubercular  plates.  The  mouth  is  funnel-shaped 
and  protrusible  ;  placed  on  the  under  surface  of  the  head ;  and  in 
front  of  it  a  few  barbulcs  depend  from  the  snout.  They  possess 
opercular  branchiae,  pseudo-branchia;,  and  spiracles ;  the  opercula 
are  large,  the  fins  well  developed,  the  tail  heterocercal,  and  furnished 
with  fulcra  along  its  upper  margin. 

The  Sturgeons  are  generally  of  large  size,  and  inhabit  the  seas  of 
different  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  often  ascend  particular  rivers,  in 
great  abundance,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  It  is  only  during 
their  progress  towards,  and  their  abode  in,  the  fresh  water  that  the 
fishery  for  Sturgeons  can  be  carried  on  ;  as,  during  their  sojourn  in 
the  sea,  they  appear  to  frequent  such  deep  water,  as  to  keep  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  nets.  Mr.  Yarrell  states  that  he  has  never  heard 
of  an  instance  of  a  Sturgeon  being  taken  by  line. 

Two  species  are  found  on  the  British  coasts;  the  Acipenser 
sliirio,  or  Common  Sturgeon,  is  the  best  known  of  these.  Its  usual 
length  is  from  five  to  six  feet ;  but  a  specimen  has  been  taken  in 
Scotland,  measuring  eight  feet  six  inches  in  length,  and  weighing 
two  hundred  and  three  pounds ;  and  Pennant  mentions  the  capture 
of  a  Fish  of  this  species,  which  weighed  four  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds.  The  flesh  of  the  Sturgeon  is  regarded  as  a  great  delicacy, 
its  flavour  being  compared  to  that  of  veal  ;  and  so  highly  was  it 
esteemed  in  former  days,  that  our  Henry  I.  is  said  to  have  prohibited 
its  being  eaten  at  any  other  table  than  his  own.  Formerly,  any  Stur- 
geon taken  in  the  Thames,  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lord  Mayor, 
was  denominated  a  Royal  Fish,  from  an  old  custom  that  such  Fish 
should  be  presented  to  the  sovereign.  It  is  now  commonly  sold  in 
London  at  a  low  price. 
The  Common  Stnrgeon  is  far  more  abundant  in  the  seas  of  the 


north  of  Europe  than  on  our  coasts  ;  it  also  exists  in  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Seas  in  great  quantities,  associated  with  other  species,  of 
which  one,  the  Beluga  [Acipcfiser  huso.  Fig.  1785),  attains  an 
enormous  size.  This  Fish  often  measures  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in 
length,  and  weighs  more  than  twelve  hundred  pounds;  and  Cuvier 
states  that  specimens  have  been  seen  weighing  no  less  than  three 
thousand  pounds.  It  ascends  the  great  rivers  which  empty  them- 
selves into  the  seas  above-mentioned,  in  company  with  the  Common 
Sturgeon,  and  with  two  smaller  species,  the  A.  Jiclops  3.n^  A.  riith- 
enus,  of  which  the  former  attains  the  length  of  about  four,  and  the 
latter  of  two  or  three,  feet.  The  Acipciiscr  rufhcnus,  or  Sterlet, 
which  abounds  especially  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  ascends  the  Volga 
in  great  numbers,  is  regarded  as  the  most  delicate  species  of  the  genus ; 
but  the  flesh  of  the  Beluga  and  of  the  Scherg  [A .  lielops)  is  of  inferior 
quality  ;  and  that  of  the  former  is  even  said  to  be  occasionally  un- 
wholesome. 

Nevertheless,  this  Fish  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  of  its 
family  ;  as,  from  its  sound,  or  air-bladder,  the  most  abundant  supply 
of  fine  isinglass  is  prepared.  The  other  species  also  furnish  this 
substance  ;  and,  to  procure  it,  vast  quantities  of  them  are  captured 
in  the  rivers  of  Russia.  Another  article,  prepared  from  the  different 
species  of  Sturgeon,  is  the  substance  called  caviare,  which  forms  an 
important  article  of  commerce  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean.  It  consists  of  the  roe  of  the  female  Fish,  which 
is  cleaned,  washed  with  vinegar,  and  dried,  when  it  is  either  pressed 
into  small  cakes,  or  packed  in  kegs.  The  roe  in  these  Fishes  occu- 
pies a  very  great  proportion  of  the  body,  occasionally  constituting 
more  than  one-third  of  its  total  weight.  It  sometimes  weighs  as 
much  as  eight  hundred  pounds.  The  caviare  prepared  from  the  roe 
of  the  Sterlet  is  said  to  be  far  superior  to  that  obtained  from  any  other 
species.  The  skin  of  the  Beluga  is  employed  by  the  Russians  for 
harness  leather ;  and  the  cliorda  dorsal  is  of  several  species  is 
cut  in  pieces,  dried,  and  used  as  food  in  some  countries.  The 
Baltic  and  the  American  seas  also  abound  in  Sturgeons,  the  species 
found  in  the  latter  locality  being  distinct  from  those  of  Europe. 
They  are  taken  in  considerable  quantities,  and  their  flesh  is  often 
pickled  and  exported  to  other  countries. 

The  Spafularidcs,  forming  the  last  family  of  the  Ganoid  Fishes, 
resemble  the  True  Sturgeons  in  their  general  form  ;  but  their  skin  is 
quite  naked,  and  destitute  of  the  bony  plates  which,  in  the  Fishes  of 
the  preceding  family,  cover  the  head  and  part  of  the  body.  They 
are  also  distinguished  by  having  the  snout  enormously  prolonged 
and  compressed,  so  as  to  form  a  thin  elongated  leaf-like  organ, 
which  is  sometimes  nearly  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  body.  The 
opercular  apertures  are  very  large,  and  the  hinder  margins  of  the 
opercula  are  produced  backwards  into  a  membranous  point,  which 
attains  nearly  the  middle  of  the  body.  The  mouth  is  wide,  and  very 
different  in  its  form  from  that  of  the  Sturgeons ;  it  is  armed  with 
numerous  minute  teeth  whilst  the  Animal  is  young  ;  but  these  are 
lost  as  it  increases  in  age.  The  species  of  this  curious  family  are 
found  only  in  the  great  rivers  of  North  America ;  the  first  described 
was  the  Spatidaria  folium,  from  the  Mississippi. 

Order  V.— Selachia. 
General  Characters. — The  great  order  of  the  Selachia,  includ- 
ing the  Sharks  and  Rays,  may  be  considered  to  correspond  with  the 
typical  portion  of  the  Chondropterygious,  or  Cartilaginous  Fishes  of 
Cuvier.  That  author,  however,  included  amongst  his  Cartilaginous 
Fish,  the  Sturgeons,  which  we  have  seen  to  belong  to  the  Ganoid 
order  ;  and  the  Lampreys  and  their  allies,  which,  except  in  the  soft 
texture  of  their  skeletons,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  branchial 
openings,  have  certainly  nothing  in  common  with  the  highly-organised 


Fig.  17S5.— The  Beluga, 


Fig.  1786.— The  Mouth  of  the  Shark. 


THE  SHARK  TRIBE. 


719 


Fishes  arranged  in  the  present  order.  The  Sclachia  have  generally- 
been  placed  nearly  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale  in  the  classification  of 
Fishes  ;  but  this  opinion  of  their  inferiority  has  arisen  entirely  from 
the  imperfect  ossification  of  their  skeleton.  In  the  perfection  of  their 
general  organisation  they  certainly  e.xceed  all  the  other  members  of 
the  class,  and,  in  many  respects,  approach  the  classes  immediately 
above  them  so  closely,  that  Linnxus  even  removed  them  altogether 
from  the  class  of  Fishes,  and  placed  them  amongst  the  RcJ>tilia,  as 
a  peculiar  order,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Nantes. 

The  skeleton,  in  the  Selachia,  is  entirely  of  a  cartilaginous  nature. 
The  skull  consists  of  a  cartilaginous  capsule,  composed  of  a  single 
piece,  without  any  indications  of  sutures.  The  structure  of  the  jaws 
varies  considerably.  In  the  Oiiinaridic,  the  upper  teeth  are  sup- 
ported upon  the  front  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  skull,  which  also 
takes  the  place  of  the  palate  ;  but  in  the  Sharks  and  Rays  there  is  a 
true  movable  upper  jaw,  bearing  the  teeth  ;  and  between  this  and  the 
base  of  the  skull  are  the  rudiments  of  a  true  palate.  The  lower  jaw 
always  consists  of  a  single  cartilaginous  arch.      (See  Fig.  1786). 

The  teeth  are  very  variable  in  their  form.  In  the  Sharks,  the  most 
active  and  predaceous  members  of  the  order,  the  teeth  are  exceedingly 
sharp,  compressed,  and  occasionally  serrated  at  the  edges.  In  the 
Rays,  the  teeth  also  sometimes  e.xhibit  the  same  trenchant  character  ; 
but  in  many  cases  they  are  arranged  in  mosaic  ;  and  these  different 
forms  appear,  occasionally,  to  be  only  sexual  peculiarities.  In  some 
cases,  the  teeth  form  broad,  pavement-like  plates,  covering  the  sur- 
face of  the  jaws.  The  teeth  are  never  inserted  into  the  jaws,  but  are 
simply  retained  in  their  position  by  the  strong  skin  of  the  gums. 
They  are  arranged  in  numerous  rows  upon  the  rounded  edge  of  the 
jaws,  those  of  the  outermost  row  standing  perpendicularly,  and  being 
the  only  ones  in  use  ;  whilst  those  of  the  inner  rows  are  inclined 
inwards,  and  only  acquire  the  perpendicular  position  when  they  move 
forward,  to  take  the  place  of  one  of  their  fellows  that  has  been  worn 
out  by  long  use.  The  spinal  column  is  sometimes  a  simple  choi'da 
dorsalis,  which  occasionally  exhibits  indications  of  segmentation  ; 
and  sometimes  composed  of  a  regular  series  of  cartilaginous  vertebrae, 
furnished  with  the  same  conical  cavities  as  in  the  Bony  Fishes.  The 
arches  of  the  vertebrae  are,  however,  generally  cartilaginous,  even  in 
the  forms  with  a  continuous  dorsal  chord  ;  and  in  those  which  have 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  cartilaginous,  the  bases  of  the  processes 
are  usually  inserted  into  peculiar  sockets  of  those  bones. 

The  pectoral  fins  are  attached  to  a  strong  cartilaginous  arch, 
which  usually,  as  in  the  Bony  Fishes,  depends  from  the  hinder  part 
of  the  skull.  The  ventral  fins  are  always  situated  at  the  hinder  part 
of  the  abdomen,  on  each  side  of  the  anus  ;  and  in  the  males  they  are 
furnished  with  curious  cylindrical  appendages,  which  are  probably 
organs  of  adhesion.  The  perpendicular  fins  vary  considerably  in 
number  and  position,  as  in  the  preceding  groups  of  Fishes,  and  some 
of  them  are  frequently  wanting.  The  tail  is  usually  heterocercal. 
The  fin  rays  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  of  a  horny  texture,  very 
different  from  that  of  the  rays  of  the  Fishes  of  any  other  group  ;  but 
the  fins  are  also  frequently  provided  with  a  strong  hollow  spine,  com- 
posed of  dentine,  and  usually  serrated  behind  ;  this  is  supported 
upon  a  movable  cartilaginous  piece,  and  often  constitutes  a  formid- 
able weapon. 

The  skin  is  sometimes  quite  naked,  but  usually  bears  a  number  of 
larger  or  smaller  fragments  of  dentine,  which  are  occasionally  in  the 
form  of  scattered  spines,  separated  by  intervals  of  naked  skin  ;  but 
in  other  cases  are  distributed  in  minute  grains  over  the  whole 
surface. 

The  Selachia  are  especially  distinguished  from  the  other  Fishes 
by  the  structure  of  their  branchiae.  The  branchial  arches  are  fixed, 
and  the  branchial  lamina:,  besides  being  attached  by  their  bases  to 
the  arches,  are  also  fixed  by  the  whole  of  one  margin  to  a  series  of 
partitions,  which  thus  bear  a  series  of  laminae  on  each  side  of  them. 
In  this  manner  a  series  of  branchial  sacs  is  formed,  which  open  into 
the  pharynx  by  separate  slits,  and  also  usually  possess  separate 
external  apertures,  to  allow  the  water  employed  in  respiration  to  pass 
off.  The  usual  number  of  these  openings  is  five  on  each  side ;  but 
in  some  cases  there  are  six,  and  even  seven  of  them.  In  the 
ChiniCBridcB  there  is,  however,  only  a  single  external  opening  ;  and 
this  character  induced  Cuvier  to  place  these  singular  Fishes  with  the 
Sturgeons,  in  his  order  of  Choiidroptei-ygii  with  free  branchia;, 
although  the  internal  structure  of  the  branchial  apparatus  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  typical  Sclachia. 

The  arterial  bulb  in  the  Selachia  exhibits  the  same  muscular  coat 
and  apparatus  of  internal  valves  that  we  have  already  described  as 
existing  in  the  Ganoid  Fishes;  but  the  valves  are  generally  less 
numerous  than  in  the  recent  species  of  that  order.  The  intestine  is 
also  furnished  with  a  spiral  valve,  which  often  attains  an  extraor- 
dinary degree  of  development.  There  are  no  pyloric  coeca  ;  but  the 
pancreas  is  in  a  glandular  form.  The  nervous  system  exhibits  a 
marked  superiority  over  that  of  the  ordinary  Fishes,  the  volume  of 
the  cerebral  hemispheres  being  much  greater ;  and  the  optic  nerves 
present  the  same  arrangement  as  in  the  Ganoid  Fishes!  The  Selachia 
are  also  the  only  Fishes  in  which  the  auditory  cavity  is  in  communi- 
cation with  the  outer  world  ;  the  eyes  are  in  some  cases  furnished 
with  nictitating  membranes,  and  the  nasal  sacs  are  of  very  compli- 
cated construction. 


The  reproduction  of  these  Animals  presents  several  remarkable 
peculiarities,  and  differs  considerably  from  that  of  most  Fishes. 
Thus  most  of  them  produce  living  young,  which  are  developed  in  an 
enlarged  portion  of  the  oviduct,  where  they  lie  free,  and  surrounded 
by  an  albuminous  liquid,  which  appears  to  assist  in  their  nutrition 
during  the  period  of  development.  It  is  even  said  that  in  one  species, 
at  least,  the  yelk-sac  attaches  itself  by  means  of  little  appendages  to 
the  walls  of  the  oviduct,  thus  forming  a  connection  with  the  parent, 
such  as  we  only  meet  with  elsewhere  amongst  the  Mammalia. 
Some  species,  on  the  other  hand,  produce  ova,  which  arc  inclosed  in 
hard,  horny,  quadrangular  shells,  usually  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
filamentous  processes  at  each  extremity  (Fig.  1787).  These  egg-cases 

_5,) 


Fig.  1787. — Egg-case  and  Young  of  the  Dogfish. 

are  furnished  with  slits  to  allow  the  passage  of  water  to  the  embryo, 
which  lies  coiled  up  in  their  interior  until  its  development  is  suffi- 
ciently advanced,  when  it  makes  its  escape  through  an  opening  at  the 
extremity,  towards  which  its  head  is  situated.  The  filamentous 
processes  of  these  egg-cases  are  said  to  serve  for  their  attachment 
to  sea-weeds,  so  as  to  prevent  the  young  Animal  from  being  the 
sport  of  the  waves ;  the  empty  cases  are  constantly  to  be  found 
thrown  up  on  the  beach,  and  they  are  well  known  at  the  sea-side 
under  the  name  of  Mermaid's-purses,  Sea-purses,  &c. 

The  embryo  exhibits  one  remarkable  peculiarity,  which  appears 
greatly  to  justify  the  position  of  this  order  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Batrachia.  Before  its  exclusion,  the  young  Fish 
is  furnished  with  external  filamentous  branchiae,  like  those  which 
exist  in  the  Tadpoles,  or  larvae  of  the  Batrachia,  a  character  which 
we  meet  with  in  no  other  group  of  Fishes. 

The  Selachia  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  although  some  of  them 
occasionally  frequent  the  estuaries  of  large  rivers.  They  are  all  of 
large  or  moderate  size,  some  species  attaining  gigantic  proportions, 
when  their  voracity  renders  them  objects  of  terror  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  coasts  on  which  they  occur. 

Sub-divisions. — They  may  be  divided  into  two  primary  groups  or 
sub-orders — the  Holocephala,  which  may  be  recognised  by  their 
single  branchial  apertures  on  each  side,  and  the  Plagiostomata,  in 
which  each  branchial  sac  has  a  separate  opening. 

Sub-order  I.— Holocephala. 

The  Holocephala  make  the  nearest  approach  to  the  Sturgeons, 
and  were,  in  fact,  included  in  the  same  order  with  them  by  Cuvier. 
They  have  a  continuous  choi'da  dorsalis,  with  cartilaginous  neural 
arches,  and  transverse  processes.  The  skull  is  short  and  rounded, 
and  its  anterior  margin  takes  the  place  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  sup- 
ports the  teeth,  which  consist  of  broad  plates  ;  of  these  the  upper 
jaw  bears  four,  the  lower  one  only  two.  The  eyes  are  very  large,  but 
without  eyelids.  The  nasal  cavities  are  very  large  and  convoluted  ; 
they  open  on  the  lower  part  of  the  snout,  in  front  of  the  mouth,  which 
is  of  small  size.  On  each  side  of  the  neck  there  is  a  single  branchial 
aperture,  which  is  furnished  with  a  sort  of  rudimentary  cartilaginous 
operculum,  and  which  leads  down  to  five  distinct  branchial  sacs,  with 
separate  openings  into  the  pharynx. 

There  are  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  anterior  is  rather  short, 
triangular,  furnished  in  front  with  a  very  large  spine,  and  situated 
immediately  over  the  large,  powerful  pectoral  fins  ;  the  anal  fin  is 
small,  and  the  tail  heterocercal.     The  skin  is  perfectly  naked. 

The  Holocephala  are  all  Oviparous,  and  their  eggs,  like  those  of 
the  Sharks  and  Rays,  are  inclosed  in  a  strong,  horny  capsule.  They 
form  a  single  family,  the  Chimcerida;  Linna;us  having  applied^  the 
name  ChimcBra  to  them  from  their  singular  appearance,  especially 
when  badly  stuffed. 

The  best  known  species  is  the  Northern  Chima^ra  {Chimcsra 
monstrosa),  which  is  called  the  Sea-cat,  and  the  King  of  the 
Herrings,  in  different  localities.  It  is  three  or  four  feet  long,  of  a 
silvery  colour,  spotted  with  brown  ;  the  snout  is  obtusely  conical,  and 
the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  produced  into  a  very  long  tapering  fila- 
ment. It  is  a  native  of  the  northern  seas,  and  usually  follows  the 
shoals  of  Herrings,  during  their  periodical  migrations  towards  the 
shore,  feeding  upon  these  and  other  small  Fishes  ;  it  is  also  said  to 
feed  on  Medusa  and  Crustacea.  The  males  arc  furnished  witn  bony 
appendages  at  the  base  of  the  ventral  fins,  and  also  with  a  singular 
plate,  terminated  by  a  spinous  disc,  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  in 


720 


THE  SHARKS. 


front  of  the  eyes  ;  the  possession  of  this  appendage,  coupled  with  its 
habit  of  following  the  Herrings,  has,  no  doubt,  given  rise  to  the 
fanciful  appellation  already  referred  to.  This  Fish  occurs  occasion- 
ally on  the  British  coasts  ;  its  flesh  is  coarse,  and  very  indifferent  as 
food  ;  but  the  oil  furnished  by  its  liver  is  said  to  be  employed  by  the 
Nonvegians  in  diseases  of  the  eyes. 


Fig.  17SS. — SoutI.em  Chimcera. 

In  the  seas  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  place  of  the  ChhniEya 
monstrosa  is  taken  by  another  species,  the  Callorhynchus  australis 
(Fig.  1788),  so  called  from  its  having  the  snout  produced  into  a  car- 
tilaginous process,  which  is  bent  backwards  at  the  extremity,  so  as 
to  acquire  no  small  resemblance  to  a  hoe.  It  is  of  about  the  same 
size  as  the  Northern  Chima^ra,  and  is  of  a  silvery  colour,  tinged  with 
yellowish-brown.     The  tail  is  not  produced  into  a  filament. 

Sub-order  II.— Plagiostomata. 

General  Characters. — In  the  Plagiosfoinata,  the  centre  of  the 
vertebral  column  is  usually  more  or  less  ossified,  and  divided  into 
separate  vertebrs  ;  and  even  where  it  still  forms  a  continuous  f/^or<2'<i 
dorsalis,  the  boundaries  of  the  vertebrie  are  indicated  by  transverse 
partitions.  The  union  of  the  vertebral  column  with  the  skull  is 
effected  by  means  of  a  joint,  which  contains  a  conical  cavity.  The 
skull,  as  in  the  preceding  sub-order,  forms  a  simple  cartilaginous 
capsule  ;  but  its  anterior  margin  no  longer  performs  the  office  of  a 
jaw,  the  upper  jaw  being  formed  of  a  separate  cartilaginous  arch. 
The  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  placed  quite  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
body,  at  some  distance  from  the  extremity  of  the  snout,  which  is 
greatly  inflated  to  give  room  for  the  enormous  nasal  capsules.  The 
mouth  is  always  of  an  arched  form,  and  contains  numerous  rows  of 
teeth,  of  which  the  inner  are  continually  coming  up  to  replace  those 
which  have  been  long  in  use.  The  branchial  sacs  are  completely 
separated,  and  furnished  with  distinct  apertures  for  the  passage  of 
the  water  which  has  been  employed  in  respiration ;  these,  in  the 
Sharks,  are  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  neck,  but  in  the  flattened  Rays 
they  are  situated  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  a  little  behind  the 
mouth.  On  the  upper  surface  of  the  head,  behind  the  eyes,  is  a  pair 
of  spiracles,  which  communicate  with  the  pharynx.  The  skin  is 
almost  always  furnished  with  the  hard  bodies  already  described, 
either  in  the  form  of  scattered  spines,  or  of  minute  grains  covering 
the  whole  skin. 

Sub-divisions. — These  Fishes  are  divided  by  Professor  Miiller 
into  numerous  families,  which,  however,  may  all  be  referred  to  one 
of  two  groups,  the  Sharks  {Squaliiia),  and  the  Rays  [Rauna). 

The  Sharks  are  at  once  distinguished  by  their  elongated,  spindle- 
shaped  bodies,  their  branchial  apertures  placed  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck,  and  their  pectoral  fins  of  the  ordinary  form  and  position.  The 
symmetrical  tail  is  large  and  fleshy,  furnished  with  powerful  fins, 
which  render  it  a  most  effective  agent  in  progression ;  the  nose  is 
usually  conical  and  pointed,  the  mouth  large,  and  armed  with  most 
formidable  cutting  teeth,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  fre- 
quently furnished  with  a  pair  of  spiracles,  although  these  apertures 
are  often  wanting.  This  group  includes  the  numerous  species  of 
Sharks  and  Dog-fishes,  which  may  be  distributed  into  the  following 
families. 

The  ScylliidcB,  or  Dog-fishes,  have  a  short,  blunt  snout,  an  anal 
fin,  two  dorsal  fins,  placed  further  back  than  the  ventrals,  and  small 
branchial  apertures,  of  which  a  part  stand  over  the  base  of  the 
pectoral  fins.  The  top  of  the  head  possesses  spiracles,  and  the 
teeth  are  sharp  and  tongue-shaped,  with  three  points,  a  large  one  in 
the  middle,  and  a  small  one  on  each  side  ;  but  some  of  the  teeth, 
which  appear  to  be  specially  intended  for  cutting,  are  finely  serrated 
along  both  their  edges.  The  Dog-fishes  are  also  distinguished  from 
the  other  Sharks  by  their  oviparous  reproduction  ;  the  egg-case,  with 
its  little  inmate,  has  already  been  figured{Fig.  1787  ante).  The  Dog- 
fishes are  amongst  the  smallest  of  the  Sharks,  the  largest  British 
species  measuring  no  more  than  two  or  three  feet  in  length.  Three 
species  inhabit  the  British  seas,  where  one  of  them  occurs  in  great 
abundance,  and  is  often  caught  by  lines  intended  for  other  Fish. 
Fig.  1789  represents  the  Small-spotted  Dog-fish,  which  is  very 
common  on  our  shores._  These  Fishes  are  a  source  of  great  loss  to 
the  fishermen  on  the  Eastern  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  We  have  seen 
Cod  and  Haddock  lines  which,  when  drawn  into  the  boat,  were  only 
loaded  with  the  heads  ot  Cod  and  Haddock,  the  bodies  having  been 


completely  eaten  away  by  the  Dog-fish.  It  is,  however,  of  little  or 
no  value.  Both  species  are  of  a  reddish  tint,  mottled  in  the  one  with 
small  black  spots,  and  adorned  in  the  other  with  a  smaller 
number  of  large  round  black  and  white  spots.  The  skin  of  these 
Fishes  is  commonly  used  by  cabinet-makers  as  a  fine  rasp ;  it  is 
known  to  them  by  the  name  of  "  fish-skin." 


Fig.  1789.— The  Small-spotted  Dog-fish. 

The  Cai-charida:,  or  true  Sharks,  have  acute  triangular  teeth  of 
very  large  size,  two  spineless  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  anterior  is 
situated  above  the  space  between  the  pectorals  and  ventrals,  and  a 
more  or  less  forked  tail  (Fig.  1789).  The  spiracles  are  wanting.  To 
this  family  belong  the  large  Sharks  of  hot  climates,  of  the  ferocity 
of  which,  in  attacking  even  human  beings  when  swimming,  such 
wonderful  stories  are  often  related  by  travellers.  Of  these  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  White  Shark  {Carcliarias  vulgaris,  Fig.  1790), 
which  appears  to  occur  in  almost  all  seas,  is  tolerably  abundant  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and,  according  to  some  naturalists,  has  even 
been  taken  near  our  own  coasts.  This  terrible  Fish  attains  a  length 
of  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet ;  its  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  armed  with 


Fig.  1790. — Thresher,  or  Fox  Shark. 

acute,  serrated,  cutting  teeth,  with  which,  if  some  of  the  accounts  of 
travellers  are  to  be  believed,  it  can  readily  bite  through  the  body  of 
a  man.  It  constantly  follows  ships  in  warm  climates,  apparently  for 
the  sake  of  the  garbage  and  other  matters  which  are  thrown  over- 
board ;  but  sailors  are  generally  averse  to  such  a  formidable  neigh- 
bour, and  means  are  soon  taken  to  get  rid  of  him.  The  Shark  bites 
boldly  at  almost  any  bait  of  sufficient  size  to  suit  his  enormous 
throat,  and  may  generally  be  taken  easily  by  putting  a  piece  of  pork 
upon  a  large  hook  attached  to  a  chain,  and  trailing  this  tempting 
bait  at  the  stem  of  the  ship.  When  hauled  on  board,  the  first  opera- 
tion is  usually  to  cut  off  the  tail,  as  its  great  strength  renders  its 
blows  exceedingly  dangerous. 

Another  species,  which,  although  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, is  not  unfrequently  met  with  on  our  south  coasts,  is  the  Blue 
%\iZ.x\^{Carcliarias  glaitcits).  It  sometimes  reaches  the  length  of  eight 
feet ;  is  an  exceedingly  bold  and  voracious  Animal,  and  is  regarded 
by  the  fishermen  as  one  of  their  greatest  enemies.  The  Blue  Sharks 
live  almost  entirely  upon  Fish,  of  which  they  must  devour  a  great 
number  ;  and  they  often  annoy  the  fishermen  greatly  by  hanging 
about  the  boats,  seizing  the  Fish  that  are  being  drawn  up,  and  not 
only  biting  through  the  lines  for  the  legitimate  purpose  of  getting 
off  with  their  prey,  but  even  sometimes,  apparently,  for  the  mere 
pleasure  of  the  mischief.  Frequently,  however,  they  get  hooked 
when  thus  engaged,  when,  if  they  cannot  bite  through  the  line,  they 
immediately  roll  themselves  round  so  as  to  wind  the  line  upon  their 
bodies  ;  and  Mr.  Couch  states  that  "  this  is  sometimes  done  in  such 
a  complicated  manner,  that  he  has  known  a  fisherman  give  up  any 
attempt  to  unroll  it  as  a  hopeless  task."  To  the  drift  nets  employed 
in  the  Pilchard  fishery,  on  the  Cornish  coast,  it  is  an  equally  dan- 
gerous enemy,  passing  along  the  whole  length  of  the  net,  and 
picking  out  the  Pilchards  by  biting  them  away,  togetlier  with  a  por- 


THE  SHARKS. 


721 


tion  of  the  net  in  which  they  are  entangled.  Many  of  the  old  writers 
on  Natural  History  celebrate  the  affection  of  the  Blue  Shark  for  its 
young- ;  and  even  in  the  present  day  it  is  a  comnnon  belief  among 
sea-faring  people,  that  at  the  approach  of  danger,  the  young  Sharks 
enter  the  mouth  of  their  parent,  and  take  shelter  in  its  belly. 

Another  British  species  is  the  Fox  Shark  {Carcharias  vulpes), 
which  is  also  known  as  the  Sea  Fox,  the  Sea  Ape,  and  the  Thresher  ; 
the  latter  name  is  said  to  be  applied  to  it  from  its  habit  of  defending 
itself  by  blows  with  its  tail.  It  is  said  to  attain  a  length  of  fifteen 
feet,  and  specimens  have  been  taken  in  the  British  seas  thirteen 
feet  long.  Its  appearance  is  rendered  very  remarkable  by  the  great 
length  of  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail. 


Fig.  1790.— The  White  Shark. 

The  Zygcsnidcs ,  or  Hammer-headed  Sharks,  are  very  closely  allied 
to  the  CarcJiarida,  and  differ  principally  in  the  singular  form  of  the 
head  (Fig.  1791),  which  is  very  broad,  forming  a  projection  on  each 
side  of  the  front  of  the  body,  at  the  extremity  of  which  the  eyes  are 
situated.  The  head  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  head 
of  a  hammer,  whence  the  name  commonly  applied  to  these  crea- 
tures. Several  species  of  these  curious  Fish  occur  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  ;  the  common  species,  Zygcsna  -malletis,  is  found  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  also  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  ocean.  It  attains 
a  length  of  about  twelve  feet ;  is  very  ferocious,  and  is  even  said  to 
attack  men  when  bathing. 


Fig.  1791.— The  Hammer-headed  Shark. 


In  the  Lamnida,  the  two  dorsal  fins  are  destitute  of  spines,  the 
spiracles  are  large,  and  the  branchial  apertures,  which  are  of  very 
large  size,  are  all  situated  in  front  of  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fins. 
There  is  an  anal  fin  ;  the  nose  is  usually  long  and  pyramidal,  the 
mouth  very  wide,  and  the  teeth  lingulate,  not  serrated,  but  some- 
times furnished  with  small  lateral  points. 

In  these  Sharks,  the  caudal  fin  is  broadly  forked,  and  the  two  lobes 
are  nearly  symmetrical.  Three  species  are  found  in  the  British  seas. 
Of  these,  the  Porbeagle  {Lamtia  cor?iub!Ca),  and  the  Beaumaris 
Shark  (Z.  monensis),  rarely  attain  a  length  of  nine  feet ;  whilst  the 
third  species,  the  Basking  Shark  {Se'lachiis  maximus),  is  the 
largest  of  the  whole  group  of  Sharks,  measuring  occasionally  no  less 
than  thirty-six  feet.  Notwithstanding  its  great  size,  .this  Fish  ap- 
pears to  be  the  least  ferocious  of  the  Sharks,  and  its  teeth  are  smaller 
in  proportion  than  those  of  any  other  species.  It  appears  to  be  sluo-- 
gish  in  Its  habits,  frequently  lying  motionless,  sunning  itself  at  the 
surface  of  the  water,  from  which  circumstance  the  name  of  Sun-fish 


IS  given  to  it  on  the  north  coast  of  Ireland.  When  thus  engaged,  it 
will  sometimes  allow  a  boat  to  touch  it  before  moving.  It  does  not 
appear  to  feed  on  Fishes  ;  the  stomach,  when  examined,  containing 
a  pulpy  mass,  apparently  consisting  of  the  remains  of  Invertebrate 
Animals  :  Lmnaus  states  that  it  feeds  on  Medusa-,  whilst  Pennant 
attributes  to  it  a  vegetable  diet.  The  branchial  apertures  are  very 
large,  surrounding  the  greater  part  of  the  neck.  It  is  taken  occa- 
sionally for  the  sake  of  the  liver,  which  yields  a  large  quantity  of 
oil.  The  usual  way  in  which  it  is  captured  is  by  the  liarpoon  ;  but 
when  struck  with  this  instrument,  it  is  said  to  plunge  down  into  the 
water  with  such  force  and  rapidity  as  to  render  it  rather  a  dangerous 
prize.  In  the  British  Museum  is  a  specimen  of  this  species,  which 
was  caught  off  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1875.  Its  length  is  twenty-eight 
feet,  circumference  thirteen  feet,  and  its  liver  yielded  over  a  ton  of 
oil.  ..• 

The  Galeidca  have  an  anal  fin  and  spiracles ;  their  two  dorsal  fins 
arc  destitute  of  spines,  the  caudal  exceedingly  unsymmetrical,  and 
the  spiracles  are  very  small.  Two  species  occur  commonly  in  our 
seas.  One  of  these,  the  Common  Tope  {Galcus  -..■n/garis),  known 
on  some  parts  of  the  coast  as  the  Penny  Dog  and  the  Miller's  Do"-, 
attains  a  length  of  about  six  feet,  and  is  very  injurious  to  the  fisli- 
eries.  Its  teeth  are  triangular,  sharp,  and  serrated  externally  ;  and, 
like  the  Blue  Shark,  when  caught  on  a  line,  it  frequently  bites 
through,  and  thus  gets  away  ;  but  if  it  fail  in  this,  it  has  recourse  to 
the  same  expedient  of  twisting  the  line  round  the  body.  Its  liver 
furnishes  an  oil,  and  this  is  the  only  use  that  is  made  of  it  when 
caught.  The  other  British  species,  the  Smooth  Hound  [Muste/iis 
/avis),  although  resembling  the  preceding  in  its  form  and  general 
characters,  is  remarkably  distinguished  by  the  structure  of  its  teeth, 
which  are  fiat,  and  cover  the  jaws  with  a  sort  of  mosaic,  similar  to 
that  which  prevails  amongst  the  Rays.  From  this  circumstance  it 
is  called  the  Kay-mouthed  Dog  in  Cornwall.  This  FTsh  is 
one  of  the  smallest  of  the  Sharks,  and  feeds  principally  upon  Crus- 
tacea,^  which  its  pavement-like  teeth  are  admirably  adapted  for 
crushing. 

The  Notidajiidce  resemble  the  LamiiidiZ  in  many  respects  ;  but 
they  have  only  a  single  dorsal  fin,  and  the  branchial  apertures  are 
six  or  seven  in  number.  These  are  comparatively  small  Fishes, 
measuring  about  three  feet  in  length  ;  two  of  them  are  common  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

The  Cestrac!ontid<2,  of  which  we  have  only  a  single  living  repre- 
sentative, although  their  Fossil  remains  are  tolerably  numerous  in 
some  of  the  older  formations,  are  distinguished  by  the  form  of  their 
teeth,  which  are  arranged  upon  the  jaws  in  a  pavement-like  form, 
those  in  front  being  pointed,  whilst  the  hinder  ones  are  converted 
into  broad  flat  grinders.  The  form  of  the  body  is  short  and  stout ; 
the  head  is  large,  with  prominent  eyes  ;  and  the  mouth  is  placed  at 
the  front  of  the  head.  There  are  two  dorsal  fins,  each  furnished  with 
a  short,  stout  spine,  a  single  anal  fin,  and  a  pair  of  spiracles.  The 
only  species,  the  Cestracion  philiipsii,  is  found  in  the  Eastern  seas, 
especially  on  the  coast  of  Australia.  In  the  Spijiacida,  the  general 
form  of  the  body  resembles  that  of  the  Galcidcs  ;  and,  as  in  those 
Fishes,  there  are  two  dorsal  fins,  but  the  anal  fin  is  wanting.  The 
teeth  are  small  and  acute  ;  the  spiracles  are  distinct ;  and  both  the 
dorsal  fins  are  furnished  with  a  strong  spine.  A  very  common  Euro- 
pean species  is  the  Picked  Dog-fish  {Spinax  acanthias),  which  is 
found  in  the  European  seas,  and  attains  a  length  of  about  three  feet. 
They  are  said  to  afford  the  best  food  of  any  of  the  Sharks,  and  are 
commonly  brought  to  the  markets  of  sea-side  towns.  The  flesh  is 
often  dried  ;  the  liver  yields  a  large  quantity  of  oil  ;  and  when  they 
occur,  as  they  sometimes  do,  in  vast  quantities,  their  intestines  are 
employed  as  manure.  Mr.  Couch  states  that  he  has  heard  of  20,000 
of  them  being  taken  in  a  sean  at  one  time.  It  is,  however,  as  a 
general  rule,  rather  a  nuisance  to  the  fishermen,  often  biting  off 
great  numbers  of  their  hooks.  The  spines  of  the  dorsal  fins  are 
employed  by  the  Picked  Dog-fish  as  weapons  of  offence  ;  it  bends 
itself  into  the  form  of  a  bow,  and  then,  by  a  sudden  motion,  strikes 
out  with  great  force  ;  and  so  accurate  is  its  aim  said  to  be,  that  if  it 
be  touched  upon  the  head,  it  will  inflict  a  wound  upon  the  aggressor 
without  the  least  injury  to  its  own  skin. 

The  Scymnida:  resemble  the  Spuiacida  in  most  of  their  characters, 
including  the  absence  of  the  anal  fin,  but  the  dorsals  are  destitute  of 
the  strong  spines  characteristic  of  the  preceding  family.  The 
Scym?zid(S  arc  also  shorter  and  thicker  in  the  body.and  the  lobes  of 
the  caudal  fin  are  more  equal.  Some  species  of  this  family  attain  a 
considerable  size,  the  Greenland  Shark  [Scym/ii/s  burcalis)  some- 
times measuring  upwards  of  fourteen  feet  in  length.  It  is  occasion- 
ally found  on  the  northern  coasts  of  this  country,  but  generally  in- 
habits the  Arctic  seas,  where  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the 
Whales,  attacking  and  biting  those  enormous  creatures  with  the 
greatest  pertinacity.  When  it  meets  with  a  dead  Whale,  it  scoops 
hemispherical  pieces  out  of  the  body  with  its  enormous  jaws,  which 
border  a  mouth  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  in  breadth ; 
but  although  the  Sharks  are  constant  attendants  upon  the  Whale- 
fishers,  when  they  are  engaged  in  cutting  the  blubber  from  their 
captures,  and  the  men  not  unfrequently  slip  into  the  water  amongst 
them,  Mr.    Scoresby  states  that  he  never  heard  of  an  instance  of 

4Z 


722 


THE  RA  YS. 


their  being  attacked.  It  is  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  and  so 
indifferent  to  wounds,  that  it  will  return  again  to  its  banquet  after 
having  been  driven  off  by  the  stab  of  a  knife,  which  might  have  been 
supposed  quite  sufficient  for  its  destruction.  When  cut  up,  also,  the 
ditferent  parts  of  the  body  appear  to  retain  a  certain  amount  of  life 
for  some  hours  ;  and  even  after  decapitation  it  is  said  not  to  be  safe 
to  trust  the  hand  between  its  formidable  jaws.  Whales,  however, 
are  not  the  only  food  of  the  Greenland  Shark  ;  it  condescends  also 
to  devour  small  Fishes  and  Crabs.  It  appears  to  be  particularly 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  a  Parasitic  Crustaceous  Animal,  one  or  two 
inches  in  length  (the  Leriiaa  clongata  of  Grant),  belonging  to  the 
family  Lernceida:,  which  attaches  itself  to  the  eyes,  and  occurs  so 
constantly  in  this  situation  that  it  was  formerly  regarded  as  a  pecu- 
liar natural  appendage  of  the  eye.  This  parasite,  no  doubt,  has  a 
very  injurious  effect  upon  the  sight  of  the  Animal  ;  and  the  sailors 
commonly  believe  that  the  Greenland  Shark  is  totally  blind,  as  it 
never  exhibits  any  desire  to  escape,  even  when  threatened  with  a 
blow  from  a  knife  or  lance.  Several  other  species  of  this  family  are 
found  in  the  seas  of  different  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Squati?iidcB,  at  the  first  glance,  exhibit  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  Fishes  of  the  following  group,  the  body  being  much 
depressed,  and  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  large  and  broad,  giving 
them  a  discoid  form.  Like  the  Fishes  of  the  preceding  families, 
they  are  destitute  of  an  anal  fin,  and  have  a  pair  of  spiracles  on  the 
top  of  the  head,  which  is  very  broad,  and  bears  the  eyes  on  its  upper 
surface  instead  of  on  the  sides.  The  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  sit- 
uated quite  at  the  front  of  the  head  ;  and  the  branchial  orifices  are 
long,  and  placed  in  a  cleft,  which  separates  the  large  pectoral  fins 
from  the  head.  Both  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  are  broad,  and 
extended  laterally  ;  there  are  two  dorsal  fins  placed  upon  the  caudal 
portion  of  the  body,  behind  the  ventrals  ;  the  anal  fin  is  wanting, 
and  the  caudal  is  nearly,  or  quite,  symmetrical. 

The  typical  species  of  this  family,  the  Squafina  angclus,  is  not 
uncommon  in  our  seas  ;  it  is  known  both  in  England,  and  in  several 
other  countries,  by  the  name  of  the  Angel,  which  certainly,  as  hinted 
by  Mr.  Yarrell,  was  never  given  to  it  for  its  beauty.  It  is  also  called 
the  IVIonk-fish  in  some  places,  probably  from  the  hooded  appearance 
of  its  head  ;  and  Mr.  Donovan  states  that  its  form  has  also  attained 
for  it  the  name  of  the  Fiddle-fish.  It  is  said  sometimes  to  attain  a 
length  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  and  is  an  exceedingly  voracious  Fish, 
swimming  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  feeding  principally 
on  the  common  Flat  Fishes  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  abundance 
in  such  situations.  Its  flesh  was  formerly  held  in  some  esteem,  but 
it  is  now  considered  coarse,  and  seldom  eaten.  The  skin,  however, 
is  much  used  for  polishing  cabinet  work,  and  also  affords  a  fine  sort 
of  shagreen.  A  species  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Squatina 
aculcata,  is  distinguished  by  having  a  row  of  strong  spines  along  the 
back. 

The  second  group  of  the  Plagiosfotnafa,  the  Raiina,  including 
the  Fishes  commonly  known  as  Rays,  are  distinguished  at  the  first 
glance  by  the  singular  flattened  discoid  form  of  their  bodies.  The 
greater  part  of  this  disc  is  made  up  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  are 
extremely  large,  and  supported  upon  a  remarkable  modification  of 
the  bones  of  the  anterior  members.  The  scapular  arch  is  firmly 
attached  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  and  its  two  sides  are  also 
united  above  the  vertebrse  (of  what  may  be  called  the  cervical  region), 
which  are  amalgamated  together  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  cylinder. 
The  two  sides  of  the  scapular  arch  also  unite  below,  so  that  they 
form  a  complete  ring,  from  each  side  of  which  long  curved  cartilages 
are  given  off,  serving  to  support  the  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins.  These 
cartilaginous  supports  not  only  pass  backwards  from  the  scapular 
arch,  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  but  also  extend  in  front  of  it  to  the 
sides  of  the  head,  where  they  unite  with  other  cartilages  springing 
from  the  apex  to  the  skull.  They  also  support  fin  rays,  so  that  the 
whole  of  both  sides  of  the  body,  from  the  point  of  the  snout  to  the 
base  of  the  tail,  is  usually  margined  with  a  broad  fin.  The  rays  sup- 
porting these  fins  are  composed  of  numerous  small  cartilaginous 
joints,  and  the  fins  themselves  are  usually  formed  by  a  thick  layer  of 
muscles.  At  the  extremity  of  the  body,  close  to  the  anus,  the  ventral 
fins  are  situated ;  in  the  males  they  are  furnished  with  peculiar  ap- 
pendages, like  those  of  the  Sharks.  The  perpendicular  fins  are  very 
variable  in  their  development,  but  always  of  small  size  ;  the  caudal 
fin  is  olten  wanting  ;  and  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  when  present,  are 
always  placed  upon  the  tail,  often  close  to  its  extremity.  The  former 
are  frequently  furnished  with  long  spines,  similar  to  those  of  many 
Sharks  existing  without  a  fin,  and  form  a  most  formidable  weapon, 
with  which  the  Fishes  are  said  to  inflict  dangerous  wounds. 

The  eyes  are  situated  on  the  upper  surface  ;  but  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  is  the  back  of  the  Animal,  and  not  the  side,  as  in 
the  ordinary  Flat  Fishes ;  behind  the  eyes  are  a  pair  of  large 
spiracles.  The  lower,  or  ventral  surface,  is  very  flat,  and  upon  it  are 
situated  the  orifices  of  the  nose  and  the  mouth,  the  branchial  aper- 
tures (five  on  each  side),  and  the  anus.  The  mouth  is  smaller  in 
proportion  than  in  the  Sharks,  and  the  jaws  are  covered  either  with 
numerous  rows  of  small  pointed  teeth,  or  with  a  sort  of  mosaic 
flattened  molars,  which  sometimes  take  the  form  of  broad  bony 
plates.     It  is  remarkable  that,  in  some   species,   the   adult  males 


possess  teeth  of  the  former  description,  whilst  the  young  males  and 
the  females  are  furnished  with  grinding  teeth.  The  skin  is  naked, 
but  in  most  cases  beset  with  a  considerable  number  of  spines,  or 
thorns,  which  are  sometimes  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  body, 
or  arranged  in  rows,  especially  along  the  tail.  The  structure  of 
these  spines  is  very  peculiar.  They  consist  of  a  sort  of  cartilaginous 
cup  imbedded  in  the  skin,  from  the  concavity  of  which  springs  an 
acute  spine,  formed  entirely  of  dentine,  and  in  many  cases  exactly 
resembling  a  true  tooth  in  its  structure.  They  are  of  very  various 
sizes,  sometimes  mere  prickles  ;  whilst  in  other  cases  they  constitute 
most  formidable  offensive  weapons. 

The  Rays  are  all  Oviparous,  and  their  eggs  are  inclosed  in  brown 
leathery  capsules,  of  a  quadrangular  form,  like  those  of  the  Dog- 
fishes, and  furnished,  like  them,  with  elongated  processes  at  their 
angles.  They  are  all  marine,  and  many  of  them  attain  a  very  large 
size.  Some  of  them,  in  fact,  acquire  almost  gigantic  proportions, 
and  weigh  several  hundredweights.  We  are  told  by  some  writers, 
that  in  Marseilles  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  so  large,  that  when 
they  are  hung  from  the  second  floor  of  a  house,  the  tail  will  still 
touch  the  ground  ;  and  there  is  a  record  of  the  capture  of  a  gigantic 
Ray  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  which  required  the  united  efforts  of 
six  oxen,  two  horses,  and  two-and-twenty  men,  to  get  it  safely 
landed  !  This  Fish  was  described  as  measuring  eighteen  feet  in 
diameter,  and  its  weight  is  said  to  have  been  five  tons.  Another 
enormous  species  is  said  to  be  an  object  of  great  terror  to  the  pearl 
divers,  as  it  occasionally  passes  over  them,  and  holds  them  down  till 
they  are  drowned  ;  but  the  degree  of  dependence  to  be  placed  on 
these  statements  is  very  doubtful.  Their  habits  are  very  predacious  ; 
they  keep  close  to  the  bottom,  moving  about  with  a  peculiar  sliding 
action  in  pursuit  of  the  small  Fishes,  JSIollusca  and  Crustacea,  which 
constitute  their  ordinary  food. 

Sub-divisions. — Professor  Miiller  divides  the  Rays  into  six 
families.  Of  these,  the  Rhinobatidtz  appear  to  unite  the  characters  of 
the  Sharks  and  Rays  in  the  greatest  degree,  resembling  the  former 
in  the  general  conformation  of  the  body  ;  and,  even  to  a  great  extent, 
in  the  position  of  the  fins,  the  pectoral  fins  being  even  smaller  than 
those  of  the  Angel  Sharks.  The  first  dorsal  fin  is  situated  above  the 
ventrals  ;  the  caudal  is  well  developed  and  unsymmetrical ;  and  their 
teeth  are  in  the  form  of  mosaic. 

The  Fishes  of  this  family  inhabit  the  ssas  of  most  parts  of  the 
world,  but  none  have  been  taken  on  the  British  coasts.  A  Brazilian 
species,  Rhiiiobafus  electricus,  is  said  to  possess  electrical  proper- 
ties; but  this  statement  requires  confirmation.  The  most  singular 
form,  and  the  one  which  exhibits  the  closest  resemblance  to  the 
Sharks,  is  the  Saw-fish  [Pristis  antiquoruin,  Fig.  1792),  which  has 


Fig.  1792. — The  Saw-fish. 

been  associated  with  the  Sharks  by  some  authors  ;  and  might,  per- 
haps, be  regarded  with  justice  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  family.  The 
most  remarkable  character  presented  by  this  Fish,  consists  in  the 
prolongation  of  the  point  of  the  snout  into  a  sword-like  organ,  which 
is  armed  along  its  edges  with  strong,  tooth-like  spines.  With  this 
formidable  weapon,  the  Saw-fish  attacks  even  the  largest  Cetaceous 
Animals,  upon  which  it  often  inflicts  very  serious  injuries.  The  true 
teeth  are  very  small.  The  species  of  Saw-fish,  of  which  it  is  pro- 
bable there  are  several,  are  distributed  in  the  seas  of  most  parts  of 
the  world  ;  but  they  rarely  approach  the  shores.  They  often  attain 
a  length  of  twelve  or  flfteen  feet. 

From  the  RhinobatidcB,  we  pass  to  the  family  of  Torpedinida,  or 
Electric  Rays,  distinguished  by  their  rounded  smooth  bodies,  and 
by  the  possession  of  an  electrical  apparatus.  The  latter  is  disposed 
in  two  masses,  one  on  each  side  of  the  skull,  occupymg  the  space 
between  that  capsule  and  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fin.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  multitude  of  perpendicular  gelatinous  columns,  separated 
by  membranous  partitions,  which  receive  an  immense  number  of  fine 
nervous  threads,  derived  from  the  eighth  pair  of  nerves  {ncrin  vagi). 
Neariy  twenty  species  of  this  singular  family  are  known  ;  they  m- 
habit  the  seas  of  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  all,  probably,  possess 
electrical  powers.  Two  or  three  species  are  found  m  the  European 
seas  especially  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  one  or  two  of  these  have 
occurred  on  the  British  coasts  ;  but  there  appears  to  be  some  doubt 
as  to  the  actual  species  taken  by  our  fishermen.  The  electrical 
powers  of  the  Torpedo  were  well  known  to  the  ancients  ;  and  as 
font-  asro  as  the  time  of  Dioscorides,  the  shock  communicated  by 
this^'fish  was  recommended  for  medical  purposes,  and  especially  for 
pains  of  the  head.     This  may  be  considered  as  the  earliest  record  ot 


THE  RAYS. 


723 


the  application  of  electricity  to  medicine.      In  later  times  it  was 

applied  to  the  cure  of  gout,  the  patient  being-  directed  to  keep  his 
foot  on  the  fish  until  the  numbness  extended  to  the  knees." 
(Yarrell).  The  real  object  of  the  electrical  powers  with  which  this 
and  a  few  other  Fishes  are  endowed,  is  not  yet  very  clearly  ascer- 
tained ;  and  we  can  only  judge  from  probability  that  this  property  is 
given  them  partly  for  their  protection  from  danger,  and  partly  to 
enable  them  to  obtain  food.  This  latter  office  is  probably  one  of 
great  importance  to  the  Torpedo,  which  is  e.^:ceedingly  slow  in  its 
movements:.  Mr.  Couch  also  thinks  that  the  electricity  of  this 
Animal  may  have  some  influence  upon  the  digestibility  of  the  crea- 
tures killed  by  it,  rendering  them  "  more  readily  disposed  to  pass 
into  a  state  of  decomposition,  in  which  condition  the  digestive  powers 
more  speedily  and  effectually  act  upon  them."  He  adds — "  If  any 
creature  more  than  others  might  seem  to  require  such  a  preparation 
of  its  food,  it  is  the  Cramp-ray,  the  whole  canal  of  whoso  intestine  is 
not  more  than  half  as  long  as  the  stomach."     (Fig.  1793.) 


a       i     c  d 


F'g-  1 793- — Anatomy  of  the  Torpedo.     The  anterior  part  of  the  dorsal  skin 
is  removed,  showing  the  electrical  organs,  brain,  and  nerves. 

a,  brain  ;  I),  skin,  with  its  glands  ;  c,  eye,  with  spiracle  behind  it ;  d,  electrical 
organ  ;  <%  branchiae ;  f,  nerves  running  to  the  pectoral  fin  ;  g,  spinal  chord  ; 
h,  branches  of  the  ncrvus  vagus  passing  to  the  electrical  organ  ;  i,  lateral 
nerve. 

The  True  Rays,  or  Raiidw,  have  the  snout  more  or  less  pointed, 
frequently  produced,  and  the  disc  formed  by  the  body  and  pectoral 
fins  is  usually  of  a  rhomboidal  figure.  The  tail  is  slender,  and  bears 
two  small  dorsal  fins  near  the  extremity ;  the  caudal  fin  is  also  some- 
times present.  To  this  family  belong  all  the  best  known  species, 
including  the  Skate  and  Thornback,  so  common  in  our  markets. 
The  British  seas  are  inhabited  by  eight  or  nine  species,  several  of 
which  are  very  common,  and  some  of  them  attain  a  large  size ; 
Pennant  mentions  a  Skate  that  weighed  two  hundred  pounds. 

The  most  abundant  species  is  the  Thornback  {Raja  clavafa,  Fig. 
1794) ;  and  this  and  the  Homelyn  Ray  {R.  niaculata)  are  the  species 
most  commonly  brought  to  the  London  market,  where  they  are  both 
sold  as  Skate.  The  females  are  usually  denominated  maids.  The 
Sharp-nosed  Ray  (7?.  oxyrhynchiis)  is  said  by  Mr.  Yarrell  to  be  the 
favourite  species  with  the  French.  The  Raridce  are  exceeding 
voracious  Animals,  devouring  great  numbers  of  small  Fishes,  Crus- 
tacea and  Mollusca  ;  and  the  strength  of  their  jaws  is  so  great  that 
they  crush  the  hard  shells  of  the  latter  Animals  without  difficulty. 
They  are  taken  both  by  net  and  line  ;  and,  when  hooked,  some  of 
them  struggle  violently. 

In  the  family  TrygonidcB,  or  the  Sting-Raj's,  the  tail  is  armed 
with  a  long,  denticulated  spine,  but  bears  no  dorsal  fin  ;  the  pectoral 
fins  are  large,  and  unite  in  front  of  the  head,  and  the  teeth  are  of 
small  size.  The  Sting-Ray  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Mediterranean ; 
it  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  who  attributed  the  most  extra- 
ordinary venomous  powers  to  its  spine,  which,  no  doubt,  from  its 
barbed  structure,  must  inflict  an  exceedingly  painful  wound.  It 
seems  probable,  from  the  observations  of  some  writers,  that  this 
spine  is  deciduous,  as  specimens  have  been  seen  with  a  second  small 
spine  close  to  the  base  of  the  first.    The  spines  of  some  species  of 


Trygonidcs  are  often  used  by  the  natives  of  savage  countries  to  form 
barbed  spear  and  arrow-heads. 

According  to  Mr.  Couch,  the  Common  Sting- Ray  (TV^.^VJW  j<aj- 
tinacd)  of  the  Mediterranean,  wliich  occurs  pretty  frequently  on  our 
south  coast,  defends  itself  in  a  manner  that  "  shows  its  conscious- 
ness of  the  formidable  weapon  it  carries  on  its  tail.  When  seized  or 
terrified,  its  habit  is  to  twist  its  long,  slender,  and  flexible  tail  round 
the  object  of  attack,  and,  with  the  serrated  spine,  tear  the  surface, 
lacerating  it  in  a  manner  calculated  to  produce  vio!e;it  inflamma- 
tion." It  is  also  said  occasionally  to  strike  its  prey  fijrst  with  the 
spine,  and  afterwards  to  secure  it  by  twisting  the  tail  round  it.  Its 
flesh  is  said  to  be  very  bad. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Sting-Rays  is  the  curious  family  of  the 
Cephalopterid(B,  which  agree  with  the  former  in  having  the  jaws 
armed  with  numerous  small  teeth,  and  the  tail  with  a  long,  barbed 
spine ;  but  differ  in  the  form  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and  in  having  a 
small  dorsal  fin.     The  head  in  these  Fishes  projects  a  little  beyond 


FJg.  1794. — The  Thornback. 

the  anterior  margin  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and  is  furnished  with  a  pair 
of  curious  little  fins,  which  stand  out  in  front  of  it  like  horns.  The 
pectoral  fins  are  very  wide  and  pointed.  An  enormous  species,  the 
Cephaloptera  giorna,  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  it  seems 
probable,  that  if  there  be  any  truth  in  the  statements  already  referred 
to,  regarding  the  gigantic  enemy  of  the  pearl  fishers,  the  Ray  in 
question  would  belong  to  this  group.  A  specimen  of  a  Cephaloptera 
has  been  taken  upon  the  Irish  coast,  but  Mr.  Yarrell  was  unable  to 
determine  the  species ;  it  measured  forty-five  inches  across  the  pec- 
toral fins. 

The  MyliobatidcB,  or  Eagle  Rays,  resemble  the  preceding  Fishes 
in  most  of  their  characters  ;  they  are,  however,  destitute  of  the  small 
horn-like  fins  on  the  front  of  the  head,  and  the  jaws  are  covered 
with  broad  hexagonal  plates  instead  of  teeth.  The  tail,  like  that  of 
the  Cephalopterides,  is  very  long  and  slender,  armed  with  a  strong 
spine,  and  furnished  with  a  small  dorsal  fin,  and  the  pectorals  are 
very  broad,  and  do  not  meet  in  front  of  the  head.  These  Fishes  are 
commonly  known  as  Eagle  Rays,  from  the  great  size  of  the  pectoral 
fins,  which  present  a  considerable  resemblance  to  a  pair  of  wings  ; 
they  are  also  called  Whip  Rays,  on  account  of  the  form  of  the 
tail. 

The  Eagle  Ray  {Myliobatls  aquila)  is  not  uncommon  m  the 
Mediterranean,  where  the  wounds  inflicted  by  its  spine  are  so  much 
dreaded  by  the  fishermen  that  they  always  cut  off  the  tail  as  soon  as 
the  Fish  comes  within  reach.  Several  other  species  are  found  in  the 
seas  of  warm  climates. 

The  collection  of  the  British  Museum  has  numerous  preserved 
specimens  of  Fishes.  Amongst  the  Selachia  is  a  fine  one  of  the 
Basking  Shark  {Selache  maxi/?ia),  already  referred  to.  It  was  caught 
offShanklin,  Isle  of  Wight,  on  March  2nd,  1875,  measured  twenty- 
eight  feet  in  length,  with  a  maximum  circumference  of  13  feet. 
Among  others  of  the  Selachia  are  the  following,  which  may  be  seen 
in  the  Museum  : — 


724 


THE  SHARK  TRIBE. 


SELACHIA,    &C, 


Sturgeon 
Greenland  Shark 
Round  Nosed  Sturgeon 
Broad  Do. 

Sharp  Do. 

Giildenstadt's  Sturgeon 
Spoonbill  Sturgeon  . , 
Shovel  Fish 

Sharp-nosed  Jaurus     . . 
Southern  Chirna2ra 
Sharks  (various) 


Blue  Shark 

Hound  Fish 

Tiger  Tope 

Hammer  Headed  Shark 

Black  Mouthed  Shark 

Tope 

Smith's  Lcptocharias. . 

Edward's  Shark 

Glaucous  Siburon 

Zebra  Shark 

Cirrus  Noted  Shark    . 

Bearded  Nebrius 

Large  Spotted  Dog  Fish 

Small  Do. 

African  Dog  Fish 

Spinet  Dog  Fish    \     . . 

Port  Jackson  Shark    . . 
Tentaculated  Saw  Fish 
Angel  Fish 
Curve-mouthed  Rhina 
Rhina  (various) 


Sharp-nosed  Ray 
Notched  Electric  Ray 
Halavi  Rhinobatum    . , 
Sandy  Ray 

Thornback,  or  Skate  . 
Homelyn  Ray   . . 
Ray,  large-nosed 
Spotted  Sting  Ray 
Pearled  Ray     . . 
Lamprey 
Saw  Fish 


Acipcnscrsiurio 
Seym  mis  borealis 
A  cijienscr  brcvirostris 
do.       sturio 
do.        maculosus 
do.       gilldenstadfii 
Polyodon  spaitila 
Scap/u'rhynchus  platurhynchtts 
Squalus  oxyrhyncJucs 
Chimccra  antarctica . . 
Carcharias  obscurus 
do.        bleskeri  . . 
do.        gangeticus 
Squahis  glaucus 
Miistchcs  IcBvis 
Galeoccrdo  tigrinus  .. 
Zygoma  malleus 
Pristiurus  melanostomas    . . 
Giileus  cam's   . . 
Lcptocharias  smithii 
Scyllmm  capetise 
Oxyrhinus  glauctis  .. 
Stcgostoma  fasiatiim 
Chiloscylium  cirratum 
Nebrius  cirratum 
Scyllium  stellare 
do.       canicula 
do.       africanum . . 
Acaiitliias  blai7ivilii        \  . . 
do.  do.  I  . . 

Ceiitrophorus  ccelolepis    )  . . 
Heterodotitus  philippi 
Pristiophorus  japoiiicus 
Squatina  vulgaris     . . 
Rhina  aticyiosto?nus  . . 
Rhinobatus  gramclatus 
do.  columne . . 

do.  blochii     . . 

Urogymmis  asperrimus 
Raja  nomer     . . 
do.    oxyrhynchus 
Torpedo  tiobilia?ia 
Rhinobatus  halari    .. 
Raja  circular  is 
do.     clavata  .. 
do.    maculata 
Raja  inacrorhy7ichus 
Trygon  uarnak 
Hypolophus  septen     . . 
Pctromy~o!t  marinus 
Prist  is  pectinatus 


Doggerbank. 

Anstruther,  iSth  March,  1878. 

North  America. 

Berwick-on-Tweed. 

Gulf  of  Florida. 

Russia. 

Mississippi,  North  America. 

River  Ohio. 

West  Indies  and  South  Australia. 

South  Africa  and  South  Australia. 

Madeira. 

Zanzibar. 

Isle  of  Viti-Levu. 
Gibraltar. 
Cape  Seas. 

Indian  Seas. 

South  Australia. 

Zanzibar. 

Cape  Seas. 

Cubenda  Bay. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Cape  Seas. 

India. 

West  India  Islands. 
Do. 

Mediterranean. 

English  Coast. 

Cape  Seas. 

Juan  Fernandez. 

Australia. 

North  West  coast  of  Portugal. 

South  Australia. 

Japan. 

Tasmania. 

China. 

India. 

Zanzibar. 

Cape  Seas. 

West  Africa. 

Sweden. 

Sweden. 

Plymouth. 

Red  Sea. 

Madeira. 

Sweden. 

Madeira. 

Madeira. 

Red  Sea. 

Indian  Ocean. 

England. 

San  Fernando,  Trinid.nl. 


THE  MOLLUSCOUS   ANIMALS. 


m 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

DIVISION  II.— INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS— THE  MOLLUSCS. 


Ol^IE  of  our  readers,  but  especially  those  of 
younger  growth,   will,   perhaps,  appreciate 
the  department  of  Natural  History  on  which 
we  here  enter  more  than  any  of  those  which 
have  been  previously  dealt  with.     Among  its 
objects  are  the  shells  of  the  sea-shore,  which 
are  of  interest  to  young  and  old.     There  are, 
too,   some  of  our  most  favourite  articles  of 
food — such   as  the  Oyster,  the  Mussel,  the 
Crab,  &c.     From  some  of  them  the  precious 
Pearl  is  drawn.     But  in   dealing  with  them 
we  entirely  forsake  what  are  called    Vcrte- 
Iratc  .<4«/wrt/j,  which  have  a  bony  and  articulated 
structure  within  their  bodies.     All  that  we  have  yet 
described  have  a  skeleton.     The  Molluscous  Animals 
'have  none.     Although  not  exactly  true,  in  the  unre- 
stricted sense  of  the   foUow'ing  statement,  they  are 
characterised  by  having  their  bones  outside  of  their 
bodies,  while   those  Animals  already  described  have 
them  internally. 

The  Molluscous  division  of  Animals  consists  of 
creatures  whose  bodies  are  universally  of  a  soft  con- 
sistence. They  are  inclosed  within  a  soft,  flexible 
skin,  called  the  mantel,  which  possesses  great  con- 
tractile power ;  and  their  motions  are  principally 
performed  by  the  extension  and  contraction  of  a  part 
of  their  substance.  The  symmetrical  arrangement  of  all  the  organs 
on  each  side  of  a  central  line,  so  remarkable  in  the  preceding  Xy\\\- 
sionotfertedrata,  here  almost  disappears,  or  is  only  recognisable  in 
the  position  of  the  organs  of  sense  attached  to  the  head.  The  nervous 
system  consists  either  of  a  single  Ganglmi,  giving  off  filaments  to 
the  various  organs  of  the  body,  or  of  several  ganglia,  placed  some- 
Vi'hat  irregularly  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  communicating  by 
nervous  threads  with  a  larger  mass  placed  in  the  head,  or  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  ossophagus.  The  mass  consists  of  several 
ganglia,  of  which  the  more  important,  constituting  the  brain,  are 
placed  above  the  cesophagus.  These  are  generally  accompanied  by 
other  ganglia  placed  below  that  organ,  which  are  united  by  filaments 
with  the  supraoesophageal  ganglia,  or  brain  ;  thus  forming  a  ring 
surrounding  the  cesophagus.  The  supraa;sophageal  ganglia  furnish 
the  nerves  to  the  special  organs  of  sense  placed  upon  the  head.  The 
ganglia  belonging  to  the  different  organs  of  the  body  communicate 
with  the  ring  surrounding  the  cesophagus. 

Most  of  the  Molliisca  possess  special  organs  of  touch,  in  the 
shape  of  tentacles,  arms,  or  lobes,  situated  ou  the  head,  or  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  mouth,  or  of  cirri  upon  other  parts  of  the  body. 
In  addition  to  these  organs,  the  skin,  which  is  always  soft,  appears 
to  possess  great  sensibility.  The  tentacles  of  the  Mollusca  are 
either  two  or  four  in  number  ;  they  are  capable  of  being  completely 
retracted  into  the  head  by  a  process  very  similar  to  the  turning  in  of 
the  finger  of  a  glove,  and  are  again  exserted  by  reversing  the  pro- 
cess. The  eyes,  when  present,  are  two  in  number,  sometimes  placed 
immediately  on  the  head,  sometimes  supported  at  the  extremity,  or 
on  the  sides,  of  the  tentacles.  In  the  highest  class,  the  visual  organs 
attain  a  perfection  equal  to  that  exhibited  by  the  Fishes — the  lowest 
class  of  Vertebrated  Animals. 

In  some  of  the  lower  Mollusca,  small  coloured  points  are  met  with, 
sometimes  singly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  brain,  and  occasion- 
ally in  considerable  numbers  on  the  edges  of  the  mantle.  These, 
from  their  structure  and  appearance,  have  received  the  denomination 
of  ocelli,  and  have  been  regarded  as  rudimentary  eyes — a  determina- 
tion which,  although  it  may  be  correct  in  some  instances,  is  very 
doubtful  in  others.  It  is  remarkable,  also,  that  many  species,  which 
are  quite  destitute  of  eyes  when  arrived  at  their  mature  form,  are 
furnished  with  those  organs  at  their  first  issuing  from  the  egg. 

Auditory,  or  hearing,  organs  appear  to  be  possessed  by  nearly  all 
the  Molhisca.  They  usually  consist  of  small  vesicles,  placed  close 
to  the  cephalic  ganglia,  containing  a  clear  fluid  and  a  small  calcar- 
eous concretion  (otolithe),  which  is  sometimes  of  a  roundish,  at 
others  of  a  crystalline,  figure,  and  is  in  a  perpetual  state  of  vibration. 
The  senses  of  smell  and  taste  also  appear  to  be  e.xercised,  to  a  certain 
extent,  by  most  of  these  animals  ;  but  whether  any  organs  specially 
devoted  to  these  functions  really  exist,  must  still  be  considered 
doubtful. 

The  movements  of  the  Mollusca  are  generally  executed  by  means 
of  a  muscular  organ,  called  the  foot,  which  varies  greatly  in  its  form, 
in  accordance  with  the  habits  of  the  creature.     The  foot  consists  of 


a  mass  of  muscular  fibres,  running  in  various  directions,  by  the  con- 
traction of  which  its  movements  are  effected.  In  a  great  number  of 
Mollusca  the  foot  forms  aflat  disc  (Fig.  1795),  which  adheres  to  any 
substance  to  which  it  may  be  applied  ;  and  thus, 
by  the  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation  of  its 
different  parts,  enables  its  possessor  to  crawl 
slowly  along.  In  others,  the  foot  is  bent  upon 
itself,  so  that  its  sudden  extension  causes  the 
animal  to  perform  a  considerable  leap.  The  foot 
is  also  the  agent  by  means  of  which  the  burrowing 
species  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  or  mud  ;  and 
in  the  species  whose  instinct  leads  them  to  bore 
into  the  solid  rock,  it  is  also  called  into  requisition  ; 
its  surface  in  these  cases  being  covered  with  minute 
silicious  particles,  which  assist  greatly  in  the  en- 
largement of  its  owner's  stony  dwelling.  But 
although  most  Mollusca  possess  a  greater  or  less 
power  of  motion,  others  are  confined  to  a  single  spot, 
during  all  but  the  earliest  period  of  their  existence. 
These  have  no  occasion  for  a  foot ;  and  in  them 
this  organ  is  either  wholly  undeveloped  (as  in  the 
Oyster),  or  serves  merely  to  support  a  glandular  organ,  from  which 
a  silky  matter  (called  the  hyssus)  is  secreted,  which  serves  to  attach 
the  animal  to  submarine  objects.  This  modification  occurs  in  the 
common  Mussel  {Mytilus  edulis) ;  but  it  is  still  more  remarkable  in 
the  PhiJKT:  (Fig.  1796),  in  which  the  silky  matter  is  of  a  very  fine 
texture,  and  so  abundant  that  it  is  woven  into  small  articles  of  wear- 
ing apparel,  such  as  gloves  and  stockings. 

In  the  highest  class  of  Mollusca,  the  Cephalopoda,  the  mouth  is 
surrounded  by  a  variable  number  of  arms  (Fig.  1797),  which  not 
only  serve  as  organs  of  motion,  but  for  the  capture  of  prey.  To 
render  these  prehensile  organs  efficient,  they  are  covered,  on  the 
inner  surface,  with  numerous  cup-like  sucking  organs. 


rig.  1795. — Conus 
hebraicus. 


Fig.  1796. — Pinna,  with  its  byssus. 

The  intestinal  canal  in  the  Mollusca  presents  almost  every  variety 
of  form,  from  a  simple  cavity  to  a  complicated  intestine.  It  is,  how- 
ever, always  furnished  with  two  openings,  a  mouth  and  an  anus,  the 
latter  being  frequently  situated  on  the  side,  of  the  body,  not  far  from 
the  anterior  extremity.  The  liver  is  always  of  great  size,  generally 
enveloping  all  the  other  intestines. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  is  effected  by  means  of  a  distinct 
heart,  which  usually  communicates  with  a  regular  vascular  system  ; 
but,  in  some  instances,  the  circulation  takes  place  in  a  system  of 
sinuses  or  cavities  amongst  the  organs  of  the  body.  In  the  former 
case,  the  heart  is  often  composed  of  two  or  more  chambers,  from 
which  large  arteries  arise  to  convey  the  blood  to  the  various  organs. 
It  is  again  collected  in  the  veins,  through  which  it  passes  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  respiratory  organs,  where  it  is  aerated  by 
contact  with  the  surrounding  medium,  and  then  passes  to  the  heart. 
As  most  Mollusca  are  aquatic  in  their  habits,  their  respiration  is 
almost  always  effected  by  means  of  branchia;  (Fig.  1798).  These 
are  usually  composed  of  a  series  of  minute  lamina:,  or  of  broad  plates, 
over  which  the  water  flows.  They  are  sometimes  attached  to  the 
surface  of  the  body,  but  generaly  inclosed  within  the  mantle,  or 
placed  in  a  cavity  in  its  interior,  called  the  branchial  or  respiratory 
chamber.  The  water  necessary  for  respiration  is  sometimes  drawn 
into  this  cavity,  and  again  expelled  by  muscular  contraction.  In  this 
case  its  recoil  frequently  serves  to  drive  the  animal  slowly  through  the 
water;  and  some  species  swim  with  great  rapidity  in  this  manner. 
In  other  cases,  the  inner  walls  of  the  canals,  through  which  the 
water  passes,  are  lined  with  cilia,  by  the  action  of  which  a  constant 
current  is  kept  up.  Not  unfrequcntly  these  canals  are  drawn  out 
into  tubes  (Fig.  1799),  called  siphons,  which  are  often  of  great 
length  in  the  burrowing  species. 

The  air  breathing  species,  of  which  the  Common  Snails  and  Slugs 
are  well-known  examples,  are  furnished  with  a  pulmonary  sac  or 


/26 


CHARACTERS  OP  THE  MOLLUSCS. 


lung,  into  which  the  air  penetrates  ;  and  where  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  blood  contained  in  the  numerous  vessels  with  which  the 
walls  of  the  sac  are  supplied.  Many  of  these  animals  live  in  water  ; 
but  they  are  compelled  to  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe  ;  and  all  of 
them  ai)pear  to  require  a  moist  surface. 


Fig.  1797. — Octopus    hawaunsis. 

Most  of  the  Mollucsd  are  protected  by  a  hard  calcareous  covering, 
or  shell,  which  is  secreted  by  the  mantle,  and  is  gradually  increased 
in  size,  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  animal.  In  many  this  is 
composed  of  a  single  piece  (Fig.  1800,  Trochus),  which  is  usually  a 
spiral  tube,  gradually  increasing  in  size  towards  the  open  extremity 
from  which  the  animal  protrudes  itself  when  in  action.  Shells  of  this 
description  are  called  Univalves.  In  others  the  shell  is  composed 
of  two  pieces  or   Valves  (Fig.  1801,  Feciunculus),  attached  to  each 


Fig.  179S.— Organs  of  circulation  and  respiration  in  the  Cuttle  Fish  (Sepia). 

c,  heart  ;  as,  superior  artery  ;  a,  ventral  artery,  with  its  branches  azi ;  vc, 
principal  vein,  or  vena  cava ;  cb,  branchial  hearts ;  /';-,  branchise  •  vb 
branchial  vein  ;  bu,  bulb  of  branchial  vein  ;  ab,  branchial  arteries ;  vv, 
ventral  veins. 

other  at  one  point  by  a  hinge,  which  is  usually  furnished  with  an 
elastic  ligament,  serving  to  open  the  valves,  when  the  tension  of 
peculiar  muscles   whose  office  it  is  to  keep  the  shell  close,  is  re- 


moved. This  is  denominated  a  Bivalve  shell.  These  differences  in 
the  structure  of  the  shell  correspond  with  differences  in  the  con- 
formation of  the  animals.  The  Bivalve  Alolliisca  exhibit  no  traces  of 
any  distinct  head  ;  whilst  in  the  Univalves,  this  part  of  the  body  is 
well-marked,  and  usually  furnished  with  special  organs  of  sense 
(tentacula,  eyes,  &c). 


Fig.  1799. — Psaminobm,  with  long  siphons. 

The  older  naturalists  also  recognised  a  group  of  multivalve  shells, 
or  shells  composed  of  several  valves.  The  majority  of  these  be- 
longed to  the  Cirrhopod  order  of  Crjistacea,  which  were  regarded 
as  Mollusca  by  the  earlier  observers.  The  Pholades,  however, 
which  in  other  respects  are  true  Bivalve  Mollusca,  are  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  accessory  plates  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  hinge, 
whilst  in  the  Chitons  (Fig.  1802  ),  a  small,  but  singular  group  of 
Mollusca,  near  allied  to  the  Univalve  Limpets,  have  an  oval  shell 
composed  of  eight  movable  plates,  which  give  them  a  great  re- 
semblance to  enormous  Woodlice  ;  and  they  have  been  regarded 
as  forming  a  sort  of  transition  towards  the  Articulated  Division. 


Fig.  1800. — Univalve  Shell. 
( Trochus'). 


Fig.  iSoi.— Bivalve  Shell. 
i^fcciuiuulus). 


Many  Mollusca  are  not  furnished  with  a  shell,  or  have  only  a 
small  calcareous  plate  inclosed  within  the  mantle.  These  are 
called  Awaked  Mollusca  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  most  of  them  are 
provided  with  a  small  shell  at  their  first  quitting  the  eg^.  In  the 
shell-bearing  or  Testaceous  Mollusca,  this  embryonic  shell,  which 
often  differs  greatly  in  shape  and  texture  from  the  shell  of  the 
mature  animal,  forms  the  commencement  of  the  latter,  additions 
being  constantly  made  to  its  free  edge  by  the  secretion  of  calcareous 
matter  at  the  edge  of  the  mantle. 


Fig.  1S02. — Chiton  (side  view). 

The  shell  consists  mostly  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  animal  matter.  The  calcareous  matter  is  deposited  in  the 
cells  of  the  edge  of  the  mantle,  which  are  in  contact  with  the  free 
margin  of  the  shell.  In  these  it  gradually  increases  in  quantity 
until  they  harden,  and  become  attached  to  the  previous  shell  forma- 
tion. In  this  manner,  as  the  animal  continues  growing,  these 
attached  portions  of  the  mantle  are  thrown  off,  and  left  behind  ;  and 
it  is  usually  only  at  the  margin  of  the  shell  that  the  deposition  of 
new  shelly  matter  is  effected.  The  delicate  membranous  part  of  the 
mantle,  which  lines  the  interior  of  that  part  of  the  shell  inhabited  by 
the  animal,  has,  however,  the  power  of  secreting  a  thin  layer  of 
shelly  matter  upon  the  inner  surface.  This  is  frequently  of  a  pearly 
lustre ;  and,  in  many  bivalves,  a  new  layer  of  this  substance  is  de- 
posited at  the  same  time  that  the  size  of  the  shell  is  increased  by 
additions  to  its  margins  ;  for,  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  formation 
of  new  shell  is  not  constantly  going  on,  but  appears  to  be  subject  to 


<r3 


DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MOLLUSCS. 


•727 


periodical  interruptions,  indicated  by  lines  on  the  surface  of  the 
shell ;  these  are  called  lines  of  growth.  In  many  cases,  the  margin 
of  the  mantle,  instead  of  being  even,  presents  lobes  or  tubercles, 
which  produce  corresponding  irregularities,  ribs,  tubercles,  or 
spines,  on  the  surface  of  the  shell  (Fig.  1803,  the  Miircx.)  In  this 
manner,  as  the  spines  and  other  projections  are  usually  formed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  shell,  at  the  close  of  each  period  of  growtli  the 
surface  of  the  shell  becomes  more  or  less  covered  with  a  series  of 
these  prominences,  each  of  which  indicates  the  conclusion  of  a 
period  of  increase.  When  these  spines  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
further  growth  of  the  shell  the  creature  is  able  to  remove  them,  pro- 
bably by  the  action  of  some  solvent  fluid. 

The  shell  is  almost  alw.iys  coated  with  a  layer  of  animal  matter  (the 
cj>!dcrmts),  of  greater  or  less  tliickncss.  It  is  of  a  horny  consistence, 
and  serves  to  protect  the  shell  from  the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid, 
which  is  often  dissolved  in  great  quantity,  especially  in  fresh  water. 
It  is  in  fresh-water  shells  that  this  layer  of  epidermis  attains  its 
greatest  development,  and  the  colours  of  these  are  generally  due  to  it. 
in  many  places,  however,  the  epidermis  is  an  insufficient  protection 
against  the  corroding  action  of  the  water,  which  often  cats  deeply 
into  the  substance  of  the  shells  of  the  Mollusca,  making  it  their 
habitation. 


Fig.  1S03.— Tlie  Miiirx. 

Sexual  reproduction  prevails  amongst  the  I\L}I!nsca ,  and  it  is 
only  in  the  lowest  forms  that  we  meet  with  gemmiparous  propaga- 
tion. The  se.xes  are  generally  on  separate  individuals;  but  herma- 
phrodism  is  not  uncommon.  Nearly  all  these  animals  are  also  truly 
Oviparous,  although  a  few  produce  living  offspring  ;  the  ova  being 
retained  in  the  oviduct  until  the  exclusion  of  the  young  animals. 
The  eggs  vary  greatly  in  form.  They  are  sometimes,  as  in  the  Land- 
snails,  laid  separately,  each  inclosed  in  a  shell  of  variable  consist- 
ence ;  but  in  most  cases  they  are  agglutinated  together  into  a  mass, 
which  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  ribbon,  attached  by  one  of  its 
edges  to  some  submarine  body.  In  some  Marine  species  the  eggs 
are  inclosed  in  leathery  capsules,  which  are  often 
united  to  form  a  large  mass.  Each  capsule  con- 
E<    \\\       tains  numerous  eggs. 

The  young  Mollusc,   whilst   still  in  the   ^gg,   is 

almost  always  furnished    with   a   delicate,    pellucid 

shell,  even  when  it  is  ultimately  to  be   naked.     In 

this  case  the  embryonic  shell  is  cast  soon  after  the 

Fig.1804. — Egg  young  animal  makes  its  escape  from  the  egg.     The 

o{  Lym)teus\N\\\\  young  of  the   sedentary  species,  also,  are   active  at 

the  embryo,     this  stage  of  their  existence   swimming  freely  about 

in  the  water,  until  they  select  some  spot  in  which  to 

take  up  their  permanent  abode. 

Before  concluding  our  remarks  on  the  Shell-kind  of  Molluscs,  wo 
may  address  a  few  familiar  words  to  the  young  reader.  One  of  the 
greatest  charms  to  youth  when  on  a  visit  to  the  seaside  is  the  plea- 
sure of  searching  for  shells.  The  study  of  shells  has  given  rise  to  a 
branch  of  science  called  "  Conchology,"  or  Shell-science.  We  have 
already  in  part  defined  a  shell,  as  distinguished  from  the  bones  of 
vertebrated  animals.  When,  however,  we  turn  to  the  Molluscs,  we 
find  that  Nature  has  specially  arranged  for  their  protection  against 
their  enemies  by  giving  them  an  external  covering,  which  also  pre- 
vents them  from  accident,  when,  as  in  the  case  of  Lobsters,  they 
take  to  leaping  from  an  eminence.  In  certain  respects  they  resemble 
the  Tortoise,  Turtle,  and  others  of  that  kind,  whose  outside  shell  or 


carapace  affords  similar  protection.  Meeting  with  a  foe,  the  outside 
shell  of  certain  of  the  Mollusca  presents  a  formidable  resistance,  and 
is  thus  frequently  the  means  of  their  escape.  Then,  again,  the 
form  of  the  shell  is  such  as  to  give  the  greatest  strength  with  the 
least  possible  expenditure  of  material.  If  we  try  to  crush  a  square 
figure,  having  the  same  weight,  area,  &c.,as  one  of  a  circular  form,  we 
shall  find  that  the  former  will  easily  give  way  to  the  force  we  employ, 
while  the  latter  resists  our  attempt.  In  this  we  find  the  evidence  of 
Creative  design,  highly  blending  circumstances  to  specific  objects  ; 
the  material  or  dead  matter  being  made  conducive  to  the  comforts 
and  necessities  of  the  existence  of  the  Animal. 

In  treating  of  the  Mollusca  we  do  not  propose  to  enter  into  the 
various  scientific  details  involved  in  the  subject,  which  would  be  of 
interest  to  the  professed  Natur.alist,  yet  but  little  appreciated  by 
the  general  reader.  After  briefiy  describing  some  forms  which  are  not 
generally  known,  we  shall  select  some  of  the  most  interesting  species, 
&c.,  of  the  Mollusca  Proper  for  more  extended  description  and 
illustration,  especially  as  the  shells  of  many  of  these  are  highly 
admired,  while,  in  numerous  instances,  the  bodies  afford  a  delicious 
and  nourishing  article  of  food. 

General  divisions. — Although  these  arc  the  general  character- 
istics of  the  Animals  belonging  to  the  Molluscous  division,  those  form- 
ing the  two  first  classes,  the  Bryozod  CGreek,  Bryoii,  moss,  and  zoon, 
an  animal),  and  the  Timicata  (Latin,  Tu}jica,  a  tunic),  and 
especially  the  former,  differ  from  the  other  Mollusca  in  so  many 
respects  that  they  have  been  formed  into  a  separate  sub-division, 
the  Molluscoids.  (Like-Molluscs.)  They  are  distinguished  from 
the  true  Mollusca  by  the  very  low  development  of  the  nervous  system , 
which  is  composed  only  of  a  single  ganglion,  placed  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  oesophagus,  and  giving  off  nerves  in  various 
directions.  Of  these  two  classes,  the  Bryozoa  are  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  tentacular  organs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth, 
while  the  Tunicata  are  destitute  of  such  organs. 

SUB-DIVISION  I.— MOLLUSCOIDA. 
Class  I.— Bryozoa. 

General  Characters. — The  class  of  ^ryosoa  is  composed  of 
Animals  which  always  grow  together  upon  a  common  stock,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  compound  Polypes,  with  which  they  were  for- 
merly arranged.  Each  Animal  resides  in  a  separate  cell,  within 
which  it  can  usually  retract  itself  entirely  ;  the  cells  are  sometimes 
soft  and  flexible,  sometimes  horny,  and  sometimes  calcareous.  They 
frequently  stand  upon  short  footstalks,  rising  from  a  tubular  stock, 
which  creeps  over  the  surface  of  stones  and  aquatic  plants,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  horny  stems  of  many  of  the  Hydroid  Polypes.  In 
some  cases  the  cells  are  sessile,  forming  a  crust  upon  submarine 
objects  ;  whilst  in  others  the  colony  is  attached  only  by  its  base,  with 
the  opposite  extremity  floating  freely  in  the  water.  In  these  the 
stock  is  more  or  less  branched,  and  often  leaf-like. 

The  cells  are  in  general  partially  free ;  but  in  some  of  the  stony 
species  they  form  a  calcareous  mass,  presenting  some  resemblance 
to  the  true  Corals,  from  which,  however,  they  may  always  be  distin- 
guished by  the  absence  of  the  calcareous  partitions  which  the  latter 
invariably  exhibit.  In  some  species,  the  cells  arc  closed  by  a  cover 
when  the  animal  is  withdrawn  ;  but  this  protection  is  generally 
wanting ;  and  in  the  species  with  flexible  cells,  the  complete  re- 
traction of  the  Animal  draws  in  the  edges  of  the  cell,  which  then 
closes  the  aperture  entirely.  The  interior  of  the  cell  is  lined  by  the 
skin  of  the  Animal,  and  the  cavity  of  the  body  is  filled  with  fluid,  in 
which  the  intestinal  canal  floats  freely.  It  also  contains  the  muscles 
by  which  the  Animal  protrudes  and  retracts  itself. 

The  fluid,  which  is  perfectly  clear  and  transparent,  is  kept  in  con- 
stant motion  by  the  action  of  cilia,  with  which  the  inner  surface  of 
the  cavity,  and  the  outer  surface  of  the  intestine,  are  covered  ;  and 
this  movement,  which  extends  into  the  tube  of  the  common  stock, 
is  interesting  to  the  Naturalist,  as  it  is  apparently  equivalent  to  a 
true  circulation  of  the  blood. 

The  most  characteristic  peculiarity  of  the  Bryozoa  is  their  posses- 
sion of  ciliated  tentacula  placed  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
body.  By  the  action  of  the  cilia  a  sort  of  vortex,  or  whirlpool,  is 
produced  in  the  water,  by  which  the  minute  Animals  that  constitute 
the  food  of  the  creature  are  carried  down  into  the  mouth,  which  is 
placed  between  them. 

These  tentacles  proTjably  serve  also  as  respiratory  organs,  as  they 
communicate  at  their  bases  with  the  general  cavity  ;  and  the  fluid, 
with  which  this  is  filled,  appears  to  circulate  in  the  tentacles  by 
ciliary  action.  The  mouth  leads  into  a  muscular  oesophagus,  below 
which,  nearly  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity  of  the  body,  the  stomach  is 
situated.  The  intestine  springs  from  the  upper  part  of  the  stomach, 
near  the  point  where  the  oesophagus  enters,  and  leads  to  an  anal 
opening,  situated  just  below  the  tentacula.  These  parts  are  well 
shown  in  the  engraving  (Fig.  1805),  which  affords  a  good  illustration 
of  the  subject. 

The  colonics  of  the  Bryozoa  are,  of  course,  increased  by  gemmi- 
parous budding  reproduction  ;  but  the  establishment  of  new  colonics 
takes  place  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  propagation  by  ova  ;  and  it  is 


728 


MOLLUSCOUS  ANIMALS— THE  TUNIC  ATA. 


somewhat  singular  that,  in  these  sedentary  animals,  the  sexes  are 
frequently,  if  not  always,  on  separate  individuals.  The  sexual  organs 
are  attached  either  to  the  surface  of  the  intestine,  or  to  the  inner  wall 
of  the  cavity  of  the  body.  They  are  seen  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stomach  in  the  central  individual  of  the  group  figured  (Fig.  I805). 

The  contents  of  these  organs  (ova  and  spermatozoa)  appear  to  be 
set  free  in  the  cavity  of  the  body,  where  they  are  carried  from  place 
to  place  by  the  currents  of  the  nutritive  fluid,  and  in  this  manner 
come  in  contact.  The  impregnated  eggs  escape  into  the  water 
through  a  minute  aperture  pierced  close  to  the  anus.  The  embryo 
breaks  out  of  the  a-g'g  in  the  form  of  a  ciliated  animalcule,  which 
swims  about  for  some  time  without  change.  It  then  becomes  cup- 
shaped,  and,  by  degrees,  tentacles  make  their  appearance  at  its 
upper  margin,  when  the  little  creature  fixes  itself  by  its  lower  ex- 


Fig.  1605. — The  Plumatella. 

a,  a  group  of  the  natural  size  ;  b,  three  individuals  magnified  ;  c,  anus. 

The  individual  on  the  left  is  completely  retracted  within  its   cell  ;  that  in  the 
middle  is  seen  from  behind  ;  and  that  on  the  right  from  the  side, 

tremity,  and  becomes  a  simple  Bryozoon.  The  changes  which  the 
Bryozoon  undergoes  are  curious.  It  soon  begins  to  form  buds  at 
its  base,  or  gives  off  a  creeping  stem  from  which  these  arise  at 
intervals  ;  and  in  this  manner  a  new  colony  is  formed.  In  some 
cases  the  development  of  the  embryo  presents  very  remarkable 
phenomena.  A  ciliated  embryo  is  produced  in  each  &g^  ;  and  in  the 
interior  of  this,  whilst  still  enclosed  in  the  &gg,  two  little  Bryozoa, 
furnished  with  tentacula,  make  their  appearance.  The  embryo  then 
makes  its  escape,  swims  about  for  a  time,  and  then  attaches  itself, 
when  the  little  creatures  enclosed  in  it  breakout,  and  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  a  new  colony. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Bryozoa  form  two  very  distinct  orders.  In 
the  Infuiidibulata,  the  animals,  which  are  all  marine,  are  cha- 
racterised by  having  the  tentacles  placed  in  a 
circle  round  the  mouth  (Fig.  1806);  whilst  in  the 
Lophopoda,  which  inhabit  fresh  water,  these 
organs  are  situated  upon  two  arms  given  off  from 
the  sides  of  the  body  (Fig.  1805). 

Order  I.— Infundibulata. 

The  common  Flustrce  or  Sea-mats,  so  abundant 
on  ourshores,  are  well-known  examplesof  thisorder. 
They  are  flat  and  foliaceous,  or  leaf-like,  in  form, 
presenting  a  considerable  resemblance  in  appear- 
ance to  pale  brown  sea-weeds,  with  which  they  are, 
in  fact,  generally  confounded  by  sea-side  visitors. 
But,  when  carefully  examined,  these  leaf-like 
bodies  will  be  found  to  consist  of  a  multitude  of 
small  horny  cells,  opening  at  the  surface  ;  and 
from  each  of  these,  when  the  polypidom  is  placed 
alive  in  a  vessel  of  sea-water,  the  little  creatures 
may  be  seen  protruding  their  tentacles.  Many 
nearly  allied  species  grow  upon  the  fronds  of  sea- 
weeds, over  which  they  spread  like  a  thin  coating 
of  gauze,  composed  of  similar  cells,  opening,  of 
course,  only  on  one  side.  Others  are  found  in- 
crusting  stones  and  other  submarine  bodies  with  a 
a,  oesophagus ;  c,  sto-  cellular  calcareous  mass.  In  many  species 
mach;  </,  anus,  the  cells  are  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  more 
or  less  thread-like,  branching  polypidom  ;  whilst 
others  are  furnished  with  a  creeping  root,  from  which  the  cells  rise 
by  stems  of  greater  or  less  strength. 

Some  of  the  Marine  Bryozoa  possess  singular  organs,  the  use  of 
which  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  made  out.  These  are  attached  to 
the  polypidom,  and  from  their  close  resemblance  in  form  to  the  head 
of  a  bird  have   received  the  name  oi  Avicularia.     They  consist  of  a 


Fig. 


1S06. — Bowcr- 
bankia. 


larger  upper  and  a  smaller  lower  piece  ;  the  latter  being  movably 
articulated  to  its  fellow  ;  and  the  whole  is  frequently  attached  to  the 
polypidom  by  a  short  footstalk.  These  organs  are  constantly  in 
motion,  and  at  the  same  time  the  two  pieces  frequently  separate  and 
close  again,  with  a  snapping  movement,  exactly  like  that  of  a  Bird's 
bill. 

Order  II.— Lophopoda. 

In  this  order,  composed  of  inhabitants  of  fresh  water,  the  tentacles, 
which  are  more  numerous  than  in  the  preceding,  are  placed  upon  a 
pair  of  long  arms,  which  spring  from  the  sides  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  animal,  and  usually  describe  somewhat  the  form  of  a 
horse-shoe  (Fig.  1805).  Their  cells  are  usually  of  a  leathery  texture, 
nearly  transparent,  and  usually  spring  from  a  rootstock  of  similar 
consistence,  which  creeps  along  upon  the  surface  of  stones  or 
aquatic  plants,  in  which  situations  these  animals  are  not  uncom- 
mon. In  some  species,  however,  the  polypidom  floats  freely  in  the 
water  {Cristatella),  and  is  of  a  gelatinous  consistency;  in  these, 
the  Animals  composing  each  colony  are  usually  three  or  four  in 
number. 

Class  II.— Tunicata. 

General  Characters. — The  animals  forming  the  class  Tuni- 
cata, generally  present  the  appearance  of  shapeless  gelatinous 
masses.  They  are  composed  of  two  tunics  ;  an  outer,  the  mantle, 
and  an  inner  tunic,  which  lines  a  large  respiratory  cavity.  These 
tunics  are  continuous  at  the  extremities  of  the  body,  where  there  are 
large  openings  ;  and  the  animal  thus  constitutes  a  tube,  furnished 
with  double  walls,  which  are  usually  separated  by  a  considerable 
space  (Fig.  1807).  In  the  numerous  Compound  Tunicata,  we  find  a 
modification  of  this  structure.  The  Animals  forming  one  of  these 
colonies  are  usually  united  by  their  mantles,  which  afford  a  more  or 
less  gelatinous  mass,  in  which  the  individual  Animals  appear  to  be 
imbedded.  In  many  of  these,  the  body,  or  at  all  events  the  respira- 
tory chamber,  is  bent  round ;  so  that  the  in-current  and  ex-current 
orifices  are  brought  to  the  same  extremity  of  the  body.  In  others, 
the  posterior  apertures  of  several  animals  lead  into  a  common  canal. 
The  outer  tunic,  which  is  composed  wholly,  or  in  great  part,  of  a 
substance  apparently  identical  with  the  woody  fibre  of  plants,  is 
usually  of  a  tough  or  somewhat  cartilaginous  texture.  The  inner 
tunic  is  frequently  furnished  with  a  variable  number  of  muscular 
bands,  by  means  of  which  the  internal  cavity  is  contracted  so  as  to 
expel  the  water  which  has  entered  for  the  purpose  of  respiration. 
The  space  between  these  tunics  is  occupied  by  a  system  of  sinuses, 
through  which  the  blood  circulates. 

The  water  usually  enters  the  respiratory  chamber  by  the  anterior 
orifice,  and  is  then  expelled  by  the  posterior.  In  the  free-swimming 
species,  this  expulsion  of  the  water  constitutes  the  only  means  of 
locomotion  possessed  by  the  Animal,  which  progresses  slowly  in  the 
direction  opposed  to  the  stream  of  water.  The  respiratory  function 
appears  to  be  performed  to  a  great  extent  by  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  respiratory  chamber  ;  but  the  Animals  are  also  furnished  with 
true  branchia;,  which  present  two  different  forms.  In  the  Salpcc 
(Fig.  1807),  the  branchia  constitutes  a  flat  or  roundish  band,  running 
through  the  respiratory  chamber,  furnished  with  cilia  on  its  sides  ; 
in  the  other  Tunicata,  the  branchial  cavity  contains  a  loose  network 
formed  of  ciliated  filaments,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 

The  intestinal  canal  is  situated  near  the  posterior  part  of  the 
cavity  of  the  body,  opening  by  a  simple  mouth  from  the  upper  part 
of  that  cavity.  The  mouth  leads  into  a  winding  intestine,  which 
again  opens,  by  another  aperture,  in  the  respiratory  chamber. 

The  heart  is  usually  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  digestive 
organs;  it  is  of  a  somewhat  tubular  form,  and  the  blood  is  set  in 


Fig,   1S07.— Salpa. 
(7   anterior  orifice ;  f,   posterior  orifice  ;  /,  intestinal  sac  ;  <-,  heart ;  l>r,  bran- 
'  chial  chamber  ;  ni,  muscular  bands  ;  n,  ganglion. 

motion  by  a  gradual  contraction  of  its  walls  from  one  end  to  the 
other.     In  their  circulation,  if  circulation  it  maybe  called,  the  Turn- 


MOLLUSCOUS  ANIMALS— THE  ASCIDI^. 


729 


cata  exhibit  a  remarkable  difference  from  all  other  animals.  1  he 
blood  does  not  circulate  always  in  the  same  direction  ;  but  after  a 
certain  number  of  pulsations  in  one  direction,  the  heart  rests  for  a 
time,  when  its  contractions  commence  anew  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, so  that  the  blood  really  ebbs  and  flows. 

The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  single  large  ganglion,  placed 
towards  the  anterior  part  of  the  animal,  at  its  lower  surface.  Close 
to  this  is  placed  a  vesicle,  containing  otolithes,  and  therefore  prob- 
ably an  auditory  organ  ;  although,  from  the  presence  of  pigment 
spots  upon  the  otolithes,  it  has  been  regarded  as  an  eye  by  many 
observers. 

The  Tu7iicata  are  all  hermaphrodites ;  and  it  appears  probable 
that  some  of  them  at  any  rate,  are  self-impregnating.  The  male  and 
female  organs  have  been  detected  in  many  species  at  the  posterior 
extremity  of  the  body,  near  the  digestive  system  ;  but  the  former 
have  been  described  as  a  liver.  Besides  sexual  reproduction,  how- 
ever, many  of  these  animals  propagate  by  gemmation,  or  budding, 
some  forming  compound  colonies ;  whilst  others  exhibit  a  regular 
"alternation  of  generations." 

Sub-divisions.— The  Tiinicata  have  been  divided  into  two  orders, 
characterised  by  differences  in  the  form  of  their  respiratory  apparatus. 
The  AscidicB  have  the  branchial  organ  composed  of  a  network  of 
square  meshes  ;  whilst  in  the  BiJ>hora  it  consists  of  a  band  running 
through  the  branchial  chamber. 

Order  1.— Ascidi^. 

General  Characters. — This  order  consists  entirely  of  Animals 
which  are  either  attached  by  the  base  to  submarine  objects,  such  as 
rocks  and  stones,  or  united  together  in  various  ways  ;  sometimes  by 
the  coalescence  of  their  mantles,  so  as  to  form  a  gelatinous  mass, 
and  sometimes  by  means  of  a  sort  of  common  stalk,  very  similar  to 
the  polypidom  of  the  Bryozoa.  The  efferent  orifice  of  the  branchial 
chamber,  accordingly,  in  almost  every  case,  opens  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  ihhalent  orifice,  either  by  the  canal  being  bent  round 
within  the  body  of  each  Animal,  or  by  its  communicating  internally 
with  a  common  canal  of  a  larger  size,  serving  for  several  individuals. 
The  young  of  the  Fixed  Ascidians,  when  first  produced  from  the  %%%, 
are  furnished  with  a  long  tail,  which  gives  them  very  much  the 
appearance  of  minute  Tadpoles.  Fig.  1808  represents  the  young  of 
the  Amaroucium  ^roliferum,  highly  magnified;  a,  the  tegumen- 


Fig.  iSoS. — TsLi'pole  ol  \.he  Avtaroncium  froliferum  magnified. 

tary  body  of  the  trunk,  which  is  seen  within  ;  b,  the  pouch  or  tunic 
enclosing  the  body  of  the  yoimg  Animal,  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
nutritive  vitelline  fluid;  b" ,  appendages  terminating  in  suckers,  and 
enabling  the  animal  to  fix  itself;  a*,"  the  tail,  formed  by  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  tegumentary  investment,  and  enclosing  a  tubular  appen- 
dage of  the  vitelline  sac.     By  means  of  this  they  swim  about  freely 


in  the  water,  until  the  time  arrives  for  them  to  attach  themselves. 
The  tail  then  gradually  disappears  ;  the  internal  organs  make  their 
appearance,  and  the  animal  soon  acquires  the  form  of  its  parent. 
In  some  of  the  Compound  Ascidians,  however,  a  somewhat  different 
process  has  been  observed.  The  tail  embryo  is  formed  in  the  eg<, 
but  this  loses  the  tail  whilst  still  enclosed.  Several  embryos,  f  ir 
rounding  a  common  canal,  are  then  formed  in  the  substance  of  the 
original  embryo,  which  thus  constitutes  the  nucleus  from  which  a 
new  colony  is  produced  by  gemmation. 

Divisions. — The  Ascidians  form  four  great  groups,  or  large 
families.  In  the  Compound  Ascidmni,  or  Bofryllicke  (Fig.  1809), 
the  Animals  are  united  together  by  the  coalescence  of  their  mantles, 
so  as  to  form  a  leatherly  or  gelatinous  mass,  usually  attached  to 
stones  or  sea-weeds.     In  this  the  separate  Animals  are  imbedded, 


Fig.  1S09. — Bolrylliis  stellalits,  upon  Ascidia  intestinalis, 

generally  arranged  in  a  more  or  less  distinctly  stellate  form,  round  .a 
common  efferent  canal.  Many  of  them  are  adorned  with  beautiful 
colours. 

The  second  family,  the  Clavellinidfs,  contains  the  Social  Ascidians, 
or  those  in  which  the  bodies  of  the  animals  are  united,  not  by  tlie 
mutual  adherence  of  their  outer  tunics,  but  by  means  of  a  sort  of 
creeping  stem  which  runs  along  the  surface  of  submarine  objects, 
and  gives  rise  at  intervals  to  short  footstalks,  at  the  extremity  of 
which  the  animals  are  supported  (Fig.  1810).  The  separate  animals 
are  produced  by  gemmation  from  the  creeping  stems,  which  run  in 
various  directions  from  the  base  of  the  original  founder  of  the 
colony. 

The  family  of  Simple  Ascidians,  Ascidiida;,  is  composed  of  Animals 
which  live  separately  attached   by  the  base  to  submarine  bodies. 


Fig.  1810. — Perophora, 

/,  common  stem  ;  e,  stomach  ;  i,  intestines  ;  b,  inhalent  orifice ; 
a,  efferent  orifice. 

They  usually  form  shapeless  masses  of  a  cartilaginous  texture,  often 
of  considerable  size,  which  occur  in  great  abundance  in  shallow 
water.  A  few  species  are  eaten  in  some  countries.  The  in-current 
and  ex-current  apertures  are  both  situated  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
Animal,  and  the  former  is  fringed  with  tentacles,  which  appear  to 
prevent  the  ingress  of  injurious  matters  into  the  respiratory  cavity. 

The  fourth  family,  the  Pyroso?naitd(s,  appears  to  form  a  distinct 
transition  from  the  Ascidia  to  the  following  order.  In  the  structure 
of  the  respiratory  organs  they  agree  with  the  former  ;  and,  like  the 
majority  of  these,  they  are  compound  animals;  but  the  branchial 
chamber  runs  straight  through  the  body,  with  the  openings  at  oppo- 
site extremities ;  as  in  the  5a//<z?,  with  which  they  also  agree  closely 
in  the  general  arrangement  of  their  organs.  Fig  181 1  represents  the 
Pyrosoma  gigantciim  ;  a  shows  a  magnified  portion. 

The  colonies  of  these  singular  creatures  are  in  the  form  of  a  car- 
tilaginous tube,  open  at  one  end.  In  the  walls  of  this  tube,  formed 
by  the  coalescence  of  the  mantles  of  the  animals  composing  it,  the 
bodies  of  the  Ascidians  are  separately  imbedded  ;  the  branchi.il 
chamber  of  each  passing  completely  through  the  wall  from  its  outer 
to  its  inner  surface.     These  Animals  are  found  in  the  seas  of  warm 

5  -V 


730 


MOLLUSCOUS  ANIMALS— THE  SALPJE. 


climates,  where  they  float  along-  in  an  uprisjht  position,  but  ap- 
parently possess  no  actual  locomotive  power.  Like  all  the  Timicata 
they  are  luminous  in  the  dark,  and,  in  fact,  appear  to  possess  this 
faculty  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  members  of  the  class. 
Their  cylindrical  form,  upright  position,  and  considerable  size  (they 
often  attain  more  than  a  foot  in  leng-th),  render  them  exceedingly 
beautiful  objects  at  night ;  and  they  have  been  described  as  resem- 
bling little  columns  of  tire.  After  death  the  splendour  of  the 
Pyrosoma  vanishes,  and  gives  place  to  a  dull  yellowish  white. 


Fig.  iSll. — The  Pyrosoma  giganteum. 


Order  II. — Biphora. 

This  order  includes  a  group  of  free-swimming  Animals,  usually  of 
a  glassy  transparency,  the  bodies  of  which  may  be  compared  to  a 
tube,  furnished  with  two  openings,  one  for  the  entrance  and  the  other 
for  the  exit  of  water.  The  walls  of  this  tube  are  composed  of  a  dis- 
tinct outer  and  inner  tunic,  the  latter  being  furnished  with  bands  of 
muscles,  by  the  contraction  of  which  the  water  is  forced  out  of  the 
cavity  of  the  body,  producing  a  recoil,  and  driving  the  creature  in 
the  opposite  direction.  The  internal  structure  of  these  Animals  has 
already  been  described.  They  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
other  order  by  the  bandlike  form  of  the  branchia.  The  intestines 
form  a  small  mass  above  the  posterior  portion  of  the  branchial  cavity  ; 
this  is  usually  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  colour,  and  emits  a  phos- 
phorescent light  in  the  dark  ;  it  is  called  the  nucleus. 

The  reproduction  of  these  Animals  is  attended  with  some  very 
remarkable  circumstances,  which  were,  indeed,  the  first  facts  accu- 
rately observed  in  favour  of  what,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  we  must 
still  denominate  "the  alternation  of  generations."     Two  forms  of 


Fig.  1S12. — Salpa  fusifonnis. 

SalfcB  have  long  been  known  and  regarded  as,  at  all  events,  speci- 
fically distinct  from  each  other.  In  one  of  these  the  individual 
Animals  are  united  together  by  their  sides  into  a  sort  of  chain,  the 
movement  of  which,  through  the  water,  is  effected  by  the  simul- 
taneous expulsion  of  water  from  the  respiratory  chambers  of  all  the 
Animals  of  which  it  is  composed.     In  the  other  form,  the  Animals 


arc  always  solitary ;  and  those  differ  so  much  in  their  external  ap- 
pearance, and  even  in  some  points  of  internal  anatomy — such  as  the 
number  of  muscular  bands  in  the  inner  tunic — from  isolated  indi- 
viduals of  the  social  forms,  that  it  is  not  at  all  surprising  tliey  were 
long  considered  as  a  distinct  species.  Accurate  observations, 
however,  commencing  with  those  of  Chamisso,  published  in  1819, 
have  shown  that  each  species  of  Salpa  possesses  individuals  of 
these  two  forms.  The  associated  forms  are  furnished  with  genuine  re- 
productive organs,  and  produce  a  single  young  Salpa  of  the  solitary 
form  ;  and  this  again  prc«3uces,  by  internal  gemmation,  a  chain  of 
series  of  young  Animals  of  the  form  of  its  parent.  The  processes  by 
which  these  different  results  are  produced  are  exceedingly  curious 
and  interesting.  The  solitary  Salpa  exhibit  at  the  hinder  extremity, 
close  to  the  heart,  and  connected  with  that  organ,  a  single  vessel 
divided  down  the  middle  by  a  longitudinal  partition.  Through  this 
the  blood  circulates,  passing  up  on  one  side  of  the  partition  and 
down  on  the  other.  Upon  the  outer  surface  of  this,  which  is  called 
the  gemmiferous  tube  by  Professor  Huxley,  the  associated  Salpa; 
are  produced,  making  their  appearance  at  first  as  mere  buds,  but 
gradually  increasing  in  development  with  age  ;    and  those  at  the 


Fig.  1S13. — Salpa  Jlroloidea. 


Fig.  1814.—  Salfa  zoitaria. 

hinder  extremity  of  the  tube  being  much  further  advanced  than 
those  nearer  the  heart.  When  mature,  these  young  Animals  quit 
the  body  of  the  parent  by  an  aperture  in  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  outer  tunic,  sometimes  singly,  at  others  in  a  united  chain,  in 
which  the  Animals  adhere  to  each  other  with  a  very  variable  degree 
of  force.  Each  of  these  possesses  both  male  and  female  organs,  the 
latter  furnishing,  apparently,  but  a  single  ovum.  It  seems  very 
doubtful,  however,  whether  the  animals  are  self-impregnating;  as 
Professor  Huxley  remarks  that,  in  the  species  examined  by  him,  the 
male  organs  did  not  appear  to  have  arrived  at  their  full  development 
when  the  formation  of  the  embryo  had  commenced,  which,  indeed, 
takes  place  before  the  associated  Salpa  leaves  the  body  of  its  parent. 
It  is  singular  that  they  are  not  Oviparous,  but  truly  Viviparous  ;   the 

embryo  being  suspended  within  the 
branchial  cavity  of  its  parent,  and  con- 
nected with  the  circulatory  system  of 
the  latter  by  a  distinct  vessel,  through 
which  the  blood  may  be  seen  to  pass, 
the  embryo  also  exhibiting  a  distinct 
circulation  of  its  own ;  phenomena  so 
Fig.  1815. — Salfafolymorpha.  closely  in  accordance  with  those  pre- 
sented by  the  Mammalia,  or  truly 
Viviparous  Vertehrata,  that  naturalists  have  applied  the  name 
of  placetita  to  the  vascular  connection  between  the  parent  Salpa 
and  its  young.  As  the  young  Salpa  increases  in  size  and  perfec- 
tion, its  connection  with  its  parent  is  gradually  narrowed,  until  at 
last  it  breaks  away  altogether,  and  swims  off  as  a  free  and  perfect 
being. 

The  SalpeB  are  found  in  all  seas,  but  most  plentifully  in  those  of 
Tropical  climates,  which  are  often  filled  with  them  in  such  numbers 
that  the  voyager  sails  for  days  through  masses  of  these  little  gela- 
tinous creatures.  At  night  they  are  exceedingly  luminous  ;  and  the 
chains  of  the  associated  forms,  especially,  are  said  to  present  a 
beautiful  appearance. 


THE  MOLLUSCS-PROPER. 


731 


CHAPTER    XL. 

SUB-DIVISION  II.— MOLLUSCA  PROPER. 


M^ .:.  .,  .V  JL  A  S'.olfl"*-'  ^-^E  sub-division  now  before  us  affords 
numerous  interesting  objects  of  study.  It 
includes  most  of  our  favourite  shells  ;  but 
especially  some  of  the  most  important  of 
the  so-called  "Shell-fish,"  a  term,  which 
although  by  no  means  agreeable  to  zoolo- 
gical classification,  is  so  well  known,  as 
that  we  shall  adopt  it  in  the  general 
description  of  some  of  the  Animals. 

Numerous  have  been  the  arrangements 

of  classification  that  have  been   adopted 

in  respect  to  these  animals  ;  but  we  shall 

adopt  the  following  plan  as  perhaps  being  the  best 

yet  arrived  at  in  respect  to  these  Molluscs. 

Divisions. — In  the  great  sub-division  of  the  True 
Molluscn,  of  which  the  general  structure  has  already 
been  sufficiently  explained,  we  may  distinguish  five 
great  classes,  of  which  two  are  unprovided  with  any 
distinct  head  (^Accphala),  whilst  the  remainder  pre- 
sent a  head  furnished  with  organs  of  sense  (eyes, 
tentacles,  &c.)  Of  the  former,  which  are  always  fur- 
nished with  a  bi-valve  or  double  shell,  the  Pallio- 
braiichiata  are  distinguished  by  having  no  special 
breathing  apparatus  or  gill,  and  by  the  presence  of  a 
pair  of  ciliated,  and  usually  spiral  arms  attached  to 
the  sides  of  the  mouth  (Fig.  1816),  the  action  of 
which  carries  the  particles  of  food  towards  that  aperture  ;  whilst  in 
the  Laincllibranchiata,  or  ordinary  Bivalve  MoUusca,  such  as  the 
Oyster,  &c.,  these  arms  are  wanting,  and  the  respiratory  function  is 
performed  by  lamina;  gills. 

The  Cephalophorous  MoUusca  are  divided  into  classes,  by  cha- 
racters derived  in  a  great  measure  from  the  form  and  position  of  the 
organs  of  motion.  Thus  the  Pfcropoda  are  small  Molluscs,  which 
swim  freely  on  the  high  sea,  by  means  of  a  pair  of  tin-like  expan- 
sions attached  to  the  sides  of  the  body,  at  or  near  the  head  (Fig. 
1817.)  The  Gasteropoda  are  furnished  with  a  fleshy  foot,  by  the 
agency  of  which  they  creep  slowly  along  ;  whilst  the  Cephalopoda 
have  a  circle  of  arms  surrounding  the  head,  with  which  they  not 
only  crawl  upon  submarine  objects,  but  also  seize  their  prey.  Each 
of  these  will  be  more  particularly  described  as  we  proceed. 

Class  III.— Lamellibranchiata. 

General  Characters. — The  Lamellibranchiate,  or  ordinary 
Bivalve  JMollusca,  are  usually  inclosed  within  a  bi-lobed  mantle, 
which,  however,  in  some  instances,  is  entirely  closed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  apertures  left  for  the  admis- 
sion of  the  water  required  for  the  respi- 
ratory process,  and  for  the  protrusion  of 
the  foot  (Fig.  1818).  In  all  cases,  how- 
ever, the  two  sides  of  the  mantle  pro- 
duce a  calcareous  or  chalky  shell,  which 
is  always  composed  essentially  of  two 
valves ;  although,  in  some  instances, 
they  undergo  such  modifications  as  to 
render  the  recognition  of  their  original 
structure  almost  unrecognisable.  The 
two  lobes  of  the  mantle  are  always  united 
at  the  upper  part,  where  they  are  also 
attached  to  the  sac  inclosing  the  body  of 
the  Mollusc.  At  this  part,  also,  the  two 
valves  of  the  shell  are  attached  to  each 
other  by  a  sort  of  hinge,  almost  always 
furnished  with  teeth,  which  fit  into  cor- 
responding cavities  in  the  opposite  valve, 
and  are  usually  provided  with  an  elas- 
tic ligament,  uniting  the  two  valves 
along  the  hinge-margin,  and  with  an  internal  cartilage,  as  seen  in 
the  Oyster,  Mussel,  &c.  The  office  of  these  elastic  bodies  is  to 
open  the  shell,  when  the  tension  of  certain  muscles,  hereafter  to 
be  described,  is  relaxed.  The  external  ligament,  being  placed  in 
such  a  manner  that  when  the  shell  is  closed  its  elastic  fibres  are 
doubled,  always  tends  to  recover  a  more  extended  position  ;  whilst 
the  internal  cartilage,  which  is  lodged  in  pits  within  the  hinge- 
margin,  is  compressed  by  the  closing  of  the  shell,  and  of  course 
assists  in  opening  the  valves,  as  soon  as  the  pressure,  under  which  it 
is  confined,  is  reduced  below  its  clastic  force. 
Each  valve  of  the  shell  is  usually  of  a  very  oblique,  broadly-conical 


Fijj.  jBi6. —Lmgida  annfinn, 
showing  the  ciliated  arms. 


form,  running  up  to  an  obtuse  point,  called  the  umbo  or  beak  (Fi/. 
1819).  This  is  the  first  formed  part  of  the  shell ;  and  as  the  principal 
additions  to  the  size  of  the  valves  are  made  by  the  free  margins  of 
the  mantle,  it  always  retains  its  position  close  to  the  hinge.  The 
shell  often  assumes  a  somewhat  spiral  appearance,  especially  at  this 
part ;  and,  in  some  cases,  one  or  both  valves  exhibit  the  tendency  to 
form  a  spire  still  more  distinctly.  The  position  of  the  umboncs  gene- 
rally indicates  that  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  shell  in  relation  to 
those  of  the  Animal  Thus  the 
umboncs  almost  invariably  reach 
the  hinge-margin  in  front  of  the 
ligament,  so  that  the  portion  of  the 
shell  towards  which  they  tend  is 
the  anterior  ;  the  opposite  portion, 
the  posterior  region.  The  latter  is 
generally  the  largest.  The  interior 
of  the  shell  is  marked  by  impres- 
sions indicating  the  points  of  in- 
sertion of  the  muscles  (Fig.  1820). 
Of  these,  the  principal  are  the  im- 
pression of  the  abductor  muscles 
(Fig.  1818  below,  showing  the  ana- 
tomy of  a  Bivalve),  which  are  two 
in  number,  one  placed  in  the  poste- 
rior, the  other  in  the  anterior  part 
of  the  shell,  the  former  being  gene- 
rally the  largest.  These  muscles 
are  attached  to  the  interior  of  both 
valves,  which  they  close  by  their 
contraction.  A  linear  impres- 
sion, running  from  one  of  these 
impressions  to  the  other,  and 
called  the  pallial  line,  marks  the  position  of  the  muscular 
margin  of  the  mantle.  It  is  generally  more  or  less  parallel  to 
the  margin  of  the  shell  ;  but  in  those  species  which  possess 
retractile  respiratory  siphons,  it  is  more  or  less  indented  at  its 
posterior  portion,  forming  what  is  called  Xhc pallial  suius ;  and  the 
depth  of  this  indentation  indicates  the  length  of  the  retractile  siphons. 


Fig.  1817. — Criseis  siilidatn. 


Fig.  iSiS.— Anatomy  of  a  Divalvc  Mollusc  (Mulra). 
.  shell  muscles  ;  b,  ganglia  ;  c,  heart ;  il,  liver  ;  e,  mouth  ;  f,  labial  tentacles ; 
g,    foot;  /;,    stomach;  i,    intestine;   /■,    anus;  m,    mantle;  K,    branchiffi ; 
o,  base  of  inhalent  siphon  ;  f,  base  of  exhalent  sipbon. 


732 


STVAL  VE  MOLL  USCS 


The  margins  of  the  shells  often  fit  each  other  exactly,  so  that  when 
the  valves  are  closed  no  space  is  left ;  but  in  many  cases  the  valves 
are  separated  at  one  or  both  ends.  The  shell  is  then  said  to  gape. 
As  the  ordinary  conformation  of  the  shells  of  the  Bivalve  Mollusca 
is  of  general  interest,  before  proceeding  we  may  here  give  a  brief 
e.xplanation  of  the  external  characters  of  a  Bivalve  shell,  and  for  this 
purpose  let  us  consult  the  Figs.  1821,  1822,  and  1823.  The  form 
varies, — that  of  Cythersa  we  select  as  an  example.  The  semi- 
circular lines  on  the  upper  surface  at  Fig.  1821  indicate  the  stages  of 
progressive  increase,   by  deposition   from   the   mantle   or   pallium, 


Fig.  1S19. — Pholadomya  alba. 

which  covers  the  animal.  The  line  from  A  to  P  gives  the  longitudinal 
measurement  of  the  shell ;  the  cross  line  indicates  its  height.  The 
rounded  and  more  or  less  elevated  apical  portion  is  termed  the 
Umbo,  and  anteriorly  but  below  this  is  a  depressed  space,  very 
conspicuous  in  some  shells,  called  the  Lunule ;  on  the  other  side  is 
the  elastic  ligament.  The  lunule,  umbo,  and  ligament,  are  included 
within  the  dorsal  or  superior  border ;  the  opposite  edge  is  termed 
the  ventral  or  inferior  border. 


Fig.  1S20.— Right  and  left  valves  of  Amphidesma,  showing  the  impressions  of 
the  adductor  muscles,  the  pallial  line,  and  the  pallial  sinus. 

Fig.  1822  is  the  same  shell,  its  dorsal  aspect  displaj'ed,  showing 
the  lunule,  the  umbo,  the  ligament,  and  the  thickness. 

Fig.  1823  exhibits  the  inside  of  the  shell,  showing  the  lunule,  the 
umbo,  the  hinge,  or  cardo,  and  the  ligament — the  anterior  muscular 
impression  or  mark  of  attachment — the  posterior  muscular  impres- 
sion, and  the  impression  made  by  the  edge  of  the  mantle,  or  pallial 
impression. 

It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  low  as  these  animals  appear  in  the  scale 
of  creation,  their  construction  is  fully  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  their 
existence,  and  here,  therefore,  we  see  another  of  the  innumerable 
instances  which  the  study  of  Natural  History  aifords  us  of  the  won- 
derful economy  of  Animal  Life,  and  of  the  Omniscience  of  its 
Creator. 

When  we  look  at  the  Animal  inclosed  in  this  shell,  we  find  that, 
although  it  certainly  possesses  no  distinct  head,  its  mouth  is  easily 
discernible  (Fig.  i8i8  a7ite,  showing  the  anatomy  of  a  Bivalve),  and 
is  always  turned  towards  that  part  of  the  shell  which  we  have  des- 
cribed as  the  front.  This  being  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body,  it 
follows  that  the  mantle  lobes  and  valves  are  placed  upon  its  sides  ; 
whilst  we  shall  find  that  the  contrary  prevails  amongst  the  Pallio- 
branchiafa,  in  which  the  valves  are  placed  upon  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  of  the  Anima.. 

Of  the  greatest  importance  to  its  existence  is  the  power  of  intro- 
ducing a  stream  of  water  into  the  cavity  of  the  mantle.  This  not 
only  serves  for  the  respiratory  process,  but  also  conveys  to  the 
creature  those  minute  particles  of  organic  matter  of  which  its  food 
consists.  In  the  species  with  a  closed  mantle,  two  apertures  are 
seen  at  the  posterior  portion  ;  of  these,  one  serves  for  the  admission, 
the  other  for  the  expulsion  of  the  water.  In  a  great  number  of 
Molluscs  the  margins  of  the  apertures  are  continued  into  tubes  or 
siphons  (Fig.  1818,  p.  731  ante,  showing  the  anatomy  of  a  Bivalve), 
which  in  the  burrowing  species  are  often  of  great  length.  In  some 
cases  the  two  siphons  are  united,  so  as  to  appear  like  a  double  tube. 
The  branchiae  usually  consist  of  a  pair  of  laminae  placed  on  each  side 
of  the  body,  and  permeated  from  edge  to  edge  by  minute  tubes. 
The  walls  of  these  tubes  are  composed  of  minutely  reticulated  blood- 
vessels, which  produce  a  texture  resembling  that  of  a  sieve,  through 
which  the  water  passes  into  the  tubes  by  which  the  gill-laminae  are 


permeated.  These  communicate  at  the  base  of  the  gill  with  an  anal 
chamber  placed  at  the  base  of  the  exhalent  siphon,  through  which 
the  water,  which  has  passed  over  the  gills,  and  served  for  the  pur- 
pose of  respiration,  is  conveyed  out  of  the  body.  The  interior  of  the 
siphons,  the  surface  of  the  gills,  and  that  of  the  mantle,  are  all 
covered  with  cilia  ;  and  it  is  by  the  action  of  these  microscopic 
organs  that  this  important  current  of  water  is  produced.  But  the 
sieve-like  structure  of  the  gill-laminae,  assisted  by  the  cilia  with 
which  they  are  clothed,  has  another  ofBce  to  perform  besides  that  of 
respiration  :  they  filter  the  water,  collecting  in  grooves  upon  their 
surface  all  the  minute  floating  particles  which  it  contained.  These 
are  carried  by  the  ciliary  action  to  the  edge  of  the  branchial  laminae, 
which  is  grooved,  and  thence  conveyed  to  the  mouth. 


Dor.iJ  or  .upoHo,  J, 


"•tf.,. 


Fig.  1S21. — Shell  of  the  Cyther^a. 


Fig.  1822.— The  Cyther^a. 


Fig.  1S23. — The  Cythersea. 

The  mouth  is  furnished  with  one  or  two  pair  of  labial  tentacles 
(Fig.  1818,  p.  731  ante,  anatomy  of  a  Bivalve),  but  is  not  armed 
with' teeth.  The  intestine  is  convoluted,  and  passes  through  the 
heart.  The  anus  opens  into  the  base  of  the  exhalent  siphon.  The 
liver  is  always  voluminous.  The  foot,  when  present,  is  usually  of  a 
tongue-like  form  ;  it  varies  greatly  in  size,  and  is  often  \yanting, 
especially  in  attached  shells.  In  some  cases  it  gives  rise  to  a 
byssus,  by  which  the  Animal  fixes  itself. 


THE   OYSTERS. 


Most  of  the  Bivalve  Moliusca  are  furnished  with  auditory  vesicles, 
inclosing  otolithes.  They  are  generally  placed  close  to  the  ganglion 
of  the  foot.  A  few  also  possess  eye-like  organs,  placed  round  the 
margins  of  the  mantle.  They  are  sometimes  very  numerous.  The 
sexes  are  separate  ;  the  eggs  are  received  amongst  the  branchia;  of 
the  parent,  and  retained  there  until  the  young  have  attained  a  con- 
siderable development. 

The  Lamcllibranchiafa  are  all  aquatic  Animals,  and  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  them  inhabit  the  sea.  A  few,  however,  are  found  in 
fresh  water. 

Sub-divisions. — The  classification  of  the  Bivalve  Molhtsca,  here 
adopted,  is  founded  partly  upon  that  given  by  Dr.  Gray,  in  the 
Antials  of  Natural  History.  That  gentleman  divides  the  Lamelli- 
branchiate  Mollusca  into  two  principal  groups  or  orders  (sub- 
classes. Gray),  distinguished  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  respira- 
tory siphons.  In  the  Asiphonata  {Asiphonophora,  Gray),  the 
mantle  lobes  are  free  for  the  greater  part  of  their  extent,  or  only 
united  at  the  back  so  as  to  inclose  a  separate  exhalent  aperture.  In 
the  SipJioiiata  [Sipkojwp/wra,  Gray),  on  the  contrary,  the  mantle 
lobes  are  more  or  less  united  ;  and  the  respiratory  orifices  are  both 
distinctly  separated,  and  frequently  produced  into  long  siphons. 

Order  I. — Asiphonata. 

The  Asiphonate  order  of  Bivalve  Mollusca  includes  some  of  the 
most  important  of  these  Animals  ;  the  Common  Oyster  and  the 
Edible  Mussel,  as  also  the  Pearl  Oyster,  belonging  to  it.  The  first 
is  the  type  of  the  tribe  Ostracca,  characterised  by  having  a  more  or 
less  orbicular  shell,  of  which  the  valves  are  unequal.  The  Animal 
reposes  on,  or  adheres  by,  the  more  convex  of  its  valves.  The 
mantle  of  the  Animal  is  open  throughout.  The  foot  is  sometimes 
entirely  absent ;  when  present,  it  is  small,  and  usually  furnished  with 
a  byssus.     There  is  only  a  single  adductor  muscle. 

The  Common  Oyster  {Ostrea  edulis),  which  has  always  been  a 
great  favourite  with  epicures,  both  ancient  and  modern,  is  found  in 
much  abundance  in  many  parts  of  our  seas.  They  live  in  vast  com- 
munities, called  "  oyster  banks,"  each  individual  being  attached,  by 
its  left  or  convex  valve,  to  rocks,  oft"  other  submarine  objects.  They 
spawn  in  May  and  June.  The  fry,  called  "  spat "  by  the  fishermen, 
consists  of  whitish  gelatinous  masses,  in  which  the  young  Oysters 


Fig.  1824. — The  Cock's-comb  Oyster. 

may  be  discerned.  These  soon  fix  themselves  by  the  shell  to  some 
object.  They  then  grow  rapidly  ;  but  they  are  said  to  occupy  four 
years  in  attaining  their  full  growth.  The  "native"  Oysters  are 
obtained  from  artificial  oyster  banks,  formed  by  transporting  the  fry 
to  shallow  tanks,  where  their  food  being  present  in  great  abundance, 


7.ri 

they  thrive  and  acquire  a  tine  flavour.  Many  other  species  of  the 
genus  Ostrea  arc  eaten  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  some 
places.  Oysters  grow  in  such  abundance,  attached  to  one  another  in 
masses,  that  they  have  been  found  as  effectual  in  preventing  the 
inroads  of  the  sea  as  the  coral  reefs  of  the  Pacific  Islands.  One  of 
the  most  singular  species  is  the  Ostrea  crista-galli,  or  Cock's-comb 
Oyster  (Fig.  1824),  inhabiting  the  Indian  Ocean. 

The  Oyster  is  of  great  importance  as  an  article  of  commerce  and 
food.  Of  late  years  their  price  has  enormously  increased.  In  1840, 
the  best  "  Natives"  were  sold  retail  at  fourpence  per  dozen,  and  in 
1879  the  lowest  price  for  them  ranged  from  two  shillings  to  three 
shillings  per  dozen.  In  the  latter  year  large  quantities  were  im- 
ported fresh  from  Portugal  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  attempts 
were  made  to  send  them  alive  to  England  from  the  United  States. 
These  were  successful  at  last,  and  immense  quaniuns  preserved  in 
tins  were  also  sent  to  us  from  that  country. 

The  breeding  months  of  the  Oyster  are  May,  June,  and  July,  and 
during  this  season  they  are  unfit  for  food.     When  the  spat  is'  ripe 
for  being  deposited,  it  becomes  attached  to  stones,  rocks,  sliclls 
&c.,  and  myriads  of  young  become  developed  at  the  same  time', 
forming  immense  beds,  for  the  supply  of  man. 

It  is,  however,  from  artificial  rather  than  from  natural  beds  that 
the  vast  quantities  are  obtained  which  supply  our  markets.  Brood 
or  young  Oysters  of  small  size  are  collected  and  transplanted  into 
favourable  spots,  which  are  strictly  protected,  and  become  a  pro- 
ductive source  of  profit  both  to  the  dredgers  and  the  public.  In 
parts  of  the  coast  where  no  particular  rights  exist,  the  beds  become 
much  thinned,  and  the  brood  is  often  carried  away  and  planted  in 
beds  under  protection,  where  they  multiply  in  abundance.  Newly- 
formed  beds  are  generally  kept  untouched  for  two  or  three  years,  to 
allow  for  the  growth  of  the  young.  Of  the  age  attained  by  the 
Oyster  little  is  known  ;  some  suppose  it  to  be  about  ten  years.  In 
three  days  after  the  spawn  is  deposited,  the  young  Oysters  are 
enclosed  in  a  shell  three  lines  broad  ;  in  six  months  the  shell  is  nearly 
as  large  as  a  half-crown  piece  ;  at  the  end  of  a  year  it  equals  a 
dollar.  After  a  certain  period  the  Mollusc  ceases  to  grow,  the  shell 
is  large  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  which'  becomes 
thin,  gradually  diminishes  in  size,  and  is  unfit  for  food.  Oysters, 
when  put  to  fatten  into  small  pits  in  the  saline  marshes,  with  the 
water  about  three  feet  deep,  and  abounding  with  marine  vegetable 
matter  and  animalcules,  assume  a  green  tinge  in  three  or  four  days, 
and  are  excellent.  The  Oysters  taken  at  Dieppe  are  of  a  greenish 
hue.     In  Spain  they  have  a  reddish  tinge. 

The  most  celebrated  beds  for  Native  Oysters  are  those  at  Milton  in 
Kent,  at  Colchester,  Maldon,  Whitstable,  Faversham,  and  Queens- 
borough.  Those  in  the  Swale  and  Medway  are  in  high  repute.  In 
Scotland  the  beds  in  the  Firth  of  Forth  and  in  Musselburgh  Bay 
afford  good  Oysters.  In  France  the  Oysters  from  Brittany  have  been 
long  famous  ;  those  from  Dieppe  are  very  excellent,  but  the  Oysters 
obtained  near  Cancalle,  a  town  not  far  from  St,  Malo,  have  the 
highest  reputation.  Dredging  for  Oysters  is  carried  on  generally  in 
fleets,  as  the  beds  lie  within  a  comparatively  small  space.  The 
boats  are  about  fifteen  feet  long,  and  usually  carry  two  men  and  a 
boy.^  The  dredge  is  about  eighteen  pounds'  weight,  but  it  is 
required  to  be  heavier  on  a  hard  that  a  soft  bottom.  Each  boat  is 
provided  with  two  dredges  ;  but  the  fishermen  complain  that  in  the 
early  part  of  the  season  too  great  a  number  of  dredges,  and  those  of 
too  heavy  a  kind,  are  used,  which  injure  the  beds,  so  that  the  latter 
part  of  the  season  is  rendered  less  profitable  than  the  commence- 
ment. 

A  fleet  of  Oyster-boats  putting  out  early  in  the  morning,  crossing 
and  intersecting  each  other's  course  as  they  advance  to  the  fishing- 
ground,  their  white  sails  glancing  in  the  sun,  and  anon  as  the  boats 
tack  about  becoming  shadowed,  and  again  brightly  glancing,  is  a 
most  interesting  spectacle. 

In  the  well-known  and  often  elegant  Pecfens,  or  Scallop-shells, 
the  foot  is  distinct  but  small,  and  is  sometimes  furnished  with  a 
byssus.  These  animals  are  very  abundant  in  some  localities,  espe- 
cially on  our  southern  shores,  as  at  Hastings,  &c.,  and  some  of 
the  larger  species,  such  as  the  Pecteti  via.xiinus  and  P.  opercularis 
(Fig.  1825)  of  our  own  shores,  are  regarded  as  excellent  eating. 
Another  species,  the  Common  Scallop,  or  St.  James's  Cockle,  which 
derives  its  last  name  from  having  been  adopted  in  the  middle  ages, 
as  the  distinctive  emblem  of  St.  James  of  Spain,  was  the  well-known 
badge  of  the  pilgrim  from  the  Holy  Land.  It  is  common  in  the  seas 
of  Europe  and  along  our  southern  coasts.  The  shell  is  unequivalve — 
the  upper  or  left  valve  being  flat,  the  under  or  right  valve  concave 
internally.  Each  valve  has  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  angulated  rays  ; 
those  of  the  lower  valve  are  sulcated  longitudinally.  It  occurs  in  a 
Fossil  state  in  Tertiary  deposits  in  Italy. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  Pectcns,  and  many  are  found  in 
a  fossil  state  in  the  Chalk  and  other  formations  in  England  and 
France. 

The  Pearl  Oyster. — The  tribe  of  Aviculacca  is  rendered  im- 
portant by  its  including  the  Pearl  Oyster  amongst  its  members. 
The  foot  in  this  tribe  is  small,  and  produces  a  byssus,  by  which  the 
Animal  attaches  itself  firmly  to  submarine  objects.      The   mantle 


734 


THE  MUSSEL  FAMIL  Y. 


lobes  are  free  ;  the  shell  usually  oblique  and  somewhat  triangular, 
with  the  valves  unequal,  and  the  hinge  usually  without  teeth. 

Most  of  the  shells  of  this  tribe  are  pearly  in  the  interior ;  and  as 
the  true  pearls  are  merely  morbid  growths,  they  may  all  produce 
pearls  of  various  qualities.  The  formation  of  pearis  is  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  irritating  substances,  such  as  grains  of  sand,  between 
the  mantle  and  the  shell.  ">The  irritation  causes  the  animal  to  cover 
the  obnoxious  object  with  layers  of  peari,  which  generally  attach 
the  foreign  body  to  the  interior  of  the  shell.     The  Chinese  produce 


Fig.  1S25. — The  Pcc.en  opitculans. 

pearls  artificially,  by  placing  substances  in  the  position  just  described, 
and  we  have  seen  some  shells,  to  the  interior  of  which  small  metal 
images  were  attached  in  this  manner  by  the  pearly  secretion.  The 
Pearl  Oyster  {Melcagrina  mai-garitifera,  Fig.  1826)  furnishes  the 
finest  pearls  ;  and  the  shells  are  also  imported  in  vast  quantities ; 
the  inner  layers,  known  as  "  IMother-of-Peari,"  being  used  for  a 
great  number  of  ornamental  purposes.  The  Pearl  Oyster  is  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans,  at  a  depth  of  about 


'V^' 


Fig.  1S26.— The  Pearl  Oyster  :  Young. 

twelve  fathoms,  whence  they  are  taken  by  divers.  The  most  cele- 
brated fisheries  known  to  the  ancients  were  those  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  Ceylon,  The  umbones  of  the  Avkiilacea  are  furnished 
with  dilated  lateral  plates,  called  ears ;  these  are  comparatively 
small  in  the  Pearl  Oyster;  but  in  the  curious  "Hammer  Oyster" 
{Malleus  vulgaris,  Fig.  1827),  an  inhabitant  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  the  shores  of  Australia,  these  appendages  attain  a  great  length 
and  give  the  shell  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  hammer  or  pick- 
axe. In  the  engraving,  a  represents  the  valves  of  this  Oyster ;  b  is 
an  inside  view,  showing  the  hinge  and  muscular  impression.  '  The 
Pinna,  already  referred  to.  also  belong  to  this  tribe. 

In  the  Arcacea  the  valves  of  the  shell  are  nearly  equal,  U'iually 
thick,  and  furnished  with  a  long  row  of  similar  teeth  at  the  hinge 
(Fig.  1828).  The  adductor  muscles  are  two  in  number,  and  the  foot 
is  large,  and  often  furnished  with  a  byssus,  and  the  mantle  lobes  are 


free  all  round.  The  Trigonlacca,  which  are  closely  allied  to  these, 
have  the  foot  long  and  bent,  serving  for  leaping,  and  the  hinge  fur- 
nished w^ith  but  few  teeth. 

The  Mussel  FAi^uLY—Myl/lacea. 

In  the  Mylilacea,  of  which  the  Common  Mussel  {Mytilus  edulis) 
is  a  well-known  type,  the  mantle  lobes  are  more  or  less  united, 
having  two  siphonal  apertures.  The  foot  is  furnished  with  a  byssus, 
by  which  the  Animal  attaches  itself,  and  the  shell  is  closed  by  two 
adductor  muscles,  of  which  the  anterior  is  very  small.  The  valves  of 
the  shell  are  equal,  generally  of  an  elongated  oval  form,  covered 


Fig.  1S27. — The  Hammer-headed  Oyster, 

with  a  thick  epidermis,  and  usually  pearly  inside.  Most  of  the 
Mylilacea  conceal  themselves  by  burrowing  into  various  substances. 
The  Lithodoini  perforate  solid  rock,  corals,  and  shells.  Some 
species  make  use  of  the  byssus  to  spin  themselves  a  sort  of  nest. 
They  are  generally  marine  ;  but  the  Common  Mussel  may  be  found 
in  fresh  water  ;  and  a  singular  shell,  the  Dreisse/ia  j)olymorJ>ha, 
which  has  recently  been  introduced  into  this  country  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Black  Sea,  is  always  an  inhabitant  of  fresh  water. 
The  following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  the  Common 
Mussel,  the  most  important  of  the  tribe. 


Fig.  1S2S. — The  Area  aiirkiilata. 

The  Common  mussel.— The  genus  Myiilus  is  abundant  on 
most  rocky  coasts,  where  facilities  are  afforded  for  the  species 
mooring  themselves  to  reefs,  stones,  and  other  substances  covered  at 
high  water,  but  left  dry  by  the  ebbing  of  the  tide.  To  the  byssus  we 
have  already  alluded,  and  explained  its  uses,  &c.  :  when  the  Mussel 
is  once  moored,  it  does  not,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowcrby, 
habitually  disengage  itself ;  though  he  admits  that  when  torn  from' 
its  anchorage  by  the  force  of  the  waves,  it  may  live  for  some  time 
without  being  in  any  manner  aflixed.  It  is  not  only  on  rocky  shores 
that  the  Mussel  abounds  ;  we  have  seen  beds  of  Mussels  on  low,  fl.Tt 


THE  MUSSEL   FAMILY. 


sandy,  or  pebbly  shores  ;  numbers,  as  we  observed,  were  totally  free  ; 
others  had  their  byssus  attached  to  small  shells,  little  pebbles,  or 
fragrnents  of  shells  mixed  with  sand,  small  stones,  and  the  like  ;  and 
certainly  whole  strata  of  these  shells  must  in  such  situations  suffer  a 
greater  or  less  change  of  place  with  an  ever-flowing  and  retiring- 
tide  on  a  low  flat  shore  left  dry  periodically  over  a  wide  extent  of 
surface. 


735 


Fig.  1S29. — The  Mussel,  partly  dissected. 

Of  the  figure  and  colour  of  the  shell  of  the  Common  Mussel  no- 
thing need  be  said  ;  but,  with  respect  to  the  Mollusc,  few  of  the 
thousands  who  have  eaten  it  know  anything  beyond  its  flavour.  In 
form  this  Mussel  resembles  that  of  its  shell :  the  lobes  of  the  mantle, 
adherent  at  their  edge  to  the  edge  of  the  shell,  are  continued  dor- 
sally  and  open  in  front,  but  are  united  posteriorly  in  a  single  point, 
so  as  to  form  a  short  siphon,  or  orifice,  for  the  passage  of  the  egesta. 
The  mouth,  in  a  sort;  of  hood  near  the  apex  of  the  shell,  is  rather 
large,  and  furnished  with  two  pair  of  soft  palps,  pointed,  and  fixed 
by  their  summit  only.  The  foot  is  slender,  carrying  at  its  base  and 
posteriorly  to  it  a  byssus,  known  as  the  "beard."  There  are  two 
adductor  muscles  :  one  at  the  apical  part  of  the  valves,  small ;  the 
other  situated  posteriorly,  large  and  rounded.  Fig.  1829  exhibits 
the  posterior  part  of  the  body  of  the  Common  Mussel,  displaying 
some  of  the  principal  organs  :  A,  right  lobe  of  the  mantle  ;  D,  por- 
tion of  intestinal  tube  ;  G,  branchia;  ;  H,  foot  ;  J,  posterior  muscle  ; 
L,  superior  tube ;  O,  heart ;  P,  ventricle  ;  Q,  auricle ;  X,  peri- 
cardium ;  b,  tentacles ;  d,  byssus  ;  e,  gland  of  the  byssus ;  g,  re- 
tractile muscle  of  the  foot ;  h,  valves  of  the  mantle  ;  i,  &g^  duct ;  j, 
excretory  orifice  ;  k,  internal  ditto. 

Fig.  1830  shows  the  form  of  the  eggs  of  the  Mussel,  magnified. 
Fig.  1831  shows  the  Mussel  lying  in  a  detached  valve  with  the 
byssus  ;  the  lobe  of  the  mantle  covering  the  exposed  surface  is 
slightly  contracted,  showing  the  branchiae. 

Fig.  1832  exhibits  the  Mussel,  as  seen 
when  the  shell  is  partially  open  ;  the  byssus 
may  be  observed  rising  from  the  root  of  the 
foot  posteriorly ;  the  commissure  of  the 
mantle  bounds  the  view  behind,  and  in  the 
space  intermediate  are  the  t^^  and  excre- 
tory ducts,  pointing  to  the  short  siphon  pro- 
duced by  the  commissure,  where  the  great 
adductor  muscle    is    also    apparent.     The 

#  Common  Mussel  is  known  to  produce  minute 

pearls,  called  seed-pearls;  and  we  have 
found  two  or  three  not  unfrequently  in  a 
single  shell.  Recently,  large  quantities  of 
pearls  have  been  obtained  from  Mussels  on 
the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 

We  need  not  say  tliat  the  Mussel  is  gre- 
garious, occurring  in  beds  which  cover  rocks 
and  stones,  generally  between  high  and  low 
water-mark,  but  often,  also,  at  a  greater  depth.  We  have  seen  shells 
clustered  over  by  these  Molluscs,  and  some  time  since  had  under 
our  immediate  notice  a  large  live  Lobster,  the  back  of  which  was 
densely  covered  by  a  phalanx  of  Mussels  in  serried  array. 

The  Mussel  is  extensively  used  as  food,  and  by  some  exceedingly 
relished.  It  is,  however,  eaten  by  many  persons  with  certain  mis- 
givings, arising  from  its  supposed  poisonous  properties  ;  some  re- 
garding the  byssus  as  deleterious,  while  others  have  supposed  that 
a  little  Crustacean  (Pea-crab),  which,  at  particular  seasons,  shelters 
itself  in  the  shell  of  the  Mussel,  is  the  source  of  mischief.  The  fact 
is  the  Mussel  is  by  no  means  digestible,  and  that  with  some  consti- 
tutions, or  some  temporary  conditions  of  the  digestive  organs,  it 
cannot  be  eaten  with  impunity.  Several  persons  may  partake  of  the 
same  dish,   and  yet  only  one  or  two  may  suffer  ill  effects — which 


Fig.  1S30.— The  Ova  of 
the  Mussel. 


manifest  themselves  m  flushings  of  the  face,  nausea,  derangement 
of  the  system,  often  followed  by  blotches,  rashes,  swellingsT  spas- 
modic asthma  and  other  unpleasant  symptoms.  Similar  effects 
occasionally  follow  a  hearty  meal  upon  Crab,  or  even  upon  Lobster  : 
a  phosphorescent  Lobster  is  poison. 

There  is  a  fine  species  of  Mussel  {Mytilus  choros,  Molina)  par- 
ticular y  noticed  by  Captain  King  among  the  Shell-fish  of  the  island 
of  Chiloc.  Molina,  he  says,  has  described  the  Choro  (mussel)  of 
Conception,  which  is  not  different  from  that  of  Chiloe.  It  is  often 
found  seven  or  eight  inches  long.     The  Fish  is  as  large  as  a  Goose's 


Fig.  1S31. — Mussel-shell  fully  opened. 

cg^,  and  of  a  very  rich  flavour  ;  there  are  two  kinds  ;  one  is  dark 
brown,  the  other  of  a  yellow  colour ;  but  the  last  is  mo.st  esteemed. 

There  is  another  sort  also,  much  larger  than  the  Choro,  but 
equally  delicate  and  good  ;  the  Fish  of  which  is  as  large  as  a  Swan's 
itgg  :  it  is  called  Cholgua,  but  as  the  shells  seem  to  be  of  the  same 
species,  perhaps  the  distinction  can  be  only  owing  to  size.  The 
manner  in  which  the  natives  of  these  islands,  both  Indians  and  dc- 
scendents  of  foreigners,  cook  Shell-fish  is  similar  to  that  used  for 
baking  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  coast  of 
Australia.  A  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground,  in  which  large  smooth 
stones  are  laid,  and  upon  them  a  fire  is  kindled.     When  they  are 


Fig.  1S32. — The  Mussel  partly  opened. 

sufiSciently  heated,  the  ashes  are  cleared  away,  the  Shell-fish  heaped 
upon  the  stones,  and  covered  first  with  leaves  or  straw,  and  then 
with  earth.  The  Fish  thus  baked  are  exceedingly  tender  and  good, 
and  this  mode  of  cooking  them  is  superior  to  any  other,  as  they 
retain  within  the  shell  all  their  own  juiciness. 

Some  of  the  Mytili  have  the  shell  striated  longitudinally  ;  as  the 
following : — 

The  Magellanic  Mytilus  {Mytilus  magenanicus).  In  this 
species  the  shell  is  violet  purple  above,  with  long  thick  undulated 
furrows  ;  inside  whitish  ;jlength  four  or  five  inches.  The  shells  of  old 
individuals  when  polished  are  very  brilliant,  and  deeply  tinted  with 
purple,  passing  into  rich  violet.  This  Mussel  is  found  in  the  Strait 
of  Magalhaens,  at  Chiloe,  &c.  Its  flesh  is  exceedingly  flavoured 
and  nutritious.  The  specimen  is  represented  as  attached  to  a  rock 
by  its  strong  byssus.     (See  Fig.  1833). 

The  next  genus  to  be  noticed  is  that  to  which  Dr.  Vanbeneden 
has  given  the  title  of  Dreissina  (from  M.  Dreissins  of  Mazeyk),  of 
which  the  type  is  the  Mytilus  polyinorphus  of  Pallas  and  Gmelin. 
To  this  genus  we  have  already  briefly  alluded  when  describing 
the  general  characters  of  the  AlytilacccB. 

In  this  genus  the  Mollusc  differs  from  that  of  Mytilus,  the  mantle 
being  far  more  extensively  closed,  with  three  apertures,  one  anterior 
and  two  posterior  ;  of  the  latter  the  terminal  aperture  is  larger  than 
the  other,  and  prolongs  itself  into  a  short  siphon,  destined  to  con- 
duct the  water  over  the  branchia; ;  the  other  aperture  is  placed  more 
dorsally  for  the  rejection  of  effete  matters  :  the  anterior  aperture  is 
for  the  passage  of  the  byssus  and  the  foot. 

The  shell  exhibits  three  muscular  impressions,  and  a  septum  in- 
ternally at  the  umbo.     The  shell  is  oi  a  more  recurved  form  than  we 


736 


THE   UNIO—THE  CLAM-SHELLS. 


find  g-enerally  in  Mytihis;    the  Mytilus  recurvus,   however,   of 
America,  is  regarded  by  Dr.  Vanbeneden  as  its  analogue. 

Dr.  Vanbeneden  records  two  recent  species,  Drcissina  -poly- 
morpha,  and  Dreissina  Africa?! a.  In  their  habits  these  species 
resemble  the  Marine  Mussels  ;  they  form  beds  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water,  adhering  to  stones,  shells,  rocks,  &c.  ;  numbers  are  often 
agglomerated  together  by  means  of  their  byssus  in  bunches,  or  to  a 
stone  or  shell,  which  they  entirely  shroud.  Their  extent  of  range  is 
considerable,  their  dispersion  resulting  from  the  circumstance  of 
their  attaching  themselves  to  logs  of  wood,  or  the  keels  of  vessels, 
by  means  of  which  they  are  transported  from  sea  to  sea. 


Fig.  1833. — The  Magellanic  Mytilus, 

Fig.  1834  represents  the  Drcissina  polymorpha.  A,  the  shell 
and  animal  of  the  natural  size,  with  the  siphon,  a,  e.xerted  ;  and  the 
more  dorsal  orifice  also  to  be  seen  at  b ;  c,  the  posterior  row  of 
papilte.  E,  a  view  of  the  ventral  side  :  «,  the  siphon  ;  i?i,  the  anterior 
row  of  papillse  ;  c,  the  languette.  C,  animal  in  the  left  valve  :  a,  the 
abdomen  ;  b,  the  languette  in  situ  ;  c,  the  branchia; ;  d,  the  dorsal 
orifice  ;  e,  the  aperture  of  the  byssus;  f,  the  byssus  turned  back. 

The  languette,  it  is  stated,   does  not  appear  to  be  the  true  foot 


Fig.  1834. — The  Dreissina  polymer pha, 

(which  is  muscular,  and  serves  as  an  organ  of  progression),  but 
forms  a  part  of  the  retractor  muscle  ;  and  possesses  no  character  in 
common  with  the  foot  except  its  mobility  ;  at  the  base  of  this  organ 
is  the  byssus — such  is  Dr.  Vanbeneden's  opinion.  If  this  be  not  the 
foot  modified,  then  the  Mollusc  is  destitute  of  such  an  organ  ;  but 
the  admission  that  it  seems  to  explore  bodies  with  this  languette, 
would  lead  us  to  think  that  it  was  at  least  a  substitute  for  that  organ, 
which  in  the  Mussel  is  more  developed. 
Fig.  1835  represents  the  Shell  of  Dreissina  folymorpha  ;  a,  the 


inside  view  of  the  valve,  showing  the  septum  at  the  umbo ;  b,  the 
valve  viewed  externally,  so  as  to  afford  a  good  idea  of  the  general 
outline. 

The  Dreissi?ia  -polyfnorpha  is  spread  extensively  through  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  inhabits  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  and  marshes,  all  being 
alike  congenial  abodes.  It  is  found  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Black 
Sea,  the  Baltic,  the  rivers  Danube,  Wolga,  and  Rhine  (abundantly), 
the  marshes  of  Syrmia,  the  canal  of  Belgium  (Canal  Guillaume),  the 
lakes  of  Holland,  the   Thames,  the  Lea,  the  Commercial   Docks, 


Fig.  1835. — Shell  of  the  Dreissina  polymorpha. 

London,  and  many  other  localities.  Mr.  J.  D.  C.  Sowerby,  we  are 
informed,  was  the  first  to  notice  the  occurrence  of  this  species  in  the 
Commercial  Docks  in  the  Thames.,  and  he  is  of  opinion  that  it  was 
originally  introduced  adherent  to  shipping,  logs  of  timber,  &c. 

Family. —  U'?tionacea. 

The  Unionacea  are  all  inhabitants  of  fresh  water.  They  have  an 
Equivalve  shell,  covered  with  a  smooth  epidermis,  and  lined  with 
pearly  matter.  The  margins  of  the  mantle  are  free  for  the  greater 
part  of  their  extent,  united  between  the  respiratory  apertures.  The 
foot  is  very  large,  and  the  adductor  muscles  are  two  in  number. 
Several  species  of  this  tribe  are  found  in  this  country  ;  one  of  the 
commonest  being  the  Uiiio  pictorum  (Fig.  1836),  so  called  from  its 


Fig.  1836. — The  Painters'  Mussel  (Unio pictortim), 

shell  having  been  formerly  much  used  by  painters  for  holding  their 
colours.  All  the  species  furnish  pearls  of  inferior  quality  ;  and  one 
species,  the  U.  7nargaritiferics,  an  inhabitant  of  the  mountain 
streams  of  this  country,  is  still  collected  for  the  sake  of  the  pearls 
which  it  contains.     The  American  species  are  very  numerous. 

Order  II.— Siphonata. 

The  first  tribe,  the  Chamacea,  includes  some  of  the  largest  of 
Molluscous  Animals  ;  the  animal  of  the  Tridacna  gigas  (or  Clam- 
shell) weighing  sometimes  as  much  as  twenty  pounds,  whilst  its 
valves  occasionally  attain  the  enormous  weight  of  five  hundred 
pounds.  Smaller  specimens  are  very  common  as  garden  ornaments. 
Another  well-known  species  in  the  Hippopus  niaculatiis  (Fig.  1837), 
which  is-*frequently  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  ornamental 
articles.  The  shell  in  the  Chamacea  is  very  thick,  usually  attached, 
and  the  hinge  has  one  or  two  teeth.  The  mantle  is  closed,  with 
separate  siphonal  openings,  but  with  the  siphons  obsolete  ;  the  foot 
very  small ;  and  there  are  two  adductor  muscles.  In  some  fossil 
species  the  valves  are  spiral.  The  recent  species  inhabit  the  seas  of 
warm  climates.  The  following  affords  a  more  particular  description 
of  the  Tridac?ta  species. 

The  Giant  Tridacna  {Tridacna  gigas).  Giant  Clam ;  la 
Tuilee,  or  le  Benitier,  of  the  French.  The  shell  is  of  huge  size, 
transversely  oval,  with  great  imbricato-squamous  ribs  ;  the  scales 
short,  arched,  and  lying  near  together ;  the  interstices  of  the  ribs 
not  striated. 

This  noble  species,  which  is  a  native  of  the  Indian  seas,  attains 
frequently  to  enormous  dimensions,  and  often  weighs  from  three  to 
four  hundred  pounds.  Linnffius  mentions  a  specimen  four  hundred 
and  ninety-eight  pounds  in  weight. 

A  MS.  in  the  library  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  gives  the  dimensions  of 
a  specimen  brought  from  Sumatra,  the  weight  of  which  amounted 
to  five  hundred  and  seven  pounds.  We  have  seen  a  sliell  of  large 
size  in  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  the  valves  of  which  are  used 


THE  COCKLE  FAMILY. 


737 


as  vessels  for  containing  holy  water  ;  it  was  presented  to  Francis 
I.,  by  the  republic  of  Venice.  An  immense  specimen  of  this  shell 
was  for  many  years  exhibited  at  a  fish-shop  in  London,  weighing  four 
hundred  pounds. 

Of  the  strength  of  the  cable,  or  byssus,  by  which  a  shell  of  the 
weight  of  four  hundred  pounds  moors  itself  to  the  rock  or  coral  reef, 
we  may  easily  form  some  idea,  and  also  of  the  force  with  which  the 


Fig.  1S37. — The  Ilippopus  macidatus. 

Animal  closes  its  valves  on  the  least  alarm.  Cuvier,  speaking  of 
the  byssus,  says,  "  it  is  very  sensibly  of  a  tendinous  quality,  and  is 
continued  uninterruptedly  by  muscular  fibres." 

The  Tridacna  gigas,  independently  of  its  magnitude  and  weight, 
is  a  very  beautiful  shell.  Its  inside  is  of  glossy  whiteness,  and  its 
general  form  is  very  picturesque  :  hence  it  is  sought  for  as  an  orna- 
ment for  grottoes,  for  flower-gardens,  and  as  a  basin  for  garden 
fountains,  or  for  the  reception  of  rills,  or  little  jets  d'eau,  which 
sparkle  in  its  stainless  hollow. 


Fig.  1838. — The  Giant  Tridacna ;  a,  inside  ;  b,  outside. 

The  naturalists  of  the  Astrolabe  found  this  species  at  Carteret 
Harbour,  New  Ireland.  The  natives  brought  many  very  large  speci- 
mens on  board,  and  ate  the  Molluscs,  which  were  abandoned  to 
them,  with  the  utmost  relish,  and  without  being  previously  cooked. 
They  found  the  species  again  at  Tongataboo,  at  the  Moluccas,  at 
Timor,  and  at  Wagiou.  It  appeared  to  prefer  rather  shallow  water. 
It  would  seem  that  there  are  several  species,  and  some  of  large  size, 
which  have  been  confounded  with  Tridaciia  gigas :  certain  small 
species,  moreover,  have  been  regarded  as  the  young. 

The  Spotted  Tridacna  [Tr/dacua  hippo j)us).  Hippopus 
macula  fits,  Lamarck;  Tridacna  tnaculata,  Quoy ;  Chama 
hippopiis,  Linnajus.  This  beautiful  shell,  often  used  for  ornamental 
purposes,  is  a  native  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  was  found  by  the 
naturalists  of  the  Astrolabe  at  Carteret  Harbour,  New  Ireland  ;  and 
also  at  Vanikoro,  where  they  collected  specimens  left  dry  on  the 
reefs.  It  is  solid  and  heav)',  irregularly  ribbed,  and  subsquamous. 
Externally  it  is  white,  spotted  with  purplish  red,  especially  about  the 
middle  of  the  valves  and  towards  the  umbones  ;  the  luriulo  is  cordate 
and  oblique,  of  a  yellow  tint,  with  its  edge  on  each  valve  toothed. 
The  valves  internally  are  of  the  purest  white. 


It  appears  to  be  very  doubtful  whether  any  fossil  species  of 
Tridacna  exists.  M.  Deshayes,  in  his  Tables,  records  two  fossil 
and  seven  recent ;  in  his  last  edition  of  Lamarck  he  reduces  the 
number  of  fossil  species  toone     Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  in  his  "Genera," 


Fig.  1839. — The  Spoiled  Tridacna. 

states  that  Tridactia  is  only  found  recent,  and  in  Tropical  seas,  viz., 
those  of  India  and  Australia. 

The  Cockle  VKWiiN.—Cardiacea. 

The  Cardiacea  have  a  thick,  closed,  Equivalve  shell,  with  the 
umbones  usually  bent  round,  so  that  the  shell,  when  seen  from  either 
extremity,  presents  a  more  or  less  cordate  appearance  (Fig.  1840). 
The  hinge  teeth  are  strong,  from  one  to  three  in  each  valve  ;  and 
there  are  usually  one  or  two  smaller  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  hinge. 
The  mantle  lobes  are  closed,  the  foot  large  and  strong,  and  the 
siphons  usually  short,  although  in  some  species  they  are  as  long  as 
in  the  following  tribe,  and  the  pallial  in  these  cases  presents  a  slight 
sinuosity.     The  Animal  possesses  two  adductor  muscles. 


Fig.  1S40. — The  Carditim  jiinoiiis. 

Many  of  these  shells  (of  which  the  Common  Cockle,  Cardiinn 
ediclc,  is  a  well-known  example)  are  elegantly  marked  with  radiating 
ribs,  running  from  the  umbones  to  the  free  margins ;  and  in  some 
cases  the  ribs  are  ornamented  with  spines  of  various  and  singular 
forms.  They  are  generally  active  Animals,  springing  to  a  consider- 
able height  by  means  of  the  strong,  bent  foot.  They  usually  con- 
ceal themselves  by  burrowing  in  the  sand  or  mud.  In  a  few  species, 
the  foot  forms  a  creeping  disc.  The  Common  Cockle  is  eaten,  .and 
in  some  localities  forms  an  important  article  of  food  ;  but  it  has  but 
little  to  recommend  it.  Fig.  1841  shows  the  characters  of  Uie  valves 
and  hinge  of  the  Cardium  elongatuin. 

SB 


738 


THE  COCKLE  FAMILY. 


The  Vcncracea. 

The  Vcj7eracca,  forming  the  i5rst  tribe  of  the  Bivalve  Molluscs, 
with  elongated  siphons  and  a  distinct  pallial  sinus,  resemble  the 
t-aratacea  in  the  form  of  the  shell  and  general  structure.  The  foot 
IS  usual  y  compressed,  broad,  and  somewhat  triangular,  servin<y 
principally  as  an  instrument  for  burrowing.  The  Vencracea  are 
distinguished  from  the  following  tribe  by  having  the  respiratory 
siphons  separate  ;  at  all  events,  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length. 


Fig.  1841. — The  Cardiiim  don^a/tim. 

This_  group  includes  many  exceedingly  elegant  shells,  the  exotic 
species  especially  being  often  adorned  with  a  most  charming  variety 
01  colour.    Some  species  are  also  ornamented  with  spines  (Fig.  184-') 
They  generally  conceal  themselves  by  burrowing,  sometimes  into  the 


Fig.  1842.— The  Spined  Cytherea. 

sand  and  mud  of  the  sea-bottom,  and  sometimes  into  solid  rock 
The  principal  agent  in  these  operations  is  the  foot. 

The  Pholadacea. 

The  Pholadacea  are  distinguished  from  the  precedin.o-  tribe  by 
having  the  siphonal  tubes  united  through  the  whole  or  the  greater 
part  of  their  length  (Fig.  1843).  Like  the  Vaieracca,  they  are  all 
burrowing  Animals  ;  and  the  majority  select  hard  substances,  such 
as  rock,  wood,  &c.,  for  the  construction  of  their  burrows.  The'shells 
are  usually  of  an  elongated  form,  gaping  at  one  or  both  ends.  They 
are  closed  by  two  adductor  muscles.  The  foot  is  large  and  powerful 
and  the  mantle  is  closed.  The  type  ofthe  group  is  the  genus  ^//o/«v' 
specimens  of  which  are  common  in  the  chalk  rocks  of  the  south  of 
England.  They  are  furnished  with  accessory  plates  on  the  back  for 
the  protection  of  the  dorsal  muscles.  Another  shell  belonging  to 
this  tribe  is  the  Solen,  or  Razor-shell,  which  burrows  to  a  consider- 
able depth  in  the  sand.  They  are  drawn  from  their  burrows  by 
means  ofa  bent  iron,  and  are  very  good  eating.     One  of  the  most 


celebrated  species  is  the  Tcycdo  navalis,  or  Ship-worm,  an  animal 
which  attains  a  length  of  one  or  two  feet,  and  often  does  immense 
damage  by  burrowing  into  timber.  In  the  years  1731  and  1732  it 
excited  great  alarm  in  Holland,  by  borinc  into  the  pi'les  which  ass'ist 
m  protecting  that  country  from  the  inroads  of  the  sea.  It  is  a  soft 
cylindrical,  and  somewhat  worm-like  animal,  furnished  with  a  pair 
of  small  shells  at  its  anterior  extremity.  A  still  more  sin^rular 
animal,  belonging  to  this  tribe,  is  the  AsJ>crginii7n,  ox\Ma.\txm'r. 
pot  shell  (Fig.  1844,  a),  which  is  inclosed  in  a  calcareous  tube,  in  the 


Fig.  1843. — The  Panopaa  austral  is. 

anterior  part  of  which  the  two  minute  valves  are  imbedded.  The 
anterior  extremity  of  the  tube  is  closed  by  a  singular  perforated  disc 
(Fig.  1844,  l>),  and  the  opposite  end  is  usually  ornamented  with 
several  ruffle-like  bands. 

The  following  gives  a  more  detailed  description  of  this  tribe  • 
which,  to  builders  of  piers  and  other  wooden  works,  as  well  as  of 
wooden  ships,  will  be  of  interest. 


Fig.  1S44. — The  Watering-pot  shell ;  a,  the  shell  complete  ;  i,  the 
perforated  disc. 

The  family  Pholada:  comprises  a  group  of  Molluscs,  the  boring 
habits  of  which  have  been  long  known  ;  they  penetrate  wood,  hard 
clay,  chalk,  and  rocks,  and  devastate  the  labours  of  man ;  they 
attack  the  hulls  of  ships,  submarine  piles,  the  foundations  of  piers 
and  breakwaters,  and  consequently  become  objects  of  anxious  inte- 
rest ;  they  force  themselves  upon  our  attention  by  their  insidious  but 
extensive  depredations,  the  results  of  which  not  only  involve  the  loss 
of  property,  but  often  also  of  life. 

In  the  genus  Pholas  the  shell  is  delicate,  white,  rather  transparent, 
sometimes  covered  with  a  thin  epidermis,  of  an  oval  elongated 
figure,  and  gaping  at  both  extremities  ;  the  umbones  are  hidden  by 
a  callosity ;  the  hinge  is  toothless  and  without  a  true  ligament ;  a 
flat  re-curved  spoon-shape  process,  enlarged  at  its  extremity,  ele- 
vates itself  within  each  valve  below  the  umbo.  The  muscular 
impressions  are  very  distant,  the  posterior  one  is  large  and  distinct, 
the  anterior  small,  and  often  scarcely  apparent ;  the  pallial  mark  is 
deeply  furrowed  posteriorly.  To  the  shell  thus  characterised  are 
often  added  certain  accessory  pieces ;  sometimes  a  calcareous  tube 
envelopes  all  the  parts,  leaving  an  aperture  posteriorly. 

The  Mollusc,  thus  protected,  is  generally  elongated,  with  the 
mantle  reflected  on  the  dorsal  part,  for  the  purpose  of  tying  together 
the  valves  and  the  accessory  pieces.  The  foot  is  short,  oblong,  and 
flattened.  The  siphons  are  elongated  and  united  into  a  single  very 
extensible  and  dilatable  tube.  The  mouth  is  small,  with  trifling 
labial  appenflages.  The  branchice  are  elongated  and  narrow,  and 
prolonged  into  the  inferior  siphon. 

The  number  and  disposition  of  the  accessory  pieces  in  the  shell  of 


THE  BORING  MOLLUSCS. 


739 


Pholas  vary  considerably ;  and  it  would  appear  that  the  Animal,  as 
it  bores  its  way,  sometimes  deposits  a  calcareous  tubular  lining-  on 
the  internal  wall  of  the  cavity  it  inhabits.  A  more  clear  idea  of  the 
forms  of  the  animal  and  shell  of  Fholus  will  be  conceived  by  referring 
to  the  following  illustrations. 

Fig.  1845  represents  the  Animal  and  shell  of  Pholas  dactylus ; 
the  lower  or  ventral  part  is  presented  to  the  spectator,  showing  the 
gape  of  the  valves — a  is  the  mantle,  open  anteriorly  for  the  protru- 
sion of  the  foot ;  b,  the  foot ;  c,  the  double  siphon,  emerging  from 
the  posterior  aperture  of  the  shell,  d  d. 


Fig.  1845. — The  Pholas  dactylus. 

Fig.  1846  represents  the  shell  of  Pholas  dactylus,  with  its  acces- 
sory valves  visible.  A,  the  accessory  valves  ;  a,  the  anterior  pair ; 
b,  the  central  piece  ;  c,  the  posterior  piece.  B  is  an  exterior  lateral 
view  of  the  shell,  with  the  accessory  valves  in  situ.  C  is  an  internal 
view  of  one  of  the  valves  ;  a,  the  internal  spoon-shaped  process, 
under  the  umbo. 


Fig.  1S46.— The  riwlas  dactylus. 

Mr.  Sowerby,  in  reference  to  the  genus  Pholas,  says,  "We 
believe  that  all  the  thells  of  this  genus  are  furnished  with  a  greater 
or  less  number  of  accessory  valves,  which  appear  to  be  caused  by  the 
deposition  of  shelly  matter  (within  the  epidermis  and  connected  with 
the  valves  by  that  membrane),  wherever  such  valves  were  necessary 
for  the  security  of  the  inmate. 

,. "  '^'^^y  ^'"'^  consequently  very  various  in  form,  and  placed  in 
different  situations  in  the  different  species,  though  in  most  cases 
they  are  placed  near  the  hinge,  and  have  even  been  considered  to  be 
substitutes,  in  these  shells,  for  the  permanent  ligament  of  other 
bivalves.  We  must,  for  the  present,  withhold  our  assent  from  this 
opinion,  because,  on  account  of  the  situation  in  which  they  live   the 


animals  inhabiting  these  shells  can  have  very  little  occasion  to  open 
their  valves  ;  whether  or  not  there  is  any  permanent  ligament  in  this 
genus,  as  we  have  never  observed  the  animal  alive,  we  cannot  under- 
take to  determine.  Turton  says  it  has  none  ;  Lamarck,  on  the  con- 
trary, speaks  of  the  accessory  valves  covering  and  hiding  the  liga- 
ment. As  far  as  we  can  form  an  opinion  from  dried  specimens,  we 
cannot  consider  the  substance  to  which  these  valves  arc  attached  as 
the  ligament,  but  as  part  of  the  adductor  muscle  ;  nevertheless,  we 
think  we  can,  in  some  species,  perceive  a  very  small  internal  liga- 
ment, attached  to  two  unequally-sized  small  curved  teeth,  one  in 
each  valve,  placed  in  the  same  situation  as  the  hinge-teeth  of  com- 
mon bivalves."  He  adds,  "  The  principal  differences  between 
Pholas  and  Teredo  consist  in  the  latter  forming  a  shelly  tube  behind 
its  valves,  and  in  its  being  destitute  of  accessory  valves  ;  moreover, 
the  two  valves  of  the  latter,  when  closed,  are  nearly  globular." 

The  same  Conchologist  makes  the  following  valuable  remarks,  in 
an  introduction  to  the  description  of  eleven  new  species  brought  by 
Mr.  Cuming,  chiefly  from  the  western  parts  of  South  America  and 
the  islands  of  the  South  Pacific  Ocean: — "  The  utmost  caution,"  he 
says,  "  is  necessary  in  the  examination  and  description  of  the  various 
sorts  of  Pholadcs,  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  difference  in  the 
form  of  the  same  species,  in  different  stages  of  growth.  The  addi- 
tion of  accessory  valves,  also,  as  they  increase  in  age,  must  be  care- 
fully observed,  in  order  to  guard  against  too  implicit  a  confidence  in 
their  number  and  form.  And  though  I  might  be  considered  guilty 
of  asserting  a  truism  by  stating  that  the  difference  in  size  of  diii'ercnt 
individuals  of  the  same  species  may,  and  sometimes  does,  mislead 
the  tyro  in  the  science  of  Malacology,  lest  such  difference  should 
mislead  the  adept  also,  let  him,  too,  proceed  cautiously  ;  and  when 
he  finds  a  full-grown  shell  of  half  an  inch  in  length,  agreeing  per- 
fectly in  proportions  and  characters  with  another  of  two  inches  long, 
let  him  not  conclude  that  it  is  a  distinct  species  ;  but  if  he  can  find  no 
other  difterence  except  that  which  exists  in  their  dimensions,  let  him 
consider  the  one  a  giant,  the  other  a  dwarf.  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  among  the  Cyprczcc  it  is  not  uncommon  to  observe  young  shells 
of  three  inches  in  length,  and  fully  grown  ones  of  the  same  sort  only 
an  inch  in  length.  Likewise  of  the  British  Pholades  there  are  indi- 
viduals quite  in  a  young  state  of  two  inches  in  length,  and  perfectly 
formed  shells  of  the  same  species  not  more  than  half  an  inch  long. 
For  instance,  in  demonstration  I  need  only  refer  to  the  Pholas 
fapyraceus,  so  abundant  at  Torquay,  of  which  the  young  shells  have 
been  considered  by  many  as  a  distinct  species,  and  have  been  named 
by  Dr.  Turton  Ph.  lamcllosus.  This  varies  in  size  exceedingly,  so 
that  it  may  be  obtained  both  in  an  incomplete  and  young  state,  and 
in  a  fully  grown  condition,  from  half  an  inch  to  nearly  two  inches  in 
length.  The  circumstance  of  its  having  rarely  occurred  in  an  in- 
termediate state  of  growth,  when  the  anterior  opening  is  only  partly 
closed,  and  the  accessory  valves  only  partly  formed,  led  Dr.  Turton 
and  others  to  persist  in  regarding  the  young  and  old  as  two  distinct 
species." 

The  genus  Pholas  is  very  widely  distributed  ;  and  all  the  species 
manifest  the  same  boring  habits  as  those  in  our  own,  and  in  the 
adjacent  coasts.  Pieces  of  hard  chalk,  completely  mined  in  all 
directions  with  Pholades,  may  be  picked  up  near  Ramsgate,  on  the 
coast  of  Kent,  where  other  masses  of  the  same  character  are  seen  in 
abundance,  and  filled  with  the  empty  and  dead  shells  of  the  borers. 
Some  of  Mr.  Cuming's  specimens  were  in  soft  stone,  others  in  hard 
stones,  others  again  in  limestone,  hard  clay,  decayed  wood,  and  the 
trunks  of  trees  at  low  water.  With  respect  to  the  means  by  which 
these  creatures  effect  their  boring  operations,  many  opinions  have 
been  entertained.  Some  have  attributed  the  perforations  to  a  rota- 
tory motion  of  the  shell,  by  which  the  stone  or  chalk  is,  as  it  were, 
rasped  away.  But  as  the  shells  fit  the  cavities  in  which  they  are 
lodged,  this  opinion  has  no  support ;  besides,  one  would  think  that 
the  extremely  delicate  valves  of  Pholas  would  themselves  become 
worn  down  by  such  a  process  sooner  than  rock.  Others,  again,  have 
attributed  it  to  the  action  of  currents  of  water  produced  by  the  vibra- 
tile  cilia  of  the  animal,  and  directed  so  as  to  act  anteriorly  to  the 
animal,  which  presses  onwards  as  the  currents  wear  down  the  stone. 
It  is  possible  to  conceive  that  such  currents  may  take  an  effect  on 
soft  materials  of  which  the  particles  become  readily  disintegrated  ; 
but  when  we  see  solid  blocks  of  timber,  as  oak,  riddled  in  every 
direction,  we  cannot  but  hesitate  as  to  the  part  which  ciliary  currents 
take  in  such  perforations.  The  constituent  particles  of  oak  are,  one 
would  think,  too  adherent  to  yield  to  minute  ciliary  currents  of  water, 
the  force  of  which  must  be  very  trifling.  Others,  again,  have 
attributed  the  whole  to  the  agency  of  some  chemical  solvent  poured 
out  by  the  Mollusc.  To  say  nothing  of  the  danger  to  which  its  own 
shell  would  be  exposed,  this  theory  is  discountenanced  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  rocks  or  stones  bored  are  of  different  natures,  as 
limestone,  clays,  sandstones,  &c. ,  to  say  nothing  of  wood.  Now 
we  can  scarcely  suppose  that  the  same  chemical  agent  will  dissolve 
one  and  all  of  these  substances  ;  unless,  indeed,  w-e  are  to  suppose 
that  each  species  bores  only  into  one  given  material,  a  circumstance 
which  we  do  not  know  there  is  any  ground  for  supposing,  though 
perhaps  some,  as  the  delicate  Pholas  cono'idcs  may  be  oftener  found 
in  hard  wood  than  in  stone. 


740 


THE  BORING  MOLLUSCS. 


Mr.  Sowerby,  in  his  notice  of  the  Pholas  aaiminata,  found  at 
Panama  in  argillaceous  limestone,  at  low  water,  says,  "  This  species 
demonstrates  a  fact  of  considerable  importance  to  geologists.  It  is 
in  argillaceous  limestone,  very  much  resembling  lias,  and  in  forming 
the  cavity  in  which  it  resides,  it  has,  by  such  a  chemical  process  as 
frequently  takes  place,  absorbed  a  much  greater  quantity  of  the  rock 
than  could  be  retained  or  converted.  This  is  again  deposited  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  cavky,  and  thus  the  rock  is  recomposed."  We 
think  this  fact  equally  as  valuable  to  the  zoologist  as  to  the  geologist. 
It  seems  to  indicate  that  it  is  by  absorption  that  the  tunnel  is  bored. 
May  not  the  broad  foot,  we  would  ask,  be  a  powerful  organ  of 
absorption,  and  be  in  constant  application,  like  a  sucker  to  the  end 
of  the  tunnel,  throwing  into  the  system  the  matter  taken  up,  and 
which  is  again  thrown  out  tlirough  the  upper  of  the  two  siphons  ;  or, 
as  in  the  instance  oi Pholas  aciinu'nata,  redeposited  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  cavity,  so  as  to  recompose  the  rock  as  the  Mollusc  pushes, 
onwards  ?  And  further,  may  not  the  tube  lining  the  internal  wall  of 
the  cavity,  as  observed  by  M.  des  Moulins  in  the'instance  of  the  Fossil 
Pholades  from  Merignac,  have  been  produced  by  the  excreted 
materials  previously  absorbed  ?  According  to  this  view,  the  foot 
would  serve  a  double  purpose  ;  adherent  to  the  extremity  of  the 
tunnel,  it  would  carry  on  the  excavation  by  absorption,  and  draw  the 
Animal  forwards,  in  accordance  with  the  rapidity  of  the  process. 

A  better  idea  than  mere  words  will  convey  of  the  destructive 
labours  of  the  Pholas,  may  be  conceived  by  the  annexed  illustrations. 

Fig.   1847  represents  the  Pho/as  striatus,  in  wood  ;  the  mass  is 


Fig.  1S47. — The  Pholas  striatus,  in  wood. 

completely  riddled  by  the  animals,  to  the  shape  of  which  it  will  be 
seen  the  cavities  are  precisely  fitted.  Fig.  1848  shows  a  block  of 
stone  perforated  by  the  Pholas  dactylus. 

The  Fossil  species  of  Pholas  3.x&xzx&  ;  they  occur  in  strata  below 
the  chalk,  and  also  in  Tertiary  formations. 


Fig.  1S48. — The  Pholas  dactylus,  in  stone. 

Fig.  1849  represents  the  animal  of  Teredo  fiavalls  out  of  the  shell. 
A.  In  this  the  opercula  are  wanting  and  the  tubes  retracted  ;  B.  In 
this  specimen  the  opercula  are  in  their  situation  :  a  a,  the  boring- 
shells  ;  b,  the  proboscis  ;  c,  the  mouth  ;  d  d,  the  contents  of  the 
abdomen,  seen  through  the  transparent  external  covering  ;  e  e,  the 
DranchiiE,  seen  in  the  same  manner. 

Fig.  1850  represents  the  tube  aiid  shell  of  'Teredo  navalis  :  a,  the 


tube  with  the  valves  in  their  natural  position  at  its  anterior  extremity  • 
i  and  c,  two  views  of  valves;  d,  the  two  tubular  siphons  of  the  animal 
protruded. 

Fig.  1851   represents  a  block  of  wood  perforated  by   the   Teredo 
navalis. 


Fig.  1849.— The  Teredo  navalis,  out  of  shell. 

The  Teredo  navalis  has  been  found  at  depths  varying  from  the 
surface  to  ten  fathoms  ;  though  unfortunately  now  so  common  in  our 
seas,  this  terrible  scourge  is  said  to  have  been  originally  brou^-ht  by 
ships  from  warmer  climates.  All  sub-marine  wo'od-work,  su'ch  as 
the  piles  of  piers,  flood-gates,  and  the  like,  are  soon  riddled  by  it, 
often  in  spite  of  every  precaution. 

The  rapidity  with  which  it  commits  its  ravages  is  astonishing- •  a 
piece  of  deal  after  forty  days  submersion  has  been  found  completely 


Fig.  1S50. — Shell  and  Tube  of  Teredo  navalis. 

riddled  by  these  Animals,  some  of  which  had  attained  to  a  con- 
siderable size  even  in  that  short  space  of  time.  Montagu  obtained 
a  number  of  these  animals  in  piles  from  the  Dockyard  at  Plymouth, 
which  were  taken  up  to  be  replaced  with  new,  although  they  had  not 
been  above  four  or  five  years  under  water,  and  were  sound  solid  oak 


Fig-  1851. — Wood  perforated  by  Teredo  navalis. 

when  driven.  The  most  effectual  way  to  preserve  wood  fiom  the 
attacks  of  these  "  worms  "  is  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  surface  ex- 
posed to  their  depredations  with  short  broad-headed  nails,  set  as 
closely  together  as  possible.  The  action  of  the  salt-water  on  the 
iron  produces  a  coating  of  rust,  which  is  said  to  be  superior  in 
durability  and  effect  to  the  copper  sheathing  with  which  the  hulls 
of  vessels  ate  covered  underneath.    But  the  substitution  of  ii"on  for 


THE  BORING  MOLLUSCS. 


74t 


building  vessels,  piers,  &c.,  has  to  a  large  extent  rendered  the  evil 
effects  of  the  Tcrcdi)  nugatory. 

It  has  been  a  question  whether  the  Teredo  navalis  derives  nutri- 
ment from  the  particles  of  the  wood  in  which  it  drives  it  galleries,  or 
the  contrary.  Probably  it  docs  not,  and  perhaps  the  object  of  its 
boring  is  only  to  secure  a  proper  habitation.  It  is,  we  believe,  ascer- 
tained that  an  impalpable  vegetable  sawdust  is  found  in  the  intes- 
tines, but  unchanged  by  the  process  of  digestion  ;  and  besides,  at  a 
certain  period  of  existence,  the  Animal  closes  the  tube  and  valves 
anteriorly,  and  ceases  to  bore,  deriving  its  nutriment  through  one  of 
the  open  siphons,  from  the  animal  matters  with  which  the  sea-water 
is  replete.  Sir  E.  Home  suggests  that,  as  the  alimentary  canal  is 
straight  and  simple,  the  sawdust  may  be  needful  in  order  to  retard 
the  progress  of  the  food,  that  the  complete  digestion  of  the  latter 
may  be  effected.     This,  however,  is  a  mere  theory. 

A  gigantic  Teredo,  Teredo  gigaiifea,  is  found  in  the  Indian  Seas, 
but  fortunately  it  does  not  bore  into  wood,  its  habitation  being  per- 
forated in  deep  beds  of  hardened  mud.  This  species,  which  attains 
the  length  of  six  feet,  and  perhaps  much  more,  was  first  figured  by 
Rumphius.  His  specimens  were  found  in  shallow  water  among 
mangrove-trees.  In  1805,  Captain  Maxwell,  of  the  Calcutta,  East 
Indiaman,  gave  to  Sir  Everard  Home  a  specimen  of  this  singular 
shell  or  tubular  envelope,  five  feet  long,  though  imperfect  at  both 
extremities.  By  some  scientific  men  this  was  considered  as  a  hollow 
stalactite,  but  Sir  Joseph  Banks  regarded  it  as  a  shell,  and  chemical 
analysis  confirmed  the  correctness  of  his  opinion. 

Mr.  Grifliths  relates  that  a  short  time  after  a  very  violent  earth- 
quake which  occurred  in  the  year  1797,  at  Sumatra,  and  produced  a 
most  tremendous  inundation  of  the  sea,  spreading  desolation  around 
and  causing  the  loss  of  many  lives,  these  shells  were  procured  in  a 
small  bay  with  a  muddy  bottom,  surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  on  the 
island  of  Battoo.  On  the  recession  of  the  sea  after  the  extraordinary 
inundation,  they  were  observed  protruding  from  a  bank  of  slightly  in- 
durated mud,  and  two  or  three  specimens  were  brought  to  Mr. 
Griffiths,  by  the  master  of  a  trading  boat.  Mr.  Griffiths  then  sent 
one  of  his  ser\'ants,  a  Papooa  Coffree,  who  was  an  excellent  diver, 
to  procure  others.  This  man  stated  that  he  had  found  the  shells  in 
the  bay  already  mentioned,  and  also  in  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  sticking 
out  of  hard  mud  mixed  with  sand  and  small  stones;  they  protruded 
to  the  extent  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  and  were  from  one  to  three 
fathoms  under  water. 

Mr.  Griffiths  was  assured  that  the  Animal  throws  out  tentacula 
from  the  two  apertures  of  the  apex  of  the  shell,  resembling  small 
Acthiics  (Sea  Anemones),  and  that  the 
shell  was  filled  with  soft  gelatinous  flesh, 
similar  to  that  of  the  Teredo  tiavalis  ; 
this,  however,  being  putrid,  was  washed 
out  by  the  men  who  collected  the  speci- 
mens. All  the  shells  were  more  or  less 
mutilated,  probably  by  the  action  of  the 
waves,  which  had  torn  up  large  masses 
of  Coral  and  Madrepore,  during  the 
continuance  of  the  earthquake.  The 
longest  Mr.  Griffiths  procured  was  five 
feet  four  inches  ;  some  had  the  anterior 
extremity,  others  the  posterior  extremity 
broken.  Most  of  the  shells  had  the 
small  Cock's-comb  Oyster  and  various 
Serpute  adhering  to  their  posterior  ex- 
tremity for  more  than  a  foot,  proving 
that  during  their  existence  this  part  of 
the  shell  had  protruded  above  the  mud 
if^  in    which   the    remainder    was     buried. 

fci^^  The  specimens  were  milk-white  extern- 
'  ^  ally,  and  tinged  with  yellow  within  ;  and 
the  large  or  buried  end  was  completely 
closed,  and  had  a  rounded  appearance. 
The  substance  of  the  shell  was  com- 
posed of  layers  having  a  fibrous  and 
radiated  appearance,  covered  externally 
with  a  pure  white  crust.  Many  speci- 
mens were  nearly  straight,  others 
more  or  less  contorted.  Fig.  1852  is 
the  Teredo  gigantca,  as  figured  by 
Mr.  Grifliths.  A,  the  small  or  upper 
end,  protruding  from  the  mud ;  the  ex- 
ternal covering  is  broken  away,  showing 
the  termination  of  the  tubes,  one  of 
which  is  broken  ;  B,  a  longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  that  part  of  the  shgU  where  the 
double  tubes  are  formed  ;  C,  the  shell 
complete,  or  nearly  so,  the  upper  ex- 
1S52.— The  Teredo       tremity  only  being  imperfect. 

gigantea.  :„  respect   to  the   Solens,    or   Razor- 

shells,  which  have  already  been  referred 
to,  it  may  be  remarked  that  several  species  are  natives  of  our 
shores,   and   of  the   Continent.     We   have  picked  up  large  quan- 


I''in 


titles  of  these  empty  shells  between  Margate  and  Dover,  on  the 
coast  of  Kent.  These  Molluscs  live  on  extensive  sandy  beaches,  or 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers  where  a  deep  bed  of  silt  affords  them  the 
facility  of  burrowing;  they  bury  themselves  in  a  vertical  position, 
with  the  foot  downwards  and  the  siphons  upwards,  the  apertures  of 
the  latter  just  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the  bed.  Here  they 
quietly  remain,  taking  in  food  and  water  through  the  larger  siphonic 
tube  as  the  tide  flows  over  them  ;  when  disturbed,  down'they  plunge 
into  the  oozy  sand,  disappearing  with  astonishing  celerity,  often 
baflling  the  most  active  endeavours  to  capture  them,  and  making 
their  way  to  the  depth  of  several  feet.'  When  the  danger  is  past, 
they  gradually  re-ascend,  by  the  extension  and  contraction  of  the 
powerful  foot,  but  are  ready  in  an  instant  to  disappear.  The  whole 
of  their  active  existence  is  thus  passed  in  descending  to  the  depths 
of  their  burrows  and  in  re-ascending  to  the  surface.  The  foot  is 
cylindrical,  but  alters  its  shape  according  to  need  in  the  process  of 
burrowing. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  coasts  on  which  the  Solens  are  found, 
search  for  them,  sometimes  as  food  for  the  poorest  of  the  community, 
but  generally  as  baits  for  catching  Fish.  The  most  favourable  time 
for  taking  them  is  after  high  tides;  they  then  often  appear  just 
emerging  from  their  burrows  in  great  numbers.  The  ordinary  plan  is 
to  throw  into  their  burrows  as  they  withdraw  themselves  a  small 
quantity  of  salt,  which  so  irritates  the  animals  that  they  immediately 
ascend  out  of  their  holes,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it.  They  are  then 
seized,  but  some  address  is  required  lest  the  animal  should  re-enter 
as  rapidly  as  it  came  forth.  Another  plan  of  taking  these  Shell-fish 
is  by  means  of  a  long  iron  hook,  which  the  fisherman  plunges  deeply 
into  the  sand,  and  drawing  it  out  obliquely  with  a  jerk,  carries  away 
sand  and  Solen  also.  But  with  all  the  dexterity  of  the  lishennan  he 
frequently  loses  the  object  of  his  search. 


Fig.  1853. — The  Soien,  or  Razor-shell. 

Fig.  1853  shows  the  valves  oi  SoIe?i  oisis :  «■,  an  external  view 
with  the  valves  closed  ;  b.  an  internal  view  of  one  of  the  valves,  as 
seen  in  the  opened  shell. 


Class  IV.— Palliobranchiata. 

General  Characters.— The  Animals  of  this  class  are  distin- 
guished from  the  Lamellibranchiate  Molhisca  by  the  absence  of  any 
special  branchial  apparatus,  the  respiratory  function  being  per- 
formed by  the  mantle,  which  is  traversed  by  numerous  blood-vessels. 
They  are  also  characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  pair  of  long, 
ciliated,  and  usually  spiral  arms,  the  analogues  of  the  labial  tentacles 
of  the  ordinary  bi-valves.  The  action  of  the  cilia  with-which  these 
are  clothed,  produces  a  current  in  the  water,  that  carries  the  particles 
of  food  to  the  mouth,  which  is  situated  close  to  their  base.  From 
the  presence  of  these  organs  the  class  is  often  termed  Brachiopoda. 
The  valves,  instead  of  being  placed  on  each  side  of  the  body  of 
the  Animal,  are  situated  above  and  below  it  ;  so  that  they  are  called 
dorsal  and  ventral,  instead  of  right  and  left,  valves.  The  central 
valve  is  usually  larger  than  the  dorsal,  and  projects  beyond  it  at  the 

beak,  where  it  is  generally  per- 
forated to  allow  the  passage  of  a 
muscular  or  tendinous  peduncle, 
by  which  the  Animal  attaches 
itself  (Fig.  1854  ")■  In  some  cases 
the  peduncle  is  wanting,  and  the 
shell  is  then  fixed  by  the  beak. 
The  connection  of  the  valves  is 
effected  by  a  pair  of  teeth,  spring- 
ing from  the  ventral  valve,  and 
locking  into  corresponding  cavities 
in  the  dorsal  valve.  There  is  no 
ligament,  and  the  valves  of  the 
shell  are  opened  and  closed  by  ap- 
propriate muscles. 
The  arms  are  frequently  supported  upon  a  calcareous  framework 
or  skeleton  (Fig.  1854  b),  attached  to  the  interior  of  the  dorsal  valve  ; 
this  usually  forms  two  loops,  springing  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  hinge.  The  arms  appear  to  be  extensible  in  some  instances ; 
but  in  others  they  are  attached  to  the  internal  framework,  and  only 
the  extremity  is  free. 


Fig.  1S54. — The  Tereiraltda  auslralis. 

a,  shell  closed,  showing  aperture  ;  /', 
dorsal  valve,  with  framework. 


742 


THE  PTEROPODOUS  MOLLUSCS. 


Tlie  body  of  the  Animal  only  occupies  a  small  portion  of  the  cavity 
of  the  shell,  close  to  the  hinge  ;  it  is  inclosed  within  a  strong  mem- 
branous partition,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  mouth  is  seen.  The  in- 
testine is  convoluted,  and  the  liver  is  large  and  granular.  All  the 
Palliohranchiata  appear  to  possess  two  hearts,  each  composed  of 
an  auricle  and  a  ventricle,  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
oesophagus ;  they  are  also  furnished  with  a  complex  system  of 
vessels,  which  conveys  the  blood  to  the  organs  of  the  body,  and  to 
the  mantle,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  water. 

The  structure  of  the  shell  is  very  peculiar.  It  consists  of  flattened 
prismatic  colls,  arranged  in  an  oblique  direction  as  regards  the 
surfaces  of  the  shell  ;  the  substance  of  the  shell  is  traversed  by  small 
canals,  through  which  little  processes  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  mantle 
pass. 

These  animals  are  all  Marine  ;  they  are  found  attached  by  the 
peduncle,  which  passes  through  the  aperture  in  the  ventral  valve, 
suspended  from  rocks,  corals,  and  other  submarine  objects.  The 
Fossil  species  are  exceedingly  numerous,  especially  in  the  older 
strata,  in  some  of  which  they  are  the  principal  representatives  of  the 
Molluscous  type  of  structure. 

Sub-divisions. — The  greater  number  of  the  species  of  this  class 
are  Fossil  ;  but  a  good  many  are  still  found  in  our  seas.  We  may 
distinguish  three  principal  groups  or  families.  In  the  first,  the 
Craiiiidcv.,  the  ventral  valve  of  the  shell  is  usually  adherent,  without 
the  intervention  of  a  peduncle,  and  the  hinge  is  destitute  of  teeth. 
The  interior  of  the  valve  has  a  broad  granulated  border,  and  the 
disc  is  marked  with  four  deep  muscular  impressions  (Fig.  1855). 

In  the  second  group,  the  Terebratulidcs, 
the  beak  of  the  ventral  valve  is  pierced 
with  a  hole  for  the  passage  of  the  peduncle, 
and  the  valves  are  united  by  a  hinge.  This 
family  includes  the  greater  part  of  the 
species,  both  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Pallia- 
brajichiata. 

In  the  third  group,  that  of  the  Lingulida;, 
the  Animal  is  attached  by  a  peduncle  ;  but 
this,  instead  of  passing  through  an   aper- 
ture in  one  of  the  valves,    issues  from   the 
interior  of  the  shell  between  the  umbones. 
The  valves  are  nearly  equal,  horny,   and  flexible  ;  and  the  peduncle 
is  very  long.     The  best  known   species,  the  Li)igula  anatina  (Fig. 
1856),  is  found  in  the  Eastern  Ocean. 


Fig.  1S55. — Crania  per- 
sonata. 


Fig.  1S56. — The  Lingida  anatina. 


Class  V.— Pteropoda,  or  Wing-footed  Molluscs. 

General-<;haracters. — The  singular  little  Animals  included 
in  this  group  present  many  points  of  resemblance  with  those  of  the 
following  class,  especially  in  their  young  state.  Hence,  several 
naturalists  have  united  these  animals  with  the  Gasteropoda  in  a 
single  class,  denominated  Cephalophora,  or  Jicad-bcarci'S ;  but  as 
the  Pteropods  differ  greatly  from  the  other  Cephalophorous  Mollusca, 
we  have  preferred  leaving  them  as  an  independent  group. 

They  are  all  of  small  size,  and  furnished  with  a  pair  of  broad 
flattened  fins  at  the  sides  of  the  head,  by  means  of  which  they  swim 
with  tolerable  rapidity  through  the  open  sea.  They  are  inhabitants 
of  the  ocean,  and  rarely  venture  near  the  shore,  except  when  driven 
from  their  favourite  haunts  by  high  winds  ;  on  the  high  sea,  they 
often  abound  in  such  profusion,  as  to  colour  the  surface  for  miles 
together. 

The  claim  of  many  of  these  Animals  to  the  distinction  of  possess- 
ing a  head,  is,  perhaps,  a  debateable  point ;  for  a  considerable 
number  present  scarcely  any  traces  either  of  eyes  or  tentacles  on  the 
anterior  extremity  of  the  body.  In  other  cases,  however,  these 
organs,  especially  the  latter,  are  perceptible.  The  ganglia  are 
placed  below  the  oesophagus,  the  supra-oesophagral  ganglia  being 
represented  by  a  slender  ring ;  they  all  possess  auditory  vesicles, 
containing  otolithes.  The  mouth  is  generally  unarmed,  sometimes 
furnished  with  sucking  tentacles  ;  but  the  oesophagus  is  muscular, 
and  the  tongue  frequently  armed  with  teeth.  The  intestine  is  con- 
voluted, and  the  anus  usually  opens  on  the  right  side  near  the  neck. 
The  circulatory  system  is  very  incomplete  ;  the  heart  is  composed  of 
two  cavities,  and  the  respiratory  organs  are  either  external  or 
inclosed  within  a  cavity  of  the  mantle.  The  foot,  which  is  such  an 
important   organ   in   the   following  class,  is    here    either    entirely 


wanting,  or,  if  present,  forms  only  a  little  lobe  between  the  bases  of 

the  fins. 

Sub-divisions. — We  distinguish  two  orders  of  the  Pteropoda, 
characterised  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  shell. 

Order  I. — GYiiNOSoMArA. 

The  Animals  of  this  order  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a 
shell,  and  the  distinct  separation  of  the  head  from  the  body.  The 
skin  is  of  a  firmer  te.xture  than  in  the  following  order,  where  it  is 
protected  by  a  shell.  The  species  of  the  genus  Clio  (Fig.  1857), 
belonging  to  this  order,  are  found  principally  in  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  Seas,  where  they  occur  in  prodigious  numbers.  So  great, 
in  fact,  is  their  abundance,  that  although  they  do  not  exceed  an  inch 
in  length,  they  furnish  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  the  nourishment  of  the  gigantic  Whales.  They 
are  usually  of  a  beautiful  blue  or  violet  colour, 
tinged  with  red.  The  following  is  a  more  par- 
ticular description  of  the  Arctic  species  : — 

The  Polar  Clio  (OYo  borcalis).  The  Clio 
borealis  may  be  described  as  a  sort  of  Marine 
slug  with  a  pair  of  winglike  fins  or  oars  attached 
to  each  side  of  the  neck,  by  means  of  which 
the  Animal  rows  itself  merrily  along,  and  sports 
amidst  the  waters  of  the  Polar  Sea,  rising  and  de- 
scending at  pleasure. 

These  oars  are  made  up  of  muscular  fibres, 
which  pass  through  the  neck  from  one  expanded 
appendage  to  the  other,  so  that  the  organ  is  in 
fact  single,  and  may  be  compared  to  the  double 

Fig.  1857 The    paddled   oar  with  which  the  Greenlander  propels 

Clio  australis.      and  steers  his  kajak  in  the   very  seas  which   the 
Clio  itself  navigates. 
The  outer  covering  of  the  Clio  is  a  delicate  semi-transparent  soft 
skin  which  covers  a  second  tunic.     This  last  is  thicker,  and  presents 
longitudinal  and  very  sensible  muscular  fibres,  which  come  from  two 
principal  bundles  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  neck.     The  effect  of 
these  fibres  must  be  to  shorten  the  general  envelop  of  the  body,  and 
to  approximate  its  form  to  a  spherical  shape.     Cuvier,  who  gives  the 
above   destription,  adds,   that  he  knows  not  with  what  the   interval 
between  this  fleshy  tunic  and  the  mass  of  the  viscera  is  filled  in  the 
living  state  ;  but  observes  that  it  is  certain  that  these  do  not  occupy 
the  half  of  the  area  which  the  tunic  incloses  ;  and  conjectures 
that  there  may  be  a  liquor  diffused  there,   or,  perhaps,  only  a 
quantity  of  air,  which   the  Animal  can  compress  at   pleasure 
when  it  would  sink  in  the  water,  and  dilate  when  it  would  rise. 
The  head  of  the  Clio  is  enveloped  in  a  sort  of  hood,  which 
can   be  opened  and  retracted  at  pleasure,   so  as  to  expose 
the  mouth  surrounded  by  three  conical  appendages  on   each 
bide,  like  little  fleshy  tentacula.      Examined   by  means  of  a 
microscope,   each  of  these  appendages  is  seen  to  be  regularly 
and  numerously  covered  with  red  points,   which,  when  in- 
spected   through   a    lens    of  great   power,  are   found  to   be 
distinct  transparent  cylinders,  each  sheathing   about  twenty 
minute   suckers,  which  are   capable  of  being  protruded,  and 
acting  as  organs  of  firm  prehension.     It  has  been  calculated  that 
the  total  number  of  these  suckers  upon  the  conical  appendages  of  a 
single  Clio  amount  to  360,000. 

Besides  these  oval  appendages,  the  Clio  can  protrude  from  its 
head,  through  a  perforation  in  the  centre  of  each  valve  of  the  hood, 
two  slender  horns,  or  feelers,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  presence  of 
food. 

The  mouth  of  this  little  creature  is  a  triangular  orifice  armed, 
according  to  Eschricht,  with  two  jaws  with  sharp  horny  pectinations 
fixed  on  a  fleshy  base.  These  pectinations  are  of  unequal  length, 
but  their  points  are  nearly  on  the  same  level,  and  they  can  be  pro- 
truded for  the  purpose  of  seizing  prey.  Within  the  mouth  is  a 
tongue  with  its  tip  and  upper  surface  covered  with  minute  cui-ved 
hooks  in  regular  rows,  evidently  serving  to  assist  in  the  act  of  de- 
glutition. 

With  respect  to  eyes,  Cuvier  says,  "  some  naturalists  attribute 
these  organs  to  them,"  and  De  Blainville  has  expressly  described 
them.  They  are  two  in  number,  placed  on  the  back  of  the  neck, 
and,  though  excessively  minute,  appear  to  have  a  very  complete 
structure. 

Cuvier  regarded  the  oars  of  this  Animal  as  its  aerating  as  well  as 
locomotive  organs,  but  the  correctness  of  this  opinion  is  denied  by 
Eschricht ;  in  fact  we  are  not  only  in  ignorance  as  to  the  laboratory 
in  which  the  circulating  fluid  undergoes  its  requisite  purification, 
but  also  with  respect  to  several  other  details  in  the  economy  of  this 
Mollusc. 

The  digestive  apparatus  is  simple  ;  there  is  a  large  liver ;  and 
there  are  also  long  slender  salivary  glands. 

The  Clio  borealis,  though  not  more  than  an  inch  in  length,  forms 
the  chief  part  of  the  food  of  the  huge  Greenland  whale, — and  under 
the  name  of  "  whales-food"  is  well  known  to  the  sailors  who  chase 
this  huge  tenant  of  the  ocean.    The  Clio  dwells  in  shoals  so  count- 


THE  GASTEROPODOUS  MOLLUSCS. 


743 


less  and  extensive,  that  the  surface  of  the  water  for  a  vast  distance 
often  seems  alive  with  them,  as  they  sport  and  gambol  heedless  of 
their  destroyer,  who,  as  he  passes  throujjh  their  ranks,  "thick  as 
autumnal  leaves  in  Valombrosa,"  opens  his  mouth  and  ingulfs  thou- 
sands at  a  snap.       ^ 

Sir  E.  Parry  found  the  Clio  in  astonishing  abundance  in  all  parts 
of  Baffin's  Bay  and  Davis's  Strait  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ico.  Sir 
James  Ross  observed  it  very  numerous  in  most  parts  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  but  less  abundant  in  Regent's  Inlet  and  the  Gulf  of  Boothia. 
When  the  weather  is  calm  these  Animals  come  in  myriads  to  the 
surface  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  but  scarcely  have  they  reached 
it  when  they  again  precipitate  themselves  towards  the  bottom. 


Fig.  1858.— The  Polar  Clio. 

A,  Clio  lorealts  (see  Fig.  1858),  view  of  the  back  ;  a,  the  body  ; 
b,  the  viscera,  seen  through  the  common  integuments ;  r,  the 
tubercles  of  the  head,  and  the  holes  wherein  the  three  tentacula  on 
each  side  are  withdrawn  ;  d,  d,  gills  and  fins.  B,  the  same,  view  of 
the  belly  ;  a,  c,  d,  indicate  the  same  parts  as  in  A  ;  e,  the  two  ten- 
tacula placed  before  the  mouth.  0,  the  same  laid  open  ;  c,  d, 
indicate  the  same  parts  as  in  the  two  former  figures  ;  y,  _/",  the  ex- 
ternal tunic  or  skin  ;  g,  g,  the  internal  tunic  or  fleshy  pannicle  ;  h, 
h,  the  principal  bundles  of  its  fibres  ;  i,  the  mass  of  viscera  ;  m,  the 
principal  vein  of  the  fins. 

Order  II. — Thecosomata. 

The  Thecosomata  are  always  inclosed  in  a  shell,  which  is  usually 
very  delicate,  and  of  a  glassy  transparency.  It  varies  greatly  in 
shape,  its  simplest  form  being  triangular  (Fig.  1859),  °''  rather  pyra- 


.f^ 


Fig.  1859.— The  Shell  of  Chodora 
pyramidata. 


Fig.  1S60.— The  Ilyalea. 


midal ;  but  the  basal  portion  is  often  somewhat  globular,  and 
adorned  with  two  or  three  projecting  angles  or  spines  (Fig.  i860). 
The  head  is  less  distinctly  separated  from  the  body  than  in  the 
Gym?iosomata  ;  the  foot  is  obsolete,  and  the  respiratory  organs  are 
inclosed  within  a  cavity  of  the  mantle. 

Some  of  the  rftost  beautiful  and  best  known  known  species  belong 
to  the  genus  Hyalca  (Fig.  i860),  so  called  from  the  glassy  texture 
of  their  shells.  In  the  Eiirybia  (Fig.  i86i)  the  Animal  and  shell  are 
sub-globular  in  shape,  without  points  proceeding  from  the  latter. 
In  a  few  genera  the  shells  acquire  a  spiral  form  ;  thus  in  Liiuacina 
(Fig.  1862),  a  genus  of  minute  Molluscs  found  in  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  Seas,  the  shell  resembles  that  of  a  little  Nautilus  in  its 


form  ;    whilst  in   Spiralis,  it  forms  a  little  pointed  spire,  furnished 
with  a  minute  glassy  operclum. 

We  next  have  to  draw  attention  to  a  very  interesting  class  of 
Molliisca  with  which  all  of  our  readers  must  be  very  familiar.  They 
are  called  G.istcropods,  or  Belly-footed,  for  reasons  that  will  be  pre- 
sently explained. 

Class  VI.— Gasteropoda. 

General  Characters. — The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the 
Gasteropoda  consists  in  the  structure  of  the  locomotive  organ.  This, 
which  is  well  shown  in  the  Common  Snails,  consists  of  a  broad, 
muscular,  disc-like  foot  attached  to  the  ventral  surface  (whence  the 
name),  upon  which  the  Animal  creeps  slowly  along  witli  a  sort  of 
gliding  motion.  This  form  of  foot  is  presented  by  nearly  all  the 
Animals  referred  to  this  class  ;  although,  in  a  few  species,  it  is  so 
greatly  modified  that  at  the  first  glance  it  would  not  be  taken  for 
the  same  organ. 

The  head  is  always  distinct,  usually  furnished  with  tentacles  and 
eyes.     The  opening  of  the  mouth  is  placed  in  its  lower  surface  ;  it  is 

often  furnished  with  a  protrusible 
proboscis,  and  armed  with  one  or 
two  teeth  or  jaws  inserted  in  its 
upper  part.  The  lower  part  of  the 
mouth  and  oesophagus  is  occupied 
by  the  tongue,  a  long  ribbon- 
shaped  organ  sometimes  longer 
than  the  whole  body,  covered  on 
its  upper  surface  with  an  immense 
number  of  minute  silicious  teeth, 
which  are  employed,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  upper  jaws,  in 
dividing  the  food.  The  arrange- 
ment and  form  of  these  lingual 
teeth,  as  they  are  called,  are  very  constant  in  the  different  groups  ; 
they  have  been  lately  employed  as  valuable  characters  in  the  classifi- 
cation of  these  Animals.  The  lingual  ribbon  is  rolled  up  posteriorly  ; 
and  it  is  supposed  that  it  is  unrolled  and  brought  forward  by 
degrees,  in  order  that  new  teeth  may  take  the  place  of  those  tliat 
have  been  abraded  by  use. 


Fig.  1S61.— The  Eurybut 
gaudichatidii. 


Fig.  1862. — The  Limatina  rostralis. 

The  intestinal  canal  is  usually  simple  and  membranous.  In  some 
species,  however,  the  stomach  has  thickened  walls,  furnished  inter- 
nally with  horny  ridges  or  teeth.  The  intestine  winds  amongst  the 
other  viscera,  and  the  anus  is  situated  on  the  right  side  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  body.  The  liver  is  voluminous,  and  usually  envelops  the 
other  intestines ;  and  nearly  all  the  Gasteropoda  possess  salivary 
glands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth. 

Respiration  is  generally  effected  by  means  of  branchiae,  placed 
sometimes  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  but  more  commonly  in  a  special 
cavity  in  the  back  of  the  mantle,  the  aperture  of  which  is  situated 
over  the  neck.  The  margins  of  this  aperture  are  often  produced 
into  a  siphon,  which  projects  over  the  head  of  the  Animal ;  the 
water,  after  traversing  the  gills,  passes  off  by  a  separate  aperture, 
situated  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  ;  and  this  is  also  siphonate  in 
some  instances.  The  branchiffi  are  plumose  or  branch  organs. 
As  a  general  rule,  only  those  of  the  right  side  are  developed ;  bat  in 
some  cases  the  Animals  are  symmetrical  in  this  respect.  In  the 
Land-snails,  and  a  few  fresh-water  Molluscs,  the  respiratory  function 
is  performed  by  a  pulmonary  sac  hollowed  out  in  the  right  side  of  the 
body  near  the  neck,  and  opening  externally  at  that  point,  by  an  aper- 
ture which  the  Animal  can  open  or  close  at  pleasure. 

The  heart  consists  of  two  chambers,  and  is  generally  placed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  branchia;.  The  blood  leaves  the  heart  by  a 
large  artery,  which  generally  soon  divides  into  two  branches,  one 
running  to  the  head  and  anterior  part  of  the  body,  the  other  to  the 
posterior  organs.  On  its  return,  the  blood  does  not  appear  to  be 
confined  within  true  veins ;  it  flows  through  the  interstices  of  the 
organs,  and  is  at  last  collected  into  particular  canals,  by  which  it  is 
conveyed  to  the  respiratory  organs,  whence  it  passes  again  to  the 
heart. 

The  nervous  system  varies  greatly  in  development,  and  in  the 
arrangement  of  its  parts  ;  but  in  all,  the  centre  is  formed  by  an  oeso- 
phageal ring  or  collar,  composed  of  several  ganglia  united  by  nervous 
filaments.     The  supra-cesophageal  ganglia  are  sometimes  distinct. 


744 


THE  GASTEROPODOUS  MOLLUSCS. 


sometimes  fused  into  a  mass  ;  they  alwaj's  give  off  the  nerves  of  the 
organs  of  sensation  situated  on  the  head.  The  ganglia  which 
supply  nerves  to  the  foot,  the  mantle,  the  intestines,  and  other  organs 
of  the  body,  are  connected,  by  means  of  nervous  filaments,  with  the 
ganglia  placed  below  the  cfisophagus.  The  organs  of  the  senses 
consist  of  tentacles  of  very  various  forms  ;  of  a  pair  of  eyes,  placed 
sometimes  on  the  head  itself,  sometimes  on  the  sides  of  the  tentacles, 
or  supported  upon  separate  stalks  ;  and  of  a  pair  of  auditory  vesicles, 
containing  otolithes,  generally  placed  near  the  base  of  the  tentacles, 
and  either  immediately  in  contact  with  the  brain,  or  connected  with 
it  by  a  short  nerve.  No  special  organs  of  smell  or  taste  have  been 
detected  in  the  Gdsfcropoda,  although  we  may  infer,  from  the  dis- 
crimination exercised  by  the  Animals  in  the  choice  of  their  food,  that 
they  are  not  destitute  of  these  senses. 


vh  ah  b      on 


Fig.  1S63. — Anatomy  of  the  Tiirho  fica. 
f,  foot ;  0,  operculum  ;  /,  proboscis  ;  ta,  tentacula  ;  y,  eyes  ;  m,  mantle 
opened  longitudinally,  to  show  the  disposition  of  the  respiratory  cavity  ; 
/,  anterior  border  of  the  mantle,  which,  in  its  natural  position,  covers  the 
back  of  the  animal,  leaving  a  wide  slit  by  which  the  water  enters  the  bran- 
chial cavity  ;  b,  the  gills  ;  vb,  branchial  vein,  returning  to  the  heart,  c  ;  ab, 
branchial  artery  ;  a,  anus  ;  i,  intestines  ;  e,  stomach  and  liver  ;  en.',  oviduct. 
On  the  upper  side  of  the  neck  are  seen  the  cephalic  ganglion,  and  the 
salivary  glands  ;  and  at  d  is  shown  a  fringed  membrane,  which  forms  the 
lower  border  of  the  left  side  of  the  opening  that  leads  to  the  respiratory 
cavities. 

The  general  form  of  the  body,  in  the  Gasteropoda,  is  very  charac- 
teristic of  the  class.  From  the  great  preponderance  of  one  side  of 
the  body  over  the  other,  the  whole  acquires,  during  growth,  a  spiral 
form  ;  and  it  is  only  in  some  naked  species,  and  in  those  which  have 
branchiae  equally  developed  on  both  sides,  that  we  find  the  body 
symmetrical.  The  shell  with  which  the  Animals  are  furnished,  and 
which,  as  in  the  other  Molhisca,  is  secreted  by  the  edge  of  the 
mantle,  partakes  of  this  form.  It  is  almost  always  composed  of  a 
single  piece  (univalve),  and  usually  forms  a  conical  tube,  twisted 
spirally.  This  tube,  however,  is  rarely  perfect,  the  inner  wall  of  each 
■whorl  (as  the  convolutions  of  the  spire  are  termed)  being  usually 


Fig.  1S64.— The  Pirena. 


Fig.  1865. — The  Ampullaria. 


formed  by  the  surface  of  the  preceding  whorl,  which  the  Animal 
covers  with  a  thin  coating  of  shelly  matter.  In  the  majority  of  these 
shells  the  spire  takes  an  oblique  direction,  so  that  the  shell  has  a 
pointed  apex,  and  goes  on  increasing  in  breadth  towards  the  lower 
extremity  (Fig.  1864).  In  some,  however,  the  whorls  are  rolled  one 
upon  another  in  the  same  plane,  producing  a  discoid  shell  (Fig.  1 865) ; 


and  we  meet  with  every  possible  gradation  of  form  between  the 
extremes  of  obliquity  and  flatness.  In  the  Scalaria,  the  tube  of  the 
shell  is  perfect,  although  the  whorls  are  closely  applied  to  each 
other  ;  but  in  Vermetus,  and  some  others,  the  shell  forms  a  simple, 
but  more  or  less  contorted  tube.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  monstrous 
varieties  of  regularly  spiral  shells  ;  and  a  few  species  which  inhabit 
a  spiral  shell  until  they  attain  a  certain  size,  afterwards  add  to  it  by 
forming  a  straight  tube  of  the  diameter  of  the  aperture.  As  the 
right  side  of  the  Gasteropoda  is  almost  always  the  largest,  the  con- 
vexity of  the  spire  is,  of  course,  turned  in  this  direction,  and  the 
shells  follow  the  same  rule.  These  normal  shells  are  called  dcxtrai 
in  a  few  species,  however,  and  in  some  monstrosities  of  dcxtrai 
species,  the  spire  turns  in  the  opposite  direction  ;  these  are  called 
sinistral  sheMs.  In  the  truly  spiral  shells,  the  progressive  winding 
of  the  tube  produces  a  more  or  less  distinct  central  axis,  or  pillar, 
called  the  columella,  which  runs  from  the  base  to  the  apex  of  the 
shell,  and  forms  the  inner  margin  of  the  aperture  from  which  the 
animal  protrudes  when  in  motion.  This  pillar  is  usually  hollow,  and 
terminates  at  the  base  of  the  shell  by  a  small  opening,  called  the 
umbilicus.  The  margins  of  the  aperture  are  called  the  lips ;  the 
outer  lip  {labrum)  forms  the  convexity  of  the  shell ;  the  inner  lip 
{labium)  is  usually  formed  by  the  columella,  and  is  hence  denomi- 
nated the  columcllar  lip.  The  two  lips  are  sometimes  continuous, 
but  more  commonly  separated  by  a  notch,  which  is  often,  in  the 
siphonated  species,  produced  into  a  canal.  The  junction  of  the 
outer  lip  with  the  preceding  whorl  is  also  frequently  marked  with  a 
notch,  for  the  reception  of  the  ex-current  siphon.  The  outer  lip  is 
frequently  reflexed,  or  furnished  with  spines  or  tubercles  ;  its  margin 
is  sometimes  turned  inwards  ;  and  both  lips  are  not  unfrequently 
furnished  with  teeth  or  other  projections  on  the  inside.  The  last 
whorl  of  the  shell  is  called  the  body  whorl,  from  its  receiving  the 
body  of  the  Animal  when  retracted.  The  remaining  whorls  form  the 
spire;  and  the  impressed  line  which  separates  the  whorls  is  the 
suture, 

A  great  number  of  the  Gasteropoda  close  the  aperture  of  their 
shell  with  a  small  horny  or  calcareous  plate,  called  the  opcrciiliiin, 
which  is  attached  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  foot,  and  is  drawn  into 
the  mouth  of  the  shell  by  the  contraction  of  the  animal.  It  is  seen 
in  the  young  Animal  whilst  still  in  the  ^.^ig  ;  and  this  forms  the 
nucleus  of  all  subsequent  growth.  It  varies  greatly  in  its  form, 
being  sometimes  composed  of  concentric  layers,  sometimes  spiral, 
sometimes  oval  or  sub-circular,  with  the  nucleus  placed  at  one  side, 
or  at  the  extremity ;  sometimes  irregular  in  form,  or  furnished  with 
appendages  (see  Fig.  1866). 


Fig.  1S66. — Forms  of  opercula. 

a,  spiral  (Turbo);  l>,  lamellar,  with   marginal   nucleus  (Miirex)  ;  c,  appendl- 
culate  (Ncrita). 

Most  of  the  Gasteropoda  are  strictly  Oviparous  Animals  ;  but  a 
few  are  Ovoviparous ;  the  eggs  being  retained  in  the  oviducts 
until  the  exclusion  of  the  young,  and  even  until  these  have  attained 
a  considerable  development.  The  sexes  are  generally  on  separate 
individuals,  but  a  considerable  number  are  hermaphrodites  ;  these, 
however,  require  mutual  impregnation  to  fertilise  the  ova.  The 
orifices  of  the  generative  organs  are  usually  situated  on  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  anus.  The  mode  in 
which  the  ova  are  deposited,  and  their  arrangement,  have  already 
been  briefly  referred  to  in  our  introductory  remarks  on  the  Alollusca. 
The  young  ISIoUusc  is  always  provided  with  a  shell  whilst  in  the  ^?.^'< 
this  however,  is  cast  off,  soon  after  hatching,  by  most  of  the  naked 
species.  The  young  of  the  air-breathing  species  resemble  their 
parents  in  every  respect  except  size  ;  but  those  of  the  branchiferous 
species  are  furnished  with  a  pair  of  fin-like  expansions,  resembling 
those  of  the  Pteropoda,  by  means  of  which  they  swim  freely  through 

the  water  ..  . ,   ^  .   ^     ^  , 

Sub-divisions. — The  Gasteropoda  may  be  divided  into  two  sub- 
classes, the  Heteropoda  and  the  Gasteropoda  proper ;  the  former 
includino-  only  a  single  order,  whilst  the  latter  are  divided  into  two 
great  orders,  called  Branchifera  3.n6.Pulinonifera,  from  the  nature 
of  their  respective  respiratory  organs. 

Sub-class  and  Order  I.— Heteropoda. 

General  Characters.— The  Animals  of  this  group,  the  A^e- 
cleobranchiata  of  some  authors,  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  ocean, 
where  they  swim  about  rapidly,  the  whole  structure  of  their  bodies 


THE  GASTEROPODOUS  MOLLUSCS. 


r4S 


being  adapted  particularly  to  this  mode  of  existence.  The  foot, 
when  present,  is  converted  into  a  broad,  flattened,  fin-like  organ 
(Fig.  1867),  furnished  with  a  small  sucker,  by  which  the  Animals 
adhere  to  floating  sea-weeds.  The  whole  body  is  usually  com- 
pressed :  and  it  is  by  the  fin-like  action  of  the  tail  that  the  creatures 
swim.     The  head  is  distinct,  and  usually  furnished  with  a  pair  of 


Fig.  1S67. — The  Carinaria. 

tentacles  and  eyes  ;  the  mouth  is  generally  furnished  with  a  long 
proboscis.  In  the  typical  forms,  the  intestines,  with  the  heart  and 
generative  organs,  are  collected  into  a  mass  on  the  back  of  the 
Animal ;  this  is  enclosed  in  a  shell,  round  the  interior  of  which  the 
comb-like  branchise  are  situated.  The  Animals  are  usually  of  a 
transparent  gelatinous  texture;  they  swim  with  the  back  downwards, 
and  appear  to  feed  upon  minute  Marine  Animals. 
Sub-divisions.— In  the  Atlantidce  (Fig.  1868),  the  shell  is  spiral, 
and  large  enough  to  contain  the  whole 
Animal  when  contracted  ;  and  the  gills 
are  contained  in  a  regular  branchial  cavity. 
They  often  possess  a  delicate  operculum. 

The  FirolidcB-3.x!i  either  entirely  naked,  or 
furnished  with  a  small,  conical,  keeled  shell, 
which  incloses  the  intestinal  nucleus.  The 
FirolcB  are  destitute  of  a  shell. 

The  SagittidcB  form  a  third  small  family, 
whose  title  to  this  postion  is,  however,  by 
no  means  certain.  They  are  little,  fish, 
like  animals,  furnished  with  one  or  two 
pairs  of  fin-like  organs  on  the  body,  and 
usually  bi-lobed  caudal  fin  (Fig.  1869). 
and  the  mouth  armed  with  several  pairs  of 
They  are  of  small  size,  and  swim  with  great 


Fig.  1S68.— The   Atlanta 
keraiidTCm. 


with  a  broad  and 
The  head  is  distinct, 
lateral  hook-like  jaws. 


Fig.  1S69. — The  Sagilta. 

rapidity.  They  have  hitherto  been  found  principally  in  the  North 
Sea  and  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  name  of  Sagitta,  given  to 
these  Animals,  refers  to  their  arrow-like  appearance. 

Sub-class  II.— Gasteropoda  proper. 

In  the  True  Gasteropoda,  which  exhibit  the  structure  of  the  foot, 
and  the  general  structure  of  the  body,  already  described  as  charac- 
teristic of  the  class,  we  distinguish  two  great  orders — the  Branchi- 
fera,  furnished  with  gills,  and  the  Pulmonifc?-a,  which  respire  by 
pulmonary  sacs.  Besides  this  important  difference  in  structure,  the 
Branchiferous  Gasfo'opoda  pass  through  a  distinct  larval  state  ; 
usually  issuing  from  the  egg  in  a  very  different  form  from  that  they 
are  ultimately  to  assume.  The  Pulmoniferous  species  undergo  no 
metamorphosis. 

Order  II.— Branchifera. 

The  general  characters  of  this  group  are  given  above.  It  is 
divided  into  two  sub-orders,  characterised  by  the  positions  of  the 
branchiae. 

Sub-order  I.— Opisthobranchiata, 

General  Characters. — In  the  Animals  forming  this  sub-order, 
the  branchise  are  not  generally  inclosed  within  a  cavity  of  the  mantle, 
but  more  or  less  exposed  on  the  back  or  sides  of  the  Animal,  gene- 
rally towards  the  posterior  portion  ;  and  the  auricle  of  the  heart, 
which  receives  the  blood  from  the  gills,  is  placed  behind  the 
ventricle.  All  these  Animals  are  hermaphrodites  ;  few  of  them  are 
inclosed  in  a  shell ;  some  have  an  internal  shell,  but  the  majority 
are  naked. 


Sub-divisions.— This  sub-order  includes  two  principal  groups. 
Itithe  first,  the  Tcctihranchiafa,  the  Animals  are  generally  furnishci' 
with  a  shell,  and  the  branchias  are  covered  either  by  the  shell  or  t'.e 
mantle.  The  Bitllidcc,  or  bubble-shells,  have  a  delicate  cylindrical, 
or  globose  shell,  which  is  more  or  loss  inclosed  within  the  mantle- 
the  head  is  flat,  with  broad  tentacular  lobes;  the  foot  is  large  ard 
often  furnished  with  lateral  lobes,  which  the  Animal  is  said  to  us .  in 
swimming  ;  the  gill  is  single,  placed  on  the  right  side  of  the  back 
and  concealed  by  tlie  shell.  They  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits' 
and  are  furnished  with  a  gizzard,  in  the  walls  of  which  several  cal- 
careous plants  are  imbedded. 

In  the  Ap/ysiada,  the  shell  is  either  absent  or  rudimentary  The 
Animal  is  slug-like  in  its  form  ;  the  head  is  distinct,  and  furnished 
with  tentacles  and  eyes,  and  the  sides  of  the  mantle  are  very  large 
and  reflected  upwards,  so  as  to  cover  the  back  and  branchial  plume! 
The  tentacles  are  turned  back  like  ears,  whence  the  name  of  Sea- 
hares,  commonly  applied  to  these  Animals.  They  live  upon  sea- 
weeds, from  which  they  derive  their  principal  nourishment,  althou-h 
they  also  feed  upon  Animal  substances.  When  alarmed  or  molested, 
they  emit  a  violet  or  reddish-fluid  from  the  mantle,  which  was  long 
supposed  to  be  of  a  poisonous  nature  ;  although,  according  to  recent 
observations,  it  is  quite  harmless. 

The  Pleiirobra7ichideB  are  also  usually  furnished  with  a  shell, 
which,  however,  is  often  concealed  by  the  mantle  ;  the  foot  is  usually 
very  large,  and  the  feather-like  gill  is  concealed  between  a  fold  of 
the  mantle  and  the  foot.  The  shell  is  sometimes  Limpet-like  in  its 
shape  ;  one  of  them,  inhabiting  the  Indian  and  Chinese  Seas,  is 
commonly  known  as  the  Uiiibrclla  shell.  The  Phyllidida;  are 
nearly  allied  to  these,  but  have  no  shell,  and  the  branchia  are 
placed  on  both  sides  of  the  body,  beneath  a  fold  of  the  mantle. 

In  the  second  great  group,  the  Niidibrayichiata,  the  Animals  are 
shell-less,  and  the  branchise  are  placed  on  the  back  or  along  the 
sides  of  the  body,  without  any  covering.  These  Animals  are  also 
hermaphrodites.  These  elegant  and  delicate  little  creatures,  which 
are  often  adorned  with  the  most  pleasing  colours,  are  generally  found 
near  the  coasts,  crawling  upon  sea-weeds.  They  are  very  carni- 
vorous in  their  habits,  feeding  principally  upon  Zoophytes.  A  most 
admirable  monograph  of  the  British  species,  by  Messrs.  Alder  and 


Fig.  1S70.— The  ^oUs. 

Hancock,  has  been  published  by  the  Ray  Society.  The  Nudi- 
branchiate  Molluscs  are  distributed  into  three  families.  In  the 
^olididcv,  the  branchis  are  arranged  along  each  side  of  the  back, 
which  is  also  furnished  with  peculiar  appendages,  into  which  pro- 
cesses of  the  liver  and  stomach  pass,  and  the  tentacles  are  not 
retractile.  These  Animals  generally  resemble 
little  slugs,  with  tufts  of  filaments  along  the  sides 
(Fig.  1870)  ;  but  some  species  present  a  very  sin- 
gular appearance,  having  the  body  very  slender, 
and  the  gill-tufts  supported  at  the  extremities 
of  lateral  foot-stalks  (Fig.  1871).  The  TritoiiiidcB 
often  resemble  the  preceding  in  appearance,  but 
they  are  destitute  of  the  ccecal  prolongations  of 
the  intestines,  and  have  the  tentacles  sheathed 
and  retractile.  The  Doridcs  are  generally  of 
a  broader  form  and  larger  size  than  the  Animals 
of  the  preceding  families,  from  which  they  are 
distinguished  by  having  the  branchia;  placed  in 
a  circle  on  the  back,  generally  towards  the 
hinder  parts.  The  branchiae  are  elegant,  arborescent  organs ;  the 
foot  is  much  smaller  than  the  mantle. 


Fig.  1S71.— The 
Giaiiciis  forsici'i. 


Sub-order  II.— Prosobranchiata. 

General  Characters.— This  sub-order  is  far  more  extensive 
than  the  preceding,  and  the  characters  by  which  it  is  circumscribed 
are  far  more  distinct.  All  the  Animals  referred  to  in  this  group 
possess  a  shell,  within  which  they  can  usually  retract  themselves 

entirely  at  pleasure,  and  this  is  al- 
most always  of  a  spiral  form  ;  the 
mantle  forms  an  arched  chamber, 
immediately  over  the  neck,  in 
which  the  branchia;  are  situated, 
together  with  the  orifices  of  the 
alimentary  and  generative  organs  ; 
and,  as  a  necessary  consequence 
of  this  anterior  position  of  the  gills,  the  blood  flows  back  towards 
the  heart,  and  the  auricle  of  the  latter  organ  is  placed  in  front  of 
the  ventricle.  The  sexes  are  almost  always  distinct,  and  nearly  all 
the  species  are  Marine. 

S  c 


The  Doris. 


746 


THE  GASTEROPODOUS  MOLLUSCS. 


Sub-divisions.— The  Prosobranchiata  may  be  divided  into  three 
principal  jjroups.  In  the  first,  the  Cirrhohranclu'afa,  includin<^ 
only  a  single  family,  the  DentaliidcB,  or  Tooth-shells,  the  Animal  il 
so  anomalous  in  its  form  that  it  was  placed  by  Cuvier  and  otlier 
observers  amongst  the  Annelides.  The  shell  is  tubular,  gradually 
tapering  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  gently  curved  throuo-hout 
its  whole  length,  so  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  a  minfature 
Elephant's  tusk;  hence  the  commonest  species  [^Denlalitiincntalls) 
IS  popularly  denominated  the  Elephant's-tooth.  It  has  an  aperture 
at  each  end,  that  at  the  narrower  side  of  it  are  the  symmetrical 
cirrus-like  branchiae.  The  anus  opens  at  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body.  The  Denlaliida;  are  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  minute  Marine 
Animals.  They  live  in  sand  or  mud,  in  which  they  bury  themselves 
by  means  of  the  foot.  A  good  many  species  are  known,  of  which 
several  inhabit  the  British  seas. 

The  Dentalium  is  of  a  conical  elongated  form,  the  dorsal  surface 
corresponding  with  the  convexity  of  the  shell,  the  ventral  surface 
with  the  concavity.  The  whole  anterior  part  of  the  Animal  is 
invested  by  a  fine  membrane,  which  is  fixed  posteriorly  to  the  origin 
of  the  foot,  and  is  free  in  front  where  its  circumference  is  thickened. 
It  is  perforated  in  the  centre  ;  the  thickened  portion  is  muscular. 
Dividing  this  mantle  down  the  middle  surface  of  the  back,  the  foot, 
head,  and  branchiaj  are  brought  to  view.  The  foot  is  elongated^ 
subcylindrical,  slightly  conical,  and  tleshy.  The  head  consists  of  a 
mouth  only,  and  is  situated  superiorly  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the 
foot.  The  respiratory  system  consists  of  two  branchia;  symmetrically 
situated  on  the  lateral  and  posterior  parts  of  the  neck,  and  sup- 
ported on  a  divided  peduncle.  They  are  composed  of  many  very 
fine,  soft,  flexible,  tentacular  filaments,  with  cUib-shaped  termina- 
tions, and  appear  from  their  position  to  be  equally  adapted  for 
directing  nutriment  towards  the  mouth,  and  for  fulfilling  the  task  of 
aerating  the  blood. 

Fig.  1873  represents  the  shell  and  Animal  oi  Dentalium  cntalis  ; 
A,  the  shell  o\  Den  tall  inn  entails,  of  the  natural  size  ;  n,  the  shell 
magnified  and  broken  longitudinally,  showing  the  Animal  in  a  con- 
tracted state  ;  a,  the  posterior  extremity  prolonging  itself  into  a 
small  accidental  tube  ;  c,  the  shell  magnified,  with  the  Animal  at 
the  moment  of  its  advancing  out  in  order  to  obtain  food;  a  and  b, 
the  foot,  the  lobes  of  which  are  developed  in  the  form  of  a  corolla  : 
c,  a  part  of  the  collar  of  the  mantle. 


Fig.  1S73. — The  shell  of  the  Dentalium. 

Fig.  1874  represents  the  animal  extricated  from  the  shell,  in 
different  views  :  D,  the  animal  magnified,  the  abdominal  aspect ;  a, 
the  extremity  of  the  foot  ;  b,  the  collar  of  the  mantle  ;  d  d,  the 
liver  ;  e,  the  intestinal  tube  ;  /,  the  egg-sack ;  g,  the  muscle  of  in- 
sertion ;  /and  /',  the  expanded  expansion,  which  is  funnel-shaped, 
and  called  by  Deshayes  the  pavilion  ;  i,  egestive  orifice  ;  F,  the 
same,  dorsal  aspect,  magnified;  a,  extremity  of  the  foot;  b,  the 
collar  ;  c  c,  the  mouth  ;  d,  a  slight  projection  produced  by  the  head 
and  the  branchiae  ;  e  e,  internal  retractile  muscles  ;  f  /,  external 
retractile  muscles  ;  g,  the  neck  of  the  pavilion  ;  h,  the  pavilion  ;  E, 
the  same,  with  the  mantle  slit  along  the  dorsal  and  medial  line,  de- 
tached in  part  from  its  posterior  insertion,  and  turned  aside,  so  as 
to  show  the  parts  enclosed  ;  a,  the  extremity  of  the  foot,  which 
closes  the  aperture,  _/',  of  the  collar,  /  vi,  of  the  mantle,  n  op  ;  b  b, 
lobes  of  the  foot;  c,  the  foot  itself,  presenting  a  depression,  or  a 
channel,  running  its  whole  length  ;  d,  the  head ;  e,  the  cerebral 
ganglion  ;  f  /,  the  two  jaws  ;  g g,  the  peduncles  of  the  branchis  ; 
h  h,  i  i,  the  branchia; ',  p  j>,  q  ^t  the  retractor  muscles  ;  j-,  the 
the  muscle  of  insertion ;  /,  the  pavilion  ;  G,  the  animal,  one-fourth 
of  natural  size  ;  H,  the  same,  one  sixth  of  natural  size. 


The  genus  Dentalium  is  very  widely  distributed,  few  seas  bein? 
destitute  of  some  species.  Generally  these  shells  are  found  on 
sandy  shores,  in  rather  shallow  water,  but  sometimes  at  considerable 
depth. 

In  the  Cyclobranchiata  the  branchiae  are  usually  placed  all  round 
the  body,  in  the  space  between  the  margin  of  the  foot  and  the 
mantle,  although  in  some  species  they  are'situated  in  a  cavity  over 


Fig.  1874. — The  Animal  of  the  Dentalium. 

the  netk.  The  PatellldcB,  or  Limpets,  may  be  considered  as  the 
types  of  this  group  ;  they  are  inclosed  in  a  conical  shell,  the  interior 
of  which  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  Animal ;  the  foot  is  very  large, 
and  by  means  of  it  the  Limpet  fixes  its  little  residence  so  firmly  to 
rocks  and  other  objects  that  it  is  not  to  be  detached  without  great 
difficulty. 

Those  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  observing  Limpets  on  the 
rocks  of  our  own  coast  cannot  fail  to  have  observed  that  in  many 
instances  the  shell  is,  as  it  were,  let  into  the  rock  to  some  depth, 
and  that  evidently  by  the  operation  of  the  Mollusc  in  excavating  a 
cavity  which  is  adapted  precisely  to  the  form  and  size  of  the  shell. 
It  is  not  very  easy  to  explain,  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  the  mode  by 
which  this  wearing  of  the  rock  is  accomplished.  Some  are  inclined 
to  attribute  it  to  the  effect  of  absorption  ;  others  to  the  perpetual 
action  of  a  current  of  water,  caused  by  the  action  of  the  branchial 
fringe  around  the  mantle  ;  and  others  to  the  agency  of  some  secre- 
tion by  which  the  structure  of  the  rock  is  decomposed.  Some 
species  adhere  to  shells,  and  the  same  effect  is  produced  as  on  the 
rock. 

In  an  admirable  paper  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions  "  for 
1833,  on  the  economy  of  molluscous  animals,  Mr.  Gray,  speaking  of 
a  foreign  species  (the  Patella  cochlea),  often  found  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  states  that  it  lives  "  almost  exclusively  attached  to  a 
large  species  of  the  same  genus,  on  the  surface  of  which  it  forms  a 
flat  disc  exactly  the  size  of  its  mouth.  To  form  these  flat  discs  (of 
which  there  are  generally  two — one  on  each  side  of  the  apex  of  the 
larger  Patella,  so  as  almost  to  form  a  character  of  the  species),  and 
to  assist  in  the  increase  of  its  size,  the  Animal  appears  also  to 
absorb  the  Coralline  or  other  similar  substances  with  which  the 
larger  shells  are  abundantly  covered.  The  Common  Patella  of  our 
own  coast,  when  long  adherent  to  another  shell  of  its  own  species, 
to  chalk,  or  to  old  red  sandstone,  or  limestone,  also  forms  for  itself  a 
deep  cavity  of  the  same  form  as  its  shell,  and  evidently  produced  by 
the  dissolution  of  the  surface  to  which  it  is  affixed." 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Limpet  adapts  the  rim  of  its  shell 
to  the  shape  or  irregularities  of  the  substance  to  which  it  adheres. 
This  has  been  often"  noticed,  and  is  dwelt  upon  by  Mr.  Gray.  He 
observes,  that,  "  when  a  Patella  or  a  Crepidula  has  attached  itself 
to  the  flat  surface  of  a  rock,  or  the  leaf  of  a  large  fucus,  the  base  of 
its  shell  is  flat,  and  its  mouth  roundish  ;  when  it  adheres  to  a  concave 
surface,  such  as  the  cavity  of  an  old  shell,  the  base  becomes 
flattened,  and  convex  internally ;  and  when  it  fixes  itself  on  the 
round  stalk  of  a  fucus,  the  sides  become  compressed  so  as  in  some 


THE  GASTEROPODOUS  MOLLUSCS. 


747 


measure  to  clasp  the  stem,  and  the  lateral  portions  of  llic  base  pro- 
ject beyond  the  front  and  hinder  parts  to  such  an  extent  that  \vhcn 
placed  on  a  flat  surface  it  rocks  backwards  and  forwards.  Several 
nominal  species  of  tliese  and  allied  genera  depend  on  variations  in 
the  shape  of  the  shell,  caused  by  the  adhesion  of  the  animal  to 
surfaces  of  different  forms  :  thus  the  Patella  pcllucida  oi  Montagu 
is  synonymous  with  the  P.  cariilca  of  the  same  author,  the  former 
having  been  founded  on  specimens  taken  from  the  stalk,  and  the 
latter  on  individuals  obtained  from  the  flattened  frond  of  the  fucus, 
on  which  the  species  usually  takes  up  its  abode.  It  is,  indeed,  by 
no  means  rare  to  find  specimens  in  which  the  Animal  has  moved 
from  one  of  these  positions  to  the  other,  and  in  such  cases  the  shell 
represents  P.  ccvi'tilca,  and  the  base  P.  ficllucida,  or  vice  vcrstl.  The 
same  change  takes  place  with  regard  to  P.  miniafa  and  P.  com- 
fressa  1  have  in  my  collection  a  specimen  of  this  latter  shell, 
which  is  P.  nifniafa  at  the  top,  it  having'  in  its  youth  lived  on  the 
frond  of  a  large  Cape  fucus  ;  it  afterwards  removed  to  the  stem,  and 
became  compressed,  and  consequently  is  in  this  part  the  P.  cojn- 
^rcssa  ;  but  by  some  accident  it  was  again  induced  to  change  its 
situation,  and,  removing  to  a  flat  surface,  the  edge  of  the  mouth 
e.xpanded,  and  it  became  a  second  time  P.  miniafa,  or,  perhaps, 
v.'hat  may  be  called  by  some  authors  P.  sacc/uiriiia,  as  this  also 
appears  to  be  a  conical  variety  of  the  same  species.  Lamarck  has 
described  a  similar  specimen  ;  and  JVIr.  Sowerby,  in  his  'Genera  of 
Shells,'  has  figured  an  example  of  this  species,  showing  the  two 
states.  In  like  manner  the  Crepiditla  ;po}-ccllana,  when  applied  to 
a  flat  surface,  has  an  expanded  base  and  a  flattened  inner  lip;  but 
when  adherent  to  a  convex  body,  such  as  the  stem  of  a  sea-weed,  or, 
as  frequently  happens,  to  the  back  of  another  shell  of  the  same 
species,  the  animal  being  pressed  into  the  cavity,  the  inner  lip  be- 
comes concave,  and  the  sides  of  the  aperture  are  contracted.  In 
this  state  the  shell  is  called  by  some  authors  Cfornicata. 

"  When  the  shells  of  this  family  are  adherent  to  irregular  surfaces, 
they  adapt  their  margins  to  the  irregularities  with  which  they  meet. 
I  have  several  specimens  from  the  coast  of  Devonshire,  having  one 
or  more  processes  on  their  sides  which  fitted  into  holes  in  the  rock 
to  which  I  found  them  attached ;  and  such  changes  are  the  more 
remarkable,  as  some  specimens  are  seen  constantly  moving  from 
place  to  place,  whilst  others  appear  to  remain  for  a  long  time 
fixed  to  one  spot,  and  even  those  that  are  stationary  in  the  young 
state  constantly  elevate  the  margins  of  their  shells  when  the  tide  is 
low." 

The  Common  Limpet  (see  Fig.  1875  ),  [Patella  vulgata),  is 
abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  and  few  have  visited  the  rocky 
shores  of  our  island  without  having  noticed  it,  if,  indeed,  they  have 
at  all  attended  to  the  living  productions  of  the  sea,  which  many  who 


Fig.  1S75. — The  Common  Limpet. 

visit  what  are  termed  watering-places  never  even  dreamt  of.  Many  an 
hour  which  drags  heavily  with  the  ennuye  would  pass  agreeably  were 
such  objects  sought  after  and  observed  ;  but  sorry  are  we  to  say  that 
to  some  Nature  has  little  attractiveness,  little  to  interest  or  delight. 
Such  a  man  exists  as  though  he  existed  not — he  loses  half  the 
pleasures  allotted  to  human  enjoyment. 

The  Chitonidce  resemble  the  Limpets  in  the  situation  of  their 
branchiae ;  but  these  organs  only  run  round  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body.  The  shell  in  the  Chitons  is  composed  of  eight  calcareous 
plates,  overlapping  one  another  at  the  edges,  and  united  by  a  strong 
leathery  mantle,  which  forms  a  border  all  round  the  shell.  They 
adhere  to  rocks  like  the  Limpets.  Our  British  species  are  all  small ; 
but  many  Tropical  species  attain  a  considerable  size,  and  of  these 
the  muscular  foot  is  often  eaten  by  the  natives  of  the  countries  in 
which  they  occur. 

The  Chilian  Chiton  {Cliiton  chilensis).  This  Chiton  has  the 
shell  oblong-ovate,  opaque,  and  thick,  of  a  dark-brown  colour, 
smooth  and  dull  ;  the  inside  is  white,  with  pink  markings  on  the 
first,  second,  and  last  plates.  The  plates  are  marked  by  longitudinal 
stria;,  and  crossed  by  irregular  concentric  ridges.  The  anterior  and 
posterior  plates  are  semilunate,  and  slightly  punctated  ;  the  second 
plate  is  subcarinated,  with  the  front  margin  obtusely  angled,  the 
lateral  margins  arcuate  ;  and  the  posterior  margin  with  a  prominent 
beak,  on  each  side  of  which  diverges  a  rather  elevated  granulated 
ridge  ;  the  next  five  valves  are  alike  bow-shaped,  with  a  granulate 


ridge  on  each  side.  The  border  is  smooth,  coriaceous,  or  leathery, 
tough,  thick,  and  of  a  darker  colour  than  the  shell  ;  it  is  semipellu- 
cid,  broad  at  the  sides,  and  narrow  anteriorly  and  posteriorly.  Tliis 
species  is  found  on  the  shores  of  Valparaiso,  in  the  crevices  of  rocks, 
and  under  stones.     (See  Fig.  1876). 


Fig.  1876.— The  Chilian  Chiton.        Fig.  1S77.— De  Bbiiiville's  Chiton. 

De  Blainville's  Chiton  {Chiton  blainvilllii).  In  this  curious 
species  the  border  of  the  mantle  is  greatly  enlarged  anteriorly  and 
contracted  posteriorly  ;  it  is  of  an  orange  red,  and  fringed  here  and 
there,  not  with  hairs,  but  with  little  coriaceous  filaments.  The  shell 
is  roundish,  the  anterior  plate  is  obscurely  ranged,  the  posterior  one 
small  and  abrupt,  the  others  are  concentrically  lineated.  The 
general  colour  is  roseate,  varied  with  white,  brown,  and  greenish  ; 
inner  surface  white.  This  Chiton  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the 
Inner  Lobos  Island,  coast  of  Peru.     (See  Fig.  1877). 

The  Tufted  Chiton  {Chiton  fascicularis).  This  is  a  small 
species  found  on  the  southern  coast  of  our  island,  and  also  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Specimens  from  the  Barbary  coast  are  stated  by 
Montagu  to  measure  not  unfrequently  an  inch 
in  length.  British  specimens  measure  about 
five-eights  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  rather 
more  than  two-eights  of  an  inch  in  breadth. 
The  shell  is  apparently  smooth,  but,  when  ex- 
amined by  a  glass,  presents  a  rough  shagreened 
surface,  except  along  the  elevated  dorsal  ridge  ; 
around  the  margin,  at  the  junction  of  each 
plate,  is  a  tuft  of  whitish  hair;  besides  two 
tiifts  in  front,  making  altogether  eighteen.  The  colour  is  brown  or 
cinereous.     (See  Fig.  1878). 

The  Peruvian  Chiton  {Chiton  pcruvianiis).  The  Peruvian 
Chiton  has  the  border  of  the  mantle  narrow  and  coriaceous,  and 
thickly  covered  with  long  coarse  black  hairs.  The  shell  is  oblong- 
ovate,  opaque,  of  a  dirty  yellowish  green,  or  yellowish  brown  ;  the 
inside  is  white.  The  plates  are  thin  and  slightly  elevated,  having 
the  posterior  compartments  a  little  raised  ;  they  are  minutely 
striated.  From  between  each  emerges  a  series  of  short  black  hairs, 
which  lie  on  the  back  of  the  shell.  This  species  is  found  under 
stones  at  low  water,  on  the  shores  of  Valparaiso  Bay.  Its  length  is 
two  inches,  its  breadth  one  inch  and  a-half.  (See  Fig.  1879). 
The    Spinose    Chiton.   {Chiton    spinosus).     In  the    Spinose 


Fig.  1S7S.— The 
Tufted  Chiton. 


Fig.  iS79.-The  Peruvian  Chiton.        Fig.   1S80.— The  Spinoss  Chiiou. 


748 


THE  GASTEROPODOUS  iMOLLUSCS. 


Chiton  the  shell  is  brownish  black  ;  the  plates  are  opaque,  those  an- 
teriorly placed  are  granulated  over  the  entire  surface,  those 
posteriorly  are  granulated  at  the  sides.  The  border  of  the  mantle  is 
wide,  and  beset  with  long  aculeated  blackish  spines,  closely  resem- 
bling those  of  certain  jE'c///«/.  Total  length  three  inches.  This  is 
a  very  rare  species,  and,  according  to  Peron,  is  a  native  of  the 
South  Seas.     (See  Fig.  1880). 

The  Spiniferous  Chiton  {Chiton  spinifcrus).  Ckifo?i  aculea- 
t!(s,  Barnes,  not  Linna;us.  This  is  a  large  species,  with  the  shell 
opaque,  oblong-ovate,  reddish  brown,  and  glossy ;  the  inside  is 
reddish  white.  The  posterior  angles  of  the  plates  do  not  overlap 
the  anterior  edges  of  the  succeeding.  The  first  plate  has  generally 
nine  rows  of  raised  dots  diverging  trom  the  ape.x,  but  the  number 
appears  to  vary  with  age  ;  the  second  plate  is  rather  acutely  beaked 
and  carinated,  longer  than  the  five  following,  which  are  striated  and 
shaped  alike,  carinated,  with  an  acute  beak,  and  presenting  a  row 
of  elevated  dots.  The  last  plate  is  striated  and  beaked,  with  a  row 
of  raised  dots  under  the  beak.  The  border  is  coriaceous,  thick, 
broad,  rough,  and  of  a  greenish  or  orange  colour.  In  young  speci- 
mens it  is  thickly  covered  with  blunt  spines,  but  in  old  shells  the 
spines  are  short  and  scanty,  and  generally  covered  with  corallines. 
This  species  attains  to  the  length  of  five  or  six  inches,  but  it  is  then 
destitute  of  beauty,  the  sharpness  of  the  pattern  on  the  shell  being 
lost,  and  the  spines  covered  with  a  dirty  coat  of  calcareous  matter, 
so  often  observed  encrusting  old  shells  and  other  submarine  bodies, 
the  result  of  precipitation. 

This  species  is  found  on  the  rocky  coasts  of  Valparaiso  and  Chili. 
It  frequents  exposed  situations,  and  is  often  found  adhering  to  the 
rocks  over  which  the  sea  breaks  with  great  violence,  where  there  is 
no  little  danger,  as  well  as  difficulty,  in  obtaining  them  ;  they  are 
generally  covered  with  sea-weed.     (See  Fig.  1881.) 


rig.   18S1.— The  Spiniferous  Chiton.       Fig.   18S2.— The  Coquimbo  Chiton. 

The  Coquimbo  Chiton  {Chifoyi  coguimbensi's).  The  shell  of 
this  species  is  ovate,  narrow,  and  opaque  ; — while  young,  its  colour 
is  of  a  glossy  greenish-brown  ;  the  inside  blackish.  The  anterior 
plate  is  marked  with  numerous  undulated  concentric  ridges,  and  all 
except  the  first  are  rather  acutely  keeled  and  beaked  ;  a  ridge 
diverges  on  each  side  from  the  beak,  forming  a  sagittate  figure, 
below  which  are  longitudinal  striae.  The  border  is  thick,  moderately 
broad,  and  covered  with  coarse  seed-like  scales,  which  are  attached 
laterally.  As  the  Animal  advances  in  age,  the  middle  of  the  plates, 
which  are  very  solid,  become  eroded,  "and  covered  with  Limpets^ 
Balani,  &c.  The  only  locality,  Mr.  Frembley  says,  in  which  he 
found  this  species,  was  on  the  south  side  of  the  coast  of  Coquimbo 
Bay.  In  its  habits  it  resembles  the  preceding  species,  excepting, 
as  he  states,  that  it  appears  to  be  more  gregarious.  (See  Fio-.' 
1882. ) 

The  Magnificent  Chiton  [Chiton  magnificus).  It  is  very 
difficult  to  give,  by  mere  words,  an  idea  of  the  patterns  which  the 
shells  of  the  Chitons  present,  and  of  the  form  of  the  separate  plates. 
Mr.  Frembley,  whose  details  we  follow,  characterises  the  shell  as 
dull,  opaque,  olivaceous,  and  dotted  with  lighter-coloured  spots,  with 
the  inside  glaucous.  The  first  plate  has  regularly  radiatino-  strije, 
crossed  by  concentric  ridges  ;  the  posterior  margin  is  nearly  s?raio-ht! 
The  other  plates  are  obtusely  beaked,  and  divided  laterally  into  ^two 
compartments,  the  anterior  having  regular  longitudinal  stria,  crossed 
by  others  very  minute  and  concentric  ;  from  under  the  beaks  diverge 
to  the  lateral  margins  of  ll.c  plates  coar:-c  an  J  more  irrcijular  striic 


which  raise  the  posterior  compartment  above  the  other.  The  last 
plate  has  a  well-defined  apex  leaning  towards  the  posterior  margin. 
The  border  is  thin,  moderately  broad,  and  covered  with  fine  shining 
bead-like  granulations  of  the  same  colour  as  the  shells. 

The  Pecti)iibra7icliiata  exhibit  the  characters  of  the  sub-order  in 
their  greatest  perfection  ;  the  branchiaj  are  usually  single,  and  in- 
closed in  a  cavity  over  the  neck  of  the  Animal. 

The  Calypircsidce  have  a  Limpet-like  shell,  which  is  usually  some- 
what spiral  at  the  apex,  and  frequently  furnished  with  a  sort  of  shelf 
of  shelly  rnatter  in  the  interior.  They  appear  to  pass  a  perfectly 
sedentary  life,  attached  to  stones  and  rocks,  to  the  irregularities  in 
the  surface  of  which  their  shells  usually  adapt  themselves.     In  the 


Fig.  1883.— The  Magnificent  Chiton. 

HalioiidcB  the  spiral  conformation  of  the  shell  goes  a  little  further ; 
and  there  is  a  perforation  or  notch  for  the  passage  of  the  anal 
siphon  at  the  posterior  margin.  In  the  Common  Ear-shells  these 
perforations  are  arranged  in  a  row  along  the  back  of  the  shell.  The 
Animal  has  a  short  muzzle  and  two  branchial  plumes.  The  Fis- 
siirellida;,  which  are  nearly  allied  to  these,  have  a  shell  closely 
resembling  that  of  the  Limpet  in  form,  but  perforated  at  the  apex  for 
the  passage  of  the  anal  current. 

The  family  lantliinidce  contains  a  few  species  of  Oceanic 
Mollusca,  which  possess  a  shell  almost  exactly  resembling  that  of  a 
Common  Land-snail  ;  it  is  of  a  delicate  texture,  deep  violet  at  the 
base,  and  with  the  spire  white.  The  Animal  has  two  branchial 
plumes,  a  muzzle-shaped  head,  with  tentacles,  but  without  eyes,  and 
a  very  small  foot,  which,  however,  secretes  a  remarkable  structure, 
considered  to  be  the  analogue  of  the  operculum.  It  consists  of  a 
large  raft,  composed  of  numerous  horny  vesicles  filled  with  air,  to 
the  under-surface  of  which  the  Animal  attaches  its  eggs,  and  thus 
swims  about  the  surface  of  the  water,  being  supported  by  the  buoy- 
ancy of  the  float.  The  lanihinida  are  Carnivorous  Animals  ;  they 
often  occur  in  vast  numbers  in  the  Atlantic,  and  are  sometimes 
driven,  by  stress  of  weather,  upon  the  southern  shores  of  our 
island. 

In  the  NaticidcB,  the  shell,  which  is  globular,  composed  of  few 
whorls,  and  opening  with  an  entire  aperture,  is  partially  inclosed  in 
the  mantle  ;  the  foot  is  very  large  ;  furnished  in  front  with  a  broad 
lobe,  which  conceals  the  head,  and  behind  which  the  tentacles  rise. 
The  mouth  has  a  long  retractile  proboscis,  and  the  Animals  are  car- 
nivorous in  their  habits.  They  are  all  marine.  In  the  Turbitiidw, 
the  shell  is  more  or  less  conical  or  pyramidal,  generally  with  a 
distinct  umbilicus,  and  the  aperture  is  closed  by  a  spiral  operculum. 
The  Animal  has  a  short  muzzle  ;  the  tentacles  are  long  and  slender, 
with  the  eyes  supported  upon  short  foot-stalks  at  their  bases ;  the 
sides  are  frequently  furnished  with  tentacular  cirri,  and  the  branchial 
plume  is  single.  The  shells  are  generally  pearly  in  the  interior. 
These  Animals  are  very  numerous,  and  widely  distributed  ;  they  are 
all  marine,  and  feed  on  vegetable  substances.  The  pyramidal 
Trochi,  or  top-shells,  are  very  common  on  all  our  coasts. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  TnrbiJiidcB  are  the  Nei-ittdce,  a  small  family  of 
Molluscs,  furnished  with  a  thick  and  somewhat  globose  shell,  with 
a  small  spire,  and  the  margins  of  the  aperture  turned  in  and 
toothed.  The  columellar  lip  has  a  projecting  plate,  behmd 
which  the  inner  walls  of  the  spire  are  removed  ;  so  that  the  anterior 
of  the  shell  presents  a  simple  cavity.  The  animals  have  a  broad 
foot,  a  broad  muzzle,  and  very  long  tentacles,  at  the  base  of  which 
the  eyes  are  placed  upon  short  foot-stalks.  Most  of  them  are 
marine  ;  but  one  genus,  the  Neritina,  inhabits  fresh  water.  The 
mouth  of  the  shell  is  closed  by  an  appcndiculate  operculum. 


THE  AMPULLARIJE. 


749 


In  the  large  family  of  Turrtfellidm,  the  shell  exhibits  a  great 

variety  of  form,  being  sometimes  semi-globular,  with  a  short  spire, 
or  even  discoid,  and  sometimes  much  elongated  and  tapering 
gradually  to  the  apex.  The  aperture  is  entire,  and  closed  by  an 
operculum,  which  is  usually  horny  and  spiral.     The  animal  has  long 


Ceratodesfasciatus,  Guilding.  A  represents  the  Animal  creeping  ;  n, 
the  Animal  in  a  supine  position  ;  a,  the  operculum ; '  b,  the  right 
siphon  ;  c,  the  respiratory  siphon  ;  C,  the  head  tentacles,  eyes  at 
their  base,  and  expansions  at  the  side  of  the  neck.    (Fig.  1887). 


Fig.  1SS4. — The  Nerita  foHta. 

slender  tentacles,  which  usually  bear  the  eyes  on  their  outer  surface, 
at  or  near  the  base.  The  head  is  generally  short  and  broad,  without 
a  proboscis,  and  the  two  rows  of  teeth  on  the  lingual  ribbon  are  ar- 
ranged in  rows  of  seven.     (See  Fig.  1884.) 


Fig.  18S5.— The  Awl-shaped  Turritella. 

Most  of  these  Animals  are  marine,  but  several  genera  are  found 
in  fresh  water ;  of  these,  the  Pahidiiia  vivipara,  which  is  common 
in  Britain,  is,  as  its  name  implies,  viviparous,  the  young  being 
hatched  and  retained  within  the  oviduct  until  they  have  attained  a 
considerable  development.  The  AmpullaricB  are  furnished  with  a 
long  siphon.  They  also  inhabit  fresh  waters,  and  often  possess 
beautiful  shells.  The  Common  Periwinkle  {Lif/oruia  littorea)  also 
belongs  to  this  family.  In  the  genus  Vermetus  and  its  allies,  the 
whorls  of  the  spire  are  separated  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length, 
giving  the  shell  the  appearance  of  a  twisted  tube  ;  from  this  circum- 
stance they  were  referred  to  \.\\i.  Aniielides\>&ioxt.  the  Animal  was 
known. 

The  following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  some  of  the  A»i- 
pullaria:. 

The  Doubtful  Ampullaria  {Ampullaria  dubia).  The 
Animal  is  represented  creeping:  a  is  the  operculum;  <5,  the  right 
siphon  ;  c,  the  left  siphon.  The  same  species  is  represented  at  Fig. 
1886,  so  as  to  show  the  lower  side  of  the  foot;  the  Animal  appears 
in  the  act  of  ascending  to  breathe,  and  with  the  respiratory  siphon 
protruded,  a  is  the  operculum ;  b,  the  right  siphon  ;  c,  the  left 
siphon. 

TuJi  RuVM's  Horn  Ampullaria  {Ampullaria  coriiii  arielis). 


Fig.  1886.— The  Doubtful  Ampullaria. 

The  Globose  Ampullaria  {Ampullaria  globoso).  This  species 
is  said  by  Mr.  Swainson  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  rivers  of  India. 
The  shell  is  represented  as  having  the  mouth  closed  by  the  opercu- 
lum. In  this  species  the  margin  of  the  aperture  is  thick  and 
grooved.     (See  Fig.  1888). 

Ampullarias  have  at  various  times  been  brought  alive  to  Europe. 
An  able  naturalist  informs  us  that  the  first,  as  it  would  seem,  were 
sent  to  Paris,  by  INI.  Caillaud,  from  the  Nile.  We  learn  that  that 
naturalist,  during  his  voyage  to  Meroe,  collected  several  Egyptian 
Molluscs,  which  he  distributed  generously  among  collectors.  One 
correspondent  had  been  anxious  for  the  Fluviatile  Molluscs  found  in 
the  Nile.  The  person  employed  to  collect  these,  after  having 
gathered  a  large  quantity  of  river  Molliisca,  among  which  were  some 
Uving  AmpuUariss,  put  them  all  into  a  box  of  bran  (son).  This  box 
was  delayed  on  its  road  by  the  operation  of  the  quarantine  laws  for 
four  months,  and,  when  it  reached  M.  Caillaud,  was  in  such  a  state, 
from  the  putrefaction  of  the  greater  part  of  its  animal  contents,  that 
he  hastened  to  throw  the  whole  into  the  water.  To  his  no  small 
surprise,  he  found,  a  few  hours  after,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Ampullaria:,  which  had  been  shut  up  with  this  mass  of  putrefaction, 
quietly  creeping  about  upon  the  mud.  He  gave  many  individuals 
to  M.  Deshayes,  who  kept  them  alive  from  four  to  five  months.  The 
latter  zoologist  remarks  that,  since  that  communication,  Mr. 
Sowerby,  in  tire  "Zoological  Journal,"  and  M.  Quoy,  in  the 
"  Zoology  of  the  Astrolabe,"  have  given  the  figures  of  many  other 
species  of  AmpuUarise,  several  of  which  have  been  brought  alive  to 
Europe. 

On  the  2gth  of  October,  1833,  Mr.  Cuming,  so  well  known  for  the 
great  additions  which  he  has  contributed  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
Alollusca  by  his  collections  from  the  west,  and  who  had  since  been 
employed  in  the  same  laudable  pursuit  in  the  east,  to  the  great 
enrichment  of  this  department  of  zoology,  brought  to  Mr.  Broderip 
a  specimen  of  Ampullaria  globoso,  expressing  his  opinion  that  it 
might  be  alive.  Mr.  Broderip  immediately  placed  the  specimen  in 
a  deep  dish  with  some  earth  at  the  bottom,  which  was  covered  with 
New  River  water,  and  set  it  before  the  fire.  On  the  29th  the  Animal 
gave  no  sign  ;  but  on  the  30th  it  came  forth,  and  soon  showed  tokens 
of  vigorous  life.  It  was  afterwards  removed  in  a  globular  glass  vase 
such  as  is  used  for  Gold  and  Silver  Fish,  with  a  good  layer  of  earth 
at  the  bottom.  The  water  and  earth  were  changed  periodically,  and 
the  Animal  continued  to  live  in  apparently  good  health  for  many 
weeks.  Its  death  was  probably  occasioned  by  the  difficulty  of 
resisting  the  low  temperature  of  the  long  cold  winter  nights,  where 
there  were  no  stoves,  in  short  nothing  beyond  the  ordinary  fires  of  a 
dwelling-house.  The  specimen  was  sent  to  the  Museum  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

M.  Deshayes  proceeds  to  observe  that  it  became  an  object  of 
inquiry  how  Aquatic  Animals,  unable  to  respire  except  by  means  of 
a  pectinated  brand. ;n,  roukl  remain  alive  so  long  out  of  the  element 


750 


THE  CERITHIIDJE,  life. 


apparently  necessary  to  their  existence.  Nearly  all  the  persons,  he 
remarks,  who  occupied  themselves  with  this  phenomenon,  thought 
that  the  Animal  on  retiring  into  its  shell  carried  with  it  a  certain 
quantity  of  water,  which  could  not  escape,  owing  to  the  retention  of 
the  operculum,  which  closes  the  aperture  with  great  exactness. 
Others  thouglit  that  the  humid  air  carried  upon  the  branchije  was 
sufficient  to  keep  up  the  respiratory  action.     "  Wishing  to  know," 


Fig.  1SS7.     The  Ram's  Horn  Ampullaria. 

continues  M.  Deshayes,  "whether  there  were  anything  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  animal  which  could  explain  the  singularity,  we  soon 
perceived  that  the  upper  wall  of  the  branchial  cavity  was  double, 
and  formed  a  great  pouch,  the  aperture  of  which  was  placed  back- 


wards, above  the  origin  of  the  branchije.  Plunged  in  the  water, 
the  animal  has  this  pouch  constantly  filled  with  the  ambient  liquid, 
and,  on  retiring  into  its  shell,  and  shutting  itself  up  under  its  oper- 
culum, this  bag  still  remains  filled  with  water,  and  thus  furnishes 
the  necessary  materials  for  the  function  of  respiration.  Everything 
leads  us  to  believe  that  this  is  the  only  cause  which  permits  the 
A}npu!larice,  Pectinibranchiated  Aquatic  Animals,  to  remain  a  long 
time  out  of  the  water  without  perishing,  and  this  explains  also  how 
it  happens  that  in  certain  lakes  which  are  annually  dry,  AmpHUaricB 
are  always  to  be  found.  When  the  great  heats  approach,  and  they 
plunge  themselves  into  the  mud  or  sand,  they  preserve  in  their 
branchial  sacs  the  quantity  of  water  necessary  for  them  during  the 
whole  time  of  drought." 

This,  as  a  writer  obser\'es,  is  one  of  those  beautiful  provisions 
which  meet  the  naturalist  everywhere.  The  Tropical  torrent  and 
lake  may  yield  to  the  dry  season  and  burning  sun,  but  the  Ampullaria, 
secure  in  the  possession  of  his  water-bag,  can  afford,  like  the  Camel 
in  the  desert,  to  wait  till  the  rains  furnish  a  fresh  supply,  and  again 
fill  the  parched  channel. 

With  respect  to  Fossil  species  of  this  genus,  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby 
states  that  he  is  not  certain  of  the  existence  of  any  ;  several,  he  adds, 
\  are  mentioned  by  Lamarck,  in  the  "  Annales  du  Museum,"  among 
j  the  Fossil  Shells  of  the  environs  of  Paris  ;  others,  which  are  thought 
I  to  be  genuine,  are  found  in  the  London  clay  at  Hordwell,  and  in  the 
j  mixed  stratum  between  the  two  Fresh-water  beds  at  Headen  Hill,  in 
i  the  Isle  of  Wight.  M.  Deshayes  is  of  opinion  that  many  Fossil 
i  species,  referred  to  Natica,  ought  to  find  a  place  in  the  genus 
Anipullaj-im. 

M.  Deshayes  goes  on  to  state  that  up  to  the  time  when  he  wrote 
(1838),  there  have  hardly  been  found  any  fossil  species  of  Ampullaria 
about  which  there  is  not  some  doubt.  Those  Shells  which  he  has 
retained  in  the  genus,  from  the  character  of  the  aperture  and  the 
small  thickness  of  the  shell,  are,  he  says,  never  met  with  except  in 
marine  formations, and  one  may  always  suspect  that  the  animals  which 
produced  them  were  different  from  those  of  the  A  ttipuUaricB  properly 
so  called.  As  these  species  have  the  characters  of  Aiiipul/arics,  and 
we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  analogy  of  the  Animals,  we  are 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  characters  of  the  shells,  and  to 
determine  from  them  alone.  But  a  little  time  since,  he  remarks,  the 
belief  was  general  that  Fossil  ^«/^«//a/-/iS  belonged  exclusively  to 
the  Tertiary  beds ;  but  it  is  now  known  that  this  genus  occurs 
through  all  the  "terrains  de  sediment,"  for  Mr.  Sowerby  has 
recorded  a  fine  species  in  the  transition  beds,  and  M.  Deshayes  says 
that  he  knows  many  others  in  the  Oolitic  series,  and  even  in  the 
Lower  Chalk. 

The  number  of  Fossil  species  recorded  by  ]\L  Deshayes  in  his 
tables  is  fourteen  (Tertiary).  In  an  edition  of  Lamarck  the  number 
is  sixteen. 

The  genus  occurs  in  the  list  of  the  fossils  of  Lower  Styria  given  by 
Professor  Sedgwick  and  Mr.  Murchison  in  their  valuable  paper  "  On 
the  Structure  of  the  Eastern  Alps  "  ("  Geol.  Trans  ,"  vol.  iii.  second 
series),  and  in  Dr.  Mantell's  "  Tabular  Arrangement  of  the  Organic 
Remains  of  the  County  of  Sussex  "  (ibid.). 

The  Ccritliiida  have  an  elongated  spiral  shell,  with  the  outer 
margin  of  the  aperture  more  or  less  dilated,  and  the  base  produced 
into  a  slight  siphonal  canal  (Fig.  1889).     The  aperture  is  closed  by 


Fig.  iSSS.— The  Globose  Ampullaria. 


Fig.  1SS9. — The  Ceriihium  gramilosum, 

a  horny,  spiral  operculum.  The  Animal  has  a  short  muzzle,  and 
long,  slender  tentacles,  having  the  ej'es  on  the  outside,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  base.  The  Aporrha'is pes pelccani,  the  margin  of 
the  aperture  is  much  dilated,  and  the  siphonal  canal  very  distinct, 
forming  a  transition  to  the  next  family. 

The  Animals  of  the  following  families  are  all  carnivorous  in  their 
habits ;  they  have  spiral  shells,  with  the  aperture  notched,  or  pro- 
duced into  a  canal  at  the  anterior  extremity.  They  are  all  furnished 
with  a  retractile  proboscis. 

The  Siroinbidce  have  the  outer  lip  of  the  shell  much  expanded,  and 
notched  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  siphonal  canal ;  the  operculum 
is  elongated,  and  toothed  along  the  outer  margin.  The  foot  is 
narrow,  and  ill  adapted  for  creeping  ;  but  the  Animals  are  active, 
and  leap  well.  The  proboscis  is  long  and  thick,  the  eyes  large,  and 
supported  upon  long  stout  footstalks,  from  the  sides  of  which  the 
short  tentacles  take  their  rise.  The  operculum  is  borne  upon  a 
curious  process  of  the  foot  (see  Fig-.  1890).  The  dilated  margin  of 
the  aperture  is  often  singularly  toothed,  or  furnished  with  large 
spines,  as  in  the  well-known  scorpion-shells  {Pteroceras).  The 
StrombidcB  feed  principally  upon  carrion,  and  many  are  of  large  size. 


THE  MUREX  FAMILY. 


751 


Fig.  1891  represents  a  species  of  Stronibus  {Fteroceras  latnbi's), 
extricated  from  the  shell  and  dissected  (female) :  a,  the  foot  seen  at 
its  anterior  part  with  its  groove;  b,  the  operculum  fixed  at  its  pos- 
terior division  ;  c,  tlie  ocular  peduncles  or  tubes  with  the  slender 
tentacles  ;  d,  the  proboscis  open  to  show  the  tongue  ;  e,  the  cerebral 
ganglion,   behind    which   are    two   long  salivary    glands;  /,    the 


Fig.  1890. — The  Strombus, 

oesophagus  entering  a  large  stomach ;  g;  the  stomach  partially 
opened,  and  showing  the  entrance  of  the  cesophagus ;  h,  the 
intestinal  canal ;  i,  k,  I,  and  w,  other  internal  organs  ;  7i,  the  respira- 
tory siphon  ;  o,  the  large  branchia  with  its  vein  which  goes  to  the 
heart;  f,  small  and  rudimentary  branchia;  q,  the  heart;  r,  the 
liver. 


Fig.  1S91. — Animal  of  the  Strombus. 

In  the  vast  family  of  Mtiricidce,  the  outer  margin  of  the  shell  is 
rot  notched  near  the  canal  ;  the  canal  itself  is  sometimes  produced 
in  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  shell,  and  sometimes  reflexed.  The 
animal  has  a  long  proboscis,  with  which  it  bores  through  the  shells 
of  other  MoUusca;  shortish  tentacles,  which  sometimes  bear  the 
eyes,  and  a  broad  foot  adapted  for  crawling.  The  Muricidce  are  all 
marine,  predatory  animals.  Their  shells  are  generally  ornamented 
with  spines,  which  often  assume  the  most  singular  forms.  Many  of 
the  exotic  species  are  of  exceedingly  beautiful  colours,  and  some  are  of 
considerable  value.  The  large  Helmet-shells  {Cassis)  are  much 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cameos  ;  some  of  the  species,  such 
as  the  Whelks  {Buccmu»t),  are  eaten  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
celebrated  purple    dye  of   the   ancients   was   obtained   from   some 


Molluscs  belonging  to  this    family.      In   the   nearly-allied   family, 

Vohttidce,  which  also  contains  many  elegantly-marked  shells  (Fig. 
1892),  the  outer  margin  of  the  aperture  is  not  rellexed,  the  canal  is 
reduced  to  a  notch,  and  the  inner  lip  is  plaited.  The  shell  is  more 
or  less  enveloped  in  the  mantle  ;  tlie  foot  is  broad,  and  bears  no 
operculum.  These  animals  resemble  the  lluricidce  in  their  habits; 
they  are  found  principally  in  the  Tropical  seas. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  one  of  the  most  beautiful  shells, 
&c. ,  of  the  Muricidce  : — 

The  Royal  Murex  {Murex   regius).      This  splendid  shell   is 
found  along  the  western  coast  of  Central  and  South  America.     It  is 

one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  cabinet 
of  the  conchologist ;  nor  can  words 
convey  an  adequate  idea  of  its 
gorgeous  colouring. 

In  Lamarck's  day,  sixty-six  re- 
cent species  of  Murex,  and  fifteen 
Fossil  species  w-ere  recorded.  M. 
Deshayes  gives  the  number  of 
recent  species,  including  those  of 
the  genus  Typhis  (De  Montfort), 
as  seventy-five,  but  this  is  very  far 
below  the  mark  ;  he  enumerates 
eighty-nine  Fossil  species  in  the 
Tertiary  deposits. 

Mr.  Broderip,  in  the  "  Proceeds 
Zool.  Soc,"  describes  twenty-six 
new  species  of  Murex  from  the 
western  coast  of  South  America, 
and  the  islands  of  the  South  Paci- 
fic, and  also  five  species  of  Typliis, 
all  in  the  collection  of  Vix.  Cum- 
ing. 

The  Muricidce  {Siphonosio- 
mata,  De  Blainville),  and  the 
BuccinidcB  {Entoinostomata,  De 
Blainville),  appear  to  be  the  two 
principal  groups  of  marine  Gastro- 
pods (or  Trachelipods,*  as  some 
prefer  to  term  them),  destined  to 
keep  down  the  overabundance  of 
the  Bivalve  Molluscs  and  Herbi- 
vorous Gastropods  ;  they  are  the 
destroyers  among  the  races  of  their  class,  and  prowl  about  in  quest 
of  prey.  They  drill  the  shells  which  enclose  their  victim,  and  drain 
out  its  juices,  adhering  till  it  is  almost  utterly  consumed.  Nor  is 
this  destruction  carried  forward  on  a  limited  scale.  When  we  con- 
sider the  number  of  species  included  within  the  two  families  in 
question,  and  the  countless  thousands  of  individuals  of  each  of  these 
species,  and  reflect  upon  their  voracity,  we  may  form  some  slight 
idea  of  the  extent  of  their  operations,  and  of  the  consequent  influence 
they  must  exert  in  maintaining  the  balance  of  creation.     Throuo-hout 


Fig.  1892.— The  Valuta  undutata. 


Fig.  1893. — The  Royal  Murex. 

all  seas  are  these  Carnivorous  Molluscs  carrying  on  their  appointed 
work:  in  ministering  to  their  own  necessities,  they  fulfil  the  great 
part  in  the  vast  scheme  of  creation  to  which  they  are  appointed. 

*  Trachellpod,  from  rpax'Aof i  the  neck  ;  and  wovf ,  iroJof,  a  foot ;  the  foot 
in  these  Molluscs  appearing  as  if  under  the  head  and  neck. 


752 


THE   COWRIES. 


We  have  before  us  a  miscellaneous  assemblag-e  of  shells  picked  up 
upon  our  own  shores,  and  few  are  undrilled  ;  some  of  these  Carnivora 
have  battened  on  their  tenants,  and  the  waves  have  washed  them  on 
the  beach.  In  other  ages,  as  we  have  abundant  proofs,  the  plan  of 
destruction,  in  order  to" counterbalance  increase  among  these  marine 
shell-clad  Molluscs,  was  in  operation.  Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  admir- 
able "  Bridgewater  Treatise,"  gives  the  following  details  connected 
with  Fossil  shells,  once  the  living  inhabitants  of  other  seas,  when 
the  surface  of  our  planet  exhibited  a  different  arrangement  of  land 
and  water. 

"  Most  collectors,"  says  the  Professor,  "have  seen  upon  the  sea- 
shore numbers  of  dead  shells,  in  which  small  circular  holes  have 
been  bored  by  the  predaceous  tribes,  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  upon 
the  bodies  of  the  animals  contained  within  them  ;  similar  holes 
occur  in  many  fossil  shells  of  the  Tertiary  strata,  wherein  the  shells 
of  carnivorous  trachelipods  also  abound  ;  but  perforations  of  this 
kind  are  extremely  rare  in  the  Fossil  shells  of  any  older  formation. 
In  the  greensand  and  oolite  they  have  been  noticed  only  in  those 
few  cases  where  they  are  accompanied  by  the  shells  of  equally  rare 
carnivorous  molluscs  ;  and  in  the  lias  and  strata  below  it  there  are 
neither  perforations  nor  any  shells  having  the  notched  mouth 
peculiar  to  perforated  carnivorous  species.  It  should  seem  from 
these  facts  that,  in  the  economy  of  submarine  life,  the  great  family  of 
carnivorous  trachelipods  performed  the  same  necessary  office  during 
the  Tertiary  period  which  is  allotted  to  them  in  the  present  ocean. 
We  have  farther  evidence  to  show  that  in  times  anterior  to  and 
during  the  deposition  of  the  chalk,  the  same  important  functions 
were  consigned  to  other  carnivorous  Molluscs,  viz.,  the  testaceous 
cephalopods  :  these  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence  in  the 
Tertiary  strata  and  in  our  modern  seas ;  but  throughout  the 
secondary  and  transition  formations,  where  carnivorous  trachelipods 
are  either  wholly  wanting  or  extremely  scarce,  we  find  abundant 
remains  of  carnivorous  cephalopods.  consisting  of  the  chambered 
shells  of  nautili  and  ammonities,  and  many  kindred  extinct  genera  of 
polythalamous  shells  of  extraordinary  beauty.  The  Molluscous 
inhabitants  of  all  these  chambered  shells  probably  possessed  the 
voracious  habits  of  the  modern  cuttle-fish  ;  and  by  feeding  like 
them  upon  young  testacea  and  Crustacea,  restricted  the  excessive 
increase  of  animal  life  at  the  bottom  of  the  more  ancient  seas.  Their 
sudden  and  nearly  total  disappearance  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Ternary  era  would  have  caused  a  blank  in  the  'police  of  nature,' 
allowing  the  herbivorous  tribes  to  increase  to  an  excess  that  would 
ultimately  have  been  destructive  of  marine  vegetation,  as  well  as  of 
themselves,  had  they  not  been  replaced  by  a  different  order  of  carni- 
vorous creatures,  destined  to  perform  in  another  manner  the  office 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  ammonites  and  various  extinct  genera 
of  chambered  shells  then  ceased  to  discharge.  From  that  time  on- 
wards we  have  evidence  of  the  abundance  of  carnivorous  tracheli- 
pods, and  we  see  good  reason  to  adopt  the  conclusion  of  Mr. 
Dillwyn,  that  in  the  formation  above  the  chalk  the  vast  and  sudden 
decrease  of  one  predaceous  tribe  has  been  provided  for  by  the 
creation  of  many  new  genera  and  species  possessed  of  similar 
appetencies,  and  yet  formed  for  obtaining  their  prey  by  habits 
entirely  different  from  those  of  the  cephalopods.  The  design  of  the 
Creator  sems  at  all  times  to  have  been  to  fill  the  waters  of  the  seas 
and  cover  the  surface  of  the  earth  with  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  organised  beings  enjoying  life  ;  and  the  same  expedient  of  adapt- 
ing the  vegetable  kingdom  to  become  the  basis  of  the  life  of  animals 
and  of  multiplying  largely  the  amount  of  animal  existence  by  the 
addition  of  carnivora  to  the  herbivora,  appears  to  have  prevailed 
from  tlie  first  commencement  of  organic  life  to  the  present  hour." 
("  Bridgewater  Treatise.") 

The  beautiful  animals,  forming  the  family  ConidcB,  are  nearly 
allied  to  the  preceding.  Their  shells  are  of  a  reverse  conical  form, 
becoming  broader  towards  the  apex,  the  spire  being  often  quite  flat  ; 
the  aperture  is  long  and  narrow,  and  the  operculum  is  very  small. 
The  teeth  on  the  lingual  ribbon  are  arranged  in  pairs.  These  are 
exceedingly  predatory  animals,  and  are  said  to  bite  severely  when 


Kig.  1S94. — T"he  Ordinary  Cone. 

touched.  Many  of  the  slu  lis  are  exceed!  ngly  elegant,  and  some  of  the 
rare  species  have  realised  almost  fabulous  prices.  (.See  Fig.  1894, 
which   illustrates   the   ordinary   Cone,    Conus  generalis).     In   the 


CyprcBidcB,  one  species  of  which,  the  Cyjiraa  tigris  (Fig.  1895),  is  so 
common  that  it  must  be  familiar  to  every  one,  the  shell  presents  a 
very  different  appearance  at  different  ages.  In  the  young  state  it  is 
distinctly  spiral,  with  a  plain  outer  lip  ;  but  as  it  increases  in  age, 
the  whorls  are  brought  into  the  same  plane,  and  in  course  of  time 
the  spire  is  usually  entirely  concealed.  At  the  same  time  the  outer 
lip  becomes  thickened,  turned  in  and  dentated,  producing  the  ap- 


Fii 


1S96,— The  Adult 
Cowry. 


Fig.  1S95. — The  Cyprica  tigris. 

pearance  shown  at  Fig.  1896.  The  animal  greatly  resembles  that 
of  the  Volutida ;  but  the  mantle  usuadly  covers  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  shell,  and  deposits  upon  its  surface  the  enamel  which  contributes 
so  much  to  the  beautiful  appearance  of  these  shells. 

From  the  polish  of  their  surface  and  the  beauty  of  their  marking's, 
the  Cowries  are  in  considerable  request  in  our  island  as  chimney 
ornaments,  and  indeed,  as  a  writer  well  ob- 
serves, they  "  have  been  in  demand  among 
civilized  and  uncivilized  nations  time  out  of 
memory."  There  is,  in  fact,  a  circumstance 
connected  with  the  history  of  these  shells 
which  proves  the  general  interest  taken  in 
them,  and  the  value  (formerly  greater  than  at 
present)  in  which  they  were  estimated ;  we 
allude  to  the  circumstance  of  their  being  used 
as  coin,  or,  in  other  words,  of  their  consiiiuting 
a  portion  at  least  of  the  currency  of  several 
countries.  In  many  parts  of  India,  in  the 
Burmese  empire,  in  Siam,  &c.,  as  well  as  on 
the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  in  Dahomy,  they  pass 
as  money,  though  of  course  their  value  is 
trifling  compared  with  that  of  gold  or  silver, 
and  from  their  multiplication  this  value  is 
on  the  decrease.  We  learn  that  in  1740 
a  rupee  in  Bengal  was  worth  two  thousand  four 
hundred  Cowries ;  in  1760,  two  thousand  five 
hundred  and  sixty  Cowries  ;  and  at  the  present 
time,  upwards  of  three  thousand  two  hundred. 
According  to  Kelly,  four  Cowries  make  one  gunda,  twenty  gundas 
one  punn,  four  punns  one  anna,  four  annas  one  cahaun,  and  four 
cahauns  one  current  rupee  ;  but  the  last  proportion  is  variable. 

The  Cowries  used  as  current  coin  are  obtained  principally  about 
the  Philippine  Islands,  the  Maldive  Islands,  and  the  coast  of  Congo  ; 
at  these  different  localities  they  constitute  an  article  of  export. 
After  the  high  tides,  the  women  are  occupied  for  three  days  in 
filling  baskets  with  the  sand  with  which  the  Cowry  shells  are  mixed  ; 
these  are  afterwards  separated  from  the  sand,  and  heaped  on  the 
shore,  when  the  Molluscs  soon  die;  they  are  then  ready  for  the 
market.     The  species  is  the  CypJ'cea  7noneta  of  Linnaeus. 

The  general  characters  of  the  adult  shells  of  the  CyJ»-cea  may  be 
thus  summed  up : — texture  highly  porcellaneous ;  form  oval  or 
oblong,  more  or  less  rounded  or  cylindrical,  with  a  small  and 
imbedded  spire  ;  outer  lip  involute  ;  aperture  longitudinal,  nearly 
straight,  toothed  or  plaited  on  each  side,  with  a  channel  or  groove 
at  each  end.  Very  different,  however,  as  we  have  previously 
remarked,  is  the  young  shell  from  the  adult,  and  decided  are  the 
changes  which  it  undergoes  in  its  progress  to  maturity.  Mr.  Gray 
thus  describes  the  change  : — "  The  shell  alters  its  appearance  con- 
siderably, according  to  the  age  of  the  individual,  and  e.xhibits  three 
very  distinct  stages.  In  the  young  or  first  stages,  which  are  figured 
in  the  "  Encycl.  Method.,"  t.  349,  f.  a,  b ;  the  "  Mus.  Gotwald," 
viii.  t.  53,  b,  e ;  65,  a,  f;  66,  a,  c,  the  shell  is  generally  smooth,  of 
a  plain  greyish  colour,  or  with  three  transverse  bands,  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  inner  lip  is  smooth  and  convex,  the  lower  part  flat  or 
concave ;  the  outer  lip  is  thin.  In  the  second  stage  the  shell 
begins  to  assume  more  the  character  of  the  genus,  as  the  outer  lip 
begins  to  be  inflected,  or  rather  thickened,  and  approaches  nearer 
the  perfect  appearance  of  the  species  as  the  second  coat  of  colour  is 
deposited ;  but  it  differs  from  the  perfect  shell  in  the  want  of  thick- 
ness, in  the  spire  being  more  distinct,  and  in  the  want  of  the  dorsal 
line  which  is  usually  distinct  in  the  third  or  perfect  state,  when  the 
last  coat  has  been  deposited  (by  the  reflected  mantle),  and  the 
aperture  is  more  plaited  on  both  sides.  The  colouring,  or,  at  least, 
the  disposition  of  colourings  in  the  Cowries,  is  a  much  more  certain 
characteristic  of  species  than  either  the  general  outline  of  form  or 
size,  the  latter  of  which  is  exceedingly  various.  In  this  family  I 
have  often  observed  full-grown  specimens  of  C.  arabica  from  one 


THE  COWRIES. 


753 


to  three  inches  long.  This  peculiarity  is  attempted  to  be  explained 
by  Lamarck  and  others,  who  assert  that  when  the  animal  has  formed 
a  complete  shell,  as  it  has  not  the  faculty  of  enlarging  its  size,  it  is 
obliged  to  quit  its  shell  and  form  a  new  one,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Anntclosa  cast  their  skins,  and  by  that  means  the  same  animal 
forms  many  shells  ;  but  I  believe  there  is  not  the  slightest  ground  for 
this  notion."  Figs.  1997  and  1998  display  the  Cypiwa  exa?i- 
thcma  in  various  stages.     Fig.    997  is  the  Young  in  the  first  stage  : 

a,  the  back  ;  b,  the  front  view  of 
the  same,  showing  the  columella 
and  the  thin  edge  of  the  outer  lip. 
Fig.  1998,  the  same  at  more  ad- 
vanced periods :  c  exhibits  the 
back  ;  the  apex  is  already  sinking, 
and  the  thickened  lips  are  formed  ; 
d  shows  the  shell  still  more  ad- 
vanced, the  mantle  has  begun  to 
secrete  the  enamelled  spotted 
layer  on  the  side,  but  the  trans- 
verse stripes  are  still  visible.  At 
Fig.  1999,  e  shows  the  perfect 
shell,  back  view  ;  all  traces  of  the 
transverse  stripes  are  lost  under 
the  enamelling  of  the  thickened  spotted  coat :  f  represents  the 
opposite  view  of  the  same,  from  which  the  alteration  in  the  character 
of  the  aperture  may  be  appreciated. 

The  growth  of  the  shell,  however,  in  the  Cowry,  so  as  to  accord 
with  the  growth  of  the  Mollusc,  is  a  subject  of  some  difficulty,  and 
has  engaged  the  attention  of  many  naturalists.  Dr.  Fleming,  in  his 
"Philosophy  of  Zoology"  (vol.  ii.  p.  403),  after  observing  that  the 
formation  of  porcellaneous  shells  must  take  place  in  a  different  man- 


Fig.  1997. — The  Young  Cowry. 


Fig.  199S. — The  Young  Cowry. 
/ 


Fig.    1999. — The  Adult  Cowry. 

ner  from  those  which  evidently  increase   in  size  by  the  application  of 
fresh  layers  of  slielly  matter  to  the  margin  of  the  mouth,  goes  on  to 


say:  "If  we  attend  to  the  form  of  a  young' shell  belonging  to  the 
genus  Cypraa  of  Linnaeus,  we  may  perceive  that  an  addition  of 
shelly  matter  to  the  margin  of  the  aperture,  in  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  applied  to  other  shells,  would  not  cnhargc  the  cavity,  but  com- 
pletely close  the  aperture.  The  increase  of  the  shell  (accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  increase  of  its  inhabitant)  must  take  place, 
therefore,  either  by  absorption  of  the  accumulated  shelly  matter  of 
the  mouth,  and  an  elongation  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  curva- 
ture of  the  shell,  or  the  old  shell  must  be  thrown  off,  and  a  new  one 
produced  suited  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  The  former  supposition 
has  not  been  entertained  ;  the  latter  is  now  generally  received  by 
naturalists.  The  inner  coat  of  such  shells  appears  to  be  a  transuda- 
tion from  the  body  of  the  animal,  and  the  outer  one  to  be  laid  on 
the  surface  by  the  loose  reflected  lobes  of  the  cloak  (mantle).  In 
many  other  shells,  portions  of  matter  more  compact  than  the  other 
parts  may  be  observed  spread  on  the  pillar,  and  applied  to  the  mar- 
gin of  the  mouth  by  a  similar  process."  Mr.  Piatt,  in  support  of 
Reaumur's  opinion  that  shells  are  formed  by  juxtaposition,  against 
the  objections  of  Mr.  Poupart  ("  Phil.  Trans.,"  vol.  liv.  p.  43),  erron- 
eously considers  the  different  sizes  of  the  Cyp7-cBa  as  depending  on 
the  thickness  of  the  shell  increasing  according  to  age,  without  ad- 
mitting a  corresponding  increase  of  the  contained  animal,  or  of  the 
cavity  of  its  reception.  If  we  turn  to  Figs.  1997,  1998,  1999,  illus- 
trative of  the  young  and  adult  of  Cyprcea  exanthema,  we  shall  find 
an  increase  of  size  in  every  direction,  nor  do  we  clearly  see  how  any 
addition  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  shell  (at  b)  will  bring  it  to  the 
volume  of  the  whorl  seen  aty. 

Again,  if  we  turn  to  the  Money  Cowry  (Fig.  2000),  it  would  seem 
as  if  the  outer  lip  of  the  young,  in  order  to  assume  the  figure  pre- 
sented by  the  same  part  in  the  adult  shell,  must  be  first  absorbed 
and  then  remodelled,  for  a  mere  addition  to  its  margin  would  only 
tend  to  close  the  aperture ;  and  besides  this,  we  have  then  to 
account  for  the  increase  of  the  shell  in  every  direction,  for  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  proportions  of  the  young  shell  viewed  on  the  back, 
and  the  figure  of  the  columellar  portion  of  the  front  of  the  young 
shell,  are  but  little  dissimilar  from  those  of  the  adult  shell,  only  upon 
a  smaller  scale.  The  convexity  of  the  back  in  the  adult  is  not  only 
apparently  larger,  that  is  from  increased  external  depositions  adding 
to  the  thickness  of  the  shell,  but  really  so,  corresponding  to  the 
room  required  internally  for  the  accommodation  of  the  increased 
Mollusc.  Now  we  cannot  account  for  the  increase  of  the  boss  of 
this  shell  excepting  on  the  supposition  of  a  gradual  internal  absorp- 
tion on  the  one  hand,  and  a  co-ordinate  secretion  and  deposition  of 
fresh  matter  on  the  other;  or,  on  the  circumstance  of  tlie  young 
Animal  quitting  its  shell  when  straitened  for  room,  and  investing 
itself  afresh. 

These  observations,  however,  must  be  understood  only  as  bearing 
upon  young  shells  which  closely  resemble  those  of  the  adult  in  figure, 
with  the  exception  of  the  involution  of  the  outer  lip,  but  yet  as  far 
inferior  in  size  ;  at  a  very  early  stage  the  whorls  of  the  Cyprcea 
evidently  increase  in  size  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  in  the  Olive-shells, 
Volutes,  &c.,  by  additions  of  shelly  matter  to  the  outer  lip,  and  at 
this  period  the  shell  of  the  Cyprcea  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
Olive ;  but  this  resemblance  by  degrees  disappears,  and  that  before 
the  full  growth  of  the  shell  is  accomplished.  We  learn  thut  Mr. 
Gray  has  observed  that  sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  young  shells 
of  Cyprcea,  especially  Cyprcea  arabica,  have  the  inner  edge  of  the 
outer  lip  thickened,  and  furnished  with  a  compressed  sharp-edged 
series  of  teeth.  It  is  in  such  a  case  that  we  must  look  for  some 
other  explanation  of  the  mode  of  growth  than  by  mere  additions  to 
this  lip. 

With  regard  to  the  Mollusc  of  Cyprced,  it  may  be  described  as 
unisexual,  of  an  elongated  figure,  having  the  head  distinct,  with 
two  conical  or  subulate  tentacula  of  some  length,  at  the  external 
base  or  which  are  the  two  eyes,  sessile  on  small  projections.  _  The 
mouth  is  vertical  at  the  bottom  of  a  small  cavity,  and  contains  a 
lingual  riband  beset  with  tentacles,  and  prolonged  into  the 
interior  of  the  body.  Tlie  mantle  is  bilobed,  the  lobes  being  very 
large,  with  extended  aliform  edges  in  the  adult,  capable  of  being 
reflected  over  the  back  of  the  shell  so  as  to  meet  on  the  mesial 
line.     The  foot  is  oval,  thin,  and  destitute  of  an  operculum. 

The  Cyprceidce  are  very  widely  spread,  being  found  in  the 
seas  both  of  the  old  and  of  the  new  world  ;  it  is,  however,  in  the 
hotter  latitudes  that  they  are  most  numerous,  and  display  the 
greatest  development  in  point  of  size  and  the  richest  colouring,  A 
few  species  occur  in  our  European  seas.  In  their  habits  the 
CyprceidcB Sive  littoral,  tenanting  bods  of  sand,  or  creeping  under 
large  stones  or  rolled  masses  of  coral. 

In  the  "  Zoological  Journal  "  will  be  found  a  monograph  of  the 
Cowries,  by  Mr.  Gray,  which,  together  with  the  seventeenth  number 
of  Mr.  Sowerby's  "  Genera  of  Shells,"  may  be  consulted  with  ad- 
vantage. 

The  Cowries  are  divided  into  several  genera  and  subgenera,  ac- 
cording to  minor  peculiarities  in  the  form  and  characters  of  the 
shell  ;  and  these  genera  and  subgenera  in  Mr.  Gray's  arrangement 
are  again  subdivided  into  minor  sections.  Fig.  2000  represents 
the  Money  Cowry,  C.  inoncta  or  Arkia  moneia,  already  relerred  to 

5D 


754 


THE  SNAIL  TRIBE. 


as  being  used  as  coin,      a,  a,  represents  the  adult,  and  b,  b,  the 
young  shell  in  two  aspects. 

Order  III.— Pulmonifera. 

The  Pulmoniferous,  or  air-breathing-  MoUiisca,  including  the 
Land  Snails  and  their  allies,  are  distinguished,  as  we  have  already 
stated,  not  only  by  the  structure  of  their  respiratory  organs,  but  also 
by  their  young  being  hatched  in  a  form  closely  resembling  that  of 
the  parents. 


Fig.  2000. — The  Money  Cowry. 


the 


SUB-DIVISONS. — They   are    divided    into  two   great   groups, 
Operculatcd  and  the  hiopey-citlafcd  Pulmonifa-a. 

The  Operculated  species  form  only  a  single  family,  the  Cyclosto- 
midcF,  composed  of  Snail-like  animals,  with  thin  spiral  shells,  of 
which  the  margins  are  usually  refiexed  all  round.  They  have  only 
two  tentacles,  with  the  eyes  inserted  in  their  basal  portion.  The 
CyclosfuinidcE,  also,  differ  from  the  majority  of  the  Pulmonifera,  in 
being  unisexual. 

Of  the  Inoperculated  section,  the  Common  Land  Snails  may  be 
taken  as  the  type.  They  form  the  family  Helicidce,  characterised 
by  their  ample  external  shell,  within  which  the  Animal  can  retract 
it'self  entirely,  and  by  their  possession  of  four  tentacles,  upon  the 
summits  of  the  longest  of  which  the  eyes  are  situated.  This  is  a 
very  extensive  family  of  Herbivorous  Molluscs,  which  are  found  in 
great  abundance  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing species  is  described  as  follows  : — 

The  Large  Garden  Snail.  (Helix  aspersa). — As  the  fisher- 
man hates  the  Otter,  so  does  the  gardener  this  voracious,  destructive 
pest,  the  ravages  of  which,  in  the  garden  and  orchard,  are  often 
really  annoying.  If  the  species  be  identical,  this  Snail  has  a  most 
extensive  range.  It  is  found,  for  instance,  over  a  great  part  of 
Europe  ;  Asia,  and  Africa,  at  the  foot  of  Chimborazo,  and  in  the 
forests  of  Guiana  and  Brazil.  In  our  own  island  it  abounds  in  the 
southern  and  midland  counties  ;  yet  we  do  not  recollect  ever  to 
have  seen  it  in  Derbyshire,  or  in  the  portions  of  Staffordshire, 
Cheshire,  and  Lancashire  with  which  we  are  well  acquainted;  and 
we  doubt  its  existence  in  the  north.  In  these  counties  the  beautiful 
Belted  Snail  {Helix  nemoralis)  is  abundant. 

The  Helix  aspersa  often  attains  to  a  very  large  size  :  we  have 
specimens  in  which  the  mouth  of  the  shell  measures  transversely 
seven-eights  of  an  inch.  In  winter  this  snail  becomes  torpid,  and 
closes  the  opening  of  the  shell  with  a  tough  membrane  {E;pi- 
phragma).     (See  Fig.  2001). 


Fig.  2001. — The  Large  Garden  Snail. 


An  allied,  but  larger  species,  le  grand  Escargot  of  the  French 
[Helix pormfia],  abundant  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  continent, 
has  been  naturalized  in  Surrey,  and  some  other  counties  of  our 
island.  It  is  eaten  on  many  parts  of  the  continent,  where,  says 
Cuvier,  it  is  "  nourriture  assez  recherchee. "  This,  and  perhaps 
other  species,  formed  a  favourite  dish  with  the  Romans,  who  had 
their  Cochlcaria,  or  Snailleries  (Escargotoires),  where  they  were 
fattened  upon  meal  and  new  wine,  boiled  down,  and  were  some- 
times brought  to  an  enormous  size.  We  cannot,  however,  help 
fancying  that  some  error  must  have  been  committed  in  the  text  of  a 
passage  in  the  work  of  Pliny,  who,  on  the  authority  of  Varro,  says, 
"  cujusartis  (?'.e.,of  fattening  snails)  gloria  in  eandem  magnitudinem 
perducta  sit,  ut  octoginta  quadrantes  caperent  singularum  calyces." 
Now  if  the  "  quadrans  "  means  a  measure  of  three  ounces  (which  is 
not  very  clear),  we  have  an  assertion,  that  the  shells  would  hold  two 
hundred  and  forty  ounces,  or  ten  quarts,  which  is  positively  beyond 
belief.  Referring  to  this  passage,  and  to  Varro  (de  re  Rustica), 
Pennant  says,  "People  need  not  admire  the  temperance  of  the 
supper  of  the  younger  Pliny,  which  consisted  of  only  a  lettuce  a-piece, 
three  snails,  two  eggs,  a  barley-cake,  sweet  wine  and  snow,  in  case 
his  snails  bore  any  proportion  to  those  of  Hirpinus." 

Snails  are  fattened  at  the  present  day  in  many  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent, in  Escargotoires  or  Snailleries,  which  may  be  described  as 
pens  boarded  in  and  abundantly  supplied  with  herbs,  with  which  the 
floor  is  covered  to  the  depth  of  a  foot. 

Some  curious  circumstances  attend  the  hybernation  of  the  Helix 
pomatia,  which  have  been  detailed  by  M.  Gaspard.  He  remarks 
that  in  our  temperate  climate,  as  soon  as  the  first  autumnal  chills 
are  felt,  generally  about  the  commencement  of  October,  this  species 
becomes  indolent,  loses  its  appetite,  and  associates  in  considerable 
numbers  on  hillocks,  the  banks  of  ditches,  thickets,  hedges,  and 
similar  places.  In  a  short  time  they  cease  feedmg,  and  then  hide 
themselves  under  moss,  grass,  dead  leaves,  and  the  like.  Here 
each  forms  for  itself  with  the  anterior  part  of  its  muscular  foot  a 
cavity  sufficiently  large  to  contain  at  least  its  shell ;  this  cavity  it 
enlarges  and  excavates  by  turning  itself  round  on  every  side,  then 
raising  itself  against  the  sides  of  the  cavity,  and  at  last  against  the 
roof  formed  of  moss  or  leaves,  or  a  small  quantity  of  earth  brought 
there  by  its  motions.  When  it  has  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
aperture  of  the  shell  to  nearly  a  horizontal  position,  it  stops.  The 
foot  is  soon  contracted  within  the  shell,  the  snail  then  expands,  so 
as  completely  to  cover  it,  the  collar  of  the  mantle,  which  is  at  this 
period  very  white  ;  and  then  inspires  a  quantity  of  air,  after  which  it 
closes  the  respiratory  hole.  When  this  is  done,  a  fine  transparent 
membrane  is  formed  with  its  mucus,  and  interposed  between  the 
mantle  and  any  extraneous  substances  lying  above.  The  mantle 
then  secrets  a  quantity  of  very  white  fluid  over  its  whole  surface, 
which  sets  uniformly,  like  Plaster  of  Paris,  and  instantly  forming  a 
continuous  covering  about  half  a  line  thick.  When  this  is  hardened, 
the  animal  separates  its  mantle  from  it  by  another  and  stronger 
mucous  secretion  ;  and  after  a  few  hours,  expelling  a  portion  of  the 
air  it  had  previously  inspired,  it  is  enabled  to  shrink  a  little  farther 
into  the  shell.  It  now  forms  another  lamina  of  mucus,  expires  more 
air,  and  thus  retires  farther  into  the  shell.  In  this  way  sometimes  a 
fourth,  fifth,  and  even  a  sixth  partition  is  formed,  with  intermediate 
cells  filled  with  air.  Such  is  M.  Gaspard's  account ;  but  Mr.  Bell 
remarks  that  it  does  not  completely  explain  the  manner  in  which  the 
excavation  is  formed.  "  It  is  not  by  the  pressure  of  the  foot,"  says 
the  last-named  zoologist,  "and  the  turning  round  of  the  shell,  that 
this  is  principally  effected.  A  large  quantity  of  very  viscid  mucus  is 
secreted  on  the  under  surface  of  the  foot,  to  which  a  layer  of  earth  or 
dead  leaves  adheres ;  this  is  turned  on  one  side,  and,  a  fresh 
secretion  being  thrown  out,  the  layer  of  earth  mixed  with  mucus  is 
left.  The  animal  then  takes  another  layer  of  earth  on  the  bottom  of 
the  foot,  turns  it  also  to  the  part  where  he  intends  to  form  the  wall 
of  his  habitation,  and  leaves  it  in  the  same  manner,  repeating  the 
process  until  the  cavity  is  sufficiently  large,  and  thus  making  the 
sides  smooth,  even,  and  compact.  In  forming  the  dome  or  arch  of 
the  chamber  a  similiar  method  is  used,  the  foot  collecting  on  its 
under  surface  a  quantity  of  earth  ;  and  the  animal,  turning  it  up- 
wards, leaves  it  by  throwing  out  fresh  mucus,  and  this  is  repeated  until 
a  perfect  roof  is  formed.  As  I  have  very  often  watched  this  curious 
process,  I  am  certain  of  the  facts.  On  removing  very  carefully  a 
portion  of  the  roof  soon  after  its  completion,  I  was  enabled  to  see 
the  formation  of  the  operculum.  In  about  an  hour,  or  even  less, 
after  the  hybernaculum  is  covered  in,  the  whole  surface  of  the  collar 
of  the  mantle  instantaneously  pours  out  the  calcareous  secretion  in 
considerable  quantity.  This  is  at  first  as  fluid  as  thick  cream,  but 
very  soon  acquires  exactly  the  consistence  of  bird-lime,  being  ex- 
cessively adhesive  and  tenacious ;  and  in  about  an  hour  after  it  is 
poured  out  it  is  perfectly  solid." 

M.  Gaspard  states  that  the  labour  of  each  individual  continues 
for  about  two  or  three  days;  but  that  the  whole  of  the  month  of  October 
is  occupied  by  the  general  closing  of  the  shells  of  the  species.  He 
adds  that  about  the  beginning  of  April  the  hybernation  ceases. 
"  The  mode  by  which  their  escape  from  confinement  is  effected  is 
simple  and  easily  comprehended.     The  air  which  is  contained  in 


THE  SLUG  TRIBE. 


755 


the  different  cells,  and  which  had  been  expired  on  the  animal  with- 
drawing itself  farther  and  farther  into  the  shell  after  the  formation 
of  the  operculum,  is  again  inspired,  and  each  separate  membranous 
partition  broken  by  the  pressure  of  the  hinder  parts  of  the  foot  pro- 
jected through  the  mantle.  When  it  arrives  at  the  calcareous 
operculum,  the  Animal,  making  a  last  effort,  bursts  and  detaches 
its  most  obtuse  angle.  Then  insinuating  by  little  and  little  the  edge 
of  the  foot  between  the  shell  and  operculum,  it  forces  the  latter  off 
or  breaks  it  away."  (See  the  Abstract  of  M.  Gaspard's  Memoir, 
with  notes,  by  T.  Bell,  F.L.S.  "Zoological,  Journal,"  vol.  i.) 

The  LimacidcB,  or  Slugs,  resemble  the  Snail  in  the  form  of  the 
body,  in  the  number  and  structure  of  the  tentacles,  and  in  their 
habits  ;  but  their  shell  is  very  small  or  rudimentary,  and  usually 
concealed  in  the  interior  of  the  mantle.  The  little 
i^m\\y.  Oncidiidce  consists  of  small,  slug-like  animals 
(Fig.  2002),  covered  with  a  leathery  mantle,  but 
quite  destitute  of  a  shell.  The  head  is  furnished 
with  either  two  or  four  tentacles.  They  are  generally 
found  in  marshy  places,  upon  Aquatic  plants  ;  but 
some  of  them  inhabit  the  sea-coast,  within  reach  of 
the  waves.  They  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  warm 
climates. 

These  destructive  pests  in  gardens  and  cultivated 

fields  are  too  well  known  to  need  a  detailed  account 

of  their  external  characters.      Almost   all  have  four 

tentacles,  but  Cuvier  states  that  in  two  or  three  small 

species    the  lower  pair    are    wanting ;    the    mantle 

which    is  generally   seen   on   the    anterior     portion    of    the    back, 

behind  the   head,    often    contains    a    thin   shell;    sometimes   only 

calcareous  grains. 

The  Red  Slug  {Arion  rufus).  Lttnnx  rufus,  Linn. — In  this 
genus  the  orifice  of  respiration  is  towards  the  anterior  part  of  the 
mantle,  and  in  the  substance  of  the  latter  are  small  calcareous  con- 
cretions ;  a  mucous  pore  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  Red  Slug  is 
very  common,  and  abounds  in  some  gardens  almost  as  much  as  the 
small  Grey  Slug,  which  it  greatly  exceeds  in  size.  Its  general 
colour  is  rufous,  sometimes  deepening  almost  to  black.  It  is  this 
species  of  which  Cuvier  says  that  in  France  a  decoction  (bouillon)  is 
used  in  diseases  of  the  chest :  in  some  parts  of  England  we  have 
known  the  small  grey  garden  slugs  swallowed  in  numbers  by  weak 
or  consumptive  persons.     (See  Fig.  2003). 


Fig.  2002. — On- 
c  id  ill  in. 


Fig.  2003.— The  Red  Slug. 

The  Great  Grey  Slug  {Litnax  anfiqtiortim,  Feruss). — Limax 
maxnjiHS,  Linn.  In  the  subgenus  Limax,  as  established  by 
M.  Ferussac,  the  respiratory  orifice  is  situated  more  backwards 
than  in  Arion  ;  and  the  mantle  is  marked  with  fine  concentric  stria;, 
and  contains  a  minute  shelly  plate.  At  Fig.  2004,  a  represents 
the  internal  shell  of  the  Great  Grey  Slug;  b,  the  same  enlarged;  c, 
the  under  view  of  the  shell  from  another  individual.  There  is  no 
terminal  mucous  pore. 


Fig.  2004.— The  Great  Grey  Slug. 

This  is  the  largest  British  species ;  it  is  rugose  above,  of  a 
greyish  colour,  with  longitudinal  dashes  and  lines  of  black.  It 
frequents  damp  places,  and  often  invades  humid  cellars  or  out- 
houses. Another  large  species,  the  Black  Slug  {Limax  ater),  is 
v/ell  known,  and  is  abundant  along  the  banks  of  hedgerows,  and 
amidst  the  grass  of  meadows,  during  the  summer.  It  feeds  on  the 
leaves  and  roots  or  vegetables. 

Certain  Slugs  of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  constituting  the  genus 
Vaginulus  of  Ferussac,  are  remarkable  for  having  the  mantle 
extended  over  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  'body,  or  even 
extending  beyond  it,  and  forming  in  front  a  sort  of  hood,  beneath 
which  the  head  can  be  withdrawn  ;  there  is  no  rudimentary  shell, 
nor  any  calcareous   concretions  in    the   mantle,  nor  is  there  any 


terminal  pore.  When  extended  these  Slugs  are  very  slender,  and  it 
has  been  stated  that  they  are  both  terrestrial  and  aquatic  in  their 
habits,  but  M.  Rang  observes  that  he  never  met  with  them  in 
Bourbon  and  Martinique,  except  in  the  woods  and  gardens,  under 
old  fallen  trunks. 

The  Testacella  {Testacella  sciduliiin).—K^V)  the  Teneriffe 
TeSTACELLA  {Testacella  maugei).—T\\it  TcsfaiCllccTLxc  Slugs,  with 
a  contracted  mantle,  placed  over  the  hinder  part  of  the  back,  and 
supporting  a  small  external  plate  or  shell,  somewhat  spiral  in  its 
contour,  and  of  an  oval  outline.  The  tentacles  are  four  ;  the  orifice 
of  the  pulmonary  cavity  is  placed  under  the  right  side  of  the 
posterior  apex  of  the  shell.  Referring  to  Fig.  2005,  a  shows  the 
shell  externally,  b  internally,  of  T.  sactulnm;  and  turning  to 
Fig.  2006,  a  and  b  exhibit  the  shell  of  T.  maugei.  Three  species 
are  described  and  figured  by  Mr.  Sowerby,  viz.,  T.  haltotideiis,  a 
native  of  France  ;  scittulutn,  considered  by  Mr.  Sowerby  to  be  a 
native  of  England  ;  and  7>iat/gei,  an  inhabitant  of  Tcnerifle,  but  now 
naturalized  around  Bristol. 


Fig.  2005.— The  Testacella.  Fig.  2006. — The  Teneriffe  Testacella. 

The  Testacella  appears  to  have  been  first  noticed  by  M.  Dugu6, 
in  a  garden  at  Dieppe  in  1740;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  at- 
tracted much  attention  till  M.  Mauge,  some  j'ears  since,  brought 
home  specimens  from  the  island  of  Teneriffe.  "  It  has  also  been 
found,"  says  Mr.  Sowerby,  "  in  several  parts  of  France,  and  in 
Spain,  and  more  lately  in  a  garden  at  Bristol.  Some  specimens 
from  the  last-mentioned  place  have  been  handed  to  us  by  Mr.  Miller 
of  that  city.  It  feeds  upon  earth-worms,  having  the  power  of 
elongating  its  body  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  is  able  to  follow  them 
in  all  their  subterranean  windings :  we  have  observed  them  atten- 
tively, and  were  rather  surprised  that  an  animal  generally  so  ex- 
tremely sluggish  in  its  motions,  after  discovering  its  prey  by  means 
of  its  tentacula,  thrusting  from  its  large  mouth  its  white  crenulated 
revolute  tongue,  should  instantly  seize  upon,  with  extraordinary 
rapidity,  and  firmly  retain,  an  earth-worm  of  much  greater  size  and 
apparent  force  than  itself,  but  which  by  its  utmost  exertion  is  un- 
able to  escape."  Mr.  Sowerby  adds,  that  De  Ferussac  and  Cuvier 
consider  this  to  be  the  only  Carnivorous  Terrestrial  Mollusc.  Slugs, 
however,  as  we  have  observed,  are  Carnivorous. 

De  Ferussac  remarked  that  the  simple,  gelatinous,  contractile 
mantle  of  the  Animal,  hidden  habitually  under  the  shell,  is  divided 
into  many  lobes  capable  of  enveloping  the  whole  body  by  an  extra- 
ordinary development,  when  the  Animal  finds  it  necessary  to  protect 
itself  from  the  consequences  of  too  great  dryness. 

To  this  we  may  add,  that  in  the  gardens  around  Bristol  the 
Testacella  or  Shelled  Slug  is  now  so  common  as  to  prove  a  nuisance. 
It  has  been  also  found  in  a  garden  in  Gloucestershire.  Mr.  Sowerby 
found  the  Testacella  scutulum  in  a  garden  at  Lambeth  ;  and  in 
our  own  garden  at  Hammersmith  this  species  (at  least  so  we  suppose 
it  to  be)  is  tolerably  abundant  ;  several  specimens,  some  of  consider- 
able size,  are  before  us  ;  the  colour  is  yellow,  more  or  less  deep, 
sometimes  of  a  straw  tint  with  a  white  line  along  each  side.  In 
crawling,  these  Slugs  greatly  extend  the  anterior  part  of  the  body, 
to  an  acute  point,  and  insinuate  themselves  with  the  utmost  ease 
into  the  soil.  Their  texture  is  very  firm,  almost  cartilaginous  to  the 
feel,  and  the  mucus  of  the  skin  is  extremely  tenacious.  They  are 
most  commonly  to  be  found  in  cool  and  dewy  or  wet  weather ;  and 
they  appear  abroad  late  in  the  season. 

In  the  Lim}ia:idce,  or  Pond  Snails,  the  shell  is  ample ;  but  the 
tentacles  are  only  two  in  number,  with  the  eyes  sessile  near  their 
bases.  The  shell  is  thin  and  horny,  with  the  aperture  simple ; 
whilst  in  the  Aiirictilida;,^\\\z\^  frequently  inhabit  the  sea-shore, 
the  shell  is  much  stronger,  with  the  margins  of  the  aperture 
thickened  and  notched.  In  these  the  tentacles  are  also  two  ;  butthe 
eyes  are  situated  on  the  head. 

The  Common  Limn^a  {Linncsa  sfagtiaiilts). — In  the  genus 
Limntsa  ihe  a.r\\m3.\  IS  oi  a.-a  oval  form,  more  or  less  spiral;  head 
furnished  with  two  flattened  triangular  tentacles,  carrj'ing  theeyesat 
their  base,  on  the  internal  side  ;  mouth  furnished  with  an  upper 
piece  for  mastication,  surmounted  by  a  sort  of  very  short  veil ;  foot 


756 


THE  CEPHALOPODS. 


oval,  bilobated  anteriorly,  narrowed  posteriorly ;  orifice  of  the 
pulmonary  cavity  on  the  right  side,  on  the  collar,  in  form  of  a 
furrow,  and  capable  of  being  covered  by  a  fleshy  appendage  which 
borders  it  below.     (See  Fig.  2007.) 

Shell  delicate,  fragile,  of  an  oval  oblong,  with  a  spire  more  or  less 
sharp  and  elongated,  and  an  aperture  longer  than  it  is  wide,  oval, 
sometimes  very  large,  with  a  sharp  edge,  not  continuous,  on  account 
of  the  convexity  of  the  preceding  whorl ;  on  the  columella  an  oblique 
plait. 


Fig.  2007. — The  Common  Limnsea. 

M.  Deshayes  observes  that  the  Animal  of  LimncBa  presents 
peculiar  characters.  On  the  head  are  two  triangular  tentacles  very 
much  enlarged  at  the  base,  and  having  the  eyes  rather  projecting 
on  the  upper  and  internal  part  of  that  ijase.  The  head  is  large  and 
flattened,  separated  from  the  foot  by  a  shallow  furrow.  The  foot 
inclines  to  oval,  terminated  in  a  point  posteriorly,  and  is  delicate 
and  flattened  on  the  sides.  The  mantle,  closed  anteriorly  and 
narrow,  forms  a  sort  of  collar,  as  in  the  Helices.  There  is  a  great 
cavity  behind  its  border.  The  upper  wall  of  this  cavity,  delicate  and 
transparent,  is  covered  on  its  internal  surface  by  a  very  well 
developed  vascular  net-work  destined  for  respiration. 

The  LimncBa  is  abundant  in  still  or  sluggish  fresh  waters,  where 
it  feeds  on  aquatic  plants,  up  the  stems  of  which  it  creeps,  coming 
up  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  respiration.  We  have  often  seen 
them  floating  in  the  reversed  position  like  the  Physa  ;  they  have,  in 
fact,  when  so  situated,  the  power  of  locomotion,  and  may  be  observed 
moving  their  ventral  disc,  as  if  crawling  along  some  solid  surface, 
whereas  it  only  acts  on  the  water,  of  which  the  surface  ofters 
sufficient  resistance  to  the  vermiform  movements  of  the  disc,  to 
enable  the  Mollusc  to  work  its  way.  The  eggs  are  very  numerous, 
and  enveloped  in  a  mass  of  glairy  gelatine  of  an  elongated  form  ;  they 
are  deposited  on  stones,  or  on  the  leaves  or  stems  of  vegetables. 
The  shell  is  very  delicate,  and  pellucid ;  the  spire  is  produced  and 
conical.  The  external  colour  is  brown,  but  the  shell  is  often  covered 
with  a  sort  of  greenish  or  greyish  green  calcareous  deposit,  varying 
in  thickness ;  the  cause  of  this  deposit  we  are  unable  to  e.xplain. 
The  same  occurs  on  LimncBa  auricidaria.  Fig.  2008  represents  the 
Animal  and  Eggs  of  Limncca  stagnatilis :  a,  the  Animal  and 
Shell ;  b,  the  mass  of  Eggs  magnified. 


Fig.  200S. — The  Common  Limnsea  and  Eggs. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  Auriciilidcs  the  following  is  given  : — 

MiDAs'S  Ear   {Auricula   niidcs).     The  genus  A uricte/a  differs 

from   those  of  the  preceding  aquatic  air-breathing  Molluscs  in  the 

columella  of  the  shell  being  marked  with   decided  oblique  channels 

(canelures).     The  figure  of  the  shell  is  oval  or  oblong ;  the  mouth 


longitudinal,  with  a  reflected  lip,  or  simple.  Cuvier  says,  "  we  are 
not  certain  if  these  animals  live  in  marshes,  as  the  LiviticEa,  or  only 
on  their  borders,  as  the  Succinece"  [Helix  pufris,  Linn.).  One 
species  exists  in  France  along  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean 
(A.  viyosolis).  A  writer  on  conchology  observes,  "  The  probability 
is  that  the  Auricula  lives  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers,  lakes,  or 
morasses,  and  that  its  respiratory  system,  though  formed  for  breathing 


Fig.  2009. — The  Midas's  Ear. 

air,  is  so  framed  as  to  enable  it  to  sustain  any  vicissitudes  which 
such  a  locality  might  render  likely  to  occur."  The  Auricula 
midcB  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  East  Indies  ;  Lamarck  names  the 
Moluccas  as  also  among  its  localities.  It  is  a  handsome  shell,  and 
well  known  to  collectors  under  the  name  of  Midas's  Ear. 

Class  VII. — Cephalopoda. 

This  class  of  the  Mollusca  presents  some  of  the  most  curious  of  the 
tribe.  Their  name  is  an  indication  of  their  specific  character, 
derived  from  Kepehale,  a  head,  and  podes,  feet,  or  Head-footed 
Animal.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the  leading  characters  of 
the  order  : — 

General  Characters. — In  their  structure  and  habits,  the 
Animals  forming  this  class  present  a  considerable  advance  upon  the 
other  Mullusca — an  advance  so  great,  in  fact,  that  by  several 
zoologists  they  have  been  regarded  as  forming  a  distinct  primary 
division  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  This  view  is  supported  by  the 
presence  of  a  rudimentary  cartilaginous  cephalic  skeleton  in  these 
animals,  and  also  by  a  peculiarity  in  the  development  of  the  embryo, 
which  is  not  effected  as  in  the  other  Mollusca. 

The  most  striking  character  is  afforded  by  the  locomotive  organs, 
which  consist  of  a  circle  of  tentacles,  or  arms,  arranged  round  the 
head,  and  furnished  on  their  inner  surface  with  numerous  sucking- 
cups,  which  enable  the  Animal  to  take  a  firm  grasp  of  any  object. 
By  means  of  these  arms  the  Cephalopoda  creep  along  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  with  the  head  and  mouth  downwards ;  they  also  serve  for 
the  capture  of  prey — these  Animals  being  very  carnivorous  in  their 
habits.  They  also  swim  rapidly  by  the  expulsion  of  the  water  from 
the  branchial  chamber. 

The  branchia:  in  the  Cephalopoda  are  placed  on  both  sides  of  the 
body,  which  is  short,  thick,  symmetrical,  and  not  rolled  in  a  spiral 
form.  The  shell  is  often  spiral ;  but  the  portion  inhabited  by  the 
Animal  is  divided  from  the  rest  by  a  transverse  partition  ;  so  that, 
by  the  successive  growth  of  the  Animal,  the  shell  acquires  a 
chambered  structure.  The  body  is  inclosed  in  a  sac-like  mantle, 
which  is  open  in  front  on  the  ventral  surface  for  the  passage  of  water 
into  the  branchial  chamber  ;  this  is  again  expelled,  by  muscular 
action,  through  a  separate  siphon,  placed  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
incurrent  orifice.  The  gills  are  plumose  organs,  formed  of  numerous 
laminse  attached  to  the  sides  of  a  central  stalk,  through  which  the 
blood  passes  to  them.  At  the  base  of  each  gill  is  a  pulsating  cavity, 
which  drives  the  blood  through  these  organs  ;  and  this  fluid  is 
received  in  another  cavity  on  its  return  from  the  gills,  and,  by  the 
contraction  of  this,  is  driven  into  the  central  heart. 

The  mouth  is  armed  with  a  pair  of  powerful  horny  jaws,  present- 
ing a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  beak  of  a  Parrot,  within  which 
is  a  fleshy  tongue,  part  of  which  is  covered  with  recurved  spines. 
The  intestines  are  convoluted,  and  the  anus  opens  into  the  exhalent 
siphon  ;  the  liver  and  salivary  glands  are  very  large. 

In  the  development  of  the  nervous  system,  the  Cephalopoda 
exhibit  a  great  advance  upon  the  other  Mollusca.  The  cephalic 
portion  is  very  large,  and  composed  of  several  ganglia,  closely  united 
together  ;  the  cesophagus,  as  usual,  passes  through  the  ring  formed 
by  the  sub-cesophageal  ganglia.  The  brain  is  surrounded  by  a 
cartilaginous  ring,  the  first  indication  of  an  internal  skeleton,  which 
also  usually  gives  off  processes  for  the  support  of  the  eyes.  The 
latter  organs  are  of  large  size,  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  and 
resemble  those  of  Fishes,  in  many  respects.     The  auditory  vesicles 


THE  NAUTILUS  TRIBE. 


757 


with  their  otholites,  are  also  imbedded  in  the  cartilaginous  ring. 
Two  small  cavities,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  eyes,  are  supposed 
to  be  organs  of  smell  ;  and,  as  wc  have  already  seen  that  the  tongue 
is  a  fleshy  organ,  it  is  probable  that  the  Cephalopoda  possess  all  the 
senses  in  a  state  of  considerable  perfection. 

The  skin  is  generally  thick  and  leathery,  but  covered  with  a  deli- 
cate cuticle,  in  which  numerous  cells  of  different  colours  [chroinato- 
phora)  are  inclosed.  The  Animal  possesses  the  power  of  altering 
the  position  of  these  cells  ;  so  that  the  tint  of  the  skin  is  constantly 
changing  ;  this  effect  continues  even  for  some  hours  after  death, 
and  furnishes  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries,  where  the  Cuttle- 
fishes are  eaten,  an  excellent  means  of  judging  of  the  freshness  of 
the  fishmonger's  commodities. 

A  peculiar  organ  possessed  by  many  Cephalopoda  is  the  ink-bag, 
a  small  pyriform  sac  inclosed  in  the  visceral  cavity,  which  secretes  a 
dark-brown  fluid ;  it  communicates  by  a  duct  with  the  exhalent 
siphon,  and  through  this,  its  contents  may  be  discharged  into  the 
water,  which  is  thus  discoloured  for  a  considerable  extent.  When 
attacked,  the  Animals  constantly  employ  this  artifice  to  facilitate 
their  escape,  the  inky  secretion  producing  a  thick  cloud  in  the  water, 
under  cover  of  which  the  Cuttle-fisli  rapidly  retreats  to  a  safe  dis- 
tance from  the  object  which  has  excited  his  apprehensions.  This 
fluid  was  formerly  employed  in  the  arts,  and  gives  its  name  to  the 
well-known  colour  denominated  sepia  {Sepia,  a  Cuttle-fish)  ;  but  a 
considerable  portion,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  article  sold  under  this 
name,  is  now  derived  from  other  sources.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
ink-bags  of  Cuttle-fishes  are  often  found  preserved  in  a  fossil  state, 
although  the  remainder  of  the  animal  is  reduced  to  an  almost  unre- 
cognisable form.  This  will  be  more  particularly  referred  to  in  the 
description  of  the  Cuttle-fish. 

The  Cephalopoda  are  all  unisexual  animals  ;  their  ova  are  usually 
of  large  size.  The  sexes  are  generally  very  similar  in  appearance  ; 
but  in  some  species,  males  of  a  very  peculiar  form  have  been 
observed,  which,  at  their  first  discovery,  were 
regarded  as  parisitic  Worms,  and  described  under 
the  generic  name  of  Hectocotyhis.  They  are 
Worm-like  creatures,  furnished  with  a  double  row 
of  sucking-cups,  which  give  them  a  close  resem- 
blance to  a  detached  arm  of  a  perfect  Animal. 
On  the  surface  opposite  to  these  suckers  they  are 
provided  with  filamentous  branchiaj  in  some 
Fig.  20I0.  —  Em-  species  ;  but  these  are  wanting  in  others.  They 
bryo  of  a  Cephalo-  are  generally  found  adhering  to  the  siphon  of  the 
pod  with  yelk  sac.  female,  but  sometimes  attach  themselves  to  the 
arms  of  their  partner,  upon  which  they  creep  about 
rapidly  by  the  assistance  of  their  suckers. 

We  have  already  stated  that  a  difference  exists  between  the 
Cephalopoda  and  the  other  Hlollusca  in  the  mode  of  development 
of  the  embryo.  In  the  latter,  the  entire  yelk  becomes  converted  into 
an  embryo  ;  in  the  Cephalopoda,  on  the  contrary,  the  first  rudiments 
of  the  young  Animal  make  their  appearance  at  a  particular  portion 
of  the  surface  of  the  yelk,  so  that  the  development  of  the  embryo 
takes  place  exterior  to  this  body,  which  gradually  disappears  as  the 
young  Cephalopod  approaches  maturity.     (See  Fig.   20io.) 

Sub-divisions. — The  Cephalopoda  are  divided  into  two  orders, 
characterised  by  the  number  of  their  branchial  plumes,  of  which 
there  are  either  one  or  two  on  each  side. 

Order  I. — Tetrabr4nchiata. 

General  Characters. — This  order,  which  includes  a  vast 
number  of  Fossil  forms  {Ammonites,  &'C.\,  is  represented  in  our  seas 


Fig.  201 1. — Section  of  Nautilus,  with  the  Animal, 
a,  portion  of  a  tentacle. 

only  by  the  Nautili,  of  which  a  few  species  still  inhabit  the  seas 
of  Tropical  regions.  They  are  all  inclosed  in  a  shell,  divided  by 
transverse  partitions  into  a  number  of  chambers  (Fig.  201 1),  gradu- 


ally increasing  in  size  towards  the  mouth  of  the  shell,  where  a  con- 
siderable space  is  left  for  the  habitation  of  the  Animal.  As  the 
latter  grows,  and  increases  the  size  of  its  shell  in  the  usual  manner, 
by  additions  to  the  mouth,  it,  at  the  same  time,  cuts  o(T  a  portion  of 
the  space  it  formerly  occupied  by  a  fresh  partition  ;  thus  adding 
another  chamber  to  its  residence.  The  partitions  are  traversed, 
either  in  the  centre  or  close  to  the  wall  of  the  shell,  by  apertures, 
through  which  passes  a  vascular  siphuncle,  communicating  with 
the  chamber  in  which  the  heart  lies.  The  remainder  of  the  cham- 
bers is  filled  with  air.  In  the  Recent  Nautili,  and  in  many  Fossil 
species,  more  or  less  allied  to  these,  the  partitions  are  of  a  plain, 
cuplike  form,  with  the  concavity  directed  towards  the  mouth  of  the 
shell ;  but  in  many  Fossil  forms  (such  as  the  Ammonites,  Fig.  2012, 
and  their  allies)  the  partitions  are  folded  towards  the  edges  into 
various  singular  forms  ;  and  as  the  thin  shells  of  these  creatures  are 
often  entirely  abraded,  so  that  the  Fossil  is  merely  a  cast  of  the  in- 
terior, these  patterns  are  frequently  very  distinctly  visible,  and  their 
variations  thus  afford  excellent  characters  for  the  discrimination  of 
the  species. 

The  Animal,  inhabiting  this  curious  and  beautiful  shell,  was  long 
almost  unknown,  and  our  knowledge  of  its  structure  has  only  been 
very  recently  obtained.  It  is  completely  retractile  witliin  the 
mantle  ;  its  head  is  surrounded  by  a  great  number  of  tentacles, 
which  are  retractile  within  sheathes  ;  and  instead  of  being  furnished, 
as  in  the  ordinary  Cephalopoda,  with  sucking-cups,  are  slightly  an- 
nulated.  The  branchiae  are  four  in  number,  placed  two  on  each 
side  of  the  body. 

The  Animal  of  the  Nautilus,  the  only  one  with  which  we  can  now 


Fig.  2012. — The  Ammotiiles  nodosus. 

be  acquainted,  usually  creeps,  mouth  downwards,  along  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  ;  it  is  sometimes,  however,  dislodged  from  this  situation 
by  storms,  when  it  has  been  seen  to  float  on  the  surface  in  a  reverse 
position,  with  the  tentacles  expanded.  An  opinion  has  very  gene- 
rally prevailed  that  this  was,  in  reality,  the  favourite  position  of  the 
Nautilus,  and  that  its  chambered  shell  was  intended  to  give  it  the 
buoyancy  necessary  for  this  purpose.  This,  however,  is  contradicted 
by  observation ;  and  it  appears  that  the  empty  chambers  only  serve  to 
approximate  the  specific  gravity  of  the  animal  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  that  of  the  medium  it  inhabits.  The  question  will  subsequently 
be  further  dilated  on. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Tetrabranchiate  Cephalopoda  form  two 
families — the  NautilidcB  and  the  Ani7no7iitidcs.  The  former,  which 
includes  the  only  living  representatives  of  the  order,  is  distinguished 
by  the  simple  structure  of  the  partitions  of  the  shell,  and  by  the 
central  position  of  the  siphuncle.  The  shell  is  sometimes  spiral,  as 
in  X\\e  Nautilus ;  but  it  always  consists  of  few  turns;  sometimes 
perfectly  straight  {Orlhoceras),  or  merely  twisted  at  the  apex  in  a 
crosier-like  form  {Lituites,  Fig.  2013).  In  the  Ammoiiilidis  the  par- 
titions are  bent  or  folded  into  various  forms,  and  the  siphuncle  runs 
along  the  outer  wall  of  the  shell,  which  is  usually  spiral,  and  com- 
posed of  numerous  whorls.  Of  the  genus  Ammonites,  M-pwTirAs  of 
five  hundred  species  are  known,  and  many  of  these  are  of  great  size. 
In  some  cases,  these  shells,  although  spirally  twisted,  have  the 
whorls  separate  ;  in  other  instances  {Baculites)  they  are  perfectly 
straight.  The  genus  Ptychoceras  has  a  straight  shell,  doubled  in 
the  middle,  with  the  two  parts  closely  applied  ;  whilst  in  the  Turri- 
litcs  (Fig.  2014),  we  have  a  regular  screw-like  shell,  resembling  that 
of  the  lurritella,  amongst  the  Gasteropoda. 

The  following  is  a  more  particular  description  of  some  of  the 
species  thus  generically  described. 


758 


THE  NAUTILUS  TRIBE. 


The    Pearly  Nautilus   {Nautilus  ^ompilius).     The    shell 

(See  Fig.  2015). 
The  Umbilicated   Nautilus  {Nautilus  scrabiculatus).     The 

shell.     (See  Fig-.  2016). 

Thoug-h  known  to  the  ancients  and  described  by  Aristotle,  it  is 

only  comparatively  recently  that  the   structure   of  the  Nautilus  has 

been  demonstrated  ;  it  is  to  Professor  Owen,  whose  labours  in  the 
field  of  science  are  beyond  praise,  that  we  owe  our 
knowledge  of  the  organisation  of  this  singular 
being,  which  from  the  time  of  the  father  of  Natural 
History  to  the  present  had  remained  uninvestigated. 
That  Aristotle  was  acquainted  with  the  Nautilus 
is  very  clear;  after  well  describing  the  Naked 
Chephalopods  {naKawi)  he  says: — -"There  are 
also  two  polypi  in  shells ;  one  is  called  by  some 
nautilus,  and  by  others  nauticus.  It  is  like  the 
polypus,  but  its  shell  resembles  a  hollow  comb  or 
pecten,  and  is  not  attached.  The  polypus  ordi- 
narily feeds  near  the  sea-shore  ;  sometimes  it  is 
thrown  by  the  waves  on  the  dry  land,  and  the  shell 
falling  from  it,  is  caught,  and  there  dies."  "The 
other  is  in  a  shell  like  a  snail,  and  this  does  not  go 
out  of  its  shell,  but  remains  in  it  like  a  snail,  and 
sometimes  stretches  forth  its  cirrhi  {-KXiKravao) 
externally."  The  first  of  these  animals  is  evidently 
the  Argonaut,  or  Paper  Nautilus  ;  the  latter  the 
True  Nautilus.  Rumphius,  in  1705.  gave  a  figure 
and  description  of  the  Nautilus,  but  the  figure, 
which  is  intended  to  represent  the  Animal  disen- 
gaged from  the  shell,  is  indefinite,  and  its  details 
fig.  2013.— The  both  erroneous  and  confused.  Denys  de  Mont- 
Litmtes  breynn.  ford,  in  "Hist.  Nat.  des  Moll."  (suite  au  Buffon 
de  Sonnini,  Paris,    1802),   gives  a   pretended  and 

most  absurd  figure   of   the  Nautilus,   which  has  been  copied    by 

Shaw. 


Fig.  2014.— Turrilites. 

The  specimen  which  was  dissected  by  Professor  Owen  was'  a 
female,  and  was  captured  by  G.  Bennett,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  who  thus 
describes  the  occurrence  :—"  It  was  on  the  24th  of  August,  1829, 
(calm  and  fine  weather,  thermometer  at  noon  79°),  in  the  evening, 
when  the  ship  Sophia  was  lying  at  anchor  in  Marakini  Bay,  on  the 
south-west  side  of  the  island  of  Erromanga,  one  of  the  New  Hebrides 
group,  Southern  Pacific  Ocean,  that  something  was  seen  floating 


Fig.  2015.— Shell  of  the  Pearly  Nautilus. 

on  the  surface  of  the  water  at  some  distance  from  the  ship  ;  to  many 
It  appeared  like  a  small  dead  tortoiseshell  cat.  which  would  have 
been  such  an  unusual  object  to  be  seen  in  this  part  of  the  world,  that 
the  boat  which  was  alongside  the  ship  at  the  time  was  sent  for  the 
purpose   of  ascertaining    the   nature   of  the    floating  object.     On 


approaching  near  it  was  observed  to  be  the  shell-fish  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Pearly  Nautilus  {Nautilus  *omJ>ilius) 
already  illustrated  by  Fig.  2015;  it  was  captured  and  brought  on 
board,  but  the  shell  was  shattered,  from  having  been  struck'by  the 
boat-hook  in  capturing  it,  as  the  animal  was  sinking  when  the  boat 
approached,  and  had  it  not  been  so  damaged  it  would  have 
escaped.  I  e.xtracted  the  fish  in  a  perfect  state,  which  was  firmly 
attached  to  each  side  of  the  upper  cavity  of  the  sheU.  On  beino- 
brought  on  board,  I  observed  it  retract  the  tentacula  still  closer 
th.an  before,  and  this  was  the  only  sensation  of  vitality  it  gave  after 
being  caught ;  I  preserved  the  soft  parts  immediately  'in  spirits, 
after  making  a  rude  pen-and-ink  sketch  of  its  form.  On  breaking 
the  lower  part  of  the  shell,  the  chambers  or  cavities  were  found  filled 
with  water.  The  hood  has  been  stated  by  Dr.  Shaw  (Lectures,  vol. 
li.  p.  165)  as  being  of  a  pale  reddish  purple  colour,  with  deeper  spots 
and  variegations  ;  the  colour,  however,  as  it  appeared  in  this  recent 
specimen,  was  of  a  dark  reddish  brown,  in  fact,  resembling  the  colour 
produced  by  the  Koka  on  the  stained  cloth  of  the  Tongatabu 
natives,  intermingled  with  white.  We  had  fine  weather;  light 
winds  and  calms  a  day  or  two  previous  to  this  animal  being  caught. ' ' 
After  noticing  the  incorrectness  of  Shaw's  figure  (which,  as  we'^have 
already  observed,  was  copied  from  those  given  by  Denys  de  Mont- 


Fig.  2016. — Shell  of  the  Umbilicated  Nautilus. 

ford),  and  the  greater  general  accuracy  of  that  of  Rumphius,  Mr. 
Bennett   informs  us  that  this   species  is  called   Kika,    Lapia,  and 
Krang  Modang  by  the  natives  of  Amboyna  ;  and  Bia  papeda,   Bia 
cojin  by  the   Malays.     He  then  adverts  to  another  instance  of  the 
capture  of  this  animal,  by  an  officer  of  H.M.S.  Ariadne,  on  a  reef  at 
the  Island  of  Pemba,  near  Zanzibar,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  in 
1824.     The  Animal  was  not  floating  upon  the  water,  but  was  in  a 
hole  on  the  reef,  and  the  officer  did  not  recollect  which  part  of  the 
shell  was  uppermost.     The  mantle,  like  a  thin  membrane,  covered 
the  shell,  and  was  drawn   in  as  soon  as  it  was  touched,   when  the 
shell  was  displayed.  "  I  and  others,"  said  this  officer  to  Mr.  Bennett, 
"  when  it  was  first  seen  did  not  notice  it,  regarding  the  animal,  as 
the  membrane  enveloped  the  shell,   merely  as  a   piece  of  blubber ; 
but  having  touched  it  by  accident,  the  membranous  covering  was 
withdrawn,  and  we  soon  secured  our  beautiful  prize.     The  fish  was 
a  large  mass  attached  to  the  shell,  which  we  soon  extracted  and 
threw  away,  as  we  only  wanted  to  collect  shells."     The  same  officer 
compared  the  mantle  to  what  he  had  subsequently  seen  covering  the 
shells  of  the   Harps  {Entomostomata),    and  Cowries   {Cypnzidce), 
already  described.     Mr.   Bennett  states  that  a  section  of  the  shell 
captured  by  him  was  afterwards   made  on  board,  but   none  of  the 
appearances,  nor  whether  air  or  water  was  contained  within,  could 
be  recollected.     A  mate  of  a  whaler,  who  had  been  shipwrecked 
upon  the  Feejee  Islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  and  had  resided  among 
that  group  for  nearly  three  years,  told  Mr.  Bennett  that  he  had  seen 
the  shell  of  the  Pearly  Nautilus,  containing  the  living  Animal,  floating 
on  the  water  near  one  of  the  islands.     He  had  only  seen  two  living, 
although  the  empty  shells  were  very  numerous  among  the  islands. 
The  first  he  saw  when  in  a  canoe  with  some  other  shipwrecked 
Europeans  ;  it  was  then  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  with 
the  mouth  of  the  shell  uppermost.      It  was  enveloped  in  the  mantle, 
which  extended  some  distance  upwards   and  over  the  whole  of  the 
shell ;  and  it  had  such  an  appearance  as  to  cause  one  of  the  men  to 
say,   "There  is  a  large  piece   of  blubber  upon   the  water."      On 
approaching  it,   the  animal,  retracting  the    mantle,   displayed  the 
beautiful  striped  shell,  and  sank  before  they  could  captuie  it.     (G. 
Bennett,  "  Wanderings,  '  vol.  ii.) 

With  respect  to  the  general  form  of  this  Animal,  a  reference   to 
Fig.  2017  will  convey  a  better  idea  than  words;  a  section  of  the 


THE  NA  UTIL  US  TRIBE. 


759 


shell  in  outline  is  given,  showing;-  the  siphon,  t  t;  the  chambers  of 
camerated  shell  x  x ;  the  septal  tubes,  which  give  passage  to  the 
membranous  siphon  :  and  the  chamber  of  occupation,  -.  We  may 
here  observe  that  from  a  scries  of  twenty  processes  or  digitations  on 
each  side  of  the  head,  arise  the  true  tentacula  or  arms,  which  are 


Fig.  2017. — The  Pearly  Nautilus. 

round,  tapering  and  annulated  ;  indeed  each  of  these  processes  is 
hollow,  and  constitutes  a  sheath,  into  which  the  arm  attached  to  it 
may  be  completely  withdrawn.  Besides  these  there  are  labial  pro- 
cesses, and  laminated  appendages  at  the  entrance  of  the  mouth 
abundantly  supplied  with  nerves.     There  are  no  organs  of  hearing. 


Fig.  2018. — Structure  of  the  Nautilus. 

Fig.  20t8  represents  the  Nautilus  and  part  of  the  shell  in  outline, 
explanatory  of  its  structure. 

a  a,  the  mantle  :  d,  its  dorsal  fold  applied  to  the  involute  con- 
vexity of  the  shell ;  c,  its  free  anterior  margin  ;  d,  the  orifice  for  the 
passage  of  the  funnel;  e,  the  convexity  produced  by  the  ovarian 
gland ;  _/_/,  the  horny  girdle  for  the  adhesion  of  the  mantle  to  the 
shell ;  £,  the  horny  laminae  covering  the  extremity  of  the  left  shell 
muscle ;  /i,  a  portion  of  the  shell,  which  was  left  adhering  to  this 
muscle;  !,  the  membranous  tube  or  siphon,  which  traverses  the 
testaceous  tubes  in  the  camerated  portion  of  the  ^hell ;  ^,  the  funnel ; 
/,  the  left  lateral  process  of  the  funnel ;  m,  the  left  crus,  or  pillar  of 
the  funnel ;  «,  the  hood  or  ligamento-muscular  disc  that  surmounts 
the  head ;  o  o,  the  exterior  digitations  on  the  left  side  ;  o',  the  larger 
one,  with  a  papillose  surface  like  that  of  the  hood ;  /,  the  digitated 


tentacles,  protruded  from  their  sheaths;  (7,  the  groove  which  sepa- 
rates the  hood  from  the  papillose  digitation  ;  r  r,  the  opthalmic  re- 
ceptacles ;  J,  the  eye  ;  /,  its  peduncle ;  //,  the  inferior  ridge  or 
rudimentary  eyelid;  v,  the  ridge  running  from  this  to  w,  the  pupil  • 
XXX,  the  partitions  of  the  chambers  ;  'yyy,  the  septal  tubes  which 
give  passage  to  the  membranous  siphon  ;  z,  the  chamber  of  occu- 
pation. 

Fig.  2019  represents  the  Nautilus  removed  from  its  shell  in  a 
prone  position,  with  the  labial  processes  and  tentacles,  the  mandibles 
and  the  digestive  organs  displayed. 


Fig.  2019. — Slructure  of  the  Nautilus. 

a  a,  the  hood,  or  upper  part  of  the  oval  sheath  longitudinally 
divided ;  b  b,  the  posterior  lobes  or  angles  of  the  hood  ;  c  c,  the 
posterior  concavity  of  the  hood  ;  d  d,  the  ridge  in  the  same  ;  e  e,  the 
cut  surfaces  of  the  above  parts  ;  yj^,  the  internal  surface  of  the  oval 
sheath  ;  £'£',  the  external  labial  processes ;  /i  h,  the  external  labial 
tentacles  ;  i  i,  the  internal  labial  processes  ;  k  k,  the  internal  labial 
tentacles  ;  /,  the  olfactory  laminae  ;  m  in,  the  circular  fringed  lip 
longitudinally  divided  ;  n,  the  superior  mandible  ;  o,  the  inferior 
mandible  ;  p,  the  muscular  basis  upon  which  the  mandibles  are 
fixed ;  q  g,  the  superior  pair  of  muscles  which  retract  the 
jaws ;  r  r,  the  semicircular  muscle  which  protrudes  the  jaws, 
divided  longitudinally ;  s,  the  cesophagus  ;  t,  the  crop  ;  u,  the 
narrow  canal  leading  to  v,  the  gizzard  ;  lu,  the  intestines  ;  n  ',  the 
terminal  fold  of  intestine  drawn  out  of  its  situation  ;  x,  the  ejective 
orifice  ;  y,  the  laminated  pancreatic  bag ;  2,  the  liver;  15,  a  branch 
of  the  anterior  aorta,  which  ramifies  in  the  membrane  connecting  the 
two  portions  of  the  terminal  fold  of  the  intestine  ;  19,  the  continua- 
tion of  the  posterior  aorta  along  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  crop  ;  20, 
its  bifurcation  at  the  oesophagus,  to  form  a  vascular  circle  corres- 
ponding to  the  nervous  circle  round  that  tube;  21  and  22,  arteries 
of  the  crop,  gizzard,  &c. 

The  extent  to  which  the  Nautilus  is  covered  by  its  shell,  and  its  close 
attachment  to  it,  caused  Aristotle  to  compare  it  to  a  snail ;  and,  says 
Professor  Owen,  "  the  general  resemblance  must  be  sufficiently 
striking  when,  with  his  house  above  him  and  in  the  supine  position, 
he  makes  his  way  along  the  sand  with  a  moderate  degree  of 
rapidity."  This  indeed  seems  to  be  the  Animal's  habitual  mode  of 
progression  ;  yet  it  not  unfrequently  rises  to  the  surface  and  floats, 
but  the  navigation  is  "  in  all  probability  of  a  passive  kind,  or  influ- 
enced only  by  the  action  of  the  respiring  currents,  when  expelled  by  the 
funnel,  through  the  surrounding  medium  ;  and  at  all  events  it  can 
no  longer  be  supposed  to  have  been  aided  by  the  fabled  sails  and 
oars  of  the  argonaut."  The  mode  of  sailing  with  outspread  tenta- 
cles is  described  by  Rumphius,  who  says  that  in  fine  weather,  after 
a  storm,  they  are  seen  in  troops  thus  navigating  the  seas,  like  a  fleet 
of  pigmy  vessels,  and  that  as  soon  as  they  wish,  they  take  in  their 
tentacles,  upset  their  boat,  and  so  return  to  the  bottom. 


76o 


THE  ARGONAUTS. 


We  may  here  observe,  that  the  tube  or  siphuncle  prolonged 
through  the  compartments  of  the  camerated  shell  of  the  Nautilus  is 
continued  from  the  great  venous  cavity  or  pericardium,  which  freely 
communicates  vifith  the  branchial  cavities,  and  which,  receiving  the 
water  from  these  cavities,  can  thus  by  its  contraction  transmit  it 
through  the  siphuncle  into  the  chambers  of  the  shell.  These  cham- 
bers naturally  contain  air,  or  some  gaseous  element,  and  being  thus 
filled  with  a  fluid  more  buoyant  than  water,  endow  the  Animal  with  the 
means  of  floating,  notwithstanding  the  density  of  the  shell  itself. 
Now,  when  the  Animal  wishes  to  sink,  it  forces  water  through  the 
tube,  thereby  compressing  the  air,  and  thus  it  immediately  becomes 
heavier  than  the  surrounding  medium.  It  would  appear  that  the 
retraction  of  the  head  and  tentacles  into  the  shell  involves  the  con- 
traction of  the  pericardium,  and  consequently  the  forcing  of  water 
through  the  tube  ;  while  the  protrusion  of  the  head  and  tentacles,  by 
relieving  the  pericardium  from  pressure,  permits  it  to  expand,  when 
the  air  of  the  chambers  necessarily  drives  back  the  water,  and  the 
buoyancy  of  the  Animal  returns  accordingly.  Surely  no  comments 
are  needed  to  enforce  upon  the  mind  a  perception  of  the  beauty  and 
fitness  of  such  a  contrivance,  a  contrivance  which  enables  the  Pearly 
Nautilus  to  float  on  the  surface  of  the  deep,  luxuriating  in  the  light 
and  warmth  of  the  sun ;  and  then,  in  a  moment,  when  danger 
threatens,  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  there  find  a  harbour  of  security. 

For  want  of  space  we  are  compelled  to  omit  further  description 
of  many  interesting  species  of  the  Nautilus.  The  Argonaut,  how- 
ever, is  of  much  interest,  especially  as  its  mode  of  progression 
through  the  water  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  It  has 
had  assigned  to  it  the  possession  of  wing-like  sails,  which,  propelled 
by  the  wind,  serve  to  drive  the  Animal  through  the  water.  Its  pro- 
gress really  is  caused  by  the  ejection  of  water.  Fig.  2020  represents 
the  Animal  as  swimming.  The  arrow  indicates  the  direction  of  the 
Animal's  progress;  the  siphon  throwing  out  successive  gushes  of 
■water,  is  seen  under  the  extended  arms. 


species  are  identical.  Dr.  Gerard  found  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains, 
at  an  elevation  of  16,000  feet,  Atuinoiiiies  zvalcotii  and  Ammonites 
communis.  Fossils  that  are  found  in  the  Lias  of  Lyme  Regis.  M. 
Menard  met  with  one  in  the  Maritime  Alps  at  an  elevation  of  1,500 
toises.  Their  numbers  must  have  been  great :  M.  Dufresne  informed 
Lamarck  that  the  road  from  Auxerre  to  Avalon  in  Burgundy  was 
absolutely  paved  with  them.  The  individual  agency,  too,  of  some  of 
these  Carnivorous  instruments  for  preserving  the  balance  of  marine 
animal  power  must  have  been  of  no  small  importance.  Lamarck 
says  that  he  has  seen  Ammonites  of  two  feet  (French)  in  diameter. 
Mr.  James  Sowerby  and  Mr.  Mantell  record  Ammonites  in  the 
Chalk  with  a  diameter  of  three  feet ;  and  Dr.  Buckland  states  that 
Sir  T.  Harvey  and  Mr.  Keith  measured  Ammonites  in  the  Chalk 
near  Margate  which  exceeded  four  feet  in  diameter ;  and  this  in 
cases  where  the  diameter  could  have  been  in  a  very  small  degree 
enlarged  by  pressure. 

Dr.  Buckland  is  of  opinion  that  the  Rhyncholites,  or  Beakstones, 
which  occur  so  abundantly  in  the  Oolite  of  Stonesfield,  in  the  Lias  at 
Lyme  Regis  and  Bath,  in  the  Muschelkalk  of  Luneville,  &c.,  were 
the  mandibles  of  Ammonites  as  well  as  of  Fossil  Nautili,  and  there 
can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  of  the  fact.  It  would  appear  that  the 
Ammonites,  or  rather  the  Cephalopods  inhabiting  these  shells,  had 
no  ink-bags  ;  but  for  much  information  on  this  and  other  points  we 
refer  to  Dr.  Buckland's  "  Bridgewater  Treatise,"  in  which  their  his- 
tory is  copiously  described. 

Order  II. — Dibranchiata. 

General  Characters. — This  order,  which  includes  a  great 
number  of  Recent  as  well  as  Fossil  species,  is  distinguished  from 
the  preceding,  not  only  by  the  possession  of  only  two  branchiae,  but 
also  by  the  general  structure  or  the  body,  which  is  adapted  especially 
for  swimming  rapidly  through  the  water,  although  the  Animals  are 


Fig.  2020. — The  Argonaut  swimming. 


The  extinct  species  of  Ammonites  are  exceedingly  numerous. 
According  to  Dr.  Buckland  the  family  of  the  Ammonites  extends 
through  the  entire  series  of  the  Fossiliferous  formations  from  the 
Transition  strata  to  the  Chalk,  inclusive.  Cuvier  appeared  to  con- 
sider the  Ammonites  as  internal  shells,  like  Spirtda;  and  found  one 
reason  in  the  smallness  of  the  outer  chamber  of  lodgement  ;  but  in 
the  opinion  of  Professors  Owen  and  Buckland,  they  were  external 
shells,  in  the  outer  chamber  of  which  the  animal  resided.  The 
latter  thus  writes  : — "The  smallness  of  the  outer  chamber  or  place 
of  lodgement  for  the  animal  is  advanced  by  Cuvier  in  favour  of  his 
opinion  that  Ammonites,  like  the  Spirula,  were  internal  shells.  This 
reason  is  probably  founded  on  observations  made  upon  imperfect 
specimens.  The  outer  chamber  of  the  Ammonites  is  very  seldom 
preserved  in  a  perfect  state  ;  but  when  this  happens,  it  is  found  to 
bear  at  least  as  large  a  proportion  to  the  chambered  part  of  the 
shell,  as  the  outer  cell  of  the  Nautilus  Pompilius  bears  to  the 
chambered  interior  of  that  shell.  It  often  occupies  more  than  half, 
and  in  some  cases  the  whole  circumference,  of  the  outer  whorl. 
This  open  chamber  is  not  thin  and  feeble  like  the  long  anterior 
chamber  of  the  Spirula,  which  is  placed  within  the  body  of  the 
animal,  producing  this  shell,  but  is  nearly  of  equal  thickness  with 
the  close  chambers  of  the  Ammonite." 

As  the  Ammonites,  of  which  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  species 
are  distinguished,  were  evidently  principal  agents  for  keeping  within 
bounds  the  Molluscs,  &c.,  the  Crustaceans,  and,  perhaps,  Fishes  of 
the  periods  prior  to  the  Chalk  formation,  and  belonging  to  the  latter 
epoch,  we  should  expect  to  find  them  widely  distributed.  Accord- 
ingly,'they  occur  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  in  strata  apparently 
of  the  same  date.     In  some  instances,  the  genera  and  even   the 


also  able  to  creep,  with  the  head  downwards,  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  sea.  , 

The  shell  is  almost  always  internal,  frequently  rudimentary  ;  and, 
when  external,  is  never  chambered.  The  arms  are  only  eight  or  ten 
in  number,  furnished  with  sucking  discs ;  and  the  body  is  usually 
provided  with  a  pair  of  fins.  . 

SUH-DivisiONS.— The  Dibranchiata  are 
divided  into  two  principal  sections,  charac- 
terised by  the  number  of  their  arms. 

The  Decapoda  (ten-feet)  have  ten  of  these 
organs,  of  which  two  (called  tentac/es)  are 
usually  much  longer  than  their  fellows,  re- 
tractile, of  a  cylindrical  form,  flattened  and 
provided  with  suckers  at  the  extremity.     Of 
these,  the  SpiralidcB  appear  to  make  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  Animals  of  the  pre- 
ceding order,  as  they  are  furnished  with  a 
chambered  shell   (Fig.  2021  ),   which  how- 
Pig.  2021.— The    Spirala  ever,  is  almost  entirely  concealed  within  the 
peronii,  with  its  shell,      body.  These  Animals  inhabit  the  seas  of  the 
warm  parts  of  the  world,  apparently  in  great 
abundance,  as  their  shells  are   cast  upon  the  shore  in  profusion  ; 
nevertheless,  the   structure   and  habits  of  the  Animal  are  almost 
unknown. 

In  the  remaining  families  the  shell  is  entirely  inclosed.  In  the 
Sepiida  it  forms  a  broad  calcareous  plate,  terminating  in  an  imper- 
fectly chambered  apex.  The  shell  of  one  species,  the  Sepia  offici- 
nalis, is  the  well-known  Cuttle-fish  bone  of  the  shops ;  it  was 
formerly   employed  in  medicine,   but   is   now  principally    used  as 


THE  CUTTLE  FISH. 


761 


jounce.  The  bodies  of  these  animals  are  usually  of  a  somewhat 
ovate  form,  and  the  fins  run  along  the  whole  length  of  the  sides  of  the 
body  (Fig.  2022). 

In  the  Lo/igi'dm  [Calamaries  or  Sqm'ds),  which  are  nearly  allied 
to  the  preceding,  the  body  is  almost  always  of  an  elongated  form, 
and  the  fins  are  broad,  and  confined  to  the  apex  of  the  body.  The 
shell  is  represented  by  a  horny  plate  (Fig.  2023),  which  from  its  con- 
sisting of  a  central  shaft,  and  two  lateral  expansions,  has  received 
the  name  of  the  pen.     These  animals  are  exceedingly  active,  and 


Fig.  2022. — The  Sepia  hieredda. 


Fig.  2023. — The  Pen  of 
Onyehotcitthts. 


swim  well.  Their  arms  are  frequently  of  considerable  length,  the 
tentacular  arms  especially,  which  in  the  genus  Chiroteuthis  (Fig. 
2024),  attain  no  less  than  six  times  the  length  of  the  body.  They 
are  found    frequently  in   all   seas.     The   common   British   species 


Fig.  2024^ — The  Chiroteuthis  bonelUi. 

{Loligo  vulgaris)  is  often  thrown  upon  the  beach  after  high  winds  ; 
and  this  and  other  species  are  much  employed  as  baits  in  various 
fisheries. 

In  the  Fossil  family  Belemniiidce,  the  structure  of  the  internal 
shell  is  far  more  complicated.  In  its  general  form  (Fig.  2025)  it 
resembles  the  pen  of  the  Calamaries,  forming  a  broad  corneous 
plate,  which  terminates  posteriorly  in  a  regularly  chambered  conical 
shell  (the  phragmocoiie),  which  is  furnished  with  a  distinct  siphuncle. 
At  its  lower  extremity,  the  phragmocone  is  inserted  into  the  base  of 
a  firm,  solid,  cylindrical  sheath,  which  evidently  serves  to  protect 
the  phragmocone  from  injury  when  swimming  backwards.  From 
this  provision  it  has  been  concluded  that  the  Belemnites  lived  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  shores,  where  they  would  be  in  constant 
danger  of  coming  into  collision  with  fixed  objects.  From  impres- 
sions of  these  soft  Animals,  which  have  been  preserved  in  some  fine- 
grained strata,  it  appears  that  they  closely  resembled  the  Loligidce 
in  form  ;  their  arms  were  lurnished  with  rows  of  sharp  hooks. 

The  Ochipoda  (eight-feet),  are  distinguished  by-  the  possession 
of  only  eight  .irms,  without  the  retractile  Tentacular  arms  of  the 
True  Cuttle-fishes.  But  they  are  rarely  furnished  with  fins.  The 
Octojiodidce,  are  naked  Animals,  with  scarcely  any  trace  of  an  inter- 


nal shell.     To  this  family  belongs  the  Common  Poulpe,  of  which  the 
following  affords  a  detailed  description. 

The  Co.mmon  Cuttle-fish,  or  Polypus.  {Oclofms  vult^aris.) 
— Pouple  or  Preke  There  is  something  strange  and  uncouth  in 
the  aspect  of  this  creature  :  its  long,  flexible  arms  moving  and  curl- 
ing in  all  directions,  and  its  large  eyes,  which  stare 
with  a  fixed  gaze,  rendering  it  even  repulsive.  (See 
I  jtEj^      Fig.  2026). 

A  cursory  observer  would  predict  it  ferocious  and  carni- 
vorous :  it  is  indeed  one  of  the  tyrants  of  the  waters, 
making  Fishes  and  Crustacea:  its  prey.  When  crawling  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  the  globose  body  is  elevated  ;  the 
arms  or  tentacula  are  spread  out,  and  supported  by  them  it 
travels  along  as  they  seem  to  bend  beneath  it.  These 
arms  are  eight  in  number,  long,  narrowing  to  a  point, 
and  in  the  present  species  united  at  their  base  by  a  thick 
web  :  each  of  these  flexible  but  vigorous  arms  is  crowded 
with  suckers  along  its  inner  aspect  to  the  number  of  two 
hundred  and  upwards.  Woe  to"  the  Fish  that  is  enfolded 
in  their  strenuous  grasp.  Vain  is  resistance  ;  the  suckers 
adhere  with  such  tenacity  that  they  may  be  sooner 
wrenched  off  than  unfixed.  Closer  and  closer  to  the 
mouth  is  the  victim  brought ;  it  is  secured  as  in  a  vice. 

Fig.  2025. and  the  work  of  demolition  commences.     In  some  species. 

The  lielem-  as  we  shall  hereafter  find,  the  efficacy  of  these  suckers  for 
nite.       holding  slippery  prey  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  a 
hook,  which  acts  like  a  grappling  iron. 
If  we  look  at  the  suckers  of  the  Cuttle-fish,  (Fig.  2027),  we  shall 
see  that  each  consists  of  an  adhesive  disc,  composed  of  muscular 
membrane,  with  a  thick  fleshy  circumference,   presenting  when  ex- 
panded a  number  of  radii,  converging  around  the  circular  orifice  of 
of  an  inner  cavity;  in  this  cavity  is  a  movable  muscular   piston, 
which,   when  the  sucker   is  not  in  action,   appears  level  with   the 
circular  aperture  ;  but  which,  when  the  disc  is  closely   applied  to 
any  object,  is  drawn  strongly  back,  the  cavity  it  filled  being  now  a 
large  vacuum  ;  the  whole  is,  in  fact,  an  air-pump  of  most  precise  and 
beautiful  construction.     When  the  Animal  releases  its   hold,   it  re- 
laxes the  contractor  muscles  of  the  piston,  which,  returning,  fills  the 
vacuum,  and  the  suction  ceases. 

In  our  seas  none  of  the  Cephalopods  are  large  enough  to  be  for- 
midable to  man.  In  the  hotter  latitudes,  however,  species  of 
gigantic  size  have  twined  their  dreaded  grasp  round  human  victims 
and  dragged  them  to  destruction.  According  to  Deny  de  Mont- 
ford,  Dens,  a  navigator,  avowed  that  in  the  African  seas,  while  three 
of  his  men  were  employed  during  a  calm  in  scraping  the  sides  of 
his  vessel,  they  were  attacked  by  a  monster  of  this  kind,  which  sud- 
denly appeared,  seized  them  in  its  arms,  and  drew  two  of  them 
under  water  in  spite  of  every  effort  to  save  them ;  and  that  tlie 
thickness  of  one  of  the  creature's  arms,  which  was  cut  off  in  the 
contest,  was  at  its  base  equal  to  that  of  a  fore-yard,  whilst  the 
suckers  were  of  the  size  of  ladles.  The  man  who  was  rescued  died 
delirious  during  the  night.  We  read  also  of  another  crew  who 
were  similarly  attacked  off  the  coast  of  Angola  :  a  gigantic  Cuttle- 
fish threw  its  arms  across  the  vessel,  and  was  on  the  point  of  drag- 
ging it  down,  when  the  crew  succeeded  in  cutting  off  its  arms  with 
swords  and  hatchets.  When  their  danger  was  most  imminent  they 
prayed  to  St.  Thomas  for  aid,  and  in  gratitude  for  their  deliverance 
dedicated  on  their  return  home  a  picture  representing  their  perilous 
encounter  to  the  Saint  in  his  chapel  at  St.  Malo.  Pennant  states 
that  in  the  Indian  seas,  a  friend  of  his,  long  resident  in  the  Indian 
Islands,  and  a  diligent  observer  of  nature,  assured  him,  the  Indians 
affirm  that  Cuttle-fish  are  often  seen  two  fathoms  broad  over  their 
centre,  with  arms  nine  fathoms  long ;  and  that  when  they  go  out  in 
boats  they  are  in  dread  of  them,  and  never  sail  without  an  axe  for 
protection.  Even  on  the  shores  of  Sicily,  Mr.  Swainson  saw  Cuttle- 
fish taken,  two  of  which  would  be  a  good  load,  their  arms  being  as 
thick  as  those  of  a  man. 

It  was  probably  a  species  of  Octopus  that  Mr.  Beale  encountered 
while  searching  for  shells  upon  the  rocks  of  the  Benin  Islands.  He 
was  much  astonished  at  seeing  at  his  feet  a  most  extraordinary- 
looking  Animal  crawling  towards  the  surf,  which  it  had  only  just 
left.  It  was  creeping  on  its  eight  legs,  which,  from  their  soft  and 
flexible  nature,  bent  considerably  under  the  weight  of  its  body  ;  so 
that  it  was  lifted  by  the  efforts  of  its  tentacula  only  a  small  distance 
from  the  rocks.  It  appeared  much  alarmed  at  seeing  him,  and 
made  every  effort  to  escape.  Mr.  Beale  endeavoured  to  stop  it  by 
pressing  on  one  of  his  legs  with  his  foot  ;  but  although  he  used 
considerable  force  for  that  purpose,  its  strength  was  so  great  that  it 
several  times  liberated  its  member,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  he  could 
employ  on  the  wet  and  slippery  rocks.  He  then  laid  hold  of  one  of 
the  tentacles  with  his  hand,  and  held  it  firmly,  so  that  the  limb  ap- 
peared as  if  it  would  be  torn  asunder  by  the  united  efforts  of  himself 
and  the  creature.  He  then  gave  it  a  powerful  jerk,  wishing  to  dis- 
engage it  from  the  rocks  to  which  it  clung  so  forcibly  by  its  suckers. 
This  effort  it  effectually  resisted  ;  but  the  moment  after,  the  appar- 
ently enraged  Animal  lifted  its  he.id  with  its  large  projecting  eyes, 
and  loosing-  its  hold  of  the  rocks,  suddenly  sprang  upon  Mr.  Beale's 


?62 


THE  CUTTLE-FISH. 


arm    which  he  had  previously  bared  to  the  shoulder  for  the  purpose 
ofThr^stintr  it  into  holes  in  the  rocks  after  shells,  and  clung  xvith  its 
suckers  to\  with  great  power,  endeavouring  to  get  its  beak,  wh.ch 
Mr   Beale  could  now  see  between  the  roots  of  its  arms,  in  a  posit  on 
to  bite!    Mr.  Beale  declares  that  a  sensation  of  horror  pervaded  his 
whole  frame  when  he  found  out  this  monstrous  Ammal  had  fixed 
i^se°    so  firmly  on  his  arm.     He  describes  its  cold,  slimy  grasp  as 
extremely  sickening,  and  he  loudly  called  to  the  captain   w-ho  vv^s 
a^so  searching  for  shells  at  some  distance,  to  come  and  release  him 
from  hfs  dislusting  assailant.      The   captain   quickly    came    and 
takTn"  Mr.   Beale  "down  to  the  boat,  during  which  time   he  latter 
was  employed  in  keeping  the  beak  of  the  cuttle  away  from  his  hand, 
quickij^released  him%y  destroying  his  tormentor  w-th  the  boat- 
knife,  when  he  disengaged  it  by  portions  at  a  time.     Mr.  Beale 
states  that  this  Cephalopod  must  have  measured  across  its  expanded 
arms  about  four  feet,  whilst  its  body  was  not  bigger  than  a  large 
clenched  hand.     It  was  the  species  called  by  the  whalers     rock- 
sQuid"     (•'■  Natural  History  and  Fishery  of  the  Sperm  Whale.    ) 

In  i87Q  the  following  incident  occurred  in  the  presence  of  several 
persons^at  the  Scarborough  Aquarium,  Yo^l^^^'^^^fVle  "ankf  con' 
attendants  was  busily  engaged  m  cleaning  out  one  of  the  tankb  con- 
taining small  and  large  sized  Octopi.     The  man  took  no  heed  of  the 


easilv  enabled  to  transmit  the  food  into  the  gullet,  which  passes 
toou-h  a  ring  in  the  cranial  cartilage,  dilates  into  a  spacious  crop 
with  glandular  walls,  whence  a  short  canal  leads  to  a  strong  muscu- 
lar gizzard  lined  with  a  leathery  skin.  In  this  gizzard  the  food  is 
ground  to  pulp.     At  the  root  of  the  tongue  there  are  large  salivary 

^  The^'branchiffi  are  situated  in  a  distinct  chamber  on  each  side  of 
the  body,  separated  from  the  viscera  by  a  membranous  partition  : 
the  branchiafare  very  beautiful,  consisting  each  of  a  single  stem 
with  foliated  appendages.  These  appendages  which,  like  the  gills 
of  fishes,  are  exquisitely  vascular,  are  laved  by  the  water  admitted 
into  each  chamber,  through  a  valvular  aperture,  and  drawn  m  by 
the  dilatation  of  the  muscular  investment  of  the  body.  Now  the 
forcible  contraction  of  this  investment  cannot  force  the  water  out 
through  the  same  aperture;  it  therefore  is  urged  smartly  through 
the  funnel  or  siphon  ;  thus  is  respiration  effected,  but  as  by  simple 
mechanism  two  ends  are  often  gained  m  the  economy  of  Organic 
beings,  so  in  this  instance  the  respiratory  organs  are  most  efiicien^t 
means  of  locomotion  ;  it  is  by  the_  discharge 


of  the  water  through 


the" sfphon  That" "the  'Cuttle  propels  itself  along  in  swimming.     As 
the  siphon  points  to  the  head,  and  the  water  is  thrown  out  in  that 


direction,  these  Animals,  as  must  be  evident,  swim  w 

'  backwards,  their  eyes 


Fig.  2026. — The  Common  Cuttle-fish. 

other  occupants  of  the  tank,  but  worked  away  industriously  with  his 
broom,  when,  all  of  a  sudden  he  found  one  of  his  legs  in  the  firm 
clutch  of  the  tentacles  of  an  Octopus,  and  he  endeavoured  to  release 
himself.  The  creature,  small  as  it  was,  clung  so  tenaciously  that 
the  man  could  not  shake  it  off.  Luckily  for  him  he  was  enabled  to 
slip  out  of  the  boot,  which  he  left  in  the  grasp  of  the  enemy,  and 
thereby  effected  his  escape. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  mouth  of  the  Cuttle-fish  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  space  enclosed  by  the  arms ;  it  consists  ex- 
ternally of  a  thick  circular  lip  around  an  orifice  :  beneath  this  lip, 
and  partially  appearing  through  the  orifice,  is  a  beak  like  that  of  a 
Parrot,  excepting  that  the  short  mandible  is  the  uppermost ;  these 
mandibles  do  not  cover  bone,  but  their  interior  is  filled  with  a  fibrous 
substance  of  great  strength  and  solidity.  In  the  Nautilus  these 
mandibles  are  blunt,  of  a  calcareous  texture,  and  calculated  to  crush 
the  shells  of  molluscs.  The  muscles  in  which  the  jaws  of  the  Cuttle- 
fish are  imbedded,  and  by  which  they  are  worked,  are  extremely 
powerful.  In  the  ordinary  Octopus  they  are  capable  of  stripping  off 
the  armour  from  Crabs  and  Lobsters,  and  of  cutting  up  the  flesh  of 
Fishes.  Within  the  mandibles  is  a  fleshy  tongue  invested  with  a 
papillose  membrane  of  delicate  texture,  and  also  armed  with  re- 
curved horny  papilte,  so  that  the  tongue,  by  its  vermiform  action,  is 


ater  1 

ith  the  head 
being 
always  on  the  enemy  from 
whom  they  are  escaping  ;  the 
arms  are  either  closed  to- 
gether and  projected  so  as 
not  to  impede  them,  or  act  as 
oars  in  unison  with  the  action 
of  the  branchial  cavities.  Such 
species  as  have  paddles  or 
fin-like  expansions  of  the  man- 
tle, as  the  Sepia  officinalis, 
the  Calaniary,or  Flying-squid, 
are  aided  by  them  in  their 
aquatic  movements ;  but  in 
Octopus,  which  has  the  limbs 
united  by  basal  webs,  the  arms 
by  their  flapping  take  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  act  of 
swimming.  Thus  the  Cuttle- 
fish: shoots  rapidly  along, 
makes  sudden  darts  and  leaps; 
and  many  species  at  least,  as 
the  Calamary,can  throw  them- 
selves out  of  the  water  and 
take  sweeping  leaps  resemb- 
ling those  of  the  Flying-fish  ; 
a  circumstance  not  unknown 
to  Pliny.  A  learned  writer 
says,  "We  well  remember  in 
our  youth  going  far  out  with 
an  old  fisherman  of  Dawlish 
to  visit  his  floating  nets  which 
he  had  laid  for  the  pilchards. 
As  we  looked  down  into  the 
clear  blue  water  we  could  see 
that  the  number  of  fish  en- 
tangled was  great ;  but  to  the 
great  discomfiture  of  the  fish- 
erman, who  was  eloquent  on 
the  occasion,  almost  every 
other  fish  was  locked  in  the 
embraces  of  a  cuttle-fish  ply- 
ing his  parrot-like  mandibles 
to  some  purpose.  The  fish- 
erman, who  seemed  to  regard  these  unbidden  guests  as  an  in- 
carnation of  all  evil,  carried  a  capacious  landing-net,  but  so  quick 
was  the  sight  of  these  Cephalopods,  so  ready  were  they  in  letting  go, 
and  agile  in  darting  back  or  sideways  clear  of  the  net,  that,  th.  ugh 
the  greedy  creatures  held  on  to  the  last  moment,  the  fisherman  did 
not  secure  above  three  out  of  the  crowds  that  had  spoiled  his  haul." 
All  have  heard  of  the  ink  of  the  Cuttle-fish,  which  forms  an  ad- 
mirable tint  for  painting.  It  is  of  a  rather  dense  consistence,  and 
mixes  readily  with  water,  a  circumstance  important  to  the  Animal 
itself,  as  it  is  to  the  discoloration  of  the  surrounding  fluid  by  its 
admixture  that  the  creature  trusts  for  concealment  when  threatened 
with  danger.  Cuvier  drew  his  figure  of  the  Cuttle-fish  with  ink  ex- 
tracted from  its  own  body.  It  appears  besides  that  in  Fossil  speci- 
mens of  extinct  species  the  ink  will  often  retain  its  character  and 
qualities.  Dr.  Buckland  gave  to  the  late  Sir  Francis  Chantrey  a 
a  portion  of  some  taken  from  a  Fossil  specimen,  requesting  him  to 
try  its  power  as  a  pigment,  and  he  executed  a  drawing  with  a  portion 
of  it.  The  drawing  was  shown  to  a  celebrated  artist,  who  immedi- 
ately declared  it  to  be  tinted  with  sepia  of  excellent  quality,  and 
begged  to  know  by  what  colourman  it  was  prepared :  the  sepia 
used  in  drawing  is  from  the  ink-bag  of  an  Indian  species  of  Cuttle- 
fish, whence  its  name. 


THE  ONYCHOTEUTHIS. 


763 


Dr.  Buckland  had  the  drawings  of  extinct  species  executed  in 
their  own  ink,  and  from  the  perfection  and  repletion  of  the  ink-bag, 
he  infered  tlie  sudden  destruction  and  rapid  petrifaction  of  these 
beings.  Tlie  ink-bag  is  differently  seated  in  different  species,  and 
is  filled  up  with  a  spongy  cellulosity  saturated  with  the  inky  matter, 
which  is  thrown  out  in  great  abundance.  In  the  Octopus  the  ink- 
bag  is  enfolded  in  the  mass  of  the  liver  ;  in  the  Oalamary  it  is  placed 
near  the  funnel ;  in  the  Sepia  near  the  bottom  of  the  visceral  cavity. 


Fig.  2027. — Suckers  of  the  Cuttle-fish. 

Wherever  it  is  seated  a  duct  leads  from  it  into  the  siphon,  through 
which  the  ink  is  ejected  at  the  will  of  the  Animal.  Among  the 
modes  of  self-preservation  with  which  various  creatures  are  endowed, 
this  is  one  of  the  most  singular.  Cuttle-fish,  voracious  and  strong  as 
they  are,  have  their  destroyers,  as  the  Grampus,  the  Cachalot,  &c. 
No  sooner  do  their  quick  eyes  behold  an  advancing  enemy,  than  they 
dart  away  under  the  obscurity  of  a  dark  train  which  they  leave  in  their 
course  ;  they  seek  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and,  remaining  quiet  and 
still,  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  under  cover  of  a  murky  cloud,  or 
sei  k  refuge  in  some  hole  or  fissure  in  a  rock,  and  there  wait  till  their 
enemy  retires.  Most,  if  not  all  the  naked  species,  have  the  power 
of  changing  their  tints  more  quickly  than  the  Chameleon,  and  also 
of  ejecting  water  upon  their  assailant. 

"  While  looking  for  marine  animals  (says  Mr.  Darwin)  with  my 
head  about  two  feet  above  the  rocky  shore  (of  St.  Jago),  I  was  more 
than  once  saluted  by  a  jet  of  water  accompanied  by  a  slight  grating 
noise.  At  first  I  did  not  know  what  it  was,  but  afterwards  I  found 
out  that  it  was  the  Cuttle-fish,  which  though  concealed  in  a  hole 
thus  often  led  me  to  its  discovery.  That  it  possesses  the  power  of 
ejecting  water  there  is  no  doubt,  and  it  appeared  to  me  certain  that 
it  could  moreover  take  good  aim,  by  directing  the  tube  or  siphon  on 
the  under  side  of  its  body.  I  observed  that  one  which  I  kept  in  the 
cabin  was  slightly  phosphorescent  after  dark."  The  Common 
Polypus  is  said  to  be  luminous  at  night,  and  Linnaeus  refers  to  a 
statement  by  Bartholinus  that  one  gave  out  so  much  light  when  the 
candle  was  taken  away,  that  the  whole  building  seemed  on  fire  (ut 
totum  palatiura  ardere  videretur),  a  palpable  exaggeration. 

It  is  not  only  water  that  the  Cuttle-fish  ejects  as  a  means  of 
annoyance,  but  also  its  ink  ;  and  a  story  is  related  of  an  officer  who 
was  collecting  shells  in  a  pair  of  immaculate  white  trousers,  and 
who  inadvertently  disturbed  one  of  these  animals  snugly  harboured 
in  a  recess  of  the  rock  : — "  They  looked  at  each  other,  and  the  cuttle- 
fish, who  had  his  eyes  about  him,  seeing  the  advance  of  his  enemy, 
took  good  aim,  and  shot  so  true  that  he  covered  the  snowy  inexpres- 
sibles with  the  contents  of  his  ink-bag,  and  rendered  them  unpre- 
sentable either  in  the  drawing-room  or  dining-room."  This  black 
fluid  was  used  by  the  ancients  as  ink,  and  the  flesh  of  these  animals 
was  highly  esteemed  by  them  as  delicate  food  ;  it  is  still  eaten  in 
Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  continent.  Mr.  F.  D.  Bennett  states  it 
is  considered  a  luxury  by  all  the  classes  of  the  Sandwich  islanders, 
and  that  when  fresh  and  well  cooked  it  is  very  good,  resembling  in 
flavour  and  consistence  the  flesh  of  a  Lobster's  claw. 

There  are  numerous  species  of  the  Octopi  which  we  have  not  space 
to  describe.  The  following  is  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  Ony- 
choteuthis  and  the  Calamary  already  refered  to  in  the  introductory 
remarks  on  the  CepJialopoda. 

Banks'  Onychoteuthis.  {Otiychoteidhis  banksu).—!^  this 
genus  the  body  and  fins  are  as  in  the  genus  Loligo  ;  ventro-latcral 
cartilages  of  the  mantle  long  and  narrow ;  horny  hoops  of  the  tenta- 
cular, and  sometimes  of  the  brachial  acetabula  produced  into  the 
forms  of  hooks  or  claws.  Gladius  or  internal  support  long,  broadest 
in  the  middle. 

Professor  Owen,  after  dwelling  on  Dr.  Roget's  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  the  mechanism  by  which  the  suckers  of  the  Octopus  are 


worked,  obscr\-es  that  still  there  arc  circumstances  in  which  even 
this  remarkable  apparatus  would  be  insufficient  to  enable  the 
Cephalopod  to  fulfil  all  the  ofTices  in  the  economy  of  nature  for 
which  it  was  created  ;  and  that  in  those  species  which  have  to 
contend  with  the  agile,  slippery,  and  mucus-clad  Fishes,  more 
powerful  organs  of  prehension  arc  superadded  to  the  suckers. 
Thus  in  the  Calamary  the  base  of  the  piston  is,  he  remarks,  inclosed 
by  a  horny  hoop,  the  outer  and  anterior  margin  of  which  is  developed 
into  a  series  of  sharp-pointed  curved  teeth.  These,  as  he  states,  can 
be  firmly  pressed  into  the  flesh  of  a  struggling  prey  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  surrounding  transverse  fibres,  and  can  be  withdrawn 
by  the  action  of  the  retractor  fibres  of  the  piston.  "  Let  the  reader," 
adds  the  Professor,  "picture  to  himself  the  projecting  margin  of  the 
horny  hoop  developed  into  a  long,  curved,  sharp-pointed  claw,  and 
these  weapons  clustered  at  the  expanded  terminations  of  the  tenta- 
cles, and  arranged  in  a  double  alternate  series  along  the  whole 
internal  surface  of  the  eight  muscular  feet,  and  he  will  have  some 
idea  of  the  formidable  nature  of  the  Carnivorous  Onychoteuthis." 
"Banks  and  Solander,"   says  Professor,  Owen,  in  continuation, 


Fig.  2027. — Banks'  Onychoteuthis. 

"in  Cook's  first  '"oyage,  found  the  dead  carcass  of  a  gigantic 
species  of  this  kind,  floating  in  the  sea,  between  Cape  Horn  and  the 
Polynesian  Islands,  in  30''  44'  S.  lat.,  110°  n'  W.  long.  It  was 
surrounded  by  aquatic  birds,  which  were  feeding  on  its  remains. 
From  the  parts  of  this  specimen,  which  are  still  preserved  in  the 
Hunterian  Collection,  and  which  have  always  strongly  excited  the 

attention  of  naturalists,  it  must  have 
measured  at  least  six  feet  from  the 
end  of  the  tail  to  the  end  of  the  ten- 
tacles. The  natives  of  the  Polyne- 
sian Islands  who  dive  for  shell-fish, 
have  a  well-founded  dread  and  abhor- 
rence of  these  formidable  Cephalo- 
pods,  and  one  cannot  feel  suprised 
their  fears  should  have  perhaps  ex- 
aggerated their  dimensions  and  des- 
tructive attributes." 

Professor  Owen  then  notices  ano- 
ther structure,  W'hich  adds  greatly  to 
the  prehensile  powers  of  the  Unci- 
nated  Calamaries  : — "At  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  long  tentacles,  besides  the 
uncinated  acetabula,  a  cluster  of  small,  simple,  unarmed  suckers  may 
be  observed  at  the  base  of  the  expanded  part.  When  these  latter 
suckers  are  applied  to  one  another,  the  tentacles  are  firmly  locked 
together  at  that  part,  and  the  united  strength  of  both  the  elongated 
peduncles  can  be  applied  to  drag  towards  the  mouth  any  resisting 
object  which  has  been  grappled  by  the  terminal  hooks.  There  is  no 
mechanical  contrivance  which  surpasses  this  structure."  The  letter 
a,  (Fig.  2027),  represents  the  gladius.  Fig.  2028  represents  the 
hooked  suckers. 


Fig.  202S. — Suckers  of  the 
Onychoteuthis. 


7^4 


THE  CALAMARY—THE  ARGOI^AUTS. 


The  Common  Calamary.  {LoUgo  vulgaris).— In  this  group 
the  body  is  elongated,  cylindrical,  provided  with  a  pair  of  rhoni- 
boidal  or  triangular  fins,  shorter  than  the  body,  and  terminal,  their 
apices  generally  converging  to  a  point,  and  united  to  the  end  of  the 
mantle  ;  anterior  margin  of  the  mantle  free.  Horny  hoops  of  the 
acetabula  denticulated.  Gladius  {a)  long  and  narrow.  (See  Fig. 
2029). 

Pennant,  under  the  name  of  Se;pia  media,  describes  this  species, 
which  is  the  Common  Calamary  or  Pen-fish  (the  latter  name  being 
derived  from  the  form  of  its  transparent  gladius  or  support),  as  hav- 
ing an  almost  transparent  body  (which  is  green  but  convertible 
into  a  dirty  brown,  confirming  the  remark  of  Pliny,  that  they  change 
their  colour,  adapting  it,  Chameleon-like,  to  that  of  the  place 
they  are  in),  and  large  smaragdine  eyes.  It  is  common  upon 
our  coasts.  This  species  is  rapid  in  its  movements,  and  can  take 
leaps  analogous  to  flights,  like  the  Flying-fish  ;  an  allied  species 
indeed  has  received  the  specific  appellation  of  Sagitta  (arrow)  from 
the  rapidity  of  its  sweeping  movements. 

Mr.  F.  D.  Bennett,  who  describes  the  sea  as  peculiarly  animated 
between  the  latitudes  28°  and  31°  N,  and  the  longitudes   154°  and 


Fig.  2029. — The  Common  Calamary. 

160°  W.,  observes  that  the  ship  was  constantly  attended  by  such 
vast  numbers  of  the  Albacore,  that  when  swimming,  as  is  their 
custom,  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  they  could  be  seen  as  a  dense 
shoal  extending  several  hundred  yards  on  every  side  of  the  ship, 
about  which  Sword  Fishes  fXiphias)  frequently  came,  "making 
destructive  onslaughts  "  on  the  Albacore.  More  rarely  he  noticed 
the  Barracuda,  and  transient  shoals  of  Bonita.  "  Flying  fish  and 
(nearly  allied  to  these  in  their  movements)  flying-squid  {Loligo)  were 
also  numerous.  During  a  calm  in  lat.  30°  N.,  the  flying-squid 
appeared  in  larger  flights  than  we  had  ever  before  witnessed  ;  per- 
secuted probably  by  the  Albacore  (which  selects  this  tranquil  time  to 
descend  deep  in  the  water,  and  to  rove  far  from  the  ship  in  quest  of 
food),  they  rose  from  the  sea  in  large  flocks,  leaping  over  its  smooth 
surface,  much  in  the  same  manner,  and  to  the  same  height  and 
distance  as  the  Flying-fish.  Many  of  them  were  captured  by  birds 
during  their  leaps  ;  and  one  individual  in  making  a  desperate  effort 
to  escape  some  aquatic  pursuer,  sprang  to  a  considerable  height 
above  the  bulwarks  of  the  ship,  and  fell  with  violence  upon  the 
deck." 

One  kind  of  Loligo,  captured  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  34°  N., 
which  measured  si-x  inches  in  its  entire  length,  must,  from  the  des- 
cription of  its  hooks,  have  been  Onychoteuthis.  This  individual 
leaped  from  the  sea  over  the  high  bulwarks  of  the  ship,  and  alighted 
on  the  deck  at  a  time  when  vast  flocks  of  the  same  species  were 
seen  leaping  around,  and  often  striking  with  violence  against  the 
bows  of  the  vessel,  the  sea  being  comparatively  smooth.  It  was 
much  injured  by  the  violence  with  which  it  struck  the  deck.  Another 
species,  with  its  two  long  tentacles  furnished  at  the  extremities  with 
rows  of  suckers  (acetabula)  instead  of  horny,  hooked  appendages, 
resembling  the  above  in  size  and  form,  was  obtained  in  the  Pacific. 
The  prevailing  colours  were  silver-white  and  steel-blue,  spread  with 
red  spots  and' tints  of  violet  and  purple,  a  brilliant  and  very  beautiful 
spot  of  emerald-green  being  placed  immediately  above  each  eye. 
Mr.  Bennett  concludes  by  stating  that  they  noticed  examples  of  this 
family  of  Cephalopoda  from  the  equator  to  lats.  34"  N.  and  16  S.  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean.    ,• 

The  Officinal  Cuttle-fish  {Sepia  officmalis).  In  the  genus 
Sepia  the  body  is  oblong,  and  depressed  with  two  narrow  lateral 
fins  extending  its  whole  length  ;  mantle  free  at  its  anterior  margin  ; 
sucker  supported  by  horny  loops,  with  the  margin  entire  or  very 
minutely  denticulated.     The  internal  support  is  calcareous,  lami- 


nated, the  laminae  supported  by  columns  ;  it  has  an  internal  horny 
layer,  corresponding  to  the  anterior  horny  sheath  in  the  Belemnites. 
The  Ofiicinal  Cuttle-fish  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  is  common  in 
the  European  seas.  Its  skin  is  smooth,  whitish,  and  spotted  with 
brown.  The  empty  eggs  of  the  Cuttle-fish,  a,  in  clusters,  are  often 
thrown  upon  the  beach  ;  b  is  the  disc  of  one  of  the  suckers  of  this 
species  ;  c,  that  of  Eledone.     (Fig.  2030). 

Fig.  2031,  the  internal  shell  of  Sepia  officinalis  ;  a,  the  back  view; 
b,  the  side  view ;  c,  the  under  side. 


Fig.  2030.— The  Officinal  Cuttle-fish. 

The  ArgonautidcB  are  furnished  with  an  external  shell,  the  tex- 
ture of  which  has  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  the  Paper  nautilus. 
These  Animals  are  remarkable  for  having  two  of  the  arms  dilated 
into  broad  plates,  by  the  expansion  of  which,  when  floating  at  the 


Fig.  2031.— Internal  Shell  of  the  Cuttle-fish. 

surface  with  its  shell  reversed,  the  ancients,  and  many  of  the 
moderns,  have  supposed  that  the  Argonaut  sailed  gently  along  in 
his  fragile  boat,  on  the  surface  of  the  summer  sea.  This  notion, 
consecrated  as  it  is  by  poetical  usage,   proves  to  be  entirely  incor- 


Fij^.  2032. — The  Aigonauta  argo  swimming. 


FOSSIL  MOLLUSCS. 


765 


rect.  The  Argonaut  uses  its  dilated  arms  to  grasp  its  shell,  whilst 
swimming  backwards,  like  the  other  Cephalopods,  by  the  expulsion 
of  water  from  its  branchial  chamber  (Fig.  2033);  these  organs  also 


appear  to  secrete  or  hide  the  shell,  which  is  not  attached  to  the  body 
of  the  Animal.  The  male  Argonaut  is  not  provided  with  a  shell. 
In  the  annexed  illustration  (Fig.  2033),  the  shell  of  the  young  is  re- 
presented, marked  a. 


Many  of  our  readers  may  have  access  to  the  British 
Museum  in  London ;  and  to  such,  the  following  table, 
which  we  have  compiled  from  personal  examination,  as 
carefully  as  possible,  will  be  of  considerable  use.  It  con- 
tains the  names  of  the  various  families  comprised  in  the 
classes  Cephalopoda,  Pteropoda,  Gasteropoda,  &c.  ;  speci- 
mens of  the  shells  of  which  are  found,  in  great  variety,  in  the 
British  Museum.  With  this  list  as  a  guide,  and  the  article 
on  Moi/usca  as  a  text-book,  the  earnest  student  may  easily 
and  profitably  combine  the  study  of  Conchology  with  that 
of  Zoology.  He  will  also  be  enabled  to  name  and  classify 
any  newly-found  specimens,  and  so  to  make  his  pursuits 
both  practical  and  useful. 

In  doing  this,  however,  some  care  is  required,  as  many  of 
the  species  greatly  resemble  each  other.  But  this  difBculty 
will  be  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise  to  the  student, 
as  it  will  call  on  the  exercise  of  his  powers  of  observation, 
and  subsequent  judgment,  and  consequently  become  not  only 
a  pleasing,  but  valuable  and  interesting  source  of  intellectual 
pursuit. 


Fig.  2033.— Shell  of  the  Argonaut. 


NAMES  OF  THE  FAMILIES  OF  MOLLUSCA,  OF  WHICH  SPECIMENS  OF  SHELLS  MAY  BE  FOUND  IN  THE 

BRITISH  MUSEUM. 


Acteonidae. 

Amphibolidffi. 

Amphiperasidae. 

Amphisphyridae. 

Amplustridse. 

AmpuUariidffi. 

Anatinidje. 

Anomiidae. 

Aplysiidae. 

Aporrhaidae. 

Arcadffi. 

Architectomidae. 

Arionidae. 

Astartidae. 

Atlantidffi. 

Auriculidae. 

Aviculidae. 

Barleeidae. 
Buccinidae. 
Bullidaj. 

Cfficidas. 

Calyptrjeidae. 

Cancellariadae. 

Capulidae. 

Cardiidae. 


Carditidae. 

Cerithiidae. 

Cerithiopsidae. 

Chamidae. 

Chitonidse. 

Conidas. 

Corbiculidae. 

Corbulidae. 

Cranchiadae. 

Craniadae. 

Crassatellidae. 

Cryptellidae. 

Cyclasidae. 

Cyclophoridae. 

Cyclostomidae. 

Cymbuliadae. 

Cypraadae. 

Cyprinidae. 

Dentaliadae. 
Discinidae. 

Etheriadas. 

Fissurellidffi. 

Gadiniadae. 


Galeommidae. 

Gastrochaenadae. 

Glauconomidae. 

Haliotidae. 
Helcinidae. 
Helicidae. 

lanellidae. 

lanthinadae. 

Iridinidae. 

Isocardiadae. 

Lacunidae. 

Lamellariadas. 

Lasiadas. 

Ledadae. 

Lepetadae. 

Limacinidae. 

Limnasadae. 

I.ingulidae. 

Liotiadae. 

Littorinidae. 

Lituidac. 

Loligidae. 

Lophocercidae. 

Lottiadae. 


Lucinidae. 

Mactridae. 

Melaniadae. 

Mesodesmidae. 

Montacutidae. 

Muricidae. 

Myadae. 

Mytilidae. 

Naticidae. 
Neritidae. 

Octopidae. 
Olividae. 

Onychoteuthidae. 
Ostreidffi. 

Pandoridae. 

Patellidae. 

Pectinidas. 

Pediculariadae. 

Philinidas. 

Pholadae. 

Phoridae. 

Pinnidae. 

Placunidae. 


Planaxiadae. 

Pleurobranchidae. 

Pleurotomidse. 

Productidae. 

Proserpinadae. 

Pteriadae. 

Pterotracheidas. 

Pyramidellidae. 

Rhychonellidae. 

Rissoadae. 

Rissoellidas. 

Rotelladae. 

Runcinadae. 

Saxicavidae. 

Scalariads. 

Scissurellidffi. 

Scrobiculariadae. 

Sepiadas. 

Siphonariadae. 

Solenidae. 

Solenomyadae. 

Spondylidae. 

Strombidae. 

Stomatellidffi. 


Tecturidffi. 

Tellinidae. 

Terebratulidae. 

Testacellida;. 

Thecideadae. 

Tridacnidae. 

Trigonidae. 

Tripteridas. 

Trochidae. 

Truncatellidae. 

Turbinida;. 

Turritellidae. 

Turritidae. 

Tylodinadae 

Umbrelladae. 
Unionidae. 

Valvatidas. 

Vanicoridae 

Vclutinidae. 

Veneridai. 

Vermetidae. 

Viviparidas 

Volutidae, 


In  regard  to  Fossil  Mollusca,  their  name  is  legion.  The  animals, 
after  death,  generally  settle  into  soft  lacustrine  or  sea  strata,  in 
which  their  most  minute  outlines  have  been  preserved.  The  British 
species  alone  present  an  enormous  number,  the  description  of  which 
occupies  a  large  portion  of  Mr.  Morriss's  work  on  British  Fossils. 
In  the  British  Museum  a  large  collection  of  Molluscous  Fossils  may 
be  found,  together  with  those  of  the  Radiata,  Corals,  &c.  Com- 
mencing with  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life,  descriptions  of  which 
will  be  found  at  824  ei  seq..  we  may  notice  some  fine  specimens  of 
Stone  Lilies  [Crinoidea)  ;  in  that  collection  they  are  represented  by 
some  from  the  Silurian,  Carboniferous,  Liassic,  Oolitic,  and  Creta- 
ceous formations.  Sea-urchins  [Echiiiidce)  are  arranged  in  four 
principal  groups,  ist.  These  form  the  Tertiary  strata,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  large  Clypeasters,  from  Malta.  2nd. 
The  Chalk  F.chinidcB,  among  which  are  the  Helmet-urchins, 
Anauchytes,  popularly  known  as  "Fairy  Loayes  ;  "  "the  Heart 
Urchins"  {Spatangidce),  called  commonly  "  Fairy  Hearts;"  and 
numerous  species  of  Cidaris,  provincially  termed  "  Shepherd's- 
crowns."  3rd.  The  Jurassie,  or  Oolitic  Echitiid^,  and  the  Sea- 
urchins  from  the  Trias,  and  older  rocks,  which  include  many  sin- 
gular forms  of  the  spines  or  locomotive  organs." 

Among  the  Crustacea  the  Crab  and  Lobster  Fossils  are  abun- 
dantly represented,  including  the  gigantic  King-Crabs.     There  are 


also  numerous  specimens  of  the  Trilobita,  Isopoda,  &c.  Fossil 
Lobsters  are  found  to  extend  from  the  Coal-measures  to  the  present 
age,  while  True  Crabs  first  appear  in  the  Upper  Oolite.  Specimens 
from  the  Lias  of  Lyme,  the  Oolite  of  Solenhofen,  and  the  London 
Clay  of  Sheppey  are  well  deserving  of  attention. 

The  Fossil  Molluscous  Shells  are  divided  into  four  groups — viz., 
the  Lamp-shells  {Brackiopoda) ;  Ordinary  Bivalves  {Conchifera)  ; 
Spiral  Univalves  {^Gasteropoda);  and  Chambered  Univalves  {Cep- 
halopoda). Tertiary  Fossil  Shells  are  represented  in  great  abun- 
dance. 

Shells  of  the  secondary  strata  include  those  got  from  the  Chalk, 
Gault,  and  Greensand.  The  characteristic  shells  of  the  Chalk  are 
Inoceraimi,  related  to  the  recent  Pearl-oyster;  Spondyli ;  Scallops 
[Pecten),  of  a  peculiar  form  ;  Cockscomb-oj'sters,  and  species  of 
Lima  and  Pleurotomaria.  One  peculiarity  of  the  Chalk  Fossils  is 
the  constant  absence  oi  the  interior  pearly  layers  of  the  shells, 
which  have  been  removed  subsequent  to  their  imbedding.  In  the 
Greensand  strata  Trig07ii(S  abound,  together  with  peculiar  Bivalves 
of  an  extinct  family,  Hippuritida,  related  to  the  recent  Chama. 

Among  the  Jurassic  or  Oolitic  Shells  are  the  shells  of  Portland 
Stone,  Bath  Stone,  and  other  Oolitic  rocks,  and  of  the  Lias,  which 
include  numerous  species  of  Trigonice,  the  internal  casts  of  which 
are  often  found,  while  the  shells  have  been  dissolved  and  removed 


766 


FOSSIL  MOLLUSCS. 


from  the  rock.  They  are  called  "  Horse-heads  "  by  the  quarrymen, 
and  are  sometimes  silicified,  and  contain  traces  of  the  Shell-fish 
itself.  Among-  the  Oolitic  oysters  are  some  whose  shells  have  been 
moulded  on  Trigofu'cs  3in&  Am?nonifes.  The  shells  of  the  Triassic 
system  in  the  ]Mi:seum  consist  of  the  original  specimens  figured  and 
described  by  Dr.  Klipstein  in  his  work  on  the  Fossils  of  the  salt- 
marls,  and  Alpine  limestone  of  Austria. 

Among  the  Palaeozoic  shells  are  those  from  the  Magnesian  Lime- 
stone (Permian)  of  Northumberland  and  Durham,  the  Carboniferous 
Limestone,  and  Coal-measures  of  Britain  and  Belgium ;  of  the 
Devonian  system,  and  of  the  Silurian  system,  presented  by  the  late 
Sir  R.  L  Murchison,  who  was  so  eminent  in  his  investigations  of 
the  latter  geological  strata.  Among  chambered  shells,  Cephalo- 
poda are  specimens  related  to  the  recent  Nautilus  and  Cuttle- 
fish, Ammonites,  and  Fossil  Nautili.  Those  from  the  London  Clay 
of  Highgate  and  Sheppey  are  well  worthy  of  notice. 

As  already  stated,  the  Fossils  of  Mollusca,  &c.,  are  very  abundant 
in  this  country.  In  some  places,  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  Fossil 
shells  abound  to  an  enormous  extent.  As  an  instance  of  this  the 
following  may  be  quoted  : — 

Mr.  Lea,  in  his  "Contributions  to  Geology,"  notices  the  Tufaceous 
Lacustrine  formation  of  Syracuse,  Onandaga  county,  New  York.  He 
found  the  substratum  which  lined  the  side  of  the  canal  to  consist  of  a 
calcareous  marl  of  a  whitish  colour,  bordering  on  that  of  ashes, 
friable,  and  rather  soft  to  the  touch.  A  subsequent  analysis  jby 
Professor  Vanuxem  proved  it  to  be  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime. 
Numerous  perfect  specimens  of  the  genera  Limncsa,  Physa,  Palu- 
dina,  a.nA.A?icylus  were  obtained,  all  being  analogous  to  the  species 
inhabiting  at  that  time  the  fresh  waters  of  that  region  ;  and  Mr.  Lea 
stated  that  it  was  evident  that  the  deposit  was  caused  by  the  drainage 
of  the  lake.  The  specimens  were  found  to  be  completely  bleached, 
and  were  generally  in  an  unbroken  state.  "A  lacustrine  forma- 
tion of  so  recent  a  nature,"  says  Mr.  Lea,  in  continuation,  "as 
this  appears  to  be,  is  not,  I  believe,  of  frequent  occurrence.  It 
is  the  result,  however,  of  one  of  those  causes  which  are  now  in 
action ;  and  another  instance  might  be  mentioned,  in  which 
the  effect  of  this  cause,  though  striking,  has  not  advanced  to  that 
period  when  it  would  make  a  finished  deposit :  I  mean  the  small 
lake,  or  pond,  in  Sussex  county.  New  Jersey,  well  known  by  the 
descriptive  name  of  Milk  Pond.  Here  countless  myriads  of  bleached 
shells  of  the  families  Lymna:a7ia  and  Peristomiana,  analogous  to 
the  species  now  inhabiting  the  adjacent  waters,  line  and  form  the 
shores  of  the  whole  circumference  of  the  lake,  to  the  depth  and 
breadth  of  many  fathoms.  Not  having  visited  this  interesting  lake 
myself,  I  repeat  what  has  been  communicated  to  me  by  intelligent 
scientific  friends  who  have  examined  it,  and  on  whose  report  the 
most  implicit  reliance  may  be  placed.  Such  is  the  quantity  of 
bleached  shells  now  remaining  there,  that  thousands  of  tons  of  these 
small  species,  in  a  state  of  perfect  whiteness,  could  be  obtained  if 
any  useful  purpose  required  the  removal  of  them.  For  agricultural 
purposes  this  mass  might  prove  of  great  utility.      One  friend,  I  re- 


member, mentioned  to  me  that  he  had  obtained  a  sharp  pointed  pole, 
which  he  inserted  ten  or  twelve  feet  perpendicularly  into  the  mass, 
on  the  shore,  near  to  the  edge  of  the  water,  without  its  having  passed 
through  it.  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  this  mass  seems  to  form 
the  whole  basin  of  the  lake,  and  it  may,  at  some  future  and  perhaps 
not  far  distant  period,  form  a  tufaceous  lacustrine  deposit  similar  to 
that  of  Syracuse." 

We  may  here  notice  a  group  of  the  shells  of  extinct  Cephalopods, 
termed  Goniatiies,  a  group  of  equal  importance  with  the  Ammonites 
in  reasoning  on  the  succession  of  organic  life  on  the  globe.  Between 
these  shells  and  the  Ammonites  there  are  important  distinctions. 
In  the  Ammonites  the  siphon,  as  we  have  seen,  instead  of  perforating 
the  disc  or  centre  of  the  transverse  plates,  dividing  the  chambers 
(as  in  nautilus),  touches  and  runs  parallel  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
shell  on  the  dorsal  line.  Another  characteristic  of  the  Ammonites, 
is  in  the  form  of  the  sutures  or  intersections  of  the  transverse  internal 
septa,  or  plates,  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell  ;  these  sutures  in 
Ammonites  are  undulated  or  angularly  bent  into  lobes  and  sinuses, 
seldom  zigzag :  in  Nautilus  they  are  even,  or  gently  waved,  but  in 
GoniatitestheTorms  of  the  sutures  are,  in  general,  singularly  waved, 
zigzag,  and  greatly  varied.  Von  Buch  regards  the  sinuous  edges  of 
the  septa  of  the  Ammonites  and  Goniatites  to  be  necessarily  derived 
from  the  dorsal  position  of  the  siphuncle  ;  "  all  the  other  differ- 
ences," he  says,  "are  derived  from  this  primary  distinction.  The 
Nautilus,  which  passes  a  very  large  syphon  through  the  middle  of 
the  septa,  appears  sufficiently  attached  by  this  membranous  basis  on 
which  it  rests.  There  is  no  need  of  any  other  support,  and  the  septa 
in  general  remains  smooth,  and  concave  without  sinuosities  on  the 
edges.  The  small  dorsal  syphon  of  the  Ammonites  (and  Goniatites, 
which  Von  Buch  regarded  as  included  in  that  group)  would  not 
suffice  to  secure  the  Animal  from  displacement  on  the  surface  of  its 
cell."  He  contends  that  other  supports  are  needed,  and  that  they 
are  to  be  found  in  the  marginal  lobes,  which  the  form  of  the  Gonia- 
tites, in  particular,  impresses  on  the  partitions  of  the  chambers,  and 
which  are  generally  six  in  number. 

The  species  of  Goniatites  are  rather  numerous  :  the  late  Mr. 
Martin,  in  his  Petrificata  derbiensia,  figured  two  species  from  the 
limestone  ;  Mr.  Sowerby,  in  the  "  Mineral  Conchology  of  Great 
Britain,"  added  two  others  ;  and  Professor  Phillips,  in  the  "  Illustra- 
tion of  the  Geology  of  Yorkshire,"  has  raised  the  number  of  British 
species  to  thirty-six  ;  of  these  the  septa  are  completely  ascertained. 
These,  added  to  the  distinct  Continental  species,  make  up  a  total 
of  seventy-one  or  seventy-two  with  which  naturalists  are  acquainted. 

With  respect  to  their  external  form,  the  Goniatites  form  a  sub- 
globular  figure,  to  the  discoid  spiral  shape  of  the  flattest  Ammo- 
nites. Most  have  rounded  backs,  and  few  have  the  back  carinated. 
In  general  the  lines  of  growth  externally  visible  are  sigmoidally 
waved ;  sometimes,  however,  the  striae  are  angular,  sometimes 
radiating ;  occasionally  the  striae  rise  into  tubercles  on  the  inner 
edge  of  the  whorls.  Altogether  they  form  a  very  interesting  study 
in  regard  to  extinct  Molluscs. 


ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 


767 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

DIVISION  III.— THE  ARTICULATA. 


liE  present  division  of  "Animal  Life" 
includes  a  most  heterogeneous  concourse 
of  Animals.  It  runs  from  the  Worms  to 
the  Insects,  and  also  includes  the  Crus- 
tacea, such  as  the  Crabs,  Lobsters,  &c. ; 
Spiders,  and  Insects  of  all  kinds,  as  the 
Fly,  the  Flea,  Butterflies,  &c.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  range  of  the 
division  is  of  a  most  extensive  character. 
That  portion  or  Class  of  it  devoted  to  the 
Iiisecta.  may  be  considered  as  that  which 
chiefly  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  science  of 
Entomology. 

So  great  is  the  diversity,  in  fact,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  give  any  common  characters  which 
shall  positively  include  the  whole;  and  some  of  the 
most  eminent  modem  zoologists  have  proposed  the 
establishment  of  a  separate  division,  to  include  the 
lower  forms.  By  this  means,  however,  the  diffi- 
culty is  lessened  rather  than  got  rid  of  altogether  ; 
for,  although  a  tolerably  coherent  group  may  thus 
be  obtained  for  the  higher  forms,  the  lower  would 
still  vary  to  such  an  extent,  that  a  very  loose  cha- 
racter is  necessary  to  enable  them  to  be  united  in 
a  single  group.  We  shall,  however,  adopt,  in  their 
entirety,  sub-divisions,  as  they  may  tend  to  render 
this  part  of  our  subject  more  intelligible.  The  general  characters  of 
the  division  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows  : — 

The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  animals  of  this  division,  by 
which,  in  fact,  they  may  generally  be  distinguished  at  the  first 
glance  from  all  other  creatures,  is,  that  their  bodies  and  limbs  are 
composed,  more  or  less  distinctly,  of  segments  or  rings.  From  this, 
which  is  their  most  prominent  character,  they  have  been  denomi- 
nated Articulated  or  Annulose  Animals. 

The  joints  or  segments  of  which  their  bodies  are  composed,  are 
formed  essentially  by  a  series  of  transverse  folds  in  the  integument 
of  the  Animal.  In  many  of  the  lower  forms,  the  skin  still  remains 
perfectly  soft  and  flexible  ;  but  in  by  far  the  greater  number  these 
folds  become  transformed  into  a  series  of  horny  or  crustaceous  rings, 
as  in  the  Centipede,  united  to  each  other  by  a  softer  portion  of  the 
integument,  so  as  to  permit  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  flexibility. 
The  limbs,  as  well  as  the  body,  are  constructed  of  rings  of  various 
forms  ;  and  these,  taken  together,  may  be  regarded,  to  a  certain 
extent,  as  a  sort  of  external  skeleton,  fulfilling,  as  they  do,  most  of 
the  purposes  of  the  skeleton  in  Man,  and  the  Animals  most  related 
to  him.  Like  that,  it  gives  support  to  all  the  soft  parts  of  the  body, 
and  furnishes  points  of  attachment  to  the  muscles ;  which  again,  by 
their  action  on  the  movable  pieces  composing  it,  give  rise  to  the 
various  movements  of  the  creature.  In  many  cases,  all  the  segments 
composing  the  body,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  those  at  the  two 
extremities,  are  exactly  similar;  each  presenting  the  same  form,  and 
bearing  the  same  organs  as  its  neighbour.  An  instance  of  this  may 
be  seen  in  the  Centipede,  already  mentioned ;  and  it  is  still  more 
strikingly  exemplified  in  many  Marine  Worms.  Generally,  however, 
the  segments  present  marked  differences  of  form  and  comparative 
size,  and  in  the  structure  of  their  appendages  ;  this  is  very  distinctly 
observable  in  the  Insects  and  Crabs. 

Every  segment  is  supposed  to  be  capable  of  bearing  two  pairs  of 
appendages  or  members,  one  connected  with  the  ventral,  the  other 
with  the  dorsal,  portion  of  the  segment.  Both  pairs  of  members  do 
in  fact  occur  upon  all,  or  a  portion  of  the  segments  in  some  of  these 
Animals ;  but,  in  general,  the  ventral  members  alone  are  developed, 
and  these  only  on  certain  segments.  In  the  Insects,  in  addition  to 
three  pairs  of  ventral  members,  or  legs,  we  find  generally  two  pairs 
of  dorsal  appendages — the  wings.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  Earthworm 
and  Leech,  the  limbs  are  entirely  deficient,  or  only  represented  by  a 
few  bristles  ;  but,  when  present,  their  number  is  never  less  than  six. 
The  nervous  system  of  the  Articulata  generally  exhibits  the 
tendency  to  segmentary  repetition,  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
group,  very  distinctly.  In  its  most  definite  form  it  consists  of  a 
double  nervous  cord  running  down  the  middle  of  the  ventral  portion 
of  the  body,  and  uniting  a  series  of  knots  or  ganglia  which  lie  in  its 
course  ;  these  ganglia  give  rise  to  nerves,  which  are  distributed  to 
the  various  organs.  The  more  elongated  the  body,  and  the  more 
similar  the  different  segments  of  which  it  is  composed,  the  more 
regularly  do  the  ganglia  follow  one  another ;  whilst,  when  the 
segments  become  more  or  less  amalgamated,  the  individual  ganglia 
fuse  in  a  corresponding  degree  into  larger  masses.     This  ventral 


cord  originates  from  one  or  more  cephalic  ganglia  of  considerable 
size,  situated  in  the  head,  above  the  oesophagus,  which  give  off  two 
filaments  to  join  the  first  ventral  ganglion,  and  thus  form  a  nervous 
ring  surrounding  the  oesophagus.  From  this  the  ventral  cord  takes 
its  rise. 

In  the  lowest  Animals  arranged  in  this  division,  we  have  some 
difBculty  in  referring  the  nervous  system  to  the  Articulate  type  ;  but 
when  these  Animals  present  us  with  a  distinct  nervous  system,  it 
consists  of  one  or  two  ganglia  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
cesophagus,  and  giving  off  two  thin  branches  which  run  down  the 
body. 

The  majority  of  the  Articulata  possess  the  senses  in  tolerable 
perfection.  The  eyes,  in  many  cases,  present  a  highly  complex 
structure,  consisting  of  a  great  number  of  hexagonal  facets,  each  of 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  eye  ;  this  construction  of  the 
eyes  is  especially  prevalent  in  Insects,  and  is  peculiar  to  the  Annu- 
lose division.  When  these  eyes  are  wanting,  and  even  when  they 
are  present,  we  frequently  meet  with  simple  eyes,  which  agree  very 
closely  in  structure  with  the  individual  eyes,  by  the  aggregation  of 
which  the  co^npou>2d  visual  organs  are  formed.  The  senses  of  he.ir- 
ing,  taste,  and  smell,  appear  also  to  be  possessed  by  a  great  many 
of  these  creatures ;  but  the  organs  by  which  these  faculties  are 
exercised  can  seldom  be  indicated  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 
The  sense  of  touch,  of  course,  resides  in  the  general  integument ; 
but  special  organs  of  touch  are  also  frequently  developed. 

The  mouth  is  nearly  always  furnished  with  several  pairs  of  jaws, 
placed  one  behind  the  other,  some  serving  for  the  prehension,  and 
others  for  the  mastication  of  food.  These  jaws  open  laterally,  so 
that  the  aperture  of  the  mouth  is  vertical,  or  in  the  direction  of  the 
axis  of  the  body. 

Most  of  the  Articulata  have  whitish  or  colourless  blood.  The 
only  exceptions  are  to  be  met  with  amongst  the  Worms,  some  of 
which  have  red  blood.  In  these,  however,  the  colour  of  the  blood 
is  inherent  in  the  fluid  portion,  and  not  due  to  the  presence  of  red 
corpuscles.  (See  p.  7.  chap.  I.)  Their  circulation  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  dorsal  vessel,  which  carries  the  blood  from  behind  for- 
wards ;  it  returns  to  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body,  either  through 
a  proper  vascular  system,  or  by  passing  through  interstices  left  in 
the  tissues  of  the  body. 

Sexual  oviparous  reproduction  prevails  throughout  this  division. 
The  sexes  are  generally  separate,  although,  in  some  of  the  lower 
forms,  we  meet  with  complete  hermaphrodism. 

From  the  preceding  epitome  of  the  characters  of  the  Articulata, 
it  will  be  seen  that  enormous  differences  exist  between  them  and  the 
Animals  hitherto  described.  While  analogy  exists  in  regard  to  both 
functions  and  organs,  the  degradation,  if  we  may  use  such  a  term, 
in  relation  to  animal  life  in  general,  is  very  great.  Indeed,  the 
popular  estimation  of  these  animals  shows  how  far  such  a  distinction 
may  be  held.  Mai^y  of  the  classes  and  orders  we  observe  with 
general  abhorrence,  and  in  numerous  cases  the  creatures  themselves 
are  a  bane  to  the  existence  of  man,  and  even  of  the  lower  vertebrate 
animals.  Some  of  them,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  prey  inside  of  the 
frame  of  most  of  the  Vertebrata,  from  Man  downwards.  And  others 
are  external  annoying  animals,  as  the  Flea,  Bug,  &c.,  beside  the 
Beetle  and  other  offensive  insects  which  trouble  us  by  attacking  our 
food  and  clothing.  But,  even  in  such  cases,  these  creatures  have 
their  uses.  Their  presence  inculcates  the  necessity  of  cleanliness 
in  our  persons  and  houses,  attention  to  which  ensures  their  destruction 
or  absence.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  a  counterbalance,  in  the 
Lepidoptera,  and  others  of  the  insect  tribe,  embracing  the  Butterflies 
for  beauty,  the  Bees  for  use  in  respect  to  their  honey  and  wax, 
which,  with  other  instances  of  the  Articulata,  teach  us  that  there  is 
no  department  of  created  life  without  its  excellences  and  advantages. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  difiiculty  of  arranging  the  members 
of  this  division  in  proper  groups  or  classes  ;  but  the  following  plan 
will  perhaps  best  afford  a  systematic  course  of  study,  and  explain  in  a 
general  manner  the  relations  that  subsist  throughout  the  division. 

Sub-division  I.— Vermes, 

General  Characters.— The  Animals  of  the  first  sub-division, 
the  Vermes  or  Hehnintha,  are  usually  of  a  very  elongated  form  ; 
and  in  the  higher  groups,  the  division  of  the  body  into  a  number  of 
segments,  is  very  distinct ;  whilst,  in  some  of  the  lower  forms,  this 
general  characteristic  of  the  articulate  series  is  quite  unrecognisable. 
The  segments,  when  present,  are  generally  mere  repetitions  one  of 
another  ;  and  the  appendages  with  which  they  are  frequently  fur» 
nished  follow  the  same  rule. 


768 


THE    VERMES,   OR   WORMS. 


The  nervous  system,  which,  in  the  parasitic  groups  {Entozoa, 
living-inside)  is,  as  might  be  expected,  in  a  very  rudimentary  con- 
dition, gradually  increases  in  complexity;  until,  in  the  Ajmch'da, 
or  True  Worms,  it  consists,  as  in  the  most  highly  endowed  Arfi- 
culata,  of  a  ventral  series  of  ganglia,  united  by  nervous  cords,  and 
communicating  with  a  nervous  mass  of  considerable  size  (brain), 
situated  in  the  head.  In  proportion  to  this  gradual  elevation  of  the 
nervous  system,  is  the  development  of  the  different  organs  of  the 
body.  This  is  especially  remarkable  in  the  case  of  the  lateral 
appendages,  which  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  lower  groups  ;  but  in 
the  An/ielida  they  make  their  appearance  often  in  a  very  compli- 
cated form,  such  as  branchial  and  natatory  plates,  and  jointed 
bristles  serving  as  feet.  In  none,  however,  do  they  present  the 
peculiar  structure  of  the  limbs  possessed  by  the  other  Articulata, 
the  construction  of  which  will  be  described  in  the  proper  place. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Ver??ies  may  be  divided  into  four  classes, 
which  are  generally  distinguishable  by  their  external  appearance. 
Oi  these,  the  first  two  are  for  the  most  part  Parasitic,  livmg  in  the 
interior  of  other  Animals,  few  of  which,  in  fact,  are  exempt  from  the 
visits  of  those  unwelcome  guests.  Of  these,  the  first,  the  F/ai- 
worms  {Platyelmiii),  have  the  body  flattened,  and  generally  more 
or  less  ovate  and  leaf-like  ;  these  present  the  greatest  divergence 
from  the  articulate  type.  In  the  second,  the  Nemafelmia,  or 
Romid-worms,  the  body  is  usually  elongated  and  cylindrical,  and 
the  division  into  segments  is  often  indicated  by  annulations  of  the 
skin.  The  other  two  classes  are  composed  principally  of  Aquatic 
Animals.  A  few  are  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  but  none  are  inter- 
nally parasitic.  One  of  these,  theHotifera,  or  Wheel  Animalcides, 
includes  a  number  of  minute  creatures  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
ciliated  organs  at  their  anterior  extremity  ;  whilst  the  A7inelida,  or 
True  worms,  have  the  body  distinctly  divided  into  segments,  gene- 
rally furnished  with  lateral  appendages,  and  with  a  well-developed 
nervous  system.  The  blood,  in  this  last  class,  is  also  generally  of  a 
red  colour. 

Class  I.— Platyelmia. 

General  Characters.— By  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
Platyelmia  pass  the  whole  or  the  greater  portion  of  their  existence 
inclosed  within  the  bodies  of  other  Animals,  of  which  few  are  without 
species  of  these  parasites  peculiar  to  themselves.  Some  species, 
however,  live  in  the  water,  where  they  swim  about  freely  by  means  of 
cilia.  They  all,  however,  have  the  body  much  flattened,  and  usually 
of  a  more  or  less  ovate  form,  without  any  traces  of  segmentation  ; 
the  only  exception  to  this  rule  being  presented  by  the  Tape-worms, 
in  which,  as  is  well  known,  the  body  is  of  great  length,  and  com- 
posed of  a  multitude  of  similar  joints.  We  shall  see,  however,  that 
the  exception  is  more  apparent  than  real ;  for  it  appears  that  the 
Tape-worm  may  be  regarded  as  a  compound  Animal,  each  joint 
bemg  capable  of  a  certain  amount  of  independent  existence. 

The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  pair  of  ganglia  situated  in  the 
anterior  extremity  of  the  body,  and  giving  off  two  slender  filaments, 
which  run  down  each  side  of  the  body.  No  special  organs  of 
sense  have  been  found  in  the  Parasitic  species  ;  but  those  which  live 
free  in  the  water  have  several  dark  spots,  each  containing  a  distinct 
lens,  placed  close  to  the  central  ganglia  ;  and  these  are  considered 
to  be  true  eyes.  With  the  exception  of  the  cilia  of  the  aquatic 
forms,  no  organs  of  motion  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  Platyehnia. 
The  Parasitic  species  are  generally  furnished  with  hooks  or  suckers 
for  mamtaining  themselves  in  their  position  ;  but  their  movements 
are  almost  entirely  confined  to  a  muscular  contraction  and  dilatation 
of  the  body. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Flai-wortns  are  divided  into  three  orders, 
of  which  two  are  composed  of  Parasitic,  and  one  of  free-swimming 
Animals.  They  may  be  regarded  as  forming  two  groups  or  sub- 
classes, of  which  the  second  is  distinguished  by  the  possession  of 
cilia  ;  the  others  being  destitute  of  these  organs.  The  two  parasitic 
orders  are  the  Cestoidea,  or  Tape-worms,  with  long,  usually  jointed 
bodies ;  and  the  Tretnaloda,  with  short, elliptical,  or  discoiti  forms. 

Order  I.— Cestoidea, 

General  Characters.— The  general  appearance  of  the  Cestoidea 
is  well  shown  in  the  following  figure,  which  represents  the  common 
Tape- worm  of  the  human  intestines.  The  body  is  composed  of 
numerous  joints  or  segments,  each  exactly  resembling  the  other; 
these  are  often  several  hundreds  in  number,  and  the  Animal  some- 
times attains  a  length  of  upwards  of  ten  feet.  The  skin  is  exceed- 
ingly soft  and  tender,  and  the  muscular  system  possesses  very  little 
energy  ;  so  that  the  movements  of  the  Animal  are  confined  within 
very  narrow  limits.  Its  anterior  extremity  is  formed  by  a  small 
head,  furnished  with  hooks  and  suckers,  by  means  of  which  the 
Animal  anchors  itself  to  the  intestines  of  its  victim  ;  it  also  contains 
the  rudiments  of  the  nervous  centre,  the  filaments  given  off  by 
which  only  run  through  a  few  of  the  first  segments.  The  Animal 
appears  to  possess  no  mouth  or  digestive  organs ;  so  that  it  must 
derive  its  nourishment  entirely  by  absorption  through  the  skin.     On 


each  side  of  the  body  runs  a  long  vessel,  passing  through  all  the 
segments ;  these  are  united  at  each  articulation  of  the  body  by  a 
transverse  vessel.  Each  segment  contains  both  male  and  female 
sexual  organs ;  and  when  these  have  arrived  at  maturity,  the  seg- 
ment is  cast  off  to  seek  a  new  place  in  which  its  ova  may  be  deve- 


Fig.  2034. — The  Common  Tape-worm, 

loped.  For  this  purpose  the  joints,  when  cast  off,  are  endowed  with 
a  considerable  power  of  motion,  and  will  live  for  several  days  when 
placed  in  favourable  circumstances.  In  some  cases  they  have  been 
observed  to  develop  peculiar  organs,  which  they  do  not  possess  in 
their  compound  condition.  The  orifices  of  the  sexual  organs  are 
placed  at  one  side  of  each  segment,  and  these  apertures  are  placed 
alternately  on  both  sides  of  the  body  of  the  Animal. 

The  development  of  these  Animals  presents  some  of  the  most  re- 
markable phenomena  that  have  yet  been  discovered  in  the  natural 
history  of  Animals.  Some  curious  Parasitic  Worms  are  found,  not  in 
the  intestines,  but  in  the  sold  tissues  of  many  Herbivorous  Animals, 
which,  from  the  structure  of  the  head,  have  always  been  ranged  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Tape-worms,  although  their  bodies, 
instead  of  being  drawn  out  to  an  enormous  length  and  divided  into 
numerous  segments,  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  a  simple  bag 
of  fluid. 

Some  of  these  parasites  are  simple — that  is  to  say,  the  sac  bears 
only  a  single  head  ;  in  other  cases  they  develop  a  multitude  of  these 
organs,  sometimes  from  the  internal,  and  also  from  the  external 
surface,  of  their  walls.  These  Worms  were  long  regarded  as  form- 
ing a  distinct  order  of  Parasitic  Animals;  but  recent  experiments 
have  shown,  that  when  they  are  administered  to  particular  Carni- 
vorous Animals  with  their  food,  the  vesicle  of  fluid  is  cast  off,  the 
head  attaches  itself,  and  gradually  develops  the  long-jointed  body 
of  a  true  Tmnia.  The  observations  were  first  made  upon  the  Cystic 
Worms  which  inhabit  the  liver  of  the  Mouse  and  Rat ;  these,  when 
given  to  Cats,  were  found  to  produce,  in  their  intestines,  TcenicB  of 
the  species  usually  infesting  those  Animals.  Experiments  have 
since  been  instituted  upon  Cystic  Worms  from  different  species  of 
Herbivorous  Animals,  and  these  all  produce  Tape-worms  of  different 
kinds,  when  introduced  into  the  bodies  of  Carnivorous  Animals. 

An  exception  to  the  general  rule  appears,  however,  to  be  pre- 
sented b)'  the  Tape-worm  of  the  human  subject  ;  at  least,  it  is  not 
easy  to  understand  how  the  Cystic  Worms  could  withstand  the  heat 
usually  employed  in  cooking  our  animal  food.  Recent  experiments 
have  shown  that  the  administration  of  adult  proglottides  of  Ttenia 
solium  to  pigs,  produces  a  great  development  of  the  Cysticercus 
celluloses.  Pork,  improperly  cooked,  has  been  a  great  cause  of  the 
introduction  of  these  parasites  into  the  human  system.  The 
Cysticercus  celluloses  is  also  found  in  the  tissues  of  the  human 
body. 

Two  species  of  Cestoid  Worms  inhabit  the  human  intestines — the 
Ta:nia  solium  and  the  Bothriocephalus  latus.  The  former  is  the 
ordinary  Tape-worm  ;  the  second  occurs  only  in  particular  countries 
— in  Holland,  Poland,  and  Switzerland.  In  the  Cystic  form,  some 
of  these  Worms  do  great  injury  to  Domestic  Animals;  one  of  the 
most  noxious  is  the  so-called  Ccetturus  cerebralis,  inhabiting  the 
brains  cf  sheep.  Many  other  interesting  facts  are  connected  with 
the  history  of  these  Animals. 

Order  II. — Trematoda. 

General  Characters.— These  animals,  which  are  all  parasitic, 
present  some  resemblance  to  the  individual  segments  of  which  the 
Cestoid  Worms  are  composed.  They  are  usually  of  an  elliptical  or 
oval  form,  and  very  flat;  the  skin  is  soft,  but  usually  contains  a 
number  of  calcareous  granules.  The  whole  body  is  very  contractile. 
At  one  or  both  of  its  extremities  it  is  furnished  with  suckers,  to 
enable  it  to  adhere  firmly  to  its  host,  and,  at  its  anterior  extremity, 
with  a  mouth.  At  a  little  distance  from  the  mouth,  the  narroiv 
intestinal  canal  usually  divides  into  two,  which  mostly  terminate  in 
blind  extremities ;  in  some  cases,  however,  the  two  intestines  meet 
towards  the  hinder  part,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  circle.  All  these 
Animals  are  hermaphrodites,  and  the  history  of  their  development 
presents  many  points  of  almost  equal  interest  with  those  exhibited  by 
the  Cestoid  Worms. 


PARASITIC  WORMS. 


769 


Divisions. — They  form  three  families.  In  the  first,  the  Distomtda;, 
the  animals  possess  two  suckers,  of.  which  the  anterior  contains  the 
mouth.  Of  these  the  Fluke  {Distonta  hepafkuin),  which  infest  the 
livers  of  Sheep,  is  a  well-known  example.  Other  species  live  in  the 
intestines,  the  brain,  and  even  the  eyes,  of  some  Animals. 

The  Animals  of  the  second  family,  the  TristomidcB,  are  furnished 
■with  three  suckers  ;  two  small  ones  at  the  anterior  extremity, 
between  which  the  mouth  is  situated,  and  a  larger  one  at  the  hinder 
extremity.  These  Worms  principally  infest  the  gills  of  Fishes,  as  do 
also  those  of  the  third  family,  the  Polystomidcc,  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  several  suckers  at  the  hinder  e.xtremity  of  the  body; 
whilst  the  anterior  extremity  is  either  entirely  destitute  of  those 
organs,  or  only  possesses  a  small  one,  in  which  the  mouth  is  situated. 
This  family  includes  the  syagxAa^x  Diphzoon  paradoxum — an  Animal 
which  appears  to  be  compounded  of  two  perfect  individuals,  each 
containing  precisely  the  same  organs. 

Order  III.— Planarida. 

This  order  includes  most  of  the  Free  Platyelmia.  These  Animals 
are  of  an  oval  or  elliptical  form,  and  very  commonly  furnished  with 
an  extensible  proboscis,  springing  from  the  ventral  surface,  and 
leading  into  a  large  digestive  cavity,  which  gives  off  numerous 
ramifications  into  the  substance  of  the  body,  but  possesses  no  anal 
opening.  They  are  of  a  gelatinous  consistency,  and  enjoy  such  a 
power  of  self-contraction  that  they  can  reduce  their  whole  substance 
to  the  form  of  a  lump  of  jelly,  in  which  condition  they  occasionally 
force  themselves  rather  disagreeably  upon  the  notice  of  incautious 
water-cress  eaters.  They  inhabit  both  salt  and  fresh  water,  where 
they  swim  about  rapidly  by  an  undulating  movement  of  the  body,  in 
the  manner  of  a  Leech,  and  creep  with  great  ease  upon  stones  and 
aquatic  plants.  They  are  generally  of  small  size,  but  exceedingly 
voracious.  Like  the  Polypes,  which  they  resemble  in  their  gelatinous 
nature,  they  appear  to  be  capable  of  almost  endless  increase,  by  the 
way  which  might  be  expected  to  lead  to  their  destruction. 

In  South  America,  Dr.  Darwin  observed  some  Terrestrial  Animals 
which  approach  the  jP/i7«ar/(f(S?  very  closelyin  their  characters  ;  they 
lived  amongst  rotten  wood,  upon  which  they  appeared  to  feed, 
and  were  marked  on  the  back  with  stripes  of  bright  colours. 

The  family  oi  Ne77iei-tidcB,  ox  Ribbon-worms,  must  be  referred  to 
in  this  place,  as  it  probably  forms  the  type  of  a  fourth  order  of 
Platyelmia.  It  is  composed  of  Animals  with  elongated  ribbon-like 
bodies,  possessing  a  protrusible  proboscis,  a  distinct  nervous  system, 
and  a  digestive  canal  with  a  distinct  anus.  Amongst  these,  one 
species,  the  Borlasia,  inhabiting  the  coasts  of  France  and  England, 
attains  a  length  of  upwards  of  fifteen  feet.  This  tremendous  Worm 
remains  coiled  up  during  the  day,  under  stones,  going  about  at  night 
in  search  of  prey. 

The  TurbellaridcB  also — a  family  of  minute  Worms,  inhabiting 
both  salt  and  fresh  water — appear  to  belong  to  this  order.  Like  the 
preceding  Animals,  they  possess  an  intestinal  canal  with  two 
openings,  and  the  sexes  appear  to  be  separate.  The  classification 
of  these  creatures  is  still,  however,  involved  in  great  obscurity  ;  and 
much  remains  to  be  done  before  it  can  be  brought  to  a  satisfactory 
condition. 

Class  II.— Nematelmia. 

General  Characters. — The  Animals  belonging  to  this  class  are 
of  a  more  or  less  elongated,  cylindrical  form,  with  the  skin  much 
thicker  and  stronger  than  that  of  the  preceding  Parasitic  Worms, 
and  generally  wrinkled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  the  body  an 
annulated  appearance.  The  nervous  system,  in  the  higher  forms, 
consists  of  a  pair  of  ganglia,  situated  in  the  anterior  extremity,  and 
united  by  a  slender  nervous  ring,  which  surrounds  the  oesophagus  ; 
from  these  two  filaments  take  their  rise,  and  run  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  body.  In  the  lower  orders,  no  undoubted  nervous 
system  has  yet  been  recognised.  As  far  as  our  present  knowledge 
goes,  the  Round-worms  are  unisexual.  No  such  extraordinary  me- 
tamorphosis, as  that  which  we  have  seen  to  prevail  amongst  the  flat 
Worms,  occurs  in  the  development  of  these  creatures,  which,  how- 
ever, are  as  yet  but  imperfectly  known.  They  not  only  inhabit  the 
intestines  of  other  Animals,  but  many  species  are  also  to  be  met 
with  in  the  interior  of  completely  clossd  organs,  to  which  they  must 
have  obtained  access  in  their  earliest  stages. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Nematelmia  form  three  very  distinct 
orders — the  Acanthocephala,  which  possess  a  proboscis  armed  with 
a  formidable  apparatus  of  hooks,  but  are  apparently  destitute  of  an 
alimentary  canal  ;  the  Gordiacca,  long  thread-like  worms,  with  an 
intestinal  canal,  but  without  an  anus  ;  3in6.\.h.s Ne/natoidea,  in  which 
a  perfect  intestinal  canal  exists. 

Order  I. —Acanthocephala. 

This  order,  which  includes  only  a  single  genus,  is  composed  of 
Parasitic  Worms,  often  of  considerable  size,  which  find  their  habi- 
tation in  the  intestines  of  various  Animals,  especially  fishes.  One 
species  in  particular,  the  largest  in  the  order,  is  common  in  the 


intestmes  of  Swine,  where  it  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  eighteen 
inches.  The  body  is  thick,  and  divided  into  rings  by  a  sefies  of 
transverse  wnnkles  ;  the  head  is  armed  with  rows  of  reversed  spines. 
which  not  only  serve  to  fix  the  animal  in  its  abode,  but  also  enable  it  to 
bore  through  the  mtestincs  of  its  unfortunate  victim,  who  sometimes 
tails  a  sacrifice  to  this  propensity  of  his  uninvited  guest  These 
creatures  appear  to  possess  no  alimentary  canal ;  their  nourishment 
is  entirely  obtained  by  absorption  through  the  skin,  beneath  which 
IS  a  curious  areolar  structure,  which  is  probably  subservient  to  this 
purpose. 

Order  II.— Gordiacea. 

The  Gordiacea,  or  Hair-worrns,  are  at  once  distinguishable  bv 
the    extraordinary    length  of  their   bodies  (Fig.  203s)     which   fre- 
quently present  a  close  resemblance  to  a  horse-hair  ;  so  close  indeed 
that  in  former  times  the  popular  belief  ascribed  their  origin  to  the 
introduction  of  horse-hairs  into  the  water  in  which  they  arc  found 

These  Animals  live  as  Parasites  in  the  bodies  of  various  species 
of  Insects,  to  which  their  size  is  often  so  disproportionate  that 
when  the  worm  is  coiled  up  within  the  cavity  of  an  Insect's  body 
scarcely  any  space  is  left  for  the  internal  organs  of  its  unfortunate 
host.  When  mature,  they  quit  the  bodies  of  the  Insects,  at  whose 
expense  they  have  been  nourished,  and  seek  some  piece  of  water  or 
moist  situation,  where  they  deposit  their  ova  in  long  chains,  'ai 
this  period  they  sometimes  suddenly  make  their  appearance  in  vast 
numbers  in  particular  spots,  giving   rise  to  reports  of  Worm  rains 


Fig.  2035. — The  Hair-worm  ( Gordius  ajuaticiis). 

It  seems  probable  that  the  evolution  of  the  young  proceeds  to  a 
certain  distance  in  the  situations  where  the  eggs  are  deposited ;  but 
when,  or  in  what  manner,  they  afterwards  obtain  access  to  their 
destined  victims,  is  still  unknown.  One  of  the  most  singular  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  their  history  is,  that  if,  by  any  chance, 
on  breaking  out  of  their  Insect-home,  they  find  that  dry  weather  has 
produced  a  state  of  things  incompatible  with  their  notions  of  com- 
fort, they  quietly  allow  themselves  to  be  dried  up,  when  they  become 
perfectly  hard  and  brittle  ;  but,  strange  to  say,  the  moment  a  shower 
of  rain  comes  to  refresh  the  earth  with  its  moisture,  the  dormant 
Gordii  immediately  recover  their  activity,  and  start  off  in  search  of 
a  suitable  place,  in  which  the  great  object  of  their  visit  to  solid  earth 
may  be  effected. 

Order  III.— Nematoidea. 

With  the  exception  of  one  family,  all  the  Worms  included  in  the 
order  Nematoidea,  are  parasitic  in  the  bodies,  and  principally  in 
the  intestines  of  other  Animals  ;  they  are,  in  fact,  amongst  the  most 
common  and  the  most  injurious  of  E}itozoa.  In  the  form  of  their 
bodies  they  frequently  resemble  the  common  Garden-worm,  although 
some  are  much  more  elongated,  and  often  taper  to  a  very  fine  point 
at  one  end ;  the  skin  is  more  or  less  wrinkled,  giving  them  an  an- 
nulated appearance.  These  are  unmistakeably  the  highest  forms  of 
Intestinal  Worms  ;  they  present  a  distinct  nervous  system,  an  ali- 
mentary canal,  and  are  furnished  with  a  mouth,  an  anal  opening, 
and  distinct  sexual  organs.  The  history  of  the  development  of  these 
Animals  is  but  imperfectly  known.  It  appears  probable,  that  in 
many  cases,  a  different  situation  is  required  for  the  evolution  of  the 
young,  to  that  inhabited  by  the  mature  Animals  ;  for,  at  certain 
periods,  the  latter,  apparently  impelled  by  some  wandering  instinct, 
quit  the  intestines,  either  by  allowing  themselves  to  be  carried  out 
along  with  discharged  matters,  or  by  actually  boring  through  the 
walls  of  their  habitation  into  the  tissues  beyond  them.  The  object, 
in  the  latter  cases,  appears  to  be  the  disposition  of  their  eggs  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  their  host ;  at  least,  a  species  found  in  the  Frog, 
deposits  its  ova  in  this  situation.  The  young  Animals  appear  to  be 
carried  by  the  circulation  to  some  position  suitable  for  their  develop- 
ment, when  they  inclose  themselves  in  a  minute  capsule  or  cyst, 
amongst  the  tissues  of  the  body,  and  remain  at  rest  for  some  time. 
On  breaking  out  of  this  capsule  they  find  their  way  to  the  intestines, 
where  they  remain  until  their  instincts  prompt  them  to  imitate  the 
example  of  their  parents. 

This  order  includes  the  Common  Ascaris,  or  Round-worm,  of  the 
human  subject,  as  well  as  the  little  Thread-worms  (Oxyur is),  which 
are  often  so  troublesome  to  children.  These  are  rarely  injurious, 
unless  present  in  great  numbers.  Far  different  is  the  case,  how- 
ever, with  the  Strongylus  gigas,  a  Worm  sometimes  attaining  a 
length  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  the  thickness  of  a  man's  little  finger, 
which  usually  inhabits  the  kidneys  of  Swine.,  but  sometimes  finds 


770 


THE  LEECHES. 


its  way  into  the  same  organ  in  man.  This  tremendous  Worm,  by 
destroying  the  organ  in  which  it  has  taken  up  its  abode,  is  said  not 
unfrequently  to  cause  the  death  of  its  host. 

This  order  also  includes  the  dreaded  Guinea-worm  {Filaria  medi- 
nensis),  which  appears  to  occur  in  most  parts  of  Tropical  Africa. 
This  Worm  lives  in  the  cellular  tissue  beneath  the  skin,  and  between 
the  muscles  of  man,  confining  its  attacks  principally,  though  not 
exclusively,  to  the  lower  extremities,  where  it  often  produces  con- 
siderable pain.  It  is  said  occasionally  to  attain  a  length  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet ;  but  its  average  length  is  five  or  six.  It  is  extracted 
by  winding  it  very  slowly  upon  some  object,  an  operation  in  which 
great  care  is  said  to  be  necessary,  as,  if  the  Worm  be  broken,  its 
fluids  produce  a  very  painful  effect.  When  arrived  at  maturity,  the 
Filaria  comes  to  the  surface,  where  it  breaks  to  pieces,  and  sets 
free  the  innumerable  young  with  which  it  is  crammed. 

In  this  order  we  also  place  the  AnguilluUdce,  the  so-called  Eels 
of  paste  and  vinegar.  These  are  minute,  thread-like  Worms,  ex- 
hibiting distinct  digestive  and  generative  organs  ;  they  occur  often 
in  great  numbers  in  putrefying  substances. 

Class  III.— Annelida. 

General  Characters.— The  Annelida,  in  general,  present  a 
more  complicated  organisation  than  any  of  the  preceding  Animals  ; 
the  division  of  the  body  into  segments  is  usually  distinctly  recognis- 
able, and  the  segments  are  almost  universally  furnished  with  ex- 
ternal appendages,  which  are  sometimes  jointed.  The  majority 
live  in  water,  or  in  damp  situations ;  a  very  few  only  are  parasitic  in 
their  habits. 

The  head  in  most  of  these  Animals  is  distinctly  marked,  and  fur- 
nished with  organs  of  sense,  such  as  eyes,  tentacles,  and  in  some 
instances  auditory  vesicles,  containing  otolithes.  The  nervous 
system,  in  the  higher  forms,  exhibits  the  Articulate  type  of  structure 
very  distinctly  ;  it  usually  consists  of  a  series  of  ganglia  runnmg 
along  the  ventral  portion  of  the  Animal,  and  united  by  a  pair  of 
slender  filaments,  by  which  they  also  communicate  with  the  central 
mass,  or  brain,  which  is  inclosed  in  the  head;  this  is  composed  of 
two  ganglia,  united  by  a  ring  surrounding  the  oesophagus.  In  the 
lower  forms,  the  nervous  system  approaches  that  of  the  preceding 

The  lateral    appendages,  which  serve  principally  as  organs  of  , 


Dorsal  erch.     Dorsal  oar. 
1  I 


Dorsal  member. 


Ventral  member.    Ventral  aioh.    Ventral  oar. 
Fig.  2036. — Transverse  section  of  an  Annelide  (Amphinome). 

motion,  are  very  variable  in  their  structure  and  arrangement,  some- 
times occurring  on  all  the  segments  of  the  body,  occasionally  only 
on  the  anterior  or  middle  segments  ;  varied  by  four  or  two  in  number 
on  each  segment.  They  usually  consist  of  lobes  of  skin,  furnished 
with  bundles  of  bristles  of  very  various  forms,  and  with  jointed  cirri 
or  tentacles  (Fig.  2036) ;  they  also  commonly  bear  the  respiratory 
organs  or  branchia;  (Fig.  2037).  In  soxn&  Annelida,  as  the  Leeches, 
no  trace;  of  external  organs  is  to  be  seen  ; 
wliilst  in  others,  as  the  Earth-worms,  they  are 
reduced  to  a  few  bristles,  which  assist  the 
animal  in  its  progress  through  the  earth.  It  is 
to  be  observed,  however,  that  even  in  the 
highest  Aii7ielida,  the  jointed  cirri  are  always 
easily  distinguishable  from  the  limbs  of  the 
second  section  of  the  Articulata. 

The  digestive  apparatus  consists  of  a  straight 

intestine,  running  through  the  body  from   one 

extremity  to  the  other.     The  mouth  is  usually 

Fig.  2037. — Foot   and  armed  with  jaws,  and  the  opposite  extremity  of 

branchia  of  the  Eunice,  ^hg  intestinal  canal  always  terminates  in  an 

b,  branchia  ;  c,  cirrhus ;  anal  opening.      The   vascular  system  is   also 

t,  bristle  tuff ;  i,  ven-  very  distinctly  developed,  and  the  nutritive  fluid 

tral  cirrhus.  is  usually  of  a  red  colour,  sometimes  green  or 

yellow, 
The  sexes  are  usually  distinct,  although  a  few — as  the  Leeches  and 
Earth-worms — -are  hermaphrodites  ;   but,  even  in  these,  self-impreg- 
nation does  not  take  place.     Some  A?t?ielida  appear  to  propagate 


also   by  spontaneous  division  ;  and   many  of  them  can  reproduce 
parts  lost  by  accidental  injury. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Annelida  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
characterised  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  external  respiratory 
organs.  The  Abranchiate  Annelides  include  two  orders — the 
Suctoria,  or  Leeches,  characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  sucking 
disc  at  the  posterior,  and  usually  also  at  the  anterior  extremity  ;  and 
the  Scolccina,  or  Earth-worms,  in  which  these  suckers  are  wanting, 
but  which  are  furnished  with  a  double  row  of  bristles  along  the 
under  surface  of  the  body.  The  branchiferous  group  is  also  divided 
into  two  orders — the  Tubicola,  the  Animals  composing  which  form 
a  tube  for  their  habitation  ;  and  the  Errantia,  which  enjoy  no  such 
protection.  Cuvier  divided  the  Anttelida  into  three  orders — the 
Ab>-anchiala,\i\t\\  no  branchial  tufts  ;  Wxe.  Dorsibranchiata,  with 
branchial  appendages  on  the  back ;  and  the  Tubicolce,  or  tube- 
makers. 

Order  I.— Suctoria. 

General  Characters. — The  animals  belonging  to  this  order, 
of  which  the  common  medicinal  Leech  (Fig.  2038)  is  a  familiar 
example,  are  characterised  by  the  total  deficiency  of  any  lateral 
appendages  ;  their  motions  being  eff'ected  by  undulations  of  the 
body  whilst  swimming,  or  by  the  alternate  attachment  of  the  sucking 
discs  with  which  the  two  extremities  of  their  bodies  are  usually 
furnished.  They  all  appear  to  live  by  sucking  the  blood  of  other 
animals  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  the  mouth  of  the  leech  is  furnished 


Fig.  2039.— 

Tooth  of  the 

Leech. 


Fig.  203S. — The  Common  Leech  (Sangnisii^a  officinalis). 

with  an  apparatus  of  horny  teeth,  by  which  they  bite  through  the 
skin.  In  the  Common  Leech,  three  of  these  teeth  exist,  arranged  in 
a  triangular,  or  rather  triradiate  form,  a  structure  which  accounts 
for  the  peculiar  appearance  of  leech-bites  in  the  human  skin.  (Fig. 
2039).  Each  of  these  teeth  has  a  minutely  serrated  edge  (Fig.  203,8  a), 
which,  when  worked  backwards  and  forwards  in  contact  with  the 
skin,  soon  saws  it  through,  when  the  teeth  are  retracted,  and  the 
blood  is  then  pumped  from  the  wound  by  the  alternate  dilatation  and 
contraction  of  the  muscular  oesophagus.  In  the  Clepsinidce  this 
structure  disappears,  giving  way  to  a  protrusible 
proboscis.  The  intestine  is  of  very  large  size,  and 
usually  extends  on  each  side  into  short  blind  sacs  or 
processes,  the  distension  of  which,  during  the  act  of 
suction,  must  necessarily  increase  its  capacity. 
Respiration  appears  to  be  performed  by  a  system  of 
aquiferous  canals,  lined  with  cilia,  which  open  exter- 
nally, by  a  series  of  minute  orifices,  on  each  side  of 
the  body.  The  vascular  system  is  well  developed. 
Nearly  all  these  Animals  are  hermaphrodite.  The 
deposition  of  the  eggs  is  attended  with  some  very 
singular  circumstances.  At  the  period  of  oviposition, 
a  peculiar  gelatinous  band  is  produced  round  the 
anterior  part  of  the  body,  near  the  orifice  of  the  generative  organs 
which  is  situated  in  this  part.  The  Leech  lays  its  eggs  in  this 
gelatinous  matter ;  and  when  all  are  deposited,  it  withdraws  its 
body  from  the  band,  which  then  closes  up,  and  forms  a  complete 
capsule,  within  which  the  eggs  are  inclosed. 

The  nervous  system  in  the  Suctoria  is  usually  well  developed  ; 
and  the  anterior  sucking  disc  bears  a  row  of  eight  or  ten  eyes, 
which,  however,  appear  to  be  of  very  imperfect  construction. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  is  divided  into  three  families.  The 
first,  the  Malacobdellidce,  presents  many  points  of  resemblance  to 
the  Trematode  worms  ,  the  mouth  is  unarmed  ;  the  substance  of 
the  body  semi-transparent ;  the  nervous  system  composed  of  a  single 
ganglion  and  filament  on  each  side  of  the  body ;  and  there  is  a 
single  sucking  disc  at  the  posterior  extremity.  These  Worms  live 
parasitically,  within  the  mantle  of  various  marine  bivalve  MoUusca. 
In  the  ClcJ>sinidce,  the  body  is  of  a  Leech-like  form,  but  very 
much  narrowed  in  front,  and  the  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  pro- 
trusible proboscis.  These  Animals  live  in  fresh  w  ater,  where  they 
may  often  be  seen  creeping  upon  aquatic  plants.  They  prey  upon 
the  water  snails  {Lymneai). 

To  the  third  family,  the  True  "Leeches  [Hii-iidinidir),  the  common 
medicinal  Leeches  belong.  Two  species  of  Leech  are  commonly 
used  in  medicine — the  San^uisuga  officinalis,  3.  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe,  and  the  6".  medicitialis,  which  is  found  principally 
in  the  northern  countries  of  the  same  continent,  and  occurs,  but 
rarely,  in  England.  Most  of  the  Leeches  used  in  England  are 
imported  from  Hamburgh ;    but   the  pools  and  marshes  in  which 


THE  EARTH  WORMS. 


■77^ 


the  animals  are  collected,  are  situated  at  a  great  distance  from 
that  emporium  of  the  trade,  in  the  thinly  populated  countries  of 
Eastern  Europe — Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  the  East  of  Europe.  The 
animals  are  caught  by  means  of  baits  put  into  the  water,  or  by 
the  fishermen  wading  into  the  pools  with  naked  logs.  The  import- 
ance of  the  Leech  in  medicine  is  well  known  ;  but  few,  perhaps, 
are  aware  of  the  enormous  consumption  of  these  Annelides  that 
really  takes  place,  which  amounts  to  many  millions  annually. 

But  if  the  Medicinal  Leech  put  forward  a  strong  claim  to  our 
attention,  on  the  ground  of  the  services  which  it  renders  to  mankind, 
there  are  others  which  force  themselves  upon  oxir  notice  from  the 
very  opposite  consideration.  ,' These  are  principally  confined  to  hot 
countries,  where,  however,  they  are  often  great  pests.  In  Egypt, 
during  the  invasion  of  that  country  by  Napoleon,  the  French 
soldiers  were  often  exposed  to  great  torment  from  the  numbers  of 
Leeches  infesting  the  pools.  A  still  more  remarkable  instance  is 
afforded  by  the  small  Leeches  which  infest  Ceylon.  These  Animals 
are  about  an  inch  and  a-half  in  length.  They  live  principally  in  the 
forests,  among  the  dead  leaves,  in  damp  places  ;  but  often  make 
their  appearance  in  other  parts  of  the  island  during  wet  weather. 
Wherever  they  occur,  however,  they  seem  always  to  be  on  the  look- 
cut  for  blood ;  and  some  instinct  tells  them  that,  even  under  the 
clothes  of  Europeans,  this  wished-for  delicacy  is  to  be  obtained. 

Some  species  of  this  family,  forming  the  genus  Piscicola,  live  as 
Parasites  upon  various  Fresh-water  Fishes  ;  whilst  those  of  the 
genus  Dranchiobdella,  which  are  quite  destitute  of  eyes,  inhabit 
the  branchia;  of  some  Crustacea. 

This  appears  to  be  the  proper  place  to  allude  to  some  singular 
Marine  Animals,  which  have  been  placed,  by  several  zoologists, 
amongst  the  Echinoderinafa  ;  by  others,  amongst  the  .^ /^;^e//<2'a. 
These  are  the  species  of  the  genus  Si;punciclus  and  its  allies,  which 
constitute  an  order  of  Animals  for  which  the  name  of  Ge^hyrea  has 
been  proposed,  in  allusion  to  the  apparent  connection  which  they 
establish  between  the  Echinodermata  and  the  Articulate  series. 
Their  bodies  are  cylindrical,  and  rather  thick,  covered  with  a  tough 
skin,  in  which  a  few  bristles  are  sometimes  inserted,  but  which 
neither  contains  calcareous  particles  nor  the  tubular  sucking-feet  of 
the  True  Echinoderms.  Their  habits  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
Common  Lob-worms  ;  and,  like  these,  they  are  much  sought  after 
as  baits  by  the  fisherman.  They  live  in 
the  sand,  where  they  move  about  much 
in  the  same  way  that  the  Common  Gar- 
den-worm does  in  moist  soil ;  they  are 
destitute  of  eyes  and  other  organs  of 
sense,  and  the  mouth  is  armed  with  a 
curious  proboscis.  Some  species,  as  the 
Sipunculus  bernhardiis  here  represen- 
ted (Fig.  2040),  seek  protection  by  in- 
closing their  bodies  in  the  abandoned 
dwelling  of  some  Univalve  Mollusc ; 
whilst  others,  for  the  same  purpose,  actu- 
ally hollow  themselves  caves  in  the  sub- 
stances of  stones  and  corals.  One  of 
these,  to  which  M.  Valenciennes  has 
given  the  name  of  Sipunciihis  cochlea- 
ri'us,  is  remarkable  for  a  habit  of  form- 
ing a  small  spiral  cell  in  the  stony  sub- 
stance of  two  very  different  species  of 
coral.  This  Animal  is  probably  troubled 
with  a  tender  skin,  and,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent abrasion  by  the  rough  walls  of  his 
coral  home,  he  lines  it  with  a  smooth  vitreous  matter,  producing 
an  appearance  which  has  so  deceived  Zoologists,  that  they  have 
supposed  that  the  Corals  had  built  their  structure  around  some  small 
shell,  and  hence,  confounding  the  two  species,  described_them  both 
under  the  common  name  of  Madre^ora  cochlea. 

Order  IL— Scolecina. 

General  Characters. — Of  this  order  we  have  several  well- 
known  exam.ples  in  the  Earth-worm  so  common  in  our  gardens  and 
fields.  The  bodies  of  these  Animals  are  of  a  cylindrical  form,  some- 
what pointed  at  the  anterior  extremity,  and  usually  a  little  flattened 
at  the  tail.  The  skin  is  tough,  and  divided  into  numerous  seg- 
ments by  transverse  wrinkles  ;  and  the  organs  of  motion  are  reduced 
to  the  form  of  a  double  row  of  bristles,  running  down  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  body,  which,  instead  of  being  placed,  as  in  the  following 
orders,  upon  prominent  lobes  of  the  skin,  are  usually  capable  of 
being  retracted  within  small  hollows  when  not  in  use.  The  mouth  is 
unarmed,  and  the  intestine  runs  straight  through  the  body.  The 
vascular  system  consists  of  two  longitudinal  vessels  running  along 
the  ventral  and  dorsal  regions  of  the  body,  and  united  by  numerous 
branches.  The  blood  is  red.  Like  the  Leeches,  these  Worms  are 
furnished  with  ciliated  canals,  which  have  been  supposed  to  serve 
as  organs  of  respiration  ;  but  their  real  destination  appears  to  be 
still  uncertain.     They  are  all  hermaphrodites. 

Divisions.— This  order  contains  two  families— the  Lzi77ibncida:, 


Fig.  2040. — Sipunculus  hern- 
liardus. 


or  Earth-worms,  and  the  hraidida:.  The  former  are  too  well 
known  to  require  much  description  ;  they  possess  no  distinct  head. 
.^";i^f,'''^/l"'fe  destitute  of  eyes  ;  their  bristles  are  hooked,  and  placed 
mhttle  tufts  in  pits  on  tlie  lower  surface,  whence  they  can  be  ex- 
erted when  the  animal  requires  their  assistance.  They  live  in  lioles 
m  moist  earth,  and  are  said  to  be  predacious  Animals,  although 
popular  belief  charges  them  with  the  destruction  of  the  roots  of 
pitints  • 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Earth-worm  may  be  propagated 
by  division;  but  this  scarcely  appears  to  be  the  case.  It  is  said, 
however  that  if  it  be  divided  across  the  middle,  the  part  bearing  the 
head  will  develop  a  new  tail,  although  the  tail  will  soon  die  ;  and 
that.  If  the  head  be  cut  off,  the  body  will  form  a  new  head;  but  it 
appears  that  both  portions  never  survive  this  mutilation  This 
power  of  reproduction  of  lost  parts  is  carried  to  a  much  greater 
extent  in  the  Naiduiaz,  which  even  propagate  by  a  kind  of  gemma- 
tion. These  Animals  live  principally  in  the  mud  of  fresh-water 
ponds  and  rivers.  In  their  form  they  resemble  the  Common  Earth- 
worm ;  but  their  bodies  are  furnished,  besides  the  ventral  bundles 
ot  bristles,  with  a  series  of  long  spines  on  each  side.  They  Gene- 
rally have  two  distinct  eyes,  and  the  mouth  is  sometimes  atmed 
with  a  long  proboscis. 

Order  III.— Tubicola. 

General  Characters.— The  Worms  belonging  to  this  order 
which  commences  the  series  of  Branchiferous  Aiuielida  are  all 
Marine,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  invariable  habit  of  forming 
a  tube  or  case,  within  which  the  soft  parts  of  the  Animal  can  be 
entirely  retracted.  This  tube  is  usually  attached  to  stones  or  other 
submarine  bodies.  It  is  often  composed  of  various  foreitrn  materials 
such  as  sand,  small  stones,  and  the  dibris  of  shells,  lined  internally 
with  a  smooth  coating  of  hardened  mucus  ;  in  others  it  is  of  a 
leathery  or  horny  consistency  ;  and  in  some  it  is  composed,  like  the 
shells  of  the  Mollusca,  of  calcareous  matter  secreted  by  the  Animal 
These  creatures  frequently  live  together  in  societies,  winding  their 
tubes  into  a  mass,  which  often  attains  a  considerable  size  •  others 
are  more  solitary  in  their  habits.  They  retain  their  position' in  their 
habitations  by  means  of  appendages  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
free  Worms,  and  furnished,  like  these,  with  tufts  of  bristles  and 
spines  ;  the  latter,  in  the  Tubicolar  Annelides,  are  usually  hooked  • 
so  that,  by  applying  them  to  the  walls  of  its  domicile,  the  Animal 
is  enabled  to  oppose  a  considerable  resistance  to  any  effort  to  draw 
it  out  of  its  hole. 

In  these,  as  in  the  preceding  Annelida,  no  distinct  head  can  be 
recognised,  and  the  eyes  are  either  entirely  wanting  or  very  rudi- 
mentary. The  mouth  also  is  generally  unarmed.  The  anterior 
extremity  is  always  furnished  with  tentacles,  which  serve  both  as 
organs  of  touch  and  for  the  capture  of  prey.  The  nervous  system  is 
well-developed,  although  the  longitudinal  filaments  generally  run 
down  the  sides  of  the  body,  instead  of  being  united  by  ganglia  in 
the  middle  line.  The  branchije  are  usually  confined  to  the^head, 
where  they  appear  as  branched  organs  in  the  midst  of  the  tentacles ; 
they  sometimes  also  occur  on  some  of  the  segments  of  the  body! 
All  these  Worms  are  unisexual.  They  deposit  their  eggs  in  a  mass 
of  mucus,  which  usually  clings  to  the  tube  of  the  parent  Animal. 

The  young  TerebeUa,  on  the  first  breaking  out  of  the  &^^,  is  a 
small  globular  embryo,  thickly  covered  with  cilia.  By  degrees,  this 
elongates  into  an  oval  form,  and  the  cilia  collect  in  a  band  round  its 
middle.  The  lengthening  process  continues,  and  in  a  little  time  a 
pair  of  small  eyes  make  their  appearance  in  the  head,  whilst  a  new 
set  of  cilia  are  developed  at  the  caudal  extremity.  Still  the  little 
Animal  continues  elongating  ;  the  cilia  are  reduced  to  a  little  band, 
like  a  cravat,  round  its  neck,  and  a  patch  on  the  back  ;  whilst  the 
body  exhibits  traces  of  annulation,  and  single  bristles  begin  to 
sprout  from  its  sides.  At  last  the  cilia  disappear  altogether ;  the 
members  acquire  sufficient  development  to  enable  the  young  Tere- 
beUa to  creep  along  the  bottom  of  the  water.  It  selects  a  spot  for 
its  permanent  abode,  fixes  itself,  builds  its  house,  and  becomes  a 
quiet,  home-staying  denizen  of  the  deep. 

Sub-divisions.— In  the  best-known  family  of  this  order,  the 
SabellidcB,  the  branchiaj  are  placed  on  the  head,  where  they  form 
a  circle  of  plumes  (Fig.  2041)  or  a  tuft  of  branched  organs.  Of  the 
tentacles,  one  is  usually  much  thickened,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
plug,  which  closes  the  aperture  of  the  tube  when  the  Animal  is  re- 
tracted. The  SerJ>ul(Z,  which  form  irregularly  twisted  calcareous 
tubes,  often  grow  together  in  large  masses,  generally  attached  to 
shells  and  similar  objects  ;  whilst  those  genera  which,  like  Tcrcbe/la 
(Fig.  2042),  build  their  residences  of  sand  and  stones,  appear  to 
prefer  a  life  of  single  blessedness.  The  curious  little  spiral  shells, 
often  seen  upon  the  fronds  of  sea-weeds,  are  formed  by  an  Animal 
belonging  to  this  family  {SJiirorbi's). 

The  Hermelltdcs,  some  of  which  live  amongst  the  Oyster-beds, 
and  often  do  much  mischief  by  the  increase  of  their  masses  of  tubes, 
also  belong  to  this  order. 

Order  IV.— Errantia. 
General  Characters.— We  now  come  to  the  last  and  highest 


772 


VARIOUS  ANNELIDA— THE  ROTIFERA. 


order  of  the  Annelida,  comprising  tliose  Animals  in  which  the 
external  appendages  of  the  body  attain  their  highest  development, 
whilst  the  power  of  free  locomotion  indicates  the  possession  of  a 
higher  degree  of  general  intelligence  than  would  be  necessary  for 
the  sedentary  Animals  of  the  last  order.  It  must  be  confessed, 
however,  that  in  their  structure,  and  especi- 
ally in  their  development,  they  display  a  very 
close  relationship  to  those  Animals  ;  the 
history  of  the  development  of  the  young  in 
the  two  orders  being  so  very  similar,  that 
one  description  will  serve  for  both. 

The  head  of  these  Worms  is  distinctly 
marked,  and  the  mouth  is  generally  fur- 
nished with  jaws  of  some  kind,  which  are 
not  unfrequently  placed  at  the  extremity 
of  a  protrusible  proboscis  (Fig.  2043).  The 
general  structure  of  the  lateral  appendages 
and  branchia;  has  already  been  explained  ; 
but  the  parts  of  which  these  are  composed 
frequently  exhibit  the  most  extraordinary 
forms.  Like  the  Tubicola,  all  these  Worms 
are  unisexual ;  the  ova  are  usually  deposi- 
ted upon  stones  or  aquatic  plants  ;  but,  in 
some  instances,  the  mother  carries  them 
about  enveloped  in  a  slimy  matter. 

Divisions.  —  Amongst    the    numerous 

The  Fig.  2041. — A  Group  families  into  which  this  order  has  been  divi- 

of  SerpuliE.  (Jed,  the  one  which  approaches  most  closely, 

both  in  structure  and  habits,  with  the  lower 

Worms,    is  that  of  the  ArcnicolidcB,  including  the  common  Lob- 

wornt,   so  much  used  by  sea-fishermen  as  a  bait.     This  Animal  is 

found  on  all  sandy  parts  of  the  coast,  where  it  bores  into  the  sand 

left  wet  by  the  retiring  tide  ;  its  head  is  large  and  rounded,  quite 

destitute  of  eyes  or  tentacula,  and  furnished  with  a  short  unarmed 

proboscis.     The  feet  are  very  small,  and  confined  to  the   anterior 

part  of  the  body  ;  whilst  the  branchial  tufts,  which  are  of  considerable 

size,  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  middle  segments.     (Fig.  2044) 


Fig.  2042.— The  Terebella. 

The  family  oi  Aphrodi'ftdcs,  some  species  of  which  are  known  as 
Sea-mice,  includes  some  Marine  Animals  of  great  beauty.  In  these 
Worms,  the  body  is  generally  broad,  or  ovate ;  the  head  small,  and 
furnished  with  very  short  tentacula  ;  the  feet  large,  with  immense 
tufts  of  bristles  and  spines,  often  of  the  most  remarkable  forms,  and 
exhibiting  the  most  brilliant  metallic  colours.  Each  of  these  hairs 
(Fig.  2045)  is  retractile  within  a  horny 
sheath,  which  serves  to  protect  the  soft 
parts  of  the  Animal  from  injury  by  its 
own  weapons.  The  most  remarkable 
peculiarity  of  these  Animals  is,  that 
their  dorsal  surface  is  entirely  or  parti- 
ally covered  by  a  double  series  of  large 
_.  ,^     ,      .  _      ,    membranous  scales  attached  to  the  alter- 

Fig.  2043.-Head  and  Trunk  n^jg  segments,  between  which  the  beau- 
ot  the  Giycens.  ^jf^j  bristles  of  the  feet  make  their  ap- 

c,  anterior  portion  of  the  body;  pearance.  These  Animals  generally  in- 
/,  head  ;  tr,  trunk ;  /',  open-  habit  deepish  water ;  but  numbers  of 
mg  of  the  mouth;  «?«,jaws.  them  are   often  thrown  upon  our  coasts 

after  a  storm. 

The  family  of  Nereides  includes  some  elongated  and  distinctly 

annulated  Worms  which  possess  a  well-developed  head  (Fig.  2046), 

furnished  with  tentacles  and  eyes,  and  a  mouth  with  a  proboscis, 

which  is  sometimes  unarmed,  but  occasionally  furnished  with  two  or 


"^^iW^isfe 


Fig.  2044, — The  Lob- worm  (Arenicola  fiscal ormn.') 

four  teeth.  The  cirri  or  tentacles  attached  to  the  feet  are  often  of 
considerable  length,  and  sometimes  even  annulated  (Fig.  2046). 
The  Animals  frequently  resemble  the  more  elongated  Myriapoda. 
In  this  family  there  is  one  species  which  is  luminous,  the  Nereis 
i>hosphoresce7is.    The  branchial  tufts  are  but  slightly  developed. 


In  the  next  family,  the  Eunicida:,  on  the  contrary,  these  organs 
are  of  considerable  size,  and  the  mouth  is  armed  with  from  seven  to 
nine  toothed  jaws.  This  family  includes  some  species  of  large  size  : 
the  .fi'/cwz'ce^/^'aw/'t'rt',  which  inhabits  the  West  Indian  seas,  grows 
to  four  or  five  feet  in  length  ;  and  others  found  in  the  Southern 
Ocean,  are  said  to  attain  double  that  size. 


Fig.  2045. — The  Sea-mouse  {Aphrodita  hispida.) 

Zoologists  also  place  in  this  order  a  curious  terrestrial  Annelide, 
found  in  the  West  Indies  by  the  Rev.  Lansdown  Guilding,  and 
described  by  him  under  the  name  of  Peripatus  (Fig.  2048).  In  its 
general  appearance  it  exhibits  a  most  striking  resemblance  to  the 
well-known  luli,  or  Millepedes  ;  the  body  is  distinctly  annulated, 
the  head  well  marked,  and  furnished  with  two  jointed  tentacle  sand 
eyes.  Along  each  side  of  the  body  runs  a  series  of  soft  feet,  which, 
however,  exhibit  traces  of  annulation  ;  and  these,   as  in  the  other 


Fig.  2046. — The  Nereis,  with  its  head  and  some  of  the  anterior  segments. 

free  Annelida,  are  terminated  by  tufts  of  bristles.     This  curious 
genus  forms  the  family  PeripatidcB. 

The  order  of  An?ielida  errantia  also  includes  another  family, 
which  appears  to  possess  a  striking  affinity  to  the  following  class, 
the  Roll/era.    This  is  the  family  of  the  Folyophthalmidce,  consist- 


Fig.  2047. — The  Syllis  monilaris,  with  one  of  its  locomotive  organs  and  setige- 
rous  appendage  attached  thereto. 

ing  of  cylindrical  Worms,  furnished  with  bristle-like  feet,  some- 
what resembling  those  of  the  Scolecina.  Each  segment  of  the 
body  is  said  to  bear  a  pair  of  eyes,  whence  the  name  given  to  the 
genus  and  family  to  which  these  creatures  belong.  The  most  re- 
markable character  presented  by  these  Animals  is  the  structure  of 


Fig.  2048. — The  Peripatus. 

the  head,  which  bears  a  pair  of  lobes  covered  with  cilia ;  these,  like 
the  similar  organs  of  the  Rotifera,  can  be  retracted  and  protruded 
at  pleasure.  We  now  pass  naturally  to  the  last  class  of  this  subdi- 
vision of  the  Articulata,  the  Rotifera. 

Class  IV.— Rotifera. 

General  Characters. — This  interesting  class  of  Microscopic 
Aquatic  Animals,  included  amongst  the  Infusoria  by  Ehrenberg, 
is   now    generally   admitted  to   belong  to   the  Articulate  Division 


THE  ROTIFERA. 


773 


They  are  animals  of  very  diverse  forms,  but  are  always  characterised 
by  the  possession  of  ciliated  org'ans  at  the  anterior  extremity  (Fisf. 
2049),  by  means  of  which  they  produce  a  vortex   in  the  water,  that 
carries  to  their  mouths  any  minute  Animals  or  plants  which  may  be 
floating'  in  their  neighbourhood.     The  skin  exhibits   distinct    indica- 
tions  of  transverse   wrinkles  or  folds,  by  the  agency  of  which  the 
Animals   are   enabled  to  contract   themselves  to  an  extraordinary 
extent,  so  that  they  often  acquire  an  almost  globular  shape.     In  some 

cases,  however,   the  skin  becomes 
horny,  or  a  small  quantity  of  sili- 
cious  matter  is  fixed  in  it.  In  either 
case  the  skin  then  forms  a  sort  of 
carapace,   within  which  the  little 
Animal  can  retreat  in  case  of  dan- 
ger.     Many   of  them   pass   their 
lives  fixed  in  one  place  like  Pol- 
ypes, whilst  others  enjoy  the  power 
of  swimming  freely  about.     The 
free  species  are  all  furnished  with 
means  of  fixing  themselves  when 
about  to  feed.     In  some  cases  the 
tail   terminates   in    a   sucker;    in 
others,  in  a  pair  of  minute  forceps, 
by  which  the  creature  attaches  it- 
self to  its  resting-place. 

As  might  be  expected  from  their 
minute  size — few  of  them  exceed- 
ing a  line  in  length,  and  some  be- 
ing no  more  than  -sJtrth  of  an  inch 
— the  nervous  system  in  these  Ani- 
mals has  not  been  made  out  very 
distinctly.      It     appears     certain, 
however,   that    a  pair  of  ganglia 
always  exists  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  head,  and  that  from  these  a 
little  filament  runs  down  each  side  of 
the  body.  The  head  also  possesses 
from  one  to  four  eyes,  usually  indi- 
■' ;s- '"t?-      "  "— . -»......».'.>.i>.^.      j,gfg(j  f,y  their  red  colour;  these, 

A.wuhthe  wheels  expanded  ;  B,  with  ^^  ^^^^^'_  disappear  in  the  seden- 

tary  forms  ;  although  their  young, 
which  are  endowed  with  the  powers 
masticating  apparatus;  ^,  'salivary  of  locomotion,  possess  them, 
glands;  //,  intestinal  canal  ;  s,  its  The  structure  of  the  alimentary 
dilated  termination  ;  //,  glandular  canal  is  wonderfully  cornplex,  con- 
apparatus  surrounding  it;  i,  young  sidering  the  minute  size  of  the 
ones  nearly  complete ;  i,  eggs ;  /,  creature  possessing  it  Within  the 
tail.  mouth  is  a  wide  hollow,  at  the  bot- 

tom of  which  the  entrance  to  the 
gullet  is  seen  ;  this  is  armed  with  a  singular  apparatus  of  teeth,  set 


Fig.  2049. — Wheel  Animalcules. 


the  wheels  folded  up  and  drawn  in  ; 
(7,  the  head  with  the  eye-spots  ;  ^, 
the    wheels ;     c,    water-siphon ;     d, 


In  motion  by  muscular  action,  and  ready  to  seize  upon  any  particles 
of  food  that  may  be  carried  into  the  mouth  by  the  external  vortex. 
The  wa^^tcr  introduced  is  sometimes  carried  off  by  a  minute  canal, 
situated  close  under  the  head  ;  in  other  cases  it  is  allowed  to  find  its 
way  out  as  it  can.  The  teeth,  in  some  Roti/cra,  are  in  the  form  of 
acute  spines:  such  are  prcdaccous  Animals,  and  exhibit  as  much 
ferocity,  in  their  way,  as  can  be  shown  by  creatures  infinitely  their 
superiors  in  size  ;  in  others  they  constitute  small  horny  plates  fur- 
nished with  transverse  ribs  ;  and  these  are  usually  vegetable  feeders. 
Close  to  this  apparatus  are  a  pair  of  glandular  bodies,  which, 
apparently,  discharge  their  secretions  into  the  cesophagus  at  that 
point ;  these  are  regarded  as  salivary  glands.  From  these  the 
intestinal  canal  extends  through  the  body,  inclosed  in  a  thick 
granular  mass,  till  it  nearly  reaches  the  caudal  extremity,  at  which 
point  the  anal  opening  is  usually  situated. 

The  Rotjfera  appear  to  be  perfect  self-impreg^nating  hermaphro- 
dites, and  the  ova  in  most  of  them  appear  to  be  developed  within 
the  body  of  the  parent,  until  the  principal  organs  of  the  young 
Animal  are  quite  recognisable.  Their  powers  of  reproduction  are 
most  extraordinary.  Ehrenberg  relates  that  in  three  d.ays  the  pro- 
geny of  a  single  specimen  of  Hydatina  scnta,  which  he  had  iso- 
lated, amounted  to  no  less  than  twenty  individuals  ;  a  rate  of  increase 
which  in  ten  days  would  give  upwards  of  a  million  of  specimens 
But  wonderful  as  is  the  fecundity  of  these  Animals,  when  placed  in 
favourable  circumstances,  not  less  so  is  their  power  of  resisting  the 
action  of  drought,  which  might  otherwise,  by  drying  up  the  water  of 
their  habitations,  involve  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  their 
species  in  destruction.  It  is  found,  however,  that  these  little  crea- 
tures may  be  dried  completely  and  repeatedly,  until  their  bodies  are 
so  brittle  that  the  slightest  touch  would  crush  them,  and  that  on  the 
return  of  moisture  they  will  again  spring  into  existence,  unfold  their 
little  wheels,  and  give  rise  to  a  fresh  generation. 

Sub-divisions.— The  Rotifera  form  two  orders,  the  SessiHa 
and  the  Natantia,  the  names  of  which  speak  for  themselves.  In 
the  Sessile  Rotifera  the  body  is  continued  into  a  longish  stalk, 
which  is  attached,  by  its  hinder  extremity,  to  some  aquatic  plant  or 
other  object.  The  rotatory  organ,  in  these  Animals,  has  generally 
a  disc-hke  form,  with  the  margin  more  or  less  notched.  This  order 
includes  two  families,  the  Floscularida:,  which  have  bent  spiniform 
teeth  at  the  orifice  of  the  oesophagus  ;  and  the  Megalotrockida;  in 
which  that  organ  is  armed  with  ribbed  plates  for  the  trituration  of 
the  food.  In  the  Nafatiiia,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  includes 
the  free-swimming  species,  the  caudal  extremity  terminates  either 
ma  sucker-hke  organ,  or  in  a  small  pair  of  forceps,  by  means  of 
which  the  Animals  are  enabled  to  fix  themselves  at  pleasure  so  as 
to  set  their  rotatory  organs  in  action.  These  are  also  divided  into 
two  families,  the  Polytrocha,  in  which  the  rotatory  organs  take  the 
form  of  several  lobes  surrounding  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  body  ■ 
and  the  Zygotrocha,  y:hich  possess  only  a  pair  of  ciliated  processes 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  ^ 


774 


THE  TRUE  ARTICULATA. 


CHAPTER      XLII. 


THE  ARTICULATA.— SUB-DIVISION   II.— ARTHROPODA,   OR  TRUE  ARTICULATA,    INCLUDING  LOBSTERS, 

CRABS,   SPIDERS,   INSECTS,   ETC. 


E  now  come  to  the  second  sub-division 
of  the  Ariicii/afa,  in  which  the  division 
of  the  body  into  segments  appears  with 
great   distinctness.      This   single   sub- 
division contains  a  greater  number  of 
species  than  all  the  rest  of  the  Animal 
.J  Kingdom   put    together ;    and    as    the 
number  of  individuals  of  each  species  is 
usually  enormous,  the  part  assigned  to 
them,  in  the  economy  of  nature,  is,  in 
spite    of    their    generally   insignificant 
size,  by  no  means  an  unimportant  one. 
They  swarm  in  every  situation,  and  in 
every  part  of  the  earth.     The  plants  and  trees  of  every 
region  nourish  myriads  of  Insects  ;  the  waters  are  every- 
where alive  with  them.     Their  existence  and  its  effects 
force  themselves  upon  our  notice  in  whatever  direction  we 
turn  ;    vegetation  is  kept  in  check  by  their  ravages  ;  our 
own  persons  and  the  bodies  of  our  domestic  Animals  are 
not  exempt  from  their  attacks  ;  whilst,  as  if  to  make  up  for 
any  evils  they  may  inflict  upon  our  race,  multitudes  are 
constantly  at  work  in  the  removal  of  decaying  matters, 
which,  if  left  to  the  natural  progress  of  decomposition, 
would  contaminate  the  air  with  their  pestilential  effluvia. 
Nor  are  they  without  some  species   that  are  of  direct 
service  to  mankind.      Many  species   of    Crustacea  are  reckoned 
delicate  articles  of  food,   as  the   Lobster,  Crab,  Shrimp,  eSrc.  ;  the 
Silk-worm,   the  Honey-bee,   and  the  Cochineal   Insect,  furnish   us 
with  valuable  products  ;  and  many  others  contribute  more  or  less  to 
the  comfort  or  the  luxury  of  mankind. 

The  principal  general  characteristic  of  these  Animals,  and  that 
which  serves  at  once  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  the  preceding 
sub-division,  consists  in  the  division  of  the  body  and  limbs  into 
numerous  distinct  rings  or  segments,  movably  articulated,  or  joined 
together,  and  thus  forming  a  sort  of  external  skeleton,  which  not 
only  protects  the  internal  soft  parts,  but,  by  giving  firm  points  of 
attachment  to  the  muscles,  enables  their  movements  to  be  executed 
with  much  greater  rapidity  and  precision  than  those  of  the  vermi- 
form classes.  In  a  few  species  (as  the  Myria-poda)  these  segments 
(with  the  exception  of  those  at  the  two  extremities),  like  the  indis- 
tinct rings  of  the  Annelida,  are  mere  repetitions  of  one  another, 
each  segment  being  of  the  same  form,  and  bearing  the  same  organs 
as  its  neighbour  ;  but  the  complete  articulation  of  the  segments, 
both  of  the  body  and  limbs  in  these  Animals,  precludes  all  risk  of 
their  being  confounded  with  the  members  of  the  lower  class.  In  the 
majority  of  the  Arthropoda,  however,  some  of  the  segments  are 
always  developed  differently  from  the  others,  generally  giving  rise 
to  a  division  of  the  body  into  three  principal  regions,  the  head, 
ihorax,  and  abdomen  ;  the  appendages  sometimes  occurring  along 
the  whole  series  of  segments,  at  others  being  confined  to  particular 
regions  of  the  body. 

As  might  be  expected,  from  their  increased  capacity  for  motion 
and  enjoyment,  the  amount  of  intelligence  possessed  by  these  Ani- 
mals is  much  greater  than  in  any  of  the  groups  to  which  our  atten- 
tion has  hitherto  been  directed  ;  and  the  nervous  system,  of  course, 
exhibits  a  corresponding  advance.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be 
observed  that,  in  proportion  as  the  different  segments  of  the  body 
resemble  each  other,  the  nen'ous  system  approaches  the  original 
type  ;  but  that  it  deviates  more  and  more  from  the  typical  struc- 
ture, in  proportion  as  some  of  the  segments  preponderate  over  the  rest. 
The  appendages  of  the  segments  forming  the  head  are  converted 
into  masticating  organs  ;  and  the  number  of  these,  of  course,  varies 
with  the  number  of  segments  which  may  be  supposed  to  form  that 
region  of  the  body.  As  these  are  merely  metamorphosed  limbs, 
an'd,  indeed,  generally  exhibit  their  relationship  to  the  organs  of 
motion  in  their  articulated  structure,  it  is  evident  that,  like  the  true 
limbs,  they  will  be  placed  in  pairs,  one  on  each  side  of  the  middle 
line  of  the  body  ;  hence  their  action  is  always  horizontal,  and  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  may  be  considered  to  be  vertical.  The  head 
is  also  usually  furnished  with  one  or  more  pairs  of  jointed  organs, 
called  antennce,  which  evidently  act  as  organs  of  sense,  and  pro- 
bably have  different  functions  in  different  groups.  Their  structure 
often  furnishes  important  characters,  for  the  discrimination  of  the 
minor  groups,  into  which  these  Animals  are  divided.  Except  in  a 
single  class  (the  Insecta),  the  segmentary  appendages  are  developed 
only  on  the  ventral  surface  ;  but  in  these  other  appendages  they  are 
also  articulated  to  the  back,  forming  the  wings. 


Sub-divisions. — Numerous  as  these  Animals  are,  they  may  be 
divided  into  four  classes,  and  these  are  generally  very  easily  distin- 
guishable.    The  first,  the  Crustacea  (Fig.  2050),  possess  antennae, 


Fig.  2050. — The  Sandhopper, 


Fig.  205 1. ■ 


and  are  furnished  with  jointed  appendages  on  all  the  regions  of 
the  body.  Their  respiration  is  aquatic.  Some  of  them  only  ex- 
hibit the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  class  in  their  earlier 
stages.  The  second  class,  containing  the  Spiders  {Arachnida, 
Fig.  2051),  is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  antenna,  by  the  pos- 
session of  four  pairs  of  limbs  attached  to  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
body,  which  consists  of  the  head  and  thorax  fused  together.     The 


Fig,  2052.— The  Stag  Beetle. 

third  class,  the  Afyriapoda,  contains  air-breathing  Animals  furnished 
with  antennjB,  with  appendages  on  all  the  segments  of  the  body ; 
whilst  the  fourth,  containing  the  innumerable  hosts  of  Insects 
{Insecta,  Fig.  2052),  is  characterised  by  its  aerial  respiration  ;  by 
the  division  of  the  body  into  three  very  distinct  regions  (of  which  the 
middle  one,  the  thorax,  bears  three  pairs  of  jointed  legs,  and  usually 
two  pairs  of  wings) ;  and  by  the  possession  of  a  single  pair  of  jointed 
antennje. 

Class  v.— Crustacea. 

General  ChAI^ACTERS.— If  this  class  included  only  the  ordinary 
well-known  forms,  such  as  the  Crab  and  Lobster,  and  their  allies, 
there  would  be  little  difficulty  in  giving  it  an  exact  character,  which 
should  apply  to  every  member  of  which  it  is  composed  ;  but  many 
of  the  lower  forms  cannot  be  said  strictly  to  come  under  even  the 
brief  definition  given  above  ;  although,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their 
development  they  agree  so  exactly  with  some  of  the  most  highly 
organised  Animals  belonging  to  the  class,  that  it  is  impossible  not 
to  admit  them  into  the  same  category.  Our  description  of  the  class, 
as  a  whole,  must  consequently  be  liable  to  many  exceptions. 


THE  CRUSTACEOUS  TRIBE. 


77S 


The  form  of  the  body  in  these  Animals  is  excessively  vanable ;  it 
is  usually  somewhat  spindle-shaped,  and  divided  into  a  series  of 
distinct  rings,  articulated  together,  and  allowing  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  movement.  These  segments  are  sometimes  of  nearly 
equal  size,  and  furnished  with  nearly  similar  appendages  through- 
out. (See  Fig.  2050,  illustrating  the  Sandhopper.)  Sometimes  a 
few  of  the  segments  acquire  a  greater  degree  of  development  than 
the  rest,  and  the  organs  of  motion  are  confined  to  these  ;  whilst  the 
appendages  of  the  other  segments  are  reduced  to  a  more  or  less 
rudimentary  condition  ;  and  in  the  higher  forms,  the  anterior  seg- 
ments become  fused  into  a  single  mass,  called  the  ccplialothorax, 
as  seen  in  the  Spiny  Lobster,  which  bears  the  mouth  and  organs  of 
motion.  The  skin  is  generally  hardened  by  a  calcareous  secretion, 
constituting  a  complete  cutaneous  skeleton,  within  which  all  the  soft 
parts  of  the  body  are  inclosed  ;  the  segments  are  united  by  a  thin 
membrane  which  gives  flexibility  to  the  whole  armour.  As  the 
Animal  has  no  power  of  adding  to  the  size  of  this  shell  to  make 
room  for  its  increasing  growth,  it  casts  off  its  old  coat  at  stated 
periods,  and  secretes  a  new  deposit  of  calcareous  matter  over  its 
entire  surface. 

The  form  of  the  articulated  appendages  varies  exceedingly.  The 
first  segment  of  the  head,  which  is  occasionally  distinct  from  the  rest, 
is  sometimes  provided  with  a  pair  of  movable  stalks,  on  the  summit  of 
which  the  eyes  are  situated ;  the  second  and  third  segments  bear 
the  antenna;,  of  which  two  pair  are  usually  present.  These  organs 
generally  consist  or  a  long  tapering  series  of  short  joints,  supported 
upon  two  or  three  large  articulations,  similar  to  those  of  the  limbs, 
which  enable  them  to  move  freely  in  every  direction.  The  appen- 
dages of  the  following  segments  are  generally  formed  into  masti- 
cating organs.  They  often,  however,  gradually  approach  the  true 
limbs  in  their  structure  ;  and  the  hindmost  pair  or  two  are  gene- 
rally denominated_/L'o/-yrtf<;'j  by  zoologists. 

In  the  Common  Cray-fish  (Fig.  2053)  six  pairs  of  these  appen- 
dages are  present,  of  which  the  three  last  are  considered  as  foot- 
jaws.  These  are  followed  by  the  legs,  the  true  organs  of  motion, 
which  are  also  attached  to  the  under  surface  of  the  thoracic  seg- 
ments, or  of  the  cephalothorax  in  the  crabs  and  their  allies.  The 
number  of  these  varies,  of  course,  with  the  number  of  thoracic  seg- 
ments.    In  the  Cray-fish  and  Lobster  there  are  five  pairs  of  those 


Fig.  2053.— Cray-fish. 
a  and  /;,  antennte  ;  c,  eyes  ;  d,  organ  of  hearing  ;  e,  external  foot-jaws  ;  /  first 
pan-  of  thoracic  members  ;  g,  fifth  pair  of  thoracic  members  :  /(,  abdominal 
false  legs  ;  i,  tail-fin  ;  j,  anus. 

organs,  the  anterior  pair  being  often  developed  into  large  pincers  ; 
and  the  true  feet  are  often  followed  by  a  series  of  rudimentary  ab- 
dominal members,  which  sometimes  serve  to  protect  the  ova,  when 
these  are  carried  under  the  tail,  and  sometimes  bear  external 
^^?,i  J®'  "^^  "leans  of  these  limbs  many  of  the  Crustacea  are 
enabled  to  run  with  great  swiftness  ;  whilst  others  have  the  ex- 
tremities flattened  so  as  to  form  fin-like  organs.  Many  bury  them- 
selves with  great  rapidity  in  the  sand,  by  the  action  of  the  feet,  at 
the  approach  of  danger;  and  the  species  furnished  with  pincers, 
make  use  of  these  often  formidable  weapons  both  to  seize  their  prey 
and  to  attack  their  enemies. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  Crustacea  always  consists  of  a  series 
of  ganglia  runnmg  along  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body,  united  to 
each  other,  and  to  a  cephalic  ganglion  or  brain,  by  a  pair  of  nervous 


filaments,  and  giving  off  nerves  to  tl-.c  various  organs  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood. The  development  of  these  ganglia,  however,  often  varies 
greatly  in  different  segments ;  for,  although  in  the  more  uniformly 
articulated  forms,  the  ganglia  arc  nearly  equal  in  size,  those  in 
which  the  thoracic  segments  are  amalgamated  have  the  whole  of 
the  ncrv-ous  centres  of  these  segments  fused  into  a  single  mass, 
from  which  nerves  are  given  oflf  in  every  direction.  The  cephalic 
ganglion  is  always  situated  above  the  oesophagus,  and  furnishes 
nerves  to  the  organs  of  the  senses.  These  are  the  eyes,  the  antennae, 
and  in  many  cases  the  organs  of  smell  and  hearing. 

The  eyes  present  very  different  degrees  of  development  in  the 

different  orders  of  Crustacea.     The  lower  forms  possess  only  simple 

eyes,  containing  a  single  lens,  surrounded  by  a  mass  of  pigment, 

and  receiving  a   single   nervous    filament. 

yp^    ^v  !Many  of  the  lower  Crustacea  possess  only 

'~''y      V^~\_„o  ""'^  °'^  these  organs,  which   is   then    placed 

' ^       ^-^ — -J  in  the  middle  of  the   head.     In   others,  a 

number  of  these  eyes  are  brought  together 
at  a  single  point ;  but  each  eye  is  still 
distinctly  recognisable,  furnished  with  its 
own  lens,  surrounded  by  its  pigment  spot, 
and  receiving  its  own  branch  of  the  optic 
nerve.  In  the  highest  Crustacea  tlie  visual 
organs  become  true  facetted  compound  eyes, 
similar  to  those  of  Insects  ;  and  these  are 
often  supported  upon  a  foot-stalk,  which  is 
sometimes  of  considerable  length. 

The  organs  of  hearing  (which  arc  pro- 
bably common  to  all  the  Crustacea,  al- 
though they  have  been  investigated  princi- 
pally in  the  highest  order)  are  situated  close 
to  the  base  of  the  long  external  antennae. 
In  the  Cray-fish  they  have  the  form  of 
a  cylindrical  hollow  process,  which  is  closed 
internally  by  a  thin  membrane,  or  drum. 
Behind  this  is  a  vesicle  filled  with  iluid, 
which  receives  the  termination  of  a  particular 
nerve.  The  organs  of  smell,  which  have 
been  observed  principally  upon  the  Crabs, 
are  in  form  of  cavities  situated  at  the  base 
of  the  inner  pair  of  antenna;,  and  lined  with 
Fig.  2054.  —  Mastic.-itor)'  a  mucous  membrane.  The  external  orifice 
Apparatus,  composed' of  of  these  cavities  is  surrounded  by  fine 
SIX  pairs  of  appendages,  bristles— no  doubt  to  exclude  injurious  par- 
a,  mandibles ;  b  and  c,  first  tides  from  the  interior.  The  antenna;  ap- 
and  second  pairs  of  max-  pear  to  be  principally  organs  of  touch  ;  in 
illiB  ;  d  ef,  three  pairs  of  many  cases  they  are  employed  as  natatory 
foot-jaws,   gradu.ally   ap-  organs. 

preaching    the    form  of      The   digestive   canal,    in   the  Crustacea, 
the  ordinary  limbs.  generally  exhibits  a  high  degree  of  develop- 

ment. Itrunsfrom  the  mouth  to  the  posterior 
extremity  of  the  body,  and  consists  of  a  very  short  ccsophagus,  open- 
ing into  a  large  stomach,  which  is  often  armed  with  rows  of  teeth  ; 
from  this  an  intestine  runs  to  the  anal  opening.  The  liver  is  gene- 
rally of  large  size. 


Fig.  2055. — Nervous  system  of  the  Crab  {Maia). 

ca,  the  upper  part  of  the  shell  laid  open;  «,  antennx ;  y,  eyes;c,  -stomach; 
c,  cephalic  ganglion  ;  no,  optic  nerves  ;  co,  oesophageal  collar ;  ns,  stomato- 
gastric  nerves  ;  C,  thoracic  ganglionic  mass ;  np,  nerves  of  the  legs ;  na, 
abdominal  nerves. 

The  cut  on  the  following  page  (Fig.  2057)  represents  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  female  Crab,  with  the  tail  extended ;  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  are 
sternal  pieces  ;  f,  g,  li,  i,  talero-sternal  pieces ;  k,  k,  orifices  /,  /,  /, 
abdominal  appendages  or  false  feet.  The  detached  figure  a,  repre- 
sents one  of  the  false  feet  removed. 

The  respiratory  organs  consist  of  branchiae  of  various  forms, 
sometimes  attached  to  the  abdominal  members,  sometimes  inclosed 


776 


THE  CRUSTACEOUS  TRIBE. 


within  a  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  cephalothorax,  in  and  out  of 
which  the  water  passes  by  two  openings.  Circulation  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  regular  system  of  vessels ;  the  heart  consists  of  a  single  con- 


Fig.  2056. 


-Anatomy  of  a  Crab  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  carapace  having 
been  removed. 


/,  portion  of  its  lining  membrane  ;  c,  heart ;  as,  ophthalmic  artery  ;  aa,  ab- 
dominal artery  ;  b,  branchix  in  their  natural  position  ;  h'  branchiae  turned 
back  to  show  their  vessels  ;  fl,  lower  portion  of  the  shell ;  /,  appendage  of 
the  foot-jaw  ;  e,  stomach  ;  ?«,  muscles  of  the  stomach  ;  fo,  liver. 

tractile  cavity,  situated  in  the  middle  line  of  the  back  ;  the  arteries, 
in  the  higher  forms  at  least,  are  closed  tubes  ;  but  the  venous  blood 
passes  back  through  spaces  left  between  the  organs  of  the  body, 


Fig.  2057. — Under  side  of  the  Female  Crab. 

until  it  reaches  peculiar  cavities  situated  at  the  bases  of  the  legs 
(Fig.  2058),  whence  it  passes  into  the  branchia;,  and  thence,  when 


Fig.  2058. — Vertical  section  of  a  Crustacean,  showing  the  course  of  the 
blood. 
e,  heart ;  s,   venous  smus  ;  fa,  vessels  conducting  the  venous  Hood   to   the 
gills  ;  7v,  vessels  which  collect  the  aerated  blood  from  the  capillaries  of  the 
gills  ;  vd,  branchiocardiac  vessels  ;  /,  carapace  ;  s/,  sternum. 


With   the   exception 


aerated  by  contact  with  the  water,  through  proper  vessels  to  the 

heart.  .        „        ,  „ 

of  a  single  order,  the  Crustacea  are  all 
unisexual  Animals.  Their  reproduction  al- 
ways takes  place  by  ova,  which  are  gene- 
rally attached  to  the  tail  of  the  female  for 
some  time  after  exclusion.  Indeed,  in  some 
species,  the  eggs  are  hatched  in  this  posi- 
tion, and  the  young  continue,  for  a  certain 
period,  to  shelter  themselves  beneath  the 
body  of  the  mother.  Their  development 
V»     ^WUIVi*^  presents   many    curious     phenomena.      In 

^    ^ailS7>^  some  species,  the  young  leave  the  egg  in 

very   nearly   the   same   form  that  they  are 
to    retain    through   life ;  whilst   in    others, 
nearly  allied  to  these,   the  young  Animal, 
at  its   first  coming   into   the  world,    has   a 
form   so  totally  distinct  from  that  which   it 
is    destined   to  assume,    that  nothing    but 
absolute    observation  could   lead   to  a  sus- 
picion of  its  true  parentage  (Fig.  2059).      So 
different,  in  fact,  is  the  appearance  of  the 
young  of  many  of  the  Crustacea  from  that 
Fig.  2059. — Early  form  of  of  the  mature  Animals,  that  before  the  con- 
Crab  {Zoea).  nection     between     them    was    discovered, 
several    species,    and    even    genera,   were 
established   upon  these   embryonic   forms.     It  is  singular  that  this 
metamorphosis    takes   place   amongst    both  the  highest   and     the 
lowest  members  of  the    Crustacea;  and  that  some  of  the  latter,  in 
which,  in  the  mature  state,  most,  if  not   all,  the   ordinary    charac- 
teristics  of  the   class   completely   disappear,  yet,    in    their   earlier 
stages   of  development,  they  exhibit  the   most  perfect  resemblance 
to  the  most  highly  endowed  of  their  relatives. 

Sub-division  of  the  Crustacea. 

The  number  and  extraordinary  variety  of  the  Crustaceous  Animals 
have  presented  many  difficulties  in  respect  to  their  arrangement  in 
sub-classes  and  orders.  Naturalists  have  held  various  opinions  on 
the  subject,  and,  consequently,  have  invented  numerous  systems  in 
the  hope  of  solving  the  difficulty.  A  general  idea  of  their  charac- 
ters, their  functions,  organs,  &c.,  has  been  given  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  chapter,  and  from  what  has  been  there  stated 
some  aid  may  be  obtained  in  regard  to  their  more  detailed  study. 

In  Latreille's  arrangement  the  Crustacea  primarily  resolve  them- 
selves into  two  great  sections,  the  Alalacostraca*  (soft-shelled 
Animals)  and  Entomostraca  (shelled  Insects).  That  of  Milne 
Edwards  does  not  differ  in  material  points  from  the  simplified  table 
subjoined. 

Malacostraca. 

Eyes  on  peduncles,  and  movable. 
Orders. 

{  Brachyura — as  Crabs. 
Decapoda  <  Anomura — as  Hermit  Crabs,  Birgus,  &c. 

(  Macrura — as  Lobsters. 
Cf„„.,_„j,  (  Unipeltata — as  Squilla. 
stomapoaa  ^  Bipeltata— as  Phyllosoma,  Lucifer,  &c. 

Eyes  sessile  and  immovable. 

Amphipoda — as  Gammarus,  Talitrus,  &c. 

Lffimodipoda — as  Cyamus,  Leptomera,  &c. 

Isopoda — as  Ligia,  Limnoria,  Canolira,  Oniscus,  Armadillo,  &c. 
In  the  arrangement  which  is  adopted  in  the  present  work,  there 
will  be  seen  five  principal  groups  or  sub-classes.  Of  these,  the  first, 
the  Cirrhopoda,  is  composed  of  Animals  which  were  formerly 
arranged  among  the  Moltusca.  When  mature  they  are  always 
attached  to  submarine  bodies.  Their  bodies  are  inclosed  in  a  shell 
composed  of  several  calcareous  plates,  from  an  opening  in  which 
they  protrude  a  bundle  of  articulated  Cirri. 

The  Entomostraca,  forming  the  second  sub-class,  are  generally 
of  small  size,  covered  with  a  delicate  skin,  and  usually  protected  by 
a  broad  shield  or  a  sort  of  bivalve  shell.  The  branchia,  when  pre- 
sent, are  attached  to  the  feet,  which,  with  the  antennae,  are  gene- 
rally furnished  with  bristles,  that  render  them  efficient  organs  of 
locomotion.  Many  of  them,  when  full-grown,  attach  themselves,  as 
Parasites,  to  the  bodies  of  other  Aquatic  Animals  ;  and  these  fre- 
quently lose  all  resemblance  to  the  other  members  of  the  class. 
The  Animals  of  the  third  sub-class,  Xyphosura,  are  covered  with  a 
hard  calcareous  carapace,  and  the  tail  forms  a  long,  sword-shaped 
spine.  The  mouth  is  furnished  with  no  jaws,  and  the  operation  of 
mastication  is  performed  by  the  basal  joints  of  the  true  feet.  The 
fourth  sub-class,  the  Podophthalmata,  is  at  once  distinguished  by 

*  Malacostraca,  from  Malahos,  soft,  Os/racon,  a  shell.  The  name,  alluding 
to  the  softness  of  the  shell  compared  with  that  of  a  bivalve  or  univalve 
mollusc,  is  not,  it  must  be  confessed,  veiy  happily  chosen.  The  term 
Entomostraca  is  derived  from  Entomos,  an  insect,  and  Ostracon.  a  shell. 


BARNACLES. 


Fig.  2060. — Group  of  Barnacles. 

sessile  species,  wlnose  curious  little  habitations  may  constantly  be 
met  with  upon  the  rocks  of  the  sea-shore,  and  not  unfrequently  upon 
many  species  of  marine  shells.  The  shell  forms  a  short  tube,  usually 
composed  of  six  segments  firmly  united  together.  The  lower  part 
of  this  tube  is  firmly  fixed  to  the  object  on  which  the  Balamis  has 
taken  up  its  abode  ;  whilst  the  superior  orifice  is  closed  by  a  mov- 
able roof,  composed  of  from  two  to  four  valves,  between  which  the 
little  tenant  of  this  curious  domicile  can  protrude  his  delicate  cirri 
in  search  of  nourishment.  In  their  young  state  the  Balanidcs  re- 
semble the  Entoniostraca. 

As  an  example  of  this  genus  we  select  the  Balamis  -psitiacus 
{Lepas psittacus,  Molma)  as  an  example  (Fig.  2061).'  This  gigan- 
tic species  IS  a  native  of  various  parts  of  the  coasts  of  South  America 
and  1$  described  by  Capt.  Phillip  Parker  King,  R.N.,  in  his  account 


the  pedunculated  eyes,  and  amalgamated  thoracic  segments  of  the 
Animals  composing  it  ;  whilst  those  of  the  fifth,  the  Edriophflial- 
mafa,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  eyes  sessile,  and  the  thoracic 
segments  distinct.  These  sub-classes  are  again  divided  into  orders, 
to  which  we  must  advert  as  briefly  as  possible. 

Sub-class  and  Order  I.— Cirrhopoda. 

General  Characters. — The  first  sub-class  includes  only  a 
single  order.  They  are  all  Marine  Animals,  which,  when  mature, 
attach  themselves  to  rocks,  or  other  submarine  objects  ;  the  Com- 
mon Barnacle,  perhaps  the  best  known  example  of  the  order, 
generally  selecting  floating  objects  for  this  purpose,  and  frequently 
covering  the  bottoms  of  ships  to  such  an  extent  as  even  to  impede 
their  progress  through  the  water.  The  bodies  of  these  Animals  are 
soft,  and  inclosed  in  a  case  composed  of  several  calcareous  plates  ; 
they  formed  part  of  the  group  of  multivalve  shells  of  the  older  con- 
chologists.  The  limbs  are  converted  into  a  tuft  of  jointed  cirri, 
which  can  be  protruded  through  an  opening  in  the  sort  of  mantle 
which  lines  the  interior  of  the  shell.  The  cirri  are  twelve  in  number, 
and  beset  with  bristles.  When  the  Animal  is  alive  they  may  be  seen 
in  continual  motion,  exerted  and  retracted  every  moment  in  search 
of  prey.  The  intestinal  canal  is  complete,  furnished  with  a  mouth 
and  an  anal  opening ;  and  the  nervous  system  exhibits  the  usual 
series  of  ganglia,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  characteristic  of  the 
Articulate  type.  The  head  is  marked  only  by  the  position  of  the 
mouth,  which  is  armed  with  a  pair  of  jaws ;  but  all  traces  of  any  of 
the  organs,  that  we  are  accustomed  to  see  at  this  part  of  the  body, 
have  completely  disappeared. 

In  their  very  earliest  days,  however,  these  creatures  are  by  no 
means  so  ill  provided  ;  they  are  then  furnished  with  eyes,  antennae, 
and  limbs,  and  are  as  active  as  any  of  the  minute  denizens  of  the 
sea.  It  is  only  after  a  certain  period  of  wandering,  that  they  fix 
upon  a  place  of  rest — fix  themselves,  and  become  respectable  house- 
holders. All  these  Animals  are  hermaphrodites  ;  but  according  to 
the  researches  of  Mr.  Darwin,  active  individuals,  which  he  calls 
compleme7itary  tnales,  are  produced  at  certain  periods,  to  assist  in 
the  impregnation  of  the  ova  of  the  hermaphrodite  individuals. 

Sue-divisions.— The  Cirrhopoda  are  divided  into  two  families. 
In  the  first,  the  LepadidcB,  or  Barnacles  (Fig.  2060),  the  Animals 
are  attached  to  their  resting-place  by  a  flexible  stalk,  which  pos- 
sesses great  contractile  power.  The  shell  is  usually  composed  of 
two  triangular  pieces  on  each  side,  and  is  closed  by  another  elong- 
ated piece  at  the  back,  so  that  the  whole  consists  of  five  pieces. 

The  second  family,  the  Balanidcs,  or  Sea  Acorns,  includes  the 


777 

of  the  Molluscs,  &c,,  collected  by  the  officers  of  H.M.S.  Advent'-.-e 
and  Beagle,  employed  between  the  years  1826  and  iSjoin  surveying 
the  south  coast  of  America.  "  This  cirrhipod,"  he  says,  "  which  at 
Concepcion  de  Chile  is  frequently  of  a  larger  size  than  five  inches 
and  a  half  long,  and  three  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  fo'.ns  a 
very  common  and  highly  esteemed  food  of  the  natives,  by  v  ,iom  it 
IS  called  Pico,  from  the  accuminated  process  of  the  two  posterior 
valves.  The  anterior  and  posterior  opercular  valves  when  in  con- 
tact present  some  resemblance  to  a  parrot's  beak,  whence  Molina's 
name  {Psitiacus).  It  is  also  found  very  abundantly  at  Valdivia  and 
at  Calbuco,  near  the  north  of  the  island  of  Cliiloe.     It  occurs  in 


Fig.  2061. — The  Balayius  psitiacus, 

large  bunches,  and  presents  something  of  a  cactus-like  appearance. 
The  parentis  covered  by  its  progeny,  so  that  large  bunches  are  found 
composed  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  individuals,  each  of  which  be- 
comes in  its  turn  the  foundation  of  another  colony.  One  specimen, 
in  the  possession  of  my  friend,  W.  J.  Broderip,  Esq.,  consists  of  a 
numerous  group  based  on  two  large  individuals.  They  were  col- 
lected by  being  chopped  off  with  a  hatchet.  At  Concepcion,  where 
they  were  found  of  a  larger  size  than  to  the  southward,  they  are 
principally  procured  at  the  island  of  Quiriquina,  which  lies  across 
the  entrance  of  the  bay,  whence  they  are  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ties to  Valparaiso  and  Santiago  de  Chile,  where  they  are  considered 
as  a  great  delicacy,  and,  indeed,  with  some  justice,  for  the  flesh 
equals  in  delicacy  and  richness  that  of  the  crab,  which,  when  boiled 
and  eaten  cold,  it  very  much  resembles." 

Referring  to  Fig.  2061,  a,  represents  the  Balamis  psitiacus,  about 
one-fourth  of  the  natural  size  ;  b,  the  opercular  valves  of  the  natural 
size  ;  the  spiked  terminations  of  the  posterior  valves  are  very  decided. 
It  is  from  the  fissure  between  the  two  anterior  valves,  and  which  is 
capable  of  being  opened  by  the  action  of  certain  muscles,  that  the 
plumose  cirri  emerge,  and  the  spines  seem  as  if  intended  to  protect 
them.  A  fine  group  of  the  shells  of  this  species,  clustered  one  upon 
another,  forms  a  most  picturesque  object. 

Sub-class  II.— Entomostraca. 

General  Characters.— The  Entomostraca,  in  general,  present 
the  characters  of  the  class  of  which  they  form  a  part,  much  more 
distinctly  than  the  Cirrhopoda,  although  many  of  them,  in  their 
mature  or  reproductive  state,  diverge  immensely  from  the  typical 
form.  They  are,  especially  in  their  earlier  stages,  provided  with 
distinct  articulated  limbs,  and  antennaj,  which  are  usually  furnished 
with  bristles,  and  employed  as  natatory  organs. 

Or:>er  II.— Parasita. 

General  Characters.— This  order  is  composed  of  numerous 
small  Animals,  which,  in  their  young  state,  are  furnished  with  dis- 
tinct jointed  limbs,  antennse  and  eyes— organs  which  either  disap- 


778 


PARASITIC  CRUSTACEA. 


pear  completely,  or  become  greatly  modified  as  the  Animal  ap- 
proaches maturity,  when  it  attaches  itself  to  Fishes  or  other  Aquatic 
Animals,  and  passes  the  remainder  of  its  existence  as  a  Parasite. 
In  their  mature  state,  the  Parasita  often  present  the  most  extra- 
ordinary forms  ;  and,  in  their  appearance  and  habits,  they  bear  so 
little  resemblance  to  the  other  Crustacea,  that  it  was  not  until  the 
history  of  their  development  was  investigated,  that  their  intimate 
connection  witli  that  class  of  Articulate  Animals  was  ascertained. 
They  are  very  common  on  the  bodies  of  Fishes,  generally  attacking 
the  branchije,  but  not  unfrequently  attaching  themselves  to  the  soft 
skin  under  the  fins,  or  to  the  eyes,  to  the  great  inconvenience  of 
their  unfortunate  victim. 

Sub-divisions. — These  Animals  form  several  families,  to  some 
of  which  we  shall  briefly  refer.  The  family  LerJiceidcB  exhibits  the 
greatest  amount  of  degradation  in  its  mature  state.  The  Animals 
composing  it  consist  of  a  more  or  less  elongated  sac-like  body,  bear- 
ing, at  its  anterior  extremity,  a  proboscis,  through  which  they  suck 
the  juices  of  their  victim  ;  and  a  pair  of  modified  legs,  by  which 
they  maintain  their  position  upon  its  surface.  They  also  frequently 
possess  a  pair  of  foot-jaws,  which,  however,  are  no  longer  connected 
with  the  mouth,  but  serve  as  additional  prehensile  organs.  The 
proboscis  is  usually  buried  in  the  substance  of  the  unfortunate  host, 
whose  delicate  vessels  are  wounded  by  a  pair  of  pointed  organs 
which  it  contains.  The  young  of  the  LerncBidce  are  exactly  like 
those  of  the  next  order  oi  £nto?nostraca,  the  Copej)oda. 

In  the  DichelestidcB  the  body  is  more  distinctly  annulated,  and 
the  anterior  segment  bears  four  antenna:,  of  which  one  pair  is  slen- 
der and  thread-like  ;  whilst  the  others  are  stout,  and  furnished  with 
a  claw-like  extremity,  serving  as  a  prehensile  organ.  In  the 
Caligida:  the  structure  is  much  more  complicated  ;  the  body  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  anterior,  that  is  by  far  the 
largest,  and  is  covered  by  an  oval  carapace,  bears  two  pairs  of 
antenna;,  a  sucker,  three  pairs  of  foot-jaws,  and  four  pairs  of  tho- 
racic legs — three  formed  for  swimming,  and  one  for  walking.  The 
abdomen  consists  of  a  small  lobe  at  the  apex  of  the  second  segment. 
It  bears  a  pair  of  small  fin-like  appendages  ;  and  from  each  side  of 
its  base  springs  a  long  tube,  which  apparently  ser\'es  as  an  ovisac. 

In  the  Argtt/ulcs,  one  species  of  which,  the  Argulus  foliaceus,  is 
very  common  upon  various  Fresh-water  Fishes,  the  body  is  of  much 
the  same  general  form  as  in  the  Caligida;  and  the  anterior  seg- 
ment is  in  like  manner  covered  by  a  large  carapace.  The  second 
pair  of  foot-jaws  is  here  converted  into  a  pair  of  curious  sucking 
discs,  by  which  the  creature  adheres  to  any  object.  Between  these 
the  jointed  rostrum  takes  its  rise.  The  four  pair  of  thoracic  legs 
are  fringed  with  bristles,  and  converted  into  powerful  natatory 
organs,  by  means  of  which  the  Argulus  swims  about  with  great 
rapidity.  Unlike  the  other  Parasites,  it  does  not  remain  constantly 
attached  to  its  victim,  but  only  adheres  to  it  while  actually  engaged 
in  sucking.  It  possesses  no  ovisacs,  and  the  eggs  are  deposited 
upon  aquatic  plants. 

Order  III.— Copepoda. 

These  Animals  present  the  closest  affinity  with  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding order,  particularly  in  their  earlier  stages.  They  are  minute 
Animals,  with  the  body  divided  into  distinct  segments,  of  which  the 
anterior  (forming  the  cephalothorax)  bears  two  pairs  of  antenna:, 
one  or  two  eyes,  the  mouth,  with  its  jaws,  and  two  pairs  of  foot-jaws. 
The  five  following  segments  bear  a  similar  number  of  pairs  of  feet, 
furnished  with  bristles,  and  adapted  for  swimming ;  and  the  re- 
mainder, constituting  the  abdomen,  form  a  sort  of  jointed  tail, 
terminated  by  a  tuft  of  bristles.     They  appear  to  possess  no  distinct 

respiratory  organs  ;  and  the  ova 
are  carried  in  sac-like  organs 
attached  to  the  abdomen  of  the 
mother.  These  Animals  occur  in 
countless  swarms  in  all  waters, 
whether  salt  or  fresh  ;  and,  minute 
as  they  are,  one  species  is  said  to 
constitute  the  principal  food  of 
the  Antartic  Whale. 

The    best  known    form   is   the 

genus     Cyclo:ps    (see    Fig.    2062, 

specimens  of  which  may  be  found  in  every  stagnant  pond.     It  is  the 

type  of  the   family,   Cyclopida,  and  characterised  by  the  possession 

of  a  single  eye.     In  the  Celochilidcs  there  are  two  of  these  or"-ans. 

Order  IV.— Ostracoda. 

General  Characters.— In  this  order,  composed  of  Animals 
generally  of  very  minute  size,  the  body,  which  strongly  resembles 
that  of  the  Copepoda,  is  always  inclosed  in  a  little  bivalve  shell,  the 
feet  and  antenna  being  protruded  between  the  lower  edo-es  of  the 
valves.  These  little  shells  so  closely  resemble  those  of  minute 
Bivalve  Mollusca,  that  those  of  some  of  the  larger  species  have 
actually  been  described  by  conchologists  as  the  coverino-s  of  An'- 
mals  belonging  to  that  class.      The   antenna;  are  often  curiouslv 


Fig.  2062. — The  Cyclops. 


branched  ;  and  the  hinder  extremity  is  usually  produced  into  a  sort 
of  tail,  which  is  seen  in  constant  action  wlien  the  Animal  is  in 
motion. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  forms  two  families— the  Cy-pridm,  in 
which  the  body  is  entirely  inclosed  within  the  shell,  of  which  the 
genus  Cypris  (Fig.  2063)  is  an  example ;  and  the  DaphniadcB,  in 


Fig.  2063. — The  Cypris  vidua, 
magnified. 


Fig.  2064. — The  Polyphemus 
stagnorum. 


which  the  head  is  protruded  beyond  the  shell.  In  the  Polyphemus 
(Fig.  2064),  belonging  to  this  group,  the  head,  which  is  large,  is 
almost  entirely  occupied  by  an  enormous  eye,  giving  the  creature  a 
most  singular  appearance. 

Order  V.— Phyllopoda. 

General  Characters. — In  this  order  we  meet  with  Animals 
generally  of  larger  size  than  those  comprised  in  the  preceding 
groups.  They  consist  of  a  considerable  number  of  segments,  fur- 
nished with  foliaceous  feet,  serving  both  as  natatory  and  respiratory 
organs.  Some  of  them  are  covered  by  a  carapace  or  a  bivalve  shell, 
whilst  others  are  destitute  of  this  protection.  The  head  is  usually 
quite  distinct  from  the  following  segment,  and  bears  two  large  eyes 
and  two  pairs  of  antenna,  which  are  often  of  very  singular  forms. 
The  mouth  is  furnished  with  jaws. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  is  divided  into  two  families.  In  the 
first,  the  ApodidcB,  the  body  is  protected  by  a  carapace,  which  often 
takes  the  form  of  a  bivalve  shell.  The  Animals  are  frequently  of 
considerable  size  ;  and  the  number  of  feet  in  the  typical  genus 
Apus,  is  as  great  as  sixty  pairs.  A  singular  circumstance  connec- 
ted with  this  Animal,  is  that  it  sometimes  makes  its  appearance  in 
great  numbers  in  ponds  that  have 
been  dry  for  some   time,  as   soon 

as  they  are  filled  up  by  heavy  rains.  ^—  -"ifu/iij^ii 

In    the    genus    Apus   the    cara- 
pace is  one  piece,  completely  in- 
closing all  the  anterior  portion  of  Fig.  2065. — The  Branchipus  sia^alis. 
the  Animal.      In  the  Limnadice, 
also  belonging  to  this  family,  it  forms  a  sort  of  bivalve  shell. 

The  second  family  includes  the  naked  species,  or  those  which  are 
not  provided  with  a  carapace.  They  are  called  Pranchipodidcs, 
from  the  name  of  the  typical  genus,  Branchipus  (Fig.  2065),  an 
Animal  which  is  often  found,  after  heavy  rains,  in  cart-ruts  and 
other    small  pools.      Another  species,   the  Artemia  salina  (Fig. 

2066),  inhabits  a  still  more  curious 
situation ;  namely,  the  salt  pans 
at  Lymington,  where  it  is  usually 
found  in  those  pans  in  which  the 
evaporation  of  the  water  has  pro- 
ceeded to  a  considerable  extent. 

This  is  also,  probably,  the   pro- 
per position  for  a  singular   order 
of   Fossil    Crustacea,    the  ■well- 
known    Trilobites   {Trilobila),    of 
which  vast  numbers  occur  in  some 
of  the  earlier  strata  of  the  earth's 
crust.  Their  general  form    is  well 
shown  in   the  annexed   figure    of 
Calymetie     blumenbachii ;    they 
possessed  well-formed,  compound, 
facetted  eyes,  which  are  frequently  well  preserved  in  the  fossil  state. 
The  body  is  usually  divided  into  three  regions,  of  which  the  first  and 
last  are   commonly   in   the  form    of  semicircular 
plates;  whilst  the  middle  portion  exhibits  distinct 
segmentation,  and,  by  its  flexibility,  enabled  the 
Animal  to  double  itself  up  in   the   manner  of  the 
Common  Woodlouse.     These    Animals   are   now 
quite   extinct,   although  during  the  period  of  the 
deposition  of  those  ancient  strata  in  which  their 
remains  are     found,    they  were  almost  the   only 
representatives  of  the  class  Crustacea. 

Sub-division  III.— Xyphosura. 

This  sub-division  includes    only  a  single  order. 
This   order,  Xyplwsura,  consists  only  of  a  sin- 
gle genus,  the  Limuli,    or  Kiiig-Crabs,  which. 
Fig.  206^. —Caly-  from    the  locality  inhabited    by   the   commonest 
\     mcne  blumenbachii.  species,  are  frequently  termed  Molluca  Crabs. 


Fig. 


2066. — The  Artemia  salina, 
different  stages  of  growth. 


VARIOUS  SPECIES  OF  CRUSTACEA. 


"9 


They  are  amongst  the  largest   of   Crustaceous  Animals,  sometimes 
measuring  as  much  as  two  feet  in  length. 

The  body  of  these  Animals  is  composed  of  two  divisions — an 
anterior,  crescent-shaped  piece  (Fig.  2068),  or  carapace,  inclosing 
the  ccplialuthora.\  with*  its  organs  ;  and  a  posterior,  somewhat 
hexagonal  piece,  formed  by  the  coalescence 
of  the  abdominal  segments.  From  the  pos- 
terior extremity  of  tliis  second  division  of 
the  body,  projects  a  long,  spine-like  tail, 
which  exhibits  no  trace  of  segmentation. 
(See  Fig.  2068.)  The  upper  surface  of  the 
body  is  very  convex  ;  the  lower  surface,  on 
the  contrary,  is  very  concave  in  the  middle, 
forming  a  hollow,  in  which  the  feet  are 
lodged. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  carapace  is 
marked  by  three  ridges  ;  the  middle  termi- 
nates anteriorly  in  a  small  tubercle,  on 
each  side  of  which  is  a  minute  simple  eye; 
but  the  creature  is  also  furnished  with  true 
compound  facetted  eyes,  placed  one  on 
each  side,  by  the  outside  of  the  two  lateral 
ridges.  Three  sides  of  the  abdominal 
'  plate  are  confin^  within  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  carapace  ;  of  the  others,  two 
are  notched,  and  furnished  with  movable 
plumose  spines,  and  the  caudal  spine  is 
capable  of  motion  in  every  direction.  The 
mouth,  which  is  situated  near  the  middle 
of  the  lower  surface,  is  completely  destitute  of  true  jaws;  but  the 
basal  joints  of  the  five  pairs  of  legs  {b,  Fig.  2069),  which  are  attached 
close  to  the  buccal  aperture,  are  armed  with  horny  spines,  forming 
very  efficient  organs  of  mastication  ;  whilst  their  extremities,  being 
converted  into  prehensile  claws,  are  employed  in  the  conveyance  of 
food  to  the  mouth.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  mouth  is  placed 
a  pair  of  short-jointed  antenna;  {e,  e.  Fig.  2069),  which  also  bear  a 
small  pair  of  forceps  at  their  extremity.  The  concavity  of  the  ab- 
dominal plate  is  occupied  by  six  pairs  of  fin-shaped  abdominal  feet 
{ab.  Fig.  2069),  of  which  five  pairs  are  furnished  with  branchire  ; 
whilst  the  first  pair,  which  is  destitute  of  those  organs,  forms  a  sort 
of  cover  for  the  rest.  The  anal  opening  is  situated  close  to  the  base 
of  tlie  caudal  spine. 


Fig.  2o5S. — The  Limulus. 


»6- 


Fig.  2069. — Under  surface  of  the  Limulus. 

These  singular  Animals,  which  appear  to  be  most  nearly  allied 
to  the  Pliyllopodous  Eiitornostraca — but  which  also  in  many  points, 
especially  in  the  structure  of  their  eyes,  approach  the  True  Crabs — 
are  found  in  a  very  limited  area  ;  they  occur  only  on  the  shores  of 
Tropical  Asia  ;  the  Asiatic  Islands,  and  on  the  western  coasts  of 
Tropical  America.  The  young  closely  resemble  their  parents,  ex- 
cept that,  at  their  first  escape  from  the  ^^^i  they  possess  only  two 
pairs  of  branchial  feet,  and  are  quite  destitute  of  a  tail. 

Sub-class  IV.— Edriophthalmata. 

General  Characters.— The  Animals  belonging  to  this  sub- 
class have  the  head  distinct  from  the  thoracic  segments,  which  are 
also  separate,  and  never  amalgamated  into  a  single  mass  (the  so- 
called  cephalothorax),  which  occurs  so  generally  in  the  other 
Crustacea.  The  head  always  bears  a  pair  of  eyes,  which  are  never 
pedunculated  ■    they  usually   consist   of  a  number  of  simple  eyes 


crowded  together  into  one  spot,  although  some  species  possess 
regular  compound  eyes.  The  mouth  is  furnislicd  with  jaws,  and 
with  a  single  pair  of  foot-jaws  ;  and  these  arc  usually  followed  by 
seven  pairs  of  legs,  to  which  the  branchial  organs  arc  attached. 

Sub-divisions.— The  Eilriophthalmata  form  three  orders, 
characterised  principally  by  the  structure  of  the  feet  and  abdomen. 
In  the  first,  the  Lcemodipoda,  the  abdomen  is  rudimentary,  or  in  the 
form  of  a  minute  tubercle  without  appendages  ;  in  the  Ainpiiipuda, 
the  abdomen  is  well  developed,  and  furnished  with  limbs,  but  the 
branchial  organs  are  confined  to  the  thor.icic  legs  ;  whilst  in  the 
Isopoda  the  abdominal  legs  appear  to  be  the  organs  of  respiration. 

Order  LiEMODiroDA. 

General  Characters. — These  Animals  are  at  once  distinguish- 
able by  their  rudimentary  abdomen,  which  usually  forms  a  very 
inconspicuous  part  of  their  bodies.  The  head  is  small,  furnished 
with  four  antenna;,  and  usually  bears  the  first  pair  of  legs  ;  the 
mouth  is  armed  with  well-developed  jaws,  and  with  a  pair  of  foot- 
jaws  bearing  long  palpi.  Of  the  seven  pairs  of  legs  usually  present, 
two  are  sometimes  wanting — their  places  being  taken  by  small 
tubercles  or  vesicles  connected  with  the  process  of  respiration  ;  this 
change  usually  takes  place  on  the  third  and  fourth  segments,  and 
similar  vesicles  also  occur  on  the  second  and  third.  The  legs  of 
the  first  and  second  pairs  are  terminated  by  a  raptorial  grasping 
organ,  similar  to  that  of  the  well-known  Mantis,  or  Praying  Insect ; 
the  others  are  usually  armed  with  sharp  movable  hooks.  The  ova 
are  received  into  a  sort  of  pouch,  formed  of  several  leaves,  which 
are  attached  to  the  footless  segments. 

This  little  curious  order  includes  only  two  families.  The  Cyamidce, 
or  Whale-lice,  which  infest  the  different  species  of  Cetaceous 
Mammalta,  forms  the  first.  In  the  second  family,  the  Caprellidce, 
all  the  proportions  of  the  body  are  reversed  ;  instead  of  being  broad 
and  flat,  it  is  long,  slender,  and  nearly  cylindrical,  and  the  limbs 
undergo  a  corresponding  extension  in  the  same  direction.  The 
antennae  are  frequently  of  considerable  length  ;  and  the  two  first 
pairs  of  feet  exhibit  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Mantis. 
One  genus  has  all  the  segments  furnislied  with  legs ;  while  in 
another  genus  the  third  and  fourth  bear  small  vesicular  organs  in  place 
of  limbs. 

Order  Amphipoda. 

General  Characters. — This  order  also  consists  of  Animals 
mostly  of  small  size,  none  of  them  exceeding  two  inches  in  length. 
They  usually  live  free  in  the  water  or  burrow  in  sand  ;  a  few  species 
arc  parasitic  on  Fishes.  The  head  is  completely  separated  from 
the  first  thoracic  segments,  and  usually  bears  four  antenna;,  which 
are  sometimes  of  considerable  length.  The  mouth  is  furnished  with 
jaws  and. a  pair  of  foot-jaws.  The  thorax  consists  of  six  or  seven 
segments,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  legs,  which  are  usually  furnished 
with  leaf-like  branchial  appendages,  at  their  bases.  In  the  females 
of  some  species,  the  legs  also  bear  peculiar  appendages,  which 
serve  to  keep  the  eggs  under  the  body.  The  abdomen  is  well  de- 
veloped, and  furnished  with  limbs  of  various  forms,  sometimes 
adapted  for  swimming,  sometimes  for  leaping — a  movement  in 
which  some  of  the  ^;;////('^orf'a  display  great  agility  in  swimming. 
This  order  also  includes  two  families  :  the  Hypei-ide;  and  the  Gam- 
marida.  The  first  is  characterised  principally  by  the  small  size  of 
the  foot-jaws,  which  are  not  furnished  with  palpi  or  similar  organs. 
The  Gammaridce  are  characterised  by  the  large  size  of  the  foot- 
jaws,  which  cover  the  whole  mouth.  The  Common  Talitriis  locttsta, 
or  Sand-hopper,  which  may  be  met  with  in  thousands  upon  the  sands 
of  our  shores,  is  a  well-known  example  of  this  family.  Another 
species,  Gammarus  -piclex  is  found  commonly  in  fresh  water,  and  is 
scarcely  inferior  to  its  marine  relative  in  agility. 

The  Coryphium  longico7-iie,  remarkable  for  its  long  antenna:,  is 
not  less  so  for  its  singular  habits.  It  is  found  at  Rochelle,  where  it 
burrows  in  the  sand,  and  wages  constant  war  with  all  other  marine 
creatures  of  moderate  size,  that  come  in  its  way. 

Order  Isopoda. 

Gener.\l  Characters. — This  order  includes  the  greater  part  of 
the  Edrioplithalinata,  and  the  Animals  composing  it  exhibit  a 
great  variety  of  form  and  structure.  The  body  is  sometimes  of  an 
oval,  sometimes  of  an  elongated  form,  convex  above,  and  flat 
beneath  ;  the  head  (Fig.  2070,  c)  is  small,  distinctly  separated  from 
the  first  thoracic  segment,  and  bears  a  pair  of  round  eyes,  usually 
formed  of  a  collection  of  simple  eyes,  but  sometimes  truly  compound. 
The  antenna;  are  often  of  considerable  length,  and  the  jaws  are  well 
developed.  The  thorax  consists  of  seven  segments  [t  — f^),  each  of 
which  bears  a  pair  of  feet  (p — pp)  ;  these  are  usually  similar  in 
form,  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  furnished,  in  the  female,  with  basal 
plates  for  the  protection  of  the  eggs.  They  never  bear  branchial 
plates  as  in  the  preceding  orders.  The  abdomen  ("'')  is  well-formed, 
and  consists  of  six  segments,  which  are  often,  however,  more  or  less 


780' 


THE  STALK-EYED     CRUSTACEA 


Fig.  2070.— The  Wood- 
louse  (Onisais), 


amalgamated  together.  The  abdominal  legs  are  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  large  oval  plates,  of  which  the  inner  is  of  a  soft  consistence, 
and  acts  as  a  branchial  organ  ;  the  sixth  pair,  however,  usually  forms 
a  sort  of  cover,  which  can  be  folded  over  the  others  for  their  pro- 
tection. In  the  air-breathing  species,  of  which  the  common  Wood- 
louse  (Fig.  2070)  is  an  e.xample,  the  branchial  plates  of  the  hinder 
abdominal  legs  are  quite  rudimentary,  whilst  those  of  the  anterior 
are  well  developed. 
Sub-divisions. — This  order  is  remarkable,  from  its  presenting, 
in  its  lowest  forms,  Animals  as  thoroughly 
Parasitic  in  their  habits  as  the  Crustacea 
of  the  Entomostracous  order  Parasita ; 
whilst,  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  scale, 
the  air-breathing  Isnpoda  appear  to  make 
a  very  close  approach  to  the  Myrtapoda. 
Mr.  Milne  Edwards  has  divided  the  Isopoda 
into  three  sections,  denominated  from  their 
habits.  Cursorial,  Natatorial,  and  Seden- 
tary Isopods.  The  latter  comprises  those 
species  which  are  fitted  for  a  strictly  par- 
asitic existence,  being  furnished  only  with 
clinging  feet.  We  include  only  a  single 
family  in  this  section,  the  BopyridcB  which 
live  in  the  branchial  cavity  of  Shrimps.  The 
females  of  these  animals  are  scarcely  more 
recognisable,  as  Crustaceans,  than  the  Cirrhopodous  Barnacles,  or 
Acorn  shells.  They  are  of  an  irregularly  oval  form,  furnished  with 
fourteen  feet,  but  quite  destitute  of  eyes. 

The  Natatorial  Isopoda  have  the  last  pair  of  abdominal  feet  ter- 
minated by  horizontal  plates,  which  form,  with  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen,  a  regular  caudal  fin.  This  section  includes  two  families. 
Of  these,  the  Cymothoidce  are  parasitic  upon  Fishes,  apparently 
having  an  especial  predilection  for  their  tails.  They  have  small 
heads,  with  short  antennse  ;  and  the  legs  are  short,  and  terminated 
by  hooks.  In  the  second  family,  the  Sphcsromidcs,  the  body  is 
usually  oval,  and  very  convex,  sometimes  nearly  hemispherical  ;  the 
head  is  large,  with  four  longish  antennae,  and  the  feet  are  slender, 
and  fitted  only  for  walking.  The  five  first  abdominal  segments  are 
fused  together  ;  but  the  last  is  free  and  of  large  size,  forming,  with 
the  lateral  fins,  a  powerful  natatorial  organ.  These  animals  all 
live  in  the  sea,  especially  on  rocky  coasts.  Like  the  Wood-lice, 
they  are  able  to  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball. 

The  Cursorial,  or  walking  Isopods,  are  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  the  absence  of  the  fin-like  expansion  of  the  posterior 
extremity  of  the  body.  The  first  family,  the  Idotheidm  is  distin- 
guished by  the  development  of  the  posterior  abdominal  feet  into  a 
pair  of  flat  appendages,  which  can  be  made  to  cover  the  branchifer- 
ous  feet  completely.  These  animals  all  live  in  the  sea  ;  they  are  of 
an  elongated  form,  and  the  outer  antenna  are  usually  of  great 
length.  The  second  family,  the  AsellidcB,  resembles  the  preceding 
in  many  respects,  but  the  appendages  of  the  last  abdominal  seg- 
ment are  styliform.  One  species  of  this  family,  the  Liinnoria  tere- 
bra?is,  a  little  creature  about  the  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  is  ex- 
ceedingly destructive  to  wood-work  immersed  in  the  sea.  It  bores 
into  timber  in  every  direction,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
upon  it,  and  has  often  produced  great  alarm  by  its  ravages.  Some 
species  live  in  fresh  water. 

The  last  ramily,  the  OniscidcE,  including  the  well-known  Oniscus, 
or  Wood-louse  (Fig.  2070),  and  many  similar  Animals,  is  charac- 
terised by  the  adaptation  of  its  members  to  a  terrestrial  existence. 
The  outer  antennae  alone  are  visible,  the  inner  pair  being  usually 
very  minute.  The  body  is  generally  oval,  with  the  rings  very  dis- 
tinct ;  and  the  legs  are  formed  exclusively  for  walking.  Nearly  all 
these  Animals  live  on  land,  in  damp  places,  under  stones,  dead 
leaves,  and  moss ;  some  of  them  are  not  uncommon  in  cellars. 
When  alarmed,  they  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball  presenting 
nothing  but  the  smooth  convex  surface  of  their  scaly  armour  to  their 
enemy. 

Sub-class  V.— Podophthalmalmata. 

General  Characters. — The  Animals  forming  this  sub-class 
are  distinguished  by  many  peculiarities  from  those  of  the  preceding 
sections,  and  undoubtedly  present  the  characteristics  of  their  class 
in  the  greatest  perfection.  They  are  easily  recognised  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  compound  eyes  at  the  extremity  of  a  pair  of  movable 
stalks  (Fig.  2071  jv),  which  are  often  of  considerable  length;  the 
head  and  thorax  are  generally  amalgamated  into  a  single  piece, 
called  the  cephalothorax,  which  bears  the  antennae,  the  eyes,  the 
mouth,  with  its  jaws,  and  the  feet  (Fig.  20-ji,p) ;  of  the  latter  organs 
five  pairs  are  usually  present,  besides  one  or  more  pairs  of  foot-jaws. 
The  remaining  segments  are  generally  quite  distinct,  forming  a 
jointed  abdomen,  which  is  frequently  terminated  by  a  fan-like  caudal 
fin  («).  The  abdominal  legs  are  sometimes  organised  for  swimming  ; 
but  rarely,  as  some  members  of  the  preceding  sub-class,  bear  respi- 
ratory appendages,  the  branchiae  being  usually  inclosed  within  a 
cavity  on  each  side  of  the  cephalothorax,  as  already  described. 


SUB.mvi^lom.-ThePodophlhalmala,  or  Stalk-eyed  Crustacea 
may  be  readily  divided  into  two  orders,  characterised  by  the  structure 
of  their  respiratory  apparatus.     In  the  first,  the   Slomapoda,  the 


Fig.  2071.— The  Prawn. 
as,  antennre  of  the  first  pair;  m,  antennae  of  the  second  pair  ;  /,  laminar  ap- 
pendage covering  its  base  ;  r,  rostrum,  or  frontal  prolongation  of  the  cara- 
pace ;  y,  eyes  ;  pm,  external  foot-jaw  ;  /*,  first  thoracic  member  ;  /+, 
second  thoracic  member  ;  fp,  false  legs,  or  swimming  members  of  the  ab- 
domen ;  «,  tail-ho, 

branchiae,  when  visible,  hang  freely  from  the  abdomen  as  filiform 
organs,  at  the  base  of  the  abdominal  feet  ;  whilst  in  second,  the 
Dccapoda,  they  are  always  inclosed  in  cavities  of  the  cephalothorax. 

Order  Stomapoda. 

General  Characters. — This  order  is  composed  of  some  singular 
Animals,  which  appear  to  have  relations  with  all  the  other  groups  of 
Crustacea,  and,  of  course,  exhibit  a  corresponding  diversity  of  struc- 
ture amongst  themselves.  The  thoracic  segments  are  sometimes 
completely  covered  by  the  carapace ;  whilst,  in  other  forms,  the 
carapace  only  covers  one  or  two  segments.  The  segment,  bearing 
the  eyes  and  antennae,  is  always  distinct.  The  mouth  is  furnished 
with  jaws,  and  usually  with  a  single  pair  of  foot-jaws  ;  these  are 
followed  by  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  true  feet,  of  which  the  anterior 


J>t  P9 


Fig.  2072.— The  Squilla. 
y,  eyes  ;  a,  antennse  ;  p\,  first  pair  of  legs  ;  /2,  second  pair  of  legs  ;  /3,  three 
last  pairs  of  thoracic   legs ;  pa,    abdominal   pro-legs  ;  b,  gills  ;  g,    tin-like 
members. 

are  often  converted  into  prehensile  organs,  whilst  the  posterior  are 
usually  organised  for  swimming.  The  prehensile  feet  are  never  ter- 
minated by  nipping  claws,  like  those  of  the  Lobster,  The  abdominal 
feet  are  usually  leaf-like  organs  ;  they  bear,  attached  to  their  bases, 
tufts  of  branched  filaments,  which  act  as  respiratory  organs  ;  these, 
however,  are  sometimes  altogether  wanting,  and  are  very  rarely 
attached  to  the  thoracic  legs  (Fig.  2072). 

Sub-divisions.— The  Stomapoda  form  three  families.  The 
PhyllosomidcB  zxf^  Kxi\m2Xs  of  an  extraordinarily  flattened  form,  with 
the  shell  thin  and  transparent  ;  the  body  is  apparently  divided  into 
two  parts,  a  longish,  or  oval  cephalothorax  bearing  the  eyes,  which 
are  supported  upon  long  slender  stalks,  the  short  antenna ,  and  the 
mouth  ;  and  a  second  piece,  composed  of  the  thoracic  segments, 
which  bears  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  long  slender  feet  on  its  margins 
Fig.  2073  represents  the  Phylloso?n<B  commune,  which  is  a  native  of 
the  seas  of  Africa  and  India. 

In  the  family  of  the  Squillidcs  the  body  is  elongated,  and  bears  a 
resemblance  to  the  Mantis.  Fig.  2074  represents  the  Squilla 
7i!antis,  which  is  frequently  called  the  Sea  Mantis. 

Some  of  them  attain  the  lengjth  of  a  foot  or  more  ;  but  their  average 
size  is  about  three  or  four  inches.  The  eyes  are  mounted  on  short 
foot-stalks.  The  antenna  are  of  moderate  length,  and  the  outer 
pair  have  an  oval  plate  at  the  base.  The  carapace  is  small,  and 
leaves  three   segments  of  thn  thorix  uncovered  1    *hcse  bear  three 


THE  LONG-TAILED  CRUSTACEA. 


?(Jr 


pairs  of  swimming  feet.  The  mouth  is  furnished  with  distinct  jaws, 
and  with  five  pairs  of  large  foot-jaws.  The  second  pair,  especially, 
are  of  extraordinary  size,  forming  large  raptorial  organs  ;  whilst  the 
others  are  furnished  with  a  large  vesicular  joint,  against  which  the 
teiminal  claw  can  be  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  the  last  joint  of 


Fig.  2073.  — The  Phyllosoma  commune. 

the  anterior  pair.  All  these  feet  are  so  arranged  that  their  extremi- 
ties can  be  easily  brought  in  contact  with  the  mouth,  so  as  to  hold 
the  prey  in  a  convenient  position  for  the  action  of  the  jaws.  The 
abdomen  is  furnished  with  six  pairs  of  feet,  of  which  the  last  pair  are 
formed  into  fin-like  organs,  which,  with  the  extremity  of  the  powerful 


Fig.  2074.— The  Squilla  or  Sea  Mantis. 

abdomen,  constitute  an  excellent  natatory  organ.  The  other  ab- 
dominal feet  bear  the  branchiae,  which  consist  of  bundles  of  branched 
or  plumose  filamentous  organs. 

The  third  family,  Alysidcs,  lead  to  the  next  order.  To  this  group 
be  ongs  the  genus  Mysis,  containing  the  Opossum  Shrimps,  so 
called  from  having  a  pouch  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs  and  young 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Marsupial  Quadrupeds.  This  pouch  is 
formed  by  a  flabelliform  appendage  or  scale,  of  considerable  size  in 
the  females,  and  attached  to  the  base  of  the  two  last  pairs  of  thoracic 
feet  ;  these  appendages  are  bent  under  the  sternum,  and,  overlapping 
each  other,  constitute  a  receptacle  for  the  eggs,  and  also  of  the 
young  during  the  early  part  of  their  life.  According  to  Mr.  Thomp- 
son, the  eggs,  enveloped  in  a  gelatinous  fluid,  when  received  into 
the  pcuch  are  considerablv  more  advanced  than  those  of  Shrimps 


Crabs,  &c.,  but  by  no  means  so  numerous,  a  circumstance  more 
than  compensated  by  the  rapidity  with  which  one  brood  succeeds 
another  durmg  the  whole  of  the  spring  and  summer  months.  The 
number  of  broods  produced  by  one  individual,  as  well  as  the  time 
occupied  m  their  evolution,  have  not  been  determined;  but  the 
changes  which  the  embryo  undergoes  in  configuration  are  sufficiently 
obvious.  ' 


Fig.  2075.— The  Mysis  vulgaris. 

The  Opossum  Shrimps  abound  in  the  Northern  seas ;  the  Arctic 
ocean  teams  with  myriads  forming,  not  troops,  but  vast  clouds, 
spreading  over  leagues  of  water,  and  affording  sufl3cient  and  most 
nutritive  food  to  the  Whale,  and  to  the  prodigious  shoals  of  Salmon 
which  visit  the  shores  of  Boothia  and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  in  July 
and  August,  and  upon  which  the  inhabitants  of  that  dreary  region 
depend  in  a  great  measure  for  their  store  of  winter  provisions. 
IDunng  summer  the  Opossum  Shrimps  absolutely  crowd  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers,  and  there  their  destroyers  revel  in  a  perpetual  feast. 

Fig.  2075  represents  the  Mysis  vulgaris,  magnified.  This  species 
is  common  on  the  Irish  coast,  where  in  some  parts  it  is  very  abun- 
dant, associated  myriads  forming  a  wide  belt  along  the  margin  of 
the  water.  Like  the  Shrimp,  these  Crustaceans  swim  in  a  horizontal 
manner,  and  when  pursued  by  Fish,  often  spring  out  to  a  consider- 
able height  above  the  surface. 

Order  Decapoda. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  Animals  of  this  order  have  been 
already  so  fully  described,  that  we  need  only  say  here,  that  it  in- 
cludes all  those  stalk-eyed  Crustacea,  in  which  the  whole  of  the 
thoracic  segments  are  united  with  those  of  the  head  into  a  single  mass 
(the  cephalothorax),  incased  in  a  common  shell,  with  no  traces  of 
segmentary  division  (the  carapace),  and  which  have  the  branchial 
organs  inclosed  within  a  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  cephalothorax, 
Ihe  true  thoracic  legs  are  almost  always  ten  in  number ;  whence 
the  narne  of  the  order.  It  includes  an  immense  number  of  species, 
generally  of  considerable  size,  when  compared  with  the  other  Crus- 
tacea ;  and  these  vary  so  greatly  in  their  form  as  to  have  given  rise 
to  the  establishment  of  three  distinct  sub-orders,  characterised 
principally  by  the  degree  of  development  of  the  abdominal  region. 

Sub-order  I.— Macrura. 

General  Characters.— In  this,  including  the  Long-tailed 
Decapod  Crustacea,  the  abdomen  is  largely  developed,  generally 
longer  than  the  cephalothorax,  capable  of  being  extended  backwards, 
and  furnished  at  the  extremity  with  a  fan-shaped  caudal  fin,  which 
is  of  great  service  to  the  animal  in  the  operation  of  swimming. 
The  first  five  segments  of  the  abdomen  are  furnished  with  laminar  or 
cylindrical  legs,  to  which  the  ova  are  attached  by  an  adhesive 
matter  after  expulsion  from  the  ovaries.    The  two  last  segments  with 


782 


THE  SHRIMPS  AND  LOBSTERS. 


broad  plates,  with  a  similar  plate  at  the  extremity  of  the  last  seg- 
ment, form  the  live-fold  tail-tin.  The  antenna; — the  outer  pair  espe- 
cially— are  usually  of  considerable  size,  sometimes  even  exceeding 
the  body  in  length  ;  and  the  feet  are  often  terminated  by  a  pair  of 
nipping  claws,  of  which  those  of  the  anterior  pair  are  sometimes  of 
great  size  and  power.  The  Macrura  undergo  but  little  change  in 
their  progress  to  maturity  ;  the  young,  on  first  escaping  from  the 
(igg,  usually  presenting  a  very  close  resemblance  to  their  parents. 


Fig.  2077. — The  Common  Shrimp. 

Sub-divisions. — The  CrangonidcB,  including  the  well-known 
Shrimps  and  Prawns  (Fig.  2077  ),  form  the  first  family  of  the 
Macttra.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  large  oval 
or  triangular  appendage  which  covers  the  base  of  the  first  joint  of 
the  outer  antennpe.  In  their  general  appearance  they  all  present  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  Common  Shrimp,  which  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  They  all  inhabit  salt  water,  and  gene- 
rally occur  in  numbers  together,  on  sandy  coasts  ;  and  in  spite  of 
their  small  size,  they  are  everywhere  in  great  request  as  articles  of 
food,   a,  represents  one  of  the  claws  of  the  Shrimp. 

The  second  family,  the  Astacidcs,  embraces  the  Lobster  and  Cray- 
fish, or  Craw-fish.  Tfie  genus  ^j/'tfCWJ', contains  the  Common  Lobster, 
Asfacus  mar  inns,  and  the  River  Cray-fish,  Astacus  fluviatilis,  &c. 
We  shall  not  attempt  to  enter  into  a  detailed  account  of  the  form 
and  structure  of  this  well  known  species,  so  celebrated  for  its  ex- 
cellence as  an  article  of  diet,  and  for  the  change  of  colour  it  under- 
goes in  boiling.  This  change,  it  may  be  remembered,  served 
Butler  in  his  "  Hudibras"  for  one  of  his  humorous  similes  ; — 

"Now,  like  a  lobster  boiled,  the  morn 
From  black  to  red  began  to  turn." 

It  is  owing  to  the  action  of  water  at  2128  Fahr.  upon  the  bluish- 
black  pigment  secreted  by  the  corium,  and  diffused  through  the 
substance  of  the  tegumentary  skeleton  or  armour,  which  it  also 
secretes.  Alcohol,  ether,  and  some  acids  also  produce  the  same 
effect. 

The  Lobster  is  found  in  abundance  in  clear  water,  among  sub- 
merged rocks,  along  various  parts  of  our  coasts,  and  is  captured 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Crab.  It  is  not  only  from  our  own 
shores  that  the  markets  are  supplied  with  this  delicacy ;  thousands 
are  brought  over  from  Norway,  in  a  living  state.  Great  numbers 
are  also  caught  around  Scotland.  The  consumption  of  Lobsters  in 
England  is  almost  incalculable  ;  but  the  vast  destruction  made  is 
counterbalanced  by  an  according  increase.  By  a  wise  provision  the 
maintenance  of  the  species  is  fully  secured,  so  great  is  its 
fecundity.  Dr.  Basten  says  that  he  counted  12,444  eggs  under  the 
tail  of  one  female  lobster ;  and  that  this  number  was  not  the  total 
amount. 

One  of  the  best  narratives  extant  of  the  habits  of  the  lobster  is  to 
be  found  in  a  letter  from  Mr  Travis,  of  Scarborough,  to  Mr.  Pennant. 

We  select  from  it  the  following  extracts  : — • 

"  We  have  vast  numbers  of  fine  lobsters  on  the  rocks  near  our 
coast.  The  large  ones  are  in  general  in  their  best  season  from  the 
middle  of  October  till  the  beginning  of  May.  Many  of  the  small 
ones,  and  some  few  of  the  larger  sorts,  are  good  all  the  summer.     If 


they  be  four  inches  and  a  half  long,  or  upwards,  from  the  tip  of  the 
head  to  the  end  of  the  back  shell,  they  are  called  sizeable  lobsters. 
If  only  four  inches  they  are  esteemed  half-size,  and  when  sold,  two 
of  them  are  reckoned  for  one  of  size.  If  they  be  under  four  inches, 
they  are  called  pawks,  and  are  not  saleable  to  the  carriers,  though 
in  reality  they  are,  in  the  summer  months,  superior  to  the  large  ones 
in  goodness.  The  pincers  of  one  of  the  lobster's  large  claws  are 
furnished  with  knobs,  and  those  of  the  other  claw  are  always  serrated. 
With  the  former  it  keeps  firm  hold  of  the  stalks  of  submarine  plants, 
and  with  the  latter  it  cuts  and  minces  its  food  very  dexterously.  The 
knobbed,  or  numb  claw,  as  the  fishermen  call  it,  is  sometimes  on  the 
right  and  sometimes  on  the  left,  indifferently.  It  is  more  dangerous 
to  be  seized  by  them  with  the  cutting  claw  than  the  other;  but,  in 


Fig.  2078. — The  Common  Lobster. 

either  case,  the  quickest  way  to  get  disengaged  from  the  creature  is 
to  pluck  off  its  claw.  It  seems  peculiar  to  the  lobster  and  crab, 
when  their  claws  are  pulled  off,  that  they  will  grow  again,  but  never 
so  large  as  at  first. 

"  The  female,  or  hen  lobster,  does  not  cast  her  shell  the  same  year 
that  she  deposits  her  ova,  or,  in  the  common  phrase,  is  in  berry. 
When  the  ova  first  appear  under  her  tail,  they  are  very  small  and 
extremely  black  ;  but  they  become,  in  succession,  almost  as  large  as 
ripe  elder-berries  before  they  are  deposited,  and  turn  of  a  dark  brown 
colour,  especially  towards  the  end  of  the  time  of  her  depositing 
them.  They  continue  full,  and  depositing  the  ova  in  constant  suc- 
cession, as  long  as  any  of  that  black  substance  can  be  found  in  their 
body,  which,  when  boiled,  turns  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  and  is 
called  their  coral.  Hen  lobsters  are  found  in  berry  at  all  times  of 
the  year,  but  chiefly  in  winter.  It  is  a  common  mistake  that  a  berried 
hen  is  always  in  perfection  for  the  table.  When  her  berries  appear 
large  and  brownish,  she  will  always  be  found  exhausted,  watery, 
and  poor.  Though  the  ova  are  cast  at  all  times  of  the  year,  they 
seem  only  to  come  to  life  during  the  warm  summer  months  of  July 
and  August.  Great  numbers  of  them  may  then  be  found,  under  the 
appearance  of  tadpoles,  swimming  about  the  little  pools  left  by  the 
tides  among  the  rocks,  and  many  also  under  their  proper  form,  from 
half  an  inch  to  four  inches  in  length. 

"  In  casting  their  shells,  it  is  hard  to  conceive  how  the  lobster  is 
able  to  draw  the  fish  of  their  large  claws  out,  leaving  the  shells  entire 
and  attached  to  the  shell  of  their  body  ;  in  which  state  they  are  con- 
stantly found.  The  fishermen  say  the  lobster  pines  before  casting, 
till  the  fish  in  its  large  claw  is  no  thicker  than  the  quill  of  a  goose, 
which  enables  it  to  draw  its  parts  through  the  joints  and  narrow- 
passage  near  the  trunk.  The  new  shell  is  quite  membranous  at 
first,  but  hardens  by  degrees.  Lobsters  only  grow  in  size  while  their 
shells  are  in  their  soft  state.  They  are  chosen  for  the  table  by  their 
being  heavy  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  by  the  hardness  of  their 
shells  on  their  sides,  which,  when  in  perfection,  will  not  yield  to 
moderate  pressure.  Barnacles,  and  other  small  shell-fish  adhering 
to  them,  are  esteemed  certain  marks  of  superior  goodness.  Cock 
lobsters  are  in  general  better  than  the  hens  in  winter  ;  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  narrowness  of  their  tails,  and  by  their  having  a 
strong  spine  upon  the  centre  of  each  of  the  transverse  processes 
beneath  the  tad  which  support  the  four  middle  plates  of  their  tails. 
The  fish  of  a  lobster's  claw  is  more  tender,  delicate,  and  easy  of 
dio-estion  than  that  of  the  tail.  Lobsters  are  not  taken  here  in  pots, 
as  is  usual  where  the  water  is  deeper  and  more  still  than  it  is  upon 
our  coast.  Our  fishermen  use  a  bag-net  fixed  to  an  iron  hoop,  about 
two  feet  in  diameter,  and  suspended  by  three  lines  like  a  scale.  The 
bait  is  commonly  fish-guts  tied  to  the  bottom  and  middle  of  the  net. 
They  can  take  none  in  the  daytime,  except  when  the  water  is  thick 
and  opaque  :  they  are  commonly  caught  in  the  night ;  but  even  then 
it  is  not  possible  to  take  any  when  the  sea  has  that  luminous  appear- 
ance which  is  supposed  to  proceed  from  the  Nereis  noctiluca.  In 
summer  the  lobsters  are  found  near  the  shore,  and  thence  to  about 


THE  CRAB-TRIBE. 


783 


six  fathoms  depth  of  water  ;  in  winter  they  are  seldom  taken  in  less 
than  twelve  or  fifteen  fathoms.  They  are  much  more  active  and 
alert  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold.  In  the  water  they  can  run 
nimbly  upon  their  legs  or  small  claws,  and,  if  alarmed,  can  spring 
tail  foremost  to  a  surprising  distance  as  swift  as  a  bird  can  fly.  The 
fishermen  can  see  them  pass  about  thirty  feet,  and,  by  the  swiftness 
of  their  motion,  suppose  they  may  go  much  farther.  Athenasus 
remarks  this  circumstance,  and  says  that  the  incurvated  lobsters 
will  spring  with  the  activity  of  dolphins.  Their  eyes  are  raised  upon 
movable  bases,  which  enables  them  to  see  readily  every  way.  When 
frightened,  they  will  spring  from  a  considerable  distance  to  their 
hold  in  the  rocks ;  and  what  is  not  less  surprising  than  true,  will 
throw  themselves  into  their  hold  in  that  manner  through  an  entrance 
barely  sufficient  for  their  body  to  pass,  as  is  frequently  seen  by  the 
people  who  endeavour  to  take  them  at  Filey  Bridge.  In  frosty 
weather,  if  any  happen  to  be  found  near  the  shore,  they  are  quite 
torpid  and  benumbed."  The  lobster  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
is  probably  the  aaraKoq  of  the  Greeks. 

The  River  Cra.y'Cish  {Astacus  ^uviait'h's)  is  a  native  of  the  rivers 
and  streams  of  our  island  and  the  adjacent  continent,  especially 
where  the  bed  is  rocky  and  stony. 

In  the  remaining  Macriira,  the  base  of  the  outer  antenna2  is  not 
covered  by  a  movable  plate  ;  but  the  Animals  generally  exhibit  a 
very  close  resemblance  in  form  to  the  AstacidcB.  In  the  Thalas- 
sinidcB  the  shell  is  of  a  somewhat  horny  consistence  ;  the  breast  is 
very  narrow,  and  the  anterior  nipping  claws  of  large  size.  The  last 
family,  iuLluditig  perhaps  the  largest  Crustacea,  is  that  of  the 
PaliniiridcB,  of  which  the  Spiny  Lobster  is  an  example.  These  are 
powerml  Animals,  with  very  hard  shells.  The  breast  is  broad,  the 
outer  antenna  usually  very  long,  and  the  anterior  feet  are  rarely 
furnished  with  nippers  ;  and  these,  when  present,  are  small.  All 
these  Animals  inhabit  the  sea,  where  they  usually  frequent  deepish 
water,  not  far  from  the  shore.  Many  of  them  are  used  as  food  in 
various  countries.  The  Paliiiurtis,  or  Spiny  Lobster,  often  weighs 
as  much  as  twelve  or  fifteen  pounds.  It  was  in  great  esteem 
amongst  the  ancient  Romans,  who  denominated  it  Locusta. 

Sub-order  II. — Anomura. 

General  Characters. — The  second  sub-order  of  the  Decapod 
Crustacea  includes  a  number  of  Animals  which  appear  to  hold  an 
intermediate  position  between  the  Long-tailed  forms  just  described, 
and  those  in  which  the  abdominal  segments  are  least  developed — 
the  third  sub-order  Brachyura.  They  partake,  to  a  great  extent,  of 
the  characters  of  both  groups,  sometimes  approaching  one,  and 
occasionally  the  other  ;  so  that  it  becomes  almost  equally  difiicult 
either  to  distribute  them  amongst  the  Long  and  Short-tailed  forms, 
or  to  find  characters  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
other  two  groups. 

They  are  distinguished  from  the  Macrura,  principally  by  the 
form  of  the  abdomen,  which  scarcely  ever  possesses  the  fan-like  fin 
so  characteristic  of  those  Animals,  and  never  bears  natatory  feet  ; 
whilst  they  differ  from  the  Bracliyura  in  nearly  always  having 
appendages  attached  to  the  last  abdominal  segment  but  one,  which 
are  wanting  in  the  latter  sub-order.  The  abdomen  is  sometimes 
bent  under  the  body  like  the  tail  of  a  Crab  ;  at  others,  extended 
backwards  in  a  line  with  the  body.  The  inner  pair  of  antennae  is 
generally  of  moderate  size,  and  the  outer  pair  of  considerable  length. 
The  three  first  pairs  of  feet  are  always  well  formed,  and  the  anterior 
pair  is  generally  furnished  with  powerful  nippers.  The  fourth  and 
fifth  pairs  are  generally  small,  and  frequently  rudimentar)'.  In  the 
latter  case,  they  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  back.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  young  appears  to  resemble  that  of  the  Brachyura  ;  the 
newly-hatched  young,  as  far  as  yet  observed,  being  very  like  that  of 
the  Common  Crab. 

Sub-divisions. — In  the  first  family  of  this  sub-order,  the /"a^w- 
ridcE,  or  Hermit  Crabs,  the  abdominal  portion  is  quite  soft,  forming 
a  sort  of  cylindrical  fleshy  mass  behind  the  shelly  cephalothorax. 
The  latter  bears  well  developed  feet,  of  which  the  anterior  pair  is 
usually  converted  into  formidable  nippers.  As  the  comfort  of  the  Ani- 
mal would  be  materially  interfered  with  were  this  soft.  Worm-like  ap- 
pendage constantly  exposed  to  be  caught  at  by  every  passing  Fish  who 
might  take  a  fancy  to  it,  he  usually  seeks  some  shelter  for  his  tail, 
and  the  habitation  selected  is  generally  the  shell  of  some  univalve 
Mollusc.  Into  this  spiral  home  the  Hermit  Crab  is  coiled,  and 
retains  himself  in  this  position  by  means  of  a  sucker  at  the  extremity 
of  his  tail,  assisted  by  two  or  three  rudimentary  feet,  which  are 
developed  upon  the  abdominal  sac  ;  and  so  firmly  does  he  adhere  to 
his  castle,  that  he  will  allow  himself  to  be  torn  to  pieces  rather  than 
let  go  his  hold.  By  protruding  his  body,  with  its  three  pairs  of 
legs,  from  the  orifice  of  the  shell,  the  little  Hermit  is  enabled  to 
■walk  with  ease  upon  the  sandy  beach  in  search  of  his  prey  ;  but  the 
moment  danger  threatens  him,  he  disappears  again  into  his  cell,  the 
orifice  of  which  is  then  occupied  by  one  of  his  claws,  which  is  always 
larger  than  the  other.  As  the  Crab  does  not  possess  the  same 
power  of  adding  to  the  size  of  the  domicile  that  was  enjoyed  by  the 
original  tenant,  he  is  compelled,  from  time  to  time,  to  change  his 


residence  for  one  a  little  larger,  and  often  appears  almost  as  difficult 
to  please  as  a  human  householder  in  the  same  predicament.  Often 
they  may  be  seen  crawling  about  amongst  the  empty  shells  just 
thrown  upon  the  beach,   trying  one  after  another,    until  they  meet 


Fig.  2079. — The  Pagurus  iemiardiis, 

with  one  uniting  all  the  conditions  requisite  for  Crustacean  comfort ; 
but,  until  this  great  object  of  their  search  is  attained,  always  return- 
ing to  their  old  house  after  each  unsuccessful  trial.  It  is  said, 
indeed,  that  when  two  of  them  happen  simultaneously  to  cast  a  long- 
ing eye  upon  some  particularly  suitable  residence,  they  often  engage 
in  a  fierce  battle  for  the  possession  of  the  coveted  object,  which  the 
victor  inhabits  in  triumph.  Fig.  2079  represents  the  Common  Her- 
mit Crab  {Pagurus  bern/iardus)  of  our  coasts.  The  upper  figure 
exhibits  the  Animal  out  of  its  shell ;  a,  the  right  jaw-foot ;  d,  the 
Animal  in  the  shell.  Of  the  great  numbers  of  these  Crabs  which  we 
have  seen,  and  of  which  several  specimens  are  now  before  us,  most 
have  made  the  shell  of  the  "\Vhelk  their  habitation.  Occasionally 
they  may  be  met  with  in  the  Periwinkle.  The  species  of  this  form 
are  very  numerous. 

Several  species  of  Hermit  Crabs  frequent  our  shores,  and  may  be 
often  found  in  the  pools  left  by  the  retiring  tide,  by  anyone  who  will 
take  the  trouble  to  look  for  them.  A  curious  species  belongs  to  this 
family,  the  Birgus  latro,  inhabiting  the  Isle  of  France,  which  pro- 
tects its  soft  body  in  holes  in  the  earth  at  the  roots  of  trees. _  It  is 
said  to  feed  upon  cocoa-nuts,  and  even  to  climb  up  the  trees  in  the 
night  to  nip  off  the  fruit. 

In  the  Hippidcs  (Fig.  2080),  the  fleshy  abdomen  disappears,  and 
its  place  is  taken  by  a  jointed  tail,  furnished  with  a  pair  of  movable 
appendages  attached  to  the  last  joint  but  one.  This  tail  is  some- 
times extended  behind,  but  generally  bent  under  the  breast  as  in 
the  True  Crabs,  and  never  terminated  by  a  fan-like  fin.  These 
Animals  generally  live  in  the   sand,   where  they  bury  themselves 


Fig.  2080. — The  Hippa. 

with  great  facility  by  means  of  their  flattened  feet.  The  family 
Porcellandice  includes  some  small  Crabs,  which,  from  their  beauti- 
fully smooth  texture,  have  received  the  name  of  Porcelain  Crabs, 
In  their  form  they  resemble  the  True  Crabs,  and,  like  these,  their 
anterior  feet  are  converted  into  powerful  nippers  ;  but  their  tails, 


^84 


THE  TRUE  CRABS. 


although  bent  under  their  body,  are  furnished  with  a  small  fan-like 
fin.  The  outer  antennae  are  very  long,  and  the  fifth  pair  of  feet  are 
rudimentary.  Like  the  preceding  family,  they  generally  live  buried 
in  the  sand. 

In  the  remaining  families  of  the  Anomtira,  the  tail  is  destitute 
of  terminal  appendages,  and  the  form  gradually  approaches  that  of 
the  True  Crabs.  In  the  Raninidce,  the  four  hinder  pairs  of  legs  are 
nearly  equal  in  size,  and  flattened  so  as  to  form  natatory  organs. 

In  the  Homolidce,  the  three  middle  pairs  are  long  and  cylindrical; 
whilst  the  fifth  are  much  shorter,  furnished  with  a  prehensile  claw, 
and  placed  quite  at  the  back  of  the  Animal,  or  concealed  under  the 
carapace  ;  the  inner  antennae  also  are  of  considerable  length  ;  and 
in  the  DrotniidcB,  which  make  the  nearest  approach  to  the 
Brachyitra,  the  fifth,  and  sometimes  the  fourth  and  fifth  pairs  of 
legs,  are  altered  in  form  as  in  the  preceding  family ;  but  the  inner 
antennae  are  short,  and  capable  of  being  concealed  in  small  pits 
situated  at  the  front  of  the  head. 

Sub-order  III.— Brachvura. 

General  Characters. — In  the  Brachyura,  short-tailed  Crus- 
tacea, of  which  the  Common  Edible  Crabs  may  serve  as  examples, 
the  abdomen  is  always  converted  into  a  short  jointed  tail,  quite 
destitute  of  terminal  appendages,  and  bent  round  so  as  to  fold 
closely  under  the  breast  (Fig.  2081  ).  The  cephalothorax  is  usually 
of  a  more  or  less  rounded  form,  generally  of  considerable  breadth, 
and  often  produced  in  front  into  a  point.  The  upper  surface  is 
entirely  covered  by  a  single  plate  (the  carapace).  The  eyes  and 
the  inner  antennas,  the  latter  of  which  are  very  short,  can  be  en- 
tirely concealed  within  small  cavities  of  the  forehead.  The  outer 
antennae  are  never  of  any  great  length,  and  the  anterior  feet  are 


Fig.  2oSt. — Cardniis  nuenas  (Common  Small  Edible  Crab),    upper  side,  and 
under  side  of  the  body  with  the  limbs  cut  short. 

a,  lateral  antennae  ;  b,  intermediate   antennae ;  c,  eye  ;   d,   outer   foot-jaw  ; 
e,f,  g,  h,  i,  base  of  the  five  pairs  of  legs  ;  k,  tail ;  /,  sternum. 

always  converted  into  nippers.  The  four  other  pairs  of  legs  are 
generally  terminated  only  by  single  claws.  They  are  sometimes 
flattened,  to  assist  the  Animals  in  swimming ;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  feet  are  formed  exclusively  for  running.  This  is  performed, 
not  forwards,  as  in  most  other  Animals,  but  with  a  curious  sidelong 
gait ;  and  the  aspect  of  a  Crab,  when  making  his  escape  from  danger, 
with  his  claws  extended,  and  every  limb  in  the  most  rapid  though 
awkward  motion  is  often  very  droll. 

The  tail  of  the  female  Crab  is  always  much  broader  than  that  of 
the  male,  and  bears  four  pairs  of  of  filiform  appendages  on  the  side 
which  is  applied  to  the  breast.  To  these  the  eggs  are  attached,  so 
as  to  be  protected  by  the  homy  plates  of  the  tail,  until  the  young 
Animals  are  developed.  These,  on  first  coming  out  of  the  egg,  are 
active  little  fellows,  with  long  tails,  which,  after  their  first  moulting, 
acquire  a  singular  spine  on  the  middle  of  the  back,  whilst  a  similar 
spme  is  developed  at  the  front  of  the  head.  These  were  described, 
when  first  discovered,  under  the  generic  name  of  2oea,  At  a  later 
period  the  eyes  become  pedunculated,  the  legs  acquire  somewhat  of 
their  mature  form,  the  nipping  claws  of  the  anterior  pair  are  deve- 
loped, and  the  spines  disappear.  In  this  form  the  young  Animals 
have  received  the  name  of  Megalops.  It  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
ever (and  this  constitutes  one  of  the  most  singular  facts  in  the 
history  of  these  Animals),  that  this  metamorphosis  is  by  no  means 
universal  amongst  the  Bachyura — the  young  of  some  species,  like 
those  of  the  Macrura,  nearly  resembling  their  parents  from  the 
moment  of  their  leaving  the  egg ;  whilst  those  of  others,  nearly 
allied  to  these,  undergo  a  regular  series  of  changes  before  arriving 
at  their  mature  form. 

Sub-divisions. — Professor  Milne  Edwards  divides  the  Brachyura 
into  four  families.  The  first  family,  the  Oxystomata,  have  the 
carapace  orbicular,  and  arched  in  front ;  and  the  openings  for  the 


passage  of  water,  to  and  from  the  branchial  cavities,  are  placed 
close  together  in  front  of  the  mouth.  The  anterior  claws  are  often 
of  very  large  size,  and  curiously  compressed  ;  so  that  they  can  be 
applied  to  the  sides  of  the  cephalothorax  so  closely,  as  to  be  invis- 
ible from  above.  The  other  legs  vary  greatly  in  their  development, 
being  sometimes  long  and  stout,  sometimes  short  and  weak  ;  some- 
times formed  exclusively  for  walking,  and  occasionally  more  or 
less  flattened  to  form  natatory  organs.  In  the  genus  Dorippe,  the 
fourth  and  fifth  pairs  of  legs  are  reduced  in  size,  placed  quite  at  the 
back  of  the  animal,  and  terminated  by  curious  prehensile  hooks. 

In  the  second,  the  Oxyrhyncha,  MaidcB,  or  Sea-spiders,  the 
carapace  is  more  or  less  narrowed  in  front,  forming  a  projecting  beak 
or  rostrum  (Fig.  2082) ;  the  legs  are  long  and  hairy  ;  the  back 
usually  covered  with  spines  and  hairs,  whence  the  name  -of  Sea- 


Fig.  20S2.— The  Spider  Crab  {Maia). 

Spiders,  or  Spider-Crabs,  by  which  these  animals  are  commonly 
known.  These  Crabs  generally  live  in  deep  water,  and  rarely 
approach  the  shore.  Of  the  third  family,  the  Cyclo?neiopa  or 
Cancer ida,  the  Common  Edible  Crab  {Ca?tcer  pagurus),  may  serve 
as  an  example. 

Most  who  have  wandered  along  the  shore  of  the  sea  at  low  tide 
have  observed  shoals  of  Crabs  running  quickly  about  in  their  sideway 
manner,  and  endeavouring  when  approached  to  hide  themselves  under 
stones,  or  bury  themselves  in  the  sand.  It  is,  indeed,  far  more  common 
for  the  Crab  thus  to  approach  the  shore  than  the  Lobster,  for  the  for- 
mer is  far  more  terrestrial  ;  yet  both,  provided  the  gills  are  kept  moist, 
will  live  a  long  time  out  of  their  native  element.  Some  species,  indeed, 
are  almost  exclusively  terrestrial,  visiting  the  sea  only  at  certain  pe- 
riods, and  again  returning  to  the  land  where  they  live  in  deep  burrows. 

The  Large  Edible  Crab  [Cancer  pagurus),  Le  crabe  Poupart,  ou 
Tourteau,  of  the  French,  is  too  well  known  to  need  description  ;  it 
may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  Brachyura.  It  is  much  esteemed  as  a 
delicacy  for  the  table,  but  previously  to  moulting,  and  during  the 
time  in  which  it  is  destitute  of  its  armour,  its  flesh  is  soft,  watery, 
and  very  unpleasant.  On  the  contrary,  some  of  the  Crabs  in  tiie 
West  Indies,  and  America,  are  at  that  season  in  their  highest  per- 
fection. 

The  powers  of  vision,  smell,  and  taste,  are  enjoyed  by  the  Crab 
in  great  perfection.  With  regard  to  smell,  though,  as  has  been 
well  observed,  every  creel  baited  for  the  capture  of  these  Animals 
and  Lobsters  proves  them  to  be  endowed  with  it,  yet  where  the 
organ  is  seated  is  a  matter  of  doubt. 

The  Large  Edible  Crab,  Cancer  pagurus,  is  partial  to  rocky 
coasts,  and  is  taken  around  those  of  our  island  in  great  abundance. 
Crab-fishing  is  generally  conducted  by  two  men,  who  go  out  in  one 
boat ;  in  addition  to  their  boat,  they  have  lines,  and  creels,  cruives, 
or  Crab-pots,  as  they  are  termed  in  various  countries,  the  original 
cost  of  which  amounts  to  about  ten  pounds.  These  creels  are  made 
of  dry  osiers,  and  resemble  basket-work.  They  are  constructed  on 
the  same  principle  as  a  wired  Mouse-trap,  but  the  aperture,  instead 
of  being  at  the  side  is  at  the  top.  Within  the  creel,  the  bait,  con- 
sisting of  pieces  of  Thornback,  Skate,  or  other  Fish,  is  fastened  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  creel  is  then  dropped  in  some  favourable  situa- 
tion, three  stones  of  sufficient  weight  being  fastened  in  the  inside  to 
sink  it.  The  creels  are  sometimes  let  down  to  a  depth  of  twenty 
fathoms,  the  fishermen  being  guided  in  this  respect  by  the  state  of  the 
weather,  or  the  nature  of  the  ground.  In  fine  weather  they  are 
dropped  in  from  three  to  five  fathoms  deep  ;  but  the  Crabs  are 
chiefly  to  be  found  where  the  bottom  is  rocky.  A  line  is  fastened 
to  the  creel,  and  at  the  upper  end  of  the  line  a  cork  is  attached 
which  floats  on  the  surface.  By  this  means  the  place  where  the 
creel  is  sunk  is  known  to  the  fishermen,  who  usually  set  from  forty  to 
fifty  creels  at  one  time.     The  bait  is  suspended  about  the  middle  of 


THE  TRUE  CRABS. 


78s 


the  creel,  and  can  easily  be  seen  by  the  Crabs,  which,  entering  at 
the  aperture,  find,  like  a  Mouse  in  a  wire  trap,  that  escape  is  impos- 
sible. The  difficulty  of  egress  is  increased  by  the  entrance  being 
overhead.  Lobsters,  Prawns,  and  Shrimps  are  frequently  found 
captured  in  the  same  creel  with  Crabs.  When  the  fishermen  have 
sunk  the  whole  of  their  creels,  they  have  still  some  time  left  to  pro- 
ceed farther  out  to  sea  for  ordinary  Fish  before  it  is  necessary  to 
visit  them,  ^j  Crab-fishing  is  therefore  a  valuable  addition  to  their 
means  of  livelihood,  for  it  does  not  preclude  the  pursuit  of  other  Fish 
at  the  same  season.  The  demand  for  this  species  of  Shell-fish  is 
usually  good,  and  in  the  nearest  large  town  on  many  parts  of  the 
coast  it  is  often  fully  equal  to  the  supply.  Thither  the  fisherman's 
wife,  or  some  of  his  family,  may  convey  the  quantity  taken  ;  and,  if 
the  market  be  already  abundantly  provided,  they  can,  by  means  of 
the  well-boxes,  although  already  caught,  be  kept  back  for  a  time 
until  prices  rise  again.  These  are  all  advantages  peculiar  to  this 
fishery.  When  a  few  hours  have  elapsed,  the  fishermen  visit  their 
creels,  one  of  them  rowing  and  the  other  keeping  a  look-out  for  the 
floats,  and  taking  out  of  the  creels  whatever  has  been  captured. 
There  may,  perhaps,  be  a  dozen  different  owners  of  boats  thus 
engaged,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  some 
means  by  which  they  may  each  secure  the  fruits  of  their  individual 
industry  without  the  risk  of  dispute.  This  is  accomplished  by  dis- 
tinguishing their  respective  floats  by  some  peculiar  mark — by  a 
notch  in  the  side — a  mark  in  the  shape  of  a  diamond  cut  at  the  top 
■ — an  angle  cut  off,  &c.,  &c.  The  necessity  of  mutual  protection 
points  out  to  them  the  value  of  combination  and  union,  and  the 
marks  adopted  by  the  fishermen  to  distinguish  their  floats  are  con- 
sequently the  result  of  some  common  understanding  amongst  them  ; 
or  otherwise  of  an  instinctive  regard  to  the  means  by  which  not  only 
one  but  all  are  enabled  to  pursue  their  calling  in  confidence  and 
security. 

Crabs  are  brought  to  market  both  in  a  boiled  and  in  a  raw  state. 
If  the  market  be  distant  they  are  placed  in  a  well-box  which  is 
attached  to  the  outside  of  the  fishing-vessel,  and  in  this  manner 
they  are  brought  to  Billingsgate  from  parts  so  distant  as  Norway. 
May,  June,  and  July  are  the  months  in  which  they  are  generally  out 
of  season  ;  but  even  in  these  months  many  may  be  obtained  which 
are  in  a  perfectly  good  state  for  the  table.  The  male  is  of  greater 
value  than  the  female,  and  has  larger  claws.  The  sexes  are  distin- 
guished as  the  cock  and  the  hen.  Before  boiling,  a  good  Crab  is 
known  by  the  roughness  of  its  shell,  particularly  on  the  claws. 
When  boiled,  the  mode  of  ascertaining  its  goodness  is  by  holding 
the  claws  tight,  and  skaking  the  body,  which  will  rattle,  or  seem  as 
if  water  were  in  the  inside,  if  it  be  not  in  perfection.  The  time 
they  are  usually  boiled  is  from  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  a  couple  of 
hours  in  sea-water,  or  in  water  in  which  salt  has  been  infused.  Some- 
times they  are  put  into  cold  water  which  is  afterwards  heated  to  the 
boiling  point ;  and  this  mode  is  believed  to  be  less  cruel  than 
plunging  them  suddenly  into  water  heated  to  a  high  temperature, 
though  it  is  alleged  they  are  inferior  for  the  table  when  the  former 
method  is  employed. 

The  Small  Edible  Crab,  Carcinus  mamas,  the  anatomy  of  which 
has  already  been  illustrated  by  Fig.  2081  ante,  is  also  well  known. 
It  is  to  be  met  with,  in  profusion,  on  all  our  shores.  It  is  less 
esteemed  than  the  larger  species,  and  is  principally  consumed  by 
the  poorer  classes.  Many  other  species  are  eaten  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  Some,  of  which  the  Long-stalked  Crab  [Podophthal- 
vuis),  is  an  example,  have  the  posterior  pair  of  feet  converted  into 
paddles. 

In  the  Catometopa,  or  OcypodidcB,  forming  the  fourth  family,  the 
carapace  is  usually  quadrilateral,  sometimes  oval,  with  the  front 
generally  transverse  and  knotted.  The  abdomen  of  the  male  does 
not  occupy  the  whole  space  between  the  hind  legs.  This  group  is 
represented  in  the  British  seas  by  the  little  Pea  Crabs  {Piniiothe7-es), 
which  shelter  themselves  within  the  shells  of  many  of  the  bivalve 
Alollusca,  especially  the  Common  Mussel. 

The  ancients  were  acquainted  with  one  species  of  Pinnotheres, 
which  inhabits  the  shell  of  the  Pinna,  a  common  Mediterranean 
Mollusc.  They  believed  that  the  connection  between  the  Crab  and 
the  Mollusc  was  one  of  mutual  advantage  ;  and  that  the  former,  in 
return  for  the  protection  afforded  to  him  by  the  shell  of  his  host,  not 
only  gave  him  timely  notice  of  any  approaching  danger,  but  also 
procured  him  his  food. 

The  most  remarkable  members  of  this  family  are  the  Land  Crabs 
of  Tropical  climates,  which  are  furnished  with  a  peculiar  apparatus 
of  leaflets,  for  retaining  moisture  in  the  interior  of  their  branchial 
cavities. 

The  group  of  Land-crabs,  termed  the  Gecarcinians,  are  known  to 
the  French  under  various  names,  as  Toulouroux,  Cr4bes  peints,  and 
Crabes  violets,  &c. 

They  are  more  exclusively  terrestrial  than  the  Ocypodians,  and  so 
decidedly  organized  are  the  branchiae  for  atrial  respiration,  that  if 
submerged  for  any  length  of  time  in  the  sea,  the  Animals  perish 
from  suffocation.  It  has  been  shown  by  MM.  Milne  Edwards  and 
Audouin  ("  De  la  Respiration  aerienne  des  Crustaces,  et  des  modi- 
fications que  I'appareil   branchial  eprouve  dans  les  Crabes  terres- 


tres"),  that  in  all  the  Crustacea  the  branchia;  are  fitted  to  perform 
the  functions  of  respiratory  organs  in  the  air  as  well  as  in  the  water  ; 
that  the  more  or  less  rapid  death  of  the  aquatic  species  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air  depends  upon  various  causes,  of  which  one  of  the 
most  direct  is  the  evaporation  from  the  branchiae,  and  that  con- 
sequently one  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  support  of  life  in 
Animals  which  have  branchiae  and  live  in  the  air,  is  that  these 
organs  be  kept  moist,  and  always  defended  from  desiccation.  lu 
the  Land-crabs    these    arrangements    and  provisions   are   proved 


Fig.  2083.— The  Land  Crab  (Gecanimis). 

actually  to  occur.  They  possess  various  organs  destined  for  ab- 
sorbing and  keeping  in  reserve  the  quantity  of  moisture  necessary 
for  supplying  the  branchiae  with  a  due  proportion  of  fluid  ;  in  fact, 
for  maintaining  them  in  working  condition,  as  already  hinted. 

The  Land-crabs  are  distributed  through  the  warmer  regions  of 
the  Old  and  New  World,  and  Australasia,  but  the  species  are  most 
numerous  in  America  and  its  islands.  All  the  Gecarcinians,  live 
more  or  less  inland,  paying  at  stated  periods  a  short  visit  to  the  sea, 
the  females  for  the  purpose  of  disencumbering  themselves  of  the 
eggs,  which  are  carried  under  the  abdomen.  On  land  they  dwell  in 
burrows,  where  they  undergo  the  process  of  exuviation.  Their 
history,  says  Latreille,  in  C'uvier's  "  R^gne  Animal,"  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows  : — "  They  pass  the  greatest  part  of  their  life 
on  land,  hiding  in  burrows,  whence  they  issue  forth  in  the  evening ; 
some  take  up  their  abode  in  graveyards.  Once  a  year,  when  they 
would  lay  their  eggs,  they  assemble  in  numerous  troops,  and  take 
the  shortest  course  to  the  sea,  without  being  deterred  by  any  ob- 
stacles which  they  may  meet  with  on  the  road.  After  the  deposition  of 
the  eggs,   they   return   in  a   state   of  great  debility.     During  the 


Fig.  2084. — The  Cardisonia  carnifex. 

season  of  exuviation  they  block  up,  as  is  stated,  the  mouths  of  their 
burrows ;  whilst  undergoing  this  process,  and  still  soft,  they  are 
'  boursiers,'  or  Purse-crabs,  and  their  flesh  is  then  held  in  high 
estimation  ;  nevertheless  it  is  sometimes  deleterious.  This  quality 
is  attributed  to  the  fruit  of  the  manchineel  (mancenillier),  of  which 
it  is  supposed,  perhaps  without  foundation,  that  they  have  eaten." 

The  Cardisoma  carnifex,  which  usually  inhabits  the  Mangrove 
swamps  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  lives  principally  upon  the  fruit 
of  a  species  oi  Annojia,  which  grows  in  those  places..*  But  nothing 
comes  amiss  to  it.  Those  individuals  whose  residence  is  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  cemeteries,  are  said  to  burrow  down  to  get  at 
the  dead  bodies;  and  Dr.  Duchassaing  tells  us,  that  the  West 
Indian  burial-grounds  are  pierced  in  every  direction  by  the  burrows 
of  these  Animals.  Nevertheless  the  Cardisoma  is  regarded  as  a 
luxurious  article  of  food  by  the  West  Indians  ;  who,  however,  take 
care  only  to  eat  those  which  live  in  the  Mangrove  swamps,  as  far  as 

5H 


786 


THE  CRABS-THE  SPIDERS. 


possible  from  the  cemeteries.  They  are  caught  in  box  rat- 
traps,  baited  with  a  piece  of  their  favourite  fruit ;  and  after  their 
capture,  they  are  usually  kept  some  time,  and  fattened  with  broken 
victuals 

The  Gelasmtt,  another  group  of  Land-crabs,  ase  found  in  the 
warm  countries  of  both  hemispheres  ;  they  live  on  the  sea  shore,  or 
on  the  borders  of  saline  marshes,  and  burrow  deep  cylindrical  holes 
running  obliquely  downwards,  and  often  so  close  together,  and  in 
such  numbers,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  Crab-warren.  Each  burrow  is 
tenanted  by  a  pair  of  these  Crabs,  and  the  male  keeps  guard,  closing 
the  entrance  with  its  great  claw.  While  running  over  the  ground, 
these  Crustaceans  usually  keep  the  large  claw  elevated  before  the 
body,  as  if  making  a  signal  in  order  to  call  to  some  one,  and  from 
this  habit  they  have  obtained  the  name  of  callers  or  beckoners, 
"  Crdbes  appellants."  The  species  are  very  numerous,  but  like  the 
Ocypoda  they  are  dfficult  to  be  distinguished,  because  the  parts 
which  differ  the  most,  namely  the  front  and  the  great  claw,  change 
their  form  with  the  progressive  age  of  the  Animal.  One  species 
observed  in  South  Carolina  by  M.  Bosc,  passes  the  three  winter 
months  in  its  retreat,  and  does  not  seek  the  water  until  the  period 
of  depositing  its  eggs.  Fig.  2085  represents  the  Gelasimus  annu- 
apes  from  the  Indian  Seas,  a,  the  under  side  of  the  head  ;  b,  the 
abdomen  ;  c,  one  of  the  antennae. 


Fig.  2085 — The  Gelasimus  annulipes. 

Like  the  species  of  the  genus  Ocypoda  the  Gelasimi  are  singu- 
larly rapid,  traversing  the  shore  with  such  celerity  that  it  is  by  no 
means  an  easy  thing  to  overtake  them  ;  nor  are  they  incapable  of 
defence,  as  may  be  readily  conceived  from  the  magnitude  of  the 
great  claw,  which  is  extremely  powerful,  and  well  adapted  for 
inflicting  a  severe  gripe  with  the  pincers,  or  even  a  lacerated  wound, 
the  serrations  of  the  opposed  edges  being  very  sharp. 

The  Thclphtisa  also  belong  to  the  Land  Crabs.  In  general  form 
they  approach  Eriphia  ;  but  they  differ  in  their  habits,  living  in  the 
earth  about  the  banks  of  rivers,  or  in  humid  forests.  Several  species 
are  known.  The  restricted  genus  Thelphusa  is  represented  by  a 
species  well  known  in  the  South  of  Italy,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Syria ; 
the  Cr4be  fiuviatile  of  Belon,  Thelphusajluviatilis,  Fig.  2086. 


Cuiver,  eat  it  raw,  and  during  Lent  it  forms  one  of  the  dishes  of  the 
Italians.  Its  carapace  is  about  two  inches  in  diameter  both  trans- 
versely and  longitudinally,  The  general  colour  is  pale  gray.  Tlie 
upper  surface  is  smooth,  with  little  furrows  and  asperities  anteriorly 
along  the  sides.  The  claws  are  rough,  of  a  reddish  brown  colour 
at  the  extremities  ;  they  are  long,  conical,  and  unequally  dentated  : 
a,  the  external  jaw-foot.  Other  species  are  natives  of  India  and 
Africa. 

Our  space  will  not  permit  further  description  of  the  Crab  family. 
Out  of  the  immense  number  of  species  the  following  have  been 
selected.  Specimens  of  many  of  them  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Cardisoma  carnifcx;  Plagusia  craviniana ;  Gonoplax  rhom- 
bo'ides ;  Grapsus  pictus ;  Pinnotheres  veterum;  Hynienosoina 
orbiculare ;  U<;a  una;  Pseiidograpsus  penciliger ;  Gecarciiius 
ruricola  ;  Mycten's  longicarfiis ;  Doto  sulcatus  :  Maia  squinada, 
Stenocitiops  cervicornis ;  Hyas  coarctata;  Ptricera  cornufa ; 
Mithras  dichotomus ;  Micippa  philyra ;  Acanfhonyx  liuiu- 
latus ;  Chorinus  heros ;  Criocarcimts  superciliosus ;  Lissa 
chiragra ;  Halirnus  aries ;  Egeria  indica  ;  Epialtus  tuberciUa- 
tus ;  Hepatus  fasciatus ;  Calappa  tuberculata  ;  Leucippa  fenfa- 
gotia ;  Euryot!ome  aspera ;  Eiimedonus  7iiger ;  Cryptopodia 
fornicata  ;  Lambrus  longinianus ;  CEtJn'a  scruposi ;  Parihenope 
horrida  ;  Persephona  latheilld ;  Leptopodia  sagittaria  ;  Inachus 
Scorpio;  Stenorhynchus  phalangiuni ;  Doclea  rissonii ;  Pisa 
tetraodon ;  Camposcia  retusa ;  Libima  spinosa ;  Eurypodius 
latreilli;  Naxia  serpulifera;  Herbestia  condyliata ;  Lupea 
cribraria;  Lupea  forceps;  Portumnus  variegatus ;  Ltipca 
pelagica;  Thalainita  cliaptalhz;  Platyo7iychus  bipustulatus ; 
PortuHus  puber,  or  Velvet  Crab  ;  Thalamata  criicifera  ;  Poly  bias 
he?islowii ;  Thelph7isajluviatilis;  Dromia  hersutissima  ;  Gelsasi- 
7nHS  marionis ;  Ethusa  mascarorie ;  Ocypoda  arenaria ;  Melia 
tesselata ;  Ocypoda  hippea ;  Boscia  dentata  ;  Gelasimus  annu- 
lipes ;  Dorippe  lanata  ;  Lithodes  arctica  ;  Remipes  testudinarius ; 
Albunea  syni7iista  :  Pactolus boscii ;  Pagurus  chilensis ;  Pagurus 
deformis;  Pagurus  bernhardus ;  Homola  spini/rofis ;  Hippa 
eremita  ;  Ranina  dentata;  Atyasceabra;  Thenus  orie?italis ; 
Ibacus  peronii ;  Scyllarus  aguinoclialis ;  Cenobita  diogenes ; 
Birgus  latro ;  Jilegalopa  viutica  ;  Egeon  loricatus ;  Porcella 
7ta  platycheles ;  Ca7icelus  iypus ;  Galathea  strigosa;  ^glea 
Icevis ;  Thalassi7ia  scorpionoides ;  Callianassa  subterratiea ; 
Eryott  ciivieri;  Gebia  stellata  ;  Callianidca  typa  ;  Axia  stirhyn- 
chus ;  Pedophthahnus  vigil ;  Eriphia  spi/ii/rons  ;  Thala7>iita 
7iatator ;  Piret/iela  de7iticulata  ;  Eriphia  g07iagra ;  Corystes 
cassivela7i7ius  ;  Xa7itho  floridus  ;  Eriphia  leviTna/ia  ;  Ruppellia 
teTiax ;  Thia  polita  ;  Zozy7nus  ce7ieiis. 

Class  VI.— Arachnida. 

The  present  class — the  Arach7iida — including  the  Spiders,  Scor- 
pions, &c.,  are  generally  held  in  popular  aversion.  Some  of  them 
give  a  decidedly  poisonous  bite  to  the  human  system,  and  most,  if 
not  all  of  them,  are  venomous  to  insects.  Among  the  Spiders,  the 
web  shows  a  wonderful  amount  of  constructive  skill.  They  are  at 
great  pains  to  keep  their  downy  limbs  clean,  passing  them  through 
their  mandibles  to  free  them  from  dust.  They  are  assiduous  in 
repairing  their  broken  nets,  when  injured  by  Insects  or  other  causes. 
It  is  related  of  the  old  Scotch  warrior,  Bruce,  that  he  was  stimulated 
by  the  example  of  the  Spider  in  this  respect  to  further  exertion  in 
tiie  cause  of  his  country.  Spiders  are  patient  in  watching  their  prey. 


Fig.  2086. — The   Thdphusa  Jlnviatilis. 

This  species,  which  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is 
figured  on  many  of  the  Sicilian  and  Grecian  medals,  is  very  common 
on  the  borders  of  the  rivulets,  streams,  and  lakes  of  the  south  of 
Italv,  where  it  makes  its  burrows.     The  Greek  monks,  according  to 


Fig.  2087. — Section  of  the  Cephalothorax  of  a  Mygale,   showing  the  aiTange- 
ment  of  the  nervous  system. 

ct,  cephalothorax ;  in,  mandible  ;  g,  movable  hook  which  terminates  it  ;  /', 
mouth  ;  ft",  cesophagus  ;  e,  stomach  ;  ab,  origin  of  abdomen  ;  <-,  cephalic 
ganglion  ;  /,  ganglionic  mass  of  the  thorax  ;  ca,  cords  which  unite  it  to  the 
abdominal  ganglia  ;  no,  optic  nerve  ;  y,  eyes. 

skilful  in  attack,  and  ingenious  in  securing  the  Insect  caught  in  their 
nets.     So  that  despite  the  dislike  we  entertain  for  them,  their  habits 
are  well  worthy  of  study. 
The  Arachnida  are  distinguished  from  the  other  Arth/vpoda  by 


THE  SPIDERS. 


rp; 


their  aSrial  respiration,  the  possession  of  four  pairs  of  legs  attached 
to  the  anterior  division  of  the  body,  and  the  total  absence  of 
antennx.  The  body  is  usually  covered  with  a  softish  skin,  which, 
however,  sometimes  attains  a  horny  consistency.  In  the  lower  forms, 
the  divisions  of  the  body  into  separate  regions  is  quite  unrecog- 
nisable, and  the  whole  forms  a  roundish  or  oval  mass,  which  does 
not  even  present  traces  of  segmentation.  In  the  higher  groups  the 
body  is  composed  of  two  principal  divisions,  of  which  the  anterior, 
as  in  the  Crustacea,  consists  of  tlie  thoracic  segments,  amalgamated 
with  those  of  the  head,  and  forming  together  a  mass  called  the 
ceplialothorax.  In  the  highest  forms  the  division  of  the  thorax  into 
separate  segments  become;;  apparent  ;  but  the  anterior  segment  is 
still  amalgamated  with  the  head.  The  structure  of  the  abdomen 
varies  greatly.  In  some  cases,  it  forms  a  soft,  round  mass,  without 
any  traces  of  segmentation  ;  whilst  in  others,  as  the  Scorpions,  it  is 
produced  into  a  long,  flexible,  jointed  tail. 

In  most  of  the  Aracluiida  the  cephalothorax  is  armed  in  front 
with  a  pair  of  powerful  jaws,  terminated  by  a  distinct  claw-like 
joint  (Fig.2oS8) ;  these  are  usually  perforated,  and  convey  a  poison 
into  the  wounds  inflicted  by  them.  The  jaws  are  considered  to  be 
the  representatives  of  the  antenna;  of  the  oihtr  Arf/irojioda.  Below 
tliem  is  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  which  is  furnished  with  jaws  of  a 
different  construction,  called  maxilla  (Fig.  2088),  bearing  on  their 
outer  surface  long  jointed  organs,  called 
falpi,  which  often  attain  an  enormous 
development,  and  are  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  pincers  at  their  extremity.  In 
many  of  the  lower  forms,  the  mouth  is 
converted  into  a  sucking  proboscis. 

The  legs   are   usually  formed  of  the 

same  parts  as  those  of  Insects  ;  a  roun- 

ded  hip-joint  {coxa)  attaches  the  limb 

Fig.  20S8.— Bncc.il  apparatus  tg  ti,e  sternum  ;  the  thigh   is  united  with 

of  a  Spider.  j^is   by   a   small    movable  joint    called 

s,    sternum;   /,   Inbriim  ;    via,  Xhe  frocha/ifer ;    the  joint  following  this 

maxilla:  ;/,ni.ixilliaiy palpi;  is  the    shin   {tibia),   at  the   extremity  of 

m,  mandibles ;  g,   hook  ter-  which  is  the  foot  {tarsus),  usually  com- 

minating  the  mandibles.  poged  of  two  joints.    The  nervous  system 

in  the  higher  groups  is  well  developed, 

consisting  of  a  large  nervous  mass,  situated  in  the  lower  part  of  the 

cephalothora.x   (Figs.   2089  and  2087  a?ite)  communicating  with   a 

brain,  or  supra-ossophagal  ganglion  by  a  band  of  nervous  matter  which 

embraces  the  oesophagus  ;  and  of  one  or  more  ganglia  placed  in  the 

abdomen  and  united  with  the  thoracic  mass  by  a  pair  of  filaments. 


po  ah  po    8 


Fig.  20S9. — Anatomy  of  the  Mygale. 
c/,  cephalothorax  opened  below,  and  giving  attachment  to  the  limbs,  whose 
first  joints  .are  exhibited  ;  fa,  legs  of  the  first  pair ;  /,  palpi ;  m,  mandibles  ; 
t,  thoracic  nervous  mass  ;  a,  abdominal  ganglia  ;  fo,  respiratory  sacs  •  s 
stigmata  ;  /,  leaf-like  folds  in  the  interior  of  one  of  these  laid  open  ;  'oz', 
ovana  ;  or,  orifice  of  oviducts ;  ma,  muscles  of  the  abdomen  :  an,  anus  '• 
/,  spinnerets.  ' 

In  the  Spiders  there  is  usually  only  a  single  ventral  ganglion  ;  but 
the  Scorpions  have  one  of  these  nervous  knots  in  each  segment  of 
the  abdomen.  The  eyes  are  situated  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
front  of  the  cephalothorax  (Fig.  2087  a?!te) ;  they  vary  in  number 
fiom  two  to  eight,  and  are  of  the  kind  called  ocelli,  or  simple  eyes. 

Respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  air-tubes  (tracAece),  or  by 
peculiar  modifications  of  those  organs  which,  in  their  most'perfect 
form,  have  received  the  name  of  pulmonary  sacs.  The  blood  is  set 
in  motion  by  the  contraction  of  a  dorsal  vessel  (Fig.  2090),  which 
propels  the  nutritive  fluid  from  behind  forwards,  and  gives  off 
numerous  minute  arteries ;  no  veins  have  been  discovered.  The 
intestine  is  sometimes  a  simple  canal,  running  in  a  tolerably  straight 
direction  from  one  extremity  of  the  body  to  the  other ;  but  in  most 
cases  the  oesophagus  leads  into  a  sac-like  stomach,  furnished  with 
numerous  blind  processes,  which  are  sometimes  confined  to  the 
cavity  of  the  body,  but  frequently  send  branches  into  the  legs. 

The  Arachnida  are  all  unisexual,  and  all  lay  eggs  with  the 
exception  of  the  Scorpions  and  a  few  Mites,  in  which  the  ova  are 


retained  within  the  oviducts  until  they  arc  hatched,  so  that  the 
Animals  produce  living  young.  In  the  majority  of  the  Arachvida, 
the  young,  on  escaping  from  the  c'r^,  present  the  same  general  form 
that  they  are  to  retain  through  life  ;  but  among  the  lower  forms, 
such  as  the  Mites,  the  young  are  often  com- 
paratively imperfect,  sometimes  possessing 
fewer  legs  than  the  perfect  Animal,  and  some- 
times having  the  same  number  of  those  organs, 
but  in  a  less-developed  condition. 

Sub-divisions.— The  Arachnida  may  be 
divided  into  two  large  groups  or  sub-classes,  in 
accordance  with  differences  in  the  structure  of 
their  respiratory  apparatus.  In  one  of  these  sec- 
tions, the  Animals  (when  respiratory  organs 
have  been  detected)  breathe  by  means  of  air- 
tubes,  or  trachea;,  and  the  eyes  arc  never 
more  than  four  in  number ;  these  form  the 
sub- class  Trachearia.  In  the  second  section 
the  respiratory  organs  take  the  form  of  pulmon- 
ary sacs,  and  the  Animals  are  hence  called 
I'lg.  2090.---Heart  of  a  Puhnonaria;  they  possess  six  or  eight  eyes, 
bpider.  The   first  of  these    sub-classes   includes  three 

a,  border  of  the  abdo-  orders— the  Podoso??i.afa,  which  appear  to  pos- 
men  ;  c,  heart  ;  ar,  sess  no  special  breathing  apparatus,  and  which 
large  arteiy,  proceed-  are  distinguished  from  all  other  Arachnida 
mg  from  its  anterior  by  their  marine  habitation;  the  Acarina,  or 
extremity  ;  v,  pulmo-  Momtnerosomata,  in  which  the  body  is  usually 
nary  vessels.  composed  entirely  of  a  single  mass  ;  and  the 

Adclarthrosomata,  which  have  the  abdomen 
more  or  less  distinctly  annulated. 

Sub-class  I.— Trachearia. 

Order  I. — Podosomata. 

This  order  is  composed  of  a  few  singular  Spider-like  creatures, 
which  have  been  shifted  about  by  different  authors,  backwards  and 


Fig.  2091.— The  Nymphon  grcssipes,  and  under  side  of  its  beak. 

forwards,  between  the  Crustacea  and  the  Arachnida.     They  are  all 
marine  ;  some  of  them,  like  the  Nymphon  (Fig.  2091),  being  found 
amongst  stones  and  sea-weeds  on  the  beach,  or  amongst  rocks  and 
corals  in  deep  water;  whilst  others,  such  as  the  Pycnogonum  (Fig. 
2092),  attach  themselves  parasitically  to  Fishes  and  other  Marine 
Animals  ;  the  species  figured  lives  upon  Whales.     The  body  is  com- 
posed of  four  segments,  amalgamated  into  a  regular  cephalothorax, 
and  each  segment  bears  a  pair  of  long  jointed  legs.     In   front   of 
this  mass  is  a  short  rostrum,  which  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  a  pair  of  palpiform  jaws  ; 
and  between  these  and  the  first  pair  of  feet, 
the  females  of  some  species  possess  a  pair  of 
false  feet,  to  which   the  eggs   are    generally 
attached.     The  stomach  gives  off  long  pro- 
cesses,  which  sometimes   run    almost  to   the 
extremity  of  the  legs  ;    but  no  circulatory  or 
Fig.  2092. — The /^rwo-  respiratory  organs  have  yet  been  recognised. 
^oitum  balananim.      The  nervous  system  is  very  imperfectly  deve- 
loped.    The  young,  on  first  leaving  the  egg, 
possess  only  four  short  legs,  furnished  with  long  filaments  ;  their 
metamorphosis  has  not  been  observed. 

These  Animals  form  two  families  :  the  PycnogotiidcB,  which  are 
parasitic  in  their  habits,  and  have  the  palpi  obsolete ;  and  the  Nyjn- 
phonidcs,  which  crawl  about  slowly  amongst  the  stones  and  weeds 
of  their  aquatic  home,  and  are  furnished  with  distinct  palpi. 

Order  II.— Acarina,  or  Monomerosomata. 
General  Characters. — Nearly  all  the  Animals  that  we  include 


788 


THE  MITES— THE  SCORPIONS. 


in  this  order— of  which  the  Common  Mites  are  the  best  known 
examples— are  recognisable  at  the  first  glance  by  the  form  of  the 
body,  which  usually  constitutes  a  roundish  or  oval  mass,  without  any 
trace'of  segmentation.  They  are  mostly  Parasitic  Animals,  furnished 
with  a  proboscis  containing  a  pair  of  sharp  spines,  which  serve  for 
WLunding  their  prey,  and  bearing  a  palpus  on  each  side. 

Sub-divisions. — We  must  refer  very  briefly  to  the  numerous 
families  into  which  this  order  is  divided.  The  three  first  of  these 
groups,  like  the  earlier  families  of  the  Crustacea,  are  composed  of 
Animals  in  which  the  characters  even  of  the  class  are  almost  entirely 
lost  by  degradation  ;  and  although  their  general  structure  appears 
to  indicate  this  as  their  proper  position,  they  have  been  placed  in 
very  different  situations  by  some  zoologists.  The  first  of  these,  the 
LiiigiiatididcB  containing  the  Linguattdca,  curious  Worm-like 
Animals,  found  in  the  frontal  sinuses  and  lungs  of  various  Mamma- 
lia, and  in  the  lungs  of  some  Reptiles,  have  generally  been  placed 
amongst  the  Intestinal  Worms;  but  recent  investigations  have 
shown  that  the  young  of  these  creatures  greatly  resemble  \.\\f:.Acari 
in  the  form  of  their  body,  and  that  they  are  furnished,  whilst  still  in  the 
egg,  with  four  short,  jointed  legs.  The  second  family,  the  Simo- 
neidcB,  also  includes  Parasitic  Animals  ;  but  these  select  a  more 
singular  habitation  than  the  LingiiatulcB.  They  are  minute,  soft 
creatures,  furnished  with  four  pairs  of  legs,  which  frequently  take  up 
their  abode  in  the  follicles  of  the  human  skin ;  they  are  vulgarly 
denominated  "  maggots  in  the  skin." 

In  the  structure  of  the  mouth  these  creatures  agree  with  the 
Mites ;  their  bodies,  when  young,  are  much  elongated,  but  gradu- 
ally shorten  as  they  approach  maturity.  They  never  exhibit  any 
appearance  of  segmentation.  The  species  found  on  man,  Simonea 
folUciilorum,  usually  confines  its  attacks  to  the  face,  and  appears 
to  be  particularly  partial  to  the  nose.  The  third  of  these  doubtful 
Acarine  families,  is  that  of  the  Macrobiotida: — microscopic  animals 
which  have  usually  been  associated  with  the  l7ifitso7-ia ,  and  especi- 
ally with  the  Rotifera.  They  aie  known  as  Sloth  or  Bear-animal- 
cules, and  they  are  to  be  found  in  moss  or  in  fresh  water.  Their 
bodies  are  usually  of  an  elongated  oval  form,  furnished  with  four 
pairs  of  legs,  of  which  the  hinder  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the 
body.  The  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  short  rostrum,  armed  with  a 
pair  of  sharp,  movable  spines.  The  feet  generally  bear  four  claws. 
No  trace  of  circulatory  or  respiratory  apparatus  has  been  found  in 
these  creatures  ;  and  in  one  genus  only  do  any  indications  of  annu- 
lation  present  themselves. 


Fig.  2092. — Acarus  domesticus, 
or  Cheese  Mite,  magnified. 


Fig.  2093. — Sarcoptes  scahiei,  or 
Acarus  of  the  Itch,  magnified. 


Of  the  family  of  True  Miies  {Acaridcs)  som&  are  active  in  their 
habits,  like  the  Common  Cheese  Mite  (Fig.  2092) ;  others  are 
parasitic  upon  or  beneath  the  skins  of  man  and  otner  Animals.  Of 
the  latter,  one  species  is  well-known  by  its  effects  ;  this  is  the 
Sarcoptes  scabiei  {¥\g.  2093),  which  produces  the  disgusting  com- 
plaint so  common  amongst  dirty  people,  known  as  the  itch. 

The  IxodidcB,  forming  another  family,  are  furnished  with  a  power- 
ful rostrum,  armed  with  recurved  spines  with  which  they  pierce  the 
skin  of  the  unfortunate  Animals  upon  whose  blood  they  live.  These 
creatures  live  upon  a  great  variety  of  Animals.  The  Dog  is  very  liable 
to  their  attacks,  and  many  species  attach  themselves  exclusively  to 
Serpents  and  other  Reptiles.  The  Animal  known  as  the  Harvest  Bug, 
which  is  often  so  troublesome  in  summer  and  autumn,  also  belongs 
to  this  group.  The  GaviasidcB,  which  are  furnished  with  a  sucking 
apparatus  very  similar  to  that  of  the  IxodidcB,  usually  attach  them- 
selves to  the  bodies  of  Beetles;  and  the  Common  Dung  Beetles 
{Geotr2iJ>esJ  may  often  be  found  with  the  lower  surface  nearly  covered 
with  them. 

In  the  preceding  families — most  of  which  are  parasitic  in  their 
habits — the  eyes  are  usually  wanting.  The  remainder,  which 
generally  lead  a  more  active  life,  are  always  furnished  with  these 
organs.     One   family,  the  HydrachnidcB,  or  Water-mites,  inhabit 


the  water,  where  they  swira  about  with  considerable  rapidity  by 
means  of  their  fringed  legs.  The  OribatidcB — which,  unlike  the 
other  Aca7'!}!a,  live  upon  vegetable  matter,  principally  the  leaves  of 
mosses — are  covered  with  a  hard  and  very  brittle  skin,  and  have  the 
mouth  adapted  for  biting.  The  Bdellidcc,  which  live  amongst  damp 
moss,  have  the  body  divided  apparently  into  two  parts  by  a  con- 
striction, and  the  rostrum  and  palpi  very  long  ;  whilst  the  Troni- 
bidiidcB,  of  which  the  little  Scarlet  Mite,  so  often  seen  in  gardens  is 
an  example,  have  the  palpi  converted  into  little  raptorial  organs. 

Order  III. — Adelarthrosomata. 

General  Characters. — The  animals  composing  this  order  have 
the  abdomen  united  to  the  cephalothorax  throughout  its  whole  breadth, 
and  the  body  sometimes  presents  a  regular  oval  outline,  as  in  the 
Mites  ;  but  the  abdomen,  on  close  examination,  is  always  found  to 
be  more  or  less  distinctly  annulated.  The  mouth  is  armed  with 
jaws  like  those  of  the  Spiders  ;  and  the  palpi  are  generally  of  great 
length,  and  converted  into  nipping  claws  [che/tcera),  like  those  of 
the  Scorpion,  to  which  some  of  these  creatures  bear  no  very  distant 
resemblance.  Like  the  Mites,  they  respire  by  means  of  trachea:, 
which  open  by  two  or  four  apertures  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
body. 

Sub-divisions. — These  animals  form  three  families.  In  the  first, 
the  PhalavgidcB,  of  which  the  Har\'est-men,  or  Harvest  Spiders  of 
our  gardens  and  fields  are  well-known  examples,  the  division  of  the 
abdomen  into  segments  is  often  indistinct  ;  the  antennal  jaws  are 
large,  and  furnished  with  a  didactyle  claw  ;  the  palpi  are  of 
moderate  length,  and  the  legs  in  general  immoderately  long. 
Propped  upon  these  stilt-like  limbs,  the  Phalangia  stalk  about 
amongst  plants  in  search  of  Insect  prey,  and  they  seem  to  be  very 
voracious  Animals. 

The  Cliclifcrida;,  forming  the  second  family,  are  at  once  distin- 
guishable by  the  form  of  their  palpi,  which  are  very  long,  and  ter- 
minated by  strong  nippers,  like  those  of  the  Scorpion.  These 
Animals,  in  fact,  resemble  little  Scorpions  that  have  lost  their  tails. 
They  are  frequently  found  amongst  old  books,  which  they  visit,  no 
doubt,  in  pursuit  of  the  minute  Insects  sometimes  to  be  met  with  in 
such  situations. 

The  last  family,  the  So!j>ug2dcs,  includes  several  Spider-like 
Animals,  some  of  which  enjoy  a  most  unenviable  reputation.  They 
live  principally  in  the  sandy  deserts  of  the  Old  World,  where  the 
common  species  (Galcodes  araiieoides),  which  attains  the  length 
of  about  two  inches,  is  said  to  be  a  great  torment  to  the  Camels. 

Sub-class  II.— Pulmonaria. 

The  pulmonary  sacs,  the  presence  of  which  is  the  leading  cha- 
racteristic of  these  Animals,  are  to  be  regarded  merely  as  modifica- 
tions of  the  tracheary  structure  presented  by  the  other  Araclinida. 
Like  the  tracheae,  they  open  by  stigmata,  or  small  apertures  in  the 
lower  surface  of  the  Animal ;  but  these,  instead  of  leading  into  a 
tuft  of  little  tubes  radiating  amongst  the  organs  of  the  body,  admit 
the  air  into  a  small  closed  sac,  containing  a  packet  of  minute  plates, 
laid  side  by  side  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  These  Animals  possess 
six  or  more  eyes,  placed  on  the  anterior  portion  of  the  cephalothorax. 
They  are  always  ocelli,  or  simple  eyes,  each  furnished  with  its  own 
separate  nervous  filament. 

The  Pulmo7iaria  form  two  orders — the  Polymerosomata  or 
Pedipal;p2,  in  which  the  abdomen  is  distinctly  annulated  and 
attached  to  the  cephalothorax  by  its  whole  breadth  ;  and  the 
Dimerosomata,  or  True  Spiders,  in  which  that  region  of  the  body 
presents  no  sign  of  segmentation,  and  is  connected  with  the  pre- 
ceding segment  by  a  narrow  peduncle. 

Order  IV. — Gedipalpi,  or  Polymerosomata 

General  Characters. — The  principal  distinctions  existing 
between  these  Animals  and  the  True  Spiders,  which  constitute  the 
following  order,  are  the  great  development  of  the  palpi,  which  always 
form  large  arm-like  prehensile  organs,  often  terminated  by  a  pair  of 
nippers,  and  the  distinctly  annulated  structure  of  the  abdomen. 
The  skin  is  always  hard  and  horny  ;  and  the  abdomen  is  attached 
to  the  back  of  the  cephalothorax  by  its  entire  breadth. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  includes  only  two  families,  and  the 
species  in  these  are  not  particularly  numerous ;  but  few  of  the 
Arach?2ida  are  more  renowned  than  these,  from  the  universal  dread 
inspired  by  the  venomous  powers  of  their  best  know-n  representatives, 
the  Scorpions.  These  form  the  family  Scorpionidce,  which  are 
characterised  by  their  elongated  tail-like  abdomen,  armed  at  its 
extremity  with  a  sort  of  hooked  claw,  which,  when  the  creatures  are 
in  motion,  is  always  carried  over  the  back  in  a  threatening  attitude. 

The  sight  of  a  large  Scorpion  advancing  v\\\\  his  many-jointed 
tail  elevated,  and  ready  to  inflict  a  venomous  wound,  will  give  us 
some  idea  of  the  force  of  that  expression  "a  lash  of  scorpions,"  the 
fulness  of  which  can  only  be  felt  in  a  country  where  these  dreaded 
creatures  abound.     In  their  appearance,  a^  nell  as  in  their  disposi- 


THE  SCORPIOXS—THE  SPIDERS. 


m 


tion,  these  Animals  have  much  to  disgust  the  ordinary  observer,  and 
it  must  be  owned  that  they  are  formidably  armed.  The  maxilla;, 
which  in  Insects  are  small,  are  here  developed  into  enormous  crab- 
like claws,  capable  of  seizing  with  great  power,  and  of  crushing 
their  prey.  Besides  these,  we  find  the  mandibles  forming  on  each 
side  of  the  mouth  a  smaller  but  similar  claw,  for  the  purpose  of 
holdiiig  the  food  which  they  are  in  the  act  of  eating.  The  tail 
terminates  in  a  sharp  curved  sting,  which,  analogous  to  the  poison- 
fang  of  a  Serpent,  instils  venom  into  the  wound  it  makes. 

The  body  of  the  Scorpion  is  composed  of  a  broad  cephalothorax, 
covered  with  a  single  plate,  and  succeeded  by  an  abdominal  portion 
of  seven  rings  overlapping  each  other.  To  this  succeeds  a  caudal 
prolongation  of  six  joints.  Scorpions  have  six  or  eight  eyes,  two  on 
each  side  of  a  dorsal  furrow,  on  the  middle  of  the  cephalothorax, 
and  two  or  three  at  each  anterior  angle  of  the  latter. 

Scorpions  tenant  the  hotter  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  conceal- 
ing themselves  under  stones,  among  crumbling  ruins,  in  obscure 
corners  of  houses,  and  the  like.  They  run  very  actively,  arching 
the  tail  over  the  back,  and  in  attacking  their  prey  seize  it  with  their 
claws,  and  instantly  pierce  it  with  the  sting.  They  spare  not  even 
their  own  species.  Maupertuis  put  a  hundred  Scorpions  together, 
and  a  murderous  conflict  immediately  ensued  ;  almost  all  were 
massacred  in  a  few  days  and  devoured  by  the  survivors. 

The  sting  of  the  Common  Scorpion  of  Southern  Europe  and  Bar- 
bary  [Biiihus  oca'fatuis.  Leach),  or  the 
six-eyed  European  species,  {^Scorpio  Eic- 
ropaus),  is  not  fatal  except  to  small 
Animals  and  Insects.  But  in  the  hotter 
regions  there  is  some  degree  of  danger. 
In  South  America  the  sting  of  some 
kinds  has  been  found  to  occasion  fever, 
numbness  of  the  limbs,  and  dimness  of 
sight,  lasting  for  two  or  three  days,  and 
death  is  said  to  result  sometimes  from 
the  wound  of  the  Black  Scorpion  of 
Ceylon.  Mr.  Kirby  states  that  the  only 
means  of  saving  the  lives  of  our  soldiers 
who  were  stung  by  these  creatures  in 
Egypt  was  amputation. 

The  Scorpion  produces  its  young  alive, 
and  they  do  not  arrive  at  maturity  till 
after  the  lapse  of  two  years.  During  the 
first  days  of  their  existence  they  are  car- 
ried by  the  female  on  her  back.  She 
then  keeps  close  in  her  retreat,  and  assi- 
duously guards  them.  In  about  a  month 
they  are  capable  of  shifting  for  them- 
selves. Fig.  2094  represents  the  African 
Scorpion  {Scorpio  afcr,  Linn.  ;  Bidhus 
afer,  Leach).  The  Scorpion  is  among 
the  Animals  represented  on  the  sculp- 
tured remains  of  ancient  Egypt. 

The  Animals  forming  the  second 
family,  the  Thelypho?iidce,  present  an 
appearance  in  some  degree  intermedi- 
ate between  the  Scorpions  and  the  True 
Spiders.  The  abdomen  is  short  and  roun- 
ded,but  distinctly  annulated ;  the  cephalothorax  forms  a  single  mass  ; 
the  palpi  are  very  long  and  stout ;  but,  instead  of  the  pincers  of  the 
Scorpion,  they  are  terminated  by  a  movable  claw,  capable  of  being 
applied  to  the  inside  of  the  preceding  joint,  and  thus  forming  a 
prehensile  organ.  Many  of  them  are  large  Animals,  of  a  somewhat 
forbidding  appearance,  which,  like  the  Scorpions,  can  run  in  every 
direction.  They  are  almost  confined  to  Tropical  countries,  inhabit- 
ing principally  the  hottest  parts  of  Asia  and  America. 

Order  V.— Dimerosomata. — The  Spiders. 

General  Characters.— The  general  appearance  of  the  Animals 
forming  this  order  must  be  familiar  to  all  our  readers.  The  body 
consists  of  two  distinct  portions,  of  which  the  anterior,  or  cephalo- 
thorax, is  usually  of  an  oval  form,  and  covered  with  a  plate  of  a  some- 
what horny  consistence  ;  whilst  the  posterior  (the  abdomen)  generally 
forms  a  soft,  roundish  mass,  without  any  traces  of  segmentation, 
and  which  is  attached  to  the  base  of  the  cephalothorax  by  a  narrow 
peduncle.  On  its  anterior  portion,  the  cephalothorax  bears  six  or 
eight  simple  eyes,  which  are  usually  situated  on  a  slight  eminence. 
Below  and  in  front  of  these  are  seen  the  large  mandibles,  which  serve 
the  Spiders  for  the  destruction  of  their  prey,  Hnder  which  is  the 
opening  of  the  mouth,  furnished  with  a  pair  of  masticating  jaws,  or 
maxillffi.  From  each  of  these  springs  a  long,  jointed  palpus,  which 
in  some  instances  appears  to  be  converted  into  a  supplementary 
leg.  These  organs  occupy  the  front  of  the  cephalothorax.  Its 
lower  surface  bears  four  pairs  of  jointed  legs,  furnished  at  their 
extremities  with  claws,  which  are  often  of  a  very  singular  comb-like 
structure.  The  pulmonary  sacs,  which  are  contained  in  the  abdo- 
men are  either  two  or  four  in  number,  opening  by  stigmata  in  the 


Fig.  2094. — The  African 
Scorpion. 


lower  surface  of  the  abdomen.  Besides  these  respiratory  organs, 
the  majority  exhibit  an  aperture  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen, 
from  which  four  flat  trachea  arise,  and  ramify  through  the  organs 
of  the  body. 

Spiders  have  been  celebrated  in  every  age  for  their  webs,  or 
filmy  tissues,  in  which  they  entangle  their  prey,  or  conceal  them- 
selves or  their  progeny  from  observation.  The  webs  are  composed  of 
threads,  the  production  of  a  curious  apparatus,  situated  under  the 
abdomen,  and  called  the  spinneret.  These  spinnerets  are  four,  or 
more  mammillary  processes,  perforated  by  innumerable  minute 
orifices,  through  which  are  drawn  thousands  of  separate  lines  of  a 
glutinous  fluid,  the  product  of  certain  vessels,  or  secreting  reservoirs, 
destined  to  furnish  the  material  :  the  lines  quickly  harden,  and  at  ii 
little  distance  from  the  spinneret  become  united  together,  and  form  a 
single  cord  composed  of  many  thousand  parallel  lines  of  incon- 
cievable  fineness.  Fig.  2095  shows  the  mode  in  which  the  threads 
are  drawn  out,  but  each  line  represented  contains  about  a  hundred 
of  wonderful  delicacy.  Fig.  2096  shows  the  way  in  which  the  lines 
all   become  united  to  form   a   single   cord.      Fig.   2097  shows   the 


Fig.  2095. — The  Spinnerets  and 
Thread  of  the  Spider, 


Fig.  2096. — The  Spider's  Thread, 
with  lines  united. 


Garden  Spider,  Epeira  diadema,  hanging  by  a  thread.  The  hind  feet 
(see  Fig.  2098)  are  always  applied  to  the  thread  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  spinnerets,  probably  in  order  to  bring  the  numerous  fila- 
ments into  contact  before  their  hardening  has  proceeded  too  far  to 


Fig.  2097. — The  Garden  Spider. 

allow  of  their  adhesion.  This  power  of  spinning  threads  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  all  these  Animals,  as  it  not  only  serves  many 
of  them  for  the  construction  of  dwellings,  and  of  nets  for  the  capture 
of  prey,  but  appears  to  be  constantly  employed  in  securing  them 
from  falls  whilst  in  motion,  or  in  descending  in  a  direct  line  from  an 
elevated  position  to  some  object  below  them.  Many  of  them  have 
the  faculty  of  emitting  threads,  one  end  of  which  floats  freely  m  the 
air,  until  it  meets  with  some  object  to  which  it  adheres  By  this 
means  Spiders  often  form  natural  bridges,  by  which  they  can  pass 
over  brooks  and  ditches.  Some  species  avail  themselves  of  the 
same  power  to  take  long  flights  in  the  air,  where  they  often  attain 
great  altitudes.  Those  Spiders  whose  instinct  prompts  them  to  em- 
ploy their  spinning  powers  in  regular  weaving  operations,  manifest 
this  in  various  ways.     Some— of  which  the  Common  Garden  Spider 


790 


THE  SPIDERS. 


already  referred  to,  is  an  excellent  example— construct  a  beautiful 
net,  composed  of  stout  radiating-  lines,  intersected  at  tolerably 
re.cular  intervals  by  circular  filaments.  It  appears  that  the  latter 
are  beset  bv  an  immense  number  of  viscid  globules,  which  doubtless 
assist  greatly  in  intangling  any  Insect  that  is  so  unfortunate  as_  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  web  of  the  destroyer.  The  mode  in  which 
the  creature  forms  this  elegant  structure — its  readiness  to  rush  out 
of  its  concealment  the  moment  some  hapless  fly  has  become  en- 
tangled in  its  meshes — the  rapidity  with  which  it  shrouds  its  victim 
in  a  silken  coat — and  the  care  witli  which  it  repairs  any  damage 
done  to  its  net — are  all  exceedingly  interesting. 

The  nets  of  some  of  the  large  Tropical  .Spiders  are  said  to  be  of 
strength  sufficient  even  to  capture  small  Birds.  Other  species — 
such  as  the  Common  House  Spider  [Aranea  {Tegenaria\  domestica) 


Fig.  2098. — Foot  of  the  Spider. 

— weave  a  close  cloth-like  web,  usually  placed  in  obscure  corners  ; 
this  is  furnished  w^ith  a  sort  of  funnel-shaped  cell,  within  which  the 
Spider  lies  in  wait  for  his  prey.  Others  again  employ  their  silk 
merely  to  line  the  holes  and  crevices  which  form  their  ordinary 
places  of  abode  ;  and  some  of  these  exhibit  great  ingenuity  in  the 
construction  of  their  nests.  Another  purpose  to  which  this  secretion 
is  applied  by  all  Spiders,  is  the  formation  of  little  silky  cases,  or 
cocoons,  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs,  which  a  few  species  carry 
about  with  them.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  employ  this  silk, 
which  differs  considerably  in  its  texture  from  that  of  which  the  nets 
are  constructed,  for  industrial  purposes ;  but  hitherto  with  very  little 
success. 

The  Spiders  are  all  Predacious  Animals,  and^enerally  of  an  ex- 
ceedingly fierce  and  sangumary  disposition.  They  prey  with  avidity 
upon  Insects  and  other  Articulated  Animals  of  smaller  size  than 
themselves ;  but,  unless  in  self-defence,  they  do  not  appear  to  turn 
their  weapons  against  the  higher  Animals.  Nevertheless,  the 
gigantic  species  of  My  gale,  which  inhabit  Tropical  countries,  have 
received  the  name  of  Bird-spiders,  from  a  belief  that  they  frequently 
attack  and  devour  small  Birds  ;  and  Madame  Merian,  in  her  book 
on  the  Insects  of  Surinam,  has  given  us  a  most  striking  representa- 
tion of  the  Mygale  in  the  act  of  devouring  a  small  Bird,  which  he 
had.  to  use  the  lady's  own  expression,  "  torn  from  its  nest."  It  is  to 
be  feared,  however,  that  in  this  instance,  as  in  some  others,  that 
enthusiastic  naturalist  was  misled  by  Indian  tales  ;  for,  from  all 
that  we  know  of  the  Spiders  of  the  genus  Mygale,  they  are  strictly 
terrestrial  in  their  habits,  and  generally  seek  their  food  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

SuB-DlvisiONS. — We  divide  the  Spiders  into  three  families,  dis- 
tinguished at  once  by  differences  in  their  structure  and  habits.  Those 
of  the  first  family,  the  AraneidcB,  have  the  eyes  in  two  rows,  one 
behind  the  other;  the  terminal  claw  of  the  mandibles  directed  in- 
wards, and  the  palpi,  although  often  long,  never  converted  into  foot 
like  organs.  Perhaps  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  Epeira  diadema, 
the  Garden  Spider  already  named,  whose  threads  often  force  them- 
selves upon  our  attention  in  a  very  disagreeable  manner. 

This  species  forms  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  what  are  called 
geometrical  webs  ;  many  of  the  others  form  a  somewhat  similar 
structure,  although  without  displaying  the  same  wonderful  regularity. 
Of  these  the  Malmignatte,  a  spider  much  dreaded  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  is  an  example.  Our  Common  House  Spider  is  another 
well-known  species,  offending  the  eyes  of  the  housewife,  as  it  con- 
stantly does,  by  weaving  its  dusky  web  in  all  dark  corners.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  members  of  this  family  is  the  Argyroneta 
aquatica,  or  Diving  Spider,  which  weaves  itself  a  curious  little  bell- 
shaped  dwelling  at  the  bottom  of  the  water.  As,  notwithstanding 
its  aquatic  habits,  this  kind,  like  the  rest  of  its  order,  is  fitted  only 
for  aerial  respiration,  it  takes  care  to  fill  its  minature  dome  with  air, 
which  it  carries  down  with  it  from  the  surface  among  the  hairs  with 
which  its  body  is  thickly  clothed. 

The  second  family,  the  Lycosidcs,  agrees  in  the  structure  of  its 
jaws  and  palpi,  and  in  the  number  of  its  spinnerets,  with  the 
Araneidcs,  but  the  eyes  are  arranged  in  three  rows.  Unlike  the 
AraticidcB,  the  Animals  of  this  family  never  construct  regular  webs 
for  the  capture  of  prey  ;  their  utmost  exertion  of  instinct,  in  this 
direction,  consisting  in  laying  a  few  threads  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
their  dwelling-place.  They  generally  live  under  stones,  in  holes  in 
the  earth,  or  in  old  walls,  sometimes  lining  their  habitations  with  a 


silken  tapestry  ;  and  some,  which  live  upon  trees,  weave  themselves 
a  silken  nest  amongst  the  leaves  or  on  the  branches.  They  all  take 
their  prey  by  force  ;  some  of  them  running  it  down  by  swiftness  of 
foot,  whilst  others  spring  suddenly  upon  their  unwary  victim.  Per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  of  these  Spiders  is  the  Tarantula  {Lycosa 
iaraniu/a)  of  Southern  Europe,  whose  bite  is  supposed  by  the  natives 
of  Italy  to  cause  death,  unless  the  patient  be  relieved  by  music  and 
violent  dancing.  Some  of  these  Spiders  can  run  in  any  direction. 
A  common  example  is  the  Salticiis  sceniciis,  a  small  species  banded 
with  black  and  white,  which  may  frequently  be  met  with  on  garden 
walls.  Most  of  the  European  species  are  small  ;  but  in  hot  climates 
they  attain  a  size  scarcely  inferior  to  those  giants  of  the  order  which 
form  the  third  family,  the  Mygaiidcs.  In  these  the  palpi  are  of 
great  length,  terminated  by  a  claw.  The  last  joint  also  has  a 
regular  sole,  like  that  of  the  feet.  The  mandibles  are  of  very  large 
size,  and  their  terminal  claw  is  directed  downwards.  Some  of  these 
Spiders  attain  such  a  large  size,  that  their  extended  legs  occupy  a 
circle  of  six  or  seven  inches  in  diameter  ;  and  it  is  to  these  that  the 
practice  of  Bird-catching,  already  alluded  to,  has  been  ascribed. 
Species  occur  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  they  are,  for 
the  most  part,  confined  to  Tropical  countries.  They  resemble  the 
Lycosidcs  in  their  habits,  generally  living  on  the  ground,  in  holes,  or 
under  stones.  Some  of  them  form  long  twisted  burrows  for  them- 
selves, which  they  line  with  silk ;  and  these  burrows  sometimes 
extend  as  much  as  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Some, 
like  the  CtenizcB,  close  the  mouth  of  their  subterranean  residence  with 
a  most  ingeniously  constructed  trap-door.  The  Animal  selects  as  the 
site  of  her  nest  a  place  destitute  of  grass,  and  having  such  a  slope  as 
to  give  quick  drainage  to  the  water.  Here,  in  the  firm  dry  soil,  she 
digs  a  pit  to  the  depth  of  one  or  even  two  feet,  and  of  equal  diameter 
throughout.  This  she  lines  with  a  tissue  of  close  silken  threads, 
and  forms  a  deep  conical  nest  or  dwelling,  of  a  thick  and  warm 
fabric.  The  entrance  is  closed  with  a  circular  valve  or  lid,  composed 
of  several  layers  of  earth,  intermingled  and  bound  firmly  with  silk,  and 
capable  of  being  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  turning  on  a  silken 
hinge.  So  accurately  does  this  lid  fit  the  rim  of  the  nest,  that  it 
might  seem  to  have  been  fashioned  by  the  hand  of  a  human  artificer. 
Fig.  2099  shows  this  species  and  its  nests  :  A,  the  nest  shut  ;  B,  the 
nest  open  ;  C,  the  Spider  ;  D,  the  ej'es  magnified  ;  E,  F,  parts  of 
the  foot  and  claws  magnified.  Hence  the  CtenizcB — of  which  several 
species  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean — are  generally  known  as  Trap-door  Spiders.  The 
bite  of  the  large  Tropical  species  is  said  to  be  very  dangerous. 


Fig.  2099. — Nests,  &c.,  of  the  Trap-door  Spider. 

In  the  British  Museum  there  are  several  specimens  of  the  Spider 
tribe,  viz.,  the  Common  Garden  Spider,  Epeira  diade7>7a ;  the 
Epeira  pyramidafa  ;  Tegenaria  atrica ;  2'.  domicola ;  Lycosa 
alacris  ;  Q.vorax;  L.  tare}itula,  or  Tarentula  Spider  ;  the  Large 
Hairy  Spider,  Mygaie  avictilaria ;  the  Red-bodied  Hairy  Spider, 
Mygale  versiocolor  ;  the  Trap-door  Spider,  Cle?iiza  7iidnlans ;  the 
Tufted  Spider,  Epeira  claripes  ;  the  Large  Asiatic  Scorpion,  Scorpio 
fnegacephalus,  &c.,  &c. 

Class  VIL— Myriapoda. 

General  Characters. — The  small  class  of  Myriapoda,  is,  in 
its  general  characters,  very  closely  allied  to  the  Insects,  although  in 
some  respects  it  appears  to  approach    the   Crustacea,   especially 


THE  CENTIPEDES  AND  MILLIPEDES. 


791 


the  air-breathing  Isopods  {Oniscidcc).  In  the  mature  state,  their 
bodies  are  generally  elongated,  and  composed  of  numerous  seg- 
ments, of  which  only  the  first  and  last  exhibit  any  difference  in 
structure  from  the  rest ;  the  articulations  of  the  body  being  generally 
exactly  similar,  and  bearing  each  one  or  two  pairs  of  jointed  legs. 
The  head  always  bears  a  pair  of  jointed  antenna;,  very  similar  to 
those  of  many  Insects  ;  and  behind  the  insertion  of  these,  on  each 
side,  is  a  variable  number  of  simple  eyes,  which,  however,  are  some- 
times wanting.  The  mouth,  in  its  general  structure,  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  of  the  masticating  Insects,  being  fur- 
nished with  jaws,  palpi,  and  an  upper  and  lower  lip.  Besides  these 
organs,  it  is  armed  below  with  a  pair  of  powerful  hooked  jaws,  which 
are  perforated  at  their  extremity,  apparently  for  the  emission  of 
a  venomous  fluid.     These  are  the  principal  agents  in  seizing  prey. 

The  succeeding  rings,  which  admit  of  no  division  into  thorax  and 
abdomen,  are  each  furnished  with  one  or  two  legs  on  either  side  ; 
and  close  to  the  insertion  of  the  feet,  the  stigmata,  through  which 
the  air  passes  into  the  trachea;,  are  situated.  The  trachea;  ramify 
through  the  organs  of  the  body  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
those  of  Insects. 

In  their  internal  anatomy,  they  also  exhibit  a  great  resemblance  to 
the  Insects.  Their  nervous  system  consists  of  a  series  of  ganglia 
running  along  the  ventral  portion  of  the  body,  and  usually  united  by 
a  double  thread  ;  and  the  circulation  is  effected  by  a  long  cylindrical 
dorsal  vessel,  the  structure  of  which  will  be  explained  under  the 
following  class.  The  Myriapoda  are  all  unisexual  Animals.  In 
some  Alyriapoda,  the  young,  on  first  escaping  from  the  ^^Z, 
possess  nearly  all  the  characters  of  their  parents,  although  the 
number  of  segments  and  limbs  is  always  less,  and  increases  at  each 
change  of  skin  ;  but  some,  as  the  luli,  undergo  a  sort  of  metamor- 
phosis (Fig.  2100),  coming  from  the  egg  either  quite  destitute  of  feet, 
or  furnished  with  only  three  pairs  of  these  organs  ;  and  it  is  not  until 


Fig.  2100. — Transformation  of  the  lulus. 
a,  l>,  c,  successive  stages. 

after  several  moultings  that  they  attain  the  same  number  of  legs  as 
their  parents.  This  process  appears  to  occupy  a  considerable 
period  ;  and,  according  to  the  observations  of  Professor  Savi,  the 
luli  occupy  two  years  in  their  development  before  the  sexual  organs 
make  their  appearance.  This  metamorphosis,  such  as  it  is,  indi- 
cates the  close  alliance  of  these  creatures  with  the  Insects. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Myriapoda  form  two  orders — the  Chilopoda 
and  the  Chilognatha,  which  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the 
structure  of  the  antennae  ;  those  of  the  former  never  being  composed 
of  less  than  fourteen  joints,  whilst  those  of  the  second  order  always 
consist  of  seven  articulations. 

Order  I.— Chilopoda. 

General  Characters. — These  Animals  are  usually  of  a  flat- 
tened form,  with  the  rings  protected,  both  above  and  below,  by  a 
more  or  less  flattened  horny  plate,  and  each  ring  bears  only  a  single 
pair  of  feet,  those  of  the  hinder  ring  being  directed  backwards  in 
the  form  of  a  pair  of  jointed  tails.  The  antennae  are  long,  and 
always  composed  of  at  least  fourteen  joints.  The  structure  of  the 
mouth  has  already  been  described. 

These  creatures  usually  live  in  the  earth  or  under  stones.  They 
run  with  considerable  swiftness  in  pursuit  of  their  prey,  and  can 
even  progress  backwards  by  the  assistance  of  their  tail-like  hind 
legs,  which  at  other  times  are  dragged  helplessly  behind  them. 
Their  food  consists  of  Insects,  which  they  seize  with  the  powerful 
jaw-like  organs  attached  to  the  lower  lip  ;  and  these  organs  are 
supposed  to  inject  a  poison  into  the  wound  they  inflict.  The  bite 
of  some  of  the  large  Tropical  species  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  pain- 
ful, and  even  more  injurious  than  that  of  the  Scorpion  ;  although 
the  application  of  ammonia  to  the  wound  speedily  relieves  the  pain 
of  the  bite. 

Sub-divisions.— The  Chilopoda  are  divided  into  three  families— 
the  CermaiiidcE,  the  Scolopendrida,  and  the  GeophilidcB.  The 
Cermatiidce  have  the  body  rather  short,  with  its  upper  surface 
covered  by  eight  plates  ;  its  ventral  surface  by  fifteen  ;  the  legs  are 
very  long,  and  terminated  by  feet  composed  of  numerous  joints. 
These  Animals  are  all  exotic,  and  generally  of  small  size.  They 
conceal  themselves  amongst  the  beams  and  joists  of  houses. 

The  ScolopcndridcB,  well  known  as  Centipedes,  have  the  body 
long,  and  divided  into  an  equal  number  of  segments  on  both  sur- 
faces, with  the  legs  rather  short,  but  stout,  and  well  adapted  for 
active   motion.     This   family  includes   all    the   most   powerful  and 


prcdaceous  species,  those  of  hot  climates  certainly  attaining  a 
length  of  twelve  inches;  and,  if  we  are  to  believe  some  travellers, 
still  more  gigantic  species  arc  to  be  met  with  in  particularly  favour- 
able situations.  Thus  Ulloa  states  that  specimens  have  been  seen 
in  Carthagena  exceeding  three  feet  in  length  and  five  inches  in 
breadth,  the  bite  of  which  is  said  to  be  mortal  ;  but  these  dimensions 
are  so  far  above  those  of  any  Centipedes  that  have  ever  been 
brought  to  Europe,  that  we  may  be  pardoned  for  receiving  them  with 
some  little  incredulity.  Our  British  species,  of  which  one  of  the 
commonest,  'Cnc  Lithobiiis  forcipatus,  is  represented  in  Fig.  2101  a, 
are  of  comparatively  small  size,  rarely  exceeding  two  inches  in 
length  ;  but  even  these,  when  seized,  will  turn,  and  attempt  to  fix 
their  jaws  into  the  skin  of  their  captor. 

The  Gcophilidcs,  of  which  a  common  British  species  is  figured 
below  (Fig.  2101  <5),  are  distinguished  by  their  very  elongated  and 
almost  thread-like  bodies,  composed  of  numerous  segments,   and 


Fig.  2101. — a,  ihs  Lithoblus  forcifratus  ;  h,  the  Ceophilus  loit^icornis. 

bearing  a  great,  but  variable  number  of  feet.  Some  species  are 
phosphorescent  in  the  dark.  One  of  these,  the  Gcophilns  ek'ctricus, 
is  not  unfrequently  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London. 

Order  II.— Chilognatha. 

General  Characters. — In  the  Chilognatha,  the  body  is 
generally  of  a  convex  form,  composed  of  numerous  horny  arches, 
below  which  an  immense  multitude  of  little  feet  may  be  seen,  w-hcnce 
the  name  oi  Millepedes,  or  thousand-legs,  by  which  these  Animals 
are  commonly  known,  is  derived.  Each  segment  of  the  body  bears 
two  pairs  of  limbs,  with  the  exception  of  the  hindmost  segment, 
which  is  destitute  of  those  organs.  The  antennje  are  short,  and 
composed  only  of  seven  joints  ;  and  the  powerful  biting  jaws  of  the 
Chilopoda  are  reduced  to  a  rudimentary  condition,  the  other  organs 
of  the  mouth  also  undergoing  considerable  modifications.  As  might 
be  expected,  from  this  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  mouth,  the 
food  of  these  Animals  diff:ers  greatly  from  that  of  the  predaccous 
members  of  the  preceding  order  ;  and  the  Chilognatha  are  found 
to  feed  principally  upon  vegetable  matters  generally  when  in  a 
state  of  decay.  In  accordance  with  this  change  of  habit,  the  move- 
ments of  the  creatures,  notwithstanding  their  immense  number  of 


Fig.  2102. — The  Polydesmus. 

legs,  arc  always  very  slow,  and  they  generally  endeavour  to  escape 
danger  by  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball.  They  are  to  be  met 
with  constantly  in  damp  moss,  and  a  few  live  under  the  bark  of 
trees. 

Sub-divisions. — The  first  of  the  four  families  into  which  the 
Chilognatha  are  divided,  contains  only  a  single,  minute,  but  very 
curious  creature,  which  is  often  found  in  great  abundance  under  the 


Fig.  2103. — The  lulus. 

bark  of  old  trees.  It  is  about  a  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  com- 
posed of  eight  segments,  e,xclusive  of  the  head  and  tail.  On  each 
side  of  the  body  there  are  nine  tufts  of  little  curved  hairs  ;  and  the 
extremity  of  the  body  is  furnished  with  a  tuft  of  longer  straight  hairs. 
This  Animal  is  the  Polyxenus  lagurus :  it  forms  the  type  of  the 
family  Polyxcnida:. 

In  the  second  family,  the  PolydesmidcE,  the  form  of  the  body  ap- 
proaches that  of  the  Scolopend'ridce  in  the  preceding  order,  being 
flattened  and  rather  soft ;  but  in  other  respects  the  Animals  re- 
semble the  lulidce.  One  species,  the  Polydesmus  complanatus 
(Fig.  2102  ),  is  an  inhabitant  of  Britain. 


792 


THE  CENTIPEDES. 


In  the  lulidce  {lulus,  Fig.  2103),  the  body  >\f  °"S'^t^'^/,^^"^ 
nearly  of  a  cylindrical  form,  bearing  no  ^considerable  rescrnbla_nce 
Zl  thick  worm ,  in  which  the  skin  has  become  horny  and  ^  'J' J^^  into 
numerous  segments.  These  animals  are  constantly  to  be  found  m 
damp  moss,  and  sometimes  crawling  upon  trunks  of  t-i^  s-  ^^  he" 
alarmed,  they  coil  themselves  up  in  a  spiral  f'^™i  ^' '''',, '''V"^ 
ent  ely  concealed.  Their  march  is  very  slow,  and,  from  the  short- 
ness   of  their  legs,  appears  more  like  a  gliding  motion  than  a  walk 

The  G/./«./-^§^  forming   the   fourth   family,   have  a  short    oval 
body   closely  resembling  that  of  the  Wood-louse,   which  thty  also 


resemble   in  U.eir  habit  of  rolling  themse^^^^^^^ 

^Ifere' ittTrnishTrwith  I  row  oTsmall  scales  on  each  side.     These 
animals  live  under  stones. 

The 
inM-gnuUa);   2,    tne    -^u.imi.uu  x.....>.k— -  v------    -       Pnivvenus     or 

Flat  "Millepede  {Polydesmus  compianatus),  4.  the  Polyxenus,  or 
Brush-tailed  MiUepede-a,  magnified;  b,  the  ^^I'^^f  ^'fx^'^^ 
Tnncr  horned  Centipede  {Geophdus  longicorms):  6,  the  Uommon 
^:^^:^{U^Mncsfo,iicatU,  7,  the  Scutigera  coleoptrata. 


mals  live  under  stones.  Millepede  {(?/(7Wer« 


Fig.  2104.— Group  of  Centipedes. 


THE  INSECIS. 


"93 


CHAPTER      XL  II  I. 


ARTICUL ATA.— CLASS  INSECTA. 


HE  study  of  Entomology,  or  the  science 
dealing  with  Insects,  is  equally  in  favour 
with  old  and  young-,  with  the  learned  and 
unlearned.  It  forms  the  last,  and,  per- 
haps, the  largest  class  of  the  Articulated 
Animals.  It  emoraces,  also,  a  great 
variety  of  natural  objects  which  are  con- 
stantly familiar  to  us. 

It  has  been  said  by  a  great  entomolo- 
gist, that  Insects  are  Nature's  favourite 
productions,  in  which  to  manifest  her 
power  and  skill  she  has  combined  all  that  is  either 
beautiful  and  graceful,  interesting  and  alluring,  or 
curious  and  singular,  in  every  other  class  of  her 
children.  To  these  her  valued  miniatures  she  has 
given  the  most  delicate  touch  and  highest  finish  of 
her  pencil.  Nor  has  Nature  been  lavish  only  in 
the  apparent  ornaments  of  these  privileged  tribes. 
In  other  respects  she  has  been  equally  unsparing 
of  her  favours.  To  some  she  has  given  horns 
nearly  the  counterparts  of  those  of  various  Quadru- 
peds ;  some  are  covered  with  bristles  ;  others  with 
pines;  some  are  of  richest  hues,  sparkling  like 
gems,  topaz,  sapphire,  and  amethyst,  in  the  rays 
of  the  sun  ;  some  gleam  in  polished  armour — 

"  Like  some  stem  warrior  formidably  bright, 
Their  steely  sides  reflect  a  gleaming  light." 

Others  are  dull  of  colour,  and  of  strange  form  and  aspect,  resembling 
withered  leaves  or  bits  of  stick,  and  find  thereby  tlieir  security. 

To  leap,  to  run,  to  walk,  to  bore  into  the  ground,  or  drive  galleries 
through  timber,  to  fly  through  the  air,  to  gambol  in  the  water,  and 
dive  and  swim,  are  amongst  the  endowments  of  Insects — some  build 
structures  more  wonderful  than  the  pyramids,  some  gleam  with 
phosphorescent  radiance — and  many  are  armed  with  poisoned 
weapons.  They  furnish  us  with  silk,  wax,  honey,  lac,  cochineal, 
gall-nuts,  &c.  Some  hold  an  important  place  in  the  pharma- 
copoeia, some  are  eaten  by  various  tribes  of  Man,  and  multitudes 
furnish  food  to  the  Beasts  of  the  earth,  the  Birds  of  the  air  ;  to  the 
Reptile  tribes  ;  to  the  Fishes  ;  and  to  the  more  powerful  of  their 
own  class.  But  others,  such  as  the  Weevil,  the  Colorado  Beetle, 
the  Aphides,  Locusts,  &c.,  prey  on  our  vegetable  productions,  and 
consequently  become  the  scourge  of  some  countries. 

Insects,  in  their  perfect  state,  are   distinguished  from  thp  other 


Head. 


Thorax. 


Abdomen. 


Anleiii.iB 
Eyes 


lEit  pair  of  Lege 

iBt  pair  of  Wings 
2nd  pair  of  Lege 

And  pair  of  Wings 

Srd  pair  uf  Legs  — 


Tibia, 


TflTBUfl  

Fig.  2105. — Anatomy  of  the  E.xtemal  Skeleton  of  an  Insect. 

Articulate  Animals  by  the  possession  of  six  legs  and  two  antenna, 
and  by  the  division  of  the  body  into  three  distinct  regions,  the  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen  (see  Fig.  2105),  of  which  the  sdcond  bears  the 
organs  of  motion.  They  respire  by  tracheae,  are  generally  furnished 
with  wings,  and  almost  always  undergo  a  series  of  transformations 


(the  metamorphosis)  before  arriving  at  their  mature  and  reproduc- 
tive form.  ^ 

Like  the  other  Arthrofoda,  the  bodies  of  Insects  are  composed 
ot  distinct  rings  or  segments,  and  these  are  generally  of  a  horny  con- 
sistency, united  to  each  other  by  a  membranous  skin  which  gives 
flexibility  to  the  whole.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  skin  is  of  a 
softer  te.xture  ;  but  even  in  these  it  presents  sufficient  firmness  for 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles,  and  the  tubes  composing  the  limbs 
are  generally  of  a  harder  consistence  than  the  rest  of  the  integu- 
ment. The  number  of  segments  of  which  the  body  of  an  Insect  is 
normally  composed  is  thirteen  ;  but  some  of  them  are  occasionally 
amalgamated  together,  or  concealed  by  the  others,  so  as  to  make  it 
appear  that  fewer  segments  are  present. 

The  first  segment,  or  the  head,  is  composed  of  a  single  piece, 
which  bears  the  eyes,  the  antennas,  and  the  organs  of  the  mouth. 
The  eyes  CFig.  2106),  which  are  amongst  the  most  wonderful  objects 
m  nature,  are  almost  always  of  the  kind  called  compound  ;  that  is 


a,  a, 


Fig.  2106.— Head  and  Eyes  of  the  Bee. 
antennae  ;  b,  ocelli;  A,  facets  enlarged  ;  B,  the  same  with  hairs  growing 
between  them. 


to  say,  they  consist  of  a  multitude  of  little  he.xagonal  lacets,  brought 
close  together  on  each  side  of  the  head,  each  furnished  with  a 
cornea,  a  lens,  a  coating  of  pigment,  and  a  nervous  filament.  The 
number  of  these  little  eyes  is  sometimes  most  extraordinary.  The 
eye  of  the  Common  House-fly  has  4,000  of  them  ;  that  of  a  Dragon- 
fly  more  than  12,000;  of  a  Butterfly,  observed  by  Puget,  17325- 
and  that  of  a  small  species  of  Beetle  {Mordel/a)  no  less  'than 
25,000.  In  addition  to  these  compound  eyes,  many  Insects  also 
possess  two  or  three  ocellt,  or  simple  eyes,  placed  on  the  head, 
between  the  large  compound  organs;  these  appear  to  be  very 
similar  in  their  structure  to  the  individual  eyes,  of  which  the  com- 
pound eyes  are  composed. 

The   antenna;   are   usually  attached   to   the   front   of  the  head, 
between  the  eyes.     They  are  exceedingly  variable  in  their  form,  and 


^^^Octxaj::^ 


Fig.  2107. — Antennae  of  various  Insects. 


5  I 


794 


ORGANS  OF  INSECTS. 


probably  very  considerably  in  function,  although  their  general 
office  appears  to  bo  that  of  organs  of  touch.  (See  Fig.  2107). 
In  some  instances,  however,  their  conformation  appears  to 
indicate  that  they  are  the  organs  of  some  special  sense ;  and 
the  functions  of  smell  and  hearing  have  been  attributed  to  them 
by  different  observers.  In  their  most  ordinary  and  simple  form, 
they  are  more  or  less  filiform  organs,  composed  of  a  very  variable 
number  of  joints.  Sometimes  they  are  thickened  at  the  base ; 
occasionally  at  the  apex.  In  some  cases  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
joints  are  furnished  with  one  or  more  processes,  bristles,  or  hairs, 
giving  the  entire  organ  a  comb-like  or  feathered  appearance  ;  in 
others  the  terminal  joints  are  converted  into  broad  plates,  folded 
together  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  These,  and  several  other  forms, 
are  represented  in  Fig.  2107  ;  and  we  shall  meet  with  a  still  greater 
variety  as  we  proceed. 

The  structure  of  the  mouth  in  Insects~exhibits  very  remarkable 
modifications  ;  and  such  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  classi- 
fication  of  these  creatures.  In  some  Insects  the  mouth  is  formed 
exclusively  for  biting  ;  in  others,  as  exclusively  for  suction  ;  whilst  in 
others  again,  it  is  fitted  for  the  performance  of  both  these  actions  ; 
and  the  form  of  its  constituent  parts  of  course  undergoes  correspond- 
ing changes — but  the  same  organs  really  exist  in  all,  modified  in 
appearance,  indeed,  so  as  sometimes  to  be  scarcely  recognisable. 


Fig.  2108. — Head  of  the  Cockroach. 

a,  labrum  ;  b,  mandibles  ;  c,  maxilla  ; 
d,  maxilliary  palpi ;  e,  tongue  ;  /, 
labial  palpi ;  g,  antennas  ;  h,  com- 
pound eyes ;  i,  ocelli. 


Fig.  2109. — Parts  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Carabus. 

a,    labrum ;      b,      mandibles ;     c, 
maxilloe  ;  d,  labium. 


Maxillary  Falp 


Labial  Falp 


Lateral  Lebes  of 
the  Torino 

Tongin 


In  the  masticating  or  biting  insects,  the  mouth  (Figs.  2108,  2109) 
consists  of  six  separate  organs  ;  an  upper  lip  {labrum,  a)  attached 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  front  of  the  head  ;  a  pair  of  horny,  curved, 
biting  jaws  {mandibles,  b)  which  are  usually  armed  with  teeth  ;  a 
pair  of  chewing  jaws  {maxillcs,  c),  generally  composed  of  four 
pieces,  and  bearing  either  one  or  two  pairs  of  jointed  palpi  ;  and 
a  lower  lip  {labium,  d),  which  closes  the  mouth  from  beneath,  and 
also  bears  a  single  pair  of  palpi  (Fig.  2110).  On  its  inner  surface 
it  is  furnished  with  a  membranous  or  fleshy  organ,  to  which  the 
name  of  the  tongue  has  been  given. 

Amongst  the  Bees,  the  organs  of  the  mouth  take  another  form, 
which,  whilst  it  leaves  a  portion  of  them  fitted  for  biting,  converts 
the  remainderinto  genuine  suctorial  organs  (Figs.  2110,  2111).  The 
parts  thus  modified  are  the  maxillffl  and  labium  ;  the  former  (Fig. 
21 1 1  c)  become  greatly  elongated,  forming  a  sort  of  jointed  sheath, 
which  incloses  the   elongated  tongue  (Fig.  2 in  (/},  constituting  a 


Fig.  21 10. — Head  of  the  Anthophora. 

tubular  organ,  though  which  the  fluid  nourishment  of  these  creatures 
can  be  sucked  up.  The  mandibles  and  labrum  (Fig.  2 in  a,  b)  retain 
their  ordinary  form,  and  the  former  are  constantly  employed  in  the 
numerous  ingenious  operations   which  these  industrious   creatures 


QQ- 


perform.  The  suctorial  mouth  presents  three  principal  forms.  In 
the  Butterflies  and  their  allies,  the  suctorial  organ  consists  of  a  long 
trunk,  which,  when  at  rest,  is  coiled  up  in  a  spiral  form  beneath  the 
head,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Sphinx.  (Fig.  211 1).  This  spiral  trunk 
is  composed  of  the  terminal  portion  of  the  maxilla:,  which  are  more 
or  less  elongated,  and  form  two  long,  wrinkled  tubes,  adhering 
together  along  their  inner  surfaces,  and  forming  a  double  tubular 
organ,  through  which  their  possessor  sucks  the  juices  of  flowers. 
The  maxillary  palpi  are  generally  of  very  small  size,  and  only  to  be 
detected  by  dissection ;  but  the  labium, 
although  very  small,  usually  bears  a  pair  of 
very  large,  hairy  palpi,  which  form  the 
cushions,  between  which  the  trunk  is  coiled 
up  when  at  rest,  The  mandibles  and  la- 
brum are  also  present,  although  in  a  very 
rudimentary  condition,  and  always  con- 
cealed under  the  hairs  with  which  the  heads 
of  Butterflies  are  clothed.  This  structure 
of  the  mouth,  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  oxditx  LeJi!doJ>tera,  that  embraces  these 
Insects,  will  be  easily  understood  by  refer- 
ence to  the  preceding  figures,  in  which  the 
organs  are  represented  separately. 

There  are  other  forms  of  the  suctorial  mouth 
specially  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  In- 
sect. Thus  in  the  Rhyiichota,  which  includes 
the  Bugs  and  their  allies,  the  mouth  is  fur- 
nished with  a  jointed  rostrum  formed  by  the 
coalescence  of  the  labial  palpi.  It  is  in  fact 
a  tube  inclosing  four  bristle-like  organs.  By  means  of  these  bristles, 
which  are  sharp  at  the  point,  the  Rhyncota  are  enabled  to  wound  the 
tissues  of  the  Animals  and  plants  on  whose  juices  they  feed.  Another 
form  of  suctorial  apparatus  is  seen  in  the  Diptera,  or  the  Winged 
Flies,  such  as  the  Common  House  Fly.  These  possess  a  proboscis 
generally  of  a  fleshy  character;  this  is  composed  of  the  lower  lip  ;  is 


Fig.  21 1 1. — Pails  of  the 
Mouth  separated. 


Fig.  21 12. — Mouth  of  the  Sphinx. 

H,  head  ;  e,    eye  ;  a,   antennre  ;  w.r,    maxillie  ;  mp,  maxillary  palpi ;  I\,  la- 
brum ;  /2,  labium  ;  Ip,  labial  palpi ;  m,  mandibles. 

usually  bent  upwards,  at  a  short  distance  from  its  base,  and  ter- 
minated by  a  broad  flap  (the  representative  of  the  labial  palpi),  which 
is  constantly  used  as  an  organ  of  touch.  The  upper  surface  of  this 
proboscis,  which  forms  a  tube,  is  opened  below  the  knee-like  bend, 
to  give  issue  to  the  true  buccal  organs,  the  mandibles,  maxillae,  and 
labrum,  which,  in  many  of  these  Animals,  acquire  the  form  of 
bristles  or  lancets,  and  are  employed  in  piercing  the  skins  of  other 
Animals,  and  sucking  their  blood.  (See  Fig.  2113.)  The  maxilte 
are  generally  furnished  with  a  pair  of  palpi,  consisting  of  from  one 
to  five  joints  ;  and  when,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  maxilla;,  with 
the  other  internal  organs,  are  reduced  to  a  rudimentary  condition, 
the  maxillary  palpi  are  inserted  upon  the  stalk  of  the  labium  at  or  near 
the  bend.  All  these  types  of  structure  undergo  great  modifications 
in  different  groups  of  Insects  ;  and  these  differences  furnish  some  of 
the  most  important  characters  for  the  classification  of  these  Animals. 


Fig.  2 II 3. — Proboscis  of  a  Dipterous  insect  (  Tabanus ). 

e,  eyes ;  a,  ocelli ;  vi,  mandible  ;  mx,  maxillie  ;  mp,  maxillary  palpus  ; 
/2,  labium. 

The  second  division  of  the  body  of  Insects  is  always  composed  of 
three  segments,  although  these  are  frequently  amalgamated  toge- 
ther in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  almost  undistinguishable.   The  three 


LEGS  AND  WINGS  OF  INSECTS. 


795 


segments  together  form  the  thorax  (see  Fig.  2105  a7ite,  representing 
the  anatomy  of  the  external  skeleton  of  the  Insect)  ;  but  they  are 
individually  distinguished  by  names  indicative  of  their  position  in 
the  body  ;  the  first  being  called  the  p>-othorax,  the  'second  the 
mcsothorax,  and  the  third  the  metatliorax.  They  vary  greatly  in 
their  comparative  size.  In  some  Insects,  all  the  segments  are 
equally  uncovered,  whilst  in  others  only  the  prothorax  is  visible  when 
the  wings  are  closed. 

The  thoracic  segments  always  bear  the  organs  of  motion,  which, 
in  most  Insects,  consists  of  six  legs  and  four  wings.  The  form  of 
these  organs  is  very  various;  but  their  general  construction  is 
always  similar.  Tlie  centre  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  thorax,  or 
breast,  is  occupied  by  a  narrow  piece  called  the  s/crnNin,  which  fre- 
quently projects  as  a  ridge  externally,  and  generally  gives  off  an 
internal  process  for  the  insertion  of  muscles.  On  each  side  of  this 
are  the  sockets  for  the  legs,  of  which  each  segment  of  the  thorax  bears 
a  pair.  The  first  joint  of  the  legs,  called  the  coxa  (or  hip),  is  some- 
times immovably  attached  to  the  thorax,  and  at  others  articulated 
with  it  by  a  sort  of  ball  and  socket  joint.  This  is  followed  by  a 
second  piece,  the  trochanter,  which  unites  the  long  thigh  {femur)  to 
the  coxa ;  this  varies  greatly  in  its  form,  being  sometimes  ring- 
shaped,  sometimes  forming  atriangular  piece  applied  against  the  base 
of  the  thigh.  The  thighs  are  generally  of  a  rounded  form,  frequently 
thickened  in  the  middle  or  towards  the  extremity ;  they  are  often, 
especially  the  hinder  pair,  of  very  large  size,  and  armed  with  spines 
of  greater  or  less  magnitude.  The  shanks  (or  tibicB),  which,  articu- 
culated  by  a  sort  of  hinge-joint  to  the  extremities  of  the  thighs,  are 
generally  about  equal  to  these  in  length,  but  thinner,  and  frequently 
more  or  less  flattened  or  angular,  and  furnished  with  numerous 
spines  or  bristles.  At  the  extremity  of  the  tibia  comes  the  tarsus, 
or  foot,  which  sometimes  consists  of  one,  but  generally  of  from  three 
to  five  joints.  The  lower  surface  of  these  feet  is  generally  flattened, 
and  converted  into  a  sort  of  sole,  covered  with  very  close-set  hair  ; 
and  the  apex  of  the  last  joint  is  almost  always  furnished  with  a  pair 
of  claws,  often  beautifully  toothed,  and  in  many  cases  accompanied 
by  a  pair  of  soft  membranous  organs,  called  puivilli,  which  are 
very  distinct  in  the  Common  Fly.  These  adhere,  like  sucking-cups, 
to  any  object  against  which  they  may  be  applied,  and  thus  enable 
their  possessors  to  walk  securely  even  in  a  reversed  position.  The 
legs  and  their  component  parts  undergo  an  infinity  of  modifications 
in  the  different  groups  of  Insects  ;  always,  however,  in  exact  coinci- 
dence with  the  habits  of  the  creatures.     Fig.  2 114  represents  these 


Fig.  21 14. — Legs  of  the  Beetle. 

various  parts  ;  the  coxa,  or  hip,  A  and  C,  a,  which  is  the  first  joint,  or 
that  next  to  the  body.  The  trochanter.  A,  B,  and  C—b;  the  femur  or 
thigh,  c  :  the  tibia  or  shank  d;  and  lastly  the  tarsus,  or  foot,  e,  never 
composed  of  more  than  five  joints,  and  often  ending  in  two  hooked 
claws,  A,  g,  called  unguiculi.  The  apex  of  the  tibia  is  often  fur- 
nished with  two  spines  called  calcarea,  A  and  B,/.  To  this  we  may 
add  that  A  represents  a  limb  formed  for  running  :  B,  a  paddle-shaped 
limb  for  swimming  :  C,  a  limb  suited  for  burrowing  :  D,  a  limb  en- 
dowed with  the  power  of  leaping,  the  thigh  being  voluminous  and 
muscular.  In  Leaping  Insects,  such  as  the  Grasshopper  and  the 
Locust,  the  hinder  legs  are  frequently  much  lengthened.  In  many 
aquatic  Insects,  as  the  Water  Beetle,  the  legs  are  flattened.  In  the 
Mule-cricket  the  legs  are  adapted  for  burrowing;  while  m  the  Mantis, 
or  Praying-insect,  the  limbs  are  converted  into  formidable  prehensile 
weapons  which  they  fix  on  their  prey. 

We  may  here  glance  at  the  wings  of  Insects.  These  organs  are 
two  or  four  in  number,  of  a  membranous  and  often  extremely  delicate 
texture,  variously  marked  by  nervures,  which  Jurine  has  demonstrated 
to  be  air-tubes  continued  from  the  body.  Delicate  as  are  the  wings, 
they  arc  composed  of  a  double  membranous  tissue,  between  which 
the  nervures  ramify,  often  so  minutely  (in  the  Dragon-fly,  for  in- 
stance) as  to  represent  exquisite  lacework.  They  vary  greatly  in 
relative  extent  and  outline,  and  also  in  their  position  when  at  rest  : 
sometimes  they  are  elevated;  sometimes  they  cross  each  other, 
and  sometimes  are  extended ;   in  many  tribes  they  are  folded  up, 


somewhat  like  the  wings  of  a  bat,  and  hidden  under  wing-cases,  or 
elytra,  of  more  or  less  rigid  consistence.  This  latter  mode  prevails 
throughout  the  Coleoptcra  ;  which,  instead  of  having  anterior  wings, 
have  these  opaque  portions  under  which  the  true  wings  are  folded 
when  at  rest.  During  flight  the  elytra  are  extended,  and  give 
increase  of  surface,  without  additional  weight  to  the  "  Shardborne 
Beetle."  In  none  of  the  Coleoptera  are  these  elytra  wanting, 
though  in  some  species  the  wings  themselves  arc  undeveloped.  In 
many  Insects,  as  Butterflies  and  Moths,  the  nervures  and  tissues  of 
the  wings  are  hidden  by  minute  scales  and  plumes,  which  beneath  a 
microscope  present  very  beautiful  objects.  These  scales,  which  to 
the  naked  eye  appear  like  fine  dust,  are  variously  arranged,  but 
mostly  in  an  imbricated  manner,  with  more  or  less  regularity.  They 
are  inserted  into  the  membrane  by  a  short  footstalk  or  root,  but 
their  attachment  is  comparatively  slight,  whence  they  are  brushed 
off  by  a  touch.  Not  only  are  they  often  richly  coloured,  but  they  are 
marked  with  stria;,  and  often  crossed  by  finer  lines,  and  these 
striae,  by  the  reflection  of  the  light  at  different  angles,  produce  vary- 
ing tints  of  brilliant  or  metallic  effulgence.  Some  idea  of  the 
almost  endless  variety  of  form  and  markings  which  the  scales  of 
moths  and  Butterflies  assume  may  be  conceived  when  we  state  that 
Lyonnet  nearly  fills  six  quarto  plates  with  crowded  delineations  of 
those  of  one  species,  viz.,  the  Boinbyx  cossus.  The  number  of  those 
scales  on  the  wings  of  a  large  Butterfly  almost  defy  calculation. 
Leeuwenhoek  counted  upwards  of  four  hundred  thousand  on  the 
wings  of  a  Silk  Moth,  and  it  is  estimated  that  in  one  square  inch  of 
a  Butterfly's  wing  the  number  of  scales  will  amount  to  one  hundred 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty.  When  these  scales  are  rubbed 
off,  the  wings  will  be  found  to  consist  of  an  elastic  transparent  mem- 
brane, exhibiting  beneath  a  microscope  indented  lines,  according  to 
the  arrangement  of  the  scales.  In  the  scales  of  the  wings  of 
Butterflies  with  iridescent  colours,  we  are  forcibly  reminded  of  the 
scaly  feathers  of  the  Humming-bird. 

We  must  not  omit  here  to  state  that  Dipterous,  or  two  winged, 
insects,  as  the  Fly,  the  Tipula,  &c. ,  have  below  the  wings  on  each 
side  a  slender  peduncle  terminated  by  a  bulb  or  club  ;  these  are 
termed  halteres,  balancers,  or  poisers  ;  and  they  vary  in  length  in 
different  species  ;  and  from  experiments  that  have  been  often 
repeated  it  appears  that  they  steady  the  body  during  flight.     Above 


Fig.  21 15. — A  Beetle  flying. 


Fig.  21 16. — Wings  of  various  Insects. 

these  balancers  is  a  fittle  scale  or  winglet  {alula),  formed  of  two 
portions  joined  together  at  one  of  the  edges,  and  not  unlike  the  two 
valves  of  a  shell.  The  use  of  these  wmglets  is  not  very  clear ; 
Scheler  found  that  if  removed  from  a  Fly,  the  power  of  buzzing 
ceased,  and,  moreover,  that  the  faculty  of  flight  was  destroyed,  as 
much  so  as  by  the  removal  of  the  balancers ;  these  latter  he  con- 
jectures to  be  filled  with  air   and  to  serve  as  a  sort  of  reservoir      In 


7g6 


TRANSFORMATION'  OF  INSECTS. 


some  Dipterous  Insects,  the  balancers  are  situated  at  the  anterior 
part  of  the  thorax.  Latreille  terms  them  "  prebalanciers. "  Fig. 
2115  represents  a  large  Beetle,  with  the  elytra  snread  in  flight  and 
the  membranous  wings  displayed  at  full  stretch.  Fig.  21 16  represents 
the  wings  of  several  Insects — a,  the  wing  of  a  Beetle  ;  b,  the  wing  of 
an  Earwig ;  c,  the  wing  of  the  Saw-fly  ;  d,  the  wing  of  a  Crane  Fly ;  e, 
the  wing  of  a  Common  Fly  ;  f,  the  wing  of  a  Midge. 

Of  the  abdomen,  in  general,  but  little  can  be  said.  It  consists 
normally  of  nine  segments ;  but  some  of  these  are  generally  con- 
cealed by  the  others,  so  that  the  abdomen  appears  to  be  composed 
of  a  smaller  number  of  articulations.  The  orifice  of  the  generative 
organs  is  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  which,  in  the 
male,  is  often  furnished  with  peculiar  organs  for  grasping  the  abdo- 
men of  the  female  during  copulation,  and  in  the  female,  with  instru- 
ments of  very  various  structure,  adapted  for  placing  the  eggs  in  the 
situation  most  proper  for  their  development.  The  apex  of  the  abdo- 
men is  also  sometimes  furnished  with  appendages  not  connected 
with  the  generative  organs  ;  these  are  sometimes  long  filiform  tails, 
occasionally  bristle-like  organs,  by  means  of  which  the  Insect  effects 
considerable  leaps.  In  the  Cockroaches,  and  some  other  Insects, 
they  form  stout-jointed  bristles,  resembling  short  antenna.  In  the 
Earwigs  they  constitute  a  powerful  pair  of  forceps,  often  of  great 
length ;  whilst  the  Aphides  are  furnished  with  a  pair  of  tubular 
appendages,  from  which  a  sweet  juice  exudes. 

The  intestinal  canal  always  forms  a  tube  of  variable  width  (Fig. 
2117),  formed  of  three  membranous  layers,  running  from  one  ex- 
tremity of  the  body  to  the  other, 
commencing  behind  the  mouth  in 
a  narrow  oesophagus,  and  usually 
terminating  posteriorly  in  a  some- 
what dilated  cavity,  the  cloaca, 
which  also  receives  the  termina- 
tion of  the  internal  generative 
organs.  The  oesophagus  leads 
first  into  a  membranous,  and  usu- 
ally folded  stomach,  the  crop; 
from  this,  in  the  masticating  In- 
sects, the  food  passes  into  a  se- 
cond stomach,  which,  from  its 
being  furnished  with  homy  plates 
and  other  organs  for  the  com- 
minution of  the  food,  has  received 
the  name  oi  gizzard.  Behind  this 
is  the  true  stomach,  in  which  the 
process  of  chylification  goes  on. 
This  is  often  covered  with  little 
villi,  or  furnished  with  glandular 
organs,  which  appear  to  secrete  a 
gastric  juice  of  some  kind.  The 
remainder  of  the  canal  forms  the 
intestine,  which  is  usually  of  a 
tubular  form,  and  is  very  variable 
in  length,  sometimes  running  to 
the  anal  opening  with  but  little 
deviation  ;  whilst  in  other  cases  it 
forms  several  convolutions  in  the 
anterior  of  the  abdomen.  The 
length  of  the  intestinal  canal 
varies  greatly.  In  the  Carni- 
vorous and  Suctorial  species  it  is 
usually  short — not  more  than  twice 
the  length  of  the  body — whilst  in 
the  vegetable-feeding  Insects  it  is 
Fig.  2117.— Digestive  Apparatus  of  jnuch  longer,  sometimes  attaining 
Beetles.  -  -    ^     ' s 


,  phamyx  ;  b,  oesophagus  ;  c,  crop  ; 
a,  gizzard  ;  e,  chylific  stomach  ;  f, 
small  intestines  ;  g,  rectum  ;  hh, 
biliary  vessels. 

^ 


a.  length  equal  to  eight  times  that 
of  the  body.  The  oesophagus  is 
usually  furnished  with  tubular  sali- 
vary glands,  and  in  the  Suctorial 
Insects,  also,  frequently  with  a 
bladder-like  organ,  the  sucking 
stomach,  by  the  dilatation  of  which  the  Animals  are  enabled  to  suck 
up  their  fluid  nutriment.  Behind  the  stomach,  the  intestine  receives 
the  mouths  of  several  long  tubular  organs,  which  are  usually  con- 
sidered to  secrete  matter  analogous  to  the  bile  of  larger  animals. 
The  anus  is  frequently  furnished  with  similar  glands. 

The  circulation  in  Insects  is  effected  as  follows  : — The  heart  is  a 
tubular  organ,  running  along  the  back  of  the  Insect,  and  hence 
called  the  dorsal  vessel,  as  represented  in  Fig.  2 118.  This  is 
formed  of  a  series  of  sacs,  opening  one  into  another  from  behind 
forwards.  Thus  the  folds  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  sacs  serve 
as  valves  to  prevent  the  reflux  of  the  blood. 

The  most  general  form  of  the  nervous  system  in  Insects  has  been 
already  described ;  although  many  of  these  Animals  exhibit  a 
striking  departure  from  a  general  rule.  In  some,  the  whole  of  the 
ganglia  of  the  body  appear  to  be  condensed  into  one  or  two  masses, 
from  the  hindmost  of  which,  the  abdominal  nerves  radiate  in  all 
directions  ;  whilst  others  present  various  intermediate  stages  between 


this  and  the  normal  form.  The  brain  consists  of  a  nervous  mass, 
placed  above  the  oesophagus  ;  and  from  this  the  nerves  of  the  princi- 
pal organs  of  sense,  the  eyes  and  antenna,  are  given  off.  Below 
the  oesophagus  is  another  ganglion,  united  with  the  supra-cesopha- 
gal  ganglia  by  a  pair  of  nervous  threads,  which  form  a  collar  sur- 
rounding the  oesophagus.  From  the  lower  portion  of  this  ring  the 
filaments  are  given  off  which  unite  the  ganglia  of  the  body  with  Those 


Fig.  21 18. — Circulati-jn  in  Insects. 
(The  arrows  indicate  the  course  of  the  blood.) 

of  the  head  ;  and  these  filaments,  with  their  ganglia,  always  run 
along  the  lower  portion  of  the  body,  immediately  within  the  skin  of 
the  belly ;  the  alimentary  canal  occupying  the  space  above  them, 
and  this  again  being  surmounted  by  the  dorsal  vessel. 

We  next  turn  to  the  transformation  that  Insects  undergo,  a  most 
interesting  subject,  the  objects  of  which  are  familiar  to  us  all. 
Here  it  may  be  observed  that  the  British  Museum  contains  a  series 
of  models,  in  wax,  and,  where  possible,  dried  specimens  of  the  various 
states  of  many  Insects  to  be  described  hereafter. 

The  change  in  their  regular  development  from  the  egg  which 
Insects  undergo,  is  technically  termed  Metamorphosis  (changed- 
form).  The  amount  of  this  change  varies  with  different  Insects,  but 
in  the  case  of  the  Butterflies,  Moths,  and  Beetles, with  many  others, 
three  distinct  changes  are  seen,  as  represented  in  Fig.  21 19.  In 
the  first  place  is  the  larva  (a),  Caterpillar,  Grub,  or  Maggot.  Dur- 
ing this  part  of  its  existence,  the  chief  business  of  the  Animal   is 


Fig.  2 1 19.  —Transformations  of  the  Swallow-tailed  Butterfly  (Fa/>i/!0  machaon). 
a.  Larva  ;  b.  Pupa  ;  c.  Imago. 

that  of  eating.  After  remaining  for  some  time  in  this  condition,  it 
becomes  converted  into  the^«/a  (b)  when  it  is  apparently  dormant, 
neither  eating  nor  moving.  After  lying  in  this  state  for  some  time 
it  changes  into  the  imago  (c),  or  perfect  Insect.  Those  who  have 
kept  Silk-worms  will  have  noticed  all  these  changes  from  the  Worm 
to  the  Moth.  These  changes  are  among  the  most  remarkable 
which  the  study  of  Natural  History  affords.  To  see  the  same 
Animal,  first  as  a  Worm-like  creature,  slowly  moving  and  eating 
ravenously,  then  passing  into  a  state  apparently  of  death,  and  at 
last  rising  to  a  busy  aerial  life,  furnished  with  wings,  frequently  ot 
the  most  brilliant  colours,  is  certainly  a  remarkable  spectacle, 
whether  for  the  man  of  science  or  the  amateur. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS. 


797 


But  although  the  majority  of  the  class  Insccta  undergoes  a  com- 
plete metamorphosis  of  this  description,  there  are  many  in  which 
the  only  transformation  consists  in  a  series  of  changes  of  skin,  with- 
out any  interval  of  rest ;  the  larva,  which,  from  the  first,  presents 
a  certain  degree  of  resemblance  to  its  parent,  gradually  acquiring 
those  organs  which  it  originally  wanted.  In  this  metamorphosis, 
which  is  called  incomplete,  the  principal  difference  between  the 
larva  and  imago  consists  in  the  absence  of  wings,  which  first  make 
their  appearance  in  the  form  of  thick  lobes,  inclosed  in  cases,  in  the 
course  of  the  last  changes  of  the  skin.  The  joints  of  the  antennae 
and  tarsi  are  also  sometimes  fewer  in  number;  and  the  ocelli,  or 
simple  eyes,  are  generally  wanting  in  the  larva,  when  present  in  the 
perfect  Insect.  In  some  insects,  such  as  the  Dragon-flies,  the  May- 
flies, and  some  others,  the  larva,  which  are  Aquatic,  present  a 
greater  difference  from  the  perfect  Insect  than  in  the  cases  above 
referred  to  ;  although  the  pupa  is  active,  and  continues  to  feed  until 
the  time  of  its  arrival  at  imago  state.  We  may  therefore  call  this  a 
sub-complete  metamorphosis.  Lastly,  a  few  Insects,  which  possess 
no  wings  in  the  perfect  state,  undergo  no  change,  except  in  size, 
''rom  the  time  of  their  emergence  from  the  e.gg,  to  that  of  their  reach- 
ing maturity. 

Sub-divisions. — From  the  enormous  variety  of  Insects,  natur- 
alists have  greatly  varied  in  regard  to  their  classification.  But, 
availing  ourselves  of  the  peculiarities  of  metamorphosis,  just  des- 
cribed, the  whole  of  the  Insect  Class  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  three  sub-classes.  In  one,  the  Animals  are  Apterous,  that  is, 
without  wings  in  all  stages,  and  undergo  no  change  of  form.  These 
have  been  termed  Insecta  Amctabola  (Insects  wanting  transfor- 
mation). In  the  second,  the  larva  present  a  more  or  less  close  re- 
semblance to  the  perfect  Insects,  but  possess  no  wings,  which  make 
their  appearance  in  the  form  of  lobes  or  tubercles  on  the  back  of  the 
pupa.  The  latter  is  generally  active,  and  continues  to  eat,  but  is 
occasionally  quiescent.  These  are  the  Insecta  Hemimetabola 
(half-transformation).  In  the  third  sub-class,  the  metamorphosis  is 
complete,  the  larva,  pupa,  and  imago  states  constitute  the  three 
distinct  conditions  of  existence,  the  second  being  always  quiescent, 
as  already  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  Butterfly  in  Fig.  ziiganfe. 
There  are  the  Insccta  Alctabola,  or  perfectly  transformed  Insects. 

These  sub-classes  are  further  divided  into  orders  principally  from 
characters  derived  from  the  structure  of  the  mouth  and  wings.  Of 
these  the  Ametabola,  include  three — the  Anoptura,  or  Lice,  pos- 
sessing a  suctorial  mouth  ;  the  Mallophaga,  or  Bird-lice,  with  biting 
oral  organs,  but  without  caudal  appendages  ;  and  the  Thysaniira, 
or  Spring-tails,  with  mandibulate  mouths,  and  with  two  or  more 
bristles  attached  to  the  caudual  extremity.  The  Hemimetabola  in- 
clude three  principal  orders,  of  which  one,  the  Ry?ichota,  including 
the  Bugs  and  Cicadis,  is  characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  jointed 
suctorial  rostrum,  whilst  the  other  two  are  mandibulate.  In  one  of 
these,  the  Ortliopte?-a,t\\e.yiir\gsaxe  unequal;  the  posterior  membran- 
ous pair  being  the  largest,  and  folded  up  in  repose  beneath  the 
anterior  pair,  which  are  generally  coriaceous  in  their  texture.  A 
second,  the  Neuroptera,  has  the  wings  generally  equal  in  size  and 
similar  in  consistence.  Some  of  these  have  quiescent  puoa.  A 
fourth  small  order,  the  Physopoda,  consisting  of  minute  Insects 
nearly  allied  to  the  Orthoptera,  is  characterised  by  the  possession 
of  four  narrow  flat  wings,  without  nervures,  but  furnished  with  a 
fringe  of  fine  hairs. 

The  third  sub-class,  the  Metabola,  is  divided  into  six  orders,  of 
which  three  have  the  mouth  completely  suctorial  ;  whilst  in  the  others 
some  of  the  oral  organs  are  always  formed  for  biting.  Of  the  suc- 
torial Aletabola,  the  Aphaniptera  (a  little  order  including  only  the 
Fleas),  have  the  thoracic  segments  distinctly  separated,  and  the 
wings  represented  only  by  two  horny  plates  on  each  side  of  the  body. 

In  the  two  other  suctorial  orders  the  segments  of  the  thorax  are 
more  or  less  completely  fused  into  a  mass.  Of  these,  the  Diptera, 
or  Flies,  are  distinguished  by  their  short  proboscis,  and  by  the 
possession  of  only  a  single  pair  of  wings  ;  the  position  of  the  hinder 
pair  being  occupied  by  knobbed  filiform  organs  ;  whilst  the  Lepi- 
doptera,  including  the  well-known  Butterflies  and  Moths,  are  fur- 
nished with  a  spiral  trunk,  and  with  four  large  scaly  wings.  Of  the 
mandibulate  orders  of  this  section,  the  Hymenoptera,  Bees,  Wasps, 
&c.,  are  characterised  by  their  four  more  or  less  membranous  veined 
wings,  of  which  the  posterior  pair  are  always  the  smallest ;  whilst 
the  Coleoptera,  or  Beetles,  are  distinguished  by  the  horny  consis- 
tency of  their  anterior  wings,  which  serve  merely  as  cases  for  the 
protection  of  the  delicate  membranous  hinder  pair.  A  third  mandi- 
bulate order,  the  curious  Strepsiptera,  or  Bee-parasites,  apparently 
allied  to  the  Coleoptera,  have  the  anterior  wings  reduced  to  a  rudi- 
mentary condition,  forming  a  pair  of  singularly  twisted  appendages 
placed  on  the  mesothorax  ;  whilst  the  hinder  wings  are  of  large 
size,  and  fold  up  like  a  fan  during  repose.  The  females  are  apterous 
or  wingless. 

Sub-class  I.— Ametabola. 

Order  I.— Anoplura. 

Neither  the  habits  nor  the  appearance  of  the  Insects  forming  the 


Fig. 
b, 


2 1 20. — (7,  the   Common   Louse, 
magnified  ;  c,    one   of  the  legs 
magnified ;  d,  eggs ;  e,  ditto  mag- 
nified. 


present  order  are  such  as  to  render  them  particularly  attractive 
objects.  Small  as  they  are,  perhaps  no  other  Insects  inspire  so  much 
disgust  as  Lice  ;  being  generally  regarded  as  the  concomitants  of 
dirty  habits.  They  have  a  flattened  and  semi-transparent  body, 
with  a  distinctly  separated  head,  which  bears  a  pair  of  short  five- 
jointed  antennx  and  one  or  two  simple  eyes  on  each  side.  It  is 
furnished  beneath  with  a  soft  retractile  proboscis,  within  which 
are  four  bristle-like  organs,  the  analogues  of  the  mandibles  and 
maxilla;.  There  is  rarely  any  distinction  between  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  segments,  except  that  the  former  are  furnished  with  three 
pairs  of  stout  legs,  terminated  either  by  a  strong  hook  or  by  a  pair 
of  grasping  claws  (Fig.  2120). 

These  Animals  are  all  parasitic  upon  mammiferous  Animals,  of 
which  almost  every  species  has  its   peculiar  louse,  whilst   some  of 

them  harbour  three  or  four  distinct 
species  of  these  parasites.  Four 
species  inhabit  the  human  subject, 
three  of  them  being  of  ordinary 
occurrence ;  whilst  the  fourth, 
the  Pediculus  tabescetitium,  has 
only  been  occasionally  observed, 
v>  ^^**r  \vf'  rvs-  but  always  in  vast  numbers,  either 
I      ^T  wa-^     -Y^><n"^^  causing  or  accompanying  a  com- 

\         j3         Oii/     .^jL^fflb    p  plaint    under    which   the    patient 
I       ij\       ^w       ^^"  "•  W\$  appears  gradually  to  waist  away. 

Several  instances  are  recorded  in 
ancient  authors,  of  death  being 
caused  by  this  disease,  which  is 
termed  phithiriasis  (from  the 
Greek  phtheir,  a  louse) ;  and 
although,  in  some  of  these  cases, 
the  mischief  appears  rather  to  be 
attributable  to  mites,  allied  to  the  Sarcoptes  scabiei,  already  des- 
cribed, yet  the  occurrence  of  vast  quantities  of  Pcdiculi  upon  an  old 
woman,  which  was  observed  some  years  since  at  Bonn,  would  seem 
to  show  that  True  Lice  may  have  been  the  aggressors  in  some  of  the 
fatal  cases  on  record. 

Order  II. — Mallophaga. 

General  Characters. — This  small  order  is  composed  of  Insects 
bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  tho  Lice,  with  which,  in  fact,  they 
are  arranged  by  many  authors.  They  differ  from  the  Anoplura,  in 
having  the  mouth  always  formed  for  biting,  being  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  hooked  mandibles,  and  distinct  upper  and  lower  lips,  and 
sometimes  with  a  slender  pair  of  palpigerous  maxilla;.  This  differ- 
ence in  structure  is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  difference  in 
habits.  Instead  of  sucking  the  blood  of  the  Animals  on  which  they 
are  parasitic,  the  Jllallop/taga  devour  the  most  delicate  portions  of 
their  hair  or  feathers ;  frequently  attacking  these  organs  at  the 
moment  of  their  spouting  through  the  skin.  They  are  especially 
common  upon  Birds,  few  of  them  being  free  from  such  Parasites  ;  and 
some  species  also  infest  Quadrupeds.  As  nearly  every  species  of 
Bird  has  at  least  one  of  these  Parasites  peculiar  to  itself,  their  num- 
bers, as  might  be  expected,  are  by  no  means  small,  and  they  have 
been  formed  into  numerous  genera.  Burmeister  divided  them  into 
two  families — the  Philopteridcs,  with  filiform  antenna,  and  without 
maxillary  palpi,  aad  the  Liotkeidcs,  with  maxillary  and  clavate 
antennae. 

Order  III.— Thysanura, 

General  Characters. — This  order  includes  a  small  number  of 
mandibulate  Insects,  referred  by  Burmeister,  like  those  of  the  preced- 
ing order,  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Orthoptera.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  Ametabola  by  the  possession  of  caudal 
appendages,  by  means  of  which  most  of  them  are  enabled  to  execute 
considerable  springs.  The  body  is  clothed  with  hairs  or  scales. 
The  head  is  sometimes  free,  occasionally  concealed  beneath  the 
prothoracic  segment.  The  eyes,  in  some  species,  are  compound  ; 
but  the  majority  are  only  furnished  with  a  group  of  simple  eyes  on 
each  side  of  the  head  ;  and  the  mouth  is  composed  of  an  upper  and 
lower  lip,  a  pair  of  mandibles,  and  a  pair  of  maxilla  ;  the  lower  lip 
and  maxillse  being  usually  furnished  with  palpi. 

Sub-divisions.— They  form  two  families— the  Poduridm,  or 
Springtails,  and  the  Lepismidce.  In  the  former  the  caudal  appen- 
dage has  the  form  of  a  forked  tail  {Podura,  Fig.  2021),  which  is  bent 
under  the  Animal  when  not  in  use,  and  by  its  sudden  extension 
causes  the  Animal  to  spring,  often  to  a  great  distance  in  comparison 
with  its  size.  The  head  is  distinct ;  the  antennje  short,  and  gene- 
rally four-jointed  ;  the  simple  eyes,  six  or  eight  on  each  side  ;  and 
the  palpi  very  short,  and  composed  only  of  a  single  joint.  The  body 
!  is  covered  with  numerous  minute  scales,  often  of  a  beautiful  silvery 
or  pearly  lustre,  and  curiously  striated,  which  are  frequently  em- 
ployed as  test  objects  for  the  microscope.  The  Insects  usually  live 
in  moist  places,  under  leaves,  in  considerable  numbers.  Some 
species  may  be  found  jumping  about  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
whilst  others  are  met  with  in  profusion  upon  snow  and  ice 


798 


THE  HOMOPTERA—THE  COCHINEAL  INSECT. 


Fig.  2I2I.— The  Podiira. 


The  Lepis7nidcB  {Machilis)  have  a  spindle-shaped  body,  usually 
covered  with  silvery  scales,  and  furnished  along-  the  sides  of  the 
abdomen  with  a  series  of  appendages  or  false  feet,  besides  several 
long,  jointed,  bristle-like  organs  at  its  extremity.  The  head  is  con- 
cealed under  the  prothorax  :  the  eyes  are  usually  compound,  and 
frequently  occupy  the  whole  of  the  head  ;  the  antennie  are  very  long, 

and  composed  of  numerous  joints  ; 
and  the  maxillary  palpi,  which  con- 
sist of  from  five  to  seven  joints,  are 
very  conspicuous. 

These    Insects     generally    inhabit 

moist  places  under  stones,  in  woods, 

and    similar    localities.      The     most 

common    species,   Lepisma  saccha- 

rina,     is     frequently     found     about 

houses,    especially  in     sash   frames. 

They   are  very   active,  and  many  of 

them  jump   well  ;    but   they  generally    conceal  themselves    during 

the  day,  and  seek  their  food,  which  appears  to  consist  of  vegetabfe 

matter,  by  night. 

Sub-class  IT.— Hemimetabola. 

The  majority  of  the  Insects  of  this  sub-class  are  active  in  all  stages 
of  their  existence;  and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  principal  diiferences 
between  the  larva  and  its  exclusion  from  the  e^'g,  and  the  perfect 
Insect,  consist  in  its  smaller  size,  and  in  the  absence  of  wings.  In 
the  last  order  of  this  section,  the  Neiiroptera,  the  difference  between 
the  larva  and  the  perfect  Insect  becomes  greater ;  and  in  some  of 
these  Insects  the  pupa  stage  is  passed  in  a  quiescent  state  ;  but  in 
these  the  pupa  still  retain  the  power  of  motion. 

Order  IV.— Rhyncota. 

General  Characters.— The  order  Ekyncofa,  corresponding 
with  the  Hciiiipfera  of  Latreille,  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
Insects  with  an  imperfect  metamorphosis,  by  the  possession  of  a 
suctorial  mouth.  This  consists  of  a  more  or  less  flexible  jointed 
rostrum,  composed  of  the  labial  palpi,  which  form  a  sheath,  within 
which  four  bristles,  the  analogues  of  the  mandibles  and  maxilla;,  are 
contained  and  protected  from  injury.  By  means  of  these  bristles  the 
Insect  wounds  the  plants  or  Animals  upon  the  juices  of  which  it 
feeds,  and  the  fluid  nutriment  is  then  sucked  up  by  the  action  of  an 
inflated  appendage  of  the  cesophagus.  The  head  always  bears  a 
pair  of  compound  eyes,  and  usually  either  two  or  three  ocelli.  Most 
of  these  Insects  possess  four  wings,  which  vary  considerably  in  their 
structure.  The  segments  of  the  thorax  are  usually  distinctly  sepa- 
rated. The  legs  are  generally  formed  for  walking  ;  but  the  anterior 
pair  are  sometimes  converted  into  raptorial  organs;  and  in  the 
Aquatic  species,  the  hinder  legs  are  generally  flattened,  and  fringed 
with  bristles,  to  render  them  efficient  organs  of  natation. 

Sub-divisions. — The  order  Rhyncota  may  be  divided  into  two 
sub-orders,  which,  in  fact,  have  frequently  been  regarded  as  distinct 
orders,  especially  by  English  entomologists.  In  the  first,  the 
Homoptera,  the  anterior  wings  are  usually  of  similar  consistence 
throughout,  and  the  mouth  is  turned  backwards,  so  that  the  rostrum 
springs  from  the  base  of  the  head,  and,  in  some  instances,  apparently 
from  the  breast.  In  the  second  sub-order,  the  Heteroptera,  the 
anterior  wings  are  almost  always  of  a  horny  consistence  from  the 
base  to  the  middle,  or  even  further  ;  the  remainder  of  the  wing  being 
membranous,  and  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  parts 
perfectly  distinct ;  in  these  the  rostrum  springs  from  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  head. 

Sub-order  I.— Homoptera. 

The  Homoptera  (similar  winged  Insects),  forms  three  great 
groups  or  tribes.  The  first,  the  Coccina,  is  composed  of  numerous 
mmute  Insects,  of  which  the  history  is  still  very  imperfectly  known. 
Of  these  the  tarsi  have  only  one  joint.  The  males  are  furnished 
with  two  wings,  with  a  few  straight  nervures  ;  they  are  destitute  of  a 
rostrum,  and  pass  their  pupa  stage  in  a  state  of  repose.  The  females 
are  destitute  of  wings,  possess  a  rostrum,  and  appear  to  undergo  no 
inetamorphosis  whatever.  These  curious  little  creatures,  whose 
history  is  so  singulur  that  some  authors  have  proposed  the  formation 
of  a  separate  order  for  their  reception,  are  principally  inhabitants  of 
the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth,  although  many  species  are  found 
in  our  own  country,  where  some  of  them  are  well  known  to  gardeners 
under  the  name  of  "the  bug,"  from  the  injury  they  do  to  many 
plants,  especially  in  hothouses. 

Nothmg  can  well  be  more  dissimilar  in  appearance  than  the  two 
sexes  of  these  singular  Insects  (Fig.  2122).  The  females  usually  form 
a  mere  fleshy  mass,  often  nearly  destitute  of  limbs,  and  remaining 
attached  to  one  spot  upon  the  branches  of  the  plant  infested  by 
them,  from  which  they  continue  to  suck  nutriment,  by  the  agency  of 
their  rostrum,  until  they  attam  a  considerable  size.  The  males,  on 
the  contrary,  are  generally  very  minute  and  really  elegant  creatures. 


furnished  with  a  single  pair  of  filmy  wings  ;  the  only  representatives 
of  the  hinder  wings  being  a  pair  of  organs  somewhat  similar  to  the 
halteres  of  the  Diptera.  Hence  some  entomologists  have  put  for- 
ward the  opinion  that  the  males  of  the  Coccina  are,  in  reality. 
Dipterous  Parasites  ;  but  this  view  is  quite  untenable.  The  abdo- 
men of  the  male  is  generally  furnished  with  a  pair  of  long  filaments. 
In  some  instances  the  females  retain  their  limbs  and  power  of 
motion  through  life 


Fig.  2122. — Cochineal  Insects  ;  a,  the  male  ;  b,  the  female  (Cactus  cadi). 

The  larva;  of  these  Insects  are  minute,  oval  creatures,  resembling 
little  Woodlice,  and  creep  freely  about  the  plants  they  inhabit,  living 
without  any  apparent  change  through  the  winter,  at  least,  this  is 
the  case  in  one  British  species  (the  Coccus  aceris),  as  observed  both 
by  Mr.  Westwood  and  the  author.  In  the  spring,  the  females 
become  remarkable  by  their  increased  size  ;  they  attach  themselves 
to  the  branches  of  the  sycamores,  on  which  they  live,  and  gradually 
swell  until  they  resemble  fleshy  excrescences,  about  the  size  of  a 
small  pea.  At  the  same  time  the  males  change  to  the  pupa  state 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  larva,  which  then  resemble  little  oval  scales 
attached  to  the  bark.  In  the  month  of  May  the  males  acquire  their 
full  development,  and  when  nearly  ready  for  exclusion,  their  little 
white  tails  may  be  seen  projecting  from  beneath  the  greyish  case, 
formed  by  the  skin  of  the  larva.  They  emerge  backwards,  so  that 
the  wings  are  pulled  up  over  their  heads  ;  and  immediately  on 
leaving  their  case  they  seek  the  female.  After  the  impregnation  ot 
their  disproportionate  partners,  the  great  end  of  their  existence,  the 
males  disappear ;  but  the  females  continue  growing  for  some  time, 
and  at  last  lay  their  eggs  in  the  midst  of  a  mass  of  white  cottony 
matter,  between  the  bark  of  the  tree  and  the  lower  surface  of  their 
own  bodies.  The  latter  at  length  becomes  nothing  but  dry  convex 
shells,  beneath  which  the  young  are  hatched.  The  development  of 
the  other  species  of  the  order  is  very  similar.     (See  Fig.  2123.) 


Fig.  2123. — Eggs  of  the  Cochineal  Insect. 

Insignificant  as  the  Insect  may  appear  in  itself,  it  has  great  com- 
mercial importance,  being  the  sources  of  one  of  the  finest  of  our  red 
dyes.  The  Lecamum  llicis,  which  inhabits  the  Ilex,  or  ever-green 
oak  of  the  countries  round  the  Mediterranean,  was  employed  for  this 
purpose  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  it  is  still  by  the 
Arabs  ;  and  until  the  introduction  of  the  Mexican  Cochineal,  another 
%i^e.c\t%,X\\i  PorpJiyropliora  polo7iica, -^Vxch  lives  on  the  roots  of 
the  Sctcfa/it/ius  perennis  in  Central  Europe,  was  much  used  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  Mexican  Cochineal,  which  has  driven  the 
others  out  of  the  field,  is  also  a  species  belonging  to  this  group,  the 
Coccus  cacti  {^K'g.  2122),  which  lives  as  a  Parasite  upon  the  Nopal, 
or  Cactus  opuntia — a  plant  very  common  in  Central  America.  The 
commercial  importance  of  this  Insect  is  shown  in  the  large  amount 
which  is  annually  imported  of  them  into  Great  Britain  alone  ;  and  as 
about  70,000  Insects  are  supposed  to  be  contained  in  a  pound  of 
this  substance,  we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  numbers  annually  des- 
troyed. The  value  is  at  about  the  rate  of  half-a-cro\vn  per  lb.  For 
many  years  the  cultivation  of  Cochineal  was  entirely  confined  to 
Mexico  ;  but  the  Insect  has  been  introduced  into  Spain  and  the 
French  possessions  in  Africa,  with  some  prospect  of  success  ;  also 
into  Teneriffe,  which  now  supplies  large  quantities.  A  fourth  species, 
ot  great  importance,  is  the  Lac  Insect  {Coccus  lacca)  an  inhabitant 


THE  APHIDES,  OR  PLANT-LICE. 


799 


of  the  East  Indies,  where  it  feeds  upon  the  Banian-tree  {Fictis 
religiosa).  and  some  other  trees.  To  this  Insect  we  are  indebted, 
not  only  for  the  dye-stuffs  known  as  lac-dye  and  lac-lake,  but  also 
for  the  well-known  substance  called  shcll-lac,  so  much  used  in  the 
preparation  of  sealing--wax  and  varnishes.  In  all  these  cases  it  is 
only  the  female  Insects  that  yield  the  colouring  matter. 

In  one  genus  of  Coccina  (Dorthesia),  several  species  of  which  are 
found  in  this  country,  the  female — which,  although  apterous,  is 
active  in  all  stages — is  completely  covered  with  a  snow-white  secre- 
tion, which  gives  it  more  the  appearance  of  a  little  plaster-cast  than 
anything  else. 

In  a  second  tribe,  the  Phytophthiria,  or  Plact-lice,  both  se.xesare 
cither  wingless  or  furnished  with  four  distinctly  veined  wings.  The 
rostrum  springs  apparently  from  the  breast,  and  the  tarsi  are  two- 
jointed,  and  furnished  with  two  claws.  The  gteater  part  of  this 
tribe  is  composed  of  the  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice  (Fig.  2124),  whose 
extraordinary  history  renders  them  one  of  the  most  interesting 
groups  of  Insects.  These  creatures  must  be 
well  known  to  everyone.  They  are  all  small 
Animals,  with  a  more  or  less  fiask-shaped 
body,  furnished  with  si.x  feet  and  a  pair  01 
antenna;,  and  usually  with  a  pair  of  short  tubes 
close  to  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  from 
which  a  clear  sweet  secretion  e.xudes.  Both  Fig.  2124. — The  Aphis 
sexes  are  sometimes  winged,  sometimes  apte-  Rosa:. 

rous  ;  and  the  individuals  of  the  same  species 

are  often  winged  and  apterotis  at  different  periods  of  the  year.  They 
all  live  upon  plants,  the  juices  of  which  they  suck  ;  and  when  they 
occur  in  great  numbers,  often  cause  much  damage  to  vegetation. 
Gardeners  and  farmers  are  well  aware  of  this.  Many  plants  are 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  vast  swarms  oi  Aphides,  when  their  leaves 
curl  up  ;  they  grow  sickly,  and  their  produce  is  certain  to  be  greatly 
reduced.  One  striking  instance  is  presented  by  the  Hop-fly  {Aphis 
humuli).  The  cultivation  of  hops  is  notoriously  a  most  uncertain 
business  ;  and  this  uncertainty  is  mainly  caused  by  the  occurrence, 
in  some  seasons,  of  vast  numbers  of  these  minute  Insects  :  whilst  in 
others  very  few  are  to  be  seen.  Many  species  also  attack  the  roots 
of  plants,  where  their  presence  is  speedily  indicated  by  the  gradual 
withering  of  the  foliage.  Lettuces,  amongst  garden  vegetables,  are 
especially  subject  to  these  visitations.  Fig.  2125  represents  the 
Apple  Aphis  ;  a,  b,  the  Insects  magnified,  and  c,  an  infected  branch 
of  the  tree. 


Fig.  2125.— The  Apple-Aphis. 

The  sweet  fluid,  which  exudes  from  the  tubular  process  of  the  ab- 
domen of  these  Insects,  is  often  in  such  abundance  that  it  drops 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  plants  frequented  by  them,  and  even  to  the 
ground.  It  is  well  known  by  the  name  of  honey-dew.  Ants  have  a 
particular  fondness  for  this  fluid,  and  may  constantly  be  seen  upon 
trees  and  plants  frequented  by  Aphides,  stroking  them  with  their 
antenna  apparently  to  induce  them  to  furnish  a  supply  of  the 
coveted  fluid.  From  this  circumstance  the  Aphides  have  been 
termed  the  Ant's  Milch-cows  ;  and  they  are  said  to  tend  them  with 
as  much  care  as  would  be  bestowed  by  a  human  farmer  upon  his 
cattle.     Wasps  also  have  been  observed  similarly  engaged. 

One  of  the  most  singular  portions  of  the  history  of 'these  Insects  is 
their  very  curious  manner  of  propagation.  In  the  autumn,  male  and 
female  Insects  are  found,  furnished  with  perfect  generative  organs  ; 


these  copul.ite,  when  the  females  lay  eggs,  which  are  hatched  the 
following  spring.  But,  instead  of  producing  individuals  of  both 
sexes,  these  eggs  give  birth  only  to  female  Animals,  which  produce 
living  young  without  any  congress  with  the  male ;  the  brood  thus 
brought  forth,  again  produces  living  young  in  the  same  manner ; 
and  this  goes  on  throughout  the  whole  summer,  without  the  appearance 
of  a  single  male  Insect.  In  the  autumn  again,  male  and  female  indi- 
viduals  are  produced,  and  the  latter  lay  eggs  which  are  to  continue 
the  species  until  the  following  summer.  This  succession  of  fruitful 
virgins,  as  they  have  been  termed,  was  traced  by  Bonnet  through 
nine,  and  by  Duvau,  in  seven  months,  through  eleven  generations, 
when  the  experiments  were  cut  short  by  the  cold  of  the  approaching 
winter  ;  but  Kyber,  a  German  naturalist,  by  keeping  a  colony  of 
Aphides  in  a  warm  room,  observed  this  mode  of  reproduction  during 
a  period  of  four  years  without  once  seeing  a  male  Insect.  The  young 
ones  thus  produced  grow  rapidly,  and  change  their  skins  three  or 
four  times  ;  so  that  in  a  few  days  they  are  in  a  condition  to  continue 
their  race. 

Few  phenomena  in  Natural  History  have  presented  more  difficulties 
to  physiologists  than  this,  and  many  have  been  the  theories  advanced 
to  account  for  it.  Some  have  imagined  that  the  viviparous  Aphides 
were  hermaphrodites,  whilst  others  have  recurred  to  the  doctrine  of 
spontaneous  generation.  Some  have  supposed  that  by  some  mys- 
terious process  the  original  copulation  was  sufiicient  to  fecundate  all 
the  ova  to  be  produced  from  the  descendants  of  that  union  for  a 
certain  number  of  generations,  when,  its  virtue  being  exhausted, 
males  and  females  made  their  appearance  as  a  last  generation  ; 
whilst  Steenstrup  regarded  the  reproduction  of  the  Aphides  as  an 
instance  in  support  of  his  doctrine  of  the  alternation  of  generations. 
Perhaps  a  modification  of  Steenstrup's  view  is  probably  the  correct 
one,  as  recent  researches,  especially  those  of  Dr.  Burnett,  appear  to 
prove  that  the  viviparous  Aphides  possess  no  ovarian  organs,  and 
that  their  young  are  formed  by  a  process  of  gemmation  in  the  interior 
of  the  abdomen — a  process  which  Dr.  Burnett  regards  as  analogous 
to  the  budding  of  the  Medusa:  from  their  Hydroid  polypes. 

The  third  section  is  that  of  the  Cicadaria,  which  includes  a  great 
variety  of  Animals.  The  great  diversity  of  form  presented  by  them 
has  led  to  the  establishment  of  many  families,  but  we  shall  only 
notice  the  four  principal  groups. 

The  first  of  these,  the  Cicadellina,  or  CercopidcB,  of  which  the 
Aphrophora  spitmaria,  or  Common  Frog-hopper,  is  a  well-known 
British  example,  have  the  antenna  placed  between  the  eyes,  and  the 
scutellum  visible — that  is  to  say,  not  covered  by  a  process  of  the 
prothorax.  The  ocelli,  which  are  sometimes  wanting,  are  never 
rriore  than  two  in  number.  These  little  creatures  are  always  fur- 
nished with  long  hind  legs,  which  assist  them  in  performing  most 
extraordinary  leaps.  The  posterior  tibia;  of  many  species  are  armed 
with  a  double  row  of  spines.  A  species  nearly  allied  to  the  above 
(the  Aphi-ophora  bi/asciafa)  is  very  abundant  in  gardens.  The 
larva  envelops  itself  in  a  frothy  secretion,  which  has  received  the 
name  of  Cuckoo-spit ;  and  this  denomination  has  been  extended  to 
the  Insects.  An  immense  number  of  the  species  of  this  group  are 
to  be  met  with  almost  everywhere.  The  Membraci?ia,  forniino-  the 
second  group,  resemble  the  preceding  in  most  of  their  characters 
but  have  the  back  of  the  prothorax  produced  into  a  singular  process' 
which  often  covers  and  conceals,  not  only  the  scutellum,  but  the' 
whole  upper  part  of  the  Insect.  This  prothoracic  process  often 
assumes  the  most  remarkable  forms.  Both  these  Insects  inhabit 
Brazil ;  and  most  of  the  species  of  this  group  are  found  in  Tropical 
countries,  two  only  inhabiting  Britain. 

In  the  third  group,  the  Fu'lgorina,  the  antenna;  are  placed  under 
the  eyes,  and  the  ocelli  are  only  two  in  number.  This  group  in- 
cludes the  Lantern-flies  [Fulgorce),  of  which  a  large*  species, 
inhabiting  Guiana,  the  Fulgora  lateriiaria  (Fig.   2126  ),  is  said  to 

emit  considerable  light  in  the  dark. 
This  account  rests  principally 
upon  Madame  Merian's  unsuppor- 
ted statement ;  so  that  the  gener- 
ality of  entomologists  are  disposed 
to  doubt  the  occurence  of  the 
^^  phenomenon.  The  light  is  said  to 
be  produced  from  the  singular 
prolongation  of  the  head,  which  is 
common  to  this  and  many  other 
species,  exhibiting  most  extraordi- 
nary forms  in  some  instances.  A 
well-known  example  of  the  genus 
^«r,ef.,   ,1     *     V  •     ,  Fulgora    is   the    F.    candelaria, 

constantly  to  be  seen  in  boxes  of  Chinese  Insects.  Many  of  the 
Fulgorz/ia  are  of  large  size,  and  decorated  with  most  brilliant 
colours;  but  these  are  all  inhabitants  of  warm  climates  The 
Luropean  species  are  small,  and  generally  very  dingy  in  their  an- 
pearance.  .-        j         aj  ^ 

The  fourth  group  is  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  by  the  pos- 
session of  three  ocelli.  The  antenna:  are  placed  in  front  of  the  eves 
ihese  insects  are  called  Stridulaiitia,  from  the  faculty  they  posses.s 
ot  producing  a  chirping  noise,  which,  as  they  are  generally  of  large 


Fig.  2126.— The  Fii!s;ara  laternaria 
(reduced). 


8oo 


THE  B  UG  FA  MIL  Y—THE  PHYSOPODA . 


size,  is  often  exceedingly  loud  and  disagreeable.  Nevertheless,  the 
ancients,  and  especially  the  Greeks,  appear  to  have  regarded  this 
music,  which  is  very  unpleasant  to  modern  ears,  with  feehngs  of 
great  satisfaction,  and  the  Cicada  is  often  referred  to  by  the  Greek 
poets.  The  apparatus,  by  which  the  sound  is  produced,  consists  in 
a  sort  of  drum  placed  in  a  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the 
abdomen  ;  this  is  pulled  inwards  by  the 
\^^      X        /       i  action    of  a  parti''.ular  muscle,   and   on 

being  again  let  loose  its  vibration  pro- 
xy )?tSW1^_!/  duces  a  loud,  sharp  tone.  The  drums 
are  concealed  by  scale-like  plates,  which 
are  sometimes  so  large  as  to  reach  nearly 
to  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen. 

The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  slits, 
which  she  cuts  in  the  bark  of  trees  by 
means  of  a  curious  saw-like  ovipositor. 
An  American  species  is  very  remarkable 
from  its  appearing  only  once  in  seventeen 
years  in  the  same  locality,  apparently 
passing  the  interval  in  its  preparatory 
stages.  Hence  it  is  known,  in  the  United 
States,  as  the  Seventeen-year  Locust. 
Its  scientific  name  is  Cicada  septe7ide- 
cim. 


The  Cicada. 


Fig.  2 1 28. —The 
Notonecta. 


Sub-order  II. — Heteroptera. 

The  Hetero;ptera,  or  Bugs.'of  which  the 

Common    House  Bug   is  an  illustration, 
form  the  principal  groups,   namely,  the 
Hydi-ocores,  or  Water-bugs,  and  the  Geocores,  or  Land-bugs.     The 
Hydrocores  have  small  antennas. 

The  Notojicctida  are  distinguished  by  their  broad,  rounded  head, 
which  occupies  the  whole  width  of  the  front  of  the  body.  They 
swim  rapidly  about  in  the  water,  with  their  bellies  directed  upwards, 
rowing  themselves  along  by  means  of  their  flattened  hinder  legs, 
vifhich  are  e.xtended  on  each  side  of  them  like  oars.  Hence  the 
Noto7iecta  (Fig.  2128)  is  generally  known  as  the  boat-fly.  They 
carry  the  air  required  for  their  respiration  in  a  space  left  for  this 
purpose  between  the  wings  and  the  back.  They  are  very  active 
and  predaceous  Animals,  and  when  captured,  some 
of  them  often  inflict  a  painful  wound  with  their 
powerful  rostrum.  Several  species  may  be  met  with 
in  almost  any  piece  of  water.  In  the  second  group, 
the  N'cpina,  the  head  is  small  and  triangular,  and 
generally  considerably  narrower  than  the  thorax. 
Their  legs  are  generally  less  distinctly  formed  for 
swimming  than  in  the  preceding  group  ;  but  the  an- 
teriorpair  are  converted  into  powerful  raptorialorgans ; 
as  the  Nepina,  although  much  slower  in  their  move- 
ments, are  quite  as  predaceous  in  their  habits  as  the 
Notonectida . 

The  Nepa  cinerea  (Fig.  2129)  is  a  British  example  of  this  group, 
which  may  be  met  with  in  every  pond.  These  Insects  respire  by 
means  of  the  filaments  attached  to  the  caudal  extremity,  which  they 
place  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  only  available  stigmata^being 
situated  at  the  base  of  these  filaments. 

In  the  Geocores,  or  Land-bugs,  for  which  Mr.  Westwood  proposed 
the  name  oi  Aurocorisa  (Air-bugs),  as  more  appropriate,  some  of 
the  species  inhabiting  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  antennse  are  never  concealed,  and  the  legs 
are  always  formed  for  running.  When  disturbed 
or  irritated  most  of  them  emit  a  most  offensive 
odour,  which  no  one  who  has  ever  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  have  any  dealings  with  the  Common 
Bed-bug  will  be  likely  to  forget.  These  Insects 
form  nine  principal  groups,  of  which  the  first  four 
have  the  rostrum  of  three  joints,  whilst  in  the  re- 
mainder this  organ  is  composed  of  four  articula- 
tions. The  species  with  a  three-jointed  rostrum 
are,  for  the  most  part,  predaceous  in  their  habits  ; 
whilst  those  with  four  joints  generally  feed  upon 
vegetable  juices. 

The  nearest  approach  to  the  Water-bugs  appears 
to  be  made  by  the  Ploteres,  a  group  of  Bugs  with  a 
boat-like  body  and  very  long  legs,  which  may  be 
constantly  seen  running  about  upon  the  surface 
of  ponds  and  quiet  rivers.  They  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
Heteroptera  by  having  the  claws  inserted  at  some  little  distance 
from  the  apex  of  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsi.  Some  species  have  been 
taken  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  at  a  great  distance  from  land. 
Another  group,  the  Riparia,  is  formed  of  small  oval  Bugs,  often 
met  with  in  the  mud  at  the  sides  of  ponds  ;  a  third,  the  Reduvina, 
is  distinguished  by  having  the  head  produced  behind  the  eyes  into 
a  distinct  neck.  This  group  includes  the  most  predaceous  and 
some  of  the  largest  of  the  Geocores.  The  rostrum  is  usually  stout, 
and  is  said  to  inflict  a  most  severe  wound.     In  the  Membranacea, 


Fig.  2129.— The 

Nepa  cinerea. 


Fig.  2130. — The  Halys 
mucorea. 


to  which  the  Common  Bed-bug  belongs,  the  rostrum  is  inclosed  in  a 
sort  of  canal,  formed  by  two  little  ridges  running  down  between  the 
bases  of  the  legs. 

Of  those  groups  with  a  four-jointed  rostrum,  two  are  destitute  of 
ocelli  or  simple  eyes.  Of  these,  one  (the  Bicelluli)  is  composed  of 
a  great  number  of  small  Insects,  which  may  usually  be  found  upon 
plants  in  great  profusion  during  the  summer  months.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  having  the  nervures  of  the  membranous  portion  of  the 
hemelytra  formed  into  two  basal  cells.  The  two  last  joints  of  the 
antenna,  which  are  composed  of  four  joints,  are  generally  very 
slender.  In  the  second  group,  the  Ccecigcnia,  the  membrane  is 
furnished  with  numerous  parallel  nervures,  and  the  four  joints  of  the 
antennje  are  nearly  of  equal  thickness.  These  Insects  are  generally 
of  a  bright  scarlet  colour,  adorned  with  black  spots.  One  species  is 
found  in  England. 

The  same  colours  not  unfrequently  occur  in  the  next  group,  the 
Lygceodea,  which,  however,  possess  ocelli.  These  are  further  dis- 
tinguished by  the  insertion  of  their  antennse  upon  the  sides  of  the 
head,  below  a  line  drawn  from  the  eyes  to  the  rostrum,  and  by  the 
membrane  of  the  hemelytra  never  having  more  than  four  or  five 
nervures.  Numerous  species  occur  in  Britain.  The  Coreodea  are 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  group  by  the  insertion  of  tlieir 
antenna;  higher  up  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  ar.d  by  the  presence 
of  numerous  nervures  in  the  hemelytral  membrara.  The  scutellum 
is  usually  small  and  triangular,  and  the  antennae  are  always  com- 
posed of  four  joints.  The  majority  of  these  Insects  inhabit  hot 
climates,  where  many  of  them  attain  a  large 
size.  Some  of  them  are  remarkable  for 
strangeness  of  form,  but  very  few  for  brilliant 
colouring.  The  European  species  are  all 
small. 

The  Scutata,  the  last  group  of  the  order, 
includes  some  of  the  most  brilliant  creatures 
contained  in  it,  or  perhaps  in  the  entire  class 
of  Insects.  Their  most  striking  character 
consists  in  the  large  size  of  the  scutellum, 
which  in  all  cases  reaches  the  base  of  the 
hemelytral  membrane  (Fig.  2130),  and  in 
some  instances  is  so  large  as  to  cover  all 
the  upper  surface  of  the  body,  serving  as 
a  sheath  for  the  protection  of  the  wings. 
Tlie  antennje  are  usually  composed  of 
five  joints,  and  are  almost  always  inserted 
beneath  a  projecting  margin  of  the  sides  of  the  head.  The  rostrum 
is  frequently  long  ;  sometimes  longer  than  the  body.  This  group 
includes  a  great  number  of  species,  most  of  them  of  considerable  size. 
The  majority  inhabit  warm  climates,  to  which  the  species  with 
the  very  large  scutellum  are  almost  confined.  Amongst  these  the 
CallidcB,  which  are  of  a  brilliant  golden  green  colour,  with  black 
spots,  rival  the  most  splendid  Butterflies  in  beauty. 

Order  V.— Physopoda. 

General  Characters. — The  small  order  Physopoda  includes 
some  minute  Insects  which  were  placed  by  Linnseus,  Fabricius,  and 
most  of  the  older  entomologists,  in  the  same  order  with  the  Rhyn- 
chota,  their  mouth  at  the  first  glance  bearing  a  certain  amount  of 
resemblance  to  a  minute  rostrum.  Later  observations  proved,  how- 
ever, that  the  structure  of  their  oral  organs  is  quite  different  from 
that  presented  by  the  Rhy?ichota  ;  and  they  have  since  been  gene- 
rally placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Orthoptera.  Burmeister 
included  them  in  his  order  Gymnognatha,  with  the  other  mandibu- 
late  Hemimetabolous  and  Ametabolous  Insects. 

The    Physopoda    are    generally    fur- 
b  p  nished  with  four  nearly  equal,  flat  wings, 

destitute   of    reticulations,    but    usually 
fringed,  especially  at  the  apex,  with  nu- 
merous fine  hairs.     Some  species,  how- 
ever,   are    apterous.       The    head   (Fig. 
2 131)  bears  a  pair  of  large,    granular, 
compound   eyes,   between   which    there 
are  usually  three  ocelli.     The  antenna; 
are  generally  composed  of  about  eight 
joints,  and  are  attached  to  the  front  of 
the  head  between  the  eyes.     The  lower 
part  of  the  head  is  bent  back  under  the 
breast,  and  the  mouth  is  situated  at  its 
hinder  extremity ;    so   that   the    resem- 
blance  to   the  Homoptera   is   tolerably 
Fig.  2131.— The  Phla:othnps.  complete.      The   organs   of  the   mouth 
a,  natural  size  ;  b,  insect  mag-  consist  of  a  large   triangular   upper  lip, 
nitied ;  r,  head  ;  d,   mandi-  behind  which    a  pair  of  curved,  bristle- 
bles ;  e,  leg.  shaped     mandibles     is     situated  ;     the 

maxillae  are  small,  usually  attached  to 
the  labium,  and,  like  it,  bear  a  pair  of  jointed  palpi.  The  presence 
of  the  latter  organs  will  always  distinguish  these  Insects  from  the 
Rhynclwta.     The  tarsi  are  composed  of  two  joints,  the  last  of  which 


THE  LOCUSTS. 


80 1 


is  destitute  of  claws,  but  furnished  with  a  soft  vesicular  organ, 
which  enables  the  Insects  to  adhere  firmly  to  any  object  upon  which 
they  are  walking-.  It  is  from  this  structure  that  the  name  of  Physo- 
poda,  given  to  this  order,  is  derived  {Gi.^husa,  a  bladder;  ;pous,  a 
foot). 

These  Insects  are  seen  upon  most  plants,  generally  in  the  flowers, 
which  they  appear  to  visit  in  search  of  the  sweet  fluid  to  be  found  in 
such  situations.  They  run  quickly,  and  often  perform  considerable 
leaps  by  the  assistance  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  employed  in  the 
same  way  as  the  furcate  appendage  of  the  Podurce.  Many  of  them, 
not  content  with  such  light  nourishment  as  the  nectar  of  flowers, 
inhabit  the  foliage  and  stems  of  plants,  to  which  they  often  do  a 
great  deal  of  mischief.  One  species,  the  Thrips  cerealiitm,  has 
frequently  done  considerable  damage  to  the  wheat  crops,  both  in 
this  and  other  countries,  sometimes  attacking  the  grain  in  the  ear, 
and  sometimes  gnawing  the  tender  stems.  Others  are  found  upon 
and  under  the  bark  of  trees. 

Mr.  Haliday  divides  these  Ins(  ts  into  two  tribes.  In  the  first, 
the  Tubulifera,  the  terminal  segment  of  the  abdomen  is  tubular  in 
both  sexes ;  whilst  the  females  of  the  second,  the  Terebrantia,  are 
furnished  with  a  valvular  serrated  ovipositor. 

Order  VI. — Orthoptera. 

In  this  order  are  included  a  number  of  Insects  which  have  little  to 
recommend  them  to  popular  liking.  It  embraces  the  Locusts, 
whose  ravages  are  the  bane  of  the  har\'est  of  many  warm  countries, 
the  Cricket,  our  well-known  house  pest,  with  the  Earwigs,  Cock- 
roaches, &c. 

The  Orthoptera  form  the  first  order  of  the  Ilemimetabolous 
Insects,  in  which  the  mouth  is  unmistakably  formed  for  biting.  The 
head  is  usually  large  and  perpendicular,  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
antenna;  of  very  variable  length  (generally  long,  and  composed  of 
numerous  joints),  with  a  pair  of  large  compound  eyes,  and  usually 
with  two  ocelli.  The  mouth  is  mostly  of  very  powerful  construction  ; 
the  mandibles  strong,  horny,  and  toothed ;  the  ma.xillae  large,  with 
the  apex  half  concealed  by  a  hood-like,  horny  lobe,  and  each  bearing 
a  long,  five-jointed  palpus;  the  upper  and  lower  lips  are  large,  and 
the  latter  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  three-jointed  palpi,  and  usually 
with  one  or  two  additional  pairs  of  palpiform  lobes.  The  segments 
of  the  thorax  are  distinct ;  the  anterior  segment,  or  prothorax,  being 
generally  of  a  large  size.  The  remaining  segments  are  usually 
concealed  under  the  wings,  which,  when  present,  are  four  in 
number  ;  the  anterior  pair  are  smaller  than  the  posterior,  and 
generally  of  a  leathery  or  parchment-like  texture,  serving  as  a  pro- 
tection for  the  latter,  which,  in  repose,  are  folded  up  in  a  fan-like 
form.  The  anterior  wings  almost  always  lap  over  each  other  at  the 
ape.x,  and  both  pairs  are  traversed  by  distinct  reticulated  nervures. 
The  principal  nervures  of  the  hinder  wings  always  radiate  from  a 
central  point  to  the  circumference  (Fig.  2132).  The  legs  vary  greatly 
in  form.  Some  species  are  exclusively  formed  for  running  (Cock- 
roaches, Earwigs),  all  the  legs  being  of  nearly  equal  size  ;  in  others, 
the  anterior  pair  are  greatly  enlarged  and  converted  into  raptorial 


Fig,  2132. — The  Locust,  with  wings  expanded. 

organs  {Mantis),  the  Insect  running  upon  the  other  four  legs ; 
whilst  in  others,  again  (Grasshoppers,  Locusts,  Crickets),  the  hinder 
legs,  and  especially  the  thighs,  are  of  very  large  size,  enabling  the 
Insects  to  execute  great  leaps.  The  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsi 
varies  from  three  to  five. 

Sub-divisions.— The  Orthoptera  fall  readily  into  two  great 
sections ;  namely,  the  Saltatorial  and  Cursorial  Orthoptera.  The 
former  (in  which  the  hind  legs  are  always  elongated  .and  converted 
into  leaping  organs,  and  the  tarsi  never  composed  of  more  than  four 
joints)  include  three  tribes— the  Lociistina,  the  Gryllina,  and  the 
Acheiiiia.     They  are  all  herbivorous  Insects. 


In  the  Locustina  the  tarsi  are  three-jomted  ;  the  antennx  short, 
and  composed  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  joints ;  and  the  females  have 
no  apparent  ovipositor.  The  head  is  usually  furnished  with  three 
ocelli.  Few  Insects  are  more  dreaded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
warmer  regions  of  the  earth  than  those  Locusts,  which,  from  their 
often  collecting  in  vast  swarms,  and  mcjving  onwards  with  a  steady 
and  irresistible  progress,  quickly  destroy  every  trace  of  vegetation 
over  a  vast  extent  of  country ;  thus  reducing  the  husbandman  to 
despair,  and  converting  the  smiling  face  of  nature  into  a  desolate 
wilderness.  A  district,  over  which  one  of  these  devastating  swarms 
has  passed,  is  said  to  appear,  to  the  eye  of  an  observer,  as  though 
every  regetable  production,  which  once  decked  its  surface,  had  been 
completely  burned  off  the  ground;  hence  the  Latin  name  of  the 
Insect  {Locusta,  from  locus  ustus,  a  burnt  place)  is  peculiarly  appro- 
priate. Eastern  countries,  and  especially  those  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Levant,  appear  to  be  most  exposed  to  the  ravages  of 
these  destructive  Insects  ;  and  we  find  many  highly  poetical 
references  to  them  in  the  writings  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  wherein 
this  appearance  of  burning  is  expressly  mentioned.  The  poetical 
description  in  Joel  (ch.  ii.  v.  2-10)  well  describes  their  habits,  their 
noise,  the  desolate  wilderness  they  leave  behind  them,  their  voracity, 
and  their  invasion  of  cities  and  houses.  When  the  vegetation  of  the 
place  first  devastated  by  these  creatures  is  entirely  destroyed,  they 
take  to  flight  in  countless  multitudes  towards  some  other  devoted 
spot,  often  forming  clouds  of  several  hundred  yards  across,  which,  in 
their  passage,  sometimes  conceal  the  light  of  the  sun.  When 
engaged  in  the  work  of  destruction,  they  are  said  to  produce  a 
sound  resembling  that  of  a  strong  flame  driven  by  the  wind,  and  the 
spot  upon  which  (hey  have  alighted  is  almost  immediately  denuded 
of  everything  green.  The  descent  of  a  hostile  army  is  less  dreaded 
in  the  countries  subject  to  these  visitations,  than  the  appearance  of 
the  hosts  of  the  Locusts,  which  were  regarded  by  the  ancients,  both 


Fig.  2133. — The  Locust. 

Jews  and  Pagans,  and  are  still  so  by  the  Arabs,  as  the  avenging 
armies  of  the  Deity.  The  modern  Arabs,  in  fact,  declare  that  the 
Locust  bears  a  statement  to  this  effect,  in  good  Arabic,  in  the  mark- 
ing on  its  wings.  The  best  known  species  is  the  Locusta  migratoria 
(Fig.  2133),  which  has  occasionally  found  its  way  into  Central 
Europe,  and  even  to  our  own  island  ;  but  in  the  South  of  Europe  this 
Insect  is  a  formidable  enemy  to  agriculture,  and  a  considerable 
amount  is  there  annually  paid  in  rewards  for  its  destruction. 

The  inhabitants  both  of  Asia  and  Africa,  where  Locusts  parti- 
cularly abound,  use  these  Animals  as  a  common  article  of  food. 
They  generally  pull  off  the  legs  and  wings,  and  fry  the  bodies  in  oil 
or  butter ;  and  a  dish  of  Locusts  well  prepared  is  said  to  be  regarded 
as  somewhat  of  a  delicacy  in  those  countries.  The  Locusts  are 
also  occasionally  dried,  pounded,  and  used  as  flour.  Many  of  our 
British  Grasshoppers  belong  to  this  tribe  ;  some  of  them  {Tetrix) 
have  the  back  of  the  prothorax  produced  backwards  into  a  pointed 
process  as  long  as  the  abdomen.  The  IMigratory  Locust  measures 
about  two  inches  and  a-half  in  length,  and  some  other  exotic  species 
are  much  larger ;  the  Locusta  cristata,  a  very  beautiful  species 
common  in  the  Levant,  being  four  inches  long,  and  between  seven 
and  eight  in  expanse  of  wings.  Our  British  species  are  generally  of 
comparatively  small  size.  Nearly  all  of  them  produce  a  loud  chirp- 
ing noise,  by  rubbing  the  inside  of  the  thigh  against  the  elevated 
nervures  of  the  wing  covers  ;  but  beyond  this  they  possess  no  special 
apparatus  for  the  production  of  sound.  Some  species  [Truxalis  zind. 
Proscopia)  are  remarkable  for  the  form  of  their  heads,  the  front  of 
which  is  produced  into  a  conical  process,  bearing  the  eyes  and 
antenna,  at  or  near  its  summit.  The  antennse,  which  are  generally 
thread-shaped,  are  sometimes  thickened  at  the  base,  and  sometimes 
clavate. 

The  Insects  composing  the  second  tribe  (the  Gryllina),  resemble 
the  Locustina  in  having  their  wings  arranged  during  repose  in  a 
roof-like  form  ;  but  are  at  once  distinguishable  from  them  by  the 
structure  of  the  antennce,  which,  instead  of  being  short,  cylindrical, 
and  stout,  are  of  great  length,  generally  very  slender,  and  tapering 
to  a  fifie  point.     The  females,  also,  are  furnished  with  an  exserted 


802 


THE  CRICKETS-THE  LEAF-INSECTS. 


ovipositor,  and  the  males  have  a  singular  talc-like  spot,  surrounded 
by  elevated  nervures,  at  the  base  of  each  wing-cover,  by  the  mutual 
friction  of  which  their  chirping  is  effected.  These  two  plates  are 
not  exactly  similar,  and  the  Insect,  in  consequence,  cannot  produce 
his  shrill  music  indifferently  with  either  wing-case  uppermost ;  the 
right  wing-case  is  usually  laid  over  the  left  one.  The  tarsi  are  four- 
jointed.  The  ocelli  are  generally  wanting.  The  ovipositor  of  the 
female  is  a  sword-shaped  organ,  composed  of  several  plates  attached 
to  the  extremity  of  the  body,  which  also  bears  a  pair  of  short  caudal 
appendages  in  both  sexes.  The  female  pushes  the  ovipositor  a  con- 
siderable distance  into  the  earth,  forming  a  narrow  cavity  in  which 
she  lays  several  eggs. 

The  Gryllina  appear  to  frequent  trees  and  shrubs  more  than 
either  of  the  other  two  tribes,  the  members  of  which  generally  keep 
amongst  herbage  ;  and,  in  accordance  with  this  habit,  many  of  the 
exotic  species  have  wing-cases,  which  present  the  most  perfect  re- 
semblance to  leaves,  both  in  colour  and  veining.  There  are  several 
British  species,  one  of  which  (the  Gryllusviridissimus),  is  common 
in  autumn  in  many  marshy  situations.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
British  Insects,  being  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  three-and-a- 
half  in  expanse  of  wings;  and,  notwithstanding  the  vegetable  nature 
of  its  ordinary  diet,  two  ol  them  can  scarcely  be  put  together  without 
a  battle,  when  the  victor  very  often  makes  a  meal  off  some  of  his 
antagonist's  limbs.  Mr.  Westwood  mentions  an  instance,  in  which 
a  specimen  of  this  Insect,  which  had  been  inclosed  in  a  box  with  one 
of  his  own  hind-legs,  was  found  to  have  devoured  about  half  of  it  in 
the  course  of  the  n'ight.  Another  species  (the  Decticus  verrucivoriis), 
which  has  occasionally  been  found  in  this  country,  received  its 
specific  name,  which  signifies  "wart-eater,"  from  a  belief  current 
amongst  the  peasantry  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  where  the  Insect 
is  common,  that  its  bite,  assisted  by  a  brownish  liquid  which  it 
emits  from  the  mouth,  is  a  certain  cure  for  warts. 

Of  the  tribe  Ackeii/ia,  the  Common  Cricket,  {Achcta  domcstica, 
Fig.  2134),  the  noisy  little  denizen  of  our  kitchen  hearths,  may  serve 
as  an  example.  These  Insects,  like  those  of  the  preceding  tribe, 
have  the  antenna   slender  and    tapering,  and  often   considerably 


Fig.   2134. — The  House  Cricket. 

longer  than  the  body.  They  also  agree  with  the  Gryllina  in  the 
structure  of  the  singing  apparatus  ;  but  the  wings,  instead  of  being 
arranged  in  the  form  "of  a  high  pitched  roof,  are  laid  flat  upon  the 
back.  Some  of  them  possess  ocelli,  whilst  others  are  destitute  of 
those  organs.  The  hinder  wings  are  very  long,  and  folded  up  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  project  beyond  the  wing-cases,  in  the  form 
of  a  pair  of  tapering  tails  ;  the  abdomen  is  also  furnished,  in  both 
sexes,  with  a  pair  of  pilose,  bristle-shaped,  caudal  appendages,  and 
in  the  female  with  a  long,  slender,  ovipositor,  composed  of  two  fila- 
ments, laid  side  by  side,  and  somewhat  thickened  at  the  tip.  The 
tarsi  are  three-jointed. 

The  Common  House-cricket  is  too  well  known  to  need  any  parti- 
cular description.  During  the  colder  months  these  Insects  always 
seek  the  habitations  of  man  ;  when  they  establish  themselves  in  tfie 
neighbourhood  of  the  fire-place,  in  some  room  on  the  ground  floor, 
generally  preferring  the  kitchen,  where  their  monotonous  chirping 
may  generally  be  heard  in  the  winter  evenings.  In  summer,  how- 
ever, they  remove  their  quarters  to  the  open  air,  taking  up  their 
abode  apparently  in  the  crevices  of  garden  walls  and  similar  situa- 
tions. In  fine  summer  evenings  they  sing  most  pcrtinaceously  in 
the  open  air.  Their  food,  when  in  the  house,  consists  of  crumbs  of 
bread,  and  similar  household  refuse,  which  are  generally  to  be  found 
in  abundance  on  the  kitchen  hearth.  Apart  from  all  superstitious 
feeling,  opinions  are  greatly  divided  as  to  whether  the  fireside  song 
of  the  Cricket  be  pleasant  or  the  reverse.  Like  the  Cicada  of  the 
ancients,  the  Cricket  has  found  its  poetical  admirers ;  whilst  by 
many  its  note  is  regarded  with  great  dislike. 

Another  species  is  the  Field-cricket  {Acheta  campestris),  a  timid 
Animal  which  avoids  the  society  of  man,  living  all  the  year  round  in 
the  burrows  which  it  forms  in  sandy  banks,  amongst  stones.  This  is 
much  larger  and  louder  than  the  domestic  species,  but  is  by  no 
means  so  common,  frequenting  only  hot,  sandy  districts.  A  still 
more  remarkable  Insect,  belonging  to  this  tribe,  is  the  Jilole-cricket 
{Gryllotapa  vulgaris),  which,  both  in  its  structure  and  habits,  pre- 
sents no  inconsiderable  resemblance  to  the  Mole.  Like  that 
Animal,  it  is  constantly  engaged  in  burrowing  in  the  earth  ;  and  to 
enable  it  to  do  this  with  facility,  its  anterior  limbs  are  converted  into 


a  pair  of  flat,  fossorial  organs,  which  are  turned  outwards  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  the  hand  of  the  Mole.  It  is  a  British  Insect,  but 
very  local  in  its  distribution.  In  its  passage  through  the  earth  it 
does  great  injury  to  the  roots  of  plants  ;  but  is  said  to  live  quite  as 
much  upon  animal,  as  upon  vegetable  food. 

The  habits  of  tlio  three  British  species  of  Crickets  form  the  subject 
of  three  of  the  admirable  letters  of  Gilbert  White,  to  which  we  must 
refer  our  readers  both  in  regard  to  their  study  and  general  interest. 
A  species  of  Mole-cricket,  inhabiting  the  West  Indies,  has  fre- 
quently committed  great  ravages  upon  the  young  sugar-canes  in 
those  islands. 

The  Ciirsorial  Orthojitera  may  be  divided  into  four  tribes,  of 
which  one  is  composed  of  exclusively  Herbivorous  Animals,  whilst 
the  others  are  either  predaceous,  or  adapted  to  subsist  upon  a 
miscellaneous  diet. 

The  Herbivorous  tribe,  Phastnina,  is  composed  of  some  singular 
Insects,  to  which,  from  their  close  resemblance  to  vegetable  pro- 
ductions, the  names  of  ^Valkiiig-sticks  and  ]Valking-leavcs  are 
commonly  given.  They  are  distinguished  by  having  the  head 
exserted,  all  the  legs  adapted  for  walking,  the  caudal  appendages 
usually  small  and  not  jointed,  and  the  hinder  wings  not  folded 
transversely  in  the  middle.  Ocelli  are  sometimes  present,  but  are 
also  wanting.  The  tarsi  are  composed  of  five  joints,  clothed  beneath 
with  a  membranous  cushion,  which  gives  the  creatures  a  firm  hold  of 
the  branches  and  leaves  of  the  trees  on  which  they  live,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  large  pulvillus  between  the  claws.  The  wings  are 
sometimes  present,  occasionally  entirely  wanting;  and,  in  some 
species,  the  male  is  winged  and  the  females  are  apterous.  In  the 
Walking-sticks  the  body  is  much  elongated,  cylindrical,  and 
usually  of  a  dingy  brownish  colour,  so  as  exactly  to  resemble  the 
dried  twig  of  a  tree.  The  wing-cases,  when  present,  are  very  much 
shorter  than  the  wings ;  and  as  they  would  be  quite  insufficient  for 
the  protection  of  those  organs  when  folded,  this  is  provided  for  in 
anotlier  way,  the  outer  margin  of  the  wings  forming  a  firm  plate, 
under  which  the  membraneous  portions  are  entirely  concealed  during 
repose. 

The  Walking-leaves  [Phylliidce  Fig.  2135)  are  still  more  remark- 
able in  their  appearance.  In  these  the  body  is  very  flat  and  thin, 
and  the  wings  form  large,  leaf-like  organs,  covering  nearly  the 
whole  abdomen,  and  furnished  with  irregularly  reticulated  nervures, 
which  gives  them  exactly  the  aspect  of  a  leaf.     This  leafy  structure 


Fig.  2135- — The  Leaf-Insect. 

pervades  the  whole  Animal  ;  the  legs,  especially  the  thighs,  being 
always  foliaceous.  Some  species  are  of  a  bright  green  colour, 
whilst  others  are  of  the  brown  of  dead  leaves  ;  and  the  natives  of  the 
countries  inhabited  by  these  curious  creatures  generally  inform 
Europeans  that  the  Insects  are  all  green  at  first,  but  that  as  the 
leaves  change  colour,  they  change  also. 


THE  MANTIS— THE  COCKROA  CHES. 


803 


The  Phasmina  are  found  principally  in  warm  climates,  very  few 
occurring  in  Europe.  They  are  very  slow  in  their  movements,  creep- 
ing about  upon  trees  and  shrubs,  to  which  they  often  do  consider- 
able damage  by  devouring  the  young  shoots.  Some  of  the  Stick 
Insects  are  of  large  size,  measuring  at  least  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
length. 

The  Insects  of  the  next  tribe,  the  Manlina,  are  also  principally 
inhabitants  of  hot  climates,  although  a  few  species  are  common  in 
the  south  of  Europe.  They  are  at  once  distinguished  by  the  struc- 
ture of  their  fore  legs,  which  are  converted  into  powerful  raptorial 
organs.  (See  Fig.  2136)  The  head  is  attached  to  the  extremity  of 
the  prothorax  ;  the  face  is  triangular,  the  eyes  large,  and  the 
ocelli  three  in  number.  The  prothorax  is  elongated,  forming  a 
narrow  neck,  which,  in  the  ordinary  position  of  the  Animal,  is  carried 
upright.  From  the  front  of  this  segment  the  raptorial  legs,  which 
are  very  singular  in  their  structure,  take  their  rise.  They  are  much 
stouter  than  the  other  legs;  the  cox?e  are  very  long,  and  are  united 


Fig.  2136. — The  Praying  Mantis. 

to  the  still  longer  thighs  by  a  small  trochanter.  The  tibiae  can  be 
folded  back,  so  as  to  come  into  close  contact  with  the  lower  surface 
of  the  thighs,  which  are  furnished  with  a  distinct  groove  for  their 
reception.  Each  side  of  this  groove  and  the  under  side  of  the  tibiae 
are  armed  with  numerous  spines ;  those  of  the  tibiae  being  the 
smallest.  Carrying  these  formidable  weapons  aloft  in  the  air,  the 
Ma/itides  move  slowly  along,  and  their  whole  attitude  is  so  solemn, 
that  they  are  regarded  with  veneration  by  the  inhabitants  of  all  the 
countries  in  which  they  occur.  In  the  south  of  Europe  they  are 
universally  known  bynames  indicative  of  the  belief  that  their  singular 
attitude  is  one  of  prayer;  and,  according  to  ancient  legends,  the 
Man f IS  has  not  always  confined  itself  to  silent  devotion  ;  for  we  are 
told  that  one  of  these  Insects,  on  being  desired  by  St.  Francis  Xavier 
to  sing  the  praises  of  God,  immediately  chanted  a  beautiful  canticle. 
Another  prevalent  superstition  regarding  these  creatures  is,  that  it 
they  be  asked  the  way  to  a  place,  they  will  immediately  indicate  the 
right  road  by  holding  one  of  their  legs  in  that  direction — hence  the 
name  of  Soothsayers,  often  applied  to  these  Insects  ;  and  the  Greek 
word  Ma7itis  has  the  same  signification.  Unfortunately,  however, 
all  these  amiable  qualities  are  purely  imaginary.  The  Mantis  is 
one  of  the  most  voracious  of  its  class,  and  only  assumes  this  solemn 
and  devout  appearance  for  the  beguilement  of  its  unsuspecting 
victim.  Slowly  and  cautiously  it  steals  along,  by  almost  imper- 
ceptible degrees,  until  within  striking  distance  of  its  prey,  when  one 
of  the  fore  legs  is  instantly  extended,  and  the  struggling  victim  is 
soon  mangled  by  the  tremendous  weapons  'of  the  destroyer.  Nor 
are  these  organs  employed  solely  in  providing  their  owner  with 
nourishment.  These  Insects  are  excessively  pugnacious,  and  two 
of  them  can  scarcely  come  together  without  a  combat,  which 
generally  has  a  fatal  termination.  Their  manoeuvres,  in  such  cases, 
resemble  those  of  two  horsemen  in  single  combat.  The  Chinese 
amuse  themselves  with  their  combats. 

The  Ma7itina  are  sometimes  adorned  with  brilliant  colours ;  but 
their  general  tints  are  green  and  brownish-gray.  Some  of  them 
have  a  large  eye-like  spot  on  the  wings.  Their  antennae  are  usually 
rather  long  and  thread-shaped  ;  their  tarsi  are  five-jointed  ;  and 
the  abdomen  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  short  articulated  caudal 
appendages.  The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  female  in  rows,  each  tg^ 
inclosed  in  a  separate  cell.  The  entire  mass  of  eggs  is  covered  with 
a  gummy  substance,  which  afterwards  hardens,  forming  a  protective 
case.  These  cases,  which  are  often  of  singular  forms,  are  usually 
attached  to  the  twigs  of  trees. 

In  the  sixth  tribe  (the  Blattina,  or  Cockroaches)  all  the  legs  are 
formed  for  running,  as  in  the  Walking-sticks  ;  but  the  head  is  more 
or  less  completely  concealed  beneath  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
prothorax.  The  antennje  are  very  long  and  bristle-like,  and  com- 
posed of  numerous  joints.  The  ocelli  are  generally  absent.  The 
wings  are  frequently  wanting,  sometimes  in  the  female  only,  but 
often  in  both  sexes  ;  the  anterior  wings,  or  wing-cases,  are  of  a  leath- 
ery texture,  traversed  by  numerous  reticulated  veins.  They  lie 
fiat  on  the  body,  and  usually  lap  over  each  other,   at  the  apex, 


during  repose.  The  hinder  wings  fold  up  like  a  fan,  excepting  a 
rather  broad  piece  of  the  anterior  margin,  which  lies  flat.  The  legs 
are  rather  long,  generally  stout,  with  the  tibx  spinous  and  the  tarsi 
five  jointed.  The  body  is  usually  flat,  and  somewhat  ovate,  and 
the  abdomen  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  jointed  caudal  appendages. 
The  Common  Cockroach,  or  Blackbeotle  as  it  is  commonly  called 
{Blatta  orienfalis),  which  often  swarms  to  such  an  extent  in  houses 
as  to  be  a  complete  nuisance,  may  serve  as  a  well-known  example  of 


Fig.  2137. — The  Giant  Cockroach. 

this  tribe  ;  although  in  it  the  wings,  which  in  many  species  att.iin 
at  least  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  abdomen,  are  reduced  to  a 
very  small  size  in  the  males,  whilst  in  the  females  they  are  quite 
rudimentary.  These  Insects,  although  now  so  common  all  over 
Europe,  are  supposed  to  have  been  originally  natives  of  India,  and 
to  have  been  gradually  carried  westward  by  the  progress  of  com- 
merce, This  and  another  species,  the  Blatta  amcricana,  are  very 
common  on  board  ships,  where  they  find  a  plentiful  nourishment 
amongst  the  merchandise  ;  and  on  shore  they  are  usually  most 
abundant  in  seaport  towns. 

They  are  all  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  concealing  themselves  in 
dark  holes  during  the  day,  but  coming  out  of  their  hiding-places 
when  the  lights  are  extinguished.  On  the  introduction  of  a  light 
into  the  scene  of  their  nocturnal  prowlings,  they  may  be  seen  scuttling 
away  in  great  disorder,  towards  the  nearest  place  of  concealment ; 
and  from  this  habit,  no  doubt,  the  ancients,  who  were  well  acquainted 
with  Cockroaches,  denominated  them  lucifiiga:. 

The  Common  Cockroach,  and  some  allied  species,  appear  to  have 
the  faculty  of  devouring  everything  that  comes  in  their  way,  whether 
of  an  animal  or  vegetable  nature  ;  and  when  they  occur  in  great 
numbers,  the  damage  they  do  to  provisions  and  many  other  articles 
is  excessive.  They  also  usually  communicate  a  disagreeable  smell 
to  objects  which  they  have  touched,  so  that  they  often  spoil  more 
than  they  actually  consume.  A  large  species  {Blatta  gigaufca, 
see  Fig.  2137),  common  in  the  West  Indies,  is  there  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Drummer,  from  its  curious  habit  of  making  a  knocking 
noise  during  the  night.  The  noise  is  frequently  kept  up  all  night, 
the  Insects  alternately  answering  each  other,  to  the  great  annojance 
of  those  living  in  the  house  thus  infested.  This  species  is  also  said 
occasionally  to  attack  people  when  asleep  ;  and,  as  though  its  other 
habits  were  not  sufBcient  to  create  a  prejudice  against  it,  it  some- 
times devours  the  extremities  of  the  dead. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  history  of  these  Insects 
is  the  mode  in  which  their  eggs  are  laid.  Instead  of  emerging 
singly  from  the  abdomen  of  the  female,  they  are  inclosed  in  a  horny 
case,  which  is  often  half  as  large  as  the  abdomen  of  the  parent. 
Within  this  the  eggs  are  ranged  in  two  rows,  separated  by  a  parti- 
tion which  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  case  ;  each  (^g^  is  also 
separated  from  its  neighbours  by  a  similar  but  smaller  partition. 
Along  one  side  of  the  case  there  is  a  slit,  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
toothed  plates,  which  fit  closely  together,  and  which  are  further 
secured  by  the  mother  with  a  strong  coating  of  a  sort  of  cement, 
which  also  serves  for  the  attachment  of  the  egg-case  to  any  spot 
which  she  may  select  for  this  purpose.  When  the  lar\-a3  are  hatched 
they  speedily  emit  a  fluid  from  their  mouths,  which  softens  the 
cement,  and  enables  them  to  escape  from  their  temporary  prison. 


8o4 


THE  EARWIGS— THE  WHITE  ANTS. 


As  might  be  expected,  the  female  has  some  difficulty  in  getting  nd 
of  this  composite  offspring,  and  the  Insects  may  often  be  seen  run- 
ning about  with  half  the  egg-case  protruding  from  the  apex  of  the 
abdomen.  Indeed  their  birth  is  said  to  occupy  from  a  week  to  a 
fortnight,  in  different  species. 

The  Forficulina,  or  Earwigs,  constitute  the  order  Dermaptcra  ot 
Leach  ;    and  which  Mr.   Westwood,  who  also   regarded  them   as 
forming   a   distinct   order,   has  denominated  Euplexoptera.      The 
latter  name  refers  to  the  most  striking  character  of  these  Insects, 
viz.,  the  structure  of  the  hinder  wings,  which  are  exceedingly  beau- 
tiful.    (Good-folded-wing).     In  these  the  radiating  nervures,  instead 
of  finding  their  common  centre  at  the  base  of  the  wing,  as  in  the 
case  in  most  Orthoptcra,  spring  from   the  extremity  of  a  broad 
leathery  piece,  which  occupies  about  a  third  of  the  anterior  rnargin. 
Other  radiating  nervures  occupy  the  spaces  between  the  principal 
nervures,   but  only  run  from  the  posterior  margin  to  the  middle  of 
the  wing  ;  and  the  whole  are  united  by  a  transverse  nerve,  which 
runs  parallel  to  the  posterior  margin.      By  the 
assistance  of  these   nervures,  the  wing,  which  is 
of   very  delicate    texture,  folds  up    into  exactly 
the  shape  of  a  closed  fan  ;  but  as  the  wing-cases 
of  the  Earwig  are  very  short,  the  wings  can  only 
be  got  under  them  by  a  very   complicated  trans- 
verse folding  in  two  places — namely,  at  the  apex 
of  the  leathery  basal  piece,  and  at  a  second  point 
about  the  middle  of  the  wing,  where  the  nervures 
appear  to  be  thickened.     Even  then  the  apex  of 
the  firmer  part  of  the  wing  projects  beyond  the 
elytra.     The  Forficulina  are  further  distinguished 
by  having  the   head  exserted,   and   destitute  of 
ocelli,  the    tarsi  composed    of   three  joints,  and 
the   extremity  of  the   abdomen  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  forceps,  which  are  often  of  large  size. 
These  Insects  appear  to  live  principally  upon  vegetable  substances, 
and  as  they  often  attack  the  petals  of  flowers,  they  are  regarded  as 
enemies  by  the  gardener.    They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  creep- 
ing into  crevices  at  the  approach  of  day.     It  is  this  instinct  that 
prompts  them  to  take  shelter  in  the  flower-pots.  Lobster-claws,  and 
other  hollow  objects  usually  placed  as  traps  amongst  the  flowers, 
such  as  Dahlias,  which  are  subject  to  their  ravages.     It  appears  to 
be  a  common  belief  almost  everywhere  that  the  Earwig  creeps  into 
the  ears  of  persons  sleeping  in  the  open  air,  passes  thence  into  the 
brain,  and  causes  death.     Ridiculous  as  this  fancy  is,  it  appears  to 
have  furnished  the  name  for  the  Earwig  in  almost  all  European  lan- 
guages.    The  female  usually  scoops  out  a  hollow  in  the  earth,  in 
which  she  lays  a  small  mass  of  eggs ;  these  she  watches  over  with 
great  assiduity  until  they  are  hatched,  when  she  continues  to  display 
the  same  affection  for  the  new-bom  young. 

Order  VII.— Neuroptera. 

Among  the  Neuroptera  are  some  beautiful  Insects,  some  of 
which,  such  as  the  Dragon-fly,  are  common  in  our  country,  while 
abroad  they  are  represented  by  the  White  Ants,  the  scourge  of  warm 
climates.  The  Insects  comprising  the  order  present  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  last  order,  the  Orthoptera,  in  many  respects,  but 
they  may  be  generally  distinguished  by  a  glance  at  the  structure  of 
the  wings.  In  the  Neuroptera  these  are  almost  always  four  in 
number,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2139.  These  are  generally  of  equal  size, 
membranous  in  texture,  and  traversed  in  various  directions  by  longi- 


Fig.  2139 — The  Dragon-fly  (Libellula  concellata). 

tudinal  and  transverse  nervures,  which  are  often  very  numerous. 
Hence  the  term  Neuroptera  (?ieura — nerves,  and  ptera,  wings). 
The  wings  are  generally  kept  flat,  even  during  repose,  although  in 
some  instances  the  posterior  pair  are  folded.  In  the  structure  of 
the  mouth  some  of  them  very  closely  resemble  the  preceding  order ; 
and  nearly  all  are  furnished  with  distinct  mandibles  and  maxillae, 


although  in  one  group  these  organs  are  very  inconspicuous.  The 
head  is  usually  large,  and  distinctly  separated  from  the  body  ;  the 
eyes  are  almost  always  of  large  size,  and  assisted  by  two  or  three 
ocelli ;  the  antennae  are  either  thread-like  or  bristle-shaped  organs. 
The  segments  of  the  thorax  are  easily  recognisable,  and  the  divi- 
sion between  the  thorax  and  abc  )men  is  always  distinct ;  although 
the  latter  is  generally  sessile,  or  attached  to  the  last  thoracic  seg- 
ment by  its  whole  breadth.  The  legs  are  of  moderate  size,  and 
the  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsi  varies  from  two  to  five.  The  ex- 
tremity of  the  abdomen  is  never  armed  with  a  multivalve  ovipositor. 
The  metamorphosis  of  these  Insects  approaches  nearer  complete- 
ness than  that  of  the  Orthoptera — the  larva  and  pupa  generally 
e.xhibiting  less  resemblance  to  the  perfect  Insects  than  in  that  order. 
The  amount  of  resemblance  between  the  different  stages  of  these 
Insects  is,  however,  very  variable  in  the  different  groups  composing 
the  order ;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  as  to  have  induced  some  naturalists 
to  separate  them  into  two,  or  even  three  orders.  We  may  adopt 
these  as  our  primary  divisions  or  sub-orders. 

Sub-divisions. — -In  one  of  them,  forming  the  Dictyotoptera  of 
Burmeister,  the  Insects  are  active  and  voracious  in  all  their  stages ; 
and,  although  the  appearance  of  the  larva  and  pupa  rarely  resembles 
that  of  the  perfect  Insect  very  closely,  yet  this  similarity  is  greater 
than  in  the  other  two  sub-orders.  In  these  the  metamorphosis  is 
much  more  complete.  The  pupa  always  presents  a  much  closer 
resemblance  to  the  perfect  Insect  than  the  larva  ;  and  the  interme- 
diate stage  of  development  is  passed  in  a  quiescent  state,  although 
the  pupa  acquires  the  power  of  motion  a  little  before  its  emergence 
in  the  perfect  form.  In  the  Plajiipeniiia  the  wings  are  flat,  mem- 
branous, generally  equal  in  size,  and  naked  ;  and  the  organs  of  the 
mouth  are  usually  well  developed  ;  whilst  in  the  TricJwptera  the 
hinder  wings  are  larger  than  the  anterior  pair,  and  folded  in  repose. 
The  whole  of  the  wings  are  more  or  less  clothed  with  minute  hairs  ; 
and  the  mouth  is  of  very  weak  construction,  and  evidently  incapable 
of  biting. 

Sub-order  I. — Dictyotoptera. 

Sub-divisions. — Of  the  Dictyotoptera  some  are  aquatic  in  their 
habits  in  the  larva  state,  whilst  others  are  always  aerial.  Of  the 
latter,  which  make  the  nearest  approach  to  the  Ortlioptcra,  the 
Termitidce.  or  White  Ants,  are  the  most  important.  These  Insects 
live  in  vast  communities,  principally  in  the  hotter  regions  of  the 
earth,  where  they  do  incredible  damage  by  devouring  everything 
that  comes  in  their  way.  Even  wood  is  incapable  of  resisting  their 
ravages  ;  for  they  will  gnaw  away  the  interior  of  beams  and  articles 
of  furniture,  leaving  a  thin  shell  to  conceal  their  operations,  so  that 


Fig.  2140. — The  Teriiies  bellicosus,  in  the  winged  state. 

the  mischief  is  not  discovered  until,  from  its  weakness,  the  object 
falls  to  pieces  on  being  touched. 

Considerable  uncertainty  still  appears  to  exist  as  to  the  real  con- 
stitution of  the  societies  of  these  Insects.  According  to  Latreille, 
they  consist  of  five  classes  of  individuals.  Of  these,  two  are  un- 
doubtedly males  and  females,  which  at  first  are  exactly  similar,  and 
furnished  with  four  nearly  equal  wings.     (See  Fig.  2140.) 

After  impregnation,  the  abdomen  of  the  female  increases  vastly 
in  size,  from  the  immense  number  of  eggs  contained,  which  are  so 
numerous,  that  it  is  said  as  many  as  eighty  thousand  are  sometimes 
laid  by  one  Insect  in  the  course  of  tw-enty-four  hours.  (See  Fig.  2 141.) 

The  great  bulk  of  the  community  is  composed  of  Apterous  indi- 


Fig.  2141. — The  Termite  Queen  distended  with  eggs. 

viduals,  supposed  to  be  larvae,  which  closely  resemble  the  winged 
Insects,  but  are  destitute  of  eyes  and  ocelli.  These  are  the  workers, 
and  upon  them  all  the  labour  of  the  community  devolves.  Other 
Apterous  individuals,  apparently  pupae,  resemble  the  workers,  but 
have  four  tubercular  wing-cases  on  the  thorax ;  whilst  others,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  large  size  of  their  jaws,  and  which  appear  to  be 


THE  WHITE-ANTS— THE  MAY-FLY. 


80s 


neuters,   are  called  Soldiers;   their  office,    apparently,  being  the 
defence  of  the  community  against  the  assaults  of  enemies. 

The  habitations  raised  by  these  diminutive  creatures  are  amongst 
the  most  surprising  of  Insect  edifices.  They  are  usually  built  upon 
the  ground,  IJut  sometimes  amongst  the  branches  of  trees,  whence 
they  communicate  with  the  ground  by  a  long  gallery,  twining  round  the 
branches  and  trunk  of  the  tree.  Those  built  on  the  ground  are  of 
various  forms,  which  are  represented  in  Fig.  2142  ;  but  the  most 
usual  shape  is  an  irregular  cone.     These  nests  are  frequently  as 


-^t^vsr 


Fig.  2142. — Nests  of  White  Ants. 
a,  the  Tcrmes  fiitalis  ;  b,  the  Tcrmcs  atrox, 

much  as  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  height,  built  of  earthy  particles,  which 
the  workers  masticate,  and  then  apply  to  this  purpose.  It  speedily 
dries,  and  becomes  very  hard.  The  nest  is  divided  internally  into 
numerous  chambers  and  galleries  (Fig.  2143),  in  one  of  which  the 
impregnated  female  or  queen  is  imprisoned,  and  waited  upon  obse- 
quiously by  a  numerous  train  of  attendants,  whose  apartments  are  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  royal  chamber.  These  attendants  carry 
off  the  eggs,  as  soon  as  laid,  into  separate  chambers  or  nurseries, 


Fig.  2143. — Section  of  Nest  of  the  Termes  fatalis. 

a,  royal  chamber  ;  i5,.  apartments  of  royal  attendants  ;  c,  nurseries  and  maga- 
zines; d,  lower  roof;  e,  upper  roof;/,  bridges;  g,  dome  of  nest;  /( //, 
walls  of  dome,  penetrated  by  passages  ii ;  k,  under-ground  passage. 

■where  the  young  produced  from  them,  are  tended  with  the  greatest 
care  by  the  workers.  The  interior  of  the  nest  forms  a  large  dome, 
with  thick  walls,  within  which  there  are  usually  two  or  three  roofs  ; 
the  walls  are  perforated  by  passages  leading  from  the  bottom  of  the 
nest  to  the  magazines  and  nurseries  placed  in  its  sides,  which  also 
frequently  communicate  with  the  ground-floor  by  small  earthern 
bridges.  Other  species,  although  differing  in  details,  follow  the 
same  general  principles  in  the  construction  of  their  nests. 

The  antennaj  of  the  Termitidce  are  thread-shaped,  and  composed 
of  about  twenty  joints  ;  the  eyes  are  rather  small,  but  prominent, 
and  the  ocelli  two  in  number.  The  structure  of  the  mouth  presents 
a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Orthoptera.  The  thoracic  seg- 
ments are  distinct,  the  wings  large,  equal  in  size,  membranous,  and 
traversed  by  numerous  branched  nervures,  and  the  legs  are  short, 
and  furnished  with  four-jointed  tarsi.  The  abdomen  is  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  minute  caudal  appendages.  Only  two  or  three  species 
of  these  Insects  are  found  in  Europe ;  and  although  these  can  make 
no  pretensions  to  rival  their  Tropical  brethren  in  destructiveness, 
yet  the  ravages  of  one  species  produced  considerable  consternation 
some  years  ago  in  the  city  of  Rochelle,  in  France. 

Nearly  allied  to  these  are  the  Psocida;,  a  family  of  minute  Insects, 
distinguished  by  having  their  labial  palpi  very  minute,  their  tarsi 
composed  of  two  or  three  joints,  and  the  hind  wings  smaller  than  the 
anterior  pair.  Several  species  of  Insects  belonging  to  this  family  are 
coinmon  in  this  country  ;  and  one  species,  the  Atropos pitlsafo>-i!is 
(Fig.  2144  ),  which  appears  never  to  acquire  wings,  is  often  met 
with  in  abundance  in  badly  kept  collections  of  Insects,  dried 
plants,  &c. ,  to  which  it  is  very  injurious.  The  name  oS.  piilsa- 
torius,  given  to  this  Insect,  refers  to  its  power  of  producing  a 
sound  like  the  ticking  of  a  watch,   whence  it  has  often  been  de- 


nominated the  Death-watch.   The  generic  name,  Atropos,  also  hints 
at  this  popular  superstition. 

The  remainder  of  the  Dicfyotoptera  pass  through  their  pre- 
paratory states  in  the  water ;  and  it  is  not  until  the  perfect  In- 
sect is  about  to  emerge  from  the  skin  of  the  pupa 
that  the  latter  leaves  its  native  clement.  It  then 
creeps  out  of  the  water,  either  on  to  the  stones  on 
the  brink,  or  up  the  stems  and  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants  ;  and  from  this  position  the  imago  is  able  to 
spring  at  once  into  the  air,  without  any  danger  of 
being  drowned  in  its  native  clement. 

In   the  Pcrlida,  which   approach  most  closely  in 
Fig.  2144.— The  their  structure  to  the  preceding  families,  the  antenna; 
Alropos ptdsa-   are  filiform,  as  in    those   Insects,  but  the  posterior 
toriiis,  wings  are  considerably   larger    than    the    anterior, 

beneath  which  they  are  folded  in  repose,  and  the 
abdomen  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  rather  long,  jointed  caudal  ap- 
pendages, which  are  also  present  in  the  larva.  The  tarsi  are  com- 
posed of  three  joints;  the  organs  of  the  mouth  are  of  a  softish 
texture,  the  mandibles  usually  rudimentary,  and  the  palpi,  both  of 
the  maxilla;  and  labium,  well  developed. 

The  larva  closely  resembles  the  perfect  Insect,  and  is  found  in 
plently  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers,  on  the  borders  of  which  tlie 
Insects  themselves  may  also  be  met  with  in  abundance.  The  well- 
known  Stone-Jly  of  the  angler,  which  is  an  excellent  bait  for  Trout, 
is  a  species  of  this  family  {Per/a  bicaudala).  They  are  Carnivorous 
Insects,  but  sluggish  in  their  movements.  The  respiration  of  the 
larva  is  effected  by  means  of  gills  attached  either  to  the  thorax  or  to 
the  abdomen,  the  form  of  which  varies  greatly  in  different  species. 
In  one  genus  {Pteronarcys),  which  inhabits  North  America,  these 
branchial  organs  are  persistent  in  the  perfect  state. 

This  sub-order  includes  two  other  groups,  distinguished  from  the 
preceding,  and  indeed  from  all  the  other  Nejiroptera,  by  their  small 
awl-shaped  antennas.  They  form  the  section  Siihulicor7ies  of  Latreille. 
The  EphemeridcB  are  distinguished  by  the  small  size  of  their  hinder 
wings,  the  rudimentary  condition  of  the  organs  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  long  jointed  bristles  with  which  the  tail  is  furnished.  The 
antennae  are  composed  of  only  three  joints  ;  the  eyes  are  usually 
large,  and  the  ocelli  three  in  number.  These  Insects  are  well  known 
to  the  angler  as  May-flies.  They  are  also  called  Day-flies,  from  the 
shortness  of  their  existence  in  the  perfect  state ;  and  the  generic 
name  of  the  typical  group  also  refers  to  their  ephemeral  life.  Their 
transformations  have  already  been  described.  Both  lar\-a2  and  pupae 
present  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  perfect  Insect ;  but  the 
entire  period  of  the  preparatory  stages  is  passed  in  the  water,  and 
the  Insects  are  then  furnished  with  a  row  of  very  curious  giU- 
laminffi  along  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  During  this  period  the 
larvae  and  pupae  make  themselves  little  burrows  in  the  sides  of  the 
pond  or  stream  in  which  they  live  ;  and  these  burrows  have  two 
openings  ;  so  that  if  the  Insect  enters  by  one,  it  can  pass  out  by  the 
other,  without  the  necessity  of  turning  round  in  its  narrow  domicile. 
The  caudle  filaments  are  present  in  the  larva,  but  much  shorter 
than  in  the  imago.  On  arriving  at  maturity  the  pupa;  come  out  of 
the  water,  when  the  perfect  Insect  emerges  from  its  case,  and  takes 
to  flight.  It  is  still,  however,  inclosed  in  a  very  delicate  pellicle,  to 
get  rid  of  which  it  soon  attaches  itself  by  its  claws  to  any  object  that 
may  be  at  hand,  and,  after  a  few  struggles,  leaves  this  encumbrance 
behind  it,  and  flies  away.  After  this  last  change  the  Insect  exhibits 
its  brightest  colours,  and  the  tails  grow  to  twice  their  previous 
length.  The  emergence  of  these  Insects  from  the  water  appears 
always  to  take  place  in  the  evening  ;  and  as  the  whole  of  the  Epiie- 


Fig.  2145. — The  May-tly  (Ephemera). 

meres  in  a  river  appear  to  arrive  at  maturity  at  the  same  period, 
they  generally  make  their  appearance  in  such  countless  swarms,  for 
two  or  three  evenings,  that  the  effect  produced  by  one  species  with 
white  wings,  has  been  compared  to  a  heavy  fall  of  snow.  By  the 
next  morning  the  majority  of  these  Insects  are  found  lying  dead 
upon  the  shore  in  heaps.  The  occurrence  of  these  swarms  of  May- 
flies has  been  observed  in  different  parts  of  Europe— in  Holland, 
France,  and  Switzeriand  ;  and  it  appears  that  the  species  found  in 
each  of  these  localities  is  distinct  from  the  rest.  In  Switzerland, 
indeed,  the  swarms  of  two  species  are  on  record,  one  inhabiting  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  and  the  other  the  Rhine,  near  Basle.  Our  com- 
mon species,  the  Ephemera  vulgata  (Fig.  2145),  also  occurs  in 
profusion,  for  a  few  days,  in  the  rivers  frequented  by  it,  but  not  by 
any  means  to  the  same  extent  as  the  Continental  species  just  re- 


8o6 


THE  DRAGON-FLIES. 


ferred  to.     This  and  several  other  species  of  the  family  are  favourite 

baits  for  Trout.  ,    ■,  ■      t- 

The  LihcUiiIidm,  or  Dragon-flies,  already  represented  in  l<ig. 
2IS9  ante,  are  characterised  by  their  four  large,  nearly  equal,  reti- 
culated \vin?s  ;  by  the  powerful  structure  of  their  mouths,  and  the 
shortness  of  the  caudal  appendages,  which,  moreover,  are  not 
iointed.  The  antennx  are  composed  of  from  five  to  eight  joints  ; 
the  eyes  are  very  large,  generally  meeting  on  the  top  of  the  head, 
which  also  bears  three  ocelli. 

These  are  exceedingly  elegant,  but  voracious  Insects,  which  may 
be  seen  in  fine  summer  weather,  hawking  about  over  the  surface  of 
ponds  and  rivers  in  search  of  Insect  prey.  They  are  well  known  in 
this  country  as  Dragon-flies;  the  French  call  them  "  Demoiselles," 
probably  in  allusion  to  the  elegance  of  their  forms,  and  the  grace  of 
their  movements.  The  vulgar  English  name  of  Horse-stingers  is 
peculiarly  inappropriate,  as  these  Insects  possess  no  means  of  annoy- 
ing cither  Horses  or  any  other  of  the  larger  Animals. 

The  larvffl  and  pupae  of  the  LibelluUdcB  inhabit  the  water,  from 
which  the  pupa  emerges  when  the  perfect  Insect  is  ready  to  com- 
mence its  aerial  existence.  The  empty  pupa  skin  may  often  be  seen 
attached  to  aquatic  plants.  The  structure  of  the  lower  lip,  in  the 
preparatory  states  of  these  Insects,  is  very  singular ;  it  has  been 
denominated  a  mask  by  many  authors.  It  consists  of  two  principal 
pieces  (Fig.  2146),  one  of  which  is  articulated  to  the  head,  whilst 
the  second  is  attached  to  its  extremity.     At  the  apex  of  this  second 


Fig.  2146. — Pupa  of  the  Dragon-fly. 

A,  the  pupa  with  mask  ;  B,  the  same  with  the  mask  closed,  and  discharging  r. 
current  of  water  from  the  anus. 

piece,  two  jaw-like  organs  are  articulated.  In  repose  this  lip  is 
folded  beneath  the  head,  but  can  be  immediately  extended  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  in  front  of  the  head,  so  as  to  seize  any  minute 
Insects  or  small  Fishes  that  may  pass  before  the  creature,  which  is 
very  sluggish  in  its  movements.  The  respiration  of  the  larva:  of 
some  of  these  Insects  is  not  effected  by  external  branchia,  but  by 
the  entrance  of  the  water  into  the  cavity  of  the  body,  where  it  comes 
in  contact  with  the  trachea;,  which  deprive  it  of  the  air  dissolved  in 
it  ;  it  is  then  forcibly  expelled  through  the  opening  by  which  it 
entered  (Fig.  2146).  The  resistance  offered  to  the  expulsion  of  this 
water  also   enables  the  larva  to  progress  slowly.     In  some  of  the 

smaller  species  the  larva  is  fur- 
nished with  three  narrow,  elon- 
gated caudal  plates. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful 
species  inhabiting  this  country 
is  the  Calej>teryx  virgo  (Fig. 
2147),  which  is  not  uncommon 
on  the  sides  of  rivers.  It  is  of 
a  deep  steel-blue  colour,  and 
the  .wings  have  a  large  dark 
patch  near  the  apex.  Some 
exotic  species  allied  to  this  have 
the  abdomen  at  least  six  inches  long. 

In  this  sub-order  the  wings  are  always  nearly  equal  in  size,  reti- 
culated, and  generally  laid  flat  upon  the  back  when  at  rest,  the  pos- 
terior pair  never  folded.  The  labium  is  usually  notched  on  the  apex, 
but  never  deeply  cleft,  as  in  the  preceding  group.  The  antenna 
are  generally  long,  and  either  filiform  or  gradually  tapering  to  the 
tip.     The  pupa  is   quiescent. 

Sue-order  II.— Planipennia. 

Sub-divisions. — In  one  family,  the  Sialida;,  the  larva  is  Aquatic 
in  its  habits,  and  the  perfect  Insect  is  always  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  water.  When  mature,  the  larva  quits  the  water,  and 
forms  a  cavity  in  the  bank,  where  it  passes  the  pupa  stage.  These 
Insects  are  distinguished  by  the  large  size  of  the  prothorax. 

The  remaining  families  pass  the  whole  of  their  lives  in  the  air. 


Fig.  2147. — The  Ccilefleryx  virgo. 


Fig.  214S. — The  Myremelo. 


Of  these,  one  species,  the  curious  Myrineleo7itidcs,  or  Ant-lions,  are 
distinguished  by  their  clavate  antennae,  which  are  usually  short; 
although  in  one  genus  these  organs  are  elongated,  and  knobbed  at 
the  extremity,  in  the  same  way  as  Butterflies.  The  ocelli  are 
wanting ;  the  labial  palpi  are  very  long,  and  the  wings  are  large  and 
finely  reticulated,  and,  during  repose,  lie  in  a  roof-like  form  upon 
the  sides  of  the  body  (Fig.  2148).  Some  of  these  Insects,  which  are 
all  exotic,  are  reniarkable  from  the  habits  of  their  larva; — small, 
sluggish,  oval  creatures,  furnished  with  a  most  formidable  pair  of 
jaws.  These  curious  little  creatures  excavate  conical  pits  in  the 
sandy  places  which  they  inhabit,  at  the  bottom  of  which  they  conceal 
themselves  entirely,  with  the  exception 
of  the  head  and  powerful  jaws.  Here 
they  wait  patiently  until  some  prying 
Ant  or  other  Insect  unwarily  strays  into 
their  domain,  when  the  unfortunate  in- 
truder generally  slips  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pit,  and  is  soon  destroyed  by  'the 
merciless  jaws  of  the  Ant-lion  ;  but  if 
the  victim  show  any  intention  of  making  his  escape,  a  shower  of 
sand  thrown  up  by  the  latter  soon  arrests  his  progress,  and  gene- 
rally brings  him  down  to  the  fangs  of  the  destroyer. 

The  Hemerobiidie,  which  are  closely  allied  to  the  preceding 
Insects,  are  generally  beautiful  and  delicate  creatures,  with  soft 
bodies,  large,  delicate,  and  finely  reticulated  wings,  and  long  fili- 
form antennae.  They  possess  no  ocelli  ;  but  the  eyes  are  large, 
prominent,  and  usually  of  a  beautiful  golden  colour.  The  larvie  of 
these  Insects — of  which  several  species  are  found  in  this  country — 
are  amongst  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  Aphides,  which  they  suck 
by  means  of  their  curiously-constructed  jaws.  Many  of  them  arc 
elegant  creatures.  They  fly  generally  in  the  evening  ;  and  most  of 
them  emit  a  most  disagreeable  odour  on  being  disturbed  or  touched. 
The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  cocoon. 

The  Parwr-pidcB  are  characterised  by  the  form  of  the  head,  which 
is  prolonged  below  into  a  sort  of  rostrum,  at  the  extremity  of  which 
the  mouth  is  situated.  They  have  long  slender  antennae  and  three 
ocelli,  and  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen  is  often  furnished  with  a 
curious  forceps-like  appendage,  whence  the 
commonest  English  species  has  obtained 
the  name  of  the  Scorpion-fly  (Fig.  2149). 
These  Insects  are  found  commonly  about 
hedges  in  damp  situations  ;  but  little  is 
known  of  their  habits. 

The  two   last  families  are   distinguished 
from  the  preceding  by  the  great  length  of 
the  prothorax,  which  forms  a  slender  neck  ; 
Pig.  2149. — The  Scorpion- from   which   circumstance   the   few    British 
fly  {Panorpa).  species    are   denominated    Snake-Jlies.     In 

the  Raphidiidce  the  fore  legs  are  formed  for 
walking,  the  head  bears  three  ocelli,  and  the  antennae  are  long  and 
slender  ;  the  abdomen  of  the  female  is  furnished  with  a  long  oviposi- 
tor. The  larvae  are  said  to  live  under  the  bark  of  trees ;  and  the 
Insects  are  generally  found  in  woods.  This  family  includes  several 
British  species  ;  but  none  of  the  next  family,'  the  AIa?ttispida-, 
occur  in  Britain.  These  curious  little  Insects  are  furnished  with 
long  raptorial  fore  legs,  exactly  like  those  of  the  Orthopterous 
Mantidcv,  previously  described  at  page  803  ante,  near  which  they 
have  indeed  been  sometimes  arranged.  They  have  no  ocelli ;  their 
antennae  are  short,  and  the  female  has  no  ovipositor.  They  resemble 
the  RaphidiidcR  in  their  habits  ;  and  both  families — especially  the 
second — are  apparently  very  predaceous. 

Sub-order  III. — Trichoptera. 

The  sub-order  Trichoptera,  including  only  the  large  tribe,  or 
family  of  PliryganeidcB,  exhibits  the  most  complete  metamorphosis 
oi3.\vj  oi\\\c  K'europtera.  The  larvae,  which  are  Aquatic,  in  fact, 
present  almost  as  little  resemblance  to  the  imago  as  those  of  some 
metabolous  Insects.  They  are  long,  softish  grubs,  furnished  with 
six  feet,  and  with  a  horny  head  armed  with  jaws,  generally  fitted 
for  biting  vegetable  matters,  although  some  appear  to  be  carni- 
vorous. To  protect  their  soft  bodies,  which  constitute  a  very 
favourite  food  with  Fishes,  these  larva;  always  inclose  themselves  in 
cases  formed  of  various  materials  ;  bits  of  straw  and  sticks,  pebbles, 
and  even  small  shells,  being  commonly  employed  in  this  manner. 
The  materials  of  these  curious  cases  are  united  by  means  of  fine 
silken  threads,  spun  like  those  of  the  Caterpillars  of  the  Zc/)/'rt'6)//t'r«, 
from  a  spinneret  situated  on  the  labium.  In  increasing  the  size  of 
its  case  to  suit  its  growth,  the  larva  is  said  to  add  only  to  the  anterior 
end,  cutting  off  a  portion  of  the  opposite  extremity.  When  in  mo- 
tion, the  larva  pushes  its  head  and  the  three  thoracic  segments, 
which  are  of  a  harder  consistence  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  out  of 
its  case  (Fig.  ^150)  ;  and  as  the  latter  is  but  little,  if  at  all,  heavier 
than  the  water,  the  creature  can  readily  drag  it  along  behind  it,  thus 
keeping  its  abdomen  always  sheltered.  It  adheres  stoutly  to  the 
inside  of  its  dwelling  by  means  of  a  pair  of  articulated  caudal  ap- 
pendages, assisted  by  three  tubercles  on  the  first  abdominal  segment. 


DIPTEROUS  INSECTS. 


807 


Before  passing  to  the  pupa  state,  the  larva  fixes  his  case  to  some 
object  in  the  water,  and  then  closes  up  the  two  extremities  with  a 
silken  grating,  through  which  the  water  necessary  for  the  respiration 
of  the  pupa  can  easily  pass.  The  pupa  is  furnished  with  a  large 
pair  of  hooked  jaws,  by  means  of  which,  when  about  to  assume  the 
perfect  state,  it  bites  through  the  grating  of  its  prison,  and  thus  sets 
itself  free  in  the  water.  In  this  form,  the  pupx  of  some  species  swim 
freely  through  the  water  by  means  of  their  long  hind  legs,  also  creep- 
ing upon  the  other  four  limbs ;  these  frequently  rise  to  the  surface  of 


Fig.  2150. — The  Phrygauea  gramiis. 
A,  larva  in  its  case ;  B,  grating  ;  C,  imago. 

the  water,  and  there  undergo  their  final  change,  using  their  deserted 
skin  as  a  sort  of  raft  from  which  to  rise  into  the  air,  whilst  others 
generally  creep  up  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  perfect  Insects  have  four  wings,  with  branched  nervures,  of 
which  the  anterior  pair  are  clothed  with  hairs  ;  the  posterior  are 
folded  in  repose.  The  organs  of  the  mouth,  except  the  palpi,  arc 
rudimentary,  and  apparently  unfit  for  use.  The  head  is  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  large  eyes,  and  with  three  ocelli,  and  the  antennae  are 
generally  very  long.  Some  species  are  so  exactly  like  Moths,  that 
they  have  often  been  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Lepidoptcroics  order ; 
and,  in  fact,  these  Insects  may  be  considered  to  form  a  connecting 
link  between  the  Mcuropfcra  and  the  Lepidopfcra.  The  females 
have  been  observed  to  descend  io  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more  in 
water,  in  order  to  deposit  their  eggs.  Many  species  of  these  Insects 
are  found  in  Britain.  The  larvEe  are  well  known  to  anglers  under 
the  names  of  Caddis-worms  and  Straw-worms.  They  are  said  to  be 
excellent  baits. 

SUB-CL/\SS   III. — METABOLA. 

In  this  sub-class  the  metamorphosis  is  what  is  termed  complete, 
the  larva,  pupa,  and  imago  being  generally  very  distinct  in  ap- 
pearance. The  larva  is  either  a  Maggot,  Grub,  or  Caterpillar, 
and  the  pupa  is  quiescent,  and  inclosed  in  a  skin  or  case. 

Order  VIII.— Aphaniptera. 

This  little  order,  which  only  includes  the  Fleas,  of  which  one 
species,  at  any  rate,  is  probably  even  too  well  known  to  many  of  our 
readers,  presents  an  exceedingly  remarkable  structure,  which  has 
been  a  frequent  source  of  perplexity  to  systematists.  By  many  recent 
authors  these  Insects  have  been  arranged  with  the  Diptcra ;  but 
they  differ  from  these  so  essentially  in  many  of  their  characters, 
that  we  have  preferred  retaining  them  as  a  separate  and  independent 
order. 

The  external  covering  of  the  Flea  is  a  horny  case,  formed  of  very 
distinct   segments  (Fig.    2 151);  those  of  the  thorax  being  always 


Fig.  215 1.— The  Flea  (Piilex  irritans). 

A,  mouth ;  x,   supposed  labrum  ;  /«(/,    mandibles ;  mx,  maxilla;  ;  re/,   maxil- 
lary palpi ;  //,  labial  palpi. 

disunited.  Although  apparently  Apterous,  the  Flea  has  the  rudi- 
ments of  four  wings,  in  the  form  of  horny  plates,  on  the  sides  of  the 
meso-  and  meta-thoracic   segments  ;  the  hinder  pair  of   plates  is 


the  largest.  The  mouth,  which,  as  is  well-known,  is  eminently 
suctorial,  is  of  a  very  curious  construction,  and  the  oral  organs  are 
so  singularly  formed,  that  their  homologies  have  frequently  puzzled 
entomologists.  They  consist  of  a  pair  of  sword-shaped,  finely  ser- 
rated mandibles,  which,  with  a  sharp,  needle-like  organ  (supposed 
to  represent  the  labrum),  appear  to  constitute  the  formid.Tble  offen- 
sive weapon  with  which  the  Fleas  pierce  the  skin  of  their  victims. 
These  are  sheathed  by  the  three  jointed  labial  palpi.  The  labium  and 
maxilla;  arc  very  small  ;  but  the  maxillary  palpi  are  long,  composed 
of  four  joints,  and  stand  out  from  the  head  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
have  been  generally  mistaken  for  the  antennrc.  The  latter  organs 
are  of  minute  size,  and  are  generally  concealed  beneath  a  valve-like 
plate,  on  the  sides  of  the  head  behind  the  eyes,  although  some 
species  occasionally  carry  them  exscrted.  The  legs  are  strong,  the 
hinder  pair  especially,  by  means  of  which  these  active  little  creatures 
execute  their  surprising  leaps. 

The  larva  of  the  Flea  is  a  long,  footless  grub,  furnished  with  a 
distinct  horny  head.  They  are  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  the  female, 
generally  in  the  neighbourhood  of  animal  matter.  The  eggs  of  the 
common  species  are  usually  laid  in  the  cracks  of  floors  and  similar 
places.  The  larvaj  are  active ;  and  when  they  attach  themselves 
to  Dogs  or  other  Animals,  they  twist  about  freely  amongst  the  hairs 
or  feathers,  feeding  upon  minute  particles  of  animal  matter.  In 
about  twelve  days  the  larva;  are  full-grown.  They  then  inclose 
themselves  in  a  little  silky  cocoon,  and  pass  to  the  pup.i  st.ite.  In 
this  condition  the  Insect  is  quiescent,  inclosed  in  a  skin  which  fits 
over  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  perfect  Insect  emerges  in  about  a 
fortnight.  Most  of  the  species  of  Fleas,  or  Pitlicida,  zso.  parasitic 
upon  particular  Animals — one  of  the  largest  being  found  upon  the 
Mole. 

A  minute  species,  inhabiting  the  West  Indies  and  South  America, 
the  Chigoe  or  Jigger  ( Pulex  penetrans],  is  remarkable  for  the  habit 
possessed  by  the  female  of  inserting  herself  beneath  the  skin  of  the 
foot,  generally  under  the  nails.  In  this  situation  her  abdomen 
swells  to  about  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  in  conicquence  of  the 
development  of  eggs  in  the  ovaries,  occasioning  great  pain  and 
irritation  of  the  part ;  and  if  not  extracted  in  time,  the  eggs  are 
said  to  be  hatched  within  the  wound,  producing  extensive  ulceration, 
and  sometimes  even  causing  death.  The  feet  of  Dogs  are  also 
attacked  by  this  pest ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  unfortunate  creatures 
may  often  be  seen  rolling  about,  and  nibbling  their  toes  in  a  state  of 
the  greatest  agony. 

Order  IX.— Diptera. 

This  order,  which  includes  among  others  the  Domestic  Fly,  con- 
tains an  enormous  number  of  species.  The  Insects  possess  but  a 
single  pair  of  wings,  hence  the  name  Diptera,  derived  from  the 
Greek  dis,  two,  and  ptcra,  wings.  The  wings  are  attached  to  the 
mesothoracic  segment ;  the  metathorax,  instead  of  wings  bears  a 
pair  of  small,  clubbed  organs  known  as  lialteres,  or  balancers,  which 
appear  to  represent  the  posterior  wings.  By  some  entomologists 
they  have  been  denied  this  character,  which  they  ascribe  to  a  pair  of 
small  membranous  organs,  called  alulcts,  or  little  wings,  attached 
to  the  base  of  the  true  wings  ;  but  this  opinion  seems  to  us  as 
founded  in  error.  The  haltcres  seem  to  be  the  most  characteristic 
organ  of  the  order,  as  they  are  present  in  those  Dipterous  Insects 
whose  wings  are  wanting.  The  segments  of  the  thorax  are  fused 
into  a  mass,  their  limits  being  indicated  externally  by  more  or  less 
distinct  furrows.     The  prothorax  is  always  very  small. 

The  head  is  generally  of  considerable  size,  and  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  large  compound  eyes,  which  often  occupy  nearly  its  entire 
surface.  It  is  usually  attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  narrow  neck,  and 
the  crown  bears  two  or  three  ocelli.  The  structure  of  the  mouth  has 
already  been  described.  The  antenna;  are  always  placed  on  the 
front  of  the  head,  between  the  eyes.  Their  form  is  very  variable. 
The  legs  are  well  developed,  sometimes  very  long.  The  tarsi  are 
composed  of  five  joints,  terminated  by  a  pair  of  claws,  and  furnished 
with  two  or  three  soft  pulviUi,  by  the  assistance  of  which  these  crea- 
tures are  enabled  to  walk  with  ease  upon  the  smoothest  surfaces, 
even  in  a  perpendicular  or  reversed  position. 

The  abdominal  rings  are  distinct,  and  usually  of  a  firmer  texture 
than  the  rest  of  the  body  :  some  of  the  apical  segments  in  the  females 
are  often  converted  into  a  telescope-like  ovipositor.  The  stomach  is 
furnished  with  a  small  sucking  stomach,  which  communicates  with 
it  by  a  very  slender  tube.  At  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  are  two  air- 
bladders,  often  of  considerable  size  ;  the  position  of  which  is  some- 
times indicated  by  the  semi-transparent  appearance  of  that  part  of 
the  body. 

The  larva;  of  the  Diptera  are  footless  grubs,  or  maggots,  some- 
times destitute  of  a  distinct  head.  The  stigmata  are  usually  only 
two  in  number,  and  placed  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body.  In 
some  cases  the  larva,  on  reaching  maturity,  casts  its  skin,  and 
changes  to  a  free  quiescent  pupa  ;  whilst  in  many  species,  this 
transformation  takes  place  within  the  skin  of  the  larva,  which  then 
hardens,  and  forms  a  case  for  the  protection  of  the  sleeping  inmate. 
This  constitutes  what  is  termed  a  coarctatc  pupa. 


8o8 


DIPTEROUS  INSECTS— THE  FLY. 


'  Sub-divisions. — The  great  number  of  species,  as  already  stated, 
included  in  this,  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  largest,  if  not  the 
largest,  of  the  orders  of  Insects,  has  given  rise  to  a  corresponding 
multiplicity  of  families  and  other  minor  groups.  In  the  following 
pages  we  shall  refer,  as  briefly  as  possible,  to  the  principal  of  these. 


Fig.  2152. — AntenncE  of  the  Dip/era. 
A,  Tipida ;  B,  Tabanus ;  C,  Miisca. 

The  order  is  divided  into  three  sub-orders.  The  first  consists  of 
Parasitic  and  often  wingless  Insects,  which  have  the  head  usually 
immersed  in  the  thora.\-,  and  the  claws  denticulated.  These  are 
called  Pupipara,  from  the  singular  circumstance  that  the  larvffi  are 
nourished  within  the  body  of  the  mother,  and  not  excluded  until  they 
have  attained  the  pupa  state.  Of  the  other  two  sub-orders,  which 
are  generally  oviparous,  although  a  few  bring  forth  living  larvm,  one, 
the  lirachycera,  is  distinguished  by  having  the  antenna:  short,  and 
composed,  apparently,  only  of  three  joints,  with  the  last  joint  gene- 
rally furnished  with  a  bristle  (Fig.  2152  C) ;  whilst  in  the  Neinocera, 
forming  the  third  sub-order,  the  antenna  (Fig.  2152  A)  are  always 
composed  of  more  than  six  joints,  filiform,  and  usually  feathered. 
In  the  Brachycera,  the  palpi  also  consist  of  only  one  or  two  joints  ; 
whilst  in  the  Nemocera,  these  organs  are  composed  of  four  or  five 
articulations. 

Sub-order  I.— Pupipara. 

General  Characters. — In  addition  to  the  characters  already 
given,  these  Insects  differ  from  the  o\.\\cx  Dififera  in  the  structure  of 
the  mouth,  which  is  so  singular  that  the  analogies  of  its  constituent 
parts  are  very  doubtful.  The  lower  part  of  the  head  is  covered  by  a 
membranous  plate,  perforated  by  a  minute  orifice  in  front,  where  it 
is  also  furnished  with  a  pair  of  minute  coriaceous  lobes,  which  have 
been  regarded  as  modified  palpi.  Within  this  is  a  fleshy  bent 
organ,  terminated  by  a  bristle-like  sucker,  composed  of  three 
separate  bristles  :  this  can  be  pushed  out  of  the  aperture,  in  the 
first-mentioned  plate,  by  the  extension  of  their  fleshy  base,  which  is 
probably  the  labium,  and  in  this  manner  they  are  employed  in 
piercing  the  skin  of  the  Animals  on  which  these  Insects  are  para- 
sitic. Some  of  them  are  furnished  with  wings,  whilst  others  are 
destitute  of  those  organs.  Their  bodies  and  limbs  are  generally 
covered  with  bristles.  The  abdomen  presents  no  indications  of 
segments  ;  so  that  in  their  appearance  the  Apterous  species  often 
closely  resemble  Spiders,  from  which  circumstance  the  French  call 
them  "  Mouches  araignees,"  or  Spider  Flies. 

Sub-divisions.— They  form  two  families,  the  II/J>/>obosctdce,  or 
Forest-flies,  in  which  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  longest,  and  the 
NycteribiidcB,  or  Bat-lice,  in  which  the  basal  joint  of  those  organs 
is  longer  than  all  the  rest  put  together.  In  their  habits  both  these 
families  are  very  similar,  living  amongst  the  hairs  and  feathers  of 
Beasts  and  Birds,  where  they  run  about  with  great  agility,  often 
progressing  sideways.  They  live  by  sucking  the  blood  of  their 
victims.     Young  Birds   appear  to  be  especially  the  objects  of  their 


^'g'  2153- — Tlie  llij'lobosca  hi'rundinis  imA  Ilippolosca  equina. 

attacks,  and  are  frequently  driven  completely  to  distraction  by  their 
tormentors.  The  species  of  Hi^puboscidcc  live  upon  different 
Mammals  and  Birds  ;  the  HiJ>J>obosca  equina,  or  Forest-fly,  is  very 


troublesome  to  Horses ;  and  the  Melo;phagns  ovinus,  which  is 
Apterous,  is  v/ell  known  as  the  Shecp-tick.  The  Nycteribiidca  con- 
fine their  attacks  to  Bats. 

Sue-order  II.— Brachycera. 

General  Characters.— In  the  Brachycera  the  antenna;  are 
always  short,  composed  apparently  of  only  three  joints,  the  last 
joint  being  sometimes  articulated  at  its  extremity  (Fig.  2152  ^antc), 
sometimes  entire,  and  generally  furnished  with  a  long,  sometimes 
jointed,  bristle.  The  palpi  consists  of  one  or  two  joints;  the  body 
is  generally  broad,  and  the  head  usually  as  wide  as  the  thorax. 

Sub-divisions. — As  this  sub-order  includes  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  almost  innumerable  hosts  of  Dipterous  Insects,  the 
number  of  families  and  sub-families  of  which  it  is  composed  is,  as 
might  be  expected,  exceedingly  great.  They  may,  hov/ever,  be 
divided  into  seven  principal  groups  (families  or  tribes),  and  to  these 
we  must  confine  our  attention. 

In  the  Oestrida,  the  proboscis  is  usually  imperceptible,  or,  when 
present,  very  small  ;  the  antenna;  are  very  short,  and  the  last  joint 
is  furnished  with  a  long  bristle  ;  the  alulets  are  large,  and  entirely 
conceal  the  halteres.  Although  most  of  these  Insects,  from  the 
obsolete  nature  of  their  mouths,  are  probably  incapable  of  taking 
nourishment  in  their  perfect  state,  they  are  nevertheless  to  be  regarded 
amongst  the  greatest  pests  to  Cattle,  when  in  their  larva  state. 
During  this  period  of  their  existence  they  are  all  parasitic  upon 
different  species  of  Herbivorous  Iilammalia,  some  of  them  living  in 
the  skin,  and  others  in  the  internal  cavities  of  their  hosts.  Of  the 
former  the  best  known  is  the  Oestrus  bovis,  the  larva;  of  which 
resides  in  the  large  tumours  on  the  backs  of  Cattle,  known  to  the 
farmer  under  the  names  of  laornils  and  worbles.  Of  the  internal 
Parasites,  some  (such  as  the  Cephalemyia  ovis),  live  in  the 
frontal  sinuses  of  Sheep  and  Deer,  the  parent  laying  her  eggs 
in  the  nostrils,  whence  the  young  larva  creeps  up  into  its  destined 
abode;  whilst  others,  of  which  ihe  Gasterophilus  equt  {V\g.  2154), 
is  an  example,  inhabit  the  intestines  of 
their  victims.  The  eggs  of  the  latter 
species  are  laid  upon  the  skin  of  the 
Horse  in  such  positions  as  are  easily 
reached  with  his  tongue,  so  that  in  licking 
himself  he  is  instrumental  in  conveying 
his  foes  into  his  intestines.  The  internal 
larva  are  furnished  with  rings  of  bristles, 
to  enable  them  to  retain  their  position  ; 
but  they  all  quit  their  abode  when  mature, 

and  undergo  their  last  transformations  in  Fig.  2154. — The  GaslerophU 
the  earth,   or  in  dung.     The  pupa   is  in-         lus  eoid,  and  larva, 
closed  in  the  dried  larva-skin. 

The  two  next  families  are  distinguished  by  having  only  two 
bristles  in  the  proboscis.  The  Muscida  are  further  characterised 
by  having  the  proboscis  membranous  and  completely  retractile, 
terminated  by  two  large  lobes  (Fig.  2155);  the  antennae  are  short, 
three-jointed,  with  a  long  and  often  pilose  bristle  attached  to  the 
third  joint.  _  This  family  includes  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  species,  presenting  an  almost  infinite  variety 
of  habit.  An  excellent  example  (the  Common  Fly, 
Musca  domcstica),  occurs  during  the  summer  in 
even  too  great  abundance  in  our  houses ;  and  many 
others,  almost  equally  common,  may  be  met  with  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  In  the  larva  condition,  some 
of  them,  including  the  Common  fly,  live  in  dung ; 
others,  such  as  the  Common  Flesh  Fly  {Sareopltaga 
carttand),  feed  upon  Animal  substances.  Some  of 
Fig.  2155.— The  these,  of  which  the  Common  Cheese-hopper  {Pio- 
Head  of  the  j>hila  casei.  Fig.  2156),  is  an  example,  possess  a  con- 
Musca.  siderable    power   of   leaping ;    their    springs    being 

effected  by  bending  the  body  into  a  hoop,  and  then 
suddenly  straightening  it.  Many  of  these  larva;,  which  feed  upon 
Animal  substances  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  must  be  included 


Fig.  2156. — The  Cheese-hopper  (Piophila  casei). 

I,  Larva  preparing  to  spring;  2,  natural  size  of  larva  ;  3,  4,  Flj',  natural  size 

and  magnified. 

amongst  our  greatest  benefactors,  as  by  removing,  in  a  short  space 
of  time,  rnatters  which,  if  left,  would  corrupt  and  fill  the  atmosphere 
with  noxious  vapours,  they  prevent  all  the  ill  effects  which  those 
effluvia  are  known  to  produce  upon  Animal  life.     So  rapidly  do  they 


DIPTEROUS  INSECTS. 


809 


perform  this  business,  that  Linnaeus  calculated  that  the  progeny  of 
three  Flesh  Flies  would  devour  the  carcass  of  a  Horse  almost  as 
quickly  as  a  Lion  ;  and  although  there  may  be  a  little  exaggeration 
in  this  statement,  it  is,  perhaps,  not  very  far  from  the  truth.  The 
larva;  of  a  great  number  of  minute  species  are  parasitic  upon  other 
Insects  ;  whilst  those  of  many  feed  upon  plants,  often  causing  great 
damage  to  various  crops.  Some,  which  infest  the  leaves  of  plants, 
form  minute  galleries  or  mines  between  the  two  membranes  of  the 
leaf,  by  eating  away  the  parenchyma. 

The  lar\'a;  are  soft  footless  grubs,  frequently  destitute  of  any 
distinct  head,  and  generally  of  an  elongated  conical  form,  having  the 
mouth,  which  is  furnished  with  two  retractile  hooks,  at  the  smaller 
extremity,  and  the  single  pair  of  stigmata  at  the  larger.  They  are 
generally  produced  from  eggs  laid  by  the  parent  in  the  midst  of  the 
substances  suited  for  their  nourishment  ;  but  in  some  cases — as,  for- 
instance,  in  the  Flesh  Fly — the  eggs  are  hatched  within  the  body  of 
the  mother,  and  the  Insects  make  their  first  appearance  in  the  larva 
form.     The  pupa  is  inclosed  within  the  skin  of  the  larva. 

The  habits  of  the  perfect  Insects  are  as  dissirtiilar  as  those  of  the 
larvae.  A  great  number  inhabit  flowers  ;  others  appear  to  feed  upon 
almost  every  description  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter  ;  whilst 
some,  sucli  as  the  Stoiiwxys  attack  Man,  and  other  Animals,  to  suck 
their  blood.  They  are  generally  dingy  in  their  appearance,  although 
some  are  adorned  with  brilliant  colours.  They  exhibit  a  great 
variety  of  form.  The  most  remarkable,  perhaps,  is  that  presented 
by  the  exotic  genus  Dio^sis,  in  which  the  eyes  are  placed  at  the 
extremity  of  long  stalks,  with  the  antennae  close  beside  them.  (See 
Fig.  2157.) 

The  CoHopidm  are  distinguished  by  having  the  proboscis  long, 
elbowed,    and  always   exserted,  with    the   palpi   minute,   and    the 


Fig.  2157. — The  Diopsis  sykesii. 

antennas  furnished  with  a  short  bristle,  which  is  frequently  placed  at 
the  apex  of  the  last  joint.  Most  of  these  Insects  are  elegantly  varie- 
gated in  their  colours.  They  may  be  found  in  great  abundance 
during  the  summer,  hovering  upon  their  powerful  wings  over  flowers 
in  gardens  and  elsewhere.  The  larvEe  are  said  to  be  parasitic  in  the 
interior  of  various  species  of  Humble  Bees. 

In  the  three  following  families,  or  rather  tribes — the  Brachy- 
stoma,  the  Notaca7itka,  and  the  Tanystoma — the  proboscis  usually 
contains  either  three  or  four  bristles.  In  the  Brachystoma,  the 
proboscis  is  very  short  and  membranous,  with  the  lip  generally 
large,  fleshy,  and  bi-loped.  The  bristles  are  usually  four  in  number  ; 
one  group  has  only  three  of  these  organs.  The  antennae  consist  of 
three  joints,  of  which  the  last  has  a  long  bristle  springing  from  its 
back.  The  abdomen  of  the  male  is  usually  bent  round  at  the  apex, 
and  furnished  with  copulative  appendages. 

They  are  generally  large  Flies,  adorned  with  brilliant  colours, 
which,  for  the  most  part,  haunt  flowers,  living  upon  honey.  A  few, 
however,  are  predaceous  in  their  habits.  The  larvae  are  very  various 
in  their  forms,  and  differ  greatly  in  their  mode  of  life.  Many  live  in 
the  earth  ;  others  in  dung  ;  whilst  some  are  found  upon  plants 
amongst  colonies  of  AJ>hides,  which  they  destroy  in  great  numbers, 
sucking  their  juices  by  means  of  a  three-pointed  spine. 

The  larvae  of  the  genus  Volucella  live  parasitically  in  the  nests  of 
Wasps  and  Hornets.  Those  of  the  genus  Eristalis,  which  inhabit 
dirt)'  water  and  other  foul  liquids,  are  furnished  with  a  singular 
telescopic  tail,  which  they  put  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  thus 
breathe,  whilst  all  the  rest  of  their  bodies  is  immersed.  This  group 
is  sub-divided  into  four  subordinate  groups  (families  or  sub-families) 
— the  Dolichopidcz,  the  Syrphida:,  the  TherevidcB  and  the  LcptidtB. 

In  \!ae.Notacantha,  the  apparent  last  joint  of  the  antennae  is  com- 
posed of  several  articulations,  which,  however,  are  generally  more  or 
less  amalgamated  into  an  elongated  mass,  with  the  bristle,  when 
present,  springing  from  its  apex.  The  back  of  the  thorax  is  generally 
spined.  The  proboscis  is  short,  and  contains  four  bristles.  The 
tarsi  are  furnished  with  three  pulvilli.  These  Insects  are  also  fre- 
quently brilliantly  coloured.  They  generally  frequent  flowers.  The 
larvae  live  in  various  situations;  in  the  earth,  in  rotten  wood,  in 
dung,  and  in  water.  The  latter  is  the  habitation  of  the  larvae  of  the 
typical  genus  Straiiomys  (Fig.  2158).  They  breathe,  like  the  other 
Aquatic  Dipterous  larvae,  through  the  tail,  which  is  furnished  with 


a  circle  of  bristles,  to  keep  the  water  from  rushing  into  the  stigmata, 
when  these  are  applied  to  the  surface.  The  pupa  is  inclosed  in  the 
larva  skin. 


Fig,  215S. — Larva,  Pupa,  and  Imago  of  the  Straiiomys  chamcrlcon. 

The  Tanysfuma  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  great  com- 
parative length  of  their  proboscis,  which  is  often  excessively  long  (Fig. 
2159),  and  rarely  terminates  in  a  very  fleshy  lip.  The  bristles  are 
either  four  or  six  in  number.  Tlie  antennae  consists  of  three  joints, 
usually  terminated  by  a  bristle.    The  transformations  of  these  Insects 


Fig.  2159. — The  Ncmeslrina  lonpi-ostris. 


The  larva- 
larv;c  gene- 


Fig.  2160. — The  Talmmis  bovinus. 


are  also  different  from  those  of  the  preceding  groups, 
skin  is  always  cast  on  assuming  the  pupa  state.  The 
reside  in  the  earth. 

It  is  in  the  Bomhyliidcs  that  the  proboscis  attains^  its  greatest 
dimensions  (see  Fig.  2159);  these  are  generally  hairy.  Bee-like 
Flies,  which  suck  their  nourishment  from  flowers  whiht  hovering 
over  them.  In  the  Anthracidcc,  the  proboscis  is  short ;  and  in  the 
AcroceridcB,  the  organs  of  the  mouth  are  sometimes  entirely  want- 
ing. The  Empidcc,  the  Hybottda:, 
the  AsilidcB,  and  the  Mydasida, 
are  all  predaceous  in  their  habits  ; 
as  are  also  the  Tabaiiida:,  the 
well-known  Gad-Jlies,  or  Breeze- 
flics,  so  troublesome  to  cattle,  and 
even  to  man,  which  are  distin- 
guished from  the  oihex  Brac/iyccra 
by  the  possession  of  six  bristles  in 
the  mouth.  In  the  Tabant,  the  last 
joint  of  the  antennae  exhibits  an 
articulated  extremity  (Fig.  2160). 
They  are  amongst  the  largest  of  Dipterous  Insects ;  and  their 
rapacity  and  power  of  annoying  their  unfortunate  victims  are  propor- 
tionably  great. 

Sub-order  IIL — Nemocera. 

General  Characters. — The  Nemocera  are  distinguished  from 
all  the  other  Diptera  by  the  structure  of  their  antennae,  which  are 
always  rather  long,  thread-like,  or  formed  of  bead-like  joints.  The 
palpi  are  also  long,  composed  of  at  least  four  or  five  joints ;  and 
both  the  palpi  and  antennae  are  frequently  plumose.  The  body  is  long 
and  slender,  and  the  legs  often  of  extraordinary  length. 

Sub-divisions. — Few  of  these  Insects  present  anything  "very  at- 
tractive in  their  appearance.  Their  colours  are  almost  always  dingy, 
and  their  bodies  soft ;  but,  like  many  other  creatures  of  the  same  des- 
cription, they  force  themselves  upon  our  notice  by  the  injury  they 
do  either  to  our  persons  or  property  ;  those  of  one  of  the  two  families 
into  which  they  are  divided  being  often  exceedingly  destructive  to 
the  vegetable  productions  of  our  gardens  and  fields  ;  whilst  those  of 
the  other  are  the  most  inveterate  blood-suckers  that  ever  tormented 
Man  or  Beast. 

The  TipitlidcB  are  in  the  former  case.  They  have  the  proboscis 
very  short,  terminated  by  a  pair  of  fleshy  lips,  and  inclosing  only 
two  bristles.     The  Common  Tipulos,  or  Daddy-long-legs,  are  well- 

SI- 


8io 


GNA  TS—B  UTTERFLIES. 


known  examples  of  this  family  ;  and  their  larvse,  which  live  in  moist 
eround,  often  do  great  mischief,  attacking  the  roots  of  grass  in 
meadovvs,  and  sometimes  denuding  whole  fields  of  their  herbage. 
Fig.  2162  represents  Daddy,  or  Father  Long-legs,  A,  a  a  are  the 
halteres,  or  balancers  B,  a,  a,  the  poiscrs  of  another  Fly  ;  C,  a  a  the 
poisers,  b  b,  the  winglets  The  larva;  of  the  Ceadomyia  and  their 
allies  o-enerally  attack  the  young  buds  of  trees,  when  they  produce 
a  sort  of  gall  in  which  they  come  to  maturity;  whilst  other  species, 
such  as  the  Cectdomyia  tritici  and  the  Cecidomyui  destructor,  the 


Fig  2161.— A,  the  Hesian  7\y  ( Cecidomyia  destructor);  B,  the  Wheat   Fly 
(C.  Triciti)  ;  C,  larvre  of  C.  Tricitiitti:\Vig  on  Wheat. 

dreaded  Hessian  fly  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  2161  ),  generally 
attack  the  corn  crops.  The  former  of  these  larva  feeds  on  the 
flower  of  the  wheat,  often  rendering  it  abortive  ;  whilst  the  other 
attacks  the  stem  near  the  ground,  aud  thus  causes  a  still  more 
wholesale  destruction.  The  larvae  of  Chironomus  (Fig.  2163)  and 
its  allies  live  in  standing  water  ;  and  the  Insects  themselves  closely 
resemble  Gnats,  both  in  appearance  and  in  their  habit  of  collecting 


Father,  or  Daddy  Long-legs, 


in  the  evening  in  vast  numbers,  and  dancing  up  and  down  in  the  air. 
The  larvae  of  Chiroiiomus  ;plu}nostis  are  of  a  blood-red  colour,  and 
are  well  known  to  anglers  as  Blood-worms.  The  larvae  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  species  are  found  in  fungi. 


Fig.  2163. — The  Chronomus  fhimosus,  with  its  larva  ;  all  magnified. 

A  few  species  depart  somewhat  from  the  general  peaceful  charac- 
ter of  the  family,  and  suck  blood  with  as  much  avidity  as  their 


neighbours,  the  Gnats.  Amongst  these  the  species  of  Simulium, 
or  Sand-flies,  must  be  especially  noticed,  as  their  bite  often  gives 
rise  to  intensely  painful  swellings.  In  the  family  of  the  Culkida,  or 
Gnats,  which  includes  the  pre-eminently  bloodthirsty  species,  the 
proboscis  is  especially  suited  for  their  work  of  torment.  It  is  often 
half  the  length  of  the  Insect,  slender,  slightly  thickened  at  the  tip, 
and  incloses  six  long,  sharp  bristles.  The  palpi  are  often  very  long, 
and  beautifully  feathered  in  the  males ;    but  in  the  females  these 


Fig.  2164.— The  Gnat  ( Culex  pifiens). 
Female,  natural  size,  and  magnified  ;  head  of  male. 


Fig.  2165. — The  Gnat  escaping  from  its  Pupa. 

organs  are  generally  short.  These  Insects,  their  curious  dances, 
and  the  very  disagreeable  effects  of  their  bite,  must  be  well  known 
to  everyone  ;  but  the  Mosquitoes  of  warm  climates,  which  are  very 
nearly  allied  to  our  indigenous  Gnats,  are  still  greater  pests  ;  and 
the  inhabitants  of  India  are  compelled  to  protect  themselves  when 
asleep,  by  means  of  fine  gauze  curtains,  from  the  attacks  of  these 
bloodthirsty  little  creatures.  The  larvae  of  the  Gnats  live  in  water, 
where  they  swim  about  with  considerable  agility,  breathing  air  by 
placing  the  orifice  of  a  long  caudal  tube  at  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Fig.  2165  represents  the  Gnat  escaping  from  its  pupa. 

Order  X.— Lepidoptera. 

General  Characters. — In  this  last  and  highest  order  of  the 
Suctorial  Insects,  with  a  complete  metamorphosis,  we  meet  with 
creatures  which  must  be  ranked  amongst  the  most  elegant  of  the 
denizens  of  the  air.  The  delicacy  of  the  form  of  many  species,  the 
charming  contrast  of  colour  often  exhibited  in  their  wings,  and  the 
gem-like  brilliancy  of  others,  must  always  render 
them  most  attractive  objects.  The  attention  of 
collectors  has  always  been  more  directed  to  these 
Insects  than  to  those  of  any  other  order. 

The  structure  of  the  mouth  is  almost  always 
sufficient  to  distinguish  a  Lepidopterous  Insect 
from  one  belonging  to  any  other  order.  The  suc- 
torial organ  consists  of  a  spirally-rolled  trunk 
(Fig.  2166)  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  front 
of  the  head,  and  reposing,  when  coiled  up  between 
the  hairy  labial  palpi.  The  construction  of  this 
trunk  has  already  been  described. 

The  wings  are  four  in   number,  membranous, 
generally  nearly  flat,  and  furnished  with  branch- 
ing  nervures.     They    are  usually    covered    with 
minute  scales,  popularly  C3\\e.dt.  feathers,  which 
a,  head  ;  h,  base  of  are,  in  reality,  only  a  peculiar  form  of  the  hairs 
antennce  ;  c,  eye;  with  which  the  wings  of  most  Insects  are  furnished. 
d,  trunk  ;  e,  labial  In  the  Lepidoptera  these  are  set  very  close  toge- 
palpi.  ther,  usually  more  or  less  flattened,  and  laid  over 

one  another  in  the  manner  of  tiles  upon  the  roof  of 
a  house.  Their  form  varies  greatly  in  different  species,  and  even 
on  different  parts  of  the  wings  of  the  same  species  (Fig.  2167).  It 
is  entirely  to  these  scales  that  the  beautiful  colours  of  the  wings  of 
these  Insects  are  due  ;  and  the  metallic  tints  exhibited  by  many 
species  are  owing  to  the  presence  of  very  delicate  striae  upon  the 
scales. 

The  thoracic  segments  are  amalgamated  into  a  more  or  less  ovate 
mass,  generally  clothed  with  hair  ;  the  prothorax  is  very  small.  The 
legs  are  generally  well  developed  ;  but  in  some  species  the  anterior 
pair  is  rudimentary.  The  tibia;  are  spurred,  and  the  tarsi  usually 
composed  of  five  joints. 

The  larvae  of  the  Lepidoptera  are  well  known  as  Caterpillars. 
They  are  generally  of  a  more  or  less  cylindrical  form,  composed  of 
thirteen  segments,  of  which  the  anterior  forms  a  horny  head,  fur- 
nished with  jaws  and  antennas,  and  usually  with  groups  of  simple 
eyes. 

The  jaws  of  the  Caterpillar  are  usually  very  strong,  and  well 
adapted  for  biting  the  firm  vegetable  tissues  upon  which  most  of 
them  feed.  The  mouth  is  composed  of  the  same  parts  as  that  of 
Masticating  Insects.     In  addition  to  the  usual  pair  of  palpi,  the 


Fig. 
and 


2166. — Head 
trunk  of  the 
Butterfly. 


BUTTERFLIES. 


8ii 


labium  bears  a  slender  tubular  organ ,  the  spiniio-ct  (Fig.  2 1 6g?)  .which 
communicates  with  a  pair  of  large  internal  glands,  whose  office  it  is 
to  secrete  the  viscous  substance  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the 
silky  threads  by  means  of  which  most  Caterpillars  secure  themselves 
from  falling,  and  with  which  many  of  them  spin  a  cocoon  in  which 
to  pass  their  pupa  state. 

The  three  segments  following  the  head,  which  correspond  with 
the  thoracic  segments  of  the  perfect  Insect,  bear  three  pairs  of  soft, 
jointed  legs,  terminated  by  a  single  claw  (Fig.  2i-jQ,a)  ;   and,  in 


Fig.  2167. — Scales  from  the  wings  of  the  Gnat-moth. 

addition  to  these,  a  variable  number  of  the  abdominal  segments  are 
also  furnished  with  fleshy  feet,  called  pro-legs  (Fig.  2170,  b,c],  which 
are  of  great  assistance  to  the  creature  in  grasping  any  object  upon 
which  it  may  be  resting  or  walking. 

The  duration  of  the  larvaT-state  is  very  variable  in  these  Insects  ; 
many  of  them  producing  two  broods  annually,  whilst  others  occupy 
two  or  three  years  in  arriving  at  their  perfect  condition.  In  their 
larva  state  they  are  exceedingly  voracious,  often  doing  immense 
damage  to  vegetation.  Most  of  them  accordingly  grow  rapidly,  and 
shed  their  skins  several  times  before  attaining  maturity.  When 
this  period  has  arrived,  the  Caterpillar  seeks  some  sheltered  spot  in 
which  to  undergo  its  change  to  the  pupa  form.  Some  species  select 
the  lower  surface  of  leaves  and  branches  for  this  purpose  ;  others, 


clefts  and  hollows  in  the  bark   of  trees,  walls,  or  palings ;   whilst 
some  bury  themselves  in  the  earth.    Those  which  remain  in  the  air 


Fig,  2169. — Head  and  Jaws  of  Caterpillars. 

A,  from  above.  B,  from  beneath,  a,  eyes;  b.,  antenna;;  c,  labium;  </, 
mandibles  ;  e,  raa.xillx  ;  f,  maxilliaiy  palpi ;  g,  labium  ;  h,  labial  palpi ; 
:,  spinneret. 

always  suspend  themselves  in  various  ways  by  means  of  their  silky 
secretion ;    and   some  inclose   themselves    completely   in    a    silky 


Fig.  2170. — Leg  and  Pro-legs  of  Caterpillars. 

a,  thoracic  leg  ;  /',  pio-leg ;  c,  pro-legs  grasping ;  d,  e,  spiracles  open  and 

closed. 


cocoon,  as  the  Silk-worm.  This  is 
also  done  by  some  of  those  which 
conceal  themselves  in  the  earth ; 
but  many  of  these  only  line  their 
cavity  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
silken  threads  to  keep  its  walls 
from  falling  in  upon  them.  The 
pupa  is  entirely  enclosed  in  a  homy 
case,  in  which  the  position  of  the 
wings  and  limbs  is  indicated  ex- 
ternally only  by  lines  and  other  ele- 
vations. 

In  their  preparatory  stages  the 
Lcpidoptera  are  exceedingly  liable 
to  be  destroyed  by  numerous  spe- 
cies of  Parasitic  Insects,  which  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  larva.  This  then 
continues  to  feed,  ,and  frequently 
even  effects  its  transformation  to 
the  pupa  state,  without  exhibiting 
any  indications  of  the  work  of  de- 
struction which  is  going  on  within. 
These  Parasites,  assisted  by  the  In- 
sectivorous Birds,  keep  the  number 
of  Caterpillars  within  moderate  limts. 
Without  these  checks,  they  would 
soon  destroy  the  fruits  of  the  labours 
of  the  gardener  and  the  husbandman. 


Fig.  2168.— Group  of  Butterflies. 


Fig.  2171. — The  Tortol?c-.s!idl 
BuUcrfly  just  emerged  from  tlic 
chrysalis. 

The  perfect  Insect,  on  fust  emerging 
from  the  pupa  case,  usually  lias  the 
wings  soft  and  crumpled  ;  and  it  is 
not  until  some  little  time  after  it  has 
set   itself  free  from  its    prison,    that 


8l2 


BUTTERFLIES. 


its  wings  become  sufficiently  expanded  to  be  available  for  flight 
(see  Fig.  2171).  Many  Butterflies,  immediately  before  taking  their 
first  flight  into  the  air,  eject  a  red  fluid  from  the  anus,  which,  of 
course,  forms  a  red  spot  wherever  it  falls  ;  and  this — when,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  vast  quantities  of  some  species  of  Butterfly 
lave  simultaneously  attained  the  perfect  state  in  a  particular  dis- 
trict— has  given  rise  to  the  stories  of  bloody  rain. 

Fig.  2168  represents  a  group  of  British  Butterflies,  i  is  the 
Swallow-tail,  Pa^/Zz'o  macJiaon :  2,  the  Purple  Emperor,  or  High- 
flyer, A^tura  iris ;  3,  the  Orange  Argus,  or  Wall  Butter-fly,  HiJ)- 
;parchia  mcgcsra ;  4,  the  Great  Tortoiseshell  Butterfly,  Vanessa 
Ipolychloros ;  5,  the  Small  Tortoiseshell  Butterfly,  Vanessa  urtica  ; 
6,  the  Red  Admiral,  Vanessa  atalanta;  and  7,  the  Peacock's 
Eye,  Vanessa  io.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  Swallow-tail 
Butterfly  is  comparatively  rare  in  England. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Lcpidoptera  are  divided  into  two  great 
groups  or  sub-orders — the  Hete/'ocera  and  the  Rhopalocera.  In  the 
former,  the  antennae  are  of  variable  form,  usually  bristle-shaped, 
and  frequently  plumose,  but  very  rarely  clubbed.  The  hinder  wings 
are  furnished  with  a  bristle  on  their  anterior  margin,  which  serves 
to  keep  the  two  wings  of  each  side  connected  during  flight ;  and  the 
wings  are  never  carried  erect  during  repose.  This  group  includes 
the  numerous  species  of  Moths.  These  are  the  Nocfur)ial  and 
Crepuscular  Le;pidoptera  [N'ociurna  and  Crepusciilaria)  of  many 
Entomologists,  so  called  from  most  of  the  species  flying  only  by  night 
or  in  the  twilight. 

In  t\\e  Rhopalocera,  or  Butterflies,  the  antennae  are  almost  always 
terminated  by  a  club ;  the  wings  are  generally  carried  perfectly 
upright  in  repose,  and  the  hinder  pair  are  not  furnished  with  bristles. 
These  are  the  Diurna  of  some  Entomologists. 

Sub-order  I. — Heterocera. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Heterocera  may  be  divided  into  eight 
groups  or  tribes,  most  of  which  include  several  families.  In  the  first 
of  these,  the  Pterophorina,  or  Plume-moths,  the  wings  are  divided 
into  radiating  finger-like  segments,  fringed  on  both  sides  with  nume- 
rous delicate  hairs,  which  give 
them  the  appearance  of  minute 
feathers.  The  antenna  are  slen- 
der and  bristle-like ;  the  body 
slender  ;  the  legs  long,  and  fur- 
nished with  large  spurs  on  the  tibiae. 
All  these  Insects  have  the  habit 
of  folding  their  wings  like  a  fan 
when  at  rest.  In  some  (Pteropho- 
rus)  the  fore  wings  are  but  parti- 
ally bifid,  and  the  hind  wings  divi- 
ded into  three  segments  ;  whilst  in 
others  {Aluciia,  Fig.  2172)  the  whole  of  the  wings  are  composed  of 
feather-like  pieces.  One  genus  arranged  in  this  tribe  has  the  wings 
entire.     They  are  all  of  comparatively  small  size. 

The  second  tribe,  the  Ti/ieina,  includes  a  multitude  of  minute 
Insects,  often  of  the  most  elegant  forms,  and  adorned  with  colours 
as  brilliant  as  those  of  the  largest  species  of  the  order.  They  are 
distinguished  by  their  filiform  or  bristle-shaped  antennse,  which  are 
very  rarely  plumose  ;  but  in  many  species  they  attain  a  considerable 
length,  and  are  generally  longer  than  the  body ;  and  by  their 
narrow,  elongated  wings,  always  terminated  or  edged  by  a  long 
fringe.  The  palpi  are  usually  of  great  length,  and  often  of  singular 
form. 

The  Caterpillars  are  provided  with  eight  or  ten  pro-legs,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  thoracic  members.  They  inhabit  the  most  various  situa- 
tions ;  and  most  of  them  either  shelter  themselves  within  the 
substance  upon  which  they  are  feeding,  or  form  themselves  little 
cases,  which  they  carry  about  with  them.  The  majority  feed  upon 
green  vegetable  matter  ;  many  of  these  mine  in  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  plants  ;  whilst  others  live  upon  the  surface,  in  small  cases  neatly 
made  of  a  little  piece  of  leaf.      The  most  destructive  species  are 

those  which  live  upon  dry  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  amongst 
which  the  well-known  C'othes- 
moths,  and  the  Corn-moth  {Tinea 
gra7icUa),  which  attacks  corn  in 
granaries,  are  the  most  noted. 
Two  species  of  Galleria  live  in 
Bee-hives,  to  which  they  often  do 
great  damage. 

The  Insects  of  the  third  tribe, 

the  Tortricina,  are  distinguished 

by   their   shoit  filiform    antennae, 

which    are   rarely   feathered,    and 

their  broad  triangular  wings.     The 

'  ma.xillary  palpi  are  inconspicuous, 

the  labial  palpi  elongated,  and  the  body  shorter  and  thicker  than  in 

the   Tineina.     The  head  is  generally  furnished  with  ocelli. 

The  larvae  possess  sixteen  feet ;  they  live  upon  the  leaves  of  trees 


Fig.  2172. — The  Aluciia  hexadadala. 


Ki-;. 


2173. — O.ik-lcaf  rolling  Cater- 
pillar (  TortrU  virJana). 


and  plants,  which  they  generally  roll  np  into  a  sort  of  tube  (Fig. 
2173).  Within  this  they  feed  in  security;  and  here  they  also  under- 
go their  transformations.  From  this  habit  they  have  obtained  their 
common  name  of  Leaf-rollers  ;  and  their  scientific  name  {Tortrix 
ioriricina)  has  nearly  the  same  meaning.  When  they  occur  in 
great  numbers,  these  Insects  are  often  exceedingly  injurious  in 
orchards  and  plantations. 

In  the  Pyralidina  the  antenna;  are  also  rather  short  and  filiform  ; 
those  of  the  males  are  somewhat  pectinated.  The  labial  p.ilpi  are 
generally  very  long,  and  the  maxillary  palpi  tolerably  conspicuous. 
The  wings  are  elongated  and  triangular,  and  the  legs  very  long. 
The  Caterpillars  are  usually  furnished  with  fourteen  feet  and 
covered  with  short  hairs ;  they  live  upon  leaves,  and  often,  like  the 
Insects  of  the  preceding  groups,  do  much  damage.  1\iQ  Pyralis 
vitis  {^\g.  2174)  is  very  destructive  in  wine  countries;  and  other 
species  are  frequently  injurious  to  trees  in  orchards.  The  larva  of 
Pyralis  farinalis  lives  upon  flour  and  meal ;  and  that  of  the  Aglossa 
piiigiiinalis  upon  butter,  grease,  and  similar  substances. 

In  the  Geometrina  the  antenna;  of  the  females  are  filiform,  but 


•(- 


Fit;.  2174. — The  Pyralis  vitis. 
4,  male  at  rest;  dfi,  female  flying ;  4^,  caterpillar;  /\c,  eggs  ;  4^4/'.  pupa. 

those  of  the  males  usually  plumose  ;  they  are  generally  a  little 
longer  than  the  thorax.  The  wings  are  large  and  broad,  and  the 
body  slender.  The  name  of  this  group  is  derived  from  the  structure 
and  habits  of  the  Caterpillars,  which  are  popularly  known  under  the 
name  of  loopers.  These  only  possess  four  pro-legs,  placed  quite  at 
the  extremity  of  the  body.  In  progressing,  the  Caterpillar  holds  by 
its  thoracic  feet ;  brings  the  hinder  extremity  close  to  these,  bending 
the  body  into  a  loop  ;  adheres  by  the  pro-legs,  and  then  again  ex- 
tends the  fore  part  of  the  body  for  a  fresh  step.  In  this  manner  they 
proceed,  apparently  measuring  the  ground  over  which  they  travel ; 
whence  they  have  received  the  name  oi geometricians.  Many  of 
them  present  a  close  resemblance  in  colour  and  texture  to  a  piece 
of  dry  twig,  and  they  take  advantage  of  this  to  deceive  their  enemies, 
adhering  often  for  hours  to  one  spot  by  their  pro-legs,  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  body  stretched  out  in  a  straight  line.  The  Cater- 
pillars of  these  Insects  are  also  very  injurious  to  fruit  trees — that  of 
the  Magpie  Moth  (Fig.  2175),  which  inhabits  gooseberry  bushes, 
often  strips  them  almost  entirely  of  their  foliage. 

The  tribe  of  Nocturna  includes  a  great  number  of  Moths,  of  mid- 
dling, or  large  size,  generally  of  dull  colours,  and  strictly  nocturnal 
in  their  habits.  The  antenna  are  generally  bristle-like,  rarely 
pectinated,  or  even  notched,  generally  a  little  longer  than  the  head 
and  thorax  ;  the  palpi  are  short ;  the  wings  large,  the  anterior  pair 
longer,  but  narrower  than  the  posterior,  which  are  slightly  folded  in 
repose.  The  body  is  rather  thick,  and  the  legs  are  generally  stout. 
The  Caterpillars  are  generally  naked,  and  furnished  with  sixteen 
feet.     The  pupa  are  usually  inclosed  in  a  loose  cocoon. 

A  few  exceptions  to  the  usual  sombre  colouring  of  the  Insects  of 
this  tribe  are  to  be  met  with,  principally  in  species  which  are  more 
diurnal  in  their  habits  than  the  rest.  The  Catocalce  and  Triphccna: 
are  distinguished  by  the  bright  red  and  orange  colour  of  their  pos- 
terior wings  ;  and  the  Piiisia,  which  often  fly  in  the  bright  day- 
light, have  the  anterior  wings  adorned  with  metallic  tints  and 
markings. 

The  Boinbycina  have  very  short  antennae,  generally  plumose  or 
pectinated,  especially  in  the  males.  The  wings  are  large,  the  pos- 
terior pair  being  broadest,  and  generally  adorned  with  bright 
colours.  The  body  is  thick,  and  rather  short ;  the  legs  are  stout  ; 
and  the  spiral  trunk  is  either  altogether  absent  or  very  short.  This 
tribes  includes  some  of  the  largest  species  of  the  order  ;  and  its  im- 
portance is  greatly  increased  by  the  circumstance  that  the  Silkworm 
Moth  [Bombyx  mori)  belongs  to  it. 

Of  the  commercial  importance  of  this  Insect  it  is  hardly  necessary 


THE  SILKWORM. 


813 


to  speak.  Our  chief  supply  of  the  silk  it  produces  is  obtained  from 
Italy,  China,  and  Japan,  but  numerous  attempts  have  been  made 
to  rear  it  in  other  places.  A  trial  in  England,  however,  proved  un- 
successful. 

Fig.  2176  represents  the  Silk-worm  in  its  various  stages — a  and 
b,  the  male  and  female  Moth  ;  c,  the  eggs ;  d,  the  pupa  removed 
from  the  cocoon  ;  e,  the  Caterpillar. 

In  this  species  the  Caterpillar  is  about  eight  weeks  in  arriving  at 
maturity,  during  which  period  it  changes  its  skin  four  or  five  times, 
and  ultimately  prepares  for  assuming  the  pupa  state.  It  then  pre- 
pares a  nest  of  silk,  or  cocoon,  the  whole  of  which  is  composed  of  a 


delicate  silk,  and  then  uniting  the  fine  threads  with  gum  or  fluid 
silk,  given  out  in  sufficient  quantity  to  bind  them  all  together. 

Here,  then,  in  a  shroud  of  pale  yellow  glossy  silk,  the  Caterpillar 
JDecomes  a  pupa ;  and  here,  if  permitted,  the  pupa  throws  off  her 
last  investment,  and  emerges  a  perfect  Moth.  But  the  question 
now  IS,  how  IS  the  Moth  to  get  out  of  the  silken  tenement  in  which 
while  a  Caterpillar  she  had  locked  up  herself,  leaving  no  aperture  ? 
The  Moth  makes  her  way  out  by  destroying  the  continuity  of  the 
silken  threads  at  one  end  of  the  cocoon  by  means  of  a  liquid  solvent 
discharged  from  its  mouth  ;  it  then  presses  forward,  and  the  cocoon 
opens.     The  latter,  however,  is  now  utterly  spoiled  for  all  useful  pur- 


Fig.  2175. — Tlie  Magpie  Moth  ( Abraxas  grossulariala). 
Caterpillar,  pupa,  and  imago. 

single  thread,  arranged  in  two  modes.  To  form  the  exterior  en- 
velope, the  Caterpillar,  having  fixed  upon  a  space  between  two 
leaves  or  two  stems,  or  other  convenient  site,  draws  a  thread  from 
its  spinneret  and  fi.\es  it  to  an  adjoining  surface  :  it  then  conducts 
the  thread  to  another  point  and  there  secures  it,  and  this  it  con- 
tinues, drawing  the  threads  from  point  to  point,  in  various  directions, 
until  it  has  surrounded  itself  with  a  loosely-spun  maze,  the  scaffold- 
ing for  the  support  of  the  interior  cocoon.  Fixing  itself  by  its  pro- 
legs  to  some  of  the  surrounding  threads,  it  bends  its  head  from  side 


Fig.  2176.— The  Silkworm. 

to  side,  and  spins  a  layer  of  silk-threads,  to  which  it  incessantly 
adds  until  it  is  sufficiently  deep  ;  it  then  shifts  its  position,  and  repeats 
the  operation  in  another  place,  and  so  on,  repeating  its  labours  till 
the  cavity  is  reduced  to  the  proper  size.  Hence,  therefore,  the 
cocoon  is  not  formed  of  a  thread  wound  round  and  round  the  Cater- 
pillar, but  backwards  and,  forwards,  in  a  series  of  zigzags,  so  as  to 
form  a  number  of  separate  pads  or  cushions.  The'  length  of  the 
thread  composing  the  inner  or  true  cocoon,  without  including  the  ex- 
terior case,  is  not  less  than  900  or  1,100  feet;  but  so  great  is  its 
tenuity  that  the  threads  of  five  or  six  cocoons  require  to  be  put  together 
to  form  one  of  sufficient  thickness  for  the  working  of  the  manu- 
facturer. The  thread  of  the  inner  cocoon  alone  is  valuable  ;  the 
outer  tissue  is  too  much  interwoven  to  be  wound  off,  but  it  has  been 
otherwise  utilised.  We  must  add,  that  the  chamber  of  the  true 
cocoon,  in  which  the  pupa  is  housed,  is  lined  with  a  tapestry  of  silken 
threads  gummed  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form  a  uniform  surface  ; 
this  appears  to  be  effected  by  drawing  from  the  spinneret  a  more 


Fig.  2177.— The  Saturnia promcthais,  with  ils  caleipillar,  cocoon,  and  pupa. 

poses,  and  hence  the  breeders  kill  the  pupa  by  exposing  the  cocoon 
to  a  certain  degree  of  heat. 
_  The  Bo})ibyx  cynthia,  the  Arrindy  Silkworm  of  India,  furnishes  a 
silk  which  is  said  to  possess  astonishing  durability.  The  Caterpillar 
feeds  upon  the  Castor-oil  plant  {Ricinus  communis),  and  has  been 
introduced  into  the  south  of  Europe,  and  into  the  French  possessions 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  with  some  probability  of  success.  Several 
other  species  of  these  Insects  furnish  silk. 

The   Safuniia  promeiheus  (Fig.    2177),  a  fine  North  American 
species,  nearly  allied  to  the  preceding,  is  remarkable  for  inclosing 
its  cocoon  within  a  leaf  of  the  tree  on 
which  it  habitually  resides.       Amongst 
British  species,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  Gasfropacha  qucrcifolia,  or 
Oak-lappet  Moth  (Fig.  2178),  in  which 
the  under  wings  project   on  each  side  of 
the  upper  ones    when  the    Insect   is  at 
rest,   giving  it  a  very    singular  aspect, 
not  unlike  a  bunch  of  dead   leaves,  the 
Insect   itself  being  of  a  brown    colour. 
Its  mode  of  life,  in  the  larva  state,  is  not 
less  curious.     The  larvae  live  in    a   large 
community  within  a   silken  nest,  which 
they  weave  for  themselves  ;  and  on  leav- 
ing  it  in   search    of  food,    they  form   a 
regular  procession,  one  taking  the  lead, 
followed    by     a     certain    number     two 
abreast ;  then   three,    and   so   on,    until 
they  sometimes   march  in   ranks  of  ten 
or  more.     Hence  they  are  called  Pro- 
cessionary  Caterpillars,  and   the   larva: 
of  several  allied  species  have   the   same 
singular  habit. 
The  Goat  Moth  {Cossus  ligniperda),  which  is  one  of  the  largest 


2 1 78. —The   Oak-lappet 
Moth. 

(Gastropaclia  qturcifolia). 


8i4 


BUTTERFLIES. 


British  LcpMoptcra,  also  belongs  to   this   tribe  ;    the  larva  feeds 
upon  the  wood  of  willows,  to  which  it  often  does  iminense  injury. 

The  Psychidcs,  a  faniily  of  singular  small  Moths,  generally  placed 
with  this  group,  are  remarkable  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
larvae  form  portable  cases  for  their  protection,  similar  to  those  con- 
structed by  the  Caterpillars  of  many  Tineina.  In  these  they 
undergo  their  transformations;  and  the  females  of  many  of  the 
species,  which  are  often  footless,  grub-like  creatures,  do  not  leave 
this  case,  but  are  sought  by  the  male  whilst  still  inclosed.  This 
circumstance  has  given  rise  to  an  impression  that  these  Insects  pro- 
duced fertile  eggs  without  congress  with  the  male  ;  but  this  opinion 
proves  to  be  unfounded  in  most  cases  ;  although,  according  to 
Siebold's  observations,  some  of  them  exhibit  phenomena  of  repro- 
duction exactly  analogous  to  those  presented  by  the  viviparous 
Aphides,  already  described. 


phant  Hawk-moth,  DeilephUa  clpcnor.  Perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able species  of  this  tribe  is  the  Death's-head  Moth  {Achcro7iticl. 
afropos),  a  large  species,  variegated  with  dark  brown  and  yellow, 
and  which  bears  upon  the  back  of  the  thorax  a  deep  orange 
mark,  presenting  no  inconsiderable  resemblance  to  the  front  of  a 
human  skull.  Hence  this  Insect,  whenever  it  has  occurred  in  suffi- 
cient plenty  to  attract  general  attention,  has  always  been  regarded 
as  ominous  of  pestilence— a  feeling,  probably,  not  diminished  by  its 
power  of  emitting  a  plaintive  squeak  when  disturbed.  '  The  larva  is 
very  partial  to  the  potato  plant,  and  the  pupa;  are  often  turned  up  in 
digging  potato  grounds.  The  Moth,  which  has  a  very  short  trunk, 
is  a  great  enemy  to  Bees,  invading  their  hives,  and  feeding  upon 
their  honey.  It  is  supposed  to  frighten  the  Bees  by  the  squeaking 
noise  above  referred  to  ;  for  though  it  possesses  no  weapons,  and 
the  Bees  are  well  armed,  they  never  appear  to  attack  the  intruder. 

A  considerable  group  of  small  Insects,  be- 
longing to  this  tribe,  have  transparent  mem- 
branous wings,  only  partially  clothed  with 
scales.  Amongst  these,  one,  the  Sesia  tipuli- 
Jormis,  is  very  common  in  gardens,  where  its 


Fig.  2l79.^Group  of  Moth?,  Caterpillars,  and  Pupa, 

Fig.  2179 represents — i,  the  Lappet  Moth  {GastropacJia  qtiaxi- 
folia);  2,  the  Emperor  Moth,  {^Saturnia  pavonia);  3,  the  Oak 
Egger  Moth  {Lasiocatnpa  qiiercus)  ;  4,  the  Small  Egger  Moth 
(Eriogasicr  lanestn's) ;  5,  the  Great  Tiger  Moth  {Arctia  caja) ; 
6,  the  Cream-spot  Tiger  Moth  {Arctia  villicd);  7,  the  Ground 
Lackey  Moth  {Clisiocainpa  casirensis);  8,  the  Glory  of  Kent 
{Etidfomis  vcrsicolora). 

In  the  Sphi?!gina,  the  last  tribe  of  Heterocerous  Lepidoptera,  the 
antennae  are  thickened  in  the  middle  or  towards  the  end,  but  termi- 
nate in  an  acute  point.  They  are  generally  prismatic  in  their  form, 
and  frequently  pectinated  or  toothed  internally.  The  wings  are 
generally  long  and  narrow,  but  firm,  and  adapted  for  powerful  flight ; 
and  the  trunk  is  almost  always  well  developed  ;  sometimes  longer 
than  the  body.  The  name  of  the  Sphinx,  applied  to  the  typical 
genus  of  these  Insects,  is  derived  from  the  habit  the  larvas  have  of 
sitting  with  the  head  and  fore  part  of  the  body  raised  in  an 
attitude  which,  to  a  fanciful  imagination,  bears  some  resemblance  to 
the  Sphinx  of  the  ancients.  Most  of  these  Insects  fly  in  the  twilight ; 
but  some  are  to  be  found  hovering  over  flowers  in  the  brightest  sun- 
shine, extracting  the  nectar  by  means  of  their  long  trunks.  They 
are  generally  of  considerable  size,  and  the  appearance  of  the  larger 
species  is  well  shown  in  the  following  figure  (Fig.  21S0)  of  the  Eie- 


Fig.  2180.— The  Elephant  Hawk-Molh. 
Deilephila  elpenor. 

Caterpillars  feed  in  the  interior  of  the  twigs  of 
the  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes.  The  transi- 
tion to  the  Rhopalocera  is  effected  through 
the  Castniidce  and  Uraniidce,  two  groups  of 
Butterfly-like  Insects,  of  which  the  latter,  at 
all  events,  has  frequently  been  placed  in  the 
following  sub-order. 

Sub-order  II.— Rhopalocera. 

This  sub-order,  including  the  numerous 
beautiful  species  of  Butterflies,  which  probably, 
as .  a  group,  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 
charming  of  Insects,  forms  only  a  single  tribe, 
which,  however,  is  divided  into  numerous 
families  and  sub-families.  They  are  all  diur- 
nal in  their  habits,  fluttering  about  from  flower 
to  flower  in  the  hottest  sunshine  ;  and  nearly 
all  of  them  carry  their  wings  upright  over  their 
backs  in  repose  (Fig.  2181).  It  is  in  hot  cli- 
mates that  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
species  abound.  Under  the  burning  rays  of 
the  tropical  sun,  numerous  brilliantly  metallic 
species  sport  like  living  gems ;  and  even 
those  not  adorned  with  metallic  tints  exhibit 
an  elegance  and  variety  of  colouring  which  is 
perhaps  not  surpassed  by  any  other  productions  of  nature. 

Beautiful  as  these  creatures  are,  however,  their  structure  and 
habits  exhibit  so  little  diversity  that  we  may  pass  them  over  with 
but  a  few  words.     The   Caterpillars,  which  feed  upon  the  leaves  of 

various  plants,  are  almost  always 
furnished  with  sixteen  feet.  They  are 
as  voracious  as  the  larvae  of  the 
Moths  ;  some  of  them,  such  as  those 
of  the  Cabbage  Butterflies  {Poiitia 
brassiccs  and  Rapce),  often  doing 
great  injury  in  gardens.  The  Cater- 
pillars of  the  family  Papi/ionida;,  of 
which  the  only  British  species  has 
already  been  figured,  with  its  trans- 
formations, are  furnished  with  a 
curious  forked  retractile  process  on 
the  back  of  the  neck,  wliich  has  been 
supposed  to  be  employed  in  frightcn- 
„.  Q  T-,  n  ■  >;  •..,  i"ff  ^'^'^y  Insect  foes.'  The  pupas, 
F.g.  2iSi.-Thc  D,nmsfle.r,f/a.  ordinarily     known     as     Chrysi/ides, 

are    usually  more  or  less   angular  ; 
these  angles  often  becoming  so  prominent   as  to  take  the  form  of 


THE  HYMENOPTERA. 


8iS 


spines.  Unlike  the  pupae  of  many  Moths,  they  are  not  enclosed 
within  a  cocoon,  but  either  simply  suspended  by  the  tail,  or  furnished 
with  the  additional  security  of  a  little  silken  band  round  the  middle. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  native  species  is  the  Peacock 
Butterfly  (  Vanessa  w),  the  wings  of  which  are  adorned  with  splendid 
eye-like  spots.  Its  Caterpillar  "feeds  upon  nettles.  (See  Fig.  2182.) 
Several  other  charming  British  species  belong  to  the   same  genus 


Fig.  21S2. — The  Peacock  Butterfly  (Vanessa  io). 

with  the  Peacock  Butterfly.  Of  these  the  commonest  are  the 
Tortoiseshell  [V.  Uriiccs),  and  the  Red  Admiral  (F.  ^ /«/««/«)  ;  the 
Caterpillars  of  both  feed  on  the  nettJe.  The  Painted-lady  Butter- 
fly [Cy/i/hia  ca>-dui)  is  another  beautiful  species,  which  is  also 
common  everywhere. 

The  Coppers  {Polyommati),  and  the  Blues  {Lyccenai),  with  their 
brilliant  metallic  tints,  are  also  very  charming,  although  their  size 
is  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  Insects  above  referred  to.  The 
sptcies  of  the  genus  Argyntits,  of  which  one  of  the  commonest 


Fig.  21S3. — The  Argynnis  faphia. 

is  represented  in  Fig.  2183,  are  elegantly  marked  with  silvery  spots 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  wings.  A  group  of  British  Butterflies 
has  been  given  in  Fig.  2168,  ante. 

Okder  XL— Hymenoptera. 

General  Characters. — The  order  Hymeno;ptera,  the  first  of 
the  Mandibulate  Metabolous  Insects,  includes  a  vast  number  of 
species,  amounting,  according  to  the  calculations  of  Kirby  and 
Spence,  to  about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  Insect  world  ;  and  some 
of  these  certainly  exhibit  the  highest  development  of  instinct,  or 
perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  reason,  that  we  meet  with  amongst 
Invertebrate  Animals.     It  includes  among  others  the  Bee  tribe. 

These  Insects  are  generally  distinguishable  at  the  first  glance, 
by  the  structure  of  their  wings,  whicli  are  almost  always  present, 
and  four  in  number,  of  a  membranous  texture,  and  transversed  by  a 
few  nervures,  which,  by  their  union,  form  regular  cells.  The  form 
and  arrangement  of  these  cells,  in  some  groups,  afford  the  most  im- 
portant generic  characters  ;  and  Entomologists  have  distinguished 
them  by  particular  names.  A  few  species  are  destitute  of  wings, 
and  in  others  the  wings  present  no  nervures.  The  hinder  pair  is 
always  smaller  than  the  anterior,  and  the  connection  between  the  two 
wings,  during  flight,  is  usually  maintained  by  means  of  a  series  of 
minute  hooks  placed  on  the  anterior  margin  of  the  hinder  wing. 

The  mouth  is  always  furnished  with  a  pair  of  strong  mandibles, 
and  in  most  cases  with  maxilte  and  other  organs  of  the  usual  form  : 
but  in  many  species  the  maxilte  and  labium  are  converted  into  a 
suctorial  organ,  the  construction  of  which  has  already  been  de- 
scribed in  our  introductory  remarks.  The  eyes  are  generally  large, 
and  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  of  which,  in  the  males,  they 
sometimes  occupy  nearly  the  whole  surface  ;  the  ocelli  are  usually 
three  in  number.  The  whole  body  is  enclosed  in  a  scaly  armour  ; 
its  three  great  divisions  are  usually  very  distinct,  but  the  thoracic 
segments  are  more  or  less  fused  into  a  mass,  the  prothorax  being 
generally  distinct.  The  legs  are  generally  long,  and  the  tarsi  com- 
posed of  five  joints. 


The  Hymcnoftcra  arc  also  distinguished  from  the  other  Insects 
with  membranous  wings,  by  the  presence  of  an  ovipositor  of  peculiar 
construction  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen  in  the  females,  which 
not  only  serves  for  placing  the  eggs  in  the  required  position,  but  also 
in  many  species  (Bees,  Wasps,  iec.)  constitute^  a  most  formidable, 
offensive  weapon.  As  the  structure  of  this  organ,  whicli  is  rarely 
absent,  is  essentially  the  same  throughout  the  order,  the  form  of  its 
component  parts  being  merely  modified  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the 
different  Insects,  a  short  description  of  its  general  construction  will 
not  be  out  of  place  here.  The  ovipositor,  or  sting,  generally  con- 
sists of  five  pieces;   a  pair  of  horny  valves  (Fig.  2184,  i,  2),  which 


Fig.  21S4. — Sting  of  the  Bee. 

form  a  sheath  for  the  true  sting  or  ovipositor  ;  these  arc  jointed  at 
the  point  where  they  issue  from  the  cavity  of  the  last  abdominal 
segment,  and  the  last  joint  is  usually  as  long  as  the  sting  itself. 
The  latter  consists  of  three  bristles,  of  which  the  superior  (Fig.  2184, 
4)  is  channelled  along  its  lower  surface,  for  the  reception  of  a  pair 
of  finer  bristles  (Fig.'  2184,  3  and  5),  which  are  toothed  at  the  lip, 
These  three  pieces,  when  fitted  together,  form  a  narrow  tube,  through 
which  the  ^gg  passes  to  its  destination  ;  and  through  this,  also,  the 
poisonous  fluid,  which  renders  the  sting  of  the  Bee  so  painful,  is  in- 
jected into  the  wound.  In  the  Saw-flies,  as  we  shall  see,  one  of 
these  parts  is  rudimentary ;  but  in  other  respects  the  organ  remains 
the  same. 

The  sting  of  the  Bee  is  really  a  formidable  instrument,  and  so 
extremely  acute,  that  a  good  glass  will  not  render  the  extreme  point 
visible,  as  it  will  that  of  a  needle.  It  consists,  as  already  stated,  of 
an  extensile  sheath,  enclosing  two  needle-shaped  darts  much  finer 
than  a  human  hair,  and  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eye  ;  these  with  the  sheath  together  form  the  sting,  and  the  whole 
of  the  parts  are  numerously  barbed  at  the  point ;  hence  when  plunged 
into  the  skin,  the  Bees  can  seldom  withdraw  them,  and  they  are 
consequently  wrenched  out  of  the  Insect's  body,  most  probably  to  its 
speedy  destruction  :  the  sting  is  moved  by  powerful  muscles,  eight 
in  number,  according  to  Swammerdam,  which,  by  their  action,  pro- 
trude from  its  recess  and  urge  into  the  skin  ;  it  appears  that  each 
part  of  the  sting  is  capable  of  separate  movement.  On  more  than  one 
occasion,  when  the  sting  of  a  Wasp,  the  point  of  which  has  been 
just  forced  into  the  skin,  has  with  the  whole  apparatus  been  torn 
from  the  Insect's  body,  have  we  seen  the  muscles  continue  their 
movements,  and  that  for  a  considerable  time.  Were  the  sting  of  a 
Wasp  or  Bee  a  simple  sharp  weapon,  it  would  give  not  so  much 
pain  as  the  puncture  of  a  needle,  but,  as  we  well  know,  it  produces 
very  great  pain  and  inflammation.  As  in  the  case  of  Snakes,  the 
poison  of  the  Bee  and  Wasp  has  acid  properties,  and  will  change 
vegetable  blues  to  red.  Chemically  speaking,  the  acid  is  called 
Formic  acid.  . 

Instances  are  on  record  in  which  persons  have  lost  their  lives  from 
the  attack  of  a  horde  of  Bees  ;  and  serious  results  from  their  stings 
are  by  no  means  of  uncommon  occurrence.  To  small  Animals  it  is 
fatal ;  and  Fontana  considers  a  single  grain  of  the  poison  sufficient 
to  destroy  a  Pigeon. 

Fig.  2185  exhibits  another  view  of  the  structure  of  the  sting  of  the 
Common  Bee  :  a,  the  terminal  ring  of  the  abdomen,  cut  open  so  as 
to  expose  the  recess  in  which  the  sting  and  its  appendages  are  seen  ; 
b,  the  sting,  and  its  appendages  removed  from  the  abdomen  ;  c,  a 
profile  of  the  sting  and  appendages  :  all  are  greatly  magnified,  but 
in  different  degrees.  Fig.  2186  shows  the  poison-bag  of  the  Bee 
attached  to  the  base  of  the  sting,  highly  magnified. 

The  larvae  of  most  of  the  Hymenoptera  are  footless  grubs  (Fig. 
2187),  usually  furnished  with  a  soft  head,  exhibiting  but  little,  if 
any,  advance  upon  the  maggots  of  the  Diptcra.  The  pupa:  are 
quiescent  (Fig.  2188),  completely  enveloped  in  a  delicate  skin,  each 
limb  being  inclosed  separately.  In  the  Saw-flies,  however,  the 
larva,  instead  of  being,  as  above  described,  a  mere  footless  maggot, 
presents  the  closest  resemblance  to  the  Caterpillars  of  the  Lepido- 
ptera,  being  provided  with  a  distinct  horny  head,  and  not  only  with 
six  thoracic  legs,  but  also,  in  most  cases,  with  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
pro-legs,  which  are  situated  upon  the  abdominal  segments. 

Sub-divisions. — As  the  diflferences  just  referred  to  in  the  larvae 
of  these  Insects  are  accompanied  by  an  equal  diversity  in  the 
structure  and  mode  of  life  of  the  perfect  Insects,  we  thus  obtain  an 
excellent  means  of  dividing  the  Hymenoptera  into  two  sub-orders ; 


8i6 


THE  HY3IEN0PTERA. 


those  with  Caterpillar-like  larvas  having  been  regarded  by  McLeay 
as  diverging  so  greatly  from  the  rest  of  the  Hymcno;ptera  as  to 
warrant  their  complete  separation.  Jn  these,  forming  the  sub-order 
Securifera,  the  abdomen  is  attached  to  tlie  thorax  by  its  whole 
breadth  ;  whilst  in  the  other  sub-order,  the  Petiolata,  it  is  supported 
on  a  slender  foot-stalk  of  greater  or  less  length. 


Fig.  21S5. — iitiug  ot  Ece. 


Fig.  2 1 86. — Poison  Bag  of  Bee. 

The  Hymeno;ptcra  have  generally  been  divided  into  two  great 
sections,  the  Tei-cb7-aniia  and  Aculeata,  in  one  of  which  the 
ovipositor  is  employed  solely  in  the  operation  of  egg-laying  ;  whilst 
in  the  other  it  is  converted  into  a  sting  by  its  connection  with  a 
poison-gland.  By  this  arrangement,  however,  Insects  with  a  very 
different  metamorphosis,  and  exhibiting  a  great  diversity  of  general 
structure,  are  brought  together  ;  and  we  have  preferred  adopting 
the  method  given  above,  which  appears  to  be  more  natural. 


ifJ?^ 


Fig.  21S7. — Larvje  of  Bee,  natural 
size  and  magnified. 


Fig.  2188.— Pupa  of  Bee, 
magnified. 


Sub-order  I. — Securifera. 

The  Sccurifcrous  Hymeno;ptera,  of  which  the  Perfect  Insects 
may  always  be  distinguished  by  their  sessile  abdomen,  are  vege- 
table feeders  in  all  stages  of  their  existence.  They  form  two  tribes, 
of  which  one,  the  Phyllophaga,  always  feed  upon  the  leaves  or 
other  soft  parts  of  plants  ;  whilst  the  Xylcphaga  burrow  in  the 
woody  portions,  and  there  find  their  nourishment. 

The  Phyllopltaga  are  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  construction 
of  the  ovipositor,  which  has  procured  them  the  name  of  Saiv-Jlies, 
by  which  they  are  popularly  known.  This  organ  (Fig.  2189),  's  com- 
posed of  a  pair  of  broad,  serrated  plates,  the  analogues  of  the  inferior 
bristles  of  the  Bee's  sting  (see  Fig.  2185  atite).  The  superior  chan- 
nelled bristle  is  considered  by  Burmeister  to  be  reduced  to  the  form 
of  a  tubercle,  which  keeps  the  bases  of  the  saws  separate  ;  whilst, 
according  to  Westwood,  this  bristle  is  divided  into  two  parts,  repre- 
sented by  the  dorsal  portion  of  the  serrated  plates.  This  saw-like 
organ  is  protected  on  each  side  by  a  jointed  horny  plate,  and  the 
whole  is  generally  received  within  the  lower  surface  of  the  last  ab- 
dominal segment.  By  the  agency  of  these  curious  and  elegant 
organs,  the  female  Saw-fly  cuts  numerous  minute  slits  in  the  stems 
or  leaves  of  plants,  in  each  of  which  she  lays  an  egg  accompanied  by 
a  drop  of  fluid,  which  is  supposed  to  have  some  influence  in  prevent- 
ing the  closing  of  the  wound,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  irritation  thus 
set  up  causes  the  formation  of  a  gall,  within  which  the  larvae  live 
and  feed.     As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  larvae,  when  hatched, 


leave  their  shelter  and  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  plants.  The  species 
are  generally  confined  to  certain  kinds  of  plants,  to  which,  when 
they  are  produced  in  groat  numbers,  they  often  do  immense  mischief. 
Thus  the  larvas  of  the  Athalia  centifolia:,  known  to  farmers  as  the 


Fig.  21S9. — A,  extremity  of  the  abdomen  of  the  Saw-fly,  showing  the  two 
saws,  c,  extended  ;  a,  the  terminal  joint  of  the  abdomen  ;  and  b,  the  two 
internal  horny  sheaths.  B,  a  small  portion  of  one  of  the  saws  very  highly 
magnified. 

Nigger  or  Black  Caterpillar,  has  occasion.-illy  done  incredible 
damage  to  turnips  in  this  country  ;  and  that  of  another  species,  the 
Nematus  grossulari,\%no\.  less  destructive  to  gooseberry  bushes. 
The  larva;  of  other  species  infest  fruits,  living  and  feeding  in  the 
interior,  and  causing  them  to  fall  off  whilst  still  immature.  They 
are  almost  always  furnished  with  pro-legs  in  addition  to  the  thoracic 
members.     Fig.  2190  represents  a  j>ortion  of  the  Saw-fly's  rasp. 

Fig.  2 191  represents  the  Saw- 
fly  of  the  gooseberry  above  men- 
tioned— a  a  a  ;  on  the  leaf  b  its 
eggs  are  shown,  adhering  to  the 
nur\'ures ;  d  d,  the  caterpillars 
\  eating ;  c,  one  rolled  up  ;  f,  one 
^"x;.  extended. 

Before    changing  to   the    pupa 
Fig.  2190.— Part  of  the  Saw-fly's     state,   these    larvae    usually    spin 
^^^P-  a  cocoon,   some  of  them  remain- 

ing attached  to  the  twigs  of  the 
plants  infested  by  them  ;  others  burrowing  down  into  the  pith  ;  and 
others  again  seeking  security  in  the  earth.  The  perfect  Insects 
generally  make  their  appearance  in  the  spring  or  early  summer. 


■-^m 


Fig.  2191.— Saw-fly  of  the  Gooseberry. 

passing  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state.  In  the  perfect  state  they 
frequent  flowers  ;  and  although  generally  of  small  size,  and  rarely 
adorned  with  very  brilliant  colours,  most  of  them  are  elegant 
Insects. 

In  the  second  tribe,  the  Xylo-phaga,  the  ovipositor  differs  in  its 
structure  from  that  of  the  Saw-flies,  and  approaches  that  of  the 
following  sub-order.  It  projects  from  the  abdomen,  whence  the 
name  of  Tailed  Wasps,  popularly  applied  to  the  commonest  species 
in  this  country  (Fig.  2192),  is  derived.  The  second  joint  of  the 
lateral  plates  is  also  prolonged,  forming  a  sheath,  within  which 
three  bristles  are  concealed,  the  upper  one  being  the  largest,  and 
channelled  beneath  for  the  reception  of  the  two  lower  bristles. 
These  three  bristles,  forming  the  true  ovipositor,  or  borer,  are  all 
serrated  at  the  extremity. 

The  larvae,  which  only  possess  six  thoracic  legs,  live  in  the  trunks 
of  trees,  especially  firs,  burrowing  through  the  wood  in  various 
directions,  and  often  causing  extensive  damage.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  these  Insects  are  parasitic  upon  the  larvae  of  other  Wood- 
boring  Insects  ;    but  this  opinion  appears  to  have  arisen  entirely 


THE  GALL  INSECTS. 


817 


from  errors  of  observation.  They  are  rare  in  this  country ;  but  upon 
the  continent  of  Europe,  where  pine  forests  are  more  abundant,  they 
often  make  their  appearance  in  immense  numbers,  and  commit  very 
serious  depredations  upon  the  timber.     Specimens  of  Sirex  gigas 


Fig.  2192. — The  Sirex  gigas. 

are  occasionally  taken  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London  ;  but  these 
have,  in  all  probability,  been  imported  in  the  pupa  state  in  timber. 

Sub-order  II,— Petiolata. 

The  Petiolata,  distinguished  by  the  Maggot-like  form  of  their 
larvae,  and  by  the  union  of  the  abdomen  with  the  thorax  by  the  inter- 
vention of  a  slender  footstalk,  form  two  principal  groups,  the 
Terebrantia  and  the  Aculeata.  In  the  former  the  ovipositor, 
although  similar  in  construction  to  that  of  the  Aculeata,  appears  to 
be  exclusively  intended  for  the  business  of  oviposition.  Some  species, 
indeed,  will  apply  this  organ  to  the  purpose  of  self-defence  when 
captured  ;  but  even  if  they  puncture  the  skin,  they  rarely  leave  that 
lasting  pain  which  is  so  disagreeable  an  accompaniment  of  the 
stings  of  the  True  Aculeata.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
Terebrantia  are  parasitic  upon  other  Insects ;  but  one  tribe,  that  of 
the  Gallicola,  consists  almost  entirely  of  vegetable-feeding  Insects. 
These  are  generally  of  minute  size,  with  straight  antennae,  composed 
of  thirteen  to  fifteen  joints  ;  the  wings  exhibit  only  a  few  nervures, 
and  the  palpi  are  short.  Their  most  striking  character  consists  in 
the  structure  of  the  ovipositor,  which  is  bent  into  the  form  of  an  S 
within  the  abdomen,  its  extremity  passing  up  through  a  channel 
formed  by  the  ventral  plate  of  the  last  abdominal  segment.  Its 
construction  otherwise  departs  in  no  respect  from  the  general  cha- 
racter of  the  order.  By  means  of  the  ovipositor — which  can  be 
exserted  or  retracted  at  pleasure — the  females  puncture  the  leaves, 
buds,  and  other  parts  of  plants  and  trees,  depositing  an  ^^^  in  the 
wound,  accompanied  probably  by  some  irritating  fluid,  which  causes 
a  diseased  growth  in  the  part,  and  thus  produces  the  excrescences 
known  as  galls.  Within  this  domicile,  the  lar\'a  lives,  feeds,  and 
attains  its  maturity.  Here  it  also  undergoes  its  transformations  ;  and 
it  is  not  until  its  arrival  at  the  perfect  state,  that  it  eats  its  way  out, 
and  becomes  a  free  denizen  of  the  air. 

The  oak  is  especially  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  Gall-fly  ;  the 
species  called  Cynips  quercus-folii  attacks  the  leaves.  Fig.  2193 
represents  the  Galls  of  Oak-leaves,  with  the  Insect  of  the  natural  size. 


Fig.  2193. — Galls  of  Oak-leaf,  and  Insect  (Cynips  quercus-folii). 

The  Cynips  lays  her  eggs  by  means  of  a  long  ovipositor,  which  in 
some  species  is  conspicuous  at  all  times,  but  in  most  is  coiled  up 
spirally  within  the  abdomen,  and  invisible  until  protruded,  when  it 
appears  like  a  very  slender  curved  needle,  longer  than  the  body  of 
the  Insect  itself.  The  mechanism  by  which  it  is  darted  out  is 
analogous  to  that  connected  with  the  tongue  of  the  Woodpecker,  and 
it  is  completely  under  the  control  of  the  Insect.  Fig.  2194  represents 
the  ovipositor  of  a  species  of  Cynips  greatly  magnified.  Fig.  2 195  shows 
the  mode  in  which  it  is  coiled  up  in  the  abdomen,  and  the  Fly  itself, 
highly  magnified.  By  means  of  this  instrument  the  Cynips  pierce^  the 
outer  skin  or  cuticle  of  the  leaf,  or  twig,  and  introduces  her  ^gg, 


accompanied,  probably,  by  some  secretion  capable  of  deranging  the 
organic  actions  of  the  circulatory  and  secretory  vessels,  for  in  a 
short  time  the  Qgg  becomes  surrounded  by  a  thickened  layer,  which 
gradually  increases,  assuming  different  forms  according  to  the 
species  of  Cynips,  and  of  the  tree  it  has  selected.  The  gall  tubercle 
may  be  then  considered  as  the  result  of  diseased  action  on  the  part 
where  the  puncture  has  been  made  ;  but  what  it  positively  is  that 
produces  that  diseased  action,  and  how  it  is  that  the  same  kind  of 


Fig.  2194. — Ovipositor  of  the  Gall-fly.         Fig.  2195.— The  Gall-fly. 

gall  should  invariably  be  produced  by  the  same  Insect,  are  points 
respecting  which  we  are  in  the  dark.  Besides,  in  many  instances  it 
is  not  a  mere  nut  or  apple  that  is  produced,  but  a  truly  morbid 
excrescence,  with  unnatural  filaments  like  moss  growing  over  it. 
Look  at  the  Bedeguar-gall  of  the  dog-rose,  produced  by  the  Cynips 
roscB.  This  is  so  common  that  it  must  be  familiar  to  all ;  it  is  a 
sort  of  ball  or  apple,  covered  with  red  mossy  filaments,  on  the  stems 
of  wild  dog-roses.  This  singular  excrescence  results  from  several 
punctures,  and  the  deposition  of  as  many  eggs,  and  is  often  of  con- 
siderable size.  In  this  the  larvae  live,  each  lodged  in  its  own  cell, 
and  as  they  there  pass  the  winter,  the  thick  mossy  covering  pre- 
serves them  from  the  intense  severity  of  the  cold,  and  is  the  more 
necessary  as  the  edges  are  bare  of  leaves,  and  afford  but  little 
shelter;  besides  which,  the  excrescence  is  often  seated  high,  and 
exposed  to  the  wind.  Early  in  the  spring  the  larva  undergo  their 
change  into  the  pupa  state,  previously  to  which  they  work  their  way 
out  of  the  dried  and  indurated  gall-nut  by  means  of  their  sharp 
mandibles,  and  in  summer  undergo  their  final  change  into  the  winged 
state,  to  decorate  in  their  turn  the  rose-trees  with  other  mossy  balls. 

Another  species,  the  Cynips  querciis-gemmcs,  produces  very 
singular  galls,  termed  from  their  scaled  appearance  artichoke 
galls.  They  are  placed  on  the  twigs,  and  might  be  mistaken  for 
buds ;  in  size  they  exceed  a  filbert,  and  are  composed  externally  of 
concentric  leaves,  overlapping  each  other  like  pointed  scales,  and 
are  evidently  intended  as  a  means  of  protecting  the  larvae  within 
from  the  cold  of  winter.  To  theorise  on  the  mode  in  which  these 
leaflets  are  produced  is  useless ;  however  it  may  be,  thev  are 
rapidly  formed,  as  indeed  are  all  other  galls,  and  soon  acquire  their 
full  growth. 

A  structure  in  some  respects  similar  is  produced  on  the  stalk  of 
the  Dyer's  Broom  by  the  Cy?iips  genistcB.  These  galls,  which  vary 
in  size  from  that  of  a  filbert  to  a  walnut,  are  generally  of  a  globular 
shape,  the  stem  passing  through  the  centre  ;  externally  it  is  com- 
posed of  a  multitude  of  leaflets,  each  rolled  up,  the  point  ending  in  a 
bristle.  Internally  its  substance  is  fleshy,  and  on  it  feed  multi- 
tudes of  larvae  so  minute  as  to  be  discerned  with  difficulty.  It  would 
seem  that  the  buds  of  the  branch  bearing  this  gall  never  push  out 
into  shoots,  but  only  developed  leaves,  which  are  all  rolled  up  and 
turned  round  the  stem,  indicative  of  a  general  morbid  action. 

A  very  remarkable  gall,  but  by  no  means  common,  is  produced  on 
the  oak  by  a  species  of  Cynips.  It  appears  in  the  form  of  a  woolly 
or  cottony  substance  around  the  twig  at  the  origin  of  the  leaves,  and 
might  be  mistaken  for  a  cluster  of  the  Aphis  lanata,  covered  with 
their  white  down.  Internally  the  gall  resembles  in  substance  the 
bedeguar  of  the  rose,  but  the  cells  in  which  the  larva;  are  lodged  are 
not  so  irregularly  scattered,  but  arranged  at  the  offgoings  of  the 
leaf-stalks ;  there  are  also  small  isolated  groups  of  cells.  The 
woolly  covering  is  analogous  to  the  moss  which  invests  the  bede- 
guar of  the  rose,  and  seems  intended  as  a  protection. 

The  young  shoots  of  the  hawthorn  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a 
Fly,  not  a  Cynips,  but  probably  a  Cecidomya,  which  produces  a 
semigall,  formed  by  a  crowded  bunch  of  leaves,  which  appear 
curled  and  half-withered,  and,  as  it  were,  crumpled  up  together  • 
the  twig  which  they  terminate  is  stunted,  and  the  intertwined  leaves' 
moreover,  are  covered  with  minute  spines  ;  among  these  leaves 
numerous  minute  white  larvae  work  their  way,  keeping,  however  in 
the  centre  of  the  foliage  which  encloses  them. 

5  M 


8i8 


THE  TRUE  ANTS,  AND  WASPS. 


Those  galls  of  the  oak  called  Oak-apples,  so  often  seen  on  the 
slender  twigs,  are  formed  by  a  species  of  Cynips  {Cynips  quercus),  and 
often  attain  to  a  large  size.  Galls  are  often  to  be  found  on  the  bark 
of  the  oak  at  the  line  of  junction  between  the  root  and  stem.  They 
are  similar  in  structure  to  the  Oak-apple,  and  are  probably  produced 
by  the  same  or  a  closely  allied  species,  and  at  a  season  of  the  year 
in  which  the  buds  or  young  twigs  are  unfit  for  the  reception 
of  eggs. 

We  may  here  notice  the  galls  of  commerce,  so  valuable  as  one  of 
the  ingredients  used  for  dyeing,  and  so  remarkable  for  their  astrin- 
gent quality  and  bitterness.  These  are  the  production  of  a  species 
of  Cynips,  and  occur  chiefly  on  the  Quercus  htfcctoria  :  they  vary 
in  size  and  quality,  the  largest  equalling  a  nutmeg  in  magnitude, 
•while  others  are  not  much  larger  than  a  pea,  and  no  doubt  they  are 
produced  by  a  distinct  species  of  Fly.  The  surface  is  generally 
covered  with  irregular  lines  and  little  ridges,  and  their  external 
crust  is  hard  and  woody.  One  variety  is  white  or  yellow,  aiiother 
dusky  olive,  green,  grey,  or  nearly  black.  The  white  variety  is  the 
largest,  but  the  least  esteemed,  and  is  often  pierced  with  a  small 
aperture,  through  which  the  Insect  had  made  its  exit.  These  are 
obtained  in  Syria  and  Cyprus.  The  best  or  dark  galls  are  imported 
from  Aleppo  and  Smyrna.  Fig.  2196  represents  the  galls  of  com.- 
merce,  and  the  Insect  Cyni;ps  gallcBtinctorim,  which  produces  them. 


Fig.  2197. — The  Fcrniis. 


Fig.  2196. — The  Commercial  Gall,  and  its  Insects  (Cynips  galla:  tmctoria). 

The  Dead  Sea  Apples,  which  have  been  the  subject  of  frequent  con- 
troversy, are  also  galls  produced  by  the  puncture  of  a  small  Insect. 
The  second  tribe  includes  an  immense  assemblage  of  Insects — 
some  of  considerable,  others  of  minute  size — which,  from  their 
constant  habit  of  passing  their  larva  state  as  Parasites  upon  other 
Insects,  have  received  the  name  of  £nfomoj>haga.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Gadicola  by  having  the  ovipositor  of  the  usual 
construction,  straight,  and  inserted  at  the  apex  of  the  abdomen. 
It  is  sometimes  concealed,  sometimes  more  or  less  exserted,  and  in 
the  latter  case  often  attains  a  great  length  (Fig.  2197). 

Insects  of  every  order,  and  in  every 
stage  of  their  existence,  are  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  these  Parasites,  which  are 
well  known  under  the  name  of  Ichneu- 
mons and  Cuckoo-flies.  They  introduce 
their  eggs  into  the  bodies  of  their  victims 
by  piercing  them  with  their  ovipositor. 
Aiinute  size  is  no  protection  ;  for  many 
species  lay  their  eggs  in  Aphides,  Cocci, 
and  the  larvje  of  other  small  Insects. 
The  Ichneumons,  with  long  ovipositors, 
seek  the  burrows  of  wood-boring  In- 
sects, whose  larvae  they  are  enabled  to 
reach  by  means  of  this  organ.  Each 
species  usually  infests  a  particular  spe- 
cies of  other  Insects,  and,  singular  as  it 
may  appear,  many  of  these  Parasitic 
larvae  are  again  preyed  on  by  others, 
whose  parents  are  directed,  by  unerring 
instinct,  to  the  selection  of  the  proper  position  for  the  nourishment 
of  their  offspring. 

This  vast  tribe  is  divided  into  four  great  families.  In  the  Ev- 
a?iii(IcB  the  abdomen  is  attached  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  meta- 
thorax,  and  the  antennse  are  straight  ;  the  IchaeumoJiidcB  also  have 
straight  antenna  ;  but  the  abdomen  is  attached  to  the  extremity  of 
the  metathorax.  In  the  Chalcididcs  and  Proctotrupidis,  which  are 
generally  minute  Insects,  the  antennae  are  elbowed,  and  the  wings 
are  neatly  veinless ;  but  in  the  former,  the  palpi  are  short,  and  the 
pupa  is  naked  ;  whilst  in  the  latter,  the  palpi  are  long,  and  the  pupa 
is  enclosed  in  a  cocoon. 

In  the  preceding  Insects  the  abdomen  is  composed  of  six  or  seven 
distinct  segments  ;  but  in  the  Tubulifcra,  forming  the  third  tribe,  it 
appears  to  consist  only  of  three  or  four,  or  at  most  five  segments  ; 
the  remainder  being  converted  into  a  tubular  telescopic  organ,  at 
the  extremity  of  which  a  minute  sting  or  ovipositor  is  situated.  The 
antennae  of  these  Insects,  which  appear  to  constitute  a  transition 
from  the  Terebrant  to  the  Aculeate  sections,  are  composed  of  thirteen 
joints  in  both  sexes,  the  basal  joint  being  elongated,  and  the  an- 
tenna; bent  or  elbowed  at  its  extremity. 

These  Insects — of  which  one  species  {Chrysis  ignita)  is  well 
known  in  this  country  under  the  name  of  the  Ruby-tail — generally 


exhibit  a  gem-like  brillinacy  of  colour ;  the  thorax  being  usually  of  a 
fine  metallic  blue  or  green,  and  the  abdomen  of  a  most  splendid 
ruby  colour. 

We  now  pass  to  the  Aculeate  series  of  Hymenoptera,  in  which 
the  ovipositor  not  only  serves  for  the  extrusion  of  the  egg,  but  also 
conveys  a  poisonous  and  acid  fluid  into  the  wounds  which  it  inflicts. 
The  antena;  in  these  Insects  are  almost  always  composed  of  twelve 
joints  in  the  females,  and  of  thirteen  in  the  males;  the  four  wings 
are  veined,  and  the  veins  of  the  anterior  pair  are  always  arranged 
so  as  to  form  distinct  and  regular  cells,  the  number  and  form  of 
which  have  been  found  to  furnish  valuable  characters  for  the  generic 
groups.  The  abdomen  in  the  males  consists  of  seven  joints,  and  of 
six  in  the  females. 

The  Aculeate  Hymenoptera  are  divided  into  four  tribes,  of  which 
three  are  predaceous  in  their  habits,  living  principally  or  entirely 
upon  Animal  matter  ;  whilst  the  fourth  seeks  its  nourishment  entirely 
in  the  secretion  of  flowers. 

The  first  tribe,  the  Hctcrogyna,  including  the  True  Ants,  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  Insects,  which  live  in  communities,  composed  of 
three  distinct  kinds  of  individuals— males,  females,  and  neuters. 
The  males  and  females  are  winged,  the  former  during  the  whole, 
the  latter  during  a  part  only  of  their  existence  in  the  perfect  state. 
TJiey  make  their  appearance  in  great  numbers  at  a  particular 
period  of  the  summer,  when  they  quit  the  nest  in  which  their  pre- 
paratory stages  have  been  passed,  and  copulate  in  the  air.  When 
this  has  been  accomplished,  the  males  speedly  die ;  but  the  females 
lose  their  wings,  and  crawl  aTiout  upon  the  ground,  until  they  fall  in 
with  some  neuters,  which  immediately  seize  upon  them,  and  convey 
them  to  their  nest.  The  neuters,  as  they  are  called,  which  form  the 
bulk  of  the  community,  are  in  reality  females,  in  which,  probably  from 
difference  of  food  in  the  larva  state,  the  sexual  organs  have  remained 
undeveloped.  Like  the  perfect  females,  they  are  furnished  with  a 
sting.  It  is  upon  these  that  the  entire  labour  of  the  society  de- 
volves;  they  form  the  nest,  carry  off  the  eggs  when  laid  by  the 
female,  and  attend  to  the  larvae,  feeding  them  with  the  utmost  care. 
The  nests  of  Ants  exhibit  a  great  diversity  of  structure,  but  the 
larvae  are  never  inclosed  (as  in  the  Social  Bees  and  Wasps)  in  cells. 
The  nest  consists  of  numerous  chambers,  communicating  by  wind- 
ing passages  ;  excavated  sometimes  in  the  ground,  sometimes  in 
heaps  of  earth,  or  other  matters  raised  above  the  surface,  and,  in 
some  cases,  in  the  trunks  of  old  trees. 

In  the  second  tribe,  the  Fossoria,  or  Burrowing  Hyme7ioptera, 
we  no  longer  find  communities  of  three  kinds  of  individuals  :  these 
Insects  are  solitary  in  their  habits,  and  both  the  males  and  females 
are  usually  winged.  The  wings  lie  flat  upon  the  back  in  repose. 
The  tongue  is  never  elongated  and  thread-like  ;  and  the  legs  are 
constructed  solely  for  walking  and  burrowing,  and  never  dilated  to 
form  instruments  for  carrying  pollen.  The  females  of  these  Insects 
excavate  little  burrows  in  wood  or  in  the  ground  ;  in  the  latter  case 
generally  selecting  a  sandy  locality,  whence  the  name  of  Sand-wasp 
is  applied  to  some  of  them.  In  these  burrows  they  lay  their  eggs, 
accompanied  by  a  supply  of  food  for  the  use  of  the  larva,  consisting 
of  other  Insects,  Spiders,  &c. 

The  Insects  composing  the  third  tribe,  the  Diploptera  (with  the 
exception  of  a  single  genus),  are  distinguished  from  all  other 
Hymenoptera ,  by  having  the  wings  folded  longitudinally  when  at 
rest,  forming  a  pair  of  long  narrow  organs  running  down  the  sides 
of  the  body.  The  tongue  is  rather  long  ;  the  maxillae  are  long  and  co- 
riaceous in  their  texture  ;  and  the  eyes  are  notched,  or  kidney  shaped. 

The  Common  Wasp  (  Vespa  vulgaris)  may  be  taken  as  the  type 
of  this  tribe.  This  Insect,  as  is  well  known,  lives  in  extensive  com- 
munities, inhabiting  a  nest  formed  in  holes  of  the  ground  ;  and  Iiere, 
as  in  the  Ants,  we  find  that  the  mass  of  the  community  is  composed 
of  barren  females  (workers).  In  the  Wasps  these  are  winged,  so 
that  the  difference  between  them  and  the  queens,  or  fertile  females, 
is  less  striking  than  amongst  the  Ants.  But,  in  addition  to  these 
Social  Wasps,  there  is  a  considerable  number  which  are  solitary  in 
their  habits,  possessing  only  individuals  of  the  two  sexes,  perfect 
males  and  perfect  females,  of  which  the  latter  form  nests  or  burrows, 
wherein  they  lay  their  eggs,  after  stocking  them  with  food,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Fossorial  Hymenoptera. 

The  Wasp  is  generally  seen  in  great  abundance  in  the  autumn 
and  latter  part  of  the  summer ;  and  its  fondness  for  luscious 
fruits,  for  sugar,  and  even  for  flesh,  is  known  to  all.  It  is  very 
rapacious,  and  will  attack  and  devour  weaker  Insects  ;  it  is  also 
bold  in  defence  of  its  nest,  or  vespiary.  A  vespiary  during  the 
season  of  bustle  and  activity  contains  the  following  inhabitants  : 
first,  females  of  two  sorts,  a  large  variety,  the  founders  of  a 
future  colony,  and  a  smaller  variety,  producing,  it  is  believed, 
only  male  eggs  ;  secondly,  workers ;  thirdly,  males  ;  and  fourthly, 
eggs  and  young.     But  there  is  no  honey,  and  no  store  of  food. 

The  vespiary  of  the  Common  Wasp  is  of  a  roundish,  or  oval  figure  ; 
externally  it  presents  a  coat  of  tiling,  or  rather  of  thin  overlapping 
pieces  of  greyish  paper  like  liule  flat  oyster- shells  ;  these  cover  a 
number  of  layers  (fifteen  or  sixteen)  constituting  the  wall  of  the  cell, 
within  the  hollow  of  which  the  plates  of  cells  or  combs  are  arranged. 
These  in  a  finished  vespiary  are  from  twelve  to  sixteen  in  number, 


THE  BEE  TRIBE. 


8:9 


and  are  placed,  not  vertically,  as  in  the  bee-hive,  but  horizontally, 
the  cells  being  on  the  under  side  of  each  table.  These  tables  are 
not  only  fixed  to  the  sides  of  the  outer  walls,  but  have  their  centre 
supported  by  suspension  rods,  like  colonnades  of  pillars  with  the 
base  and  capital  wider  than  the  shaft.  The  top  of  each  table  forms 
a  floor,  where,  amidst  the  suspension  rods,  the  Wasps  can  walk 
about,  attending  to  the  young  in  the  cells  above  their  heads,  having 
a  clear  space  of  about  halt  an  inch  from  the  cells  to  the  platform. 
Tw-o  holes  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest,  to  each  of  which  a  covered  way 
leads,  are  the  doors,  one  of  ingress,  the  other  of  egress,  and  orifices 
admit  of  access  from  one  stage  to  another.  The  whole  structure  is 
generally  about  three  feet  in  circumference ;  we  have  seen  larger 
and  smaller.  In  the  building  of  this  beautiful  structure  the  dome  is 
first  finished ;  then  brought  lower  down  and  another  plate  added, 
and  secured  to  the  former  by  stout  suspension  rods.  The  first  layer 
or  two  is  the  work  of  the  solitary  female  ;  the  workers  in  due  time 
come  to  her  assistance,  and  cany  on  the  operations,  which  are  not 
completed  till  the  middle  or  close  of  autumn.  Winter  comes,  and  it 
then  only  serves  as  the  dormitory  of  a  few  females.  These  in  the 
spring  commence  the  whole  over  again,  for  the  same  structure  is 
never  used  a  second  season. 

The  Hornet  ( Vespa  crabro)  builds  essentially  the  same  kind  of 
structure  as  the  Wasp,  but  of  a  coarser  material ;  the  colour  of  the 
papier-mache  is  generally  of  a  yellowish-brown.  This  Insect  often 
takes  up  its  situation  in  the  hollows  of  logs  or  decayed  trees,  which 
it  enlarges  to  suit  the  size  of  the  vespiary.  The  strong  mandibles  of 
the  Hornet  enable  it  to  work  with  facility,  not  only  upon  the  soft 
wood,  but  even,  as  Reaumur  says,  to  bore  a  winding  way  to  the  nest 
through  the  solid  and  undecayed  substance  of  the  tree.  It  is  not, 
however,  always  that  the  Hornet  builds  in  the  hollows  of  trees  ;  it 
often  rears  its  vespiary  in  thatch,  or  under  the  tiles  of  old  barns  and 
outhouses. 

The  last  tribe  of  the  Hymenoptera,  the  Anthophila,  or  Flower- 
lovers,  is  distinguished  by  having  the  basal  joint  of  the  posterior 
tarsi  dilated  and  flattened,  and  often  furnished  with  an  apparatus  of 
bristles,  adapting  it  for  the  conveyance  of  pollen  (Fig.  2198).  The 
labium  and  maxillae  are  more  or  less  elongated,  generally  forming  a 
trunk.  The  Perfect  Insects  feed  exclusively  upon  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  and  the  larvae  upon  this,  and  upon  pollen. 

In  some  Bees,  forming  the  i3Ln\\\y  Andreiiidcc, 
the  trunk  is  short  and  blunt  at  the  apex.  In  these 
it  is  the  basal  portion  of  the  lower  lip  (the  mentuin 
or  chi?i)  that  is  elongated.  The  posterior  legs  are 
not  constructed  for  carrying  pollen.  These  Insects 
are  solitary  in  their  habits  ;  the  females  forming 
burrows  in  the  ground,  in  which  they  deposit 
their  eggs,  in  the  midst  of  masses  of  pollen  and 
honey.  Numerous  eggs  are  laid  in  the  same 
burrow ;  each  furnished  with  a  separate  mass  of 
paste,  and  divided  from  its  neighbours  by  a  little 
earthern  partition.  In  the  True  Bees  {Apidce) 
the  tongue  is  elongated. 

In  these  we  meet  with  a  great  variety  of  habits 
— some  are  solitary  ;  and  of  these  some  burrow  in 
the  ground,  like  the  Andrenidcs ;  others  form 
nests  in  dead  wood  {Xylocopa,  Fig.  2199) ;  others, 
termed  Mason  Bees  {Osmi'a),  construct  their  cells  of  grains  of  sand 
agglutinated  together  ;  and  others,  again,  known  as  Upholsterer 
Bees,  or  Leaf-cutting  Bees,  line  their  nests  with  pieces  of  leaf, 
which  they  cut  as  neatly  as  if  it  were  done  with  a  pair  of  scissors. 
The  Cuckoo  Bees  {NomadcB),  elegant  and  gaily-coloured  Insects, 


Fij.  2198. — Hind 

leg  of  Working  Hive 

Bee. 


Fig.  2199. — The  Xylocota,  or  Carpenter  Bee,  with  its  nest. 

save  themselves  the  trouble  of  nest-making,   by  depositing   their 
eggs  in  the  cells  of  their  more  industrious  brethren. 

In  the  Social  Bees,  which  exhibit  the  instinctive  faculties  in  their 
highest  development,  we  again  meet  with  three  sets  of  individuals — 
males,  females,  and  workers.  It  is  upon  the  latter  that  the  labour 
of  the  community,  the  construction  of  the  nest,  and  the  rearing  of 


the  young,  generally  devolve  ;  although,  amongst  the  Humble  Bees 
{Bombt),  the  females  also  take  part  in  these  operations.  In  these, 
as  in  the  Wasps,  the  continuation  of  the  species,  from  year  to  year, 
depends  upon  the  impregnated  females,  which  pass  the  winter  in  a 
state  of  torpidity,  and  in  the  spring  construct  a  small  nest,  and 
bnng  up  their  first  brood  by  their  own  exertions.  Besides  the 
neuters,  we  find  two  kinds  of  females  in  the  communities  of  Bombus 
—the  large  females,  which  found  the  colonies,  and  smaller  ones, 
which  assist  in  the  labour  of  the  nest,  and  are  said  to  produce  only 
male  eggs. 

The  nests  of  the  Humble  Bees  are  generally  constructed  of  moss. 
They  contain  a  few  waxen  cells,  in  which  the  young  are  brought  up. 
Both  the  females  and  workers  have  the  basal  joint  of  the  posterior 
tarsi  enlarged  and  excavated,  forming   what   has   been   termed  a 


Fig.  2200.— The  Bombus  lapidaritts,  with  the  jaws  of  the  male  and  female. 

basket,  for  the  conveyance  of  pollen.     These  are  wanting  in  some 
species  {Apathies)  which  are  Parasitic  in  their  habits. 

In  the  Hive  Bees,  the  society  is  permanent— that  is  to  say,  the 
workers,  as  well  as  the  females,  survive  the  winter,  during  which 
period  their  stores  of  honey  are  intended  for  their  support.  Like 
those  of  the  Humble  Bees,  their  communities  consist  of  three  kinds 
of  individuals — males,  females,  and  neuters  (Fig.  2201).  We  never, 
however,  except  at  the  period  of  swarming,  meet  with  more  than  one 


Fig.  2201. — Hive  Bees  ;  A,  Queen  ;  B,  male,  or  Drone  ;  C,  Worker. 

female  in  the  hive.  The  whole  duty  of  the  construction  of  the  comb, 
and  the  care  of  the  young,  devolve  upon  the  workers,  whose  in- 
cessant activity  has  rendered  them  the  most  appropriate  types  of 
industry.  The  comb,  as  is  well  known,  consists  of  beautiful  hexa- 
gonal cells,  constructed  with  mathematical  accuracy  (see  Fig.  2202). 
It  is  perpendicular,  and  composed  of  a  double  series  of  cells,  placed 
end  to  end  in  such  a  manner  that  the  end  of  each  cell  is  closed  by 


Fig.  2202. — Part  of  the  Honey-comb  of  Bees. 

three  waxen  plates,  each  of  which  also  assists  in  completing  one  of 
the  cells  of  the  other  side  of  the  comb.  By  this  arrangement  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  cells  may  be  constructed  in  a  given 
space  with  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  material.  In  these  cells 
the  eggs  are  laid.  Here  also  the  larvze  are  brought  to  maturity  by  the 
care  of  the  workers;  and  when  no  loneer  reouired  as  nurseries  for 


820 


THE  COLEOPTERA,  OR  BEETLES. 


the  young,  the  cells  are  employed  as  a  store  for  honey.  The  eggs 
which  are  to  give  birth  to  males  are  placed  in  cells  a  little  larger 
than  those  of  the  workers.  Those  from  which  females,  or  queens, 
are  to  be  produced,  are  deposited  in  cells  of  peculiar  construction, 
and  the  larva;  are  fed  upon  a  different  food  from  that  of 
the  workers.  When  the  population  of  the  hive  has  grown  too 
large,  a  portion  of  the  workers  emigrate,  accompanied  by  a  young 
queen  ;  this  is  termed  swarming.  Many  other  details  relative  to 
these  interesting  and  valuable  Insects  will  be  found  in  the  works  of 
Entomological  writers  ;  and  we  may  refer  the  reader  especially  to 
the  Introduction  of  Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence,  which  contains  much 
interesting  information  on  the  subject. 

Order  XII.— Strepsiptera. 

We  come  now  to  a  small  order  of  minute  Insects  which  are  para- 
sitic in  the  interior  of  numerous  species  of  Bees  and  Wasps,  and  the 
history  of  which  is  so  singular  as  to  have  given  rise,  for  many  years, 
to  a  great  deal  of  speculation  amongst  Entomologists.  The  males 
are  generally  rather  elegant  little  creatures,  and  are  furnished  with  a 
single  pair  (the  posterior)  of  large  membranous  folding  wings,  the 
place  of  the  anterior  wings  being  occupied  by  a  pair  of  curiously 
twisted  organs.  The  mouth  is  provided  with  slender  jaws,  and  with 
a  pair  of  palpi  ;  but  it  appears  to  be  doubtful  whether  the  males  take 
any  nourishment  after  their  arrival  at  the  perfect  state. 

The  females,  which  were  long  taken  for  the  larvae,  present  the 
appearance  of  soft  Maggots,  furnished  with  a  horny  head,  which 
they  protrude  between  the  segments  of  the  Bee  in  which  they  are 
parasitic,  the  remainder  of  the  body  remaining  concealed.  On  ex- 
amining this,  it  is  found  to  contain  a  number  of  eggs,  and  to  exhibit 
a  broad  canal  running  up  to  the  head,  on  the  under  surface  of  which 
it  opens.  Through  this  opening  the  male  fecundates  the  eggs,  the 
female  never  quitting  the  body  of  the  Bee  ;  and  the  larvae  are 
hatched  within  the  body  of  their  mother,  from  which  they  escape  by 
creeping  up  the  canal  above  mentioned.  In  their  earliest  state 
they  are  active,  little,  six-footed  creatures,  which  were  long  supposed 
to  be  Parasites  upon  the  Strepsipterous  parasite.  They  attach 
themselves  to  the  bodies  of  Bees  and  Wasps,  by  whom  they  are  thus 
conveyed  into  their  nest. 

The  position  of  these  Insects  in  the  system  has  always  been  a 
puzzle  to  Entomologists,  and  can  scarcely  yet  be  considered  settled. 
By  some  authors  they  have  been  placed  amongst  the  Hymenoptera  ; 
by  others  amongst  the  Diptera  ;  by  others  as  intermediate  between 
these  two  orders,  or  between  the  second  order  and  the  Lepidoptera. 
In  their  general  structure,  however,  they  appear  to  approach  the 
Coleoptera,  amongst  which  they  are  arranged  by  some  recent  Ento- 
mologists ;  and  their  proper  position  is  probably  between  the 
Coleoptera  and  the  Hymenoptera. 

Order  XIII.— Coleoptera. 

General  Characters.— The  leading  characteristic  of  the  vast 
order  of  Coleoptera  (from  Koleos,  a  shield,  and  ptera,  wings),  or 
Beetles,  consists  in  the  leathery  or  horny  texture  of  the  anterior 
wings  [elytra^,  which  serve  as  sheathes  for  the  posterior  wings  in 
repose,  and  generally  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back.  The 
posterior  wings  are  membranous,  and  much  larger  than  the  anterior 
pair  ;  they  are  the  sole  organs  of  flight,  and  are  folded  both  longi- 
tudinally and  transversely  when  not  in  use.  They  never  exhibit  the 
radiating  folds  and  nervures  which  we  have  seen  to  be  universal  in 
the  hind  wings  of  the  Orthoptera. 

The  mouth  in  the  Coleoptera  is  always  formed  for  biting,  and 
perhaps  exhibits  the  mandibulate  type  of  structure  in  its  highest 
perfection.  The  labrum  is  generally  distinct,  although  sometimes 
concealed  beneath  the  front  of  the  head.  The  mandibles  are 
almost  always  strong,  somewhat  triangular,  horny  organs,  which,  in 
the  Predaceous  Beetles,  are  hooked  and  sharp  at  the  points,  and 
often  armed  with  acute  teeth  on  the  inner  margin  ;  whilst  in  many 
Herbivorous  species,  the  inside  of  the  basal  portion  is  transversely 
ridged  to  fit  the  jaws  for  the  comminution  of  vegetable  substances. 
In  some  Beetles,  which  feed  upon  fluid  matters,  the  mandibles  are 
dilated  into  membranous  hairy  plates.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the 
common  Stag-beetle,  the  mandibles  are  of  great  size  ;  and  some 
allied  species  have  them  still  larger. 

The  maxillae  e.xhibit  differences  in  form  corresponding  with  those 
of  the  mandibles.  In  the  Carnivorous  Beetles  they  are  usually  acute, 
and  somewhat  hooked  at  the  tip  ;  whilst  in  the  vegetable  feeders 
they  are  generally  blunt  at  the  extremity,  and  frequently  fringed  with 
hairs.  They  are  always  furnished  with  one  pair  of  palpi,  consisting 
of  three  or  four  joints  ;  and  in  many  Carnivorous  Beetles,  the  outer 
lobe,  which  was  described  as  forming  a  hood-like  covering  in  the 
Orthoptera,  acquires  the  form  of  a  second  palpus.  The  labium  is 
also  furnished  with  a  pair  of  palpi,  composed  of  from  two  to  four 
joints. 

The  other  organs  attached  to  the  head  are  the  antennae  and  the 
eyes.  The  antennae  exhibit  a  great  diversity  of  form,  numerous 
examples  of  which  will   be  referred  to  in  the  sequel.    They  are 


generally  composed  of  from  nine  to  eleven  joints,  and  are  inserted 
upon  the  forehead,  between  the  eyes,  sometimes  close  to  those 
organs  ;  occasionally  more  in  the  middle  of  the  head.  Compound 
eyes  exist  in  nearly  all  Beetles  ;  they  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the 
head,  and  are  generally  of  a  more  or  less  spherical  form,  sometimes 
oval  or  kidney-shaped,  and  in  a  few  cases  divided  into  two  parts  by 
an  elevated  ridge  ;  so  that  the  Insect  appears  to  have  four  eyes  ; 
whilst  in  a  few  Beetles,  inhabiting  caves  or  other  subterranean 
situations,  the  eyes  are  entirely  wanting. 

The  thoracic  segments  are  always  distinctly  separated.  The  pro- 
thorax  is  usually  of  considerable  size,  and  bears  the  first  pair  of  legs. 
The  meso-  and  meta-thorax  bear  the  other  two  pairs  of  legs,  and  the 
elytra  and  wings,  beneath  which  their  upper  surface  is  entirely  con- 
cealed, with  the  exception  of  a  small  triangular  piece  of  the  meso- 
thorax  (the  scutellum),  which  is  usually  visible  at  the  base  of  the 
suture.  The  elytra  generally  cover  the  entire  dorsal  surface  of  the 
body,  to  the  apex  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  upper  portion  of  these 
segments  is  then  of  a  soft  and  somewhat  membranous  texture  ;  but 
in  some  cases  the  elytra  are  short,  leaving  a  greater  or  less  portion 
of  the  abdomen  uncovered ;  this  is  then  equally  horny  on  both 
surfaces.  In  some  cases  the  wings  are  wanting,  when  the  elytra  are 
not  unfrequently  completely  soldered  together.  The  legs  are  usually 
constructed  exclusively  for  walking;  but  in  some  cases  the  fore  legs 
are  converted  into  fossorial  organs,  and  in  others  the  hind  legs  are 
.  flattened  for  swimming,  or  furnished  with  thickened  thighs  for  salta- 
torial  purposes.  The  tarsi  are  generally  composed  of  five  joints  ; 
and  this  appears  to  be  the  normal  number.  The  number  varies, 
however,  in  different  groups,  from  two  to  five. 

The  metamorphosis  of  the  Coleoptera  is  as  complete  as  in  the 
Lepidoptera  and  Hymenoptera.  The  larva  is  usually  a  soft  fleshy 
grub  ;  although  the  texture  of  its  integuments  is  often  leathery,  or 
even  somewhat  horny,  especially  in  the  rapacious  species.  The 
soft  larvae  are  almost  always  furnished  with  a  horny  head,  armed 
with  distinct  jaws,  and  usually  supplied  with  simple  eyes.  They 
are  generally  furnished  with  six  thoracic  legs  (although  these  are 
sometimes  wanting),  and  frequently  also  with  anal  pro-legs.  The 
pupae  are  free  and  quiescent. 

This  order  includes  an  immense  number  of  species.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  are  already  known  ; 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  many  more  remain  to  be  discovered. 
This  multiplicity  of  species  has  necessitated  the  formation  of  a  great 
number  of  groups  ;  and  so  complicated  is  the  classification  of  the 
Coleoptera,  that  (although,  with  the  exception  of  the  Lepidoptera, 
no  other  order  of  Insects  has  so  much  engrossed  the  attention  of 
Entomologists)  it  is  still  in  rather  an  unsatisfactory  state.  Latreille 
divided  these  Insects  into  four  principal  sections,  characterised  by 
the  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsi ;  and  although  this  character  is 
liable  to  many  exceptions,  and  can  only  be  regarded  as  applying  to 
the  7}iajority  of  the  Insects  in  each  group,  yet,  as  it  furnishes  us 
with  the  best  means  of  effecting  the  general  division  of  the  order,  we 
shall  follow  it  here  to  a  certain  extent.  In  the  largest  of  these 
sections,  the  greater  number  of  the  Insects  have  five  joints  in  the 
tarsi ;  these  form  the  section  Pentamera.  In  the  second  group,  the 
Heteromera,  most  of  the  Insects  have  five  joints  in  the  tarsi  of  the 
two  anterior  pairs  of  legs,  whilst  the  posterior  tarsi  are  composed  of 
only  four  joints.  In  the  Tetramera  all  the  tarsi  are  usually  four- 
jointed,  and  in  the  Trimera,  three-jointed. 

Section  I.— Trimera. 

In  this  section,  which  only  includes  a  single  tribe,  the  tarsi  ap- 
parently consist  of  three  joints  ;  although  a  fourth  minute  joint  really 
exists  at  the  base  of  the  last  joint,  concealed  within  the  bi-lobed 
apex  of  the  second.  From  this  circumstance,  Mr.  Westwood  pro- 
posed the  substitution  of  the  name  Pseudotrimera,  for  that  of 
Trimera.  The  antennae  are  short,  and  usually  clavate  ;  the  maxillae 
bi-Iobed,  with  shortest  palpi,  usually  terminated  by  a  hatchet-shaped 
joint;  and  the  body  is  either  oval  or  hemispherical,  and  very  flat 
beneath. 

An  excellent  example  of  this  tribe  of  Beetles  is  afforded  by  an 
Insect  that  must  have  been  familiar  to  most  of  us  from  our  earliest 
years — the  Common  Lady-bird  {Coccinella  •j-ptinctata).  The  nu- 
merous species  of  Coccinellm  feed  principally  upon  Aphides,  both  in 
the  larva  and  perfect  states.  The  larvae  of  our  common  species  are 
constantly  to  be  met  with  on  plants  infested  by  Aphides  ;  they  are 
of  a  slate  colour,  with  yellow  tubercles  and  spots,  and  furnished 
with  six  well-developed  legs. 

Section  II.— Tetramera. 

The  majority  of  the  Insects  composing  the  three  tribes  included  in 
this  section,  have  only  four  apparent  joints  in  all  the  tarsi,  the  true 
fourth  joint  being  reduced  to  a  very  small  size,  and  concealed  within 
the  one  preceding  it.  As  this  joint  exists,  however,  Mr.  Westwood 
has  proposed  the  addition  to  the  name  of  this  group  of  the  same 
prefix  as  to  the  Trimera  ;  he  accordingly  calls  these  Insects  Pseud- 
otetramera. 


THE  BEETLES. 


821 


Fig.  2203. — The  ChrysomeJa  populi. 
a,  larva ;  b,  pupa  ;  c,  imago. 


In  the  first  tribe,  the  Phytophaga  (Plant-eaters),  the  body  is 
usually  of  a  more  or  less  ovate  form,  generally  very  convex,  rarely 
elongated  ;  the  head  is  short,  not  produced  into  a  snout,  immersed 
in  the  thorax  up  to  the  eyes;  the  antennse  are  shortish,  usually 
thread-shaped,  or  slightly  clavate  :  the  mandibles  are  small,  the 
maxillae  bi-lobed  at  the  apex,  with  the  outer  lobe  often  jointed  and 
palpiform  ;  the  palpi  are  short. 

These  Insects  rarely  attain  any 
great  size,  and  many  of  them  are 
very  minute  ;  their  colours,  how- 
ever, especially  in  the  larger  ex- 
otic species,  are  often  very  splen- 
did ;  m  some  cases,  perhaps,  ex- 
ceeding in  brilliancy  those  of  any 
other  Beetles.  They  feed  upon 
plants,  both  in  the  larva  and  the 
perfect  state  ;  and  many  of  them 
do  great  damage  to  crops.  The 
Turnip-fly  {Haltica  netnoriun. 
Fig.  2204),  one  of  the  most  de- 
structive species,  belongs  to  a  group  in  which  the  posterior  thighs 
are  much  thickened  for  jumping. 

In  connection  with  this  species,  although  possibly  in  not  strict 
order,  may  be  mentioned  the  Colorado  Beetle,  which  recently  was 
stated  to  have  arrived  in  Ireland.  So 
important  was  this  considered,  that  a 
special  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed 
to  deal  with  this  terrible  enemy  of  the 
potato,  and  of  the  Solanum  genus  of 
plants  generally.  Its  native  place  seems 
to  be  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  where  it  feeds 
on  a  species  of  wild  potato.  In  1859  '' 
was  located  in  Nebraska.  In  1861  it 
showed  itself  in  Iowa,  and  gradually  ad- 
vanced through  the  States.  During 
1 87 1  a  large  army  of  these  Beetles 
covered  the  river  Detroit  in  Michigan,  and  gradually  travelled  to  New 
York  and  Boston.  In  1873  the  earliest  specimens  were  seen  in  Ire- 
land. No  description  can  do  justice  to  the  astonishing  voracity  of  this 
Insect,  especially  in  its  larva  state.  When  once  a  field  of  potatoes 
has  been  attacked,  all  hope  of  a  harvest  must  be  given  up.  In  a 
few  days  the  whole  crop  appears  as  a  mere  mass  of  dried-up  stalks. 
In  Fig.  2205  a,  shows  the  eggs  deposited  on  the  leaf  of  a  potato 
plant  ;  b,  the  larva,  and  c,  the  perfect  Beetle. 

The  most  singular  Insects  belonging  to  this  tribe  are  the  Cassi- 
didce,  or  Helmet  Beetles  (Fig.  2207),   in  which  the  body  is   rather 


Fig.  2204.— The   Turnip-fly  ; 
natural  size  and   magnified. 


Fig.  2205.— The  Colorado  Beetle. 

flat,  margined  all  round  with  dilatations  of  the  thorax  and  elytra. 
The  dilated  portion  of  the  former  completely  conceals  even  the  head. 
They  are  slow-moving  Animals,  which  always  draw  up  their  limbs 
and  mimic  death  when  disturbed.  Their  larvae  are  furnished  with 
a  caudal  fork,  projecting  forwards  over  the  back.  Upon  this  they 
collect  their  excrement,  which  thus  forms  a  portable  shelter. 

The  Insects  of  the  tribe  Longkornia 

^'''v^^*'*^  <i?***°^^^   ^^^  generally    distinguishable  "from  all 

I  \.  °\-jr  /•-  J  "^"^^r  Beetles  by  the  great  length  of 
V,^  X  vKaL'  /  """^  their  antennas  (Fig.  2206),  which  are 
usually  considerably  longer  than  the 
body.  The  body  is  usually  elongated 
in  its  form  ;  the  head  is  never  produced 
into  a  rostrum  ;  the  mandibles  are  large 
and  prominent,  andthelabrum  is  usually 
distinct. 

Most  of  these  are   large   and  elegant 
Insects,    often    adorned    with   splendid 
colours,  or   armed  with  spines  upon  the 
thorax  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  which 
render  their  appearance  curious,  and  even  grotesque. 

One  of  the  handsomest  British  Beetles  is  the  Callichroma  mos- 
c/iata,  belonging  to  this  tribe.  It  is  also  distinguished  by  its  pecu- 
liar musky  odour.  It  is  of  a  fine  metallic  green  colour  ;  but  many 
exotic  Insects  nearly  allied  to  this  are  far  more  splendid  in  appear- 
ance. 
The  larvs  of  these  Insects  live  in  timber,  often  doing  enormous 


V\s 


2206. — The  Acantho- 
cinus  spsculifer. 


injury  to  trees  by  eating  large  passages  through  the  solid  wood. 
They  are  soft,  fleshy  grubs,  generally  widened  in  front ;  almost 
destitute  of  feet.  They  appear  to  live  in  this  condition  for  several 
years,  and  afterwards  probably  pass  a  considerable  time  in  the  pupa 
state,  as  the  Perfect  Insects  have  been  known  to  eat  their  way  out 
of  timber  which  had  been  for  some  time  worked  up  into  furniture. 
These  Beetles  generally  produce  a  sharp  grating  sound,  by  the 
friction  of  the  back  of  the  prothorax  upon  the  base  of  the  scutellum. 


Fig.  22oy. — The  CassiHa  viridis,  in  its  diflerent  states. 
a,  larva  ;  by  the  same  on  a  leaf;  c,  pupa ;  d,  perfect  insect. 

The  Rhynchophora,  forming  the  third  tribe  of  Tetramerous 
Beetles,  are  distinguished  by  having  the  front  of  the  head  produced 
into  a  snout  or  rostrum,  at  the  extremity  of  which  the  mouth  is 
situated.  The  larvaj  are  soft,  footless  Grubs,  which  usually  live 
in  the  interior  of  the  stems,  fruits,  and  seeds  of  plants,  to  which 
their  ravages  are  often  very  injurious.  Amongst  these  the  Corn- 
weevil  {Calandra  granaria)  holds  the  first  place,  as  its  larva  fre- 
quently causes  great  damage  in  granaries.  One  of  the  commonest 
species  is  the  Balaninus  nucuin  (Fig.  2208),  or   Nut-weevil,  the 


Fig.  220S.— The  Nut-Weevil. 
A,  a  branch  of  the  filbert  tree  ;  a,  a  healed  wound  caused  by  the  introduction 
of  the  eggs  of  the  Nut-Weevil ;  h,  extremity  of  the  nut  ;  e,  exit  of  the  hole 
of  the  grub  ;  B,  the  grub  of  the  Nut-weevil ;  C,  the  pupa  of  the  same  ;  D, 
the  perfect  insect  [Balaninus  tiueum). 

parent  of  the  little  white  Grubs  so  frequently  met  with  in  filberts  and 
other  nuts.  This  Insect  has  the  longest  rostrum  of  any  British 
Rhynchophorous  Beetle  ;  and  by  means  of  this  the  female  is  said 
to  eat  a  small  hole  in  the  young  nut  whilst  its  integuments  are  still 
soft.  Here  she  deposits  an  tg^,  and  the  larva,  when  hatched,  eats 
its  way  into  the  interior  of  the  kernel,  where  it  continues  to  reside 
until  it  has  arrived  at  maturity.  It  then  eats  its  way  out  of  the 
nut,  and  falls  to  the  ground,  into  which  it  burrows,  and  there 
undergoes  its  transformation  to  the  pupa  state,  which,  however, 
does  not  take  place  until  the  commencement  of  the  second  summer. 

Most  of  the  Rhynchophora  are  more  or  less  covered  with  minute 
scales,  somewhat  resembling  those  with  which  the  wings  of  the 
Lepidoptera  are  clothed  ;  and  these,  in  many  cases,  exhibit  a  splen- 
dour of  colour  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  that  of  the  most  gorgeous 
of  Butterflies.  Even  amongst  our  small  British  species,  several  of 
great  beauty  are  to  be  met  with  on  every  bank  of  nettles  ;  and  few 
Insects  can  boast  of  greater  magnificence  than  the  well-known 
Diamond  Beetle  of  Brazil  {Curculio  zmper talis).  This  has  of  late 
been  frequently  employed  as  an  ornament  for  brooches,  &c. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  true  Rhynchophora  burrow  in  their 
larva  state  into  the  stems  of  trees,  often  forming  holes  of  consider- 
able diameter  in  the  solid  wood.  They  are,  however,  completely 
outdone  in  this  respect  by  the  Insects  of  the  following  sub-tribe, 
which  have  received  the  name  of  Xylophaga,  from  their  constant 
habit,  both  in  the  larva  and  perfect  states,  of  boring  into  the  solid 
wood  of  trees.  In  their  general  structure  they  resemble  the 
Rhynchophora ;  but  their  heads  are  broad  and  fiat,  not  distinctly 
rostrated,  and  the  antennae  are  inserted  beneath  the  lateral  margins 
of  the  head.  Although  these  Insects  are  of  small  size,  the  damage 
which  they  occasion  in  forests  is  often  enormous.  The  ^tcoiyius 
destructor,  a  common  British  species,  destroys  great  numliers  of 
elm-trees  ;  but  the  ravages  of  some  other  species,  in  the  pme  torests 
of  Germany,  are  almost  incredible.  Of  these  the  commonest  are 
the  Tomicus  tyiographus  and  the.  Hylurgus ptniperda  (Fig.  2209). 
The  former  receives   its  name  of  the  Typographic  Beetle  from  the 


8« 


THE  BEETLES. 


circumstance  that  the  burrows  formed  by  it  in  feedinsf  upon  the  soft 
wood,  immediately  within  the  bark,  often  present  a  rude  resemblance 
to  printed  characters.  The  devastations  of  these  apparently  con- 
temptible foes  are  sometimes  so  formidable,  in  the  pine-forests  of 


Fig.  2209.— I,  2,   The    Tomkus  typogmphiis.     3,  4,  The  Urbimts  pinlpn-da 
(natural  size,  and  magnified).     5,  6,  The  larva  and  pupa  of  the  Hylurgus. 

Germany,  that  prayers  for  their  restriction  are  offered  up  in  the 
churches  ;  and  we  are  told  that,  in  the  year  1783,  at  least  a  million 
and  a-half  of  trees  were  destroyed  by  these  Insects  in  the  Hartz 
forest  alone. 

Section  III.— Heteromera. 

_  Nearly  all.the  Insects  of  this  section  of  the  Co!eo;ptera  have  four 
joints  in  the  posterior  tarsi  ;  whilst  the  other  four  feet  are  composed 
of  five  joints.  They  are  divided  by  Mr.  Westwood  into  two  tribes— 
the  Trachelia,  in  which  the  head  forms  a  distinct  neck  behind  the 
eyes,  and  the  A  trachelia,  which  possess  no  distinct  neck,  the  head 
being  immersed  up  to  the  eyes  in  the  thorax. 

The  Trachelia  are  generally  active  Diurnal  Insects,  frequency 
adorned  with  gay  colours.  Their  bodies  are  often  soft,  the  elytra 
flexible,  and  sometimes  much  shorter  than  the  abdomen.  To  this 
tribe  belongs  the  Common  Blister-fly  {Lytta  vesicaioria),  the  im- 
portant medicinal  uses  of  which  are  so  well  known.  These  Insects 
are  common  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  specimens  have  occasion- 
ally been  met  with  in  England  ;  they  feed  principally  upon  the  ash. 
Many  other  Insects  belonging  to  this  tribe  also  contain  a  substance 
which  has  the  effect  of  raising  blisters  when  applied  to  the  skin  ; 
and  these  are  employed  in  their  native  countries  in  place  of  the 
Lytta yesicatoria.  The  species  of  Meloe,  several  of  which  are  found 
in  Britain,  possess  this  property;  which,  however,  seems  in  all 
cases  to  increase  in  intensity  in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  country 
in  which  the  Insects  live.  The  species  of  Meloe  are  soft,  sluggish 
Beetles,  with  short  elytra  and  no  wings,  and  may  be  found  crawling 
about  amongst  the  grass  in  warm  sandy  places,  in  the  early  summer! 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  British  species  is  the  scarlet  Pyro- 
chroa  rubetis,  which  is  found  about  hedge-banks  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London.  In  the  Sal;pitigidcB,  which  appear  to  connect 
this  group  with  the  preceding,  the  front  of  the  head  is  produced  into 
a  short  snout. 

_  The  Atrachelia  are  generally  black,  or  of  dull  colours,  nocturnal 
in  their  habits,  and  slow  in  their  motions,  usually  crawling  upon  the 
ground  in  obscure  situations.  A  few  are  found  upon  trees  and 
plants  ;  and  these,  in  their  structure,  evidently  approach  the  pre- 
ceding tribe.  A  very  good  example  of  this  group  is  furnished  by 
the  common  Blaps  mortisaga,  which  bears  the  not  particularly 
inviting  English  name  of  the  Churchyard  Beetle.  These  Insects  are 
generally  found  in  dark  and  dirty  places  about  houses,  in  cellars, 
and  similar  situations.  Another  species  is  the  Tenebrio  molitor, 
of  which  the  larva,  found  in  flour,  meal,  &c.,  is  well-known  as  the 
Meal-worm.  Other  species  live  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  in 
decaying  vegetable  matter  ;  but  comparatively  few  are  found  in  this 
country. 

Section  IV.— Pentaimera. 

It  is  in  this  section  that  we  find  the  greatest  variation  in  the  num- 
ber of  joints  in  the  tarsi.  A  great  number  of  the  Insects  of  which  it 
is  composed  would  require  to  be  distributed  amongst  the  precedino- 
sections  if  we  allowed  none  but  truly  Pentamerous  Beetles  to  be 
arranged  here  ;  these,  however,  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule, 
and  the  majority  of  the  Insects  placed  in  this  section  have  tarsi  com- 
posed of  five  distinct  joints.  In  some  of  these  Insects,  forming  the 
sub-tribe  Malacodermata,  the  body  is  usually  soft,  and  the  Insects 
in  their  general  form,  present  a  considerable  resemblance  to  many  of 
the  first  group  of  Heteromera.  They  are  further  distinguished  from 
the  Sternoxia,  forming  the  second  sub-tribe,  by  having  the  pro- 
sternum  of  the  ordinary  form,  and  not  produced  into  a  spine  pos- 
teriorly. Many  of  these,  such  as  the  Insects  well  known  to  children 
as  Soldiers  and  Sailors  {Telephori),  are  predaceous  in  their  habits  ; 
whilst  others  are  wood-borers,  and  some  feed  on  dry  animal  sub- 
stances. Of  the  wood-boring  species,  one,  the  Lymexylon  navale, 
infests  oak  timber,  to  which  it  frequently  does  incredible  mischief  in 
dockyards.  It  is  common  in  the  north  of  Europe,  but  appears  to  be 
rare  in  England.     Other  species,  which  also  bore  into  timber  in  their 


larva  state,  are  well  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Death  Watch  " 
{Anooiutn  striatum),  from  their  habit  of  making  a  ticking  noise  by 
knocking  with  their  jaws  against  the  wood-work  upon  which  they 
are  standing.  They  are  little  creatures,  which  often  do  great 
damage  to  furniture  in  houses.  When  touched,  they  contract  their 
legs,  and  counterfeit  death— a  piece  of  mimicry  which  they  are  said 
to  keep  up  even  when  exposed  to  a  heat  suflScient  to  roast  them.  To 
this  group  also  belongs  the  Glow-worm  {Lampyris  noctiluca),  whose 
lamp  has  so  often  been  the  theme  of  the  poet's  song.  The  female 
alone  is  luminous. 

^A^^-  ^i'^''"°'^^^  the  prosternum  is  produced  in  front  into  a  lobe, 
and  behind  into  a  spine,  which  is  received  in  a  small  cavity  of  the 
mesostemum.  By  the  assistance  of  this  apparatus  (the  spine  being 
drawn  out  of  its  groove,  and  then  suddenly  brought  into  it  ao-ain) 
many  of  these  Insects  (the  Elaterida)  are  enabled  to  execute  con- 
siderable springs  when  laid  upon  their  backs.  The  larvse  of  some 
species  are  wood-borers ;  those  of  others  live  in  rotten  wood  ;  and 
some  inhabit  the  ground,  feeding  upon  the  roots  of  plants.  One  of 
the  latter  is  well  known  to  agriculturists  as  the  Wire-worm 

The  vast  tribe  of  the  Lamellicorn  Beetles  {Lamellic'ornia)  is 
characterised  by  having  the  antennae  terminated  by  a  club,  composed 
of  several  leaf-like  joints,  laid  together  like  the  leaves  of  a  book. 
Ihis  tribe  includes  an  immense  number  of  species,  some  of  which 
are  amongst  the  largest  and  most  splendid  of  Insects.  In  the  Stag 
Beetle  [Lucanus  cervus.  Fig.  2210),  the  leaves  are  short  and  dis- 
tinct, rendering  the  club  pectinated;  whilst  in  the  Common  Cock- 


Fig.  2210.— The  Stag  Beetle. 

chafer  {Melolontha  vulgaris)  they  are  of  considererable  length, 
especially  in  the  male,  and  fold  up  like  the  leaves  of  a  fan.  These 
Insects  fly  well,  but  heavily,  with  a  loud  whirring  noise  ;  but  they 
generally  crawl  slowly.  The  larvae  are  thick  fleshy  grubs,  furnished 
with  a  distinct  head,  and  with  six  jointed  feet,  and  having  the  hinder 
part  bent  down.  They  live  in  very  various  situations,  in  dung,  in 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  in  the  earth,  feeding  upon  roots. 
They  usually  pass  several  years  in  the  larva  state,  and  change  to  the 
pupa  in  the  interior  of  a  sort  of  cocoon,  formed  of  particles  of  the 
surrounding  materials,  agglutinated  together  by  a  sticky  secretion. 

Many  of  the  Perfect  Insects  are  found  in  the  same  situations  as 
their  larvae,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  Dung-feeding  species.  Of 
those  which  live  in  rotten  wood,  many,  like  the  beautiful  Rose-chafer 
of  our  own  country,  and  its  still  more  splendid  foreign  allies,  fre- 
quent flowers  in  their  perfect  state  ;  and  the  Common  Cockchafer, 
the  larva  of  which  feeds  upon,  and  often  does  great  mischief  to,  the 
roots  of  plants,  lives  entirely  upon  leaves,  after  it  has  undergone  its 
last  change. 

Many  of  the  Dung-beetles,  amongst  which  the  Sacred  Beetle  of 
the  Egyptians  (Fig.  2211)  holds  a  prominent  place,  are  remarkable 
for  inclosing  their  eggs  in  a  small  pellet  of  dung,  which  they  then 
roll  along  with  their  hind  legs,  until  they  drop  it  into  a  hole  which 
they  have  dug  for  its  reception.  On  all  the  monuments  of  Egypt  the 
ScarabiEus  may  be  seen  sculptured,  sometimes  with  the  wings  closed 
and  sometimes  extended.  A  colossal  illustration,  sculptured  in 
greenish-coloured  granite,  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  celebrated  Cleopatra  Needle,  now  on  the  Thames  embankment, 
and  brought  from  Egypt  in  1878  through  the  munificence  of  Mr. 
Erasmus  Wilson,  F.R.S.,  &c.,  has  also  illustrations  of  the  Beetle. 
Others,  like  the  common  GeotrupidcB  and  AphodiidcB  of  our  own 
country,  are  contented  with  deposing  their  eggs  in  the  midst  of  a 


THE  BEETLES. 


8»3 


plentiful  supply  of  food.  The  forms  of  some  of  these  Insects  are  ex- 
tremely curious  ;  and  many  of  the  larger  Tropical  species  are  fur- 
nished with  enormous  horns  on  the  head  and  thorax,  which  give 
them  a  singular  appearance.  The  Dynastes  hercuks  (Fig.  2212  ) 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  and 
is  one  of  the  largest  Beetles;  sometimes  attaining  a  length  of  five 
inches. 

In  the  Helocera,  which  appear  to 
make  the  nearest  approach,  both  in 
structure  and  habits,  to  the  Lamelli- 
corn  Beetles,  the  antenna;  are  termi- 
nated by  a  knob,  composed  of  several 
joints,  which  are  sometimes  pressed 
closely  together,  and  sometimes  loosely 
connected,  so  as  to  give  the  club  a 
serrated  appearance.  They  are  further 
distinguished  by  their  flattened  con- 
tractile limbs,  each  portion  of  which 
folds  closely  upon  its  neighbour ;  the 
whole,  when  thus  reduced  to  the  smallest 
compass,  being  received  in  cavities  of 
the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  This 
position  is  always  assumed  by  these 
Beetles  when  alarmed  ;  and,  from  this 
assumption  of  a  death-like  attitude, 
some  of  the  commonest  species  have  received  the  name  of  ilimic 
Beetles.  These  Insects,  both  in  the  larva  and  perfect  states,  are 
commonly  found  in  cow-dung  ;  a  few  also  inhabit  rotten  wood  ;  some 
are  to  be  met  with  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  a  few  in  carrion.  This 
tribes  includes  two  groups : — the  Histerida,  smallish  Insects, 
generally  of  a  black  colour,  with  geniculated  antennte,  and  the 
elytra  rather  shorter  than  the  body,  which  is  usually  of  a  square 
form  ;  and  the  Byrrhida;,  with  straight  antennae,  and  the  e'ytra  as 
long  as  the  abdomen.  The  latter  are  of  a  round  or  oval  form, 
whence  they  have  received  the  name  oi  Pill-beetles. 


Fig.   221 1. —The   Scarbaits 
tEgyptioriitn. 


Fig.  2212. — The  Dynastes  hercuUs. 

The  next  tribe,  the  Necropliaga,  includes  an  immense  number  of 
small  and  moderate-sized  Insects,  which  live  for  the  most  part, 
both  in  the  larva  and  perfect  states,  in  decomposing  Animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  A  good  many  are  also  found  underthe  bark 
of  trees,  and  in  Fungi.  Like  the  preceding  Insects,  these  have 
clavate  antenna:,  but  their  legs  are  not  contractile.  The  nearest 
approach  to  the  preceding  tribe  is  made  by  the  Dermestidce,  small 
Beetles,  clothed  like  the  Byrrhida;,  with  minute  hairs,  which  often 
do  great  damage  to  skins  and  furs,  and  other  dry  Animal  matter. 
The  commonest  species,  Dcrmestes  lardarius,  has  received  its 
specific  name  on  account  of  the  fondness  exhibited  by  its  curious 
larva  for  bacon. 

The  largest  and  most  interesting  Insects  belonging  to  this  tribe, 
are  those  of  the  family  SilJ>hid(S,  which  includes  the  Burying  Beetles 
(Necrophori,  Fig.  2213)  and  their  allies.  The  Burying  Beetles  are 
prompted  by  their  instinct  to  bury  any  small  Animals,   or  pieces  of 


Fig. 


2213. — The  Burying  Beetle 
(Necrophorus). 


Fig.  2214. — The  Hydrophiliis 
caraldides. 


carrion,  as  a  provision  for  their  young.  In  many  cases  several  of 
them  set  to  work  together,  getting  under  the  Animal  to  be  buried, 
and  digging  the  earth  out  with  their  feet.  In  this  way  they  will 
quickly  bury  Animals  many  times  their  size,  such  as  Mice  and  small 
Birds.  These  Insects  are  not  uncommon.  They  run  and  fly  well  ;  and 
some  of  them  are  adorned  with  bright  orange-coloured  bands  ;  but 
they  diffuse  a  most  abominable  odour,  arising  probably  from  the 
nature  or  their  food. 
The  Insects   of  another  small   tribe,   called   Philhydrida,    from 


their  generally  aquatic  habits,  also  have  clavate  antennae,  but 
these  are  usually  very  short ;  whilst  the  maxillary  palpi  are  of  great 
length,  and  often  longer  than  the  antenn;c.  Most  of  these  Insects 
live  constantly  in  the  water  ;  and  their  legs  are  generally  more  or 
less  flattened,  to  render  them  efficient  as  natatory  organs  (Fig-. 
22iii)  One  of  the  largest  British  Beetles,  the  Hydrous  pfceus, 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  ponds  in  some  localities,  belongs  to  this 
tribe.  It  also  includes  a  group  of  small  hemispherical  Beetles  (the 
Spharidiidce),  which  constantly  inhabit  dung.  The  Aquatic 
species  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  the  larger  one  will  often 
attack  young  frogs  and  fishes. 

We  now  come  to  a  group,  the  location  of  which  has  given  much 
trouble  to  entymologists,  as,  although  it  is  undoubtedly  nearly  allied 
to  the  Necrophaga,  its  introduction  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that 
tribe  always  appears  to  interrupt  some  natural  affinities.  The  active 
predaceous  habits  of  some  of  the  larger  species,  of  which  the 
GoSrius  olens  ['F\g.  2215)  is  a  very  common  example,  seem  also  to 
point  to  an  alliance  with  the  True  Carnivorous  Beetles ;  and,  on  the 


Fig.  2215. — The  Goiirus  olens. 

whole,  this  is  perhaps  the  most  natural  position  of  these  Insects. 
They  are  characterised  by  their  generally  filiform  antenna;,  and  by 
the  shortness  of  their  elytra,  which  always  leaves  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  abdomen  uncovered.  The  name  Brachelytra,  given 
to  the  tribe,  refers  to  this  character.  The  wings,  however,  are 
usually  ample,  and  the  Insects  fly  well.  They  are  generally  of  an 
elongated  form  ;  and  the  abdomen,  which  is  horny  on  both  surfaces, 
possesses  great  mobility.  It  assists  in  tucking  the  wings  under  the 
elytra  after  flight ;  and  the  Insects  generally  raise  it  when  alarmed 
or  angry.  This  attitude  has  obtained,  for  the  Insects  figured  above, 
the  appropriate  name  of  Cocktails.  The  derivation  of  their  other 
vulgar  denomination.  Devil's  Coach-horses,  is  not  so  clear.  The 
larvse  are  very  sim.ilar  to  the  perfect  Insects,  both  in  appearance 
and  habits.  Many  of  them  feed  in  carrion  ;  others  in  rotten  wood, 
and  other  decaying  vegetable  matters.  The  number  of  joints  in  the 
tarsi  varies  greatly,  but  five  is  the  prevalent  number. 

In  the  two  following  tribes,  which  close  the  series  of  Coleopterous 
Insects,  the  outer  lobe  of  the  maxillas  is  jointed  and  palpiform,  so 
that  these  Insects  appear  to  have  six  palpi.  They  are  pre-eminently 
Carnivorous  and  rapacious  in  their  habits. 

The  former,  constituting  the  tribe  Hydradephaga,  arc  charac- 
terised by  their  somewhat  flattened  oval  body,  and  by  having  the 
legs,  especially  the  hinder  pair,  compressed  and  fringed  with 
bristles,  so  as  to  become  powerful  paddles.  Many  of  these  Insects 
are  of  considerable  size;  the  Dytiscus  niargitialis  (Fig.  2216),  a 
species  very  common  in  ponds,  attaining  a  length  of  more   than  an 


Fig.  2216. — The  Dytiscus  marginalis. 
A,  larva ;  B,  perfect  insect. 

inch  ;  whilst  many  foreign  species  are  much  larger.  The  larva  is  of 
an  elongated  form,  tapering  towards  the  tail,  which  bears  a  pair  of 
tubular  ciliated  appendages,  which  the  creature  applies  to  the  surface 
of  the  water  to  obtain  a  supply  of  air  for  its  respiration.  It  is  as 
predaceous  as  its  parent,  seizing  upon  other  aquatic  larvae  with  its 
long  curved  mandibles,  and  quickly  sucking  the  juices  out  of  the  body 
of  its  victim.  These  mandibles  are  perforated  throughout  ;  and  it  is 
through  these  tubes  that  the  larva  sucks  its  nourishment.  When 
about  to  change  to  the  pupa  state,  the  larva  burrows  into  the  bank 
of  its  native  pond,  and  there   undergoes  its  transformations.     The 


824 


RADIA7ED  ANIMALS. 


well-known  Gyrini,  or  Whirligigs— \\\.We.  Black  Beetles,  which 
may  be  seen  describing  circles  upon  the  surface  of  any  piece  of  water 
—  are  also  placed  in  this  tribe,  although  their  claim  to  such  a  position 
is  rather  doubtful.  The  Insects  of  the  last  tribe,  the  Geodephaga, 
resemble  those  of  the  preceding  group  in  their  carnivorous  pro- 
pensities, and  in  structure  of  their  mouths  ;  but  their  legs  are  always 
constructed  for  terrestrial  progression. 


The  Insects  of  one  family,  the  Cicindelidce,  which  have  received 
the  name  of  Tiger-beetles,  from  their  eminently  predaceous  pro- 
pensities, are  more  diurnal  in  their  habits  than  the  rest  of  the  tribe  ; 
the  common  English  species  may  be  found  flying  and  running  about 
with  great  agility  in  the  hottest  sunshine.  This  Insect  is  of  a 
beautiful  green  colour,  with  whitish  spots  ;  and  its  mouth  is  armed 
with  a  most  formidable  pair  of  sharped-toothed  jaws. 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

DIVISION  IV.— RADIATA,  OR  RADIATED  ANIMALS. 


*HE  Animals  arranged  under  this  division 
of  the  Animal  kingdom,  are  generally  dis- 
tinguished by  the  radiate  form  of  their 
bodies — that  is  to  say,  all  the  parts  of  which 
the  creature  is  composed  are  arranged 
circularly  round  a  common  centre.  In 
some  instances,  however,  this  radiate  ar- 
rangement of  the  organs  is  not  readily 
recognisable  ;  although  in  other  respects 
the  Animals  approach  the  true  radiate 
forms  so  closely  that  it  is  difficult  to  place 
them  in  any  other  position. 

In  complexity  of  structure,  some  of  the  lower  forms 
oi  Radiata  scarcely  seem  to  exceed  the  simple  crea- 
tures belonging  to  the  following  division,  consisting  as 
they  do  of  a  mere  bag  or  digestive  cavity,  furnished 
with  a  few  tentacula  or  feelers.  But  as  we  advance 
from  these  low  forms  towards  the  higher  classes,  we 
find  the  complication  of  structure  constantly  on 
the  increase  ;  instead  of  a  membranous  bag,  either 
side  of  which  will  serve  equally  well  as  a  skin  or  a 
stomach,  we  soon  find  a  marked  distinction  between 
the  outer  coat  and  the  membrane  lining  the  diges- 
tive cavity;  and  this  goes  on  increasing  until,  in 
the  hightest  forms  (some  Star-fishes  and  Sea- 
urchins),  the  former  consists  of  a  most  complicated 
mosaic  of  calcareous  plates,  and  the  latter  becomes  converted  into 
a  long  convoluted  intestine,  furnished  sometimes  with  a  very  curious 
masticating  apparatus  in  the  mouth,  and  with  an  anal  opening  for 
the  discharge  of  the  refuse  of  digestion.  Other  organs  and  functions 
show  an  analogous  advance. 

The  nervous  system,  when  present,  is  very  imperfect,  and  almost 
rudimentary  ;  it  partakes  of  the  radiate  arrangement  of  the  body ; 
and  in  its  most  perfect  condition,  consists  of  a  ring  of  ganglia  sur- 
rounding the  mouth,  and  giving  off  nervous  filaments  to  each  of  the 
segments  of  which  the  body  is  composed.  The  organs  which  have 
been  regarded  as  special  organs  of  sense,  occur  by  no  means  uni- 
versally ;  they  will  be  noticed  in  treatmg  of  the  groups  in  which  they 
are  met  with.  A  system  of  vessels  exists  in  many  of  these  Animals  : 
but  it  is  only  in  the  highest  class  that  we  find  a  distinct  circulatory 
system,  with  a  sac-like  heart  for  the  propulsion  of  the  nutritive  fluid. 
In  the  majority,  respiration  appears  to  be  effected  by  the  simple 
contact  of  the  surface  of  the  Animal  with  the  circumambient  fluid. 

A  faculty  which  is  possessed  by  most  of  the  Radiata  is  that  of 
emitting  phosphorescene  in  the  dark,  especially  when  irritated  or 
disturbed.  Although  they  have  this  power  in  common  with  some 
other  groups  of  Animals,  it  is  to  the  gelatinous  free-swimming  crea- 
tures of  this  class,  that  the  phenomenon,  well  known  as  the  lumi- 
nosity of  the  sea,  is  principally  to  be  attributed.  This  phenomenon, 
the  occurrence  of  which  is  by  no  means  uncommon  on  our  own 
coasts  in  calm  weather,  is  exhibited  in  the  greatest  splendour  in 
the  seas  of  warm  climates.  This  general  luminosity  is  due  to  in- 
numerable minute  animals,  amongst  which  larger  and  more  brilliant 
species  may  be  seen  swimming  in  splendour,  some  like  balls  of 
living  fire,  others  like  waving  bands  of  flame.  The  majority  of  these 
creatures  belong  to  this  division,  and  principally  to  the  class  of 
Discophora,  well-known  to  most  of  us  as  Medusae,  or  Jelly-fishes. 
In  some  localities,  the  Noctiliica,  a  singular  little  Animal  belonging 
to  the  class  of  Siphotiophora,  also  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
production  of  this  phenomenon. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Radiata  may  be  divided  into  five  classes. 
The  first  class,  containing  the  Polypes  (Polypi),  consists  of  Animals 
of  a  more  or  less  cylindrical  form,  which  are  generally  attached  by 
one  extremity  to  some  solid  submarine  substance,  and  furnished  at 
the  other,  with  an  oral  opening  surrounded  by  tentacles. 

The  second  class,  the  Discophora,  includes  the  Animals  well 
known  as  Jelly-fish.     They  consist  of  a  more  or  less  convex  disc  or 


umbrella  at  the  centre  of  the  lower  surface  of  which  the  mouth  is 
situated,  generally  surrounded  by  four  arms.  The  body  is  naked, 
gelatinous,  and  transparent. 

The  Animals  constituting  the  third  class,  the  CtenophORA,  are, 
like  the  preceding,  of  a  gelatinous  consistency  and  glassy  trans- 
parency ;  but  the  body,  instead  of  being  discoid  is  generally  more 
or  less  ovate  in  its  form,  and  the  Animals  swim  by  the  action  of  a 
number  of  cilia  arranged  in  rows  upon  their  surface. 

The  fourth  class,  the  Siphonophora,  is  composed  of  creatures, 
the  structure  of  which  is  still,  in  many  cases,  but  little  known. 
Like  the  Animals  of  the  two  preceding  classes,  they  swim  freely  in 
the  sea,  and  their  bodies  are  also  gelatinous  and  transparent ;  they 
are  generally  furnished  with  a  peculiar  cartilaginous  support,  and 
with  closed  air-bladders,  which  serve  as  floats  to  maintain  them  at 
the  surface  of  the  ocean. 

In  the  fifth  and  last  class,  the  Echinodermata,  we  find  the  most 
highly  organised  forms  of  Radiata.  These  possess  a  coriaceous 
skin,  in  which  a  deposit  of  calcareous  matter  takes  place,  often  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  form  a  shell  inclosing  all  the  soft  parts  of  the  Animal . 
They  generally  creep  along  the  bottom  of  the  water,  by  means  of  a 
great  number  of  tubular  suckers,  which  can  be  protruded,  at 
pleasure,  through  openings  left  in  the  plates  of  which  the  calcareous 
covering  is  composed.  The  radiate  arrangement  of  the  parts  is 
perhaps  more  distinctly  recognisable  in  some  of  these  Animals  (the 
common  Star-fish,  for  example)  than  in  any  other  members  of  this 
division ;  it  is  in  these  only,  that  any  trace  of  a  nervous  system  has 
been  discovered. 

Class  I. — Polypi. 

General  Characters. — The  class  of  Polypi  includes  a  great 
number  of  Animals,  most  of  which  are  of  very  simple  construction. 
They  are  all  Aquatic  in  their  mode  of  life  ;  and  by  far  the  greater 
number  inhabit  the  sea,  a  very  few  only  being  found  in  fresh  water. 
Most  of  them  live  in  societies  of  greater  or  less  extent,  supported  on 
a  common  stock,  or  polypidian,  which  is  sometimes  horny,  some- 
times calcareous.  The  bodies  of  these  Animals  are  generally 
cylindrical  in  form,  with  a  fringe  of  ioitacles.  or  arms,  frequently 
consisting  of  a  considerable  number,  surrounding  the  anterior  ex- 
tremity, in  the  centre  of  which  the  mouth  is  situated.  The  mouth 
is  the  only  aperture  of  the  digestive  cavity;  it  is  quite  destitute  of 
any  masticating  apparatus.  The  skin  in  the  Compound  Polypes, 
which  are  able  to  retract  themselves  into  firm  cells  or  tubes,  is  ex- 
ceedingly soft  and  tender ;  but  in  the  solitary  species  it  frequently 
acquires  a  leathery  consistence,  forming  a  closed  sac,  within  which 
the  more  delicate  tentacles  can  be  be  retracted  at  pleasure. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Polypes  are  commonly  divided  into  three 
orders.  In  the  first,  the  Hydroida,  the  Animals  are  generally 
compound,  and  invested  with  a  horny  tubular  polypidom.  In  the 
second  order,  the  Asteroida,  the  Polypes  are  always  compound  ; 
the  mouth  is  surrounded  by  eight  tentacles  ;  the  digestive  cavity  is 
lined  with  a  membrane,  and  the  ovules  are  produced  in  the  interior 
of  the  animal.  The  Polypes  of  the  third  order,  the  Helianthoida, 
are  single,  and  either  possessed  of  a  certain  power  of  locomotion,  or 
imbedded  in  a  calcareous  polypidom. 

Order  I. — Hydroida. 
General  Characters.— It  is  in  the  Polypes  of  this  order  that 
we  find  the  nearest  approach  to  the  Protozoa.  The  body  generally 
consist  of  a  homogeneous  aggregation  of  vesicular  granules,  held 
together  by  a  sort  of  glairy  intercellular  substance,  and  capable  of 
great  extension  and  contraction ;  so  that  the  creature  can,  at 
pleasure,  assume  a  great  variety  of  forms,  extending  its  body  and 
tentacles  until  the  latter  become  so  fine  as  to  be  almost  invisible, 
and  again  retracting  itself,  until  it  acquires  the  appearace  of  a  small 
gelatinous  mass.    The  tentacula,  which  surround  the  anterior  ex- 


THE  POLYPES. 


82s 


tremity,  are  irregular  in  number  ;  they  are  capable  of  extension  to  a 
very  great  length  when  seeking  for  prey  ;  and  on  coming  in  contact 
with  any  object  floating  in  the  water,  they  immediately  twine  round 
it,  and  convey  it  to  the  mouth.  In  some  genera  the  tentacles 
appear  to  be  tubular,  the  internal  cavity  being  continuous  with  that 
of  the  stomach.  To  assist  in  the  capture  of  living  prey,  their  sur- 
face is  commonly  roughened  with  a  series  of  granules,  which  in 
some  cases  contain  a  curious  poisonous  or  urticating  apparatus. 
The  mouth,  which  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  circle  of  tentacles, 
leads  directly  into  a  simple  digestive  cavity,  which  is  not  lined  with 
any  membrane. 

I3y  far  the  greater  number  of  these  Animals  live  in  societies  of 
greater  or  less  extent,  supported  on,  and  protected  by,  branched 
horny  polypidoms.  These  are  often  exceedingly  elegant  in  their 
form,  and  many  of  them  are  familiar  to  every  sea-side  visitor — by 
whom,  however,  they  are  generally  regarded  as  sea-weeds.  They 
consist  of  continuous  horny  tubes,  generally  with  a  jointed  appear- 
ance, and  bearing  the  little  cup-like  cells  occupied  by  the  individual 
polypes  along  the  sides  and  at  the  extremities  of  the  stem  and 
branches.  The  cells  communicate  by  a  perforation  at  the  bottom, 
with  the  general  tubular  structure  of  the  polypidom,  which  is  filled 
with  a  substance  apparently  very  analogous  to  that  of  which  the 
polypes  are  composed,  and  serving  as  a  sort  of  common  bond  of 
union  between  the  many  individual  animals  occupying  the  same 
stock.  This  common  medullary  pulp,  as  it  is  called,  may  in  fact 
be  regarded  as  the  most  important  portion  of  the  compound  polype ; 
for  it  is  by  the  increase  of  this  that  the  polypidom  continues  grow- 
ing ;  and  it  appears  to  have  the  power  of  producing  new  polypes, 
not  only  in  the  fresh  cells  formed  during  growth,  but  also  in  those 
which  have  already  been  occupied,  but  which  have  been  vacated  by 
the  death  of  their  former  tenants. 

Sub-divisions. — The  first  family,  HydridcB,  contains  only  a 
single  genus  {Hydra)  of  Polype,  some  of  which  may  be  met  with 
in  almost  every  piece  of  stagnant  or  slowly-running  fresh  water. 
They  are  usually  attached  to  some  aquatic  plant,  and  their  most 
_  favourite  station  is  amongst  the  rootlets 

of  the  duckweed,  so  common  in  all  our 
ponds.  The  Animal,  when  extended, 
consists  of  a  long  gelatinous  cylinder,  at- 
tachedbyone  extremity  to  thesub-aquatic 
plant,  and  furnished  at  the  other  with 
very  long  tentacles,  which  it  stretches 
about  in  the  water  in  search  of  the 
minute  Animals  on  which  it  feeds.  In 
a  state  of  contraction,  it  presents  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  mere  gelatinous  lump  or 
button. 

The  most  wonderful  portion  of  the 
history  of  the  Hydra,  consists  in  its  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  propagation.  The 
most  usual  mode  in  which  reproduction 
takes  place  is  by  a  process  of  budding 
or  gemmation,  in  which  some  portion 
of  the  substance  of  the  creature  is  pushed 
out  into  a  small  tubercle  ;  this  gradually 
becomes  larger,  and  at  length  develops 
a  circle  of  tentacles  from  its  upper  extremity.  The  young  Animal 
is  then  complete,  but  yet  generally  remains  attached  to  its  parent 
for  a  short  time  stretching  out  its  tentacles,  and  taking  food  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  manner  as  the  old  Animal.  Nor  is  it  an  unusual 
thing  to  behold  the  young  one  and  the  old  one  struggling  for, 
and  gorging,  different  ends  of  the  same  Worm.  Before  the  de- 
velopment of  tentacles  on  the  young  Hydra,  and  even  after  these 
have  made  their  appearance,  a  communication  exists  between  the 
digestive  cavity  of  the  parent  and  that  of  its  offspring  ;  so  that  food 
given  to  either  of  them  produces,  more  or  less,  a  distension  of  the 
bodies  of  both.  This  communication,  however,  appears  to  close 
some  little  time  before  the  separation  of  the  young  animal. 

An  operation  which,  to  almost  any  other  Animal,  would  prove  in- 
jurious or  fatal,  is  found,  in  the  case  of  the  Hydra,  only  to 
assist  the  propagation  of  the  species.  Wounds  heal  up  with  mar- 
vellous facility  ;  and  by  cutting  the  creatures  in  various  directions, 
the  most  extraordinary  monsters  may  be  produced.  A  tail  deprived 
of  its  head  will  produce  a  fresh  one  in  four  or  five  days  ;  whilst  the 
amputated  head  forms  a  new  tail  in  about  the  same  time.  These 
singular  facts  were  received,  as  maybe  supposed,  at  the  time  of  their 
discover)',  with  no  little  incredulity  ;  but  the  testimony  of  numerous 
observers  leaves  no  room  to  doubt  of  their  correctness  ;  and  the 
animals  themselves  are  so  common,  that  any  one  may  repeat  the 
experiments  of  Trembley  and  Baker,  for  his  own  satisfaction. 

The  Hydrffi  are  exceedingly  voracious,  and  feed  only  on  living 
Animals.  The  larva:  of  Insects,  Worms,  and  the  minute  Crus- 
taceous  Animals  which  swarm  in  all  waters,  constitute  their 
principal  food.  Sometimes  two  Polypes  will  seize  upon  the  same 
Worm,  when  a  dispute,  of  course,  ensues,  which  occasionally  ends 
in  very  singular  manner.  If  the  weaker  of  the  two  do  not  feel  in- 
clined to  let  slip  a  booty  for  which  he  has  perhaps  been  waiting  with 


Fig.  2217.— The  IlyJia. 


extended  tentacles  for  several  days,  it  sometimes  happens  that  each 
Polype  swallows  the  end  which  has  fallen  to  his  share,  until  at 
length  the  Worm  being  nearly  all  gone,  the  mouths  of  the  pair 
come  into  actual  contact.  They  now  find  themselves  in  a  position 
of  considerable  difficulty,  which  is  sometimes  terminated  by  the 
breaking  of  the  Worm  ;  but  if  this  do  not  take  place,  the  larger  or 
stronger  of  the  two  seizes  upon  his  antagonist,  and  swallows  him, 
Worm  and  all. 

The  Polypes  of  the  second  family,  the  Scr/iilaridix,  all  live  in 
societies,  each  Polype  being  inclosed  in  a  sort  of  homy  cup,  sup- 
ported on  a  branched  polypidom  of  the  same  consistence.  The 
structure  and  mode  of  formation  of  these  polvpidoms,  which  are 
amongst  the  most  elegant  productions  of  the  se  1,  have  already  been 
described.  Their  delicate  arborescent  forms  arc  constantly  to  be 
seen  attached  to  the  sea-weeds  left  upon  the  beach  by  the  retiring 
waves.  The  cups  or  cells  containing  the  Polypes  arc  sometimes 
placed  at  the  extremity  of  long  stalks,  sometimes  arranged  along  the 
sides  of  the  stem  and  branches  of  the  polypidom  ;  and  the  family  has 
bcpn  divided  into  two  sub-families,  in  accordance  with  these  charac- 
ters. The  Laoincdca  gcniciihita  is  an  example  of  the  former  mode 
of  growth,  characteristic  of  the  sub-family  of  Campa)utlariiia  :  in 
the  second  arrangement,  the  cells  are  sometimes  placed  along  both 
sides  of  the  tubular  portion  of  the  polypidom,  sometimes  only  in  a 
single  series  along  the  upper  or  lower  surface  of  the  branches. 
These  constitute  the  sub-family  Sertularina.  In  some  instances 
the  stem  springs  from  a  proper  root,  so  that  the  Zoophyte  is  isolated. 
In  other  cases  the  roots  of  the  polypidom  creep  over  the  surface  of 
the  object  to  which  it  is  attached,  frequently  covering  large  pieces  of 
sea-weed  with  a  complete  network  of  minute  horny  fibres,  from 
various  portions  of  which  spring  the  delicate  plant-like  structures 
which  support  the  active  Polypes. 

Independently  of  the  reproduction  by  gemmation,  which  is  a  ne- 
cessary condition  of  their  existence  as  compound  Zoophytes,  the 
propagation  of  these  Polypes  is  effected  by  the  development,  at 
certain  seasons,  of  peculiar  cells,  called  ovigeroits  vesicles,  which 
are  regarded  by  some  Zoologists  as  fertile  Polypes.  They  are  des- 
titute of  tentacles  and  of  digestive  organs,  and  contain,  when  mature, 
a  number  of  minute  ova  ;  after  the  discharge  of  these  the  vesicles 
fall  off,  and  the  Zoophytes  appear  completely  sexless.  The  ova, 
when  discharged,  are  active,  and  swim  freely  in  the  water  for  two  or 
three  days,  when  they  fi.x  upon  a  spot  for  their  further  development, 
settle  there,  and  shoot  up  into  a  polypidom,  similar  to  that  from 
which  they  derived  their  existence.  This  freedom  of  motion  in  the 
ova,  of  all  stationary  Animals,  is  one  of  the  admirable  provisions  of 
nature  for  securing  the  due  distribution  of  her  productions  through 
the  world  of  waters  ;  for  as  these  Polypes,  in  their  mature  state,  are 
confined  to  a  single  locality,  it  is  evident  that  if  their  ova  merely 
dropped  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  more 
of  them  would  be  developed  in  a  single 
spot  than  could  conveniently  exist  there  ; 
the  ova  are  consequently  endowed  with 
a  locomotive  power,  enabling  them  to 
emigrate  to  such  a  distance  from  the 
parent  stock  as  to  avoid  all  chance  of 
inconvenient  crowding. 

The  Tuhiilarido',  forming  the  third 
family  of  Hydroid  Polypes,  are  also  for 
the  most  part  social  Animals,  frequently 
possessing  a  polypidom,  which,  however, 
when  present,  is  of  a  much  less  firm 
consistence  than  the  horny  framework 
of  the  SertularidcB.  The  Polypes  are 
never  entirely  retractile  within  their 
tubes  ;  the  upper  extremity  is  enlarged 
into  a  clavate  head,  surrounded  by  a 
variable  number  of  tentacles.  The 
family  is  divided  into  two  sub-families, 
the  Tubula?-iada;,  in  which  the  Polypes 
are  inclosed  in  a  polypidom  (Pig.  2218); 
and  the  Corynidce,  in  which  they  are 
naked,  or  only  furnished  with  a  rudiment  of  a  polypidom.  The 
genera  are  founded  on  the  arrangement  and  form  of  the  tentacles. 

Some  of  these  Polypes  attain  a  considerable  size  ;  the  Corymorpha 
nutans,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  group,  attains  a  length  of 
four  inches  and  a-half.  The  general  colour  of  the  creature  is  a 
delicate  pink,  with  longitudinal  lines  of  brownish  or  red  dots.  The 
tentacles  are  very  numerous  and  long,  and  of  a  white  colour  ;  and 
the  ovaries,  which  are  situated  immediately  above  the  circle  of  ten- 
tacles, are  orange.  Most  of  the  Tubula>-idcB  inhabit  the  sea  ;  but 
one  species,  the  Cordylophora  lacustris,  is  found  in  water  which  is 
tolerably  fresh. 

Order  II.— Asteroida. 

General  Characters. — The  Asteroid  Polypes  are  all  compound 
Animals,  inhabiting  a  polypidom,  which  consists  of  a  fleshy  external 
layer,   supported  upon  a  calcareous  axis.     The  Polypes  which  are 

S  N 


Fig.  22 1 S. — The  Eudeitdrium 
ramositm  (m.ngnified). 


826 


THE  CORALS. 


imbedded  in  this  fleshy  mass  are  furnished  with  eight  flat  tentacles, 
placed  in  a  single  circle  round  the  mouth,  and  not  unfrequently 
toothed  or  fringed  on  their  margins  _  The  outer  integument  consists 
of  two  membranes,  which  are  so  thin,  on  the  portion  of  the  creature 
which  can  be  protruded  from  its  cell,  as  to  permit  the  internal  organs 
to  be  seen  through  them  with  ease.  Towards  the  base  of  the  body, 
however,  the  outer  of  these  membranes  increases  in  thickness,  and 
becomes  continuous  with  the  common  covering  of  the  polypidoni,  in 
which,  in  most  of  the  Asteroid  Polypes,  minute  particles  of  carbonate 
of  lime  are  secreted,  forming  either  spicula;  or  small  granulated 
masses,  which  give  increased  stability  to  the  whole.  The  inner 
membrane,  retaining  its  delicacy  of  texture,  is  continued  through  the 
cell  of  the  Polype,  lining  this  as  well  as  the  numerous  canals  which 
penetrate  in  minute  ramifications  to  all  parts  of  the  polypidom. 
Some  interesting  particulars  may  be  noticed  in  regardto  their  diges- 
tive organs,  as  the  stomach,  &c. 

In  regard  to  their  reproduction,  the  ova  first  make  their  appear- 
ance in  the  form  of  little  tubercles,  which  gradually  increase  in 
height,  and  become  narrowed  at  the  base,  until  they  form  small 
seed-like  bodies,  adhering  by  a  short  stalk  to  the  membrane  from 
which  they  have  arisen.  In  process  of  time,  this  stalk  becomes  ab- 
sorbed, and  the  eggs  are  set  at  liberty  to  commence  their  further 
development.  For  this  purpose,  however,  they  must  get  out  of  their 
prison — an  undertaking  not  altogether  unattended  with  difficulty. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  of  Zoophytes  is  divided  into  four 
families,  from  characters  derived  from  the  nature  of  the  polypidom. 
In  the  first,  this  consists  of  a  series  of  parallel  tubes,  each  of  which 
serves  as  a  habitation.  The  tubes  are  generally  of  a  calcareous 
nature,  and  are  united  together  by  transverse  partitions.  This  family 
is  called  Tubiporidis,  from  the  name  of  its  most  typical  genus, 
Tiibipora  ;  of  this  only  a  single  species  is  known,  the  red  "  Organ 
coral"  [Tuhipora  miisica),  inhabiting  the  Indian  Ocean,  in  which 
the  polypidom  is  of  a  deep  crimson  colour,  contrasting  strongly  with 
the  bright  green  of  the  living  Polypes.  This  species  is  frequently 
employed  as  ornaments  for  jewellery  and  other  purposes. 

In  the  family  Alcyotiidcs,  one  of  the  British  members  of  which  has 
received  from  our  fishermen  the  elegant  appellations  of  Coiv' s paps , 
Dead  man's  foes,  &n6.  Dead  man's  fingers,  the  polypidom  is  of  a 
spongy  nature,  and  contains  a  multitude  of  minute  calcareous  con- 
cretions, which  serve  to  give  iirmness  to  the  fabric.  When  the 
Polypes  are  contracted,  the  surface  of  the  polypidom,  which  is 
covered  with  a  coriaceous  skin,  is  seen  to  bear  numerous  scattered 
stellate  marks,  which,  on  examination,  are  found  to  consist  of  eight 
rays  corresponding  with  the  tentacula  of  the  Polypes  which  are  to  be 
protruded  from  these  spots.  The  Alcyonidas  are  always  attached  to 
submarine  bodies.  The  species  already  named  is  exceedingly  com- 
mon round  our  coasts  ;  so  much  so,  that,  as  Dr.  Johnston  says, 
"  scarce  a  shell  or  stone  can  be  dredged  from  the  deep  that  does  not 
serve  as  a  support  to  one  or  more  specimens."  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable species  belonging  to  this  family  is  the  Alcyoniic?n pociihim , 
or  Neptune's  cup,  which  is  found  upon  the  coral  reefs  in  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  The  polypidom  of  this  Zoophyte,  which  bears  some 
resemblance  to  a  wine-glass  in  form,  is  sometimes  as  much  as  three 
feet  in  height,  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  at  the  mouth. 

In  the  GorgonidcB,  which  constitute  the  third  family  of  Asteroid 
Polypes,  the  calcareous  matter,  when  present,  instead  of  being 
scattered  in  the  form  of  granules  or  spi- 
cule throughout  the  substance  of  the 
polypidom,  is  collected  into  a  solid 
central  axis,  covered  by  the  fleshy  mass 
in  which  the  Polypes  are  imbedded. 
The  axis  is  sometimes  calcareous,  some- 
times horny  ;  and  in  some  curious  forms 
it  consists  of  a  mixture  of  both  sub- 
stances ;  as  in  the  Isis  liippitris,  a 
species  inhabiting  the  Indian  seas,  the 
axis  of  which  is  formed  of  a  series  of 
calcareous  joints  united  together  by 
horny  rings  (Fig.  2219).  l\Iost  of  the 
species  possessing  a  horny  axis  [Gor- 
gonia,  and  allied  genera)  grow  in  a 
-rait  of  axis  of  his  more  or  less  arborescent  form  ;  but  in 
hippiiris.  some  species,   well    known  in   a   dried 

state  as  "  sea-fans,"  the  longitudinal 
branches  are  united  at  irregular  intervals  by  a  number  of  transverse 
pieces,  which  are  composed  of  a  continuation  of  the  horny  axis, 
covered  with  the  cortical  substance,  and  bearing  Polypes,  exactly 
like  the  main  stem  and  branches. 

But  there  is  one  species  belonging  to  this  family,  with  the  stony 
axis  of  which  most  of  us  has  been  acquainted  from  our  earliest 
years,  although  it  is  probable  that  many  are  still  ignorant  of  its 
origin.  This  is  the  Corallium  rubrinn,  the  Animal  which  produces 
the  common  red  coral,  a  substance  of  great  beauty,  and,  at  one  time, 
of  considerable  value. 

The  Zoophytes  of  the  three  preceding  families  all  grow  attached 
by  the  base  to  rocks  or  other  submarine  bodies  ;  in  those  of  the 
fourth  family,  the  Pennatulida:,  on  the  contrary,  the  polypidom  is 


Fig.  2219. 


completely  unattached,  and  they  are  only  retained  in  their  proper 
position  by  the  insertion  of  the  lower  portion  into  the  sand  or  mud 
of  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  main  stem  of  the  polypidom  of  these 
Animals  is  fleshy,  but  furnished  with  an  internal  bony  axis,  which, 
however,  does  not  reach  to  either  extremity  of  the  stalk.  The 
Polypes  are  not  situated  upon  this  portion,  but  upon  a  series  of 
lamella;  which  stand  out  upon  each  side  of  the  stalk,  giving  the 
whole  creature,  in  some  cases,  the  appearance  of  a  large  quill- 
feather.  It  was  formerly  supposed  these  Polypes  swim  by  the  waving 
of  the  pinnse  to  and  fro  in  the  sea  ;  and  as  some  of  them  are  most 


Fig.  2120. — The  Pcmiatula. 
a,  a  single  polype  magnified. 

brilliantly  phosphorescent,  the  beautiful  appearance  which  would  be 
presented  by  the  motion  of  such  a  splendid  undulating  meteor 
through  the  water  may,  perhaps  be  imagined.  In  the  words  of 
Dr.  Grant,  "  a  more  singular  and  beautiful  spectacle  could  scarcely 
be  conceived  than  that  of  a  deep  purple  Pennatula  phosphorea, 
with  all  its  delicate  transparent  polypi  expanded,  and  emitting  their 
beautiful  phosphorescent  light,  sailing  through  the  still  and  dark 
abyss,  by  the  regular  and  synchronous  pulsations  of  the  minute 
fringed  arms  of  the  whole  polypi."  But  unfortunately  for  this 
charming  vision,  all  that  we  know  of  the  habits  of  these  creatures 
tends  to  show  that,  although  certainly  not  rooted  to  one  spot  like 
the  other  Polypes,  they  are  completely  sedentary  in  their  mode  of 
life,  remaining  always  in  one  place,  with  the  base  of  the  central 
stalk  buried  in  the  soft  bottom  of  the  sea. 

These  Zoophytes  vary  considerably  in  form.  In  some  cases,  of 
which  the  Pentiatula,  or  "  sea-pen  "  (Fig.  2120)  raayserveas  an  ex- 
ample, the  central  stalk  is  of  moderate  length,  whilst  the  pinnse  are 
tolerably  long,  giving  the  creature  so  completely  the  appearance  of 
a  feather,  that,  to  use  the  words  of  Lamarck,  "it  seems,  in  fact,  as 
if  nature,  in  forming  this  compound  animal,  had  endeavoured  to 
copy  the  external  form  of  a  bird's  feather."  In  some  genera,  Vir- 
gulan'a  axid  Pdz'onaria,Xo  ^h\ch  the  name  of  "  rea-rushes  "  has 
been  given,  the  central  stem  is  very  much  prolonged,  some  of  them 
measuring  between  three  and  four  feet  in  length.  The  polypiferous 
lobes  are  comparatively  short. 

Order  III. — Helianthoida. 

General  Characters.— The  Helianthoid  Polypes,  of  which  the 
Common  Sea-anemones  of  our  coasts  may  serve  as  an  example,  ap- 
proach much  more  closely  in  their  structure  to  the  Asteroid  than  to 

the  Hydroid  Polypes.  They  have 
for  many  years  been  favourites  in 
our  Aquaria.  Like  the  Asteroid 
Polypes,  the  Animals  forming  the 
present  order  have  a  stomach, 
consisting  of  a  sac  quite  distinct 
from  the  outer  walls  of  the  body  : 
like  them,  also,  the  space  between 
the  stomach  and  the  outer  integu- 
ments is  divided  into  cells,  by  mem- 
branous or  muscular  partitions, 
upon  whicli  the  ova  are  produced. 
But,  instead  of  eight  flat  fringed 
organs,  the  mouth  is  surrounded 
by  a  variable  number  of  tubular 
tentacles,  which  are  generally  very 
numerous,  and  arranged  in  mul- 
tiples either  of  five  or  six ;  and 
the   lamelteofthe  interparietal  space  follow  the  same  rule. 

Some  of  them,  as  the  Actinice,  are  free  and  naked;  but  the 
greater  number  secrete  a  calcareous  polypidom,  which,  however, 
differs  widely  from  that  of  the  preceding  order.  Instead  of  the 
Polypes  being  imbedded  in  a  fleshy  or  leathery  mass,  supported  on  a 
calcareous  or  horny  axis,  the  cells  inhabited  by  the  Helianthoid 
Polypes  are  hollowed  out  immediately  in  the  Stony  polypidom  ;  the 
lamellaj,  which  divide  the  space  between  the  outer  skin  and  the 
stomach  into  compartments,  being  also  supported  by  a  calcareous 
plate  ;  so  that  when  the  polypes  are  removed,  the  cells  still  exhibit 
a  radiate  structure.  The  Actinice,  one  of  the  commonest  species  of 
which  is  represented  in  the  preceding  figure,  affords  a  very  good  idea 
of  the  individual  Polypes  of  this  order. 


;Fig.  2221. — The  Actinia  mcscnihy- 
anthcmmn. 


CORAL  fSLAN-DS,  AND  CORAL  REEFS. 


827 


The  extension  of  these  Animals  is  effected  by  the  imbibition  of 
water,  either  throusi-h  the  mouth  or  tlic  pores  of  the  tentacles.  This 
fills  the  interparietal  space,  and  is  forced  thence  into  the  tentacles  ; 
the  little  pores  at  their  tips  being  kept  closed  until  every  part  of  the 
creature  is  distended  to  the  utmost — often  presenting  a  most  beauti- 
ful appearance.  The  contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  body,  and  of 
the  perpendicular  lamella:,  soon  forces  out  this  water,  when  the 
Actiriui  wishes  to  contract  itself;  the  water  passes  off  through 
minute  pores  at  the  tips  of  the  tentacula ;  and  when  the  con- 
traction is  sudden,  it  is  sometimes  ejected  to  a  distance  of  a  foot  or 
more. 

The  polypidom  of  the  Helianthoid  Zoophytes  is  essentially  a  cast, 
in  carbonate  of  lime,  or  chalk,  of  the  structure  of  the  animal.  It  is 
presented  in  its  simplest  form  by  the  Fniigia: — a  group  of  corals  in 
which  tlie  polypidom  is  inhabited  only  by  a  single  Polype. 

Humble  as  these  creatures  are,  their  operations  occupy  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  history  of  the  globe.  Islands — some  of  them  of 
considerable  size,  and  affording  a  habitation  to  an  entire  race  of 
human  beings — owe  their  elevation  (from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
and  the  solidity  which  enables  them  to  resist  the  continual  action  of 
the  tremendous  breakers  of  the  Tropical  seas)  to  the  labours  of 
these  apparently  contemptible  agents  ;  and  in  the  geological  periods 
of  the  world's  history  they  appear  to  have  played  even  a  still  more 
important  part. 

ihree  kinds  of  Coral  reefs  are  distinguished.  Nearly  all  the 
shores  of  the  seas  inhabited  by  the  reef-building  corals,  which  oc- 
cupy a  broad  zone  extending  between  20°  and  30°  of  latitude  on  each 
side  of  the  equator,  are  more  or  less  fringed  with  their  living  walls  ; 
these  are  called  skirting  ?'eefs.  Other  reefs  are  sometimes  met 
with  at  a  much  greater  distance  from  the  shore,  although  still,  to  a 
certain  extent,  running  parallel  to  its  outlines.  To  these  the  name 
of  barrier  reefs  has  been  given  ;  the  most  remarkable  of  them  is 
the  great  reef  which  runs  along  the  north-east  coast  of  Australia. 
The  third  form  of  reef  is  presented  by  a  great  number  of  the  Poly- 
nesian islands.  Many  of  these  are  of  a  crescent-like  form,  or  even 
sometimes  completely  circular,  inclosing,  as  within  a  wall,  a  basin 
of  still  water  (called  a  iagooii),  in  which  the  more  delicate  Marine 
Animals  find  a  welcome  refuge  from  the  tumultuous  waves  which 
rage  without.  These  islands,  which  are  called  a/oils,  or  lagoon- 
reefs,  are  generally  highest  on  the  windward,  or  eastern  side,  against 
which  the  waves  are  continually  dashing  with  great  violence  ;  the 
Polypes,  from  some  cause  still  unexplained,  building  with  greater 
rapidity  on  that  portion  of  the  reef  which  is  constantly  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  breakers.  On  the  opposite  or  leeward  side,  the 
reef  is  seldom  completed  ;  so  that  at  this  part  the  lagoon  usually 
communicates  with  the  open  sea  by  an  opening  of  variable  width. 
As  exposure  to  the  air  appears  quickly  to  be  fatal  to  these  Polypes, 
they  never  raise  their  habitations  quite  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
usually  stopping  at  four  or  five  feet  below  low-water  mark.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  living  Polypes  can  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  final  elevation  of  the  Coral  islands  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  ;  and  we  find  that  this  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  very  waves 
which  appear  to  threaten  the  infant  island  with  destruction.  The 
violence  of  the  storm  breaks  off  large  fragments  from  the  lower  parts 
of  the  reef,  and  washes  them  up  to  its  surface,  where  they  rest, 
and  gradually  become  agglutinated  together  by  a  constant  deposit 
of  calcareous  sand,  produced  by  the  disintegration  of  the  coral.  In 
course  of  time,  these  deposits  rise  above  the  surface,  when  some 
floating  cocoa-nut  is  thrown  upon  the  beach,  and  germinates  in  the 
sandy  soil.  Things  go  on  rapidly  now.  Birds  visit  the  new-formed 
land  ;  new  species  of  vegetation  arise  ;  and  each  plant,  by  the  decay 
of  its  fallen  leaves,  assists  in  the  formation  of  a  layer  of  mould,  in 
which  other  plants  may  grow.  Assisted  by  a  Tropical  sun  and  a 
moist  atmosphere,  vegetation  becomes  luxuriant  :  and  the  barren 
sandy  spot,  so  recently  raised  from  the  bosom  of  the  ocean,  is  soon 
converted  into  one  of  the  most  delightful  abodes  of  man.  To  solve 
the  difficulty  which  is  presented  in  the  study  of  the  production,  (S:c., 
of  coral  reefs,  a  most  ingenious  hypothesis  has  been  put  forward  by 
Mr.  Darwin,  of  which,  for  want  of  space,  we  are  compelled  to  omit  a 
description,  and  must  consequently  refer  our  readers  to  his  works  on 
this  interesting  subject. 

Like  the  greater  number  of  Radiated  Animals,  the  Helianthoid 
Polypes  possess  urticating  organs,  which  consist  of  minute  capsules 
imbedded  in  the  skin,  containing  a  spicule,  or  a  spiral  thread,  of 
great  delicacy,  and  apparently,  also,  secreting  an  acrid  fluid  of  some 
sort,  which  exerts  a  poisonous  action  upon  an}'  soft  living  tissues 
with  which  it  may  come  in  contact.  The  effect  of  this  urticating 
power  is  seen,  in  the  speedy  death  of  small  Fishes,  and  other  Marine 
creatures,  which  tempt  their  fate  by  straying  carelessly  amongst  the 
tentacles  of  our  common  Actiiiicc,  several  of  which  produce  a  slight 
sensation  of  heat  even  in  the  human  skin. 

Sub-divisions. — In  this,  as  in  the  preceding  order,  the  charac- 
ters of  the  families  are  derived  from  the  structure  of  the  polypidom. 
In  the  first  family  (the  Aladreporida,  or  "  Tree  Corals  ")  the  poly- 
pidom is  much  branched,  and  composed  of  a  porous  substance,  in 
which  the  openings  of  the  Polype  cells  occupy  the  summits  of  tuber- 
cular prominences  of  greater  or  less  elevation.    These  cells  are  gene- 


rally almost  round  ;  sometimes  they  are  nearly  superficial,  but  in 
many  cases  roach  nearly  to  the  centre  of  the  coral.  The  rays  are 
few  in  number,  and  nrcly  meet  in  the  middle  cf  the  cell.  The 
Polypes  arc  usually  sni.ill,  and  possess  only  twelve  short  tentacles 
placed  in  a  circle  round  tin:  mouth. 

The  family  of  Cyai/io/i/iy/iid,,-,  or  "  Cup  Corals,"  form  polypidoras 
of  a  more  or  less  cup-like  shape,  with  the  cell  occupied  by  the 
Polype  at  the  upper  extremity.  The  Polypes  arc  large,  and  fur- 
nished with  many  tentacles,  and  the  rays  of  the  cells  arc  also 
numerous.  This  family  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-families,  ac- 
cording as  the  cell  occupied  by  the  Polype  is  divided  or  not,  from 
the  lower  portion  of  the  polypidom,  by  a  transverse  partition. 
Species  of  both  these  groups  are  found  in  deep  water  off  the  British 
coasts. 

It  is  to  the  third  family,  the  Astrmda;  especially  that  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Coral  reefs  is  to  be  attributed.  In  this,  the  Corals  usually 
form  thick  stony  masses  ;  the  stony  rays  of  the  cells  are  exceedingly 
numerous,  and  the  cells  themselves  penetrate  deeply  into  the  mass 
of  the  coral,  although  they  are  generally  partially  divided  by  im- 
perfect transverse  partitions.  Most  of  the  Zoophytes  of  this  family 
appear  to  increase  by  a  sort  of  spontaneous  division,  instead  of  by 
gemmation.  By  this  means,  the  body  of  the  Polype,  and  the  cavity 
which  it  occupies,  are  in  many  cases  not  distinctly  circumscribed  ; 
and  the  latter  form  curious,  elongated,  winding  depressions  in  the 
surface  of  the  coral.  A  very  well-known  example  of  this  form  is 
presented  by  the  brain  coral  (Mcsa?idriria  cerebriformis). 

In  the  fourth  family,  the  Fungida,  to  which  we  have  already  re- 
ferred, the  Polypes  are  single,  and  often  attain  a  considerable  size. 
The  polypidoms  form  oblong  or  roundish  masses,  furnished  with  an 
extraordinary  number  of  rays  ;  the  outermost  of  which  project  from 
the  circumference,  without  being  confined  by  any  outer  walls.  The 
Polype  occupies  the  whole  of  this  radiated  edifice  ;  it  is  furnished 
with  a  tubular  mouth  in  the  centre,  and  with  numerous  short,  round 
tentacles,  which  are  scattered  over  the  upper  surface. 

The  family  Zoanfhidcs  consists  of  somewhat  clavate  Polypes,  pre- 
senting a  considerable  resemblance  in  their  general  structure  to  the 
ActinicB.  They  differ  from  these,  however,  in  being  social  in  their 
mode  of  life,  a  number  of  the  Polypes  being  united  by  a  common 
creeping  stem,  which  attaches  them  to  some  submarine  object,  and 
from  which  new  Polypes  arc  produced  at  intervals  as  it  runs  along. 
The  mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  single  row  of  tentacles. 

We  now  come  to  the  family  of  Actiniada;,  or  "  Sea  Anemones," 
the  structure  of  which  has  already  been  described.  A  considerable 
number  of  these  Polypes  occur  on  our  own  coasts,  especially  on  the 
West  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  ;  but  it  is  in  the  seas  of  Tropical 
latitudes  that  they  are  to  be  found  in  the  greatest  profusion,  and 
presenting  the  most  attractive  appearance.  In  many  respects  they 
nearly  represent  the  appearance  of  beautiful  flowers.  Thus  are  the 
wonders  of  nature  exhibited  in  the  most  minute  productions. 

The  tentacles  are  arranged  either  in  one  or  several  rows.  In  some 
species  they  are  long  and  thin  ;  in  others,  short  and  thick  ;  in  most 
of  them  the  tentacles  and  oral  disc  can  be  retracted  within  the  body ; 
but  in  the  genus  .<4«//ie(Z,  of  which  two  British  species  are  known, 
they  are  always  exserted. 

The  ActiniadcB  are  exceedingly  voracious  in  their  habits,  feeding 
upon  almost  any  small  Animals  that  come  within  their  reach. 
Shrimps  and  small  Crabs,  Whelks,  and  even  sometimes  small  Fishes, 
fall  a  ready  prey  to  these  apparently  helpless  creatures.  In  many 
cases,  the  objects  taken  into  their  capacious  maw  appear  to  bear  no 
proportion  to  the  original  size  of  the  Animal,  or  to  its  power  of  pre- 
hension. 

Although  so  much  more  complicated  in  their  structure  than  the 
Hydra,  whose  extraordinary  history  has  already  been  detailed, 
these  Animals  possess  a  nearly  equal  power  of  surviving  and  repair- 
ing an  amount  of  injury  that  would  be  fatal  to  most  other  creatures. 
They  may  be  kept  without  food  for  upwards  of  a  year  ;  they  may  be 
immersed  in  water  hot  enough  to  blister  the  skin,  or  frozen  in  a  mass 
of  ice  and  again  thawed  ;  and  they  may  be  placed  in  the  exhausted 
receiver  of  the  air-pump,  without  being  deprived  of  life,  or  disabled 
from  resuming  their  usual  functions  when  placed  in  a  favourable 
situation.  The  most  serious  mutilations  appear  to  be  equally  sub- 
jects of  perfect  indifference  to  them  ;  their  tentacles  may  break  off, 
and  new  ones  will  soon  spring  up  in  the  place  of  those  which  have 
been  removed  ;  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  body  may  be  cut  away, 
and  after  a  time  the  base  will  produce  a  new  mouth,  oral  disc,  and 
tentacles,  and  proceed  with  its  vital  functions  as  if  nothing  had  hap- 
pened to  disturb  the  even  tcnour  of  its  existence. 

The  Luceritaridcc,  which  form  the  seventh  and  last  family,  have 
been  arranged  by  some  authors  with  the  Asteroid  Polypes,  as,  like 
these,  they  possess  eight  tentacles,  or  rather  eight  bundles  of  ten- 
tacles. They  appear,  however,  to  be  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
Actinia  than  to  the  Asteroid  Polypes  ;  and  in  some  of  their  charac- 
ters they  approach  the  Mcduscv,  which  constitute  the  following  class, 
so  that  in  their  natural  position  they  ought  probably  to  be  appro.xi- 
mated,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  those  creatures.  The  Lucernaridcs, 
of  which  several  species  are  found  on  the  British  coasts,  are  Cam- 
panulate  Animals  of  a  g'elatinous  consistence. 


THE  MEDUSA,  OR  UMBRELLA  FISHES. 


Class  II.— Discophora. 

In  walking  along  the  sea-beach  as  the  tide  is  falling,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  wanderer  is  often  attracted  by  the  number  of  singular 
gelatinous  masses  left  on  the  sands.  At  first  sight  it  would  never  be 
suspected  that  these  are  really  living  Animals,  endowed  with  a  struc- 
ture of  considerable  complexity  ;  but  a  very  little  examination  will 
soon  show  the  observer  that  this  is  the  case.  If  one  of  these  lumps 
of  jelly  be  put  into  a  clear  pool  or  basin  of  sea-water,  parts,  before 
confounded  in  a  shapeless  mass,  immediately  unfold  themselves  ;  a 
circular  umbrella-like  disc,  surrounded  by  numerous  short  filamen- 
tous tentacles,  appears  to  support  the  creature  at  the  surface  of  the 


Fig.  2222. — The  Medusa  atirita. 
A.  lateral  view,  showing  the  tentacles  hanging  down  ;  B,  under  surface. 

water;  and  from  the  centre  of  this  hang  four  long  arms  with  mem- 
branous fringed  margins.  This  is  the  Medusa  aurifa  (Fig.  2222), 
the  commonest  Medusa  of  our  coasts,  and  must  have  been  observed 
by  any  one  who  has  looked  into  the  water  from  a  boat  or  jetty  in 
calm  weather.  In  the  v/ater  the  creature  swims  along  most  grace- 
fully by  the  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation  of  its  transparent 
disc. 

All  the  Animals  of  this  class  present  a  structure  very  similar  to 
this.  They  all  possess  a  disc  of  greater  or  less  convexity,  which  is 
employed  in  the  manner  already  described,  for  the  purposes  of  loco- 
motion ;  and  in  most  of  them,  the  margin  of  this  disc  is  furnished 
with  tentacles  or  cirri.  The  disc,  or  umbfella,  consists  of  two 
membranes,  of  which  the  lower  is  called  the  sub-umbrella.  In  the 
centre  of  this  the  mouth  is  situated,  sometimes  at  the  extremity  of  a 
peduncle  of  variable  length,  which  contains  the  stomach,  and  in 
some  cases  also  the  ovaries.  The  mouth  is  most  frequently  furnished 
with  tentacles.  Immediately  above  the  stomach  there  is  frequently 
a  second  cavity,  whence  a  system  of  vessels  takes  its  rise  ;  these  run 
in  a  radiating  direction  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference  of  the 
sub-umbrella,  where  they  are  united  by  a  circular  vessel.  In  some 
cases  these  vascular  canals  are  branched,  and  sometimes  they  form 
a  delicate  net-work,  which  runs  through  the  whole  body  of  the  crea- 
ture. _  When  the  supra-stomachal  cavity  is  wanting,  the  vessels 
open  immediately  into  the  stomach  itself.  They  serve  to  convey  the 
products  of  digestion  from  the  stomach  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
body,  and  at  the  same  time  expose  it  to  the  action  of  the  water 
through  which  the  Animal  moves.  The  tentacles,  which  generally 
surround  the  mouth,  vary  greatly  in  size  and  form  ;  those  of  the 
margin  are  filiform  and  very  variable  in  length.  At  the  base  the 
marginal  tentacles  (Fig.  2223)  terminate  in  a  small  bulb,  in  which 
the  microscope  reveals  the  existence  of  one  or  more  minute  cavities, 
which  from  their  structure,  and  supposed  connection  with  the  faculty 
of  hearing,  have  received  the  name  of  ofoUtic  vesicles  {b).  They 
consist  of  an  oval  or  roundish  sac,  containing  from  one  to  nine,  or 
even  more  globules.     In  addition  to  these,  the  bases  of  the  marginal 

tentacles  contain  other  organs, 
which  also  occur  on  other  parts  of 
the  margin  of  the  disc.  These 
consist  of  small  masses  of  pigment 
cells,  each  surrounding  a  minute 
silicious  crystal.  From  the  analogy 
of  their  structure  they  are  regarded 
as  rudimentary  eyes,  or  at  all 
events  as  organs  by  which  a  sensa- 
tion analogous  to  vision  is  pro- 
duced, and  they  have  consequently 
received  the  name  of  ocelli  (c). 
In  many  species  they  are  present 
in  great  numbers  ;  and  in  the  more 
highly  organised  forms,  they  are 
more  complicated  in  their  struc- 
ture, and  protected  from  injury  by  membranous  hoods  or  coverings, 
Nevertheless,  although  the  visual  auditory  functions  of  these  curious 
organs  seem  to  be  admitted  on  all  sides,  the  existence  of  any  ap- 
proach to  a  nervous  system  in  these  creatures  is  still  a  matter  of 
great  doubt ;  so  that  if  the  ocelli  zn^  otolitic  vesicles  really  perform 
the  parts  assigned  to  them,  the  perceptions  conveyed  by  them  to 
the  animal,  must  be  of  an  exceedingly  imperfect  nature. 
The  stinging  power,  which  has  already  been  referred  to  as  com- 


Fig.  2223. — Margin  of  the  Oceania 
octona^ 

a,    basis    of  marginal   tentacles ;   b, 
otilitic  vesicles  ;  c,  ocelli. 


mon  to  several  groups  of  radiate  Animals,  is  possessed  by  many 
Meduses  in  the  highest  perfection.  The  urticating  organs  in 
Pelagia  itoctiluca,  as  described  by  Professor  Wagner,  are  placed  in 
warts  or  tubercles  on  the  skin  of  the  Animal.  These  warts  contain 
aggregations  or  small  red  pigment  granules,  amongst  which  there 
are  numerous  little  round  vesicles,  the  largest  being  about  -j-ou"!  of 
a  line  in  diameter.  Within  these  little  capsules  a  spiral  thread  is 
to  be  seen,  which  bursts  out  of  its  case  on  the  slightest  pressure  ; 
these  barbed  capsules  are  always  found  in  the  urticating  mucus 
exuded  in  such  quantities  by  the  McduscB,  to  which  they  are  con- 
sidered to  communicate  this  property.  One  or  two,  at  least,  of  our 
British  species  sting  most  severely,  although  others  are  perfectly 
harmless.  It  is  from  this  stinging  power  that  the  Alcdusce  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  "sea-nettles,"  which  appears  to  have  been 
applied  to  them  in  all  ages  and  in  all  languages.  The  ancient 
Greeks  called  them  AKaXi)0ai,  or  nettles — a  name  which  was  adopted 
into  modern  scientific  language  to  designate  the  class  of  Animals  to 
which  the  Medusce  belonged. 

The  class  Acalepha,  of  authors,  includes  not  only  the  Animals 
of  the  present  class,  but  also  those  of  the  two  following  ;  and  the 
whole  presents  so  few  characters  in  common,  that  Eschscholtz,  in 
his  work  upon  this  department  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  was  obliged 
to  confess  that  the  Acalej>h(S  could  only  be  described  as  Radiated 
Animals,  furnished  with  distinct  organs  of  nutrition  and  motion. 
W^e  have,  accordingly,  preferred  following  the  example  of  some 
recent  zoologists,  who  have  abolished  the  class  Acalephez  alto- 
gether, and  raised  the  three  orders  into  which  those  Animals 
were  divided,  to  the  rank  of  distinct  classes.  The  phosphorescence 
of  the  Medusce  has  already  been  alluded  to  ;  and  we  shall  not,  there- 
fore, recur  to  it  in  this  place. 

But  the  most  singular  incidents  in  the  biography  of  Meduscs  are 
the  circumstances  connected  with  their  reproduction.  Ihey  are  all 
propagated  by  eggs,  which  the  females  (for  these  Animals  are  uni- 
sexual) produce  in  glandular  organs,  sometimes  arranged  in  bands 
or  patches  on  the  surface  of  the  sub-umbrella,  and  sometimes  in  the 
cavities  at  the  base  of  the  peduncle.  But  these  ova,  when  excluded 
from  the  body  of  the  parent,  develop  an  Animal  quite  different  in 
form  from  that  from  which  they  sprang  ;  and  it  is  only  in  the  second 
generation  that  the  original  Medusa  is  reproduced.  The  eggs  are 
developed,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  small  pouches,  placed  beneath  the 
body,  and  in  the  arms  of  the  mother,  whence  they  are  not  excluded 
until  they  have  acquired  the  form  of  an  active  infusory  animalcule 
furnished  with  cilia,  enabling  them  to  swim  freely  in  the  water. 
After  a  time,  the  little  Animal  attaches  itself  by  one  extremity  in 
some  suitable  position  and  awaits  its  further  development.  Arms 
are  soon  formed  at  its  upper  extremity  ;  and  it  now  presents  the 
appearance  and  takes  its  food  in  the  manner  of  Hydrafomi  polype. 
At  this  stage  of  its  growth,  buds  are  often  produced,  just  as  in  a  true 
Hydra.  The  body  now  increases  considerably  in  length,  and  be- 
comes constricted,  or  divided  by  wrinkles  of  the  surface  into 
numerous  segments  ;  these  become  more  and  more  distinct,  their 
edges  become  notched,  and  at  length  the  Animal  resembles  a  pile 
of  jagged  saucers  placed  one  upon  another  and  surmounted  by  a 
crown  of  tentacles.  At  length  these  separate  and  swim  about  like 
Y\tt\e  Medusce ;  and,  after  undergoing  some  changes,  they  acquire 
the  form  and  colouring  of  the  common  Medusa  aurita  (see  Fig. 
2222)  of  our  coasts.  So  completely  do,  what  for  want  of  a  better  term, 
we  must  call  the  preparatory  states  of  these  Animals,  resemble 
Hydroid  polypes,  that  their  connection  with  the  Meduscs  has  only 
been  but  recently  discovered;  and  the  species  just  referred  to  has 
been  described  under  the  name  of  Hydra  tuba.  Amongst  the 
smaller  Meduscs,  a  somewhat  different  mode,  or  rather  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  former  method  of  reproduction,  prevails.  In  these,  as 
in  the  larger  species,  the  ova,  when  excluded,  produce  Polypes, 
from  which  Animals  resembling  the  parent  arise  by  a  process  of 
gemmation  ;  but  instead  of  the  young  Meduscs  being  produced  by 
the  division  of  the  whole  substance  of  the  Polype  into  a  series  of 
superposed  cups,  they  spring  from  its  body  like  true  buds,  which 
gradually  become  perfect  Medusiform  Animals.  They  stand  in 
much  the  same  relation  to  the  polype  stock,  from  which  they  are 
produced,  as  the  flower  to  its  parent  plant  ;  and  if  we  imagine  a 
plant  in  which  the  flowers,  when  fully  formed,  are  cast  off  to  perfect 
their  seed,  whilst  floating  in  the  medium  which  surrounds  them,  we 
shall  obtain  a  very  good  idea  of  the  mode  of  development  of  these 
small  Medusce.  The  Polype  stages  of  these  Animals  resemble  the 
Tubularian  and  Sertularian  Polypes.  From  these  circumstances, 
some  zoologists  have  proposed  the  removal  of  the  whole  of  the 
Hydroid  Polypes  into  the  present  class,  of  which  many  of  them  are 
certainly  only  stages  of  development.  Opinions  are  still  so  much 
divided,  however,  as  to  the  true  affinities  of  these  Animals,  that  we 
have  preferred  leaving  the  Hydroid  polypes  in  their  old  position  to 
placing  them  where  few  of  our  readers  would  think  of  looking  for 
them. 

These  facts  have  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  theory  of  the 
"alternation  of  generations."  Steenstrup,  who  was  the  first  naturalist 
to  put  forward  this  idea,  as  a  "  general  fact  dependent  on  a  law," 
defines  it  as  follows: — "The    jundamental  idea  e.xpressed  by  the 


THE  MEDUSJE,  Gfc. 


819 


•kotAs  A/fernafion  of  gencrafwus,"  is  "  the  remarkable,  and  till 
now,  inexplicable  phenomenon  of  an  animal  producinjr  an  off- 
spring, which  at  no  time  resembles  its  parent  ;  but  which,  on  the 
other  hand,  itself  brings  forth  a  progeny  which  returns,  in  its  form 
and  nature,  to  the  parent  animal,  so  tliat  the  maternal  animal  does 
not  meet  with  its  resemblance  in  its  own  brood,  but  in  its  descendants 
of  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  degree  of  generation.  And  this  al- 
ways takes  place  in  the  different  animals  which  exhibit  the  pheno- 
mena in  3.  determinate  generation,  or  with  the  intervention  of  a 
determinate  number  of  generations.  This  remarkable  ^precedence 
of  one  or  more  generations,  whose  function  it  is,  as  it  were,  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  later  succeeding  generation  of  animals  destined 
to  attain  a  higher  degree  of  perfection,  and  which  are  developed 
into  the  form  of  the  mother,  and  propagate  the  species  by  means  of 
ova,  can,  I  believe,  be  demonstrated  in  not  a  few  instances  in  the 
animal  kingdom." 

At  least  four  British  species  of  Medusae  (two  of  Lizzia  and  two  of 
Sarsia)  have  the  power  of  producing  young  Animals  by  direct  gem- 
mation, and  their  development  from  a  zoophytic  form  has  not  yet 
been  observed.  In  Lizzia  and  Sarsia  gem»iifera,  the  buds  are 
produced  from  the  stomachal  peduncles  ;  but  in  the  other  species  of 
Sarsia  S.  ;proli/era)  they  originate  from  the  bulbs  at  the  base  of 
the  tentacles,  where  they  may  be  seen  attached  in  all  stages  of  de- 
velopment. 

Sub-divisions. — Much  still  remains  to  be  done  to  the  subordinate 
classification  of  these  Animals,  Professor  Forbes  divides  the 
MedusEe  into  two  great  divisions,  which  we  shall  adopt  as  orders. 
In  the  first  of  these,  the  ocelli,  or  eye-like  spots,  surrounding  the 
margin   of  the   disc  are    naked  (Fig.  2224) ;    whilst  in  the  others 


Fig.  2224.- 
I.  The  Sarsia  tubulosa. 


■Ocelli  of  the  Meduscs. 

2.  The  Pdagia  panopyra. 


these  organs  are  protected 
hoods  or  lobed  coverings 
called  Gymnopfhat?nata 
phthatmata  (or  covered- 
present,  are  always  placed 
and  frequently  also  on  the 
group,  on  the  contrary,  th 
ginal  tentacles. 


by  more  or  less  complicated  membranous 
(Fig.  2224 — 2).  Hence  the  former  are 
(or  naked-eyed) ;  the  latter,  Stegano- 
eyed).  In  the  former,  the  ocelli,  when 
on  the  bulbs  at  the  base  of  the  tentacles, 
interstices  between  these.  In  the  second 
ey  are  always  placed  between  the  mar- 


Order  I.— Gymnophthalmata. 

Sub-divisions. — Professor  Forbes,   in  his  work   upon  the  British 
species  of  this  order,  to  which  we  are  so  largely  indebted,  divides 

this  group  into  six  families,  charac- 
terised principally  by  the  number  and 
position  of  the  vessels  and  ovaries. 
The  first  of  these,  the  Sarsidce,  in- 
cludes, together  with  several  other 
genera,  the  Sarsics  and  Lizzi(S,  al- 
ready mentioned  as  producing  young 
Medusas  by  gemmation  from  their 
central  peduncle,  and  from  the  base 
of  the  marginal  tentacles.  In  these, 
the  ovaries  are  imbedded  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  peduncle.  They  have 
four  simple  vessels,  and  generally 
only  four  tentacles,  each  bearing  an 
ocellus  at  their  base.  In  Lizzia,  the 
margin  of  the  umbrella  bears  eight 
bulbs,  each  containing  an  ocellus  ;  of 
these,  four  are  larger  than  the  others, 
and  to  each  of  these  three  tentacles 
are  attached  ;  the  other  four  bear  two 
tentacles  each.  In  Modeeria,  al- 
though there  are  but  four  tentacles, 
Fit;.  2225.— TlieiJ/tf,/c'm«/c;/v«(;OT.  an  additional  ocellus  is  placed  be- 
tween   each    pair.      The    Alodeeria 


'g- 


2226. — The  Thaumantias 
pilosella. 


formosa  (Fig.  2225),  of  which  we  have  given  a  figure,  is  one  of  the 
most  charming  of  these  charming  little  creatures. 

In  the  second  family,  the  Geryonidce,  the  vessels  are  also  simple 
and  four  in  number ;  but  the  ovaries,  of  which  there  are  also  four, 
instead  of  being  imbedded  in  the  peduncle,  arc  placed  in  the  course 
of  the  vessels  on  the  sub-umbrella.  The  tentacles  vary  greatly  in 
number.  In  some  species  there  are  only  four  of  these  organs,  each 
bearing  an  ocellus ;  in  others,  the  number  of  both  organs  is  increased, 
until  in  the  Thaiitnantias pilosella,  of  which  a  magnified  figure  is 
here  given  (Fig.  2226),  there  are  about  a  hundred  principal  exten- 
sible tentacles,  springing  from  ocelliferous  bulbs  ;  whilst  in  each  of 
tho  intervals  between  these,  si.\  or  seven  shorter  fibres,  or  secondary 

tentacles  are  placed..  Different 
species  of  Thaumantias  are  most 
important  agents  in  producing  the 
luminosity  of  the  European  seas. 
The  third  family,  Circcidcs,  in- 
cludes only  a  single  genus  of  which 
the  few  species  are  scattered  over 
very  distant  parts  of  the  world. 
One  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Kamt- 
schatka,  two  on  the  African  coast, 
and  a  fourth  has  been  discovered, 
by  Professor  Forbes,  off  the  Sliet- 
land  Isles.  In  this,  there  are 
eight  radiating  vessels,  and  eight 
small  ovaries,  placed  on  the  sub- 
umbrella  in  the  course  of  the 
vessels. 

In  the  ^quoridce,  amongst  which  are  included  some  of  the 
largest  species  of  naked-eyed  Medusae,  the  vessels  are  simple  and 
generally  numerous  (never  less  than  eight)  ;  and  the  ovaries  are 
linear,  and  placed  on  the  course  of  the  vessels  on  the  sub-umbrella. 

The  Medusae,  composing  the  fifth  family  (the  Oceanidae),  are 
amongst  the  most  delicate  and  beautiful  of  the  class.  They  con- 
sist of  a  little  conical  or  globular  glassy  body,  within  which  a 
variously  coloured  peduncle  may  be  seen.  The  lower  margin  is 
fringed  with  tentacles,  which  vary  greatly,  both  in  number  and 
colour.  They  possess  four  simple  vessels  ;  and  the  ovaries  are 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  stomachal  peduncle,  in  the  form  of 
convoluted  membranous  tubes,  which  render  themselves  noticeable 
through  the  clear  substance  of  the  Animal  by  their  brilliant  colour. 
In  Turris,  one  of  the  genera  of  this  family,  the  tentacles  are  ex- 
ceedingly numerous ;  whilst  in  another  genus  {SaJ>henia),  their 
number  is  reduced  to  two. 

The  sixth  family,  IVillsidcB,  is  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  by 
the  branched  form  of  the  radiating  vessels.  These  are  six  in  num- 
ber. After  running  some  little  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  sub- 
umbrella,  they  fork,  and  each  of  the  branches  again  forks  before 
reaching  the  margin  ;  so  that  the  marginal  vessel  receives  the  ter- 
minations of  twenty-four  radiating  vessels.  From  the  point  of 
junction  of  each  of  these,  a  tentacle  takes  its  rise.  There  are  si-t 
ovaries  placed  round  the  base  of  the  stomach. 

Order  II.— Steganophthalmata. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  includes  two  families.  The  Afcdu. 
sides  have  a  central  mouth,  surrounded  by  four  tentacles,  and  the 
remainder  of  their  organs  arranged  in  fours,  or  multiples  of  fou  . 
The  margin  of  the  disc  is  also  generally  furnished  with  tentacles. 
Several  of  these  inhabit  the  British  seas.  The  Medusa  aurita, 
already  described,  the  Pelagia  cyanella,  and  the  Cyancea  capillata, 
may  serve  as  examples. 

In  the  second  family,  the  RhizostomidcB ,  there  is  no  apparent 
mouth,  and  the  Animal  is  said  to  derive  its  nourishment  by  a  species 
of  absorption  through  numerous  minute  canals  which  permeate  the 
stomachal  peduncle  and  tentacles.  The  latter  are  usually  branched, 
so  as  to  be  apparently  rather  numerous  at  the  extremities.  The 
margin  is  never  furnished  with  tentacles.  One  species  of  this  family, 
the  Rhizostotna  cuvieri,  is  found  on  the  British  coasts. 

Class  III.— Ctenophora. 

General  Characters. — We  now  come  to  a  class  of  Animals, 
the  real  nature  of  which  is  still  to  be  made  out.  They  are  gela- 
tinous transparent  creatures,  generally  of  an  oval  form,  enabled  to 
swim  freely  by  the  action  of  variously  arranged  rows  of  cilia.  The 
body  of  these  Animals  has  so  much  more  of  the  bilateral  than  of  the 
radiate  type  in  the  arrangement  of  its  parts,  that  their  place  amongst 
the  Radiata  has  been  disputed  ;  and  M.  Vogt  has  placed  them  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Bryozoa,  or  MoUuscoid  Zoophytes,  as  low 
forms  of  Mollusca.  The  radiate  arrangement  of  the  bands  of  cilia, 
in  most  cases,  and  still  more  the  presence  of  urticating  organs  in  the 
tentacles,  may  justify  our  retaining  them  for  the  present  in  this 
position. 

The  cilia  in  the  bands  are  arranged  in  transverse  lines,  and  the 
cilia  of  each  line  are  frequently  united  at  the  base,  so  as  to  form 
minute  lodes,  which  are  moved  rapidly  to  and  fro,  and  thus  enable 


830 


THE  ECHTNODERMATA. 


the  creature  to  swim  backwards  and  forwards,  or  in  any  other  direc- 
tion, at  pleasure.  Numerous  and  minute  as  these  organs  are,  each 
of  them  appears  to  be  individually  under  the  control  of  the  Animal. 
When  in  action,  they  produce  the  most  beautiful  iridescent  colours, 
so  that  it  is  easy  to  detect  the  means  by  which  the  creature  varies 
its  course — now  paddling  with  one,  and  now  with  another,  of  its 
mimic  wheels.  The  mouth  leads  sometimes  immediately,  sometimes 
through  a  narrow  canal,  into  a  large  stomach,  which  opens  again 
into  a  funnel-shaped  cavity  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  axis  of 
the  body.  The  rudiment  of  a  nervous  system,  consisting  of  a  single 
ganglion,  giving  off  a  few  branches  in  various  directions,  is  said  to 
exist  in  these  Animals;  and  a  sort  of  vascular  system,  apparently 
for  the  conveyance  of  water,  rising  from  the  anal  funnel,  runs  along 
the  course  of  the  bands  of  cilia.  The  mode  of  reproduction  of  the 
Ctc7iophora  is  still  enveloped  in  mystery.  They  arc  supposed  to  be 
hermaphrodites,  and  ova  have  been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  aquiferous  vessels  ;  but  where  these  are  produced  is  not  yet  as- 
certained. These  singular  Animals  form  but  one  order,  which  is 
divided  into  two  families. 

The  Beroida:,  which  form  the  first  family,  may  almost  be  said  to 
possess  no  true  stomach,  the  body  being  so  formed  as  to  inclose  a 
great  cavity,  of  which  the  hinder  portion  serves  as  a  digestive  organ. 
When  the  Animals  have  much  food  in  this  cavity,  they  constrict  the 
middle  of  the  body,  so  as  to  prevent  any  of  it  from  escaping.  The 
body  is  oval  or  roundish,  with  eight  rows  of  cilia  running  from  end 
to  end  of  the  body  throughout.     The  mouth  is   large,    and   opens 

and  shuts  with  facility ;  it  is  gene- 
rally held  open  when  the  creature  is 
in  motion.  The  tentacles  are  wanting 
in  this  family. 

The  CalliatiiridcB  are  distin- 
guished from  the  preceding  family 
by  the  small  size  of  the  stomach  and 
mouth,  and  by  its  possession  of  fila- 
mentous tentacles.  The  little  Cy- 
dippe,  which  is  common  in  the 
British  seas,  is  a  good  example  of  this 
group.  The  most  singular  of  these 
Animals  is  the  Cestain  veneris,  or 
girdle  of  Venus  (Fig.  2227),  which 
inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Fig.  2227.— The  Cesium  veneris,  -which  at  first  sight   would  be  taken 

for  anything  rather  than  a  near  re- 
lation of  the  little  globular  Cydippe.  In  this  curious  creature,  the 
sides  of  the  body  are  produced  into  a  long  ribbon,  which  sometimes 
attains  the  length  of  four  or  five  feet :  the  mouth  and  digestive 
organs  being,  however,  confined  to  their  original  position  in  the 
middle  of  the  body.  This  Animal  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in- 
habitants of  the  ocean. 

Class  IV.— Siphonophora. 

The  Siphonophora  form  another  group  of  Animals,  of  which  we 
have  still  much  to  learn  before  their  true  nature  and  relations  can 
be  ascertained.  They  are  at  present  divided  into  two  orders — the 
Chondrograda  and  Physngrada. 

Order  I.— Chondrograda. 

These  Animals  are  called  Chondrograda,  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  circular  or  oval  disc,  of  which  their  body  is  composed,  is 
supported  upon  a  somewhat  cartilaginous  plate,  which  sometimes 
even  contains  a  calcareous  deposit ;  the  lower  surface  of  this  disc 
is  furnished  with  cirri,  many  of  which  are  tubular.  The  cartila- 
ginous plate  is  somewhat  cellular  in  its  texture,  and  the  cells  are 
filled  with  air,  which  assists  the  Animal  in  floating  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  In  the  middle  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  disc,  there  is 
a  larger  tubular  tentacle-like  organ,  which  has  been  taken  for  the 
mouth  by  some  observers  ;  by  others,  for  the  orifice  of  the  aquiferous 
system.  This  central  opening  is  surrounded  by  many  smaller  ones, 
the  offices  of  which  are  as  uncertain  as  those  of  the  principal  tube. 
Many  of  these  creatures  are  exceedmgly  beautiful,  blue  being  their 
prevailing  colour.  In  Porpita,  one  species  of  which  is  found  in,  the 
Mediterranean,  the  disc  is  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  fringe  of  ten- 
tacles ;  but  the  most  remarkable  structure  is  presented  by  the 
Velclla,  in  which  an  oblique  upright  crest  is  developed  upon  the 
upper  surface  of  the  disc,  serving  as  a  sort  of  sail  to  waft  the  little 
mariner  from  place  to  place.  One  species  of  this  genus  is  found  on 
the  coasts  of  Ireland. 

Order  II.— Physograda. 

The  characteristic  of  the  Animals  forming  this  order  is,  that  they 
are  furnished  with  a  vesicular  organ  containing  air,  which  serves  as 
a  float  to  buoy  them  up  in  the  water.  They  are  divided  into  two 
families.  In  the  first,  the  PhysalidcB,  the  Animals  are  composed 
of  large  vesicular  gelatinous  bodies,  bearing  on  their  lower  surface 


a  quantity  of  vermiform  tentacles  and  suckers,  intermixed  with  fili- 
form  tentacles  of  great  length.  The  float  consists  of  two  bladders, 
placed  one  within  the  other ;  the  inner  one  is  completely  closed,  and 
filled  with  air  ;  the  outer  possesses  a  crest  at  its  upper  part,  which 
serves,  like  the  sail  of  Velella,  for  its  propulsion  whilst  floating  at 
the  surface  of  the  water.  The  tentacles  can  also  be  retracted  within 
this  outer  bladder  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Animal.  The  best  known 
of  these  Animals  is  the  PJiysalia  atla?!tica,  which  has  received  from 
our  sailors  the  name  of  the  Portuguese  Man-of-War.  They  swim  in 
great  crowds  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  possess  a  very  strong 
urticating  power. 

The  Animals  forming  the  second  family,  the  DiphyidcB,  are  com- 
pound creatures,  whose  structure  has  always  been  a  fertile  source  of 
discussion  amongst  Naturalists.  They  have  formed  the  subject  of 
several  excellent  papers  from  the  pen  of  Professor  Huxley,  who  con- 
siders them  to  be  nearly  allied  to  the  common  Fresh-water  Polype 
{Hydra),  whose  singular  history  has  already  been  described.  In 
their  simplest  form  they  consist  of  two  transparent  pieces,  one  or 
both  of  which  contains  a  cavity,  by  the  contraction  of  which  they  are 
propelled  through  the  water.  The  union  between  these  pieces  is 
very  slight  ;  and,  when  detached,  each  piece  moves  independently 
for  a  considerable  time.  From  this  circumstance  they  have  been 
regarded  as  two  distinct  Animals,  which,  however,  are  always  found 
inserted  into  the  cavity  of  the  other.  They  have  been  divided  into 
numerous  genera  ;  the  characters  of  which  are  principally  derived 
from  the  form  of  the  component  pieces.  In  some  of  these  Animals 
(as  Stephanomia),  the  complication  becomes  most  extraordinary. 

Class  V.— Echinodermata. 

General  Characters. — The  Echhwdermafa,  the  fifth  and 
highest  class  of  Animals  included  by  naturalists  in  the  Radiate  divi- 
sion, exhibit  a  considerable  advance,  in  complexity  of  structure, 
over  the  simple  gelatinous  creatures  which  we  have  hitherto  had 
under  consideration.  They  are  at  once  distinguished  from  these  by 
the  structure  of  their  skin,  which,  instead  of  the  delicate  membranous 
texture,  so  characteristic  of  the  other  Radiaia,  presents  a  more  or 
less  leathery  consistency,  and  always  contains  a  larger  or  smaller 
amount  of  a  calcareous  deposit,  which  frequently  increases  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  form  a  complete  shell  or  crust  inclosing  all  the  soft 
parts  of  the  Animal.  The  skin  is  also  destitute  of  the  curious  urti- 
cating organs  (thread  cells)  which  are  so  constantly  present  in  all 
the  other  Animals  of  this  division.  The  amount  of  the  calcareous 
deposit  in  the  skin  varies  greatly  in  the  different  Animals  composing 
the  class,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  description  of  each  of  the  following 
species. 

In  their  form  the  Echinodermata  vary  greatly.  They  generally 
present  a  radiate  arrangement  of  their  parts,  with  great  distinct- 
ness ;  some,  of  which  the  well-known  Star-fish  of  our  coasts  may  be 
taken  as  an  example,  actually  assuming  the  form  of  a  star.  In  the 
globular  Sea-eggs,  also,  the  same  stellate  structure  may  be  ob- 
served. 

The  organs  of  motion  are  very  similar  throughout  the  class  ;  they 
consist  of  a  multitude  of  minute  feet,  called  ambulacra,  which  are 
protruded  through  a  number  of  perforations  left  for  this  purpose  in 
particular  plates  (hence  called  ambulacral  plates),  or  through  the 
interstices  of  the  calcareous  pieces  composing  the  covering  of  the 
Animal. 

The  existence  of  a  nervous  system  in  the  Echinodermata  is 
generally  admitted  by  zoologists.     It  is  said  to  consist  of  a  series  of 


Fig.  222S. — Anatomy  of  ihe  Echinus. 
a,  mouth  surrounded  by  the  teeth   and  jaws,  c  c -l,  oesophagus  ;  .r   stoniach. 
or  first  portion  of  the  intestine  ;  d,  uitestinal  tube  ;  e,  ovary  ;  f,f,  ambula- 
cral vesicles ;  f,  shell. 


SEA-LILIES,  HAIR-STARS,  STARFISHES,  Gfc. 


8ji 


ganglia,  or  knots  of  nervous  matter  surrounding  the  oesophagus, 
united  by  a  nervous  ring,  and  giving  off  a  set  of  nerves  to  each  ray 
of  the  body  The  presence  of  special  organs  of  sense  is  very  doubt- 
ful. The  sense  of  touch  is  evidently  exercised  by  the  ambulacra, 
which  are  also  employed  in  seizing  prey.  Some  red  spots,  which 
occur  at  the  extremities  of  the  arms  of  Star-fishes,  and  on  the  upper 
surface  of  Sea-eggs,  have  been  called  eyes  by  some  observers,  but 
apparently  with  but  little  ground.  The  general  anatomy  of  the 
Echinus  is  shown  in  Fig.  2228. 

The  sexes,  contrary  to  the  rule  which  we  have  seen  to  prevail  in 
the  lower  Radiata,  are  always  separate.  The  ova,  when  impreg- 
nated, become  converted  into  ciliated  embryos,  which,  breaking 
through  the  egg-shell,  swim  freely  about  in  the  water.  The 
changes  which  these  undergo  in  their  progress  towards  maturity  are 
exceedingly  remarkable ;  but  our  space  forbids  us  from  describing 
these  with  any  minuteness. 

The  Echinodermata  are  divided  into  four  orders.  In  two  of  these, 
the  body  is  more  or  less  flattened  or  discoid  in  its  form,  and  usually 
furnished  with  five  or  more  arms.  These,  in  the  first  order,  the 
Criiioidea,  are  slender,  and  formed  of  complete  calcareous  rings  or 
cylinders ;  whilst,  in  the  second,  the  Stellcrida,  the  calcareous 
covering  of  the  arms  is  composed  of  separate  plates.  In  the  third 
order,  the  Echtnida,  the  calcareous  plates  have  become  united  into 
a  regular  shell ;  and  the  fourth  includes  the  Worm-like  forms,  the 
Holothurida, 

Order  I. — Crinoidea. 

The  Crinm'dea,  or  Sea-lilies — so  called  from  the  resemblance 
which  many  of  them  present  to  flowers  (Fig.  2229  ) — were  exceed- 
ingly abundant  in  former  ages  of  the  world  ;  and 
their  remains  often  form  the  great  bulk  of  large 
masses  of  rock.  During  the  whole  or  a  part  of 
their  existence,  these  Animals  are  attached  to 
submarine  bodies  by  a  longer  or  shorter  stalk, 
composed  of  calcareous  rings  similar  to  those  of 
which  the  arms  are  composed.  The  body  is  of  a 
cup  shape,  its  lower  convex  surface — to  the  centre 
of  which  the  stalk  is  attached — being  composed  of 
calcareous  plates,  whilst  the  upper  disc  is  closed 
by  coriaceous  skin.  In  the  centre  of  this  is  the 
opening  of  the  mouth,  and  to  one  side  is  the  anus. 
The  arms  spring  from  the  edges  of  the  cup.  They 
are  either  five  or  ten  in  number  at  their  origins, 
although  often  branched  higher  up,  formed  of  cy- 
lindrical or  bead-like  calcareous  joints,  furnished 
with  slender  jointed  appendages,  or  cirri,  one  on 
each  side  of  every  joint  ;  and,  as  the  whole  of 
these  organs  are  exceedingly  flexible,  they  are 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  Animal  in  the 
capture  of  its  prey. 
Divisions. — An  exception  to  this  general  structure  is  presented 
by  the  Cystocriiiidce — a  fossil  family  which  only  occurs  in  some  of 
the  oldest  formations.  In  these  the  body  was  round  or  oval,  and 
entirely  composed  of  numerous  calcareous  plates.  They  were  at- 
tached by  a  short  flexible  stalk  ;  the  mouth  was  situated  at  the 
centre  of  the  upper  part,  which  projects  a  little  from  the  general 
surface,  with  the  anal  opening  a  little  to  one  side  of  it. 

The  family  Encrinidce,  or  the  Sea-lilies,  includes  an  immense 
number  of  fossil  forms,  and  one  or  two  are  still  to  be  found  in  the 
West  Indian  seas.  These  Animals  were  all  supported  upon  a  long 
stalk,  at  the  extremity  of  which  they  floated  in  the  waters  of  those 
ancient  seas,  spreading  their  long  arms  in  every  direction  in  search 
of  the  small  Animals  which  constituted  their  food.  Each  of  these 
arms,  again,  was  feathered  with  a  double  series  of  similarly  jointed 
appendages  ;  so  that  the  number  of  separate  calcareous  pieces 
forming  the  skelelon  of  one  of  these  Animals  was  most  enormous. 
It  has  been  calculated,  that  one  species,  tlie  Fentacrinus  briareus, 
must  have  been  composed  of  at  least  150,000  joints;  and  "  as  each 
joint,"  according  to  Dr.  Carpenter,  "was  furnished  with  at  least 
two  bundles  of  muscular  fibre — one  for  its  contraction,  the  other  for 
its  extension — we  have  500,000  such  in  the  body  of  a  single  Pen- 
tacri?ius — an  amount  of  muscular  apparatus  far  exceeding  any 
that  has  been  elsewhere  observed  in  the  Animal  Creation." 

The  third  family,  the  Comalulidcc,  or  Hair-stars,  includes  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Animals,  which  bear  a  great  resemblance, 
both  in  form  and  structure,  the  Eiicriiiida:.  They  are,  however, 
only  furnished  with  a  stalk  during  their  young  state  ;  and  on  arriv- 
ing at  maturity  they  quit  their  attachment,  and  crawl  about  freely 
at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  in  the  same  manner  as  other  Star-fishes. 
The  body  is  flattened,  and  covered  with  separate  calcareous  plates  ; 
the  lower,  or  ventral  surface,  bears  the  mouth  and  anus  ;  and  the 
ten  slender  arms  are  often  branched  to  such  an  extent  as  to  appear 
very  numerous.  They  are  furnished  throughout  their  length  with 
slender  jointed  cirri,  similar  to  those  of  the  Eiicri?iidcs ;  hy  the 
assistance  of  which,  and  the  short  ambulacra,  the  Hair-stars  are 
enabled  to  grasp  any  object  firmly,  and  creep  about  easil}'. 


Order  II.— Stellerida. 

General  CirARACTERS.— The  second  order,  the  Slclhrida,  is 
composed  of  Animals  with  a  flattened  and  more  or  less  pentagonal 
body,  usually  bearing  five  arms  of  variable  length,  which,  however, 
are  not  distinctly  separated  from  the  body,  as  in  the  Crinoidea, 
and  into  which  processes  of  the  stomach  are  usually  continued. 
The  mouth  opens  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  disc  ;  and 
the  anus,  when  present,  is  always  situated  on  the  back.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  mouth  of  the  Animals  of  this  and  the  follow- 
ing order,  some  curious  prehensile  organs  are  always  to  be  found, 
which,  from  the  peculiarity  of  their  structure  and  actions,  have  been 
regarded  as  independent  parasitic  organisms,  and  described  as 
such  under  the  name  of  Pedicellarics. 

The  True  Star-fishes  do  not  occur  in  the  earliest  fossilliferous 
formations.  They  first  make  their  appearance  in  the  Muschelkalk, 
and  continue  increasing  in  numbers  in  the  more  recent  strata. 

The  Stellerida  are  usually  divided  into  three  families.  The  first, 
the  Euryalidcv,  or  Gorgo?i's  Head,  present  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  Animals  of  the  preceding  order;  the  arms  being  dis- 
tinctly separated  from  the  body,  and  the  internal  organs  entirely 
confined  to  the  disc,  which  is  of  a  roundish  form.  These  Animals 
are  principally  found  in  the  Tropical  seas,  although  some  species 
exist  even  in  the  icy  waters  of  the  Arctic  regions.  They  arc  all 
rare. 

In  the  second  family,  the  Ophiiiridcs,  so  called  from  the  resem- 
blance of  their  arms  to  serpents'  tails  (Gr.  Ophis,  a  snake  ;  otira,  a 
tail),  the  body  forms  a  roundish  or  somewhat  pentagonal  disc,  fur- 
nished with  five  long  simple  arms,  which,  like  the  branched  organs 
of  the  preceding  family,  have  no  furrow  for  the  protrusion  of  tlie 
ambulacra. 

We  next  come  to  the  family  (the  Astcridcs)  of  which  the  common 
Star-fish,  so  abundant  on  our  coasts,  is  an  example.  In  this  family 
the  arms  appear  to  be  merely  prolongations  of  the  disc  ;  they  are 
usually  five  in  number,  and  the  plates  from  which  the  ambulacra 
are  exserted  are  placed  in  deep  furrows,  which  run  along  the  lower 
surface  of  the  arms. 

Order  III.— Echinida. 

General  Characters. — In  this  order  the  development  of  cal- 
careous matter  in  the  skin  attains  its  maximum.  The  plates, 
instead  of  being  distinct,  as  in  the  Star-fishes,  are  firmly  attached 
to  each  other,  forming  a  convex  shell,  more  or  less  complete,  which 
prevents  all  flexion  of  the  body  of  the  Animal.  This  shell  presents 
two  openings,  a  mouth  and  an  anus  ;  the  latter  is  generally  situated 
at  the  top  of  the  shell,  opposite  to  the  mouth,  and  is  surrounded  by 
movable  plates.  The  division  of  the  Animal  into  five  parts  is  as 
distinct  here  as  in  the  Star-fishes,  notwithstanding  the  total  ab- 
sence of  arms  ;  the  holes  through  which  the  little  sucking-feet  are 
protruded  being  arranged  upon  five  rows  of  plates,  which  usually 
run  from  the  centre  of  the  top  of  the  shell  to  the  angles  of  the  oral 
opening;  or,  when  they  are  confined,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  to 
the  dorsal  surface,  they  form  a  distinct  five-rayed  star  surrounding 
the  apex  of  the  shell.  The  mode  in  which  the  capacity  of  the  shell  is 
increased,  is  exceedingly  curious  and  interesting.  Ne.xt  to  this  pecu- 
liarity in  the  form  of  the  shell,  the  most  striking  character  of  the 
Echinida  consists  in  the  numerous  spines,  frequently  of  large  size,  with 
which  the  shell  is  covered.  These  are  articulated  to  the  numerous 
tubercles  presented  by  the  surface  of  the  shell ;  the  base  of  the 
spines  being  hollowed  for  the  reception  of  the  convex  surface  of  the 
tubercle.  These  spines  appear  to  be  used  as  locomotive  organs  ; 
they  also  serve  to  bury  their  owner  in  the  sand  when  circumstances 
require  this  concealment ;  and  some  species  appear,  by  the  same 
means,  to  excavate  hollows  even  in  hard  rocks. 

Sub-divisions. — The  Echinida  are  divided  into  four  very  distinct 
families.  In  the  first,  the  Sea-eggs  (Cidaridcs),  the  body  is  nearly 
globular  (Fig.  2230),  with  the  mouth  in  the  middle  of  the  under  sur- 
face, surrounded  by  a  naked  or  warty  skin.  The  anus  lies  in  the 
middle  of  the  dorsal  surface  opposite  the  mouth,  surrounded  by  a 
rosette  of  curious  plates,  which  form  the  orifices  of  the  generative 
apparatus.  It  is  in  this  family  that  the  masticatory  apparatus 
attains  its  highest  development.  The  ambulacrial  spaces  run  from 
the  mouth  to  the  anus;  and  the  intervening  plates  are  covered  with 
tubercles  and  spines,  the  latter  of  which  are  sometimes  several 
inches  in  length,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger.  These  Animals 
inhabit  the  seas  of  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  some  species  are 
used  as  food,  even  on  the  European  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean. 
They  are  abundant  on  the  West  coast  of  Scotland. 

The  Animals  of  the  second  family,  the  ClypcastridcB,  have  the 
body  of  a  somewhat  discoid  form  ;  the  shell  is  very  thick,  and 
covered  with  small  tubercles,  from  which  short,  thin,  hair-like 
spines  take  their  rise.  The  apex  of  the  shell  is  occupied  by  genital 
plates  ;  and  the  rows  of  ambulacra  form  a  five-rayed  star,  sur- 
rounding these  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  shell. 

The  Cassidulidcs,  forming  the  third  family,  are  of  a  roundish  or 


832 


THE  PROTOZOA. 


oval  form,  generally  convex,  and  covered  with  very  fine  spines.  The 
mouth  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  surface,  with  the  anus 
behind  it,  sometimes  on  the  margin.     But  these  Animals  are  es- 


Fig.  2230. — Shell  of  Echinus,    or   Sea-urchin ;    on  the  right  side,    covered 
with  spines  ;  on  the  left  the  spines  removed. 

pecially  distinguished  from  the  two  preceding  families  by  the  total 
absence  of  any  masticatory  apparatus  in  the  mouth.  This  is  equally 
deficient  in  the  fourth  family,  the  SJiafangidcs — sluggish  Animals, 
which  are  usually  found  imbedded  in  sand,  and  with  their  intestines 
full  of  the  same  savoury  and  nourishing  substance;  taken  in,  no 
doubt,  for  the  sake  of  the  minute  particles  of  organic  matter  which 
it  might  have  contained. 

Order  IV.— Holothurida. 
In  the  fourth  and  last  order  the  body  acquires  a  Worm-like  form, 


thus  apparently  leading  us  towards  the  lower  groups  of  the  Articti- 
lata. 

Sub-divisions. — This  order  is  divided  into  two  families.  The 
first,  the  Syjiaptidce.  are  characterised  by  the  total  absence  of  am- 
bulacra, the  motions  of  the  Animals  being  assisted  by  peculiar 
anchor-like  processes  of  the  calcareous  grains,  which  project  from 


Fig.  2231. — The  Holothurida. 

the  skin,  and  roughen  the  surface  of  the  Animal.  In  the  Holothu- 
r/irfts  (Fig.  2231),  on  the  contrary,  the  ambulacra,  although  short, 
exactly  resemble  those  of  the  other  Echiiiodermaia  in  their  structure 
and  action.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  calcareous  plates, 
serving  for  the  attachment  of  the  longitudinal  muscles,  by  which  the 
contractions  of  the  body  are  effected.  These  Animals  inhabit  the 
seas  of  most  parts  of  the  world.  Some  of  them  are  eaten  even  by 
European  populations;  ^xv&.\\\e.1re.-^-a.Xi^  {Holothurida  ediilis)\'s,SiX^ 
article  of  luxury  amongst  the  Chinese. 


CHAPTER     XLV. 


DIVISION  v.— THE   PROTOZOA. 


ENERAL  CHARACTERS.— This  divi- 
sion of  the  Animal  kingdom  includes  a 
number  of  creatures  of  a  very  low  type  of 
organisation,  which  appear  almost  to  oc- 
cupy a  sort  of  neutral  ground  between 
Animals  and  vegetables.  The  bodies  of 
these  Animals  consist  either  of  a  simple 
elementary  cell,  with  its  contents,  or  of  an 
aggregation  of  several  of  these  cells  ;  each, 
■'  however,  still  appearing  to  retain  its  inde- 

pendent  existence.      They  are  generally  of 
very  minute   size,  and  only  to   be  observed 
with  the  microscope. 

It  is  in  vain  to  seek  in  these   creatures  for  any 
T^V^^}^       internal   organs.      They    are     entirely     destitute    of 
4^^^^=^      nervous  and  vascular  systems  ;  and  the  highest  form 
of  alimentary    apparatus  which    is   to   be   found  in 
them,   consists  only  of  a  mouth  and   a   short  oeso- 
phagus.      In   many  of  them,    however,  no   trace'  of 
any  alimentary  canal  is  to  be  discerned  ;  and  they 
either  live  by   imbibing  fluids  through    their    outer 
surface,  or  by  the  amalgamation  of  solid  substances 
with  the  gelatinous  mass  of  which  they  are  composed. 
This    gelatinous   matter,    which    has    been   termed 
sarcode,  frequently    has   vacant   spaces,    like  small 
bladders,  in  various  parts  of  its   substance  :  these  appear  and  dis- 
appear according  to  circumstances,  or  the  will  of  the  Animal. 

Almost  all  these  creatures  live  in  water :  a  few  only  inhabit  the 
intestines  of  other  Animals.  They  generally  present  the  appear- 
ance of  a  transparent  gelatinous  cell,  in  the  midst  of  which,  a  more 
or  less  distinct  nucleus  is  to  be  observed.  In  addition  to  this  nucleus, 
one  or  more  clear  pulsating  spaces  may  be  distinguished  in  the 
interior  of  the  cells.  These  appear,  in  some  degree,  to  effect  a  sort 
of  circulation  of  the  soft  substance  of  the  body,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  regarded  as  the  first  shadowing  forth  of  a  circulatory  system. 
Many  of  them  approach  very  closely  in  their  structure  to  the  germs 


given  off  by  some  of  the  lowest  forms  of  aquatic  plants,  which,  sin- 
gularly enough,  possess  quite  sufficient  locomotive  power  to  enable 
them  to  pass  for  Animals  when  the  observer  is  unable  to  trace  their 
development ;  indeed,  many  of  them  have  been  described  as  belong- 
ing to  the  present  group. 

Sub-division. — The  Protozoa  are  divided  into  three  classes.  In 
the  first,  to  which  the  name  of  RhizOPODA  has  been  given,  the  body 
is  composed  entirely  of  the  gelatinous  matter  above-mentioned. 
The  second  class,  including  the  Sponges,  consists  entirely  of  asso- 
ciated cell  Animals  ;  the  individual  cells  resembling  those  of  the 
preceding  class  in  their  power  of  extending  the  substance  of  their 
bodies  in  all  directions ;  but  in  this  class  they  are  united  by  a 
mucilaginous  intercellular  substance,  and  supported  upon  a  horny 
framework.  From  the  masses  formed  by  these  creatures  being  per- 
forated in  every  part  with  minute  orifices,  they  have  received  the 
denomination  of  PoriferA. 

The  Animals  constituting  the  third  class  of  the  Protozoa  have 
been  called  Infusoria,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  were 
originally  discovered  in  infusions  of  vegetable  matter,  exposed  to 
the  air  for  a  short  time.  They  are  generally  solitary  unicellular 
Animals,  and  differ  from  the  Rhizopoda  in  having  the  outer  surface 
of  the  body  of  a  somewhat  firmer  consistence  than  the  rest  of  their 
substance. 

Class  I.— Rhizopoda. 

In  the  deposit  formed  at  the  bottom  of  fresh-water  ponds,  we  may 
often  meet  with  a  singular  minute  gelatinous  body,  which  constantly 
changes  its  form  even  under  our  eyes,  and  moves  about  in  its  native 
element  by  means  of  finger-like  processes,  which  it  appears  to  have 
the  power  of  shooting  out  from  any  part  of  its  substance.  This 
shapeless  gelatinous  mass  is  an  Animal,  the  Amaba  difflue7is  (see 
Fig.  2232),  well  known  to  microscopic  observers  under  the  name  of 
the  Proteus,  from  the  continual  changes  of  shape  which  it  presents 
to  our  notice.  It  consists  entirely  of  the  granular  gelatinous  matter 
already  mentioned  as  sarcode,  and  appears  to  be  nearly  homogeneous 


THE  SPONGES 


833 


2232. — The  Amaba, 
380  diameters. 


in  its  texture  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  outer  surface  exhibits  no  signs  of 
being-  bounded  by  any  distinct  membrane  or  layer  of  a  firmer  consis- 
tence than  the  rest  of  tlie  body. 

The  Rhizopoda  are  all  Aquatic  Animals.  Some  live  in  fresh 
water,  but  by  far  the  greater  number  inhabit  the  sea.     Although  a 

few  of  them,  like  the  Amcgba,  are 
solitary,  the  class  consists  principally 
of  associated  Animals  ;  that  is  to  say, 
of  masses  of  individuals,  forming,  as 
it  were,  a  common  body,  but  each 
still  retaining  its  independent  exist- 
ence. This  difference  of  habit  affords 
us  the  means  of  dividing  the  class  into 
two  orders.  The  first,  the  Monoso- 
matia,  contains  those  Rhizopoda 
which  only  consist  of  a  single 
Animal;  they  are  either  entirely 
naked  or  inclosed  in  a  capsule  with  a 
single  opening,  for  the  extrusion  of 
the  motor  filaments.  Of  the  naked 
forms,  constituting  the  family  Pro- 
teidcc,  we  have  already  had  an  ex- 
ample in  the  ^w<g3^;  and  the  other  members  of  the  group  pre- 
sent very  similar  characters.  The  Solitary  Rhizopoda,  furnished 
with  a  horny  shell  or  capsule,  forming  a  more  or  less  complete  case 
for  tlio  Animal,  constitute  the  family  ArcellidcB.  In  the  genus 
Arcella,  from  which  the  family  derives  its  name,  the  shell  is  some- 
what of  a  bell-shape,  with  a  very  large  round  opening.  In  Euglypha 
it  is  of  an  oval  or  flask-like  form,  with  the  opening  at  the  smaller 
end.  In  this  genus  the  shell  appears  as  though  formed  of  a  sort  of 
mosaic  of  small  horny  pieces.  In  Difflugia  the  shell  is  often 
globular. 

The  Animals  constituting  the  second  order,  the  Polythalaniia, 
are  all  inclosed  in  calcareous  shells.  These  creatures  are  social  ; 
the  shells  consisting  of  a  series  of  distinct  chambers,  which  some- 
times communicate  one  with  another,  and  sometimes  appear  to  be 
completely  closed  up ;  each  of  them  is  supposed  to  contain  a 
separate  and  probably  independent  Animal.  It  is  not  improbable, 
however,  that  the  individual  Animals  may  be  so  connected  with  each 
other,  through  the  medium  of  the  openings  communicating  between 
the  cells,  as  to  constitute  a  common  mass,  with  which  each  Animal  is 
partially  amalgamated.  In  some  instances  each  chamber  of  the  com- 
mon shell  presents  only  a  single  external  opening;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  substance  of  the  shell  is  pierced,  like  a  sieve,  with  numerous 
minute  pores,  through  which  very  delicate  filaments  are  protruded. 
The  stone,  which  is  universally  employed  in  Paris  as  a  building 
material,  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  the  fossil  shells  of  an  Animal 
belonging  to  this  order,  the  Miliola  ;  so  that  this  great  city,  of  which 
its  inhabitants  used  to  say  that  he  who  had  not  seen  Paris  had  seen 
nothing,  owes  its  architectural  beauties,  at  all  events,  to  these  minute 
creatures,  of  which  many  thousands  would  scarcely  weigh  an  ounce. 
From  the  extremely  elegant  structure  of  the  shells  of  these  Animals, 
IM.  Alcide  d'Orbigny,  who  was  the  first  to  call  the  attention  of 
modern  naturalists  to  them,  was  led  to  regard  them  as  microscopic 
forms  of  Cephalopodous  Molluscs,  as  they  presented  at  first  sight  a 
considerable  resemblance,  on  a  small  scale,  to  the  chambered  shells 
formed  by  many  of  those  creatures. 

In  one,  the  StlchostegidcB,  the  chambers  are  placed  end  to  end  in 
a  row,  so  as  to  form  a  straight  or  but  slightly  curved  shell.  In  the 
second  family,  the  Enallostegidcs,  the  chambers  are  arranged  alter- 
nately in  two  or  three  parallel  lines  ;  and  as  the  construction  of  the 
sliell  is  always  commenced  with  a  single  small  chamber,  the  whole 
necessarily  acquires  a  more  or  less  pyramidal  form.  The  third 
family,  the  HelicostegidcB,  presents  us  with  some  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful forms  that  we  meet  with  in  these  shells.  They  commence  by  a 
small  central  chamber  ;  and  each  of  the  subsequent  chambers,  which 
are  arranged  in  a  spiral  form  so  as  to  give  the  entire  shell  much  the 
aspect  of  a  minute  flattened  Snail,  is  larger  than  the  one  preceding 
it.  It  is  in  this  family  that  we  find  the  nearest  approach,  in  external 
form,  to  the  large  chambered  shells  of  the  Cephalopodous  Molluscs, 
of  which  the  Nautilus  and  the  Argonaut  are  examples.  The  fourth 
family,  the  EiitoinostegidcE,  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  pre- 
ceding, as  the  Eiialloslegidai  to  the  Stichostegidce ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  chambers  are  also  arranged  in  a  spiral  form,  but  in  a  double 
series.  A  fifth  family  includes  those  shells  in  which  the  chambers 
are  arranged  round  a  common  perpendicular  axis,  in  such  a  manner 
that  each  chamber  occupies  the  entire  length  of  the  shell.  The 
orifices  of  the  chambers  are  placed  alternately  at  each  end  of  the 
shell,  and  are  furnished  with  a  curious  tooth  or  process.  The 
ililiola,  already  mentioned  as  constituting  the  Parisian  building 
stone,  will  serve  as  an  example  of  this  family.  It  is  probable, 
although  by  no  means  certain,  that  the  Animals  whose  fossil  shells, 
termed  Nu7n?nuUtes,  are  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  chalk 
and  lower  tertiary  strata,  are  also  to  be  regarded  as  members  of  this 
class.  No  living  example  of  the  form  of  Animal  has  yet  been  met 
with,  but  in  a  fossil  state,  while  mountains  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Mediterranean,  consist  chiefly  of  their  shells. 


Class  II.— Porifera,  or  Sponges. 


Sponge,  in  the  state  in  which  wo  usually  see  it,  consists  of  a  con- 
geries of  horny  filaments,  interlaced  in  every  direction  so  as  to  form 
a  most  intricate  network  of  intercommunicating  cells.  According 
to  some  observers,  these  filaments  arc  hollow,  constituting,  in  fact, 
so  many  horny  tubes ;  but  the  researches  of  Dujardin  and  of  Mr. 
Bowerbank  tend  to  prove  that  this  view  was  erroneous,  and  that 
the  threads,  of  which  sponge  is  composed,  are  solid  throughout. 
Imbedded  in  these  threads  in  the  majority  of  Sponges,  are  a  number 
of  very  minute  needle-shaped  siliceous  or  calcareous  particles  of 
various  forms  :  these  are  called  spicula  (Fig.  2233).     In  most  cases, 

the  spiculae  are  simply  of  an  aci- 
cular  form,  slender  and  cylindrical 
and  pointed  at  both  ends.  In 
other  instances  they  have  a  small 
knob  at  one  end  ;  whilst  the  oppo- 
site extremity  is  pointed,  giving 
them  exactly  the  appearance  of 
minute  pins  :  in  others  again,  we 
find  one  end  transformed  into  a 
fork  with  two  or  even  three  prongs ; 
or  the  whole  spicula  consists  of 
three  or  four  spines  of  equal 
length. 

The  framework,  with  its  con- 
tained spicula,  is,  however,  only  a 
sort  of  horny  skeleton,  on  which  the 
true  living  portion  of  the  Sponge 
of  a  coating  of  gelatinous  matter, 
which  is  spread  over  all  the  fibres  of  the  reticulated  skeleton  ;  its 
consistence  is  very  like  that  of  the  white  of  an  ^Z'g,  and  it  runs 
freely  away  from  the  Sponge  when  the  latter  is  taken  out  of  the 
water. 

But  when  examined  under  the  microscope,  this  gelatinous  co.iting 
is  found  to  consist  entirely  of  an  immense  number  of  aggregrated 
sarcode  cells,  exactly  resembling  the  Animal  described  under  the 
name  of  Amceba,  as  the  simplest  type  of  the  Rhizopoda.  Like 
that  curious  creature,  each  of  these  cells  appears  to  possess  a  per- 
fectly independent  existence  ;  each  presents  one  or  more  contractile 
spaces ;  and  even  when  detached  from  the  mass  of  its  fellows, 
enjoys  the  faculty  of  motion  by  the  extension  of  its  substance  in 
various  directions. 

A  glance  at  a  piece  of  common  Sponge,  will  show  that  its  surface 
is  everywhere  perforated  with  an  infinite  number  of  minute  holes, 
amongst  which  a  considerable  number  of  large  openings  is  scattered. 
When  a  sponge  is  examined  in  a  living  state,  a  rapid  stream  of 
water  may  be  observed  issuing  constantly  from  these  larger  orifices. 
This  excurrent  stream  of  water  is  rendered  observable  by  the  fact, 
that  it  bears  with  it  a  number  of  minute  particles  from  the  interior 
of  the  sponge  (Fig.  2234).    This  water  is  imbibed  through  the  minute 


Fig.  2233. — Forms  of  Spiculcc. 
is    supported.     This    consists 


Fig.  2234. — Section  of  a  Living  Sponge. 

pores  distributed  in  such  profusion  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
Sponge  ;  after  passing  through  these,  and  traversmg  the  cavities 
formed  in  every  direction  by  the  reticulated  structure  of  the  mass, 
it  is  collected  into  canals,  by  which  it  is  finally  conducted  to  the 
larger  openings  of  the  surface. 

The  primary  objects  of  this  continual  flow  of  water,  through  the 
substance  of  the  Sponge,  appear  to  be  two-fold:  first,  the  convey- 
ance to  the  individual  cells  of  which  the  living  portion  of  the  Sponge 
consists,  which  may  be  regarded  as  so  many  stationary  Animalcules, 
the  minute  particles  of  nutritive  matter  necessary  for  their  support 
and  that  of  the  general  mass;  and,  secondly  the  removal  of  facal 
matter  from  the  interior  of  the  Sponge.  But  nutrition  and  the  re- 
moval of  effete  materials  are  not  the  only  purposes  to  which  it  is 
applied-respiration,  which,  judging  from  analogy,  is  as  necessary 
to  the  Sponges  as  to  other  Animals,  must  be  effected  by  the  medium 
of  this  current;  and  it  also  fulfils  a  very  important  part  in  the  pro- 
pagation of  the  species.  .        ^         J   •  •  T„ 

The  propagation  of  the  Sponge  is  effected  m  various  ways.     In 


834 


THE  INFUSORIA. 


some  cases,  little  ciliated  gemimiles  are  produced  in  the  gelatinous 
mass  coatinn-  the  fibres  of  the  Sponge  ;  which,  after  a  certain 
period,  becoming  detached  from  the  parent,  are  borne  out  through 
the  large  orifices  by  the  action  of  the  current  already  described. 
After  tills  exclusion  they  swim  about  for  some  time,  presenting  a 
pretty  close  resemblance  to  some  of  the  infusorial  animalcules.  But 
this  life  of  freedom  is  not  of  very  long  duration  ;  the  little  gemmule 
selects  its  place  of  attachment,  fixes  itself,  and  gradually  becomes 
developed  into  a  perfect  Sponge. 

Sponges  grow  attached  to  almost  everything  which  may  serve 
them  as  a  point  of  support,  whether  fixed  or  floating  ;  some  cover 
rocks,  shells,  and  other  submarine  objects,  with  a  close  spongy  in- 
crustation ;  whilst  others  shoot  up  a  branched  stem  in  the  water ; 
and  others  again  hang  freely  from  the  sea-weeds  floating  in  the  ocean. 
Sometimes  they  select  very  unexpected  objects  on  which  to  take  up 
their  abode.  Not  the  least  wonderful  circumstance  connected  with 
this  history  of  the  Sponges,  is  the  power  possessed  by  certain  species 
of  boring  into  substances,  the  hardness  of  which  might  be  con- 
sidered as  a  sufficient  protection  against  such  apparently  con- 
temptible foes.  Shells,  both  living  and  dead,  coral,  and  even  solid 
rocks,  are  attacked  by  these  humble  destroyers,  gradually  broken 
up,  and,  no  doubt,  finally  reduced  to  such  a  state  as  to  render  sub- 
stances which  would  otherwise  remain  dead  and  useless  in  the 
economy  of  nature,  available  for  the  supply  of  the  necessities  of 
other  living  creatures.  These  boring  sponges  constitute  the  genus 
CUo7ia,  and  some  allied  genera.  They  are  branched  in  their  form, 
or  consists  of  lobes  united  by  delicate  stems  ;  they  all  bury  them- 
selves in  shells  or  other  calcareous  objects,  preserving  their  com- 
munication with  the  water  by  means  of  perforations  in  the  outer  wall 
of  the  shell.  The  Sponges  vary  exceedingly  in  form  ;  and  even  the 
same  species  often  assumes  shapes  the  most  different,  without  any 
apparent  cause.  The  forms  under  which  the  common  Sponge 
occur,  must  be  familiar  to  all  our  readers.  Some  Sponges  are 
arborescent,  or,  at  all  events,  more  or  less  branched,  like  the 
Halicliondria  oculata ;  whilst  others  are  of  a  cup  shape.  Sponges 
occur  in  all  seas,  from  the  equator  to  the  poles  ;  but  it  is  in  Tropical 
climates  that  they  attain  their  greatest  development  and  exist  in  the 
greatest  abundance. 

Class  III.— Infusoria. 

General  Characters.— In  passing  from  the  consideration  of 
the  preceding  classes  to  that  of  the  present  group,  we  are  not  called 
upon  to  witness  any  very  great  advance  in  organisation.  Neverthe- 
less, the  differences  between  the  two  classes  are  all  of  a  nature  to 
show  that  the  Infusoria  certainly  constitute  a  step  in  our  progress 
towards  the  higher  forms  of  Animals. 

The  microscopic  creatures  constituting  this  class,  consist,  it  is 
true,  of  the  same  granular  gelatinous  matte?,  or  sarcode,  which  we 
have  seen  to  constitute  the  entire  substance  of  the  Rhhopoda  ;  but 
this  no  longer  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  a  mere  mass  of  jelly: 
each  Animal  appears  to  be  enclosed  in  a  membrane,  or  layer  of 
matter  of  a  firmer  texture  than  the  rest  of  its  substance  ;  and  motion, 
which  cannot  be  effected  as  in  the  preceding  class  by  the  mere  ex- 
tension of  portions  of  this  substance  in  any  desired  direction,  is  now 
produced  by  the  action  of  special  organs.  These  organs  are  of  very 
various  construction.  In  some  families  we  meet  with  long,  thread- 
like appendages,  which  the  Animal  twitches  about  in  the  water. 
These  organs  are  sometimes  single  ;  in  other  instances  the  Animal 
possesses  two  or  more  of  them. 

The  most  usual  mode  in  which  motion  is  effected  in  \\\(i  Infusoria, 
is  by  means  of  cilia.  The  cilia  are  fine  lappets  or  hairs,  which  exist, 
either  scattered  or  arranged  in  regular  series,  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body,  or  are  collected  in  considerable  numbers  round  the 
orifice  of  the  mouth.  They  are  movable  at  the  will  of  the  creature, 
and  serve,  according  to  circumstances,  either  as  organs  of  loco- 
motion, or  for  the  production  of  whirlpools  or  eddies  in  the  water, 
by  means  of  which,  the  minute  particles  on  which  the  Animal  feeds, 
are  brought  within  its  reach.  In  some  of  the  most  highly  organised 
creatures  of  this  class,  these  ciliary  hairs  become  converted  into 
movable  bristles  and  hooks,  by  means  of  which  the  Animal  is  en- 
abled to  crawl  upon  fixed  objects  in  the  water,  and  even  to  execute 
distinct  leaps. 

Like  the  Rhi-Mpoda,  many  of  these  Animals  are  provided  with  a 
shefl  or  shield  ;  this,  however,  is  never  of  a  calcareous  nature,  but 
generally  coriaceous  or  horny.  In  one  family,  the  Animals  are  in- 
closed in  silicious  or  flinty  cases,  of  which  great  numbers  are  to  be 
met  with,  in  a  fossil  state,  in  the  flints  which  occur  in  such  quantities 
in  the  Chalk  hills. 

The  mode  in  which  nutrition  is  effected  in  those  Infusoria  which 
possess  a  mouth,  will  clearly  show  that  they  do  not  possess  a 
stomach.  These  creatures  feed  upon  small  microscopic  Animals  and 
plants,  and  probably  upon  such  minute  particles  of  decaying  Animal 
and  vegetable  matter  as  may  be  suspended  in  the  water,  which 
they  constantly  inhabit.  The  mouth  is  situated  either  at  the  an- 
terior extremity  of  the  body,  where  it  generally  forms  a  round  open- 
ing, or  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from  that  extremity  on  the  ven- 


tral surface  ;  when  in  this  position,  it  is  generally  in  the  form  of  an 
oval  or  twisted  slit.  It  is  usually  bounded  by  ciliated  lips,  capable 
of  protrusion  and  retraction  at  the  will  of  the  Animal:  so  that  the 
mouth  is  frequently  visible  only  during  the  act  of  eating.  The  cavity 
of  the  mouth  is  continued  into  a  short  cesophagus,  and  both  are 
always  clothed  with  delicate  cilia.  The  minute  particles  of  which 
the  food  consists,  are  collected  together  by  the  action  of  the  stream 
produced  by  the  cilia  of  the  oesophagus,  until  they  form  a  small  ball, 
which  then  passes  through  the  end  of  the  oesophagus  into  the  yield- 
ing substance  of  the  body. 

Most  of  these  Animals  inhabit  water  ;  a  few  exist  as  parasites  in 
the  bodies  of  other  Animals.  The  aquatic  species  prefer  clear  to 
foul  water,  and  are  always  to  be  met  with  in  greatest  profusion  in 
places  where  Conferva;  and  other  forms  of  aquatic  vegetation  are 
abundant.  They  are  produced  in  great  abundance  in  certain  vege- 
table infusions  when  exposed  to  the  air  ;  and  this  circumstance, 
discovered  by  Leuvvenhoek  in  1676,  has  always  been  regarded  as  one 
of  the  principal  evidences  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  spontancons 
generaiion — a  doctrine  which  was  at  one  time  in  considerable 
repute,  and  which  is  not  without  its  supporters  even  in  the  present 
day.  Bacteria,  minute  organisms,  which  are  considered  to  be  in 
part,  the  cause  of  certain  diseases,  are  found  in  Animal  and  vege- 
table liquids  undergoing  decomposition. 

Minute  as  these  creatures  are — and  some  of  them  are  said  not  to 
exceed  the  i-200Q0th  of  an  inch,  whilst  the  giants  of  their  race  are 
not  more  than  i-5oth  of  an  inch  in  length — they  are  not  without 
their  importance  in  the  economy  of  the  world.  By  their  prodigious 
numbers  they  amply  compensate  for  their  want  of  size.  Every  drop 
of  water  on  the  face  of  the  globe  appears  to  contain  them  in  greater 
or  less  profusion  ;  and  this,  coupled  with  their  great  fecundity  (for 
it  has  been  calculated  that  the  progeny  of  some  animalcules  would 
amount  to  upwards  of  268,000,000  in  four  weeks),  may  readily  con- 
vince us  of  the  vast  quantity  of  food  furnished  by  these  creatures  to 
others  a  little  higher  in  the  scale,  which  in  their  turn  become  the 
prey  of  larger  Animals. 

StJB-DlvisiONS.^The  classification  of  the  Infusoria  presents 
considerable  difficulty,  partly  arising  from  their  excessive  minute- 
ness, which  renders  the  assistance  of  our  best  microscopes  necessary 
to  enable  us  even  to  see  many  of  them,  and  partly  from  the  impos- 
sibility of  avoiding  confusion  from  their  intermixture  of  the  germs 
of  more  highly  organised  animals,  and  some  plants  in  various  stages 
of  development. 

The  class  of  Infusoria,  as  circumscribed  by  Ehrenberg  in  his 
Infusionst/iiereiien,  published  in  1838,  included  a  curious  mixture 
of  heterogeneous  elements.  It  was  divided  into  two  great  groups, 
the  Polygastrica  and  the  Rotifera,  with  the  latter  of  which  we  have 
nothing  to  do  here  and  have  already  been  described.  But  even  in  the 
Polygastrica,  a  vast  number  of  species,  and  especially  the  whole 
families  of  Closfcrina,  Bacillaria,  and  Voivocina,  are  found  to  be 
true  plants  ;  and  after  the  rejection  of  these,  we  find  a  considerable 
quantity  of  creatures,  in  which  the  possession  of  a  movable  filiform 
appendage,  and  the  existence  of  a  red  spot,  are  the  only  characters, 
on  account  of  which  they  can  be  referred  to  the  Animal  kingdom. 
Many  of  these  have  been  already  found  to  be  truly  the  active  germs 
of  Confervce ;  and  it  is  probable  that  more  extended  investigations 
will,  before  long,  show  that  many,  about  which  we  are  still  doubtful, 
are  also  to  be  referred  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  These  species 
belong  to  Ehrenberg's  families  Monadina  and  Cryptomonadina. 
Lastly,  his  family  Vibrionina,  including  the  well-known  eels  of  paste 
and  vinegar,  must  be  rejected  altogether,  as  it  includes  a  hetero- 
geneous assemblage  of  microscopic  plants  and  embryonic  forms  of 
Worms.  After  the  separation  of  these,  the  Animals  still  referable 
to  the  class  of  Infusoria  are  sufficiently  numerous  and  interesting. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  orders,  characterised  by  the  presence 
or  absence  of  a  mouth,  in  the  Animals  composing  them. 

The  first  order,  the  Astomata,  or  moutliless  Infusoria,  includes 
all  those  in  which  the  mouth  is  wanting.  They  appear  to  be 
nourished  entirely  by  the  absorption  of  fluid  matter  through  their 
outer  surface,  and  have  never  been  seen  to  take  solid  food.  The 
first  family  of  this  order,  the  Astasidce,  is  distinguished  by  an  ex- 
tremely contractile  body,  generally  of  a  green  or  red  colour ;  most 
of  them  possess  one  or  two  red  points.  The  Animals  belonging  to 
one  of  the  genera  of  this  family  [Euglena),  which  are  generally  of  a 
green  or  red  colour,  frequently  cause  the  water  they  inhabit  to 
appear  of  one  of  these  colours,  in  consequence  of  their  sudden  ap- 
pearance in  myriads.  It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  some  of 
the  creatures  included  in  this  group  may  prove  to  be  vegetable 
organisms.  The  family  Dinobryida:  very  closely  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding ;  but  the  Animalcules  of  which  it  is  composed  are  furnished 
with  a  horny  case,  within  which  they  can  retract  themselves  at 
pleasure.  In  another  family,  the  Peridinidce,  the  Animals  are  also 
furnished  with  a  horny  or  silicious  shell  or  carapace  ;  but  in  these  the 
shell  has  a  transverse  or  oblique  slit  furnished  with  a  circlet  of  cilia  ;  it 
is  also  frequently  produced  into  very  remarkable  horn-like  processes. 
Motion,  in  these  Animals,  is  effected  not  only  by  means  of  these  cilia, 
but  also  by  the  aid  of  a  filiform  appendage,  which  can  be  protruded 
from   a   particular   spot    in  the   carapace.     The   silicious  coats   of 


THE  INFUSORIA. 


835 


these  creatures  are  found  in  great  profusion  in  the  flints  of  our  chalk 
hills. 

The  fourth  family  of  the  astomatous  Infusoria,  the  Opolinidcc, 
consists  entirely  of  Animals  which  have  hitherto  only  been  found 
living  as  Parasites  in  the  intestines  of  Frogs,  and  of  some  Worms. 
The  bodies  of  these  creatures  are  colourless,  and  of  a  perfectly 
glassy  transparency,  so  that  their  structure  may  be  studied  with  the 
greatest  ease  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  complete  absence 
of  anything  like  a  buccal  orifice. 

From  these  simple  creatures  we  turn  now  to  the  consideration  of  the 
far  more  numerous  and  interesting  forms  of  Infusorial  Animalcules,  in 
which  the  presence  of  a  mouth  indicates  a  higher  degree  of  organi- 
sation and  a  more  extended  sphere  of  action.  They  form  the  order 
Sfumatoda.  The  first  family  of  this  order,  the  MonadidcE,  consists 
of  roundish  or  oval  Animalcules,  whose  minute  size  renders  their 
examination  difficult  even  with  our  very  best  glasses.  Their  motions 
are  generally  produced  by  means  of  filiform  appendages,  of  which 
each  Animal  possesses  one  or  more.  Some  of  them  measure  only 
i-20oooth  of  an  inch  in  length;  and  it  has  been  calculated  that 
a  cupfal  of  water  may  easily  contain  a  number  of  these  Animalcules 
considerably  larger  than  that  of  the  entire  human  population  of  the 
earth.  Such  an  assertion  as  this  may  well  raise  our  astonishment 
to  the  highest  pitch,  when  we  consider  that  each  of  these  living 
creatures  possesses  a  mouth  well  furnished  with  cilia,  through  which 
it  is  able  to  introduce  into  its  substance  particles  of  solid  matter  of 
a  size  so  small  that,  until  collected  by  these  little  creatures,  our 
highest  magnifying  powers  will  fail  to  reveal  their  existence. 

We  now  come  to  a  family  which  includes  some  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  the  Infusorial  animalcules  and  in  which  we  meet  with  very 
curious  phenomena.  This  is  the  family  of  the  Vorfice/lid<s,  or  Beil- 
ajiima/cuies.  The  Animals  of  which  it  is  composed  are  cha- 
racterised by  the  possession  of  a  fringe  of  rather  long  cilia,  surround- 
ing the  anterior  extremity,  which  can  be  exserted  and  drawn  in,  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  creature.  By  the  vibration  of  these  cilia,  the 
little  Animal,  which  usually  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
miniature  wine-glass  supported  upon  a  very  long  stalk,  can  produce 
a  sort  of  vortex  in  the  water,  by  which  smaller  Animals  and  minute 
floating  particles  of  alimentary  matter  are  drawn  into  the  mouth. 
Some  of  these  little  creatures  are  furnished  with  a  horny  case  for 
the  protection  of  their  delicate  bodies,  whilst  others  are  quite  naked. 

In  these,  as  in  all  other  Infusoria,  the  simplest  mode  in  which 
propagation  is  effected,  is  by  the  division  of  the  individual  into  two 
or  more  parts.  This  division,  as  we  have  already  stated  when 
speaking  of  the  Protozoa  in  general,  commences  in  the  nucleus, 
which,  in  the  Vorticella,  is  of  a  band-like  form.  Before,  and 
during  this  division  of  the  nucleus,  the  body  of  the  creature  acquires 
a  considerable  increase  in  breadth.  A  constriction  afterwards 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  middle,  which,  continually  increasing 
in  depth,  at  last  divides  the  body  of  the  Animal  into  two  halves, 
each  of  which  is  now  found  to  constitute  a  perfect  VorticcllcB.  Only 
one  of  these,  however,  is  to  remain  in  quiet  possession  of  the  original 
stalk  ;  the  other,  consequently,  develops  a  fringe  of  cilia  at  its  lower 
extremity,  detaches  itself,  and  swims  away  to  seek  a  new  home. 
Having  fixed  upon  a  convenient  spot  for  its  purpose,  it  attaches 
itself,  by  the  hinder  part  of  its  body,  to  the  place  it  has  selected  ; 
the  cilia  then  disappear,  and  a  new  stalk  is  gradually  developed, 
until  the  new  Animal  exactly  resembles  that  from  which  it  sprang. 
The  Vorticella  also  possess  another  means  of  propagation  which  is 
denied  to  all  the  other  Infusoria,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  nearly 
allied  genera,  although  we  may  meet  with  it  again  in  other  classes  of 
Animals.  This  mode  of  reproduction  is  called  gemination.  It 
consists  in  the  production  of  a  sort  of  bud,  which  gradually  acquires 
the  form  and  structure  of  the  perfect  Animal.  In  the  VorticellcB, 
these  buds,  when  mature,  quit  the  parent  stem  after  developing  a 
circlet  of  cilia  at  the  lower  extremity,  and  fix  themselves  in  a  new 
habitation,  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  individuals  produced 
by  the  division  of  the  bell. 

It  might  be  thought  that  Animals  endowed  by  nature  with  the 
power  of  increasing  their  numbers  by  the  continual  division  of  their 
very  substance,  would  stand  in  no  need  of  any  further  provision  for 
the  continuance  of  their  species  ;  that  these  means  of  reproduction 
would  amply  suffice  to  enable  them  to  fulfil  the  scriptural  injunction 
to  "  increase  and  multiply,  and  replenish  the  earth."  \Ve  find, 
however,  that  other  and  more  complicated  contrivances  are  employed 
for  the  same  end ;  so  that  we  need  not  wonder  at  the  great  rapidity 
with  which  these  creatures  multiply  in  situations  favourable  to  their 
development.  The  limits  of  our  space,  however,  forbid  our  entering 
into  more  detailed  description. 

We  liave  already  seen  that  each  Vorticella  is  supported  upon  a 
flexible  stalk;  and  that  when  a  bud  is  produced  from  any  part  of  the 
Animal,  it  is  cast  off  by  its  parent  to  shift  for  itself  as  soon  as  the 
organs  necessary  for  its  separate  existence  are  developed.  This 
character  serves  to  distinguish  the  True  Vorticellcs  from  the  other 
members  of  the  family  ;  in  which,  however,  we  meet  with  consider- 
able diversity  of  form.  Thus  in  the  genus  Carchesiicm  the  stalks 
are  still  flexible,  and,  as  in  the  Vorticellcs,  coil  themselves  up  in  an 
instant  at  the  slightest  alarm  ;  but  each  main  stalk,  instead  of  being 


surmounted  only  by  a  single  bell,  bears  several  branches  equally 
irritable  with  itself,  and  each  terminating  with  a  separate,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  independent  Animal.  In  the  Epistylis  nutans  the 
stem  is  also  branched;  but  here,  instead  of  a  flexible  contractile 
filament,  we  find  a  stiff  bristle-like  tube,  at  the  extremity  of  which 
the  creature  is  situated.  During  its  contraction,  it  turns  back  with 
a  sudden  jerk,  and  hangs  down  from  the  stalk  as  if  broken. 

In  another  curious  genus  {0^///-j'f//«w),  the  Animals,  instead  of 
being  supported  freely  upon  a  stalk,  are  imbedded  in  the  substance 
of  a  gelatinous  mass,  from  the  surface  of  which,  the  anterior  ex- 
tremity of  each  Animal  projects  more  or  less.  The  gelatinous 
masses,  in  which  the  Animalcules  are  thus  imbedded,  may  be  met 
with  of  all  sizes,  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  small  apple.  In 
some  nearly  allied  species  forming  the  genus  Vaginicola  (Fig. 
'^^Ti^)'  the  body  of  each  Animal  is  inclosed  in  a  separate  minute 
horny  sheath,  within  which  it  can  retract  at  pleasure. 

In  the  Stcntor,  or  Irunipct-animalcule  (Fig.  2236),  which  is  also 
generally  referred  to  this  family,  the  Animal  doesnot  consist  exactly 
of  a  bell  supported  upon  a  distinct  stalk  ;  its  body  is  of  a  trumpet- 
shape,  and  adheres  to  its  point  of  attachment  by  its  smaller  ex- 
tremity. The  body,  in  these  Animals,  is  entirely  covered  with  cilia, 
and  the  creature  generally  possesses  the  power  of  retracting  the 
elongated  tail-like  portion  by  which  it  attaches  itself  to  other  objects, 
and  swimming  away  in  search  of  a  new  habitation.  Lastly,  the 
Tricliodincc,  or  Urn-animalcules,  are  never  attached  to  a  stalk, 
but  generally  swim  about  freely,  by  means  of  the  cilia  with  which 
the  extremities  of  their  bodies  are  fringed. 


Fig.  2235.' — ^The  Vaginicola  cryslallina. 
350  diameters. 


Fig.  2236. — The  Slcnlor  muUer!, 
75  diameters. 


The  remaining  families  of  the  Infusoria  present  us  with  few 
points  of  interest  at  all  comparable  to  those  exhibited  in  the  history 
of  the  Vorticellidcc,  although  even  in  these  many  curious  and  in- 
teresting forms  occur.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  great  families 
• — the  IriclwdidcE  and  the  Setifera.  The  former  of  these  contains 
all  the  mouth-bearing  Infusoria  not  belonging  to  either  of  the  pre- 
ceding families,  in  which  motion  is  entirely  produced  by  the  agency 
of  cilia  ;  whilst  the  Animals  included  in  the  second,  possess,  besides 
these,  bristles  or  hooks  adapted  for  climbing  or  creeping  upon 
aquatic  plants.  The  Animals  forming  the  first  of  these  families 
exhibit  a  great  diversity  of  form  and  structure.  In  some,  the  surface 
of  the  body  is  naked,  and  the  cilia  are  confined  to  the  anterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  body,  where  they  form  a  circlet  surrounding  the  mouth. 
They  constitute  the  sub-family  E?iclielina.  In  these,  the  opening 
through  which  the  fajcal  matters  are  ejected  is  situated  at  the  hinder 
extremity ;  whilst  in  the  VorticellcB,  to  which  they  present  the 
greatest  resemblance,  the  remains  of  the  food  are  cast  out,  either 
through  the  mouth  itself,  or  by  an  opening  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  mouth.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  body  is  some- 
times produced  into  a  long  flexible  neck,  which  the  Animal  twists 
about  in  every  direction  ;  and  it  appears  to  serve,  in  some  respects, 
as  an  aid  in  its  motions. 

A  second  sub-family,  the  Trachelina,  is  distinguished  by  having 
the  whole  or  greater  part  of  the  body  covered  with  fine  cilia,  gene- 
rally arranged  in  longitudinal  series,  of  which  those  surrounding  the 
mouth  are  a  little  longer  than  the  rest.  The  anal  opening  is  variable 
in  its  situation.  The  Paramecium  is  an  example  of  this  group. 
In  a  third  group  we  meet  with  a  very  singular  apparatus,  consisting 
of  a  cylinder  of  fine  horny  fibres,  which  surrounds  the  mouth.  The 
food  of  the  Animal  is  seized  by  this  apparatus,  and  drawn  gradually 
into  the  cesophagus.  These  form  the  sub-family  Nassulina.  In 
the  last  great  family,  the  Setifera,  we  meet  with  a  very  singular 
modification  of  the  ciliary  structure.  In  addition  to  the  cilia,  which., 
as  usual,  surround  the  mouth,  the  ventral  surface,  in  these  creatures, 
is  furnished  with  a  number  of  bristles  or  hooks,  by  means  of  which 
they  are  enabled  to  run  or  creep  upon  fixed  objects  in  the  water. 

Before  quitting  the  consideration  of  the  Pro/oio;?,  we  must  refer 


836 


THE  INFUSORJA. 


to  a  curious  group  of  minute  Parasitic  creatures,  which  appear  to  be 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  Infusoria  than  to  any  other  class  in  the 
Animal  king-dom.  These  microscopic  Parasites,  called  GregarincB, 
are  found  in  a  situation  where,  probably,  few  of  our  readers  would 
dream  of  seeking  for  such  creatures.  They  inhabit  the  intestines  of 
the  Common  Garden  Worms,  Insects,  and  many  other  members  of 
the  Articulate  division  of  Animals,  and  are  but  rarely  to  be  met  with 
in  Animals  of  any  other  group.  These  Animals  are  generally  of 
a  cylindrical  or  somewhat  elliptical  form,  although  sometimes  a  sort 
of  head  appears  to  be  produced  by  the  constriction  of  the  anterior 
extremity  of  the  body,  and  this  head-like  portion  is  occasionally 
furnished  with  a  curious  soft  process  and  lobes.  The  body,  in  all 
cases,  however,  consists  entirely  of  a  sort  of  transparent  homogeneous 
cell,  containing  an  albuminous  fluid,  in  which  a  nucleus  and  a 
number  of  minute  granules  may  be  observed.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly sluggish  in  their  movements,  which  are  effected  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  body,  although  a  few  possess  true  cilia,  and  others 
are  furnished  with  stiffer  immovable  hairs. 

Curious  as  the  habitation  selected  by  these  creatures  may  appear, 
we  shall  find  something  still  more  singular  in  the  method  appointed 
by  the  Creator  for  the  continuance  of  the  race  of  these  simple  cells. 
It  had  long  been  known  to  Naturalists  that  many  GrcgarincB  con- 
sisted only  of  a  single  cell,  whilst  others  appeared  to  be  composed  of 
two  separate  complete  cells,  each  containing  a  nucleus.  Upon  this 
character,  and  the  differences  in  the  forms  of  the  cells  thus  united, 
many  genera,  and  even  families,  have  been  established  amongst  the 
Gregariiicz, — the  authors  describing  these  various  forms  no  doubt 
building  high  and  flattering  hopes  of  immortal  reputation  upon  their 
microscopic  labours.  But  more  recent  observers  have  ruthlessly 
dashed  these  hopes  to  the  ground,  by  showing  that  these  double  cells, 
with  all  their  diversity  of  form,  only  represent  different  stages  in  the 
history  of  the  propagation  of  the  simple  Animals.  The  mode  of 
reproduction  which  prevails  here  is  one  which  we  meet  with  in  no 
other  group  of  Animals  ;  although  something  very  analogous  takes 
place  in  some  low  forms  of  plants.  It  is  effected  in  the  following 
manner : — Two  GregarincB  become  united  by  some  part  of  their 
bodies,  and  cling  together  so  firmly  that  their  separation  appears 
impossible.  By  degrees  they  lose  their  original  form,  until  at  length 
they  constitute  an  oval  mass,  slightly  constricted  in  the  middle,  but 
still  divided  into  two  distinct  cells  by  a  transverse  partition.  Now,  a 
transparent  capsule  is  formed  round  the  compound  body,  whilst  the 
two  nuclei,  which  have  hitherto  retained  their  original  appearance, 
gradually  disappear,  and  the  bodies  of  the  Animals  become  con- 
verted into  a  number  of  granules.  The  process  of  development 
continues   within   the  capsule ;  the   granules,    or    germs,    become 


smaller  and  more  numerous  ;  the  partition  between  the  two  cells 
finally  disappears  ;  and  the  mature  sac  either  passes  entire  from  the 
body  of  the  Animal  in  which  it  is  contained,  or  bursting  within  its 
intestine,  allows  the  numerous  germs  to  be  evacuated  at  once. 

So  far  careful  and  patient  investigations  have  traced  the  history 
of  these  minute  Parasites  ;  but  the  ulterior  development  of  the 
germs,  and  the  mode  in  which  the  young  GregarincB  again  find 
admittance  into  the  bodies  of  their  destined  victims,  are  still,  to 
some  extent,  enveloped  in  mystery. 


We  have  thus  endeavoured  in  this  work  to  trace,  by  slow  degrees, 
"Animal  Life"  from  its  highest  forms  in  Man,  to  its  lowest  forms, 
nearly  verging  on  plants,  as  described,  certainly  to  a  very  imper- 
fect extent,  in  this  chapter.  In  each  division,  each  class,  each 
order,  each  genus,  and  each  species,  with  all  their  varieties,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  notice  in  their  study  a  beautiful  adaptation  of 
means  to  an  end,  a  perfection  in  each  object  for  the  purposes  of 
existence,  a  design  and  suitability  not  only  for  the  individual  but 
also  for  the  collective  existence  of  Animals  at  large.  The  one  is  de- 
pendent on  the  other,  for  food  or  other  purposes.  The  death  of  one 
supports  the  life  of  its  fellows,  and  yet,  despite  this  almost  infinite  series 
of  changes  in  form,  structure,  &c.,  one  general  design  is  apparent. 
We  have  endeavoured  as  far  as  possible  to  avoid  any  entanglement 
with  the  theories  that  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  changes 
which  both  Recent  and  Fossil  Animal  forms  have  undergone, 
simply  because  our  knowledge  is  of  far  too  limited  a  character  to 
permit  of  anything  like  exactness  in  interpreting  the  works  of 
Creation.  It  is  natural  that  a  remarkable  new  discovery  should  lead 
us  to  theorize  on  limited  premises.  Hence  we  have  had  such  ideas 
forced  on  us  as  involve  "spontaneous  generation,"  "development 
of  species  by  natural  selection,"  and  many  other  suggestions  of  the 
kind.  But  the  careful  student  of  Natural  History,  simply  bent  on 
the  examination  of  facts  presented  to  him,  would  prefer  to  learn 
rather  than  to  theorize,  to  admire  rather  than  to  criticise.  If  we 
compare  the  intelligence  of  some  of  the  lower  Animals  with  our  own, 
we  cannot  but  feel  humbled.  Has  Man  the  providence  or  economy 
of  the  Bee  or  Ant  ?  has  he  not  to  trust  even  in  his  every  day  life  to 
the  sagacity  and  docility  of  the  very  Animals  he  too  frequently  ill- 
treats,  and  yet  on  which  he  depends  for  sustenance  and  other  pur- 
poses ?  Much  as  we  may  pride  ourselves  on  our  extended  know- 
ledge of  the  so-called  great  things  of  Creation,  still  the  same 
knowledge,  prescience,  and  design  are  equally  found  in  the  most 
minute  objects.  In  fact  the  real  philosopher  cannot  refrain  from 
using  the  words  of  old,  "  O  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works  ;  in 
wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all :  the  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches." 


THE    END. 


INDEX. 


Aarbvauk,  or  ground  pipr,  orycteropus  ca- 

pcnsis,  211. 
Aardwolf,  or  Earthwolf,  130. 
Abdomen,  the,  9. 
Abdominalia,  a  sub-division  of  physostoma- 

tous  tishes,  G81. 
Abu-havb,  an  antelope,  25f>. 
AcalcpliJEjOr  sea-nettle?,  S28. 
Acanthion  jayanicum,  a  porcupine,  189. 
Aeanthocephala,  an  order  of  ncmatehnia.  7G0. 
A(anthodi(lx,  a  family  of  panoid  fishes,  717. 
Acantlinpttra  (Acanthopteryeii),  a  sub-order 

of  fishes,  order  telcostia.  702. 
Acanthurus  chirurpus,    the    **  Surgeon,"    a 

species  of  acanthopterons  fish,  706. 
Acaiida?,  or  true  miles,  7SS. 
Acarina,    or  monomerosoniata,  an   order   of 

arachnida,  787. 
Acarus  domesticus,  or  cheese-mite,  "88. 
Accentor  modularis,  the  hedge-sparrow,  oi 

■warbler  ;  A.  alpinus,  the  Alpine  accentor. 

479. 
Accip.ter  ni-sup,  the  common  sparrow-hawk, 

head  of  the,  399. 
Accipitiinee,  the  sparrow-hawks,  399. 
Aceipenser    sturio,    the    common   sturgeon, 

718. 
Acephala,  a  family  of  molluscs,  731. 
Achetina,  a  tribe  of  orthopieia,  including  the 

crickets.  802. 
Acineta-forms  of  vorticellidx,  835. 
Acipenser  helops    and    ruthenus,  species  of 

the  sturgeon  tribe,  718. 
Acipenser  huso,  the  beluga,  a  kind  of  stur- 
geon, 718. 
Acipensei  idae,    the   sturgeons,    a    family   of 

ganoid  fif^hes,  718. 
Acouchi,  the,  195. 

.\crocerida?,  a  faiiiily  of  diptera,  809. 
Actinia  cratsicornis,  a  spec.es  of  polypi,   827. 
ActiniadiB     (sea-anemones),      a     family      of 

helianthoida,  .827, 
ActiniiE,  (^e:l-:^llL■mones),   a  genus    of  heli- 
anthoida, 826. 
Actinice,  organs,  propagation,  &c.,  of,  827. 
Actinia  parasitica,  a  species  of  polypi,  827. 
Aculeata,  a    division    of   the    hymeno])ti.r;!, 

81G. 
Aculeate  species  of  bymcnoptera,  817,  818. 
Adapis,  the,  333. 
Addax,  the,  orjs  nasomaculata,  a  species  ot 

antelope,  255. 
Adder,  the,  628,  634. 
Adelanhrosomata,   an    order    of   arachnida, 

788. 
Adjutant,  or  gigantic  crane,  574- 
Adjutant,  the  African,  leptoptilus  marabou, 

the  source  of  marabou  feathers,  575. 
.ffigotheles,    the  Greek    name  of   the   goa'.- 

sucker,  419. 
,15olida3,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  745. 
-iipyornis  maximus.  a  gigantic  species  of  the 

osirich  family  of  Madagascar,  562. 
.SHquoridaj,  a  family  of  medusre,  829, 
African  foxes,  105. 
African  lions,  113. 
African  varieties  of  man,  18. 
Agamides,  or  Old  World  iguanas,  648. 
Agassiz's  system  of  fish-classifiuation,  715. 
Agoutis,  the,  dasyprocta,  a  genus  of  rodents, 

194. 
Ai,  the,  or  common  sloth,  bradypus  tridac- 

tylus,  202. 
Air-bladder  of  fishes,  678, 
Air-bugs  (aurocorisEe),  800. 
Alauda  arborea,  the  wood-lark,  &c.,  509,  510. 
Alauda  arvensis,  the  sky-lark,  509,  510. 
Alaudinee,  the  larks,  507. 
Albatross,  the,  diomedea  exulans,  602. 
Albumen,  7. 

Alcaimpennis,  the  great  auk,  5S9. 
Alcedinidse,  the  kingfishers,  a  family  of  fiss> 

rostres,  432  et  seq. 
Alcedo  alcyon,  an  American  species  of  king- 
fisher, 433. 
Alcedo  ispida,  the  common  kingfisher,  432. 
Alces  palmatus,  the  elk,  or  moose  deer,  236. 
AlcidcD,  the  auks,  a  family  of  natatorial  birds, 

588  et  seq. 
Alcyonidse,  a  family  of  asteroida,  826. 
Alcyonium,  a  genus  of  asteroida,  82ti. 
Alcyonium  poculum,  or  Neptune's  cup,  826. 
Alectrures,  or  Alectrurinse,  a  sub-family  of 

flycatchers,  463. 
Alccirurus,  tricolor,  a  species  of  flycatcher 

463.' 
Alimentary  organs  of  the  vertebrata,  9  et  seq. 
Alligator  Mississipiensis,  a  species  of  croco- 
dile, &c.,  661. 
Alpaca,  or  Paco,  the  auchenia  paco,  227. 
Alutets  of  the  diptera,  795. 
.-Vmbergris,  source  of,  344. 
Amblyopsidffi,  a  family  of  abdominal  pbyso- 

istomata,  683. 
Amblyrhynchus  cristatus,  a  species  of  iguana, 

648. 
Ameividee,    a  family  of  American  Lizards, 

646. 
American  elk,  237. 
Ameiican  foxes,  106. 

American  monkeys,  or  Platyrrhinse,  48  et  seq. 
American  varitties  of  man,  18. 
American  wolf,  i03. 

Amctabola,  a  sub-tlass  of  insects,  embracing 
three  orders;  the  anoplura,  mallophaga, 
and  thysanuia,  707. 


Amia  marmorata,  a  ganoid  fish,  716. 

.\mniodvtes  lancea,  a  species  of  spineless 
fi.'-h,  698. 

Ammodytes  tobianus,  a  species  of  anacanthi- 
nous  tishes,  098. 

.\mmodytid»,  a  family  of  anacanthinous 
fishe-s  698. 

-Vmmonitcs  nodosus,  a  species  of  ccpbalopo- 
dous  moUusca,  757. 

AnimonitidfP,  a  family  of  cephalopodous  mol- 
luscs, including  the  fossil  ammonites,  757. 

Ammophila  sabulosa,  a  species  of  hymcnop- 
tcni,817. 

Ama-ba,  the,  a  type  of  the  rhizopoda,  f^32. 

Auipelida*,  or  chatterers,  a  family  of  denti- 
rostral  bird-J,  457. 

Ampelis  carolinensis,  the  cedar-bird,  458. 

Ampelis  garrula,  the  waxwing,  foot  of  the, 
457. 

Amphioxus  lanceolatus,  the  only  fish  of  the 
order  leptocardia,  679. 

Amphipnousta,  an  order  of  batrachin,  668. 

Ainphipoda,  an  order  of  Crustacea.  779, 

Amphisha?nidse,  a  family  of  lizard-like  rep- 
tiles, 641. 

Amphisyle,  a  genus  of  acanthoptalous  fish, 

Amphitherium,  a  fossil  marsupial,  367. 
Amphiuma  tridactylum,  a  species  of  batra- 

chia,  669. 
AmphiumidiP,  a  family  of  hatrachia,  GG9. 
Ampuliaria,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
luscs, shell  of  the,  749. 
Amimllarice,  a  genus  of  gasteropods,  749. 
.\nabas  seandens,  the  climbing  perch,  711. 
.Anabatidie,  a  family  of  acanthopterons  fishes, 

711. 
Anablebs  tetrophthalmus,  the  four-eyed  loach, 

a  species  of  cypvinidao,  698. 
Anacanthina,  a  sub-order  of  spineless  fishes  of 

the  order  teleostia,  698. 
Anaconda,  a  species  of  serpent,  636. 
Anarrhicas  lupus,  the  sea-wolf,  713. 
Anastomus  lamelliger,  a  species  of  open-bill 

of  the  stoik  tribe,  576. 
Anatidaj,  the  duck  family,  604. 
Anatinfe,  the  true  ducks,  607.    . 
Anchovy,  the,  engraulis  encrasicolus,  686. 
AndienidaB,  a  family  of  hymenoptera,  817. 
\neiuoucs,  sea  (actinia)  827. 
Angel  or  monk-fish  (see  Squatina),  722. 
Angler,  a  fish  (see  Fishing-frog),  713. 
Anguilla,  the  eel,  6S1. 
Anguillulidoe,  or  paste  eel,  770. 
Auguis  fragilis,  the  slow-worm,  642. 
Animals,  distribution  of,  15  et  seq. 
Animals,  primary  divisions  of,  1,  2,  c(  seq, 
Anis,  a  sub-family  of  the  cuckoos,  515. 
Annelida,  a  class  of  articulata,  divided  into 

two  groups— the  abranchiate,    comprising 

the  order  suctoria  and  scolecina ;  and  the 

branchiferous,  having  two  orders,  tuhicola 

and  errantia,  770,  et  seq. 
Anoa,  the,  283. 
Anobium  striatum,  the  death-watch,  acoleop- 

tereous  insect,  822. 
Anomura,  a  sub-order  of  decapod  Crustacea, 

783. 
AnoplotheridEP,  a  family  of  fossil  mammalia, 

333. 
Anoplura,  ah  order   of  ametabolous  insects, 

including  lice,  797. 
Anser  ferus,  albifrons,  &c.,  various  species  of 

geese,  614  et  seq. 
•AnserinoB,  the  geese,  614. 
Antarctic  wolf,  104. 
Ant-eater,  the  banded,  a  species  of  opossum, 

364. 
Ant-eater,  the  great,  myrmecophaga  jubata, 

212;  the  little,  213. 
Ant-eater,  the  porcupine,  a  species  of  mar- 
supials, the  echidna,  355. 
Antelope,  the  sable,  258. 
Antelopes,  various,  247  et  seq. 
Antennoo  of  dipterous  insects,  794. 
Antenn£8  of  insects,  774,  793,  808. 
AntennEE  of  the  true  articulata,  793. 
Antheacereus,  a  species  of  polypi,  827. 
Authophila,  a  tribe  of  hymenoptera,  819. 
Anthracida?,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 
Anthromorphous  apes,  23. 
Anthropoidcs  virgo,  the  demoiselle,  585. 
Ant-thrushes,  or  formicarinse,  469. 
Anthua    pratensis,    the   titlark,   or    meadow 

pipit ;  A.  petrosus,  the  shore  or  rock  pipit ; 

A.  arboreus,  the  tree  pepit.  473  ei  seq. 
Antlers  of  stags,  235. 
Vnt-lioiis,  myrmeloBontidce.  806. 
Ants,  habits,  nests,  &c.,  of,  the  trae,  a   tribe 

of  hymenoptera,  818. 
Ants*  milch-cows  i^see  Aphides),  799. 
vnts,   the   visiting,   hymenopterous  insects. 

618. 
.Ants,  white,  a  tribe  of  neuropterous  insects, 

the  termiditee,  804. 
Anura ;    frogs    and    toads ;    characteristics, 

organs,    &:c.,  of  the,  666  et  seq. 
.\nusof  the  vertebrata,  9. 
Aorta,  the,  8.  ^ 

Aoudad,  a  species  of  goat,  262. 
Apathus,  a  species  of  bee,  819. 
-Ape,  the  Ilaibary,  45.    . 
Apes,  Catarrhina?,  or  Old  World,  and  Piatyrr- 

nira?,  or  New  World,  23. 
Aphaniptera,  an  order  of  metabolous  insects, 

including  the  fleas,  t07. 


Aphides,  or  plant-lice,  a  species   of  homop- 

tera,  799. 
Aphis  humuli,  the  hop-fly.  799. 
Aphodiidse,  a  family  of  coleoptcra,  822. 
Aphroditida;,  sca-micc,  a  family  of  errantia, 

772. 
Aphrojihora    spumaria,    and     bifasciata,    a 

species  of  homoptera,  799. 
Apidae,  the  family  of  bees,  hymenopterous 

insects,  819. 
Aplacentaha,  a  sub-class  of  mammalia,  pos- 
sessing no    placenta,  and    including     the 

opossums,  &c.,  divided  into  the  monotre- 

mata  and  marsupialia,  351  et  seq. 
Aplysi  ids,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  molluscs, 

the  sea-hares,  745. 
Apoda,  a  group  of  anacanthinous  fishes,  681. 
Apoda,  an  order  of  batrachia,  668, 
Apoda,  a  sub-division  of  the  physo-stoma- 

tous  fishes,  698. 
Apodidje,  a  family  of  phyllopoda,  778. 
Aporrhais    pes   pelecani,  a  species    of   gas-  ' 

teropod,  750. 
Aprasia,  a  genus  of  saurians,  612. 
Apterygida;,  a  family  of    cursores  including 

the  apterix,  of  New  Zealand,  562. 
Apterys,  a  wingless  bird,  of  New  Zealand, 

562. 
Apu^,  a  genus  of  phyllopoda,  778. 
Aqueous  humour,  the,  10. 
.\quila  chrysaetos,  the  golden  eagle,  379. 
Aquila,  various  species  of,  379  et  seq. 
Aquilina?,  the  eagles,  a  sub-family  of  the  fal- 
cons, 379  et  seq. 
.\ra,  the  macaws,  525. 
Arabian  dog,  96. 
Arabian  horses,  295. 
.\racaris,  a  genus  of   scansorial  birds,  of  the 

toucan  family,  530. 
Arachnida  (spiders,  &c.),  a  class  of  articulata, 

divided  into  two  sub-classes,  the  trachearia 

and  pulmonaria,  786. 
Araguato,  the,  an  American  monkey,  50. 
Arainaj,  or  maccaws,  a  sub-family  of  parrots, 

524. 
Aranea  domestica,  the  house  spider,  790. 
.\raneidoo,  a  family  of  spiders,  790. 
Arcacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  734. 
Arcellida?,  a  familyof  the  rhizopoda,  S33, 
Arctic  fux,  lOJ. 
Arctomys  marmota,    the   marmot,   170;    A. 

bobac,  171. 
Ardeidoe,  or  herons,  a  family  of  grallatorial 

birds,  572. 
Arenicola  pistacorum,  the  lob-worm,  772. 
Arenicolidae,  a  family  of  errantia,  772. 
Argala,  or  Adjutant,  573. 
Argali,  the,  a  species  of  sheep,  263. 
Argonaut,  the,  a  species  of  cephalopod,  760. 
Argonautidce,  a  family  of  octopodous  eephalo- 

pods,  including  the  paper  nautilus,  760,  704, 
.Vi-gulidiO,  a  family  of  parasita,  778. 
,  ArgJ'nnis,  a  genus  of  butterflies,  815. 
Argyunis  paphia,  a  species  of  butterfly,  815. 
Ariel  gazelle,  the,  249. 
Armadillos,  or  dasipodidse,  207  et  seq. 
Arm-bone,  or  humerus,  the,  2. 

"Arm,"  or  analogue  of,  in  fishes,  237. 
.Arms  of  mammalia,  2  et  seq. 
Arnee,  the,  a  species  of  buttalo,  284. 
Arrindy,  silkworm,  the,  813. 
Artemia  salina,  a  species  of  phyllopoda,  778. 
Arterial  blood,  8. 
Arteries  and  veins,  8. 
Athropoda  (joint-footed),  or  true  articulata, 

774. 
Articulata,  organs,  senses,  &c.,  of  the,  767, 

774.  I 

Articulata,  sub-divisions  of  into   vermes,  or 

worms,  and  anthropoda,  or  true  articulata,' 

767  et  seq. 
Articulata,  true,  or  anthropoda,  divided  into 

four  classes— viz.,  the  Crustacea,  arachnida, 

myriapoda,  and  insects,  774  et  seq. 
Arvicola  agrestis,  the  short-tailed  field  mouse ; 

A.  amphibia,  the  water-rat;    arvicola,  or 

voles,  178,  182. 
Asiatic  lemuroids,  61. 

Ascaris,  a  genus  of  nematelmia,  769.  i 

AscidiEO,  an  order  of  tuoicated  molluscoids,' 

729. 
Ascidlidffi,  a  family  of  tunicated  moUuscoids, 

729. 
Asellidae,  a  family  of  isopoda,  780. 
Asiatic  lions,  113.  | 

Asinus,  a  genus  embracing  the  ass,  zebra,  &c., 

293,  et  seq.  I 

Asiphonata,    an   order   of   lamellibranchiate  ' 

molluscs,  including  the  oyster,  mussel,  &c., 

733. 
Aspergillum    vaginiferum,    or   watering-pot 

shell,  738. 
Ass,  the,  equus  asinus,  297,  et  seq. 
Assimilation  of  food,  9. 
Astacida?,  a  family  of  raacrurous  decapods, 

including  the  lobster,  &c.,  782. 
Astacus  fluviatilis,  the  cray-flsh,  782. 
Astasida;,  a  family  of  infusoria,  834, 
AstevidoD  (star-fi^h)  a  family  of  stellerida,  831. 
Asteroida,  an  order  of  the  polypi,  divided  Into 

four  families — viz.,  tubiporidje.  alcyonidaa, 

gorgonidte,  and  pennatulida,  825. 
Astomata,  an  order  of  the  infuaoiia,  834. 
Astraea  vlridis,  a  species  of  polypi,  827. 
Astrceida?,  a  family  of  helianthoida,  827- 
Astur  palumbarius,  the  goshawk,  400. 


Ateles,  the  spidor-monkcTB,  48. 

Athatia  centifulia^,  the  black  catorptllar  or 

nigger,  810. 
Athene  cunicularia,  the  burrowing  owl,  412, 
Athene  scutulata,  a  species  of  owl,  413. 
Aiherina  presbyter,  the  oaml-smell,  692. 
Ailantidtc,  a  family  of  bctcropodous  moUuscs, 

745. 
Atolls,  or  coral  lagoon-re efn,  827. 
.Vtnichclia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptcra,  S22. 
Atropos,  pulealoriuo,  the  de;ilh-watch,  R05. 
Atta  cephalotCR,  the  vihiUng  ant,  818, 
Auchenia  guanaco,   the  guanaco ;   A.  glnmni 

the  llama;  A.  paco,  the  paco  or  alpftca;  A, 

vicunia,  the  vicugna,  223  et  »rq. 
Auk,  the  great,  alea  iinpennis,  5b9. 
.-Vuk,  the  liillc,  nuM-Kutus  alle,  5U1, 
.Auks,  or  alcidte,  588  et  seq. 
Aulostomidae,   sca-snipcK,  trumpet,  and   bel- 
lows fishes,  a  family  of  aeanthuptcra,  702. 
Auricle,  the  receiving  chamber  of  the  litart, 

the,  8. 
AuricuHdaB,  a  family  of  pulmonifcrous  gas- 
teropods, 750. 
Aurochs,  the,  a  species  of  bison,  2S5. 
Australian  dog  or  dingo,  91. 
Autopha^'i.  a  section  of  bit  da  embracing  the 

orders  natatore?,  grallatores,  cursorcs,  and 

rasorcs,  37S. 
AvcB,  or  birds,  the  class  of,  369  et  seq. 
Aviculacca,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  including  the 

pearl  oysttr,  733. 
Avicularia,  a  species  of  bryozous  moltu8coldi>. 

728. 
Avocet,  recurvirostra  avocctta,  571. 
Axis,  cerebro-spinal  of  man,  233  et  seq. 
Axis,  or  hog  deer,  the,  24J. 
Axolotl,  siredon  pisciforme,  a  Mexican  species 

of  batrachia,  663. 
Aye-aye,     the,    chiromys    madagascariensis, 

58.  63. 
Aythya  ferina,  the  common  pochard,  006. 
Aythya  vallisneria,  the  canvas-backed  duck, 

606. 


Babbleri,  or  timftlinro,  465. 

Baboons,  the  cynocephalus.  &c.,  46. 

Babyrus^a,  a  kind  of  hog,  326. 

Bacteria,  M4. 

Baculites,  a  species  of  ammonite,  a  cepha- 
lopodus  mullusc,  757. 

Badger,  the  common,  melcs  taxus,  141. 

Badgers,  or  melidie,  the,  a  family  of  car- 
nivora,  87,  141. 

Balanidae,  a  family  of  cirrhopoda,  777. 

Balaena  australis,  the  si>uthi-rn  wii;df.  312. 

BalfEua  mystycetus,  the  Greenland  whale, 
341. 

BalErniceps  rex,  a  species  of  heron,  573. 

Balrenidae,  the  true  whales,  341  et  s-q. 

Balsenoptera  btiops,  and  B.  museulus,  species 
of  fin-backed  whales,  343. 

Balistcs,  geographicus  and  penicilligcru^, 
species  of  plectognaihous  fish.  714. 

Bandicoot  rats,  or  peramelidse,  363. 

Ban-dog,  the  99. 

Banxritigs,  84. 

Barasingha,  a  species  of  deer,  247. 

Barbaiy  ape,  or  Magot,  45. 

Barbary  deer,  217. 

Barbary  lion,  114. 

Barbary  mouse,  177. 

Barbel,  the  common,  barbus  vulgaris,  a 
species  of  cyprinidte,  695. 

Barbets,  or  capitoninaa,  52. 

Barnacles,  or  lepadidee,  a  family  of  cir- 
rhopoda, 777. 

Barn-owl,  413. 

Barrier  reefs  (coral),  formation  of,  82r« 

Basilisk,  the  basiliscus  americanus,  647 

Batking-shark,  721. 

Basse,  the  labrax  lupus,  704, 

Bateleur  eagle,  412. 

Bats,  order  of,  or  chiroptera,  67  et  seq. 

Bat,  the  kaloiig,  pteropus.edulis,  73. 

Bat,  the  horse-?hoe,  71. 

Bat,  the  fruit-eating,  72. 

Bat,  skeleton  of,  08. 

Bat,  vampyre,  69. 

Bat,  specimens  of  in  the  British  Museum,  73. 

Bat-lice,  a  family  of  diptera,  808. 

Batrachia,  skeleton,  limbs,  skin,  nervous 
system,  organs  of  sense,  reproduction,  cir- 
culatory system,  &c.,  of  the,  OGOc' 3fy. 

Bats,  or  cheiroptera,  an  order  of  maiumalia, 
the  skeleton,  skull,  limbs,  &c.,  of  the,  67 
et  seq. 

Bats,  or  vesperlUionidte,  the  true,  71. 

Beagle,  the,  96. 

Beak  of  birds,  the  jer-falcon,  toucan,  and 
hornbill.    (See  Birds.) 

Bear,  brown,  black,  grisly,  jungle,  sun, 
white,  &c.,  145  et  seq. 

Bears,  or  ursidn?,  88,  \\5, 

Beavers,  building,  183. 

Beavers,  castorida?,  a  family  of  rodents,  182 
et  seq. 

Becards,  the,  462. 

llee,  larviB  and  pupa  of  the,  819. 

Bee,  Sling  of,  815,  816. 

Bee,  the  carpenter,  mason,  upholsterer,  leaf- 
cutting,  cuckoo,  and  humble,  819. 

Bee  (the  common),  819. 

Bee-eaters,  or  meropidie,  a  family  of  Assi- 
rostral  birds,  438, 


838 


INDEX. 


Beech-marten,  the,  13G. 

Beehives,  819. 

Beetle,  hlack.  803. 

Beetle,  burvingr,  822. 

Beetle,  ehurch-yari],  822. 

Beetle,  Colorado,  821. 

Beetle,  diamond,  821. 

Beetle,  dung,  822. 

Beetle,  great  water,  823. 

Beetle,  helmet,  821. 

licetle,  mimic,  823. 

Beetle,  pill,  823. 

Beetle,  rose,  822. 

Beetle,  sacred,  822,  823. 

Beetle,  stag,  822. 

Bt'CiIe,  typographic,  822. 

Beetles,  coleoptera,  820. 

Beetles,  lamelUcorned,  8S2. 

Bt  kr-el-wash,  or  wild  ox  of  the  Arabs,  257. 

Belemnitidte,  a  family  of  cephalopods,  761. 

Belone  vulgaris,  or  mackerel-guide,  701. 

Beluga,  acipenser  huso,  718. 

Bi-luga,  or  white  whale,  phoccena  leucas,  346. 

Bt'roidie,  a  family  of  m*  dusee,  830. 

Bhunder,  a  species  of  monkpy,  4o. 

Bicelluli,  a  group  of  bugs,  8U0. 

Bimana,  an  order  including  only  man,  \etscq. 

Binlurong,  the,  135. 

Biphora,  order  of  tunicated  molluscoids,  730. 

Biid-lice,  797. 

Birds,  divi^ion  of  the    class  into  two  great 

sections— viz.,    autophagi    and    incessores 

(for  the  orders  of  these  sections  see  name  ol 

each),  369, 379  (Vicj. 
Birds,  flight  of,  15. 
Birds,  general  characters  of  the  class,  their 

organs,  locomotion,  &c.,  369  et  seq. 
Birds,  locomotion  of,  15,  370  et  seq. 
Birds,  raptorial,  379  et  seq. 
Birds,  voice  or  song  of,  13. 
Birgus  latro,  a  species  of  hermit-crab,  783. 
Biijon,  the  various,  285  et  seq. 
Bittern,  the  botaurus  stellaris,  577. 
Bivalve  mollusca,  731  et  seq. 
Bivalve  molluscs,  shells  of  the,  731  et  seq. 
Blackbeetle,  803. 
Blackbird,  lurdus  memli,  4G7. 
Blackcap,  curruca  artiic  ipilla,  483. 
Black  caterpillar,  or  nigger,  816. 
Black-cock,  the,  tetrao  tetrix,  542,  543. 
Black-crested  monkey,  40. 
Bladder  and  urinary  organs  of  mammalia,  8 

et  seq. 
Elai)s  mortis^ga,  church-yard  beetle,  822. 
Blatta    americana,  a  species  of  blackbeetle, 

803. 
Blatta  gigantea,'a  species  of  cochroach,  803. 
Blatta  onentahs,  the  blackbeetle,  803. 
Blatliiiii,  a  tribe  of  cursorial  orthopetra.  803. 
Blauwbuk,  a  species  of  antelope,  255. 
BlcLik,  leuciscus  alburnus,  a  species  ofcypri- 

nitlae,  G97. 
Blenniidte,   the  blennies,  a  family  of  acan- 

thopterous  fish,  712. 
Blennius  pholis,  the  shanny,  712. 
Blenny,  ocellated,  blennius  ocellaris,  712. 
Blepharis,  a  genus  of  acanthopterous  fish,  707. 
Blesbok,  a  species  of  antelope,  249. 
Blister-fiy,  the,  822. 
Blood,  and  blood  corpuscles,  7. 
Blood,  circulation  of,  8. 
Bloodhounds,  92,  97. 
Blood  of  fishes,  679. 
Blood  of  vertebrata,  7,  8. 
Blood,  temperature  of,  in  mammalia,  &c.,  9. 
Blow-holes  of  the  whale,  338. 
Blubber  of  the  whale,  338. 
Blues,  the  (butterflies),  815. 
Boa  constrictor,  the,  636. 
Boar,  the  wild,  323. 
Boat-bill,  cancruma  cochlearia,  577. 
Boat-fly,  a  species  of  water-bug,  800. 
Boat-tails,  or  quiscalinae,  a  sub-family  of  the 

starlings,  500. 
Bohemian  chatterer,  or  waswing,  458. 
Boida;,  a  family  of  colubriue  snakes,  includ- 
ing the  pythons,  boas,  &c.,  636. 
Bombus  lapidarius,  humble  bee,  819. 
Bombycina,  a  tribe  of  lepidoptera,  including 

the  silkworm,  &c.,  812. 
Bombyliidfe,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 
Bombyx  cynthia,  the  Arrindy  silkworm  of 

India,  812. 
Bombyx  mori,  the  silkworm,  a  lepidopterous 

caterpillar,  182. 
Bonasia  umbellus,  the  ruffed  grouse,  543. 
Bonasus  bison,  the  auroch ;    B.  americanus, 

the  American  bison,  285,  et  seq. 
Bones  of  mammalia,  2  et  seq. 
Bones  of  the  face  in  mararaalia,  2  et  seq.  (See 

also  "  Skeleton*' and  *' Skull.") 
Bones  of  the  head  of  the  perch,  illustrating 

those  of  other  fish,  G77. 
Bones  of  the  vertebrated  animals   (see   also 

names  of  each),  2  et  seq. 
Bonito,  the,  thynnus  pelamys,  708. 
Bonlebuk,  the  species  of  antelope,  253. 
Bony  arches  of  vertebrated  animals  (see  also 

names  of  each),  2  et  seq. 
Bony  pike,  the,  lepidosteus  osseus.  a  eanoid 

fish,  717. 
Booby,  soland  goose,  or  gannet,  597. 
Bopyridae,  a  family  of  isopoda,  7S0. 
Borlasia,  a  species  of  planaridn,  7G9. 
Bosulaphus  oreas,  the  eland,  25G. 
Bos  scoticus,  the  Chiilingham  bull,  271. 
Bos  tauru.-,  the  donle^tic  ox,  2GU  et  seq. 
Botaurus  stellaris,  bittern,  577. 
Bothriocephalus  latus,  a  species  of  cestoidca, 

768. 
Botryllidee,  a  group  of  ascidian  molluscoids, 

729.  ' 

Boiile-nose  seal,  161. 


Bovidas,  a  family  of  ruminants,  including  the 
antelopes,  cattle,  sheep,   &c.,   247,  2G9  et 

seq.  (specimens  in  the  British  Museum  and 

Zoological  Gardens). 
Boviform  antelopes,  247  et  seq. 
Bower-bird,  the  satin,  of  Australia,  493. 
Bower-birds  of  Australia,  493. 
Bos-tortoises,  6G4. 

Br.achelytra,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  823. 
Brachycera,  a  sub-order  of  dipterous  insects, 

808. 
Brachystoma,  a  tribe  of  diptera,  809. 
Brachyura,  a  sub-order  of  decapod  Crustacea, 

784. 
BradypodidEe,  or  sloths,  201  et  seq. 
Bradypus  trydactylus,  the  common  sloth,  201 

ef  seq. 
Brahmm  bull,  or  zebu,  280. 
llrain  of  birds,  375. 
Hrain  of  fishes,  678. 

Brain  of  vertebrata,  10  et  seq.    (see  Ethno- 
logy, 15). 
Bruin-coral  (maandrina  cerebriformis),  827. 
Braraa,  a  species  of  acanthopterous    fishes, 

G95;  B.  raii,  706. 
Branchial  aperture  in  fishes,  G78. 
Brancbifera,  an  order  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
luscs, divided  into  the  sub-orders  opistho- 

branchiata  and  prosobranchiata,  745. 
Branchiostegal  bone  of  flshes,  678. 
Hranchipodidtp,  a  family  of  phyllopoda,  773. 
Bream,  tbe,  G95. 
Bream,  K^y's,  695. 
Breeze-flies,  or  gad-flies,  809. 
Brill,  the,  rhombus  vulgaris,  700. 
Bristles  of  mammalia,  6  j  of  birds,  419. 
Brocket-deer,  245. 
Bronchial  tubes,  8. 
Brush-turkt'y,  557. 

Bruta,  or  Edentata,  order  of,  201  et  seq. 
Bryozia,  a  class  of  mollusoida,  consisting  of 

the  orders  of  infundibulata  and  lophopoda, 

727. 
Bryozoa,  reproduction,  &c.,  of  the,  727. 
Bryozoon,  tbe  young  of  the  bryozous  mollus- 
coids, 728. 
Bubalus  bubalis,  the  common  buffalo,  284. 
Bubble-shells,  orbullidre,  gasteropodous  mol- 
luscs, 745. 
Bubo  bengalensis,  an  Indian  species  of   the 

owl  family,  416. 
Bubo  maximus,  the  great  eagle  owl,  415. 
Bubo  virginianus,  the  American  horned  owl, 

416. 
Buboninee,  or  horned  owls,  415,  416. 
Buccinum,  or  whelks,  751. 
Bucconiuic,  or  puff"-birds,  43G. 
Buceridae,  or  hornbills,  a  family  of  coniros- 

tral  birds  486. 
Buceros,  the  honibill,  a  genus  of  conirostral 

birds,  486. 
Budcng,  or  negro  monkey,  40. 
Buttalo,  the  common,  bubalus  bubalis,  &c., 

284. 
Bufonida;,  the  family  of  toads,  G73. 
Bufo  vulgaris,  the  common  toad  ;  Bufo  cala- 

mita,  the  natter-jack;    Bufo  obstetricans, 

the  accoucheur  load,  673,  674. 
Bug,  the  common  (cimes  lectularius),  800. 
Bugs,  land  and  water,  800. 
IJulbuls,  the  pycnonotiniE,  4G3  et  seq. 
Bull,  the  Brahmin,  or  zebu,  280. 
Bull,  the  Cbill-ng.iam,  bos  scoticus,  271. 
Bull-dog,  the,  99. 
Bull  fights  in  Spain,  275. 
Bull-finches,  the,  pyrrhulinre,  510. 
BuU-frog,  the,  rana  pipiens,  674. 
Bull-head,  or  miller's   thumb,   a  fish  of  the 

genus  cottu-,  703. 
Bull-head,  the  armed,  703. 
BuUid^,  or  bubble-shells,  745. 
Bullocks  used  for  draught  purposes,  &c.,  277. 
Buntings,  the,  emberiziuae,  a  sub-family  of 

the  finches,  509. 
Buphaginse,  or  ox-peckers,  a  sub-family  of 

starlings,  499. 
Buprestidte,  a  family  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Burbot,  tbe,  lota  vulgaris,  698. 
Buiying-beetles,  the,  823. 
Bush  antelopes,  253. 
Bush-creepers,  mniotiltinae,  a  sub-family  of 

sylvidse,  474. 
Bush-ahrikes,  thamnophilinae,  456. 
Bustards,  the  family  of  the  otididge,  various 

species  of,  583. 
Butcher-birds,  or  nine-killers  (see  Shrikes), 

455. 
Buteoninffi,  the  buzzards,  a  sub-family  of  fal- 

conida,  404. 
Buteo  vulgaris,  the  common  buzzard;    B. 

lagopus,  the  rough-legged  buzzard,  403, 

404. 
butterflies,  British,  812. 
Butterflies,  the  rhopalocera,  814. 
Butterflies,  transformations  of,  810. 
Butterfly,  the  cabbage,  814. 
Butterfly,  the  peacock,  815. 
Buzzards,  or  buteonince,  a  sub-family  of  fal- 

conida,  403. 
Buzzard,  the  common,  buteo  vulgaris,  404. 
Buzzard,  the  honey,  or  bee-hawk,  head  of  the, 

404. 
Buzzard,  the  turkey,  or  turkey  vulture,  an 

American  species  of  the  vulture  family,  406, 

407. 
Byrrhidae,  a  family  of  coleopterous   insects, 

823. 
Byssus  of  the  mollusca,  725. 


Caama,  an  African  fox,  105. 
Cabassou,  the  dusypus  cinctus,  207. 
Cabbage  butterflies,  614. 


Cabrit,  or  prongbuck,  the,  254. 

Cacajao,  an  American  monkey,  52. 

Cacatua  galcrita,  the  great  sulphur-erested 
cockatoo,  523. 

Cacatua  sulphurea,  the  small  sulphur-crested 
cockatoo,  523. 

Cacatuina",  or  tree  cockatoos,  523, 

Cachalot,  or  sperm-whale,  343. 

Caecum,  the,  9. 

Cjelogenys,  the  pacas,  193. 

Coerebina;,  or  Ruitguits,  a  sub-family  of  the 
sun-biids,  451. 

Caiman,  the,  CGI. 

Calamaries,  or  squids,  the  loligidoe,  a  family 
of  cephalopods,  761,  764. 

Calamodyta  arundiiiacea,  the  reed  warbler, 
485. 

Calandra  granaria,  the  corn-weevil,  821. 

Caligids,  a  family  of  parasita,  778. 

Callreatinoo,  a  sub-family  of  crows,  the  tree 
crows,  491. 

CallianiridtC,  a  family  of  medusa,  830, 

Callichromamoschata,  a  British  beetle,  821. 

CallidK,  a  group  of  bugs,  800. 

Calling-crabs,  786. 

Calling-hares,  200. 

Calliomymus,  tbe  dragonets,  712. 

Callithrix,  a  genus  of  American  monkeys,  54. 

Caliorhynchus  australis,  a  species  of  selachia, 
or  shark-like  fish,  720. 

Caltetepon,  heloderma  horridum,  646. 

Calymene  blumeubachii,  a  trilobite,  773. 

Calypterix  Virgo,  a  dragon-fly,  806. 

Calyptomena  viridis,  a  manakin,  459. 

Calvptorvnchus  banksii,  the  Banksian  cocka- 
too, 523. 

Calyptrgeidte,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  743. 

Camas,  pouched-rat,  185. 

Camel,  skeleton  of  the,  5. 

Camelidse,  or  camels,  218. 

Camelopardidce,  the  camelopards  or  giraffes, 
227. 

Camels,  or  camelidae,  218  et  seq. 

Camelus  dromedarius,  the  dromedary,  218  ; 
C.  baclrianus,  the  Bactrian  camel,  218,  223. 

Campanularina,  a  sub-family  of  hydi'oidEe, 
.825. 

Campephaginae,  or  caterpillar-eaters,  457. 

Canada  land-rat,  185. 

Canadian  wolf,  102. 

Canary  bird,  the  carduelis  canaria,  508. 

Canceridce,  or  crabs,  784. 

Cancroma  cochlearia,  or  boat-bill,  577. 

Canidse,  or  dogs,  86,  88  et  seq. 

Canine  teeth,  4,  5. 

Canis  familiaris,  the  common  dog,  88,  101 ; 
C.  lupus,  the  wolf,  101  ;  C.  aureus,  the 
jackal,  104 ;  C.  nubilus,  the  North  Ameri- 
can cloudy  wolf,  103  ;  C.  mesomelas,  the 
black-backed  jackal,  104  ;  Canis  lycaon,  or 
black  wolf,  103;  Canis  vulpes,  the  fox,  104. 

Canna  or  eland,  256. 

Cape  buffalo,  285. 

Cape  elephant,  shrew,  77. 

Cape  hunting  dog,  103; 

Cape  leaping  hare,  175. 

Cape  lions,  114. 

Cape  ratel,  the,  140. 

Capercailzie,  or  wood  grouse,  tetrao  urogal- 
lus,  542. 

Capillary  blood-vessels,  9. 

Capitonince,  or  barbets,  a  sub-family  of  scan- 
sorial  birds,  521. 

Capra  cegagrus,  the  wild  or  Bezoar  goat ;  C. 
hircus,  the  common  goat ;  C.  Jemlahica, 
the  Jemlah  goat ;  and  C.  jharal,  the  jharal ; 
C.  ibex,  the  ibex ;  C.  pyrenaicas,  the 
PyrenaBitn  ibex,  &c.,  259  et  seq. 

Caprellidas,  a  family  of  cdriophthalmata,  779. 

Capreolus  caprjea,  the  roe,  245. 

Caprifoim  antelopes,  253. 

Caprimulgidas,  or  goat-suckers,  a  family  of 
fissirostral  birds,  420  et  seq. 

CaprimulginiB,  the  true  goat-suckers,  422. 

Caprimulgus  europosus,  the  goat-sucker,  420. 

Caprimulgus  vociferus,  the  whip-poor-Will, 
a  species  of  goat-sucker,  421. 

Capybara,  the,  hydroch£erus  capybara,  196. 

Carabus,  a  genus  of  coleoptera,  822. 

Caracal,  the,  felis  caracal,  125. 

Caracaras,  or  polyborinae,  a  sub-family  of 
raptorial  birds,  403. 

Carapace,  or  outer  shell  of  the  chelouia,  662. 

Caravans  and  camels,  220. 

Carcharias  glaucus,  the  blue  shark,  721. 

Carcharias  vulgaris,  the  common  white  shark, 
721. 

Carcharias  vulpes,  the  fox  shark,  or  thresher, 
720. 

Carcharidae,  or  true",  sharks,  a  family  of  sele- 
chia,  720. 

Carchesium,  a  genus  of  vorticellidae,  835. 

Cardiacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  including  the 
cockles,  737. 

Cardisoma  carnifex,  a  kind  of  land-crab,  785. 

Cardium  edule,  the  common  cockle,  737,  738. 

Carduelis  canaria,  the  Canary  bird,  508. 

Carduelis  elegaus,  the  goldfinch,  507. 

Caribou,  a  species  of  deer,  239. 

Carinai'ia,  a  genus  of  heteropodous  molluscs, 
745. 

Caruivora,  an  order  of  mammalia,  embracing 
the  lion,  tiger,  dog,  cat,  &c.,  85  et  seq. 

Carnivora  divided  mto  digitigrada,  plantig- 
rada,  and  s'?ini-plantigrada,  86. 

Carnivora,  fossils  of,  155,  156. 

Carotid  arteries,  the,  8. 

Carp,  the  common,  cyprinus  carpio,  694. 

Carpal  bone,  the,  2,  3. 

Carpenter  bee,  the,  819. 

Carps,  tbe  family  of,  cyprinidee,  G94. 

Carrancha,  a  South  American  species  of  rap- 
torial birds,  389. 


Carrier-pigeon,  the,  537. 

Cashmere  goat,  259. 

Cassida  viridis,  a  species  of  coleoptera,  821, 

Cassididae,  or  helmet  beetles,  821. 

Cassidulidac,  a  family  of  echinida,  831. 

Cassis,,the  helmet-shell,  751. 

Cassowary,  the,  casuarius  galeatus,  5G1. 

Castoridpe,  the  beavers,  182  et  seq. 

Casuarius  galeatus,  the  cassowary,  561. 

Cat,  or  felida?,  87,  109  et  seq. 

Cat,  the  wild    and    domesticated,   120;    the 

pampas,  122. 
Cataphracta,  a  family  of  fishes,  703. 
Catarrhina?,  a   division  of  the   quadrumana, 

embracing  the  simiidao,  or  Old  World  apes, 

23,  48  et  seq. 
Caterpillar-eaters,  campephaginae,  457. 
Caterpillars,  the  larvoa  of  lepipoptera,  810  ct 

seq. 
Catoblepas  gnu,  species  of  gnus,  258. 
Catometopa,  or  ocypodidse,  a  family  of  bra- 

chyurous  decapods,  785. 
Cats,  or  felidae,  the  family  of  the,  embracing 

the  lion,  tiger,  cats,  &c.,  116  et  seq 
Caucasian  variety  of  man,  19. 
Caudal  vertebras,  2. 
Cavia  apersea,  the  Guinea-pig,  196. 
Cavicornia,  or  hollow-horned  ruminants,  in- 
cluding the  ox,  sheep,  &c.,  247  et  seq. 
Cavies,  or  cavida?,  196  ct  seq. 
Cebidfe,  .\meric^m  monkeys,  51. 
Cebus,  a  genus  of  American  monkevs,  51. 
Cecidomyia  destructor  and  tritici,  809. 
Cedar-bird,  ampelis  carolinensis,  458. 
Cenchris,  a  genus  of  enakes,  G39. 
Centetes,  a  genus  of  hedgehogs,  the  tanrecs, 

75,  82. 
Centipedes,  a  family  of  myriapoda,  791. 
CephalaspidiE,  a  family  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes, 

Cephalemyia  ovis,  a  dipterous  insect,  808. 
Cephalopoda,  a  class  of  molluscous  animals, 

including  the  cuttle-fishes,  ice,  divided  into 

two   orders,   the   tetrabranchiata  and   di- 

branehiata,  75G. 
Cephaloptera,  giorna,  a  species  of  ray,  723. 
Cephalopteridae,  a  family  of  rays,  723. 
Cephalothorax,  nature  of  the,  775. 
Cephalothorax,  of  Crustacea,  775. 
CepuUdae,  or  ribbon-fishes,  710. 
Cerastes,  hassclquistii,  the  horned  snake,  629. 
Cercoleptes  caudivolvulus,  the  kinkaiou.  88. 

154.  ^ 

Cercoleptidae,  a  family  of  the  carnivora,  83, 

154.  ■  ' 

Cercomys,  a  genus  of  rats,  186. 
Ccrcopida;,  or  cicadellina,  a  family  of  homop- 

tera,  799. 
Cercopithecus,  a  genus  of  African  monkeys, 

42  et  seq. 
Cerebellum,  the,  10. 
Cerebellimi  and  cerebrum  of  the  vertebrata, 

10. 
Cereopsis  novce  hoUandice,  a  species  of  the 

goose  tribe,  617. 
Ceriornis  satyra,  the  tragopan,  553. 
CerithiidEB,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  750. 
Cermatiid®,  a  family  of  myriapoda,  491. 
Certhidte,  or  creepers,  a  family  of  tenuirostral 

birds,  444. 
CerthiDce,  or  true  creepers,  the,  441, 
Cervical  vertebrEB,  2. 
Cervidre,  or  deers,  a  family  of  ruminantia, 

235  el  seq ;  specimens  in  the  British  Museum 

and  Zoological  Gardens,  288,  289. 
Cervus  elaphus.  the  stag,  or  red  deer ;   C. 

canadensis,  the  wapiti ;  C.  axis,  and  porcin- 

us,  the  axis,  or  hog  deer;  C.  campestris,  the 

guazuti,  &c.,  242  et  seq,  247. 
Cestoidea  (girdle-like),  an  order  of  the  platy- 

elmir,  including  the  tape-worms  and  other 

parasites,  768. 
Cestraciontidae,  a  family  of  shark-like  fishes, 

721. 
Cetacea,  an  order  of  mammalia,  embracmg  the 

whales,  &c.,  338  et  seq  ;  fossils  of,  350,  351. 
Cete,  a  sub-order  of  the  cetacea,  embracing 

the  whales,  340. 
CetochilidiE,  a  family  of  copepoda,  778. 
Chacma,  the,  a  species  of  batoon,  46. 
Chaetodontidae,    a  family  of     acanthopterus 

fishes,  706. 
Chafiinch,  the,  fringilla  coclebs,  503. 
Chaja,  cbauna  chavaria,  a  species  of  rail,  566. 
Chalcididaj,  a  family  of  hymeuoptera,  818. 
Chamacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  including  the 

clam-shell,  736. 
Chamaeleo  alricanus,  the  common  chameleon, 

650. 
ChamaeleontidaD,  the  chameleon  family,  be- 
long to  the  lizurds,  648. 
Chameck,  the,  au  American  monkey,  48. 
Chameleon,  cause  of  the  change  of  colour, 

peculiarities,  organs,  &c.,  of  the,  649. 
Chamois,  rupricapra  tragus,  253. 
Channel-bill,  scythrops  novas  hollandiae,  515, 
Chanting-hawk,  401. 
Char,  the,  salmo  salvelinus,  690. 
Characinidte,  a  family  of  fishes  resembling  the 

carp,  697. 
Charadiiida),  or  plovers,  a  family  of  gralla- 

torial  birds,  578. 
Charadrinoe,  or  tree  plovers,  580. 
Chati,  a  species  of  cat,  123. 
Chatterers,  ampelidac,  a  family  of  dentiros- 

tral  birds,  456  et  seq. 
Chaus,  the,  felis  chaus,  126. 
Cheese-hopper,  the,  803. 
Cheeta!,  or  axis  de<.'r,  244. 
Cheetah,  or  hunting  leopard,  119. 
Cheliferidse,  a  family  of  arachnida,  788. 
Chelmon  ro^tratus,  a  species  of  acanthopte- 
rous fish,  706, 


INDEX. 


8J9 


Chelonia,  an  order  of  vertebratat  including 

the  tortoises,  turtles,  &c.,  662. 
Chelonia  carctta,  the  lo^ercrhcad  turtle,  661. 
Chtlonia  imbricata,  hawk's-bill  turtle,  663. 
Chelonia  midas,  green  turtle,  662. 
Cheloniidoe,  or  turtles,  663. 
Chelydea  serpentina,  the   alligator   tortoise, 

664. 
Chclydidfe,  a  family  of  turtles,  664. 
Clielys  mataniata,  a  turtle,  G64, 
Ciiewing  of  the  cud,  216  et  seq. 
Chigoe,  or  jigger,  a  kind  of  flea,  807. 
Chillinghani  cattle,  £71. 
Chilodon  cucuUus,  a  species  of  infusoria,  835. 
Chiloguatha,  an  order  of  oiyriapoda,  791. 
Cliilopoda,  an  order  of  myriapoda,  embracing 
three    families,  the  cermatiida;,  scolopen- 
dridx,  and  geophilida;,  79]. 
Chimaera  monstrosa,  the  sea-cat,  or  king  of 

the  herrings,  a  shark-like  fish.  719. 
Chimaera,  the  southern,  a  species  of  selachia, 

719. 
Chima;ridae,  a  family  of  fish,  belonging  to  the 

order  selachia,  719. 
Chimango,    milvago    chimango,    a   raptorial 

bird,  402. 
Chimpanzee,  the,  or  troglodytes  niger,  gene- 
ral characters  of,  27  ;  skeleton  and  ekull, 
2.S. 
CtiinehiUa,  the  eriomys  laniger,  190. 
CliinchillidsB,  the  chincliiUas,  a  family  of  ro- 
dents, 190. 
Chine^e,  the,  18. 

Chionididae,  a  family  of  rasorial  birds,  541. 
Ciiinnis  alb:i,  the  sheath-bill,  541. 
Ciiiromydee,  chiromys  madagascariensis,  the 
_ aye-aye,  58. 
Ctiiroptera.  an  order  of  mammalia,  embracing 

tlie  bats,  67  ei  seq. 
Cliirotes,  a  genus  of  saurians,  641. 
Chiroteuthis  bonelli,  a  species  ol  cephalopods, 

761. 
Chitonidae,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  the  chi- 
tons, 747. 
Chhimydera  maculata,  the  spotted  bower-bird, 

498. 
CliluTuydosaurus  kingii,  a  species  of  iguana, 

64S. 
Cliocropus,  a  genus  of  marsupialia,  362,  363. 
Chondropterygious,  or  cartilaginous  fishes  of 
CuTier,  correspond  with  the  order  selachia, 
719. 
Chondrostea,  or  loricata,  a  sub-order  of  gan- 
oid fishes,  divided  into  two  families,   the 
acipenseridae,  or  sturgeons,  and  the  spatu- 
larida?,  717. 
Chorda  dorsalis  of  fishes,  676. 
Chorda  dorsalis  of  the  vertebrata,  2  et  seq. 
Clioroides  of  the  eye,  10. 
Chough,  Cornish,  fregilus  graculus,  494. 
Chromidce,  a  family  of  acauthopterygious  fish, 

701. 
Chrysilides,   the  pupa  of  the  papilonaceous 

butterfly,  796. 
Chrysis  ignlta,  a  species  of  hymenoptera,  818. 
Chrysochloris,  a  genus  of  moles,  75,  81. 
Chub,  the  Icuciscus  cephalus,  697. 
Chuck-WiU's-widow,  caprimulgus  carolinen- 

sis,  a  goat-sucker,  422. 
Chuich-yard  beetle,  the,  822. 
Chvle,  9. 
Chyme,  9. 

Cicada,  and  cicada  septendecim,  800. 
Cicadaria,  a  tribe  of  homoptera,  7i»9. 
CicadeUina,  or  cercopidte,  a  family  of  homop- 
tera, 799.  * 
Cicindelidx,  a  family  of  coleoptera,  824. 
Ciconina?,    the   storks,  various  species,    574 

et  seq. 
Cidandas,  sea-eggs,  and  soa-urcluns.831. 
Cdia,  nature  of,  in  infusoria,  &c.,  834. 
Cinclin?e,a  sub-family  of  the  plovers,  579. 
Cinclus  aquaticus,  the  water-ouzel,  or  dipper, 

470. 
Circaetus  gallicus,  and  C.  cheela,  species  of 

eagles,  391. 
Circeida?,  afamilyof  medusx,  b29. 
Circina?,  or  harriers,  a  sub-famify  of  raptorial 

birds,  405. 
Circulating  system  of  batrachia,  667. 
Circulating  system  of  birds,  375. 
Circulating  system  of  Crustacea,  770. 
Circulating  system  of  infusoria,    834 
Circulating  system  of  insects,  796. 
Circulating  system  of  mammalia,  8. 
Circulating  system  of  moUusca,  725. 
Circulating  system  of  reptiles,  623. 
Circulating  system  of  vertebrata,  8. 
Circulation  of  the  blood,  8. 
Circus  cyaueus,  the  ring-tailed  harrier ;  C. 
jeruginosus,  the   marsh  harrier,    or  moor 
buzzard  ;  C.  cineraceus,  Montagu's  harrier, 
405  et  seq. 
Cirrhobranchiata,    a   group   of  gasteropods, 

746. 
Cirrhopoda,  a  sub-class  of  cru?tacea,  has  two 
families— viz.,  lapadidiic  andbalanidic  776, 
777. 
Cistudo,  a  genus  of  turtles,  664. 
Civet,    the     viverra   civetta  the  rassc,    &c., 

130  et  .^eq. 
Civets,  or  viverrida?,  the  family  of,  87,  130. 
Clam-shell,  the,  736. 
Classt  s,  definition  of  the  term,  I  et  seq. 
Classification  of  birds,  378. 
Classification  of  the  vertebrata,  1  et  seq. 
Classification,  principles  of,  1  ct  seq. 
Clave llinida^,  a  group  of  ascidian  molluscoids, 

729. 
Clavicle,  2  ct  seq. 
Clavicle  of  vertebrata,  2. 
Clavisof  felido-,  110. 
ClepsinidaD,  a  family  of  suctorla,  770. 


Climacteris,  a  species  of  creeper,  446. 

Climbing-birds,  or  scansores,  513. 

Climbing  perch,  the  anabi*:  ■^candens,  711. 

Clio,  a  genus  of  sponges,  834. 

Clio  borealis,  a  species  of  pteropodous  mol- 
Iu>ca,  742. 

Clothes'-moth,  the,  812. 

C:lupea  alba,  the  white-bait,  Gl^G. 

Clupca  aloso,  the  twaite  shad,  6Sfi. 

Clupea  harengus,  the  herrini;.  6St. 

Clupea  pilchardus,  the  pilchard.  683. 

Clupea  Sardinia,  the  sardine,  (;s(i. 

Clupea  sprattus,  the  sprat,  Gh.i. 

Clupeidir,  or  herring  family,  '183  et  seq. 

Coaita,  the,  an  American  monkey.  49. 

Coassus,  a  genus  embracing  the  brocket  deer, 
215. 

Coast-rat,  186. 

Coati,  the,  of  the  genus  nasua,  152. 

Cobites,  the.louches,  680. 

Cobra  di  capeUo,-the,  630. 

Coccina,  a  genus  of  homopterous  insects, 
799. 

Coccinella*,  a  species  of  coleoptera,  including 
the  lady-bird,  820. 

Coccothraustes  vulgaris,  the  common  gros- 
beak, or  haw-finch,  505. 

Coccothraustinnj,  the  sub-family  of  gros- 
beaks, 505. 

Coccus  cacti,  the  cochineal  insect,  703. 

Coccus  lacca,  798. 

Coccystes  glandarius,  spotted  cuckoo,  515. 

Coccyzina?.  birds  of  the  cuckoo  family,  515. 

Cochin-China  monkey,  40, 

Cochineal  insect,  the,  798,  817. 

Cockatoo,  various  species  of,  including  the 
sulphur-crested,  the  galeated,  &c.,  523 
ct  seq. 

Cockatoos,  the  true,  cacatuinoe,  523. 

Cockchafer,  the  melolontha  vulgaris,  822. 

Cockle,  the  common  edible,  737. 

Cock-of-thc-rock,  rupicola  aurantia,  a  species 
of  nianakin,  349 

Cockroach,  the  common,  803. 

Cock's-comb  oyster,  the,  733. 

Cocktails,  the  aleetrurina,  463. 

Cocktails,  coleopterous  insects,  823. 

Cod  family,  or  gadidte,  698. 

Cod-fish,  the,  morrhua  vulgaris.  693. 

Coectliidae,  a  family  of  apodous  batrachia,  663. 

Coecum,  the,  7. 

Coleoptera,  or  beetles,  divided  into  trimera, 
letramera,  pentamera,  and  heteromera,  S20 
et  seq. 

Coliidse,  or  colies,  a  family  of  conirostral  birds, 
489. 

Collared  white-eyelid  monkev,  44. 

Collared  ai,  203. 

Collocalia  esculenta,  the  esculent  swallow, 
producing  the  edible  birds'-nests  of  China, 
431. 

Colobus,  a  genus  of  African  monkeys,  4 1 . 

Colon,  the,  9. 

Colorado  beetle,  the,  819. 

Colossochelys  atlas,  a  gigantic  fossil  species 
of  tortoise,  GOG. 

Colour  of  negroes,  6. 

Culnber  teaculapii,  the  ^sculapian  snake, 
635. 

Coluber  constrictor,  the  black  snake,  636. 

Coluber  elaphis,  a  species  of  snake,  635. 

Coluber  natrii,  the  British  ringed  snake, 
633. 

Colubrida?,  the  common  harmless  snakes,  633. 

Colubrina,  or  colubrine  snake?,  629. 

Culumba  tcnas,  the  stock-dove ;  eolumba 
p.ilumbas,  the  ring-dove,  or  cushat;  eol- 
umba turtur,  the  turtle-dove ;  eolumba 
livia,  the  rock-dove,  various  other  species, 
532  et  seq. 

Columba^,  the  doves,' an  order  of  birds,  in- 
cluding pigeons,  the  dodo,  &c.,  532  et  seq. 

Columbida?,  oi  true  pigeons  ;  chai'acteristics, 
habits,  &c.,  of  the,  533. 

Colugo,  the,  64. 

Colymbida;,  the  divers,  a  family  of  natorial 
birds,  591. 

Colymbinir,  a  sub-family,  or  true  divers,  393. 

Ci)lymbus  glacialis,  the  great  northern  diver, 
593. 

Comatutida?,  a  family  of  crinoidca,  '31. 

Cocnb  of  the  hive-bee,  819. 

Condor,  sarcorhamphus  gryph'is,  410. 

Condylura,  a  genus  of  moles,  81. 

Conidfc,  a  family  of  gasteropads,  752. 

Conirostres,  a  sub-order  of  passerine  birds, 
divided  into  cij^ht  families,  4SG. 

ConopidiD,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 

Constrictor,  the  boa,  636. 

Conurus  caroUnensis,  or  Carolina  parroquet, 

525. 
Coot,  the,  fulica  atra,  565. 
Copepoda,  an  order  of  crustacea,  778, 
Coppers,  the  (butterflies),  815. 
Coracidae,  or  rollers,  a  family  of  fissiroslral 

birds,  &c.,  438  el  seq. 
Corallium  rubrum,  a  species  of  asteroida,  826. 
Ciral-reefs,  production  of,  827. 
Curdylophora  lacustris,a  species  of  hydroidtc, 

Curcodca,  a  group  of  bugs,  800. 

Cormonmt,  the  European,  595. 

Cormorant,  the  fishing,  506. 

Cormorants,  various  species  of,  525  ct  seq. 

Corn-crake,  the,  566. 

Cornea  of  the  eye,  10. 

Cornish  chouch,  494. 

Cum- weevil,  the,  calan'dra  granaria,  821. 

Corvido;,   or  crows,  a  family  of  conirostral 

birds,  489  et  seq. 
Corvinrc,  the  true  crows,  489. 
Corvus,  species  of;    C.   coronr*,  the  carrii>n 

crow ;  C,  splcndcns,  the  Indian  crow ;  C. 


corax,  the  raven;  C.  comix,  the  hooded 

crow;  C.  frugilegus,  the  rook;  C.  mone- 

duh,  the  jackdaw,  489  et  seq. 
Corvmorpha  nutans,  a  species  of  hydroidto, 
825. 
CorynidsB,  a  sub-family  of  the  hydroidfp,  825, 
Coryphrona  hippurus,  the  dorado,  700. 
Coryphnenidii ,  a  family    of    acauthoptcrous 

fishes,  709. 
C^ryphiuni  longicorne,  a  species  of  Crustacea, 

779. 
Corythaix,  a  genus  of  conirostral  birds,  the 

touracos,  487. 
Cottus,  a  genus  offish,  the  bull-heads,  703. 
Coturnix,  dactylisonans,  the  common  quail, 

548. 
Couroucous,  or  trogonidaj,  a  family  of  fissi- 

rostral  birds,  43G. 
Coursers,  the  cursonnaa,  a  sub-family  of  plo- 
vers, 578. 
Couscous,  or  cuscus,  a  species  of  phalanges, 

361. 
Couxio  or  jacketed  monkey,  53. 
Cow-bird,    the,    or    American    yellow-billed 

cuckoo,  501. 
Cow-pen  bird,  molothrus  pecoris,  a  species  of 

starling,  461. 
Cowry,  or  cowrie-shells,  752. 
Ci)w-troopials,  501. 
Coypu,  the,  myopotamus  coypu,  183. 
Crab,  the  calling,  786. 

Crab,  the  common  edible,  cancer  pagurus,  7S4. 
Crab,  the  hermit,  783. 
Crab,  the  king,  or  Molucca,  783. 
Crab,  the  land,  gegarcmus,  785. 
Crab,  the  pea,  pinnotheres,  785. 
Crab,  the  porcelain,  783. 
Crab,  the  small    common,  carcinus    mcenas, 

785. 
Crab,  the  spider,  784. 
CracidiB,  or  curassow  family,  rasoriol  birds, 

553. 
Crake,  the  corn,  cres  pratensis,  566. 
Crane,  the  crowned,  535. 
Crane,  the  Numidian,  or  demoiselle,  585. 
Cranes,  or  gruida;,  various  species  of,  584. 
Crangonidfc,  a  family  of  macrurous  decapods, 

including  shrimps  and  prawns,  782. 
CraniidiB,  a  group  of  mollusca,  742. 
Cranium  or  skull  of  vertebrated  animals,  3,  4. 
Crax  alector,  the   common  cutSssow  ;   eras 

rubra,  the  red  curassow;  and  crax  globi- 

cera ;  rasorial  birds,  558. 
Cray-fish,  the,  775,  782. 
Creeper,  the  brown  ;   foot,  wing,  head  and 

tail  of  the  ;  the  wall,  tichodroma  muraria, 

441  et  seq. 
Creepers,  or  certhid(e,  a  family  of  tenuiros- 

tral  birds,  441,444. 
Creseis  subulata,  a  pteropodous  mollusc,  731. 
Crested  seal,  I'iO. 

Crex  pratensis,  the  corn-crake,  566. 
Cricetus  vulgaris,  the  common  hamster,  180. 
Cricket,  the  common,  acheta  domcstica,  802. 
Cricket,  tlie  field,  acheta  campestris,  802. 
Cricket,  the  mole,  gryllotalpa  vulgaris,  802. 
Crinoidea,  or  sea-lUies,  an  order  of  the  echino- 

dermata,  831. 
Cristaiella,  a  species  of  bryozous  molluscoids, 

728. 
Crocodiles,  anatomy,  &c.,  of,  657  et  seq. 
Crocodiles,  Dr.  Gray's  remarks  on  distinguish- 
ing various  species  of,  G59. 
Crocodilus  vulgaris,  the  Nilotic  crocodile,  &c., 

659. 
Crop  of  rasorial  birds,  541. 
Cross-bill,  the  common,  parrot  and  white- 
winged,  511,  512. 
Cross-bills,  the,  or  loxina?,  511. 
Crotalidto,  the  family  of  rattlesnakes,  627. 
Ciotalus  horridus,  the  rattlesnake,  627. 
Crotophagina?,  or  anis,  a  sub-family  of  the 

cuckoo?,  515. 
Crow-blackbird,  the  quiscalus  versicolor,  a 

species  of  starling,  500. 
Crows,  or  corvidEO,  489  ct  seq. 
Crow,  the  Alpine,  a  species  of  chough,  494. 
Crow,  the  carrion,  corvus  corone ;  the  Indian, 

corvus  splendens;  the  hooded,  corvus  cor- 

nix,  491. 
t  I'ow,  the  king,  a  species  of  chatterer,  457. 
Crow,  the  New  Zealand,  callxas  cinerea.  401 . 
Crows,  the  piping,  or  streperintc,  489. 
Crows,  the  true,  corvinm,  491  et  seq. 
Crows,  the  fruit,  a  species  of  chatterer,  457. 
Ciows,  the  tree,  491. 

Crustacea,  a  class  of  true  articulata,  774  etseq. 
Crustacea,  circulatory  and  respiratory  organs, 

&c.,  of  the,  775. 
Crytoprocta,  the,  132. 
Cryt^talline  lens  of  the  eye,  10. 
Cteniztc,  a    kind  of   spider,  the    trap-door 

spider,  790. 
Ccenoid-scale  fishes  amongst   the    teleostia, 

630. 
Cteuophora,  a  class  of  radiala,  consists  of  one 

order,   including    two     families— viz.,   the 

bcroido;  and  callianiridce,  829. 
Cuckoo  family,  the  cucuhda),  ^3. 
Cuckoo-fly,  a  hymeno[>tcrous  insect,  202. 
Cuclvoo-spit,  cause  uf,  799. 
Cuckoo,  the  American  yellow-billed,  or  cow- 
bird,  coccyzus  americanus,  515. 
Cuckoo,  the  ground,  saurotherinto,  516. 
Cuckoo,  the  pheasant,  or  lark-heeled,  516. 
Cuckoo,  the  song  ;  habits,  &c.,  of  the,  cuculus 

canorus,  513. 
Cuckoo,  the  spotted,    coccystes    glandarius, 

Cuculidae,  the  cuckoos,  a  family  of  scansorial 

birds,  513. 
Cuculina?,  the  true  cuckoos,  j15. 
Cuculus  canorus,  common  cuckoo,  5l3. 


Cud,  chewinff  of  the,  216. 

Culcx  pipiens,  the  common  gnat,  810. 

Culicidif,  the  gnata,  810. 

Cuniculus,  the  rabbit,  199. 

Cup-corals,  or  cyathophyllidsB,  827. 

Curassow,  the,  crax,  558. 

Curassow,  the  red,  crax  rubra,  558. 

Curlew,  the  land  or  stone  (see  Thick-knco). 

Curlew,  the,  numcnius  arquata,  567. 

Curruca,  species  of,  C.  atricapilla,  the  black- 
cap ;  C.  hortensis,  the  garden  warbler ;  C. 
cinerea,  the  white-throat  ;  C.  BylvielU,  iho 
lesser  white-throat,  483  et  seq. 

Carsoros,  an  order  of  runninfc  birds,  includ- 
ing the  ostriches,  &c.,  559  et  aeq. 

Cursorial  birds,  or  cursorcs,  characteristics, 
Fkeleton,  plumage,  &c.,  of,  559  et  seq. 

Cursorius  eijropa'us,  the  crcam-colourcd  or 
European  courser,  578. 

Cuscus,  or  cousous,  a  species  of  phalanger,  361. 

Cushat,  or  ring-dove,  the  eolumba  palumbuHi 

Cuticle,  and  cutis,  the,  6. 

Cuttle-fish,  the  common,  sepia  officinalis,  7GG. 

761. 
Cyauuda",  or  whale-Hce,  a  family  ofcdriop- 

thalmata,  779. 
Cyathophyllid:!?,  or   cup-corals,  a  family  of 

helianthoida,  R27. 
Cyclifera,  a  group  of  ganoid  fish,  716. 
Cyclobrauchiata,  a  group  of  gasteropods,  74G. 
Cycloid-scale  fishes  amongst  the  teleostia,  680. 
Cyclometopa,  or  canceridro,  a  family  of  bra- 

chyurous  decapods  (crabs)  784  et  srq. 
C  velopidfp,  a  family  of  copepoda,  778. 
Cyclopterus  lumpus,  the  lump  (i  ,h,  712. 
Cyclostomata,  an  order  of  (i-hes,  having  two 

famiUes,  the  myxinidoj  andpetromyzonido), 

Cyclostomidfo,  a  family  of  operculated  pul- 
moniferous  gasteropods.  "54. 

Cydippe,  a  genus  of  me<lus:e,  830, 

Cygiiinfc,  the  sub-familv  of  swans,  611. 

Cygnus,  atratus,  the  bla'ck  swan,  GH. 

Cygnus  bewickii,  a  species  of  swan.  013. 

Cygnus  ferus,  the  hooping  swan,  012. 

Cygnus  immutabilis,  the  I'olish  swan,  611. 

Cygnus  olor,  the  tame  swan,  613. 

Cymindis,  an  eagle,  390. 

Cymothoidae,  a  family  of  isopoda,  780. 

Cynailurus  jubatus,  the  cheetah,  or  hunting- 
leopard,  119. 

Cynictis,  the,  134. 

Cynips  insana ;  C.  quercus  ifolii ;  C,  tormin- 
alis  ;  and  C.  galla)  tinctoria  ;  species  of  hy- 
menoptera, 817. 

Cynocephalus,  a  genus  of  monkeys,  .the  ba- 
boons, 46. 

Cynomorphous  monkeys,  38  ct  seq. 

Cvnthia  cardui,  the  painted  lady-but'.erflr, 
815. 

Cypra?a  raoneta,  th*  money-cowry,  752. 

Cypraea  tigris,  a  species  of  gasieropods,  752. 

Cypr^idaj,  a  family  of  gasteropois,  "52. 

Cypridte,  a  family  of  ostracoda,  778. 

Cyprinidte,  the  family  of  carps,  691. 

Cyprlnus  auratus,  a  species  of  cyprimdfc,  the 
gold  and  silver  fish,  694. 

Cyprinus  carpio,  the  common  carp,  694. 

Cypselida3,  a  lamily  of  birds,  the  swifts,  vari- 
ous species,  429  et  seq. 

Cypselus  apus,  the  common  swift,  430. 

Cystic  worms  (cestoidea),  7G3. 

Cystophora,  proboscidca,  the  bottle-nosed 
seal,  or  sea-elephant ;  C.  cristata,  the 
hooded  seal  (see  Seals). 

Cytherea  spinosa,  a  species  of  mollusc,  732, 
738. 


D.4E,  a  fish,  C99. 

Dabchick,  or  little  grebe,  593. 

Dace,  the  leuciscus  vulgaris  69C. 

Daceio  giga-«,  a  species  of  kingfisher,  433. 

Daetyloptera,  mcditerranca,a  species  of  spiny 
fishes,  703. 

Daddy-long-legs,  the,  tipula,  809. 

Dama,  the  fallow-deer,  239. 

Daman,  or  hyrax,  320. 

Danais  plexippa,  a  lepidopterous  insect,  814. 

Dapediidaj,  a  familv  of  ganoid  fishes.  717. 

Daphniada?,  a  family  of  ostr^^da,  773. 

Darters,  the,  plotinro,  a  sub^family  of  nata- 
torial birds,  598. 

Dartford  warbler,  484. 

Dasypodidic,  the  armadillos,  207  et  seq. 

Dasvprocta,  a  genus  of  rodents,  the  igoutis, 
Id^ct  seq. 

Dasypus  cinctus,  the  cabassou  ;  D.  gigas,  the 
great  armadillo,  or  tatu  ;  D.  minutus,  207 
et  seq. 

Dasyurida?,  or  dasyures,  a  family  of  marsu- 
pial animals,  306. 

Dasyurus  ursinus,  the  "devil,"  a  species  of 
marsupial  animal,  367. 

Day-flies,  or  May-flies,  a  species  of  n-urop- 
tera,  805.  ,  ,  .  . 

Dead  se'-applos,  a  result  of  the  puncture  or 
an  insect,  the  cynips  insana,  818. 

Death's-head  moth,  the,  813. 

Dciili-watch,  the,  a  neuroplerous  insect,  805, 

Death-watch,  the,  anobium  striatum,  820 

Decapoda,  an  order  of  Crustacea,  includinir 
the  sub-orders  macrura,  anomura,  auv. 
brachvura,  781.  .  .       , 

Decapoda,  -i  section  of  dibrauchiated  cepha- 
lopoda, 760. 

Dcciduou-  teeth,  4,  5. 

D^er,  or  cervidtc,  a  family  of  ruminantia,  235 
et  seq. 

Deer,  musk.  271  f(  .v*/. 

Deer,  speciin.>n3  of,  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
Loudon,  247. 


840 

Deilephila  elpenor,  the  elephant  hawk-moth, 
814. 

Delphinidic,  or  dolphins,  315,  SiO. 

Dilpliinus  dc'lphia,  the  common  dolphin,  316. 

Dclundun^,  the,  131. 

Demoiselles,  or  dragon-flies,  804. 

Demoiselles,  or  Numidian  cranes,  585. 

Dcndrolagus,  the  tree  kangaroos,  359. 

Beutalirtsc,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  the  com- 
mon tooth-shells,  74G. 

Dentirostros,  a  sub-order  of  paesserine  Dirds, 
general  characters  of  the,  454  et  scrj. 

Dentition,  see  also  Teeth. 

Dentition  of  carnivora,  85. 

Dentition  of  felidcc,  109. 

Dentition  of  gibbons,  34. 

Dentition  of  man,  &c.,  4,  5. 

Dentition  of  monkeys,  38. 

Dermestes  lardarius,  823. 

Dermestida?,  a  family  of  coleoptera,  823. 

Desmans,  or  musk-rats,  70. 

Devil's  coach-horses,  823. 

Diamond-beetle,  the,  curculio  imperialis, 
822. 

Diana  monkey,  the,  43. 

Diaphragm  of  mammalia,  2  efseq. 

Dibranciiiata,  an  order  of  cephalopoda, 
divided  into  decapoda  and  octopoda,  760. 

Dicholcstidtc,  a  family  of  parasita,  778. 

Dicnylcs,  the  peccavy,  326. 

Dieru'rinje,  or  drongo  shrikes,  a  sub-family 
of  the  chatterers,  457. 

Dicrurus  niacrocercus.  the  king-crow,  a 
species  of  chatterer,  457. 

Dicrurus  paradiseus,  the  kuzar  dustan  of  the 
Hindoos,  457. 

Diclyoptera,  a  sub-order  of  neuropterous 
insects,  804 

Didelphidic,  or  opossums,  a  family  of  mar- 
supial mammals,  3G3. 

Didelphys  caucrivora.  the  crab-eatmg  opos- 
sum ;  D.  Virginia,  the  Virginian  opossum, 
363  et  scg. 

Diciida;,  the  dodo,  a  family  of  columbcc, 
533 

Didunculidffi,  a  family  of  the  columbto,  or 
doves,  633. 

Didunculus  strigirostris,  633. 

Didus  ineptus,  the  extinct  dodo  ;  didus  soU- 
tarius,  the  solitaire;  didus  nazarenus,  a 
bird  resembling  the  dodo,  633  et  seQ. 

Difflugia,  agenus  of  rhizopoda,  833. 

Digestive  apparatus  of  birds,  the  common 
fowl,  375. 

Digestive  organs  of  fishes,  G78. 

Digestive  organs  of  insects,  796. 

Digestive  organs  of  man,  9. 

Digestive  organs  of  birds,  375,  541. 

Digitigrada,  a  section  of  tlie  cavnivora,  em- 
bracing the  dogs,  fox,  lion,  &c.,  86. 

Dimerosomata,  an  order  of  pulmonary  arach- 
nida,  including  the  spider  tribe,  789 

DinobryidtE,  a  f.iniily  of  infusoria,  834. 

DinornidEe,  a  family  of  extinct  birds,  502. 

Dinornis  giganteus,  ormoa,  a  gigantic  extinct 
bird  of  tlie  cursores  of  New  Zealand,  662. 

Dinotherium,  the,  an  extinct  cetaceous 
animal,  333. 

Dindon,  a  genus  of  plectognathous  fish,  714. 

Diomedea  exulans,  the  albatross,  602. 

Dipioptera,  a  tribe  of  hymenopterous  insects, 
818. 

Diplozoon  paradoxum,  a  species  of  trematoda, 
769. 

Dipodidte,  or  jerboas,  172. 

Dipper,  the,  or  water-ouzel,  469. 

Dipsadidae,  a  family  of  colubrine  snakes,  633. 

Dipteva,  divided  into  three  sub-oiders  of  in- 
sects, including  flies,  &c.,  the  pupipara, 
brachycera,  and  nemocera,  807. 

Dipiera,  structure  and  characteristics  of  the, 
807,  808. 

DipteridlB,   a  family  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes, 

'I'-  c  ■     ^ 

Dipus  monotarsus,  a  species  of  jerboa ;  D. 

ffieyptius,  the  Egyptian  jerboa,  172  et  seq. 
Disco'phora,  a  class  of  the  radiata,    828. 
DisMphora,  orders  of  (seeMedus!e),828. 
Distomidac,  a  family  of  trematoda,  769. 
Distribution  of  animals  and  plants,  14. 
Diurnal  Icpidoptera,  the  rhopalocera,  814. 
Diurnal,  raptorial  birds,  379  et  seq. 
Diver,  the  great  northern,  colymbus  glacialis, 

593. 
Divers,  or  colymbidcc,  591. 
Djiffgetai,  the,  equus  liemionus,  293. 
Dodo,  the,  didus  ineptus,  an  extinct  bird  of 

the  dove  kind,  533. 
Dog,  generally,  see  name  of  each. 
Dog  and  wolf,  hybrid  of,  90. 
Dog,  .Australian,  or  dingo,  91. 
Dog-fish,  egg-case  and  young  of  the,  719. 
Do^'-lishes,  or  scyllidEC,  a  family  of  selachia, 

720. 
Dog-nosed  monkeys,  or  cynomorpha,  38. 
Dog,  Cape  hunting,  lycaon  pictus,  a  species 

of  fox,  108. 
Dog,  domestic,  canis  familiaris,  83  et  seq. 
Dog,  penny,  or  miller's,  a  species  of  shark, 

galeus  vulgaris  (see  Sharks). 
Dog,  prairie,  arctomys  ludovicianus,  170. 
Dog,  ray-mouthed,  a  species  of  shark  muste- 

lus  laj'vis  (see  Sllarks). 
Dogs,  or  canidce,  88  et  seq. 
Dog,  origin  of,  89,  90,  91. 
Dogs,  wild,  90. 

Dolphin,  the  common,  delphinus  delphis,  346. 
Dolphin,  the  Gangetic,  or  soosook,  platanista 

gangetica,  346. 
Dolphins,  or  delphinidre,  a  family  of  cctacca. 

345,  346. 
Dorado,  the,  or  dolphin,  corypbo-'naliippurus, 

709. 


INDEX. 


Dorcas  gazelle,  the,  2i9. 

Doree,  or  John-dory,  Z'.'us  faber,  a  fish  of  the 

mackerel  funnly,  707. 
Dorids,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  745. 
Dormice,  or  myoxidre,  171  et  seq. 
Dormouse,  mvosus  avellanarius,  172. 
Dorsal  fins  of'fishes,  G81. 
Dorsal  vertebra,  2,  ct  teq. 
Douc,    or  duk,    the   Cochin-china  monkey, 

Douroricouli,  a  species  of  monkey,  51. 
Doves  ;    head,  skin,   gizzard,   feathers,   and 

other  characteristics  of  the  order,  532. 
Doves,  or  pigeons,   various  species  of,  532 

et  seq. 
Draco,  volans,  the  flying  dragon,  a  species  of 

lizard,  64S. 
Dragonets,  callionymus,  a  genus  of  acanthop- 

terous  fish,  712. 
Dragon-flies,  transformation  of  the,  806. 
Dragon-fiy,  illustration  of  the,  804. 
Dragon-fly,  the  larva  of  the,  fHOG. 
Dragon,  tiie  flying,  draco  volans,  a  species  of 

lizard,  64S. 
Dreissena  polymorpha,  a  species  of  mollusc, 

735. 
Drill,  the,  47. 

Dromaius  nova:!  hollandiEB,  the  emeu,  5G1. 
Dromcd.uy,  camelus  dromedarius,  218. 
Droniiida?,  a  family  of  anomurous  decapods, 

784. 
Drone  bee,  the,  820. 
Drongo  shrikes,  the,  457. 
Drum,  or  tympaum  of  the  ear,  11. 
Drummer,  blatta  gigantca,  803. 
Dryobates   major,  the   spotted  woodpecker, 

519. 
Duck,  catching  the  wild,  608. 
Duck,  family,  or  anatidie,  various  species  of, 

604. 
Duck,  the  canvas-backed,  606. 
Duck,  common,  608. 
Duck,  eider,  somateria,  mollissima,  607, 
Duck,  gargarney,  GU. 
Duck,  king,  somateria  spectabilis,  607, 
Duck,  the  mandarin,  611. 
Duck,  long-tailed,  606. 
Duck,  piu-tail'ed,  6U9. 
Duck,  the  wild,  anas  boschas,  603. 
Dugong,  skeleton  of  the,  339. 
Dugong,  the,* ..alicore  cetacea,  349. 
DLing-beetles,  788,  822. 
Duodenum,  the,  9. 
Dusky  paca,  194. 
Dynastes    hercules,    a    coleopterous    insect, 

823. 
Dytiscus  marginalis,  or  great  water-beetle, 

823. 


Eagle,  golden,  aquila  cbrysaetos,  &'^.,  379. 

Eagles,  Pondieherry,  and  harpy,  379  et  seq. 

Eagle,  owl,  415. 

Eagle,  the  Bateteur,  412. 

Ears  of  birds,  12,  376. 

Ears  of  crustacen,  775. 

Ears  of  fishes,  678. 

Ears  of  mammalia,  11. 

Ears  of  man  12. 

Ears  of  moles,  74. 

En-sof  owls,  412. 

Ears  of  vertcbrata,  11. 

Earth-wolf,  or  aardwolf,  136. 

Earth-worm,  a  species  of  annelidoB,  771. 

Earwig,  the,  804. 

Echidna  hystrix,  and    E.  setosa,  species  of 

porcupine-eaters,  355. 
EchidnidtD,  a  family  of  aplaceutal  mammals, 

the  porcupine-eaters,  355. 
Echinida,  families  of;    sea-urchins,  embrac- 
ing  cidarid^,    clyncastrida?,    cassidulidte, 

and  spatangida?,  831. 
Ecbinodermata,  a   cCass  of  radiata,  divided 

into  four  orders— viz.,  the  crinoidea,  stcl- 

lerida,  echinida,  and  holotburida,  830. 
Echinoinys,  a  genus  of  sanrt-i-ats,  185. 
Echinus,  anatomy  of  the,  830,' 
Ectopistes  migratorius,  the  passenger  pigeon, 

539. 
Edentata,  an  order  of  mammalia,  embracing 

the  armadillo.^,  ant-eaters,  sloths,  &c.,  201 

et  f^eq. 
Edentala,  insectivorous,  207  et  seq. 
Edriopbthabnata,    a  sub-class  of  Crustacea, 

with  orders  leemodipoda,  amphipoda,  and 

isopoda,  779. 
Eel-pout,  or  burbot,  a    species  of  spineless 

fish, 698. 
Eel,  the  conger,  6S2. 
Eel,  the  electrical,  682. 
Eels  from  paste,  anguillulidEe,  770. 
Eels,   the  common    edible,    the  miu'cenidce, 

681. 
Eggs  and  embryo  of  birds,  37G,  377. 
Egyptian  cat,  121. 
Egyptian  fox,  105. 

Eider-down  and  the  eider-ducli,  G07. 
Eland,  the,  boselaphus  oreas,  25G. 
Elaphus    or    cervus,    the     stag    tribe,    242 

et  seq. 
Elapidae,  a  family  of  colubrine  snakes,  629. 
Elateridse,  a  family  of  coleoptera,  821. 
Electrical  eel,  the  gymnotus  elcctri'  us,  682. 
Electrical  organs  of  the  torpedo,  723. 
Eli'Ctric  rays,  or  torpedinidcc,  723. 
Elephant  hawk-moth,  the,  813. 
Elephant,  trunk  of  the  Indian,  306. 
Elephantidse,  or  elephants,  a  lamily  of  thick- 
skinned  animals,  304  et  seq. 
Elephant's  tooth,  a  species  of  gasleropod,  the 

dcntaliura  entalis,  74G. 
Elephants,  the   Indian  and  African,   304  ct 
I      seq.  ;  white  311. 


Elephant-seal  or  bottle-nose,  IGl. 

Elephas  indicus  and  E.  at'ricanus,  the  Indian 
and  African  elephants,  304  et  seq. 

Elephas  primigenius,  the  mammoth,  313. 

Elk,  or  raoosedeor,  236,  and  the  Irish,  240. 

Elytra  of  insects,  795. 

Elytra,  the  horny  wing  of  the  coleoptera,  or 
beetles,  820. 

Eraberiza  miliaria,  the  corn  bunting ;  em- 
beriza  hortulana,  the  ortolan,  509. 

Emberizinae,  or  buntings,  509. 

Emeu,  dromaius  novcD  boUandice,  561. 

Empidae,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 

Emydidffi,  a  family  of  the  turtles,  664  . 

Enaliosauria,  a  group  of  fossil  reptiles,  650. 

Enallostegidffi,  a  family  of  rhizopoda.  833, 

Enchelina,  a  sub-family  of  infusoria,  835. 

Encrinidce,  or  sea-lilies,  a  family  of  ecbi- 
nodermata, 831. 

English  hound,  the,  97. 

Engraulis  encrasicolus,  the  common  anchovy, 
GSG. 

Enhydra  lutris,  the  sea  otter,  145. 

Entellus,  or  sacred  monkey,  39. 

Entomophaga,  a  tribe  of  hymenoptera,  818. 

Entomostraca,  a  sub-class  of  Crustacea, 
776,777. 

Entozoa,  or  internal  parasitic  verme.=!,  769. 

l^peira  diadema,  the  garden  spider,  "89. 

Ephemera  vulgata,  the  May-fiy,  808. 

EphemeridaJ,  neuropterous  insects,  805. 

Epidermis,  the,  6. 

Epimacbus,  a  genus  of  tenuirostral  birds, 
resembling,  in  plumage,  the  birds  of  para- 
dise, 453. 

Epistyiis  nutans,  a  genus  of  vorticellidae,  835. 

Equida?,  the  horse  family,  or  solidungula, 
various  species,  291. 

Equus  asinus,  the  ass,  291. 

Equus  caballus,  the  horse,  291  ef  seq. 

Equus  hemionus,  the  djiu'setai,  298. 

P^quus  zebra,  the  zebra,  300, 

Erinaceiiis,  or  hedgehogs,  the  75,  82. 

Erinaceus,  europceus,  the  common  hedgehog, 
82. 

Eriomys  laniger,  the  chinchilla,  190. 

Ermine,  or  stoat,  the,  136. 

Errantia,  an  order  of  annelida,  having  the 
following  families — viz.,  arenicoUdte,  aph- 
roditidaj,  nercidEe,  eunicid^,  peripatidae, 
and  polyophthalmida?,  771  et  seq. 

Erythacin®,  the  robins,  478  et  seq. 

Erythacus  rubecula,  the  robin-redbreast,  478. 

Eryx,  a  genus  of  snakes,  639. 

Esocida3,  the  family  of  pikes,  693. 

Esox  lucius,  the  common  pike,  693. 

Esquimaux,  the,  17. 

Esquimaux  dog,  92,  93. 

Ethnology  as  a  science,  15. 

Englena,  a  genus  of  infusoria,  834. 

Euglypba,  a  genus  of  rhizopoda,  833. 

Eunice,  a  genus  of  annelida,  770. 

Euuicida>,  a  family  of  errantia,  772. 

European  wolf,  102. 

Euryalidce,  a  family  of  stellerida,  831. 

Eurybia,  gaudichaudii,  a  species  of  pteropo- 
dous  mollusc,  743. 

Eurvlaiminae,  a  sub-family  of  fissirostral  birds, 
432. 

Eustachian  tube  of  the  ear,  11. 

Evaniidse,  a  family  of  hymenoptera,  818. 

Excretions,  animal,  10. 

ExocoGtus  exiliens,  &c.,  the  flying-fishes,  701. 

Eyes  of  birds,  11,  12,  376. 

Eyes  of  felida,  HI. 

Eyes  of  fishes,  678. 

Eyes  of  insects,  11,  793. 

Eyes  of  mammalia,  11.  "', 

Eyes  of  man,  10. 

Eyes  of  moles,  74. 

Eyes  of  reptiles,  624. 


Face,  and  facial  angle,  3,  4. 

Ealco  peregrinus,  the  peregrine  falcon;  F. 
gyr-falco,  the  gyr,  jer,  or  Iceland  falcon ; 
F.  subbuteo,  or  hobby ;  F.  a^salon,  ^the 
merlin;  F.  vcspertlnus,  the  red-legged  fal- 
con ;  F.  tinnunculus,  the  kestrel ;  F.  pere- 
grinator,  the  sultan  falcon,  or  shahecn ; 
F.  juggur,  the  luggur  or  juggur;  and 
F.  lanaiius,  the  lanner,  393  et  seq. 

Falcon,  the  peregrine,  393. 

Falconidco,  or  hawks,  a  family  of  diurnal 
raptorial  birds,  379  et  seq.,  303. 

Falcouina?,  the  true  falcons,  393. 

Falconry,  395. 

Falcons,  the  true,  or  noble,  falconinae,  various 
species  of,  393  et  seq. 

Fallow-deer,  239. 

Families,  definition  of  the  term,  2  et  seq. 

Fangs  of  venomous  snakes,  622. 

Fat  vesicles,  7. 

Feather,  anatomy,  &c.,  of  a  bird's,  371  et  seq. 

Feet  and  toes  of  birds;  the  falcon,  bustard, 
parrot,  gannet,  and  fowl,  374. 

Feet  of  banxiing,  84. 

Feet  of  camel,  219. 

Feet  of  llama,  223. 

Feet  of  mammalia,  2  et  seq. 

Feet  of  oxen,  269. 

Feet  of  reindeer,  233. 

Foet  of  shrews,  7  4. 

Keet  of  water-birds,  5S8. 

Fclida;,  or    cats,  a  family  of  carnlvoia,  era- 
bracing  the  lion,  tiger,  &c.,  85,  109,  ct  scg. 
116. 

Fehs  tigris,  the  tiger ;  F.  Icopardus,  the 
leopard  ;  F.  onca,  the  jaguar  ;  F.  concolor, 
the  puuia  ;  F.  catus,  iho  Biiiish  wild  cat  ; 
F.  maniculata,  the  Nubian  wild  cat;  F. 
caracal,  the  caracal ;  F.  scrval,  the  scrval ; 
F.  chaus,  the  chaus,  &c.,  116  et  seq. 


Femur,  or  thigh-bone,  the,  2,  S. 

Fennec,  the  megalotis,  a  species  of  fox,  107. 

Fern-owl,  or  nightjar,  420. 

Ferret,  the,  mustela  furo,  136. 

Fibrine,  7. 

Fibula  of  the  leg,  2,  3. 

Fieldfare,  the  turdus  pilaris,  467. 

Field  mouse,  the,  178. 

Filaria  medineusis,  a  epecies   of  nematoidea, 

770. 
Finches  ;    foot,      wing,  head,    and    general 

characteristics  of  the,  502. 
Finches,  the  true,  506. 
Finch-larks,  the,  pyrrhulaudee,  510. 
Fin-fish,  or  rorqual,  a  species  of  whale,  343. 
Fingers,  phalanges  of  the,  2,  3. 
Fins  of  fishes,  677  et  seq. 
Fire-flies,  799. 
Firolidaj,  a  family  of  heteropodus  molluscs, 

745. 
Fishes,  characters  of  the  class,  including  their 

organs,    locomotion,  nervous,  respiratory, 

and    circulating    systems,  &c.     (see    also 

names  of  each),  676  et  seq. 
Fish,   gold  and    silver,  cyprinus  auratus,    a 

species  of  cyprinidfe,  or  carp,  694. 
Fish-hawk,  or  osprey,  the,  384. 
Fishing-frog,    the  angler,  or  sea-devil;   the 

lophius  piscatorius,  713. 
Fishes,  locomotion  of,  14. 
Fissirostres,  a  sub-order  of  passerine  birds, 

having  a    large    gape,    usually    furnished 

with  bristles,  419  et  seq. 
Fissirostres  nocturnae,  a  name  given  to  the 

goat-suckers,  420. 
Fissurellida?,  »family  of  gasteropoti=,  748. 
Flamingoes,  or  pbcenicopterinee,  618. 
Flat-fishes,  or  pleuronectidce,  699, 
Flea,  pulex  irritans,  the  common,  807. 
Flesh-fly,  the,  a  dipterous  insect,  803. 
Flounder,  the,  platessa  flesus,  699. 
Fluke,  dlstoma  hepaticum,  7G9. 
Flustra^,  or  sea-mats,  728. 
Flycatchers,  or  muscicapida?,  various  species 

of,  460  et  seq. 
Flying-fish,  the,  a  species  of  triglidae,  703. 
Flying-fish,  the,  exoccetus,  a  genus  of  mala- 

copterygious  fish,  701. 
Fly,  flc>h,  a  dipterous  insect,  808. 
Fly,  house,  a  dipterous  insect,  808. 
Flying  lemur,  58,  64. 
Flying  phalangcr,  361. 
Flying  sqirrel,  168. 
Fcenus,  a  genus  of  hymenoptera,  820. 
Forficula,  the  earwig,  a  species  of  cursorial 

orthoptera,  804. 
Forficulina,  a  tribe  of  cursorial  .orthoptera, 

including  the  earwig,  804. 
Foot-jaws  of  the  crustacea,  775. 
Foot  of  the  felidiP.  109. 
Forest-fliea,  a  family  of  diptera,  SOS. 
Formicarinae,  or  ant-thrushes,  669. 
Fossil-lizard,  650. 
Fossil  marsupials,  367. 
Fossils  of  carnivora,  155,  156. 
Fossils  of  cetacea,  350. 
I  ossils  of  horse,  301. 
Fossils  of  pacbydermata,  333,  337. 
Fossils  of  quadrumana,  80. 
Fossoria,  a  tribe  of  hymenoptera,  81S. 
Fowl,  the  gallus  domesticus,  553. 
Fowl,  the  jungle,  gallus  baukivus,  553. 
Fox-hound,  the,  ^JG. 
Fux-shark,     ithc,    or     thresher,    carcharias 

vulpes,  721. 
Fox,  the  commc  .,  104;  Arctic,  106;  Cape,  &c. 

{see names  of  each),  104-108. 
Francolins,  franeolinus  vulgaris,  &c.,  a  genus 

of  grouse,  548. 
Fratercula  arctica,  the  puffin,  590. 
Fregilus  graculus,  cornish  cliough,  494. 
Friar-bird,  tropidorbyncbus  corniculatus,  449. 
Frigate-bird,  the,  tachypetes  aquilus,  597. 
Fringiila  ca-lebs,  the  chaftinch,  503. 
FiingillidcB,  or  finch  family,  502. 
Fringillina?,  the  true  finches,  506, 
Frog,  development  of  the,  674. 
Fiog-rains,  cause  of  supposed,  674. 
Frog,  the  bull,  rana  pipiens,  674. 
Frog,  the  edible,  rana  esculenta,  674. 
Frog,  the  fishing,  713. 
Frogs,  the  tree,  hylides,  674. 
Frontal  arch  of  vertebrated  animals,  2  et  seq. 
Fruit  crows,  the,  457. 
Fulgorina,  a  tribe  of  homoptera,  799. 
Fulica  atra,  the  coot,  565. 
Fuliguliiiic,  or  pochards,  606. 
Fulmar,  the,  fulmarus  glacialis,  604. 
Fuugije,  a  species  of  coral  polypi,  827. 
Fungida;,  a  family  of  helianthoida,.827, 
Furnariua?,  or  oven  birds,  445. 
Fur  of  some  mammalia,  6. 
Furzeling,  furze  wren,  or  Dartford  warbler, 

484. 


G.A,D-rLiES,  or  breeze-flies,  809. 

Gadidie,  a  f;imilv  of  spineless  fishes,  including 

the  cod-fish,  698. 
Galagos,  agenus  of  African  lemuroids,  62. 
Galaxiida?,  a  family  of  salmon-likc  fish,  692. 
G.ilbuUno3,  or  jacamars,  a  sub-family  of  the 

kingfishers,  434. 
Galcida;,  a  family  of  shark-like  fishes,  721. 
G  ik-opithecidas,  or  flying  lemurs,  33,  G4. 
Galeus  vulgaris,  the  tope,  a  species  of  shark, 

721. 
Gail-bladder,  the,  9. 
G.dl-bladder  of  fishes,  679. 
Gad-fly,  the,  cynips  quercu^-folii,  817. 
Gallico'la,  a  tribe  of  hymenoptera,  817. 
Gallinule,  galliuula  chloropus,  a  gridlatorial 

bird,  5G5. 


INDEX. 


G-illiwasp,  the  West  Indian,  oelestus  occi- 
duu!»,  ;i  species  of  lizard,  643, 

Gall-nuts  produed  on  the  oak.  &c.,  817. 

G.iUus  bankivu«,  the  jungle  fowl,  553. 
Callus  domcsticu^,  the  common  fowl,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  pheasant  familv,  5o3. 
Gamasidae,  a  family  of  acarina,  783. 

Gammarida?,  a  family  of  amphipod;^,  770. 

Gantjlia,  and  the  nervous  system  of  molluscs, 
725. 

Ganglia  of  the  nervous  syBtem  of  insects,  795. 

Ganuets,  the,  597. 

Ganoidea,  an  order  of  fishes,  divided  into  two 
sub-orders,  the  holostea  and  chrondrostea, 
715. 

Garangan,  the,  134. 

Garden  warbler,  483. 

Garfish,  or  sea-pike,  sea-needle,  a  malacop- 
terygious  fish,  701. 

Garrulincp,  or  jays,  a  sub-family  of  crow?,  490. 

Gastcrophilus  cqui,  a  dipterous  insect,  803. 

Gasteropoda,  a  class  of  niollusca,  di\1dcd  into 
two  sub-cLisscs,  the  heteropoda  and  gas- 
teropoda prop'?r,  713. 

Gasteropoda  proper,  a  sub-class  of  moUusca, 
divided  iuto  the  branchifera  and  pulmoni- 
fera,  745. 

Gasterosteus,  a  genus  of  fish,  the  stickleback, 
703. 

Gasterosteus  spinachia,  or  fiftcen-spiued 
stickleback,  703. 

Gastric  juice,  the,  9. 

Ga=tropacha  quercifolia,  the  oak-lappet  moth, 
813. 

Gavial,  or  Gangetic  crocodile,  660. 

Gayal,  282. 

Gazella  dorcas,  the  gazelle;  G.  euchore,  the 
springbok;  G.  pygarga,  the  bontcbok  ;  G. 
albifrons,  the  blesbok,  &c.,  249  ct  scq. 

Gecininre,  a  sub-family  of  woodpeckers,  516. 

Geckos,  the,  geckotid03,  a  family  of  pachy- 
glossal  liz  irds,  G16. 

Gecko  verus,  the  true  gecko,  646. 

Geese,  the  sub-family,  anserinio,  various  spe- 
cies of,  614  et  seq. 

Gegarcinus,  or  land  crab,  785. 

Gelasimi,  a  kind  of  land  crabs,  786. 

Gemmation,  a  process  of  propagation,  727. 

Gemmiparoits  zooids,  835. 

Gemmules  834. 

Genet,  genetta  vulgaris,  IJl. 

Genus  and  genera,  definition  of  the  terms,  1  et 
seq. 

Gecuies,  or  land  bugs,  800. 

Gcodephaga,  a  tribe  of  colooptcra,  820. 

Geophilidcc,  a  family  of  mynapoda,  791. 

Georhycidte,  the  mole-rat;  G.  capensis,  the 
Cape  mole-rats,  184. 

Geosaurus,  a  fosMl  lizard,  652. 

Geospiza,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  grosbeak 
kind,  505. 

Gooiiupidac,  a  family  ofcoleoptera,  821. 

Gephyrea,  a  proposed  order  of  annelida,  771. 

Gerbilles,  the,  or  merionides,  a  genus  of  ro- 
dents, 175. 

Gerres  rhoinbeus,  a  speeies  of  acanthoptcvous 
fish,  706. 

Geryonido?,  a  family  of  medusa;,  829. 

Gibbons,  the,  hylobates,  34. 

Gibbon,  agile,  36. 

Gibbon,  silvery,  36. 

Giblon,  white-handed,  36. 

Gills  of  fishes,  office  and  connection  of,  8,  6*8. 

Giraffe,  or  camelopard,  227. 

Giraffe,  skeleton  of,  217. 

Gizzard  of  birds,  375,  541. 

Glandular  organs,  6.  »i 

Glareola,  pratincola,  the  collared  pratincole, 
582. 

Glareolince,  the  pratincoles,  582. 

Gla^s-snake,  the,  643. 

Glaucus  lorsteri,  a  species  of  gasteropodous 
mollusc,  745. 

Glomeridte,  s  family  of  myriapoda,  792. 

Glow-worm,  the,  lanipyris  noctiluca,  822. 

Glutton,  or  wolverine,  the  gulo  luscus,  138. 

Gtyptodon,  the,  an  oxtiuct  species  of  eden- 
tate mammalia,  207. 

Gnat,  the  common,  cuius  pipiens,  810. 

Gnu,  the,  catoblcpas  gnu,  258. 

Goat,  the  eommon,  and  other  species  of  the, 
259  et  seq. 

Goatsucker,  bristles  on  the  head,  419. 

Goatsuckers,  caprimulgidae,  a  family  of  fi.ssi- 
rostral  birds,  419. 

Gobadse,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 
712. 

Gobius,  an  acanthopterou?  fish,  712. 

Godwit,  the,  limosa  melanura,  570. 

Gocrius  olens,  a  coleopterous  insect,  823. 

Gold  and  silver  fish,  cyprinua  auratus,  a 
species  of  cyprinidee,  694. 

Gold-crested  wren,  4S5. 

Golden  eagle,  foot  of  the,  379. 

Goldfinch,  the,  carduelis  elegans,  507. 

Goosander,  mergus  merganser,  605. 

Goose,  the  grey,  anser  ferus ;  the  white- 
frontod,  anser  albifrons  ;  the  bean,  anser 
segetum;  the  bernicle,  anser  bernicla,  &c., 
614  et  seq. 

Goose,  the  soland,  or  gannet,  597. 

Gordiacea.  an  order  of  nematelmia,  769. 

Gorgonidoo,  a  family  ofasteroida,  826. 

Gort;on's  head,  euryalidEB,  a  species  of  echi- 
noderniata,  831. 

Gonlla,  general  cnaracters,  foot,  &c.,  of  the, 
2  J  et  seq. 

Gorilla  and  man,  compared  anatomically,  in 

the  skeleton,  &c.,  20,22. 
Goshawk,  the,  astur  palumbarius,  400. 
Gour,  thp,  283. 

Gourami,  o&phromenuBolfax,  an  acanthop- 
terous fi»b,  711. 


GouridEB,  or  ground-pieeons,  a  family  of  the 

columbtB,  or  doves,  535. 
Gorinda,  a  species  of  kite,  403. 
Graculinas,  the  gralkes,  a  sub-family  of  the 

starlings,  499. 
Grallatores,  or  wading  birds,  an  order  of  the 

class  aves,    embracing    the    rails,    snipe.'', 

herons,  &c.,  56  i. 
Grampus,  phociona  orca,  a  cetaceous  animal, 

338,  345. 
Grantia  compressa,  a  species  of  sponge,  833. 
Graphiurc,  the  Cape,  172. 
Grasshoppers,  British,  801. 
Grayling,  the,  thymallus  vulgaris,  692. 
Gi'obes,  the,  podicipin?e,  a  tribe  of  natatorial 

birds,  592. 
Green-bone,  or  mackerel-guide,  the,  belone 

vulgaris,  701. 
Greenland  shark,  scymnus  borealis,  721. 
Greenlets,  the,  vireoniniE,  460. 
Green  monkey,  the,  43. 
Gregarinaj,  a  parasitic  infusoria,  836. 
Greyhound,  the,  9t,  95. 
Grey  mullet,  the,  mugil  capito,  711. 
Griffon,  the,  gvpaetus  barbatus,  403. 
Giison,  the,  139. 
Grosbeak,  or  hawfinch,  cocothraustcs    tuI- 

garis,  505. 
Grosbeak,  the  cardinal,    cardinalis    virgiai- 

anus,  506. 
Ground-cuckoos,  516. 
Ground-pigeons,  or  gouridee,  535. 
Grouse,    or    tetraouidae,  various   species  of, 

511  et  scq. 
GruidsB,  the  cranes,  534  et  seq. 
Grus  cinerea,  common  crane,  535. 
Gryllina,  a  tribe  of  orthoptera,  SOI. 
Guacbaro,   steatornis    caripeiisis,     or    South 

American  oil-bird,  422,  423. 
Guan,  the,  peuelope,  a  species  of  curassow, 

558. 
Guanaco,  the  auchenia  guanaco,  224. 
Guazuti,  a  species  of  deer,  245. 
Guenons,  a  species  of  monkey,  42, 
Gudgeon,  the,  695. 
Guereza,  a  species  of  monkey,  41. 
Guillemots,  a  bird  of  the  genus  uria,  5^0. 
Guinea-fowl,  the  numida  meleagris,550, 
Guinea-pig,  the  cavia  aperaea,  196. 
Guitguits,  or  coeribinae,  the  guitguits,  a  sub- 
family of  sun-birds,  451. 
Gulls,  the  laridcc,  600  et  seq. 
Gulo  luscus,  the  glutton,  133. 
Gurnard,  the,  703. 
Gyall,  the,  2H2. 
Gymnetrus  banksii,  a' species  of  ribhon  fish, 

710. 
Gymnoderinje,  or  fruit  crows,  457. 
Gymnophthalmata  (naked-eyed),  an  order  of 

the  jnedustB    (discophora),  ol    which    the 

families  are  six— viz.,  the  sarsidse,   geryo- 

nidoe,  cireeidae,  cequondcc,  oceanidae,  and 

wiilsidae,  829. 
Gymnorhina  tibicea,  or  flute-player,  a  species 

of  crow,  641. 
Gyranosomata,  an  order  of  pteropodous  mol- 
luscs, 742, 
Symnotidse,    a   family     of    physostomatous 

fishes,  including  the  gymnoti,  or  electrical 

eels,  682. 
Gymnure,  a  species  of  insectirora,  83. 
Gypaiitinee,  the  bearded  vultures,  408  et  seq. 
Gypaetus    barbatus,  the  griffon,  or  bearded 

vulture,  337. 
Gyps  fulvus,  the  tawny  vulture,  408. 
Gyr-falcon,  the,  397. 
Gyrini,  or  whirligigs,  824. 


Haddock,  the,  morrhua  asglefinus,  693. 

Ha>matopodinse,  a  sub-family  of  the  plovers, 
578. 

Hajmatopus  ostralegns,  the  oyster-catcher, 
573. 

Hsematornis,  a  genus  of  eagles,  385. 

Hag,  the  myxine  glutinosa,  a  fish,  680. 

Hairs  of  mammalia,  6. 

Hair-stars,  aspccies  of  crinoidea,  831. 

Hake,  the  foiked,  thycis  furcatus,  6J3. 

Haliaetus  albiciUa,  the  white-tailed  sea- 
eagle  ;  H.  leucocephalus,  the  bald  eagle 
(see  Eagles). 

Halibut,  the,  699. 

Halicliondria  oculata,  a  marine  species  of 
sponge,  834. 

Halicore  cetacea,  the  dugong,  350. 

Haliotidae.a  family  of  gasteropods,  743. 

Haltercs,  or  balancers  of  insects,  495. 

Hammer-headed  shark,  721. 

Hammer-oj'ster,  malleus  vulgaris,  731. 

Hamsters,  the  cricetus,  a  genus  of  rodents, 
180. 

Hapalidae,  or  marmosets,  a  family  of  American 
monkeys,  55. 

Hare,  the  Cape-leaping,  175. 

Hare,  the  common,  lepus  timidus  ;  the  Alpine 
hare,  L.  variabilis,  193  et  seq. 

Hares,  or  Icporidse,  a  family  of  rodent  mam- 
maha,  198  et   seq. 

Hares,  the  calling,  lagomye,  200. 

Harp-seal,  the,  159. 

Harpyia  destructor,  the  harpy  eagle  of  South 
America,  385. 

Harrier,  dogs,  90. 

Harriers,  or  circinse,  a  sub-family  of  rap- 
torial birds,  405. 

Harvest-men,  (see  Spiders). 

Harvest-mouse,  179. 

Iliwk-owls,  416. 

ILiwtinch,  orcnsbeak,  505. 

iiawking,  or  falconry,  ancient  history,  laws, 
illustrations  of,  395. 

Hawk's-bill  turtle  (see  Turtles). 


Hawks,  the  American  swallow-tailed,  nau- 
clerus  furcatus,  and  other  species,  899 
et  seq. 

Head,  jaws,  Mornf!,  stomach,  &c.,  of  the 
ruminantta,  210  et  seq. 

Head  of  camel,  220, 

Head  of  camelopard,  22S. 

Head  of  crocodiles,  &3.,  657. 

Head  of  whale,  porpjisc,  &c.,  33^. 

II  earing,  organs  of,  in  vcrtebrata,  11. 

Hearing  org  ns  (see  names  of  animals). 

Heart  of  fls  .-3,  678. 

Heart  of  ma.i.  8. 

Heart  of  vertc  -pated  a  .imals,  8  et  s*q. 

Hedgehogs,  the,  or  crin*ceinae,  81, 

Hedge-sparrow,  479, 

Helianthoida,  divided  into  seven  families— 
viz.,  the  madroporidtB,  cyalhophillidte, 
astrexidte,  fungidre.  zoauthidte,  octiniadce, 
and  lucernaridce,  826. 

Helictdco,  land-snails,  751. 

Helmet-shells,  the  cassis,  751. 

Helmintha  (see  Vermes)  767. 

Hemimctabola,  a  sub-class  of  insects,  793. 

Helocera,  a  tribe  ofcoleoptera,  823. 

Heloderma  horridum,  the  calictepon,  616. 

Hemerobiidco,  a  family  of  neuropterous  in- 
sects, 806. 

Hemimetabola,  a  sub-class  of  insects,  802, 

Hemippe,  a  species  of  ass,  298. 

Hcmiptera  (sec  llhyncota)  798. 

Hemiiamphus,  or  under  sword-fish,  a  genus 
of  malacopterygii,  701, 

Heniochus  monocerus,  a  species  of  acantho- 
pterous fish,  706. 

Hermellidiu,  a  family  of  tubicola,  771. 

Hermit  crabs,  783. 

Heron  family,  or  ardeidae,  grallatorlal  birds, 
various  species  of,  572  ct  seq. 

Herons,  the  true,  ardcinae,  a  sub-family  of 
grallatorlal  birds,  576, 

Herpestes  griseus,  the  mungoo,  630. 

Ilerpestes  ichneumon,  the  ichneumon,  133. 

Herring  (common),  clupea  harengus,  migra- 
tion, fishery,  &c.,  634. 

Hessian  fiy,  cedidomyia  destructor,  810. 

Heterocera,  a  sub-order  of  lepidopterous  in- 
sects, 812. 

Heterogyna,  a  tribe  of  aculeate  hymenoptera, 
813. 

Heteromera,  a  section  of  colefjwf  ?ra,  divided 
into  trachelia  and  atrachelia,  T2. 

Heteropoda,  a  sub-class  and  order  of  gastero- 
podous molluscs,  744. 

Heteroptera,  a  sub-order  of  insects,  800. 

Himantopus  melanopterus,  the  stilt,  571. 

Hippidae,  a  family  of  anomurous  decapods. 
783. 

HippohoscidsB,  or  forest-flies,  808. 

Hippocampus,  or  sea-horse,  the,  713. 

Hippoglossus  vulgaris,  the  halibut,  699. 

Hippopotamidae,  a  family  of  thick-skinned 
animals,  the  hippopotamuses,  or  river 
horses,  314  et  seq. 

Hippopotamus  amphibius;  H.  senegalensls, 
314  et  seq. 

Hippopus  maculatus,  a  species  of  mollusc,  736, 

HirudinidsB  leeches,  a  family  of  suctoria,  770. 

Hirundinidae,  the  swallow  family,  various 
species  of  hirundo,  426. 

Hirundo  rufa  and  H.  viridis,  two  American 
species  of  swallow,  427. 

Histeridffi,  a  family  of  coleopterous  insects, 
820. 

Hive  bees,  819. 

Hoatzin,  opisthoconus  cristatus,  a  conlrostral 
bird,  489. 

Hobby,  the,  a  kind  of  falcon,  397. 

Hog-tribe,  or  suidaB,  325,  et  seq. 

Hollow-horned  ruminantia,  or  cavicomia, 
247  et  seq. 

Holocephata,  a  sub-order  of  fishes,  of  the 
'order  selachia,  719. 

Holostea,  a  sub-order  of  ganoid  fishes,  716. 

Holothurida,  an  order  of  echinodermatu,  832. 

HomalopsldSB,  a  family  of  colubrine  snakes, 
633. 

Homolidae,  a  family  of  anomurous  decapods, 
784. 

Honioptera,  a  separate,  or  suh-order  of 
insects  (see  Rhyncota),  798. 

Honeycomb  of  bees,  819. 

Honey-dew  (see  Aphides),  _ 

Honey-eaters,  or  meliphagidce,  447. 

Honey-guides,  or  indicatorinae,  516. 

Hooded  snakes,  632. 

Hoofs  of  animals,  6. 

Hoolook,  a  species  of  quadrumana,  37. 

Hoonuman,  or  sacred  monkey,  39. 

Hooter,  the  wild  swan,  012. 

Hooting  owls,  415. 

Hoopoes,  or  upupidse,  a  family  of  tenulrostral 
birds,  452. 

Horns  of  animals,  6,  see  also  names  of  horned 
animals. 

Hornbills,  or  buccridEB,  a  family  of  conlros- 
tral birds,  486. 

Horned  snakes,  cerastes  hasselquistil,  629. 

Hornet,  the,  818. 

Horns  of  stag,  236. 

Horse-shoe  bats,  71. 

Horse,  the,  cquus  caballus,  wild,  Arabian,  &c,, 
291  et  seq. 

Hounds,  various  species  of  dog,  96. 

House  dogs,  Koman,  &c.,  100, 

Howlers,  the,  mycetes,  a  genus  of  American 
monkeys.  50. 

Humble  bee,  the,  819. 

Humerus,  or  arm  bone,  the,  2  et  seq. 

Humming-birds,  or  trochilidse,  a  family  of 
lenuirostres,  443  et  seq. 

Hungal,  or  Cashmenan  deer,  247. 

HysBua  striata,    the    striped,   or    laughing 


841 

hyotna,     127  ;     n.    crocuta,   the   spottec 
hvoena,  129;  II.  villosa,  the  vlllose  hy«na, 
129  ;  H.  spcloeus,  the  cave  hyiena.  129. 
Hyeenas,  iho  127  et  seq. 

Hyienida),  the  hyDonad,  87,  127  el  seq. 

Hyalea,  pteropodous  mollusc,  743. 

Hyboiidto,  a  family  of  diptcra,  809. 

Hybrid  of  dog  and  wolf,  90. 

Hybrid  of  lion  and  tiger,  114. 

Hydatina  senta,  a  species  of  roUfcra,  773. 

Hydra,  tentacles,  organs,  propagation,  &c., 
of  the,  825. 

Ilydracbnida;,  or  water-mltci',  788. 

Hydradcphaga,  a  tribe  of  calcoptera,  823. 

Hydrochicrus  capybara,  the  capybara,  190. 

Hydrocores,  or  water-bugs,  800. 

Hydroida,  divided  Into  three  families— vir., 
the  hydrldae,  scrtularidas,  and  tubutarido?, 
824, 

Hydromya,  the,  181. 

Hydrophidao,  or  sca-snakcp,  033. 

Hydrosaurus  bellii,  a  species  of  lizard,  616. 

Hydrous  piccus,  a  tribe  of  coleoptcra,  823. 

Hyla  tincioria,  a  frog,  075. 

Hylides,  the  tree  frogs,  674. 

Hylobates,  the,  or  gibbons,  34  et  seq. 

Hylurgus  piniperda,  821. 

Hymenoptera,  characteristics  of  insects  ar- 
ranged under  the  order,  divided  into  two 
suborders,  the  securifcra  and  pctiolat.i,  815. 

Hyoid  bone,  the,  2  et  seq. 

Hyperidte,  a  family  of  ainphipoda,  779. 

Uypochthon  anguinus,  or  proteus,  663. 

Ilypsiprymnus,  the  kangaroo  rats,  359. 

Hyracida),  the  family  of  the  hyrax,  320. 

Hyras  capensis,  the  Cape  hyrax  or  badger  ; 
hyrax  arboreus  ;  hyrax  doroalis  ;  and  hyrax 
syriacus,  the  bhaphan  or  *'  cony  "  of  the 
Uible,  320,  321. 

HysiricidiB,  or  porcupine.',  189. 

Hystrix  cristata,  the  common  porcupine,  189. 


Ianthinid.b,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
luscs, 748. 
Ibex,  the  common,  capra  ibex,  261. 
Ibij.iu,  a  kind  of  goatsucker,  420. 
Ibises,  the,  tantalinra,    a  eub-family  of  the 

heron  tribe,  573. 
Ibis  falcinellus,  the  glossy  ibis,  573. 
Ibis  religiosa,  the  white  or  sacred  ibis,  573. 
Ibis  rubra,  the  scarlet  ibis,  574. 
Ibycter,  the  aquilme,  388. 
Ichneumon,  the,  a  mammal,  various  species. 

133. 
IchneumonidEO,    a  family   of   hymenoptera, 

818. 
Ichthyosaurus,  a  genus  of  saurian  fossil  rep- 
tiles, G'.3. 
Icterins,  a  group  of  American  starlings,  500. 
Idotheidae,  a  fannly  of  isopoda,  780. 
Iguanidaj,  a  family  of  lizards,  various  species 

of,  647  et  seq. 
Ilium,  the,  2. 

Imago  state  of  an  insect,  796. 
Impophoo,  or  eland,   a  species  of  antelope. 

256. 
Incubation  of  eggs  of  birds,  377. 
Indian  varieties  of  man,  Asiatic,  African,  &c., 

19-21. 
IndicatoriufB,  or  honey-guides,  various  spe- 
cies of,  516. 
Indri,     indris   brevlcaudatus,    a   species    of 

lemur,  60. 
Infundibulata,  an  order  of  bryozous  moUus- 

coids,  723. 
Infusoria,  a  class  of  the    protozoa,  general 

characters,  &c.,,834. 
Ink-bag  of  the  cephalopoda,  757. 
Insecta,  or  insects,  a  class  of  articulata,  di- 
vided   into     three    sub-classes— viz.,    the 
ametobola,  hemimetobola,    and    metabola, 
7d2etseq. 
InsectiTora,  an  order  of  mammalia,  embracing 
the  moles,  shrews,  hedgehogs,   &c.,  74  et 
seq. 
Insectivorous  edentata,  armadillos,  &c.,  207. 
Insects,  their  organs,  functions,  general  cha- 
racteristics, &e.,  793  ct  seq. 
Insects,  larva,  pupa,  and  imago  conditions  of. 

796. 
Insects,  sub-classes,  orders,  &c,,  o.,  7i)7, 
Insessores,  a  section  of  birds,  embracing  the 
orders  columb^-E  ;  scansorcs  ;  pa.-iseres ;  and 
raptures  (see  also  Passeres),  378,  419  etteq. 
Incisor  teeth,  4,  5. 
Intestines  of  vertebrata,  8  et  seq. 
Intestines,  the  small,  9. 
Irishelk,  the,  241. 
Ins  of  the  eye,  10. 
Ischium,  the,  3, 

Islands,  coral,  formation  oi,  827' 
Isopoda,  an  order  of  edriophiualmata,  divided 
Into  three  sections,  the  cureoiial,  natatorial, 
and  sedentary,  779. 
Italian  wolf-dogs,  97. 
Itch-mite,  tJie.733. 
lulidas,  a  family  of  myriapoda,  791. 
Ivory  from  the  tusks  of  ek-phauts,  303. 
Ixodidffi,  a  family  of  acarina,  733 


jADtnus,  a  species  of  hcrou,  575. 

Jacamars,  or  galbulinre,  a  <:ub-family  of  the 

kingtishers,  434. 
Jacana,  parra  jacana,  560. 
Jackal,  the  cutumon,  and  black-backed,  104. 
Jack-iss,  penguin,  588. 
Jackdaw,  the,  corvus  monedula,  49^. 
Jacketed  m()nkey,  or  couxio,  53. 
Jack-snipe,  567. 
Jaoulus  laDradorius,  the  Lafcrad*.  •*  jumpinf- 

mouse,  174. 


842 


TNDEX. 


Jag^uar,  the,  felix  onca,  121. 

Japanese,  the,  18. 

Jaws  of  carnivora,  85. 

Jaws  of  mammalia,  2. 

Jaws  of  veitebraied  animals,  2. 

Jay,  the  blue,  cyanums  cristatus,  490. 

Jay,  the  common  European,  490. 

Jay,  the  sub-family  of,  garruliiiCB,  489. 

Jemlah  goat,  the,  2C1. 

Jerboas,  the,  or  dipodidse,  a  family  of  rodents, 

various  species,  172  c/  &eq. 
Jer-falcon,  the,  393. 
John  Dory,  a  fish    of  the  mackerel   family, 

tlio  zeus  faber,  7U7. 
Juggur,  the,  a  kind  of  falcon,  394. 
Jugular  vein,  the,  8. 


Kahatt,  or  proboscis  monkey,  39. 

Kagu,  the,  a  crane,  os7. 

Kakapo,  strigopshabroptilus,  a  kind  of  parrot, 

523. 
Kaleege,  a  species  of  pheasant,  533, 
Kalong  bat,  the,  pteropus  edulis,  72. 
Kanchil,  the,  tragulus  kanehil,  a  species  of 

musk  deer,  234, 
Kangaroo  ratf^,  359. 
Kangaroo?,  species  of,  356  ci  seq. 
Keitloa,  the,  319. 
Kerodon,  a  species-of  aovy,  I9fi. 
Kestrel,  the,  a  kind  of  falcon,  393. 
Kiang,  a  species  of  ass,  298. 
Kidneys  (human)  of  mammal::.,  &c.,  9  et  scq. 
King-bird,  the  tjr.innus  intrepidus,  4G2. 
King-crabs,  778. 
King-cruw,  the,  457. 
King-fish,  or  opah,  707. 
Kingfishers,  the  alcedinidae,  433  et  seq. 
King  honey-eater  (see  Kegent-bird),  501. 
Kinglet,  or  golden-crested  wren,  485. 
King-Tulture,  411. 

Kinkajous,  the,  or  cercoleptidiE,  88,  154. 
Kites,  or  milvina?,  a  sub-family  of  raptorial 

birds,  various  species,  402  et  scq. 
Kittacincla  macroura,  the  Indian  nightingale, 

a  species  of  redstart,  481. 
Kiwi-kiwi,  the  native  name  of  the  apterys, 

562. 
Kleenbok,  a  species  of  antelope,  253. 
Klippspringers,   the,  oreotragus,   a  genus  of 

antelopes,  255. 
Koala,  the,  phascolarctos  cinereus,  362. 
Koba,  or  sing-sing,  a  species  of  antelope,  255. 
Koodoo  antelope,  the,  strepsiceros  koodoo,  256. 
Kooloo-kamba,  the,  a  kind  of  gorilla,   troglo- 
dytes kooloo-kamba,  2S. 


Labium,  and  labrum  of  insects  (see  Insects), 

794. 
Labrax  lupus,  the  basse,  704. 
Labrador  dog,  95,96. 
Labrador  jumping-mouse,  174. 
Labridas,  a  family  of  acanthopterygious  fishes, 

701. 
Labrus  maculatus,  the  ballan  wrasse,  702. 
Lac,  dye,  shell,  &c.,  798. 
Lacerta  agilis,    lacerta  viridi^,    and    lacerta 

ocellata,  G44  et  srq. 
Lacertidffi,  the  common  lizards,  641. 
Lady-bird,  coccinella  7-punctata,  820. 
litemodipoda,  an  order  of  Crustacea,  779. 
Lagomys,  the  calling  hares  (see  Hares). 
Lagoons  (coral),  formation  of,  827. 
Lagopus  scoticus,  the  common  or  red  grouse  ; 

lagopus  vulgaris,  the  ptarmigan,  515,  546. 
Lagostomus  trichodactylus,  the  viscacba,  192. 
Lagotps  (Cuvier's),  or  mountain  visacha,  191. 
Lamellibranehiata,    a  class   of  the  mollusca 

proper,  including  the  oyster,  mussel,  cockle, 

fro.,  divided  into  asiphonata  and  sipUonata, 

731. 
Lamellicornia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Lammergeyer,  a  German-Swiss  name  for  the 

bearded  vulture,  387. 
Lamna  cornubica,  the  porbeagle,  721. 
Lamna  monensis,  Beaumaris  shark,  721. 
Lamnidre,  a  family  of  fish,  of  the  order  sela- 

chia,  721. 
Lamprey,  the  river,  680. 
Lamprey,  the  sea,  680. 
Lampris  guttatus,  opah,  or  king-fish,  707. 
Lampyris  noctiluca,  the  glow-worm,  819. 
Land-bugs  (see  Geocores). 
Land-crabs  (see  Gecarcinus).  '  "^ 
Languages  of  the  human  race,  21. 
Laniidae,  or  shrikes,  a  family  of  dentii'ostral 

birds,  454  et  seq* 
Lanius  coUurio,  the   red-backed  shrike ;    L. 

excubitor,  the  gray  shrike,  455. 
Lanius  rutilus,  the  wood-chat,  456. 
I,aplanders,  the,  17. 
Larino?,  or  gulls,  600. 
Larino",  the  true  gulls,  or  sea-mews,  601. 
Lapwing,  crested,  vanellus  cristatus,  581. 
Lark-buntings,  plectrophanes,  509. 
Lirk,  meadow,  sturnella,  ludoviciana,  500. 
Lark,  the,  sky,  shore,  and  wood,  509. 
Larks,  the,  alaudinsc,  509,  510. 
Larva-stale  of  an  insect,  796. 
Larynx,  the,  8. 
Laughing-hawk,  401. 
I^aughing  jackass,  a  penguin,  583. 
Leaf-cuttmg  bee,  819. 
Leap  of  the  Kangaroo,  358. 
Lecanium  ilixis,  a  species  of  coccus,  798. 
Leech,  sanguisuga  officinalis,  the,  14,  770. 
Legs  of  mammalia,  2  et  s-  q. 
Leiothiii,  a  genus  of  dentirostral  birds,  460. 
Lcipoa  ocellata,  the  native  pheasant  of  Aus- 
tralia, 557. 
Lemmings,  or  myodes,  a  genus  of  rodents  (see 

Rodents). 


Lemuridw,  or  lemurs,  various,  57-59. 
Lemurs,  flying,  or  galeopithecidee.  58,  64. 
Lemuroids,  Asiatic,  61 ;  African,  62. 
Leo  africanus ;  L.  goojrattensis,  &c.,  species 

of  the  lion,  111  et  seq. 
Leopard,  the,  felis  leopardus,  117. 
Leopardus,  a  feline  genus,  121. 
Leopard,  the  hunting,  or  cheetah,  119. 
Lepadidte,  or  barnacles,  a  family  of  cirrho- 

poda,  777. 
Lepidoptera,  an  order  of  insects,  divided  into 

the    hcterocera    and    rhopalocera,    general 

characters,  &c.,  810  ct  seq. 
Lepidoptera,  mouth,  scales,  &c.,  810. 
I-ei)idopus  argyreus,  the  scabbard-fish,  7 10. 
Lcpidosiren  paradoxa,   and    lepidosircn    an- 

nectens,  species  of  batrachia,  668. 
LepidosteidiG,  a  family  of  ganoid  fishes,  717. 
Lepidosteus  osseus,  the  bony  pike,  a  ganoid 

fish,  716,  717. 
Lepidota,  an  order  of  batrachia,  668. 
Lepidotidic,  a  family  of  ganoid  fishes,  717. 
Lepismidce,  a  family  of  ametabolous  insects, 

797. 
Leporidnp,  or  hares,  a  family  of  rodent  mam- 
malia, 198  et  seq. 
Leptocardia,   an   order  of    fishes    having  no 

heart,  and  including  but  one  species,  the 

amphioxus  lanceolatus,  679. 
Leptoglossa,  a  division  of  the-saurian  or  lizard 

order,  with  the  tongue  divided,  641. 
Loptoptilus  argala,  a  species  of  adjutant,  575. 
Leptoptilus  marabou,  a  species  of  stork,  575. 
Lcpus  timidus,  the  common  hare ;  L.  euni- 

culus,  the  rabbit;  L.  variabilis,  the  Alpine 

hure,  198  et  seg. 
Lernjcida;,  a  family  of  parasita,  778. 
Lcsot,  or  garden  dormouse,  172. 
Lestris,  a  genus  of  gulls,  602. 
Leuciscus,  a  genus  of  cyprinida?,  including 

the  roach,  dace,  chub,  and  bleak,  696. 
Libellula  cancellata,  the  dragon-fly,  806. 
LibellulidcD,  a  family  of  neuropterous  insects, 

the  (iragon-flies,  806. 
Limacidffi,  the  slugs,  a  family  of  pulmoniferous 

gasteropods,  755. 
Limacina  rostra,  a    species    of   pteropodous 

mollusc,  743. 
Limbs  of  mammalia,  2  ei  seq. 
Limnieidffi,  or  pond-snails,  a  family  of  pul- 

raoniferou***',;asteropods,  755. 
Limnoria  teu'brans,  a  species  of  isopoda,  786. 
Limosa  melanura,  the  godwit,  570. 
Limpets,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  the  patel- 

lida?,  746. 
Limulus,  a  genus  of  Crustacea,  778. 
Ling,  lota  molva,  a  spineless  fish,  693. 
Lingula  anatina,  a  species  of  mollusc,  731, 
Lingulida?,  a  group  of  mollusca,  742. 
Linnet,  the,  liiiota  cannabina,  507. 
Linota  linaria,  the  lesser  redpole,  507. 
Lion,  skeleton  of,  85. 
Liun,  the,  of  the  genus  leo ;  species,  leo  afri- 

canus  ;  L.  goojrattensis,  &c.,  Ill  et  seq. 
Liotheidffi,  a  family  of  mallophaga  (bird-lice), 

797. 
Littorina  littorea,  the  periwinkle,  a  gastero- 

pod,  749. 
Lituites  breynii,   a  species  of  cephalopoda, 

758. 
Liver  of  animals  generally,  9.  | 

Liver  of  mammalia,  9.  ] 

Lizard,  organs  of  circulation  in  a,  640.  I 

Lizard,     the    scaly,   zootoca    vivipara;    the  1 

green,  lacerta  viridis,  644. 
Lizards,  or  sauria,  639  et  seq. 
Lliima,  the,   auchenia,  a  genus  of  the  camel 

family,  223  et  seq. 
Llama,  the  true,  auchenia  glama,  223. 
Loach,    the,  cobitis,  a  genus    of  cypvinidcc, 

694. 
Loach,    the    four-eyed,     anablebs     tetroph- 

thalmus,  698. 
Lobster,  ttie,  782.  | 

Liibster,  the  spiny,  palinurus,  783.  1 

Lob-worui,  arcnicola  piscatorum,  772.  I 

Locomotion  of  animals  generally,  13  et  seq. 
Locomotion  of  fiahes,  14  (see  also  Fi-hcs). 
Locusta  cristata,  a  species  of  locust,  801.  | 

Locusta  niigratoria,  the  common  locust,  801.  I 
Locustina,  a  tribe  of    orthopterous   insects,  I 

801.  1 

Locust,  seventeen-year,  800. 
Loligidte,  calamaries,  or  squids,  761, 
Longicornia,  a  tribe  of  beetles,  821. 
Lophiidae,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 

713. 
Lophiodon,  325. 

Lophius  piscatorius,  the  fishing-frog,  713. 
Lophobranchi.a  a  sub-order  of  fishes,  order 

teleostia,  713. 
Lophoda,  an  order  of  bryozous  moUuscoids, 

728. 
LoricariidEe,    a    family   of    physostomatous 

fishes,  698. 
Loricata,   an  order  of  vertebrata,  including 

the  crocodiles,  alligators,  &c.,  6o7  etseq. 
Loricata,   or   chondrostea,   a    sub-order    of 

ganoid  fishes,  717. 
Lories,   or    lorinse,  a  sub-family  of  parrots, 

524. 
Loris,  a  genus  of  quadrumana,  61. 
Loto  molva,  the  ling,  698. 
Loto  vulgaris,  the  burbot,  or  eel-pout,  693. 
Louse,  the  common,  797. 
Loxia  curvirostra,  the    common     crossbill ; 

L.  pityopsittacus,  the  parrot  crossbill  ;  and 

L.   Icucoptera,  the  white-winged  crossbill, 

511,  512. 
Losinae,  or  crossbills,  the,  511. 
Lucanus  cervus,  the  stag-beetle,  623. 
Lucernarida?,  a  family  of  heliiuithoida,  827. 
Lucioperca  saudra,  the  sander,  701. 


Lumbar  vertebrfe,  2. 

Lumbricidfe,  a  family  of  scolecina,  771. 

Lump-flsh,  the,  cyclopterus  lumpus,  712. 

Lungs  of  the  apteryx  and  ostrich,  375. 

Lungs  of  man,  &c.,  8. 

Lungs  uf  vertebrated  animals,  8. 

Lurcher,  a  species  of  dog,  94. 

Lutra  vulgaris,  the  common  otter,   143  ;  and 

L.  canadensis,  the  Canadian  otter,  145. 
Lycrena?,  a  butterfly  (the  blues),  815. 
Lycaon  pictus,  the  Cape  hunting-dog,  108. 
Lycosa  tarantula,  a  species  of  spider,  79U. 
Lycosidir,  a  family  of  spiders,  790. 
Lyga?Qdea,  a  group  of  bugs,  800. 
Lymexylon  navale,  822. 
Lymph  and  lymphatics,  9. 
Lynx,  the,  114  ;  booted  lynx,  125;  European 

and  Canadian,  126. 
Lyre-bird,  menura  superba,  442. 
Lytta  vesicatoria,  the  blister-fly,  822. 


Macacus,  a  genus  of  monkeys,  44. 

Macacus  inuus,  or  magot,  the  Barbary  ape,  45. 

Macaws,  a  genus  of  parrots,  various  species  of, 
524  et  seq. 

Mackerel-guide,  the,  belone  vulgaris,  701. 

Mackerel-fishing,  methodsof,  707. 

JIackerel,  the  common  (scomber  scomber), 
705-707. 

Macrocercu.«,  or  ara,  a  genus  of  parrots,  in- 
cluding the  macaws,  various  species,  525. 

Macropodida?,  or  kangaroos,  356  ct  seg. 

Macropus  giganteus,  the  great  kangaroo  ,  M. 
nemoralis,  and  M.  fruticus,  species  of  kan- 
garoo, 356  et  seg. 

Macroscelides  rozeti,  a  species  of  animals  re- 
sembling the  shrews,  the  Sat-a-trompe  of 
Algeria,  75. 

Macrura,  a  sub-order  of  decapod  Crustacea, 
781. 

Madagascar  monkeys,  or  lemurs,  57. 

Madaoqua,  a  species  of  antelope,  252. 

Madreporido?.  or  tree-corals,  a  family  of  heli- 
anthoida,827. 

Ma?andriua  ccieDriformis,  brain-coral,  827. 

Magot,  or  Barbary  ape,  45. 

Magpie,  493. 

MaiadfB,  or  sea-spiders,  734. 

Maid,  the,  a  kind  of  ray,  723. 

Malacobdellida?,  a  family  of  suctoria,  770. 

Malacopterygii,  or  soft-finned  fishes,  includ- 
ing the  scombercsocidte,  700. 

Malapterurus  electricus,  a  fish  of  the  family 
siluridtp,  698. 

Mallard,  or  wild  duck,  anas  boschas,  608. 

Malleus  vulgaris,  the  hammer-oyster,  734. 

Mallophaga,  an  order  of  nmetabolous  insects, 
including  the  bird-lice,  797. 

Mammalia,  a  class  of  vertebrated  "animals, 
including  the  whale,  &c.,  quadrupeds,  and 
Man  (see  chapter  1,  page  1,  et  seg.). 

Mammalia  divided  into  two  great  sections — 
viz.,  aplacentaria,  or  those  without  a  pla- 
centa, and  placentaria,  or  those  possessing 
one,  1  et  seq. 

Mammalia,  locomotion  of,  1  et  seg.  , 

Mammalia,  skelton,  bones,  skull,  teeth,  verte- 
brae, &c.,  and  general  characteristics  of  the 
class,  1  ct  seq. 

Mammai-y,  or  milk-glands  of  mammalia,  2 
et  seq. 

Mammoth,  the,  elephas  primigenius,  313. 

Manakins,  or  piprma),  a  sub-famity  of  the 
chatterers,  459. 

Manatees,  sea-cows,  or  lamantins,  349. 

Manatidce,  or  sea-cows,  a  family  of  sirenia, 
349  et  seq. 

Man,  brain  and  cerebro-spinal  axis  of,  2  et  seg. 

Man  compared  with  the  gorilla,  &c,,  22  et  seg. 

Man,  digestive  apparatus  of,  &c.  (see  chapter 
1,  generally,  page  1,  et  seq.), 

Man,  languages  of,  21. 

Man,  skeleton  of,  2,  3,  23. 

Man,  the  sole  species  and  genus  of  the  order 
bimana,  1,  2,  22. 

Man,  varieties  of,  15  et  seq.  (see  also  Ethno- 
logy). 

Mandibles  of  insects,  *94. 

Mandrill,  the,  46. 

Mangabey,  or  collared  white-eyelid  monkey, 
44. 

Mango-bird,  or  golden  oriole  of  India,  465. 

Mangue,  the,  133. 

Manis,  a  genus  of  edentata,  including  the 
pangolins,  214. 

Mantina,  a  tribe  of  cursorial  orthoptera,  803. 

Mantis,  sea,  the  780. 

Mantis,  the,  803. 

Mantispidee,  a  family  of  neuroptera,  806. 

Mantle  of  the  mollusca,  725. 

Marabout,  the,  575. 

Maracawa,  or  green  macaws,  525. 

Mareca  penelope,  the  widgeon,  610. 

Marikina,  an  American  monkey,  57. 

Marimonda,  an  American  monkey,  49. 

Markhore,  a  species  of  goat,  262. 

Marmosets,  a  family  of  American  monkeys, 
55-57.: 

Marmot,  arctomys  marmota,  &c.,  170-171. 

Marsupial  bones  of  the  aplcaentaria,  351,  355 
et  seg. 

Mai-supialia,  an  order  of  aplacental  mammals, 
embracing  kangaroos,  opossums,  &c.,  and 
divided  into  the  phytophagous  and  rapa- 
cious, or  carnivorous,  355  et  seg. ;  fossil, 
367. 

Marten,  common,  an  animal  of  the  weasel 
kind,  martes  foina;  the  pine  marten,  or  M. 
abietum,  137, 138. 

Martes  foina ;  M.  abietum  ;  M.  zibellina ;  and 
M.  leucopuB,  vaiious  species  of  martens, 
137, 138. 


Martin,  house,  hirundo  urbica,  428, 

Martin,  purple,  progne  purpurea,  429, 

Martin,  sand  or  bank,  hirundo  riparia,  428 

Mason  bee,  the,  819. 

Mastitf,  the,  99. 

Mastodon,  the,    an    extinct    species   of  the 

elephant  family,  313. 
Mataco,  the,  209. 

Matamata,  a  species  of  turtle,  664, 
Maxilla;  of  insects,  794. 
May-flies,  a  species  of  neuroptera,  805. 
May-fiies,  transformation  of,  605. 
Mazama,  or  American  fallow-deer,  245, 
Meadow-lark,  the,  500. 
Meal-worm,  822. 

Medusa  aurita,  a  species  of  discophora,  828. 
Medusae,  development  of,  828, 
Medusae,    divided    into      two     orders — viz., 

gymnophthalmata  (naked-eyed),  and  stega- 

nophthalmata  (covered-eyed,  828,  829. 
Medusida;  (see  also  Mcdusee),  828. 
Megaderma  frons,  the  horse-shoe  bats,  70. 
Megalonyx,   an  extinct  genus  of   the   sloth 

family,  20G. 
Megalops,  a  species  of  brachyurous  decapods, 

Megalosaurus,  a  fossil  lizard,  6.J3. 

Megalotis,  the  fennec,  an  African  species  of 
fox,  1U7. 

Megapodiidffl,  a  family  of  rasorial  birds,  in- 
cluding the  mound-birds,  &c.,  556. 

Megapodinaj,  or  mound-buds,  a  sub-family  of 
rasorial  birds,  556. 

Megapodius  tumulus,  the  mound-bird,  or 
jungle-fowl  of  Australia,  55'>. 

Megatherium,  an  extinct  genus  of  the  sloth 
family,  205. 

Melanerpes  erythrocephalus,  the  red-headed 
woodpecker,  518. 

Melanerpina?,  a  sub-family  of  woodpeckers, 

Meltagrina  margaritifera,  the  pearl  oyster,  a 

species  of  mollusc,  733. 
Meleagrince,  the  tub-family  of  turkeys,  543. 
Meleagris  gallopavo,  the  common  turkey,  548. 
Mek'S  taxus,  the  common  badger,  141. 
Melidse,  or  badgers,  a  family  of  plantigrade 

carnivora,  87. 
Meliphagidee,  or  honey-eaters,  447. 
MelithreptiuiP,  a  sub-family  of  honey-eaters, 

447. 
Melizophilns    dartfordiensis,    the     Dartford 

warbler,  484. 
MelUsuga  minima,  the    smallest   species    of 

humming-bird,  451. 
Mellivora     capensis,    the    ratcl,    or    honey- 
badger,  140 
Meloe,  a  speeies  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Melophagus  ovinus,  or  siicep-tick,  803. 
Melopsittacus  undulatus,  the  warbling  grass- 

pai'akeet,  527. 
Membracina,  a  tribe  of  homoptera,  799. 
Membranacea,  a  group  of  heteroptera,  800. 
Meminna,  a  species  of  musk-deer,  233. 
Menobranchus,  a  genus  of  batracbia,  668. 
Menura  superba,  the  lyre-birds,  442. 
,Mephitis  putorius,  the  skunk,  140. 
Merganser,  natatorial  birds,  605. 
Mtrgina;,  a  sub-family  of  the  ducks,  605. 
Mergus  cucuUatus,  the    hooded   merganser, 

605. 
Mergus  merganser,  the  goosander,  605. 
Merionides,  or  the  gerbilles,  a  genus  of  rodents, 

175. 
Mi-rlangus  vulgaris,  the  whiting,  698. 
Merlin,  the,  a  J  ind  of  falcon,  397. 
Meropidae,  or'  oee-cateis,  a  family  of  fissiros- 

tral  birds,  various  species,  435. 
Mesenteric  glands,  9. 
Mtsothorax  of  insects,  795. 
Metabola,  a  sub-class  of   insects,  including 

those   which   pass    through    tae    stages    of 

larva,  pupa,  and  imago,  having  the  meta- 
morphosis complete,  such  as  the  silkworm, 

butterflies,  &c,,  807. 
Metacarpal  bone,  the,  2,  3 
Metamorphosis  of  insects,  796, 
Metatarsal  bone,  the,  2,  3. 
Metathorax  of  insects,  795. 
Mice,  or  muridte,  176  et  scq. 
Milan-royal,  or  milvus  regalis,  380 
Miliola,  a  genus  of  rhlzopoda,  833. 
Millepedes,  a  species  of  myriapoda,  791, 
Milvago  chimango,  the  chimango,  a  raptorial 

bird,  402. 
MilvinoE,  the  kites,  a  sub-family  of  raptorial 

birds,  402  et  seg. 
Milvus  niger,  the  black  ;  and  M.  govinda,  the 

govinda  kites,  403. 
Mimic  beetles,  823. 
Mink,  the,  vison  lutreola,  a  species  of  weasel, 

136. 
Mite,  the  cheese,  788. 
Mites,  the  true  (acaridfc),  788. 
Mites,  water,  "8S. 

MniotiltinEE,  or  bush-creepers,  474. 
Moa,  or  dinomis  gigantcus  of  New  Zealand, 

562. 
Mocking-bird,  the  North  American,    mimua 

polyglottus,  468. 
Modeeria  lormosa,  a  species  of  medusse,  829. 
MohoU,  the,  62. 
Molar  teeth,  4,  5. 

Mole-cricket,  the,  gryllotalpa  vulgaris,  802. 
Mole-hills,  how  produced,  80. 
Mole-rat,  the,  spalas  typhlus,  184. 
Moles,  or  talpidee,  a  family  of  insectivora,  74, 

78, 
Mole,  the  common,  talpa  europoca,  the  golden, 

chrysochloris  aurea,  78-81. 
Mollusc,  anatomy  of  a  bivalve,  726,  731, 
Mollusca,  a   division    of  animals,    including 

creatures  having  a  soft  body  enclosed  in  a 


I 


INDEX. 


^43 


mantle  universally,  and  generally  with  a 
shell,  as  the  oyster,  &c  ,  723  et  seq. 

MoUusca,  cloak  or  mantle  of  the,  725. 

MoUusca,  intestinal  canal  of  tlie,  725, 

Mollusci,  list  of  the  families,  of  which  shell- 
specimens  may  he  found  in  the  British 
Museum,  765,  766. 

MoUusca,  naked,  726. 

MoUusca,  organs,  habits,  nervous  system, 
shells,  and  other  characteristics  of  the,  725 
et  teq. 

MoUusca,  divisions  of,  727  ;  moUusca  proper, 
731  ei  seq. 

MoUusca,  sheU  of  the,  725. 

MoUusca,  testaceous,  726. 

Molluscoida,  a  sub-division  of  moUusca,  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  the  bryozoa  and 
tunicata,  727. 

Moloch  horiidus,  an  Australian  species  of 
li/.ard,  613, 

Molossus,  a  genus  of  bats,  72. 

MomotinfF,  nioimots,  a  sub-family  of  fissiros- 
tral  bird>,  43S. 

MonaLiid^,  an  order  of  infusoria,  834. 

Monal,  or  Impeyan  phe;isant,  552. 

MungoUan,  variety  of  man,  19. 

Monitors,  monitor  niloticus,  genus  and  species 
of  lizards,  (:.4(3. 

Monkeys,  dog-nosed  or  Cynomorpha,  33. 

Monkeys,  various  species  of,  as  the  long- 
taUed  ;  sacred;  Hooauman  ;  &c.,  3S  et  seq. 
(see  names  of  each ) . 

Monkeys,  teeth  of,  38. 

Monk-fish  (see  Squatina). 

Mona,  a  species  of  monkey,  42. 

Monodon  nmnoceros,  the  narwhal,  or  sea- 
nnicom,  347. 

MoiioMierutomata,  or  acarina,  an  order  of 
arachnida,  7S7. 

Monosomata,  an  order  of  rhizopoda,  833. 

Monotremata,  an  order  of  aplactnial  mam- 
mats,  35J. 

>[oon-flsh,  or  sun-fish,  orthagorisci,  715. 

Moor-hen,  the,  565. 

Moose  deer,  237. 

More-pork-bird,  an  Australian  speciesof  goat- 
sucker, 420. 

Miiirhua  ceglefinus,  the  haddock,  fiOS. 

Morrhua  vulgaris,  the  cod-fish,  698. 

Morse,  sea-horse,  or  walrus,  163. 

Mosasauridic,  a  family  of  fossil  lizards,  652. 

Moschiiia?,  or  musk-deer,  a  family  of  rumi- 
nantia,  231. 

Moscbus  aquations,  and  M.  moschiferus,  spe- 
cies of  musk-deer,  &c.,  231  et  seq. 

Motacilia,  or  wagtail ;  various  speciesof,  472 
et  seq. 

Motacillinge,  or  wagtails,  a  sub-family  of  the 
sylvidEp,  472. 

Mother  Carey's  chickens  (see  Petrel),  603. 

Mother-of-pearl,  source  of,  734. 

Moth  of  the  silkworm,  813. 

Moth,  the  clothes',  812. 

Moth,  the  elephant  hawk-moth,  814. 

Moth,  the  goat,  813. 

Jloth,  the  magpie,  814. 

Moth,  oak-lappet,  813. 

M'.ths,  the  plum-:-,  811. 

Motmots,  momotince,  the,  asub-family  of  fissi- 
rostral  birds,  438. 

Moufflon,  the,  a  species  of  sheep,  263. 

Mouiid-bird,  or  junsle-fowl  of  Australia}, 
niegapodius  tumulus,  556. 

Mountain  visacha,  191. 

Mouse-birds,  or  colies,  4S9. 

Mouse  family,  or  mundae,  176.    ^ 

Mouse,  the  common,  mus  inuscuius,  177. 

Mouse,  the  harvest,  mus  messorius,  179. 

Mouse,  the  Labrador  jumping,  jaculus  labra- 
doiius,  174. 

Mouse,  the  long-tailed  field,  mus  sylvaticus, 

i:8. 

Mouse,  the  short-tailed  field-mouse,  arvicola 

agresti^i,  179. 
Mouth  of  insects,  794. 
Rlugil  capito,  the  gray  mullet,  710. 
Mugilidse,  a  family  of  spiny-tinned  fishes,  in- 
cluding the  gray  mullet,  &c.,  710. 
Mule,  the,  299. 

Mullet,  the  gray,  mugil  capito,  710. 
Mullet,  the  red,  mullus  surn/uUetus,  705. 
Mullets,  the  muUidce,  705. 
Muntioo,  the,  herpestes  griseus,  a  snake,  630. 
Muntj.iC!=,  stylocerus,  a  genus  of  cervidie,  or 

deer,  246. 
Murjeiudaf,  or  eels,  681. 
Murex,  stiull  of  the,  751- 
Muricuiae,  a  fan.ily  of  gasteropods,  751. 
Muridte,  or  mice,  &c,,  a  family  of   rodent 

mammalia,  176  et  seq, 
Musca  domestica,  the  iiouse-fly,  803. 
Musical  sounds,  12. 

Muscicapidae,  the  flycatchers,  460  et  seq. 
MuscidiE,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  the 

flies,  808, 
Muscles  of  vertebrata,  contractility  of,  &c.,  6. 
Muscular  system  of  animals,  5  et  seq. 
Mus  decunianus,  the  cnmnion  rat;  Mus  mus- 

culus,  the  mou.-e  ;  M.  rattus,  the  black  rat ; 

M.  giganteus  ;  M.  sylvaticus,  the  long-tailed 

fieUi-mouse ;     M.    messorius,    the    harvcbt 

mouse,  176  e(  seq. 
Mu-k-deer,  moschidBB,  a  family  of  niminanlia, 

231  et  seq. 
Mu^k-ox,  the,  287. 
Musquash,  American  bear,  147. 
MusK-rats,  or  desmans,  species  of  shrews,  76. 
Musophagidaj,  or  plantam-caters,  a  family  of 

conirostral  birds,  487. 
Musquash,  or  ondatra,  the  fiber  zlbethicus,  a 

rodent  animal,  183, 
Mussel,  the  commoa  edible,  mytUua  edulls, 

735. 


Mustda  vulgaris,  the  weasel;   M.  putorius, 

the   polecat ;    M.    ermines,    the  stoat,    or 

ermine  ;  M.  furo,  the  ferret,  136  et  seq. 
Musiflidje,  or  weasels,  a  family  of  semi-plan- 
tigrade carnivora,  87,  135. 
Mycete::!,  a  genus  of  American  monkeys,  the 

Howlers,  50. 
Mycteria,  the  jabinis,  575. 
Mydasidro,  a  family  of  diptcra,  809. 
Mygalc,  a  species  of  spider,  774. 
Mygale  pyrenaica  and  moschata,  the  desmans, 

or  musk-rats,  75,  7G. 
MygalidcB,  a  family  of  spiders,  723,  774. 
Myliobatis  aquila,  the  eagle  ray,  a  fish  of  the 

ray  kind,  723. 
Mylodon,  an  extinct  genus  of  the  sloth  family, 

204. 
Myopotamuscoypu,  the  coypu,  183. 
Myosidce,  or  dormice,  171. 
Myoxus  avellanarius,  the  dormouse,  172. 
Myriapoda,  a  class  of  articulata,  embracing 

two  orders,  the  chilopoda  and  chilognatha 

791. 
Myrmecobiidse,    the   banded    ant-eaters,  in- 

cludmg    the  species  myrmecobius    fascia- 

lus,  366. 
Mynnecophaga  jubata,  the  great  ant-eater, 

212,213. 
Myrmecophagida?,  the  ant-eaters,  a  family  of 

edentata,  212,  213. 
Myrnieleoiitidae,  or  ant-lions,  806. 
Mysidoe,  a  family  of  stomapoda,  781. 
Mytilacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  including  the 

mussel,  734  et  seq. 
Mytilus  edulis,  the  common  mussel,  734. 
Myxine  glutinosa,  the  hag,  a  species  of  fish, 

order  cyclosiomata,  680. 
MyxinidcD,  a  family  of  fishes,  of  the  order  cy- 

clostomau,  630. 


NAcrNDA,  426. 

Naia  hajp,  the  Egyptian  hooded  snake,  631, 

Naia  tripudians,  or  cobra  di  capello,  630. 

NaididfE,  a  family  of  scolecina,  771. 

Napu,  the,  233. 

Narwhal,  or  sea-unicorn,  the  monodon  mono- 

ceros,  347. 
Nassulina,  a  sub-family  of  infusoria,  835. 
Nasua  narica,  the  coati,  152. 
Natantia,  an  order  of  rotifera,  having  the 

families  polytrocha  and  zygotrocha,  773. 
Natatores,  an  order  of  birds,  the  swimmer:^, 

including  the  auk,  pelican,  cormorant,  gulL-, 

ducks,  ifcc,  588  et  seq. 
Naticidse,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  moUusca, 

748. 
Natural  history  and  classification,  1  et  seq. 
Naucrates  ductor,  the  pilot  fish,  70S. 
Nautilidre,  a  family  of  cephalopods,  including 

the  nautilus,  &c.,  757,  759. 
Necrophaga,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  823. 
Necrophori,  a  genus  of  coleoptera,  823. 
Negro-monkey,  or  budeng,  40. 
Negroes,  colour  of,  6. 
Nematelmia,    or   round   worms,    a    class  of 

\Vmes,    including    the  orders   acanthoce- 

phala,  gordiacea,  and  nematoidea,  769. 
Nematus  grossulariae,  a  species  of  hymeuop- 

tera,  816. 
Nemertida?,  or  ribbon-worms,  769. 
Nemocera,  a  sub-order  of  diplera,  809. 
Xepa  cinerea,  a  species  of  water-bug,  800. 
Nepaul  tiger-cat,  119, 
Nereidee,  a  family  of  errantia,  772. 
Nereis  phosphorescens,  a  species  of  errantia, 

772. 
NeritidEB,  a  family  ef  gasteropods,  748. 
Nervous  system,  the,  6, 
Nervous  system  of  articulata  (the  true),  or 

arthropoda,  767,  775. 
Nervous  system  of  Crustacea,  775, 
Nervous  system  of  echinodermata,  830. 
Nervous  system  of  fishes,  678. 
Nervous  system  of  insects,  114.  1.78. 
Nervous  system  of  mammalia,  6, 
Nervous  system  of  moUusca,  725. 
Nervous  system  of  I'eplilcs,  (i24. 
Nervous  system  of  rotifera,  772. 
Nervous  system  of  star-fish,  831. 
Nervous  system  of  vertebrata,  6. 
Nests  of  birds  (see  names  of  birds). 
Neuroptera,     an    order    of    hemimetabolous 

insect?,  804. 
Newfoundland  dog,  95,  96. 
Newt,  development  of  the,  671, 
Nigger,  or  black  caterpillar,  815. 
Night-hawk,  421. 
Night-jars,  or  goatsuckers,  420. 
Nightingale,  the,  philomela  luscinia,  482. 
Nightingale,  the  Indian,  481. 
Nine-killers,  butcher-birds,  or  shrikes,  451. 
Nocthora,  a  genus  of  American  monkeys,  54. 
Nocturnal  lepidoptera,  812. 
Noddy,  the,  600. 

Nodosaria,  a  genus  of  rhizopoda,  832. 
Nomadas,  cuckoo-bees,  819. 
Notacantha,  a  tribe  of  diplera,  809. 
NothosauridtB,  a  family    of  fossil    saurians, 

650. 
Notodelphys  ovifera,  a  species  of  tree-frog, 

675. 
Notonectida,  a  tribe  of  water-bugs,  800. 
Notornis,  a  New  Zealand  bird  of  the  rail  kind, 

56G. 
Nshiego-mbouvc,  a  kind  of  gorilla,  troglo- 
dytes calvus,  28. 
Nucifera  caryocatactes,  or  nut-cracker,  494. 
Nucleobranchiata,  or  hetcropodous  muUuscs, 

744. 
Nucleus  of  the  protozoa,  832, 
Nudibranchiata,  a  group  of  gasteropods,  745. 
NumeniuB  arquata,  the  curlew,  .')C7. 


Numida  meleagris,  the  Guinea  fowl,  550. 

Nummulitcs,  a  species  of  rhizopoda,  ft33. 

.Vut-crackcr,  the,  494. 

Nut-hatches,  the,  or  sittinoo,  443. 

Nutrition,  9. 

Nut-weevil,  the,  balanJnus  nacnm,  f'll. 

Nycticebus,  a  genus  of  1  ■  nuroids,  Cl. 

NycteribridfT,  or  bat-h^i,  808. 

N'yctoris,  a  genus  of  bats,  71 

Nyctibius  jamaicen  l-^,  orpotuj,  121. 

Nycticebidic,  or  lon^,  61. 

Nycticorax  gardeni,  the  night-heron,  577. 

Nyctipithecus,  a  genus  of  American  monkeys, 

54. 
Nyl-ghau,  the,  portax  picta,  254. 
Nymphonida>,  a  family  of  arachnida,  787. 


Oak-t,appet  moth,  the,  813. 

Oared-shrew,  76. 

Occipital  arch  of  vertebratcd  animals,  2  et  seq, 

Occipitals  of  fishes,  230. 

OceanidiP,  a  family  of  medusae,  828,  829, 

Ocelli  of  insects,  703. 

Ocelli  of  medusa,  828. 

Ocelot,  a  species  of  cat,  123. 

Octodon,  Cuming's,  186. 

OctopodidiB,  a  family  of  ccphalopods,  the 
cuttle-fishes,  761, 

Ocypoda,  a  genus  of  crabs,  786. 

Odontophorinte,  a  sub-family  of  the  grouse 
kind,  546. 

(Edicnemince,  or  thick-knees,  582, 

(Esophagus,  the,  2  et  seq. 

Oesophagus  of  mammalia,  9. 

(Estridre,  a  family  of  diptera,  808. 

(E>trus  bovis,  a  dipterous  insect,  808, 

Oil-birds,  steatomince,  422. 

Onager,  a  species  of  ass,  298. 

Oncidiid^,  a  family  of  pulmoniferous  gastero- 
pods, 755, 

Ondatra,  or  musquash,  183, 

OniscidEB  (wood-lice),  780. 

Onychoteuthis,  a  cephalopod,  763. 

Opah,  or  king-fish,  lampris  gutiatus,  707. 

Open-bills,  a  species  of  heron,  576. 

Operculum,  or  gill-cover  of  fishes,  677. 

Operculum  of  the  gasteropoda,  744. 

Ophidia,  an  order  of  reptiles,  including  snakes, 
serpents,  boas,  pythons,  &c,,  'Jivided  into 
viperine,  or  venomous,  anc'^olubrine, 
chiefly  harmless  snakes,  625,  et  seq. 

Ophidiidffi,  a  family  of  spineless  fishes,  698. 

Ophiophagus,  the  snake-eater,  639. 

Ophisaurus  ventralis,  glass  snake,  '^43. 

Ophiuridce,  a  family  of  slellerida,  831. 

Ophrvdium  versatile,  a  species  of  infusoria, 
835. 

Opisthobranchiata,  a  sub-order  of  gasteropo- 
dous molluscs,  745. 

Opisthocomidce,  a  family  of  conirostral  birds, 
489. 

Opisthocomus  cristatus,  the  hoatziuj  489. 

Opolinids,  a  family  of  infusoria,  835. 

Opossum  shrimps,  781. 

Opossum,  the  Australian,  361, 

Opossums,  or  didclphidee,  a  family  of  Ameri- 
can marsupialia,  263  et  seq. 

Optic  nerve,  the,  10, 

Orang-outan,  the  simia  satyrus,  general  cha- 
racters, 30  ct  teq  ;  skeleton,  23  and  32: 
skull,  31. 

Order,  definition  of  the  term,  1  et  seq. 

Organs— (see  name  of  each). 

Organic  functions,  9. 

Oriole,  the  Baltimore,  yphantes  Baltimore, 
500. 

Oriole,  the  orchard,  icterus  spurius,  501. 

Oriolus  galbula,  the  golden  oriole ;  O.  kun- 
doo,  the  mango-bird  ;  O.  melanocephalus, 
the  black-headed  oriole,  464  et  seq. 

Ornithorhynchus  paradoxus,  an  Australian 
aplacental  mammal,  352. 

Orthagoriscus  mola,  the  sun-fish,  715. 

Orthagoriscus  oblongus,  a  species  of  sun-fish, 
715. 

Orthoceras,  a  genus  of  cephalopoda,  757, 

Orthonyx,  the,  446. 

Orthoptera,  cursorial,  an  order  of  insects,  801 
et  seq. 

Orthoptera,  saltatorial,  801  et  seq. 

Onhotomus,  a  genus  of  sylvidte,  485. 

Ortolan,  the,  emberiza  hortulana,  509. 

Ortyx  virginiana  and  californica,  the  Ameri- 
can quails,  54G-547, 

Orycteropus,  a  genus  of  edentate  mammalia, 
211. 

Oryx  nasomaculata,  the  addax,  255. 

Os  coccygis,  the,  2. 

Osmerus  eperlanus,  the  smelt,  691. 

Osmja,  the  mason-bee,  819. 

Osprey,  or  fish-hawk,  384. 

Os  pubis,  the,  3. 

Osseous  fishes,  Cuvier's  section  of  (see  Tele- 
ostia),  680. 

Ossifragus  giganteus,  the  giant  petrel,  603. 

Ostracea,  the  oyster  tribe,  733. 

Ostracion,  or  tvunk-fish,  the,  714. 

Ostracoda,  an  order  of  crustacca,  778. 

Ostrea  edulis,  the  common  oyster,  733. 

Ostrich  hunting,  method  of,  560. 

Ostrich,  skeleton  of  the,  559. 

Ostrich,  the  American,  rhea  americana,  561. 

Ostriches,  or  f  truthionida;,  559  et  stq. 

Otaria,  the  eared  seals;  O.  jubata,  the  sea- 
lion;  O.  ursina,  the  sea-bear,  15G  etseq. 

Olididce,  the  family  of  the  bustards,  583. 

Otinie,  or  owlets,  414. 

Otocoris  alpestris,  the  shore-lark,  510. 

Otolithe  of  the  moUusca,  725. 

Otolitic  vesicles  of  the  medusa,  328.' 

Otter,  the  common,  Indian,  Canaaiao,  and  sea, 
143-145, 


OtuB  brachyotnd,  Bhort-eared  owl,  415. 

Olua  TulgariR,  the  t^ng-cared  owl,  415. 

Ounce,  a  ftpecies  of  felido?,  118. 

Ouzel,  the  water,  or  dipper,  470. 

Ovcn-birdfl,  or  fumarina*,  415. 

Ovibo^  mi-chatuB,  the  muek  ox.  2ft7. 

Oviform  granules  of  the  hydra,  825. 

Qvipo.sitor  of  the  hymenoptcra,  81G,  fil7. 

Ovis  aries,  the  common  Bbeep;  O.  munimon, 
the  moufllon;  O.  montann,  the  bighorn; 
O.  argali,  the  argali,  &c.,  262  ct  teq. 

Ovo-vivi parous  Tcr;ebrata,  235. 

Owlets,  41i. 

Owl,  little  homed,  scops  Aldrorandi,  410, 

Owls,  or  strigida),  the  famUy  of  the,  412. 

Owls,  various  species  of,  412  et  seq. 

Ox-peckors,  or  beef-caters,  a  epccics  of  star- 
ling, buphaga  afrlcana,  4'fX 

Ox,  the  domestic,  bos  laui  us  272  et  seq. 

Ox,  the  muKk,  ovibos  m'  -chaius,  287. 

Ox,  the  wild,  271. 

Oxyrhyncha,  a  family  of  bracbrurouB  deca- 
pods, 784. 

Oxystomata,  a  family  of  brachyurous  deca- 
pods, 784. 

Oxyuris,  a  gcnui?  of  nematelmia,  7C9. 

Oyster-banktf,  733. 

Oyster-catcher,  hajmatopuB  ostralcgus,  578. 

Oyster,  the  cock's-comb,  733. 

Oyster,  the  common  edible,  733. 

Oyster,  the  hammer,  734. 

Oyster,  the  pearl,  733. 


PACA,  the,  193. 

Pachycephalinae,  or  thick-heads,  a  snb-family 
of  chatterers,  4G0. 

Pachydermala,  an  order  of  mammalia,  includ- 
ing the  elephants,  hippopotamus,  rhino- 
ceros, boar,  &c.,  302, 

Pachydcrmata,  fossil,  333,  337. 

Pachyglossa,  a  division  of  the  saurian  or  lizard 
order,  641,  646,647. 

Paco,  or  alpaca,  the,  aucbcnia  paco,  227. 

PfficiliidEe.  a  family  of  fishes  resembUng  the 
carp,  694. 

Pagundnp,  or  hermet-crabs,  a  family  of  ano- 
murous  decapods,  783. 

Paille-en-qti€ue,  or  straw-tail,  the  tropic  bird, 

Pairing  of  birds,  378. 

Palceoniscidce,  a  family  of  heterocercal  ganoid 
fishes,  717. 

Palajornis  alexandri,  the  Alexandrine  paxa- 
keet,  &c.,  526, 

Pala3ornis  barrabandi,  Barraband's  parakeet, 
526. 

Palajomis  torquatus,  the  rose-winged  paiap- 
keet,  526. 

Palieosaundoe,  a  family  of  fossU  lizards,  650. 

PalEBOtherium,  an  extinct  genus  of  pachydcr- 
mata, 323. 

Palamedeidie,  a  family  of  grallatorial  bird-, 
566, 

Palinurus,  the  spiny  lobster,  783, 

Pallah,  a  species  of  antelope,  252. 

Pallial  line  of  muscles  of  a  mollusc,  731, 

Palliobranchiato,  a  class  of  moUusca,  divided 
into  three  groups — the  craniidro,  terebratu- 
lidop,  and  Imgulidje,  731,  741. 

Palpi  of  insects,  794, 

Paludina  vivipara,  a  gasteropod,  749. 

Pampas  cat,  124, 

Pancreas,  the,  9, 

Panda,  or  wah,  152. 

Pandion  haliaetus,  the  osprey,  334. 

Pangolin,  the,  of  the  genus  mani^,  2U. 

Panorpida?,  a  family  of  neuroptera,  808. 

Panther,  the,  118. 

Papilionidae,  a  family  of  lepidoptera  (butter- 
flies), 814. 

Paradisea  apoda,  the  great  emerald  bird  of 
paradise,  496. 

Paradisea  superba,  the  superb  bird  of  para- 
dise, 495, 

Paradise,  the  twelve-threaded  bird  of.  453. 

Paradiseidte,  the  birds  of  paradise,  494, 

Paradoxure,  the,  135. 

Parakeets,  or  parroquots,  pezoporintc,  varioua 
species  of,  526  et  seq. 

Paramecium,  a  genus  of  infusoria,  835. 

Parasita,  an  order  of  Crustacea,  777. 

Parasitic  worms,  763  etseq. 

Pariah  dogs  of  India,  101. 

Parietal  bones  of  vertebrated  animals,  2. 

Parinm,  or  titmice,  474. 

Parr,  a  kind  of  salmon,  692. 

Parrot-crossbill,  the,  512. 

Parrot-fishes,  702. 

Parrots,  or  psiltacidto,  a  sub-famUy  of  scan- 
Eorial  birds,  various  species  of,  521  et  seq. 

Parrots,  true,  psittacinre,  524, 

Parson,  orpoe-bird,  447, 

Partridge,  the  common,  perdix  clnerca ;  the 
Guernsey,  perdix  rubra,  547, 

Partridges,  various  species  of,  547  et  seq. 

Parus  major,  the  great  titmouse;  P.  cceru- 
leus,  the  blue  tit;  P.  cristatus,  the  crested 
tit,  474  f^  seq. 

Paseng.  the,  2Gl. 

ra^senger-pigeon,  the,  539. 

Passeres,  or  incessores,  an  order  of  birds,  di- 
vided into  four  sub-orders— Tiz  ,  the  coni- 
rostres  ;  dentiro^tres ;  tcnuirostres ;  and 
fiisirostres,  419  et  seq. 

Pastc-ecls,  anguillulidie,  770, 

Pastor  roseus,  the  rose  coloured  pastor,  a  epe- 
cies  of  starling,  and  P.  tristis,  499,  500. 

Patas,  a  species  of  monkey,  45. 

Patella,  the,  2,  3, 

Patellidee,  a  ^famUy  of  gasteropfids,  the  liiu* 
pels,  748. 

Puvo  cristatus,  the  common  peacock,  555. 


844 


INDEX. 


Pavoninaa,  the  pea-fowl,  a  sub-family  of  the 
plieasan*.^,  555. 

Peiicock-batierdy,  the,  815. 

Peacock,  the  common,  pavo  cristatus,  555. 

Peu-crat),  pinnoiheres,  786. 

Pe III  oyster,  tbe,  733. 

Peba,  the,  209. 

Peccary,  the,  dicotylcs,  a  kiU'l  of  ho^,  326. 

Pectens,  the  ^enus  of,  a  mollusc,  733. 

Pectinibranchiata,  a  group  of  gasteropoda, 
743. 

Pedicellarise,  orfranisms  of  the  stellerida,831, 

Pediculi  (lice),  797. 

Pedipalpi,  or  polymerosomata,  an  order  of 
pulmonary  arachuida,  788. 

Peewit,  the,  5S2. 

Pela^ia  cyanella,  species  of  meduste,  629. 

Pela^ria  noctiluca,  species  of  discophora.  R24. 

Pelaijia  panopyra,  species  of  medusae,  829. 

Pelecanidce,  the  pelicans,  594  etseq. 

PelecanioEc,  595. 

Pflecrtuus  ouocrotalu^,  the  peUcan,  594,  595. 

Peli  ans,  the,  594  et  seq. 

Pt'ivis  of  echidna,  aa  aplacental  mammal, 
351. 

Pelvis,  the,  2,  3. 

Penguin,  the  jackass,  5SS. 

Penguins,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  auk  kiild,'of 
the  genus  aptenodytes,  583. 

Pennatuhdae,  a  family  nl  astcroida,  826, 

Pentacrinus  bnurLU-,  8^1. 

Pentacrinus  europceus,  or  cnmatula,  831. 

Peniamera  (see  Coieuptera)  820. 

Peracyon,  or  pouched-wolf,  366. 

Peraraeles  lagotis,  a  marsupial  mammal,  362. 

Feramelidae,  or  b.indicoot  rats,  3:2. 

Perca  fluviatilis,  the  common  peicii,  704. 

Perch,  bones  of  the  head  of  the,  677. 

Perch,  tbe  common,  perca  fluviatilis,  704. 

Perch,  the  climbing,  712. 

Perchmg  birds,  or  insessores,  419  et  seq. 

Percida,  or  perch  family  of  fishes,  7U3. 

PerdicmjB,  a  sub-runily  of  grouse,  embracing 
the  partridges,  &c.,  547. 

Perdii  cinerea,  the  common,  and  pcrdix 
rubra,  the  Guernsey  partridge,  547. 

Peridinidffi,  a  family  of  infusoria,  834. 

Pcripatidas,  a  family  of  errantia,  772. 

Periwmkle,  littorina  Uttorea,  749. 

Pcriidce,  a  family  of  neuropterous  insects, 
805. 

Permanent  teeth,  4,  5. 

Perspiration,  6. 

Persian  lion,  114. 

Petaurus,  the  Hying  phalangers,  362. 

Petrels,  the,  602. 

Petromyzon  fluviatiUs,  the  river  lamprey, 
680.' 

Peiromvzon  marinus,  the  common  sea  lam- 
prey, 680. 

Petromyzjnidao,  a  family  of  fishes,  order  cy- 
clostom  ta,  630. 

PezoporinEB,  parakeets,  or  parroqnets,  526. 

Phicochoerus,  a  genus  of  hogs,  325,  331. 

PhuetoninEB,  a  sub-family  of  natatorial  birds, 
599. 

PnaIacrocor.ix,  carbo,  European,  and  P.  sin- 
ensis, fishing  cormorants,  595,  596. 

Phalanger-,  tbe,  or  phalingistidce,  a  family  of 
marsupial  mammals,  360. 

Phalanges  of  tlie  fingers  and  toes,  2,  3. 

Phalangidse,  a  family  of  arachnida,  788. 

Pbalangisca  cavifrons,  the  cuscus,  cousous,  or 
capoul ;  P.  vulpina,  the  Ausualian  opos- 
sum, 360  et  seq. 

Phalangi  ~tidae,  or  pha'.angers,  marsupial  mam- 
mals, 360. 

PhilaropiiiED,  a  species  of  snipe,  570. 

PliarvnirngimihA,  a  sub-order  of  fishes,  order 
teleostia,  700. 

Pbascugaie,  marsupial  animals,  367. 

Phascoiarctos  cint'ieus,  the  koala ;  P.  sci- 
ureus,  species  of  flying  phalangers,  302. 

PhascolomydCD,  a  family  of  marsupial  mam- 
mals, embracing  the  wombat,  356. 

Phascolomys  fossor,  the  wombat,  356. 

Pbasianidee,  or  the  pheasant  family,  with 
various  species,  .548  et  $fq. 

Phasianmae,  the  true  pheasants,  551  et  seq. 

Ph;i«midffl,  a  family  of  cursorial  orthoptera, 
802. 

Pheasant  family,  or  phasianidse,  with  various 
species,  548  et  seq. 

Pheasants,  tne  true,  phasianinsB,  various  spe- 
cies of,  551. 

Philhydiidj,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  823. 

Philomachus  pugnax,  the  ruff,  569. 

Pbilomela  lusciuia,  the  nightingale,  432. 

Pbiloptendae,  a  family  of  mallophaga  (bird 
lice),  797. 

Polaothriop,  a  genus  of  hemimetaholous  in- 
sects, 800. 

Phoca  vitulinii,  the  common  seal ;  P.  green- 
landica,  the  harp  seal ;  P.  barbata,  the 
great  seal ;  P.  caspica  (see  Seals),  157 

Phocaena  communis,  the  porpoise,  i>33,  345. 

Pboceena  orca,  the  grampus,  333,  345. 

Pbocidae,  a  family  of  mammalia,  embracing 
the  seals,  157  el  seq. 

PhojnicoptennED,  the  flamingoes,  618. 

Puocnicopterus  ruber,  the  fl.imin^o,  &c.,  619. 

Pholadacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  733. 

Phoias,  a  genus  of  molluscs,  733. 

Pfiosphorescence,  marine,  chiefly  caused  by 
the  species  thautaautias,  of  the  medusa;, 
829.  V 

Pbragmocone,  sh^  of  belemnitc,  761. 

PtiyllidEe,  a  family  of  cursorial  orthoptera, 
802. 

Phyllididre,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
luscs, 745.  . 

Phyllophaga,  a  tribe  of  bymeuopterous  insects, 
816. 


PhyllosomidsE,  a  family  of  stomapoda,  780. 
PhvUo5lo^la  spectrum,  the  varapyre-bat  (see 

Bit^},  67. 
Phyllostom-dcB,  or  vampyre  bats,  GO. 
Physeter  tursio,  tbe  hiuh-finned  c  i   halot ;  P. 

ra&crocephalus  (see  Whales). 
Physograda,  an  order  of  siphonophornus  ra- 
diata,  including  the  families  physalidsD  and 
diphyida,  830. 
Physopoda,  an  order  of  hemimetabolous  in- 
sects, 800. 
Physostoraata,  a  sub-order   of  the   teleostia 

(fishes),  631. 
Phytophaga,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  821. 
Phytophthiria,  or  plant-lice,  a  species  of  hom- 

optera,  799. 
Phytotomina?,  or  plant-cutters,  a  sub-family 

of  conirostral  birds,  512. 
Pica  eaudata,  the  majpie,  493. 
Picathartes  gymnocephalus,  the  bare-headed 
crow,  493. 

Pichiciaso,  the,  210. 

Pichy,  the,  209. 

Piciiia,  or  woodpeckers,  a  family  of  scansorial 
birds,  516. 

Picinse,  a  sub-family  of  picidcD,  various  species 
of,  515. 

Piculets,  or  picumninae,  a  sub-family  of  scan- 
sorial birds,  521. 

Picus  martius,  the  great  black  woodpecker, 
517. 

Pig  {see  Hog),  329. 

Pig,  the  R-round,  or  aardvark,  211. 

Pig,  the  Guinea,  196. 

Pigeon,  the  carrier,  537. 

Pigeon,  crowned  or  ground,  goura  coronat.a, 
535. 

Pigeons,  or  doves,  various  species  of,  532  et 
S''q. ;  collection  of,  in  the  Museum  and  the 
Zoologicjl  Gardens,  540. 

Pigeons,  passenger,  immense  flights  of,  in  the 
United  States,  539. 

Pigeons,  the  tree,  treronida?,  540. 

Pigeons,  the  true,  or  columbidae,  536. 

Pika,  or  calling  hare,  200. 

Pike  family,  the,  esocidx,  693. 

Pike,  habits,  growth,  &c.,  of  the,  693. 

Pilchard,  the,  clupea  pilchardus,  633. 

Pill  beetles,  coleopterous  insect>,  822. 

Pilot-iish,  n'jJ»^rates  ductor,  703. 

Pine  bullfiuf  J,  or  pine  grosbeak,  pinecola 
enucleator,  511. 

Pine-marten,  the,  136. 

Pinnipedia,  an  order  of  mammalia,  including 
the  seals  and  walrus,  86,  156  et  seq. 

Pinnotheres,  or  pea-crabs,  736. 

Pintadoes,  or  Guinea-fowl,  Numida,  550 

Pipa  americana,  the  Surinam  toad,  673. 

Piper-biid,  or  umbrella  bird,  457. 

Pipe-fish,  syngnathus,  714. 

Pipidte,  the  toads,  672. 

Piping  crows,  439. 

Pipits,  anthus,  a  genus  of  sylvidee,  473. 

Piprinoe,  or  manakins,  a  sub-family  of  ampe- 
lidae,  or  chatterers,  459. 

Pisces,  or  fishes,  676  et  seq. 

Piscicola,  a  genus  of  suctoria,  771. 

PisicuUure,  676  et  seq. 

Pithecia,  a  genus  of  American  monkeys,  52. 

Placenta  of  mammalia,  10. 

Placentaria,  a  section  of  mammalia,  embrac- 
ing the  whales,  quadrupeds,  &:a.,  divided 
into  the  cetacea ;  pachydermata ;  soliduu- 
gula  ;  ruminautia  ;  edentata  ;  rodencia  ; 
pinnipedia;  carnivora;  insectivora ;  chito- 
ptera  ;  quadrumana  ;  and  bimana,  1  to  351. 

Plagiosiomata,  a  sub-order  of  fishes,  of  the 
order  selachia,  including  the  sharks  and 
rays,  720. 

Plaice,  platessa  vulgaris,  699. 

Pianaiida,  an  order  of  the  platyelmia,  includ- 
ing the  families  nemertids,  turbellarids, 
&c.,  769. 

Plauipeunia,  a  sub-order  of  neuropterous 
insects,  903. 

Plantain-eaters,  or  rausophagidaB,  a  family  of 
conirostral  birds,  4S7. 

Plant-cutters,  a  family  of  birds,  512. 

Plantigrada,  a  section  of  carnivorous  mam- 
malia, including  the  badgers,  bears,  tS:c., 
86,  145. 

Plant-lice,  a  species  of  homoptera,  799. 

Plastron,  a  shell  of  the  chelonia,  662. 

Plataleinae,  a  sub-family  of  the  herons,  the 
spoonbills,  572. 

Piatessa  vulgaris,  the  common  plaice,  699. 

Platyelmia,  or  fiat-worms,  orders  of  the,  are 
cestoidea,  trematoda,  and  planarida,  763 
et  seq. 

Platyribinto,  a  division  of  the  apes,  i^  et  s'^q. 

Plectognattia,  a  sub-order  of  fishes,  of  the 
order  teleostia,  714. 

Plectrophanes,  the  lark-buntings,  509. 

Plesiosauridse,  a  family  of  fossil  saurian  rep- 
tiles, 655. 

Plestiodon  laticeps,  a  lizard,  643. 

Pleurobranchidae,  a  family  of  gasteropodous 
molluscs,  745. 

Pleuronectid®,  or  flat-fish  family,  the,  699. 

Ploc(niu"0.  or  weaver-birds,  602. 

Ploceus  pensilis,  a  weaver-bird,  502. 

Piotei'es,  a  group  of  bugs,  800. 

Plotmae,  the  darters,  593. 

Plover,  the  gray,  squatarola  cinerea,  530. 

Plover,  the  Norfolk,  or  great,  532. 

Plovers,  the  family  of  the,  charadriidae,  578 
et  seq. 

Plover,  the  stilt,  571. 

Plovers,  the  true,  charadrinCB,  5S0. 

Plumage  of  birds.  369  et  seq. 

Plume-moths,  the  pteropliorina,  822. 

Pochards,  or  fuUgulinae,  606. 

Pochard,  the  commnn,  60Q. 


Podagerlufls,  a  sub-familv  of  fissirostral  birds, 

426. 
Podargus  humer.alis,  and  P.  cuvierii,  Austra- 
lian species  of  goatsuckeri^,  423,  424. 
Podicipinae,  the  grebes,  a  family  of  natatorial 

blrda,  592. 
Podophthalmata,  a  sub-class  of  Crustacea,  era- 
bracing    two    orders— the    stomapoda  and 
decapoda,  776,  780. 
Podosomata,  a  genus  of  spiders,  737. 
Poduridae,  a  family  of  ametabolous  insects, 

797. 
Poe-bird,  the,  prosthemadera,  novae  zelandiae, 

a  species  of  honey-eater,  447. 
Poephagus  grunniens,  the  yak,  283. 
Pointer,  the,  96. 

Poison-organs  of  venomous  snakes,  622. 
Polecat,  the,  mustela  putorius,  136. 
PolyborintD,  or  caracaras,  asub-family  of  rap- 
torial birds,  339. 
Polydesmidoe,  a  family  of  rayriapoda,  791. 
Polygastrica,   a  supposed  division  of  the  infu- 
soria, 834. 
Polymerosomita,  or   pedipalpi,  an  order  of 

pulmonary  arachnida,  783. 
Polyommati,  a  species  of  butterfly,  815. 
PolyophthalmldEB,  a  family  or  err.intia,  772. 
Polyphemus  stagnorum,  a  species  of  ostra- 

codd,  778. 
Polypi,  a  class  of  radiata,  divided  into  three 

orders— viz.,  the  hydroida,  asteroida,  and 

helianthoida,  824. 
Polypidum  of  the  helianthoida,  826. 
Pdlvoidum,  the  common  stock  of  the  polvpes, 

824. 
PolypteridfE,  a  family  of  ganoid  fishos.  717. 
Polystomella,  a  genus  of  rhizopoda,  833, 
Pulythalamia,  an  order  of  the  rhizjpo^la,  833. 
Polyxenidte,  a  family  of  myriapoda,  791. 
Pomacentndse,  a  family  of  acanthopterygious 

fishes,  701. 
Pomeranian  dog,  94. 
Pontia  brassicae  and  rapae,;the  common  butter- 

flv,  820. 
Poodle,  the  French,  96. 

Porcellanidce,  a  family  of  anomurous   deca- 
pods, 783. 
Porcupine  ant-eaters,  or  echidna,  355. 
Porcupines,  or  hystricidse,  189  et  seq. 
Pores  of  the  skin,  6. 
Porifera,  or  sponges,  a  elass  of  the  protozoa, 

.833. 
Porpoise,  the,  phocaena  communis,  333,  345. 
Porpoise,  the  round-headed,  phocaena  melas, 

345. 
Portax  picta,  the  nyl  ghau,  254. 
Potamochcerus,  a  genus  of  hogs,  325. 
Potoroo,  or  k>ingaroo-rat,  359. 
Poucti  of  the  aplacentaria,  355. 
Pouched  wolf,  366. 

Poulpe,  octopus  vulgaris  (see  Cephalopods) . 
Prairie  wolf,  104. 
Pratincoles,  the,  glareolineB,  582, 
Prawn,  the  (crangonidos),  780,  732. 
Presbytes,  the  sacred  monkeys,  33. 
Prey,  birds  of,  or  raptores  (see  Riptores). 
Prinia,  a  genus  of  tailor-hirds,  4S5.  * 

Pristis  antiquorum,  the  saw-fish,  723. 
Proboscis  ol  insects,  794. 
Proboscis  monkey,  or  Kahau,  39. 
Procel!arida?,the  petrels,  I'c,  602. 
Procellarmae,  tbe  petrels,  603. 
ProctotrupidcB,  a  family  hymenoptera,  818. 
Procyon  lotor,  the  racuon,  151. 
Progne  purpurea,  the  purple  martin,  429. 
Promeropidac,  or  sun-birds,  a  family  of  tenui- 

rostral  birds,  451  et  seq. 
Prongbuck,  antilosapra  furoifera,  254. 
Proscopia,  a  species  of  orthoptera,  SOI. 
Prosobranchiata,  a  sub-order  of  gasteropods , 

745. 
Proteidse,  a  family  of  hatrachia,  663. 
Proteidce,  a  family  of  the  rhizopoda,  833. 
Proteles  lalandii,  the  aardwolf,  or  earth-wolf, 

130. 
Proteus,  or  hypochthon  anguiaus,  618. 
Prothorai  of  insects,  795. 
Protozoa,    divided   into    three     classes— the 

rhizopoda,  porifera,  and  infusoria,  832. 
Psammoryctidce,  or  sand-rats,  a  family  of  ro- 
dents, 135. 
Psammosaurus  scincu?,  an  Egyptian  species 

of  lizard,  616. 
Pseudopus  pallassii,  the  scbeltopusik,  a  spe- 
cies of  Hz  ird,  613. 
Pseudotetramera,    a   section     of   coleoptera, 

820. 
Psittacara,  a  genus  of   birds,   between    the 

mac-iws  and  parrots;    P.    guianensls,    the 

Giiianx  parroquet,  525. 
Psittacidte,  or  parrots,  a  family  of  scansorial 

biids,  various  species  of,  521  et  S'^q. 
PslttaciufE.  or  true  parrots,  521. 
Psittacus  eryth:icu==,  the  gray  p.irrot,  524. 
PsiicidCE,    a  family  of  neuropterous  insects, 

805. 
Psophinre,  or  trumpeters,  asub-family  of  the 

cranes  (see  Cranes). 
Ptarmigan,  the,  lagopus  vulgaris,  545. 
PtcracUs,  a  genus  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 

709. 
Pterlcthys,  a  fish  of  the  order  ganoidea,  717. 
Pterocles  arenarius,    and    ptcrocles   alchata, 

species  of  sand-grouse,  543. 
Pteroclidae,  or  sand-grouse,  543. 
Pterodactyles,  a  group  of  fossil  reptiles,  like 

the  lizards,  651. 
Pteroglossus,  a  genus  of  scansorial  birds,  of 

the  toucan  family,  530. 
Pteromys,  the  flying  squirrels,  163. 
Pteron;u"cys,  a  genus  oi  neuroptera,  805. 
Pternphorina,  a  tribe  of  lepidopterous  insects, 

312. 


Pteropidfe,  rou^settes,  a  family  of  bat';,  72. 

Pteropoda,  a  class  of  moUusca,  divided   into 

the  gymnosomata  and  thccosomata,  742. 
Pteropus  edulis,  the  kalong  bat,  73. 

Ptilonorliynchinte,  or  glos-;y  starlings,  493. 

Ptiloris  para-^tdeus,  a  species  of  Australian 
rifle-birds,  454. 

Puff-birds,  or  bucconinao,  436 

Puffin,  the,  fratercula  Arctica,  590. 

Pug-dog,  100. 

Pulex  irritant,  the  common  flea,  807. 

Pulex  penetrans,  or  jigger,  807. 

Pulicidae,  the  fleas,  807. 

Pulmonaria,  a  sub-class  of  arachnida,  em- 
bracing two  orders— the  pnlymeresomata,  ur 
pedipalpi,  and  the  dimerosoinata,  or  true 
spiders,  788. 

Pulmonary  arteries  and  veins,  8. 

Pulmonifora,  an  order  of  gasteropods  divided 
into  the  opfrculated  and  inoperculated,  754. 

Pulvilli  of  insecLs,  795. 

Puma,  the,  felis  concolor,  122. 

Papa  state  of  an  insect,  796. 

Pupil  of  the  eye,  W. 

Puoipara,  a  sub-order  of  dipterous  insects, 
808. 

Purple  dye  of  the  ancients,  obtained  from  the 
buccinidae,  or  whelk  family,  751. 

Pvcnodontidae,  a  family  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes, 
"717. 

Pycnogonidae,  a  family  of  arachnida,  787. 

Pycnonotincc,  the  bulbuls.  a  sub-family  of 
thrushes,  463. 

Pyg.ipus  lepidopodus,  a  species  of  lepto- 
glossal  saurian,  642. 

Pylorus  of  the  vertebrata,  9. 

Pyralidina,  a  tribe  of  lepidoptera,  812. 

Pyralis  vttis  and  farinalis,  species  of  lepido- 
pterous caterpillars,  812. 

Pyrochroa  rubens,  822. 

PyrosomatidEB,  a  family  of  tunicated  mollus- 
coids,  729. 

Pyrrhocoraeinae,  the  choughs,  494. 

Pyrrhulaudffl,  the  finch-Urks,  510. 

Pirrhula  vulgaris,  the  buUfincu,  510. 

Pvthons,  a  group  of  f angless  colubrine  snakes, 
'636. 


QcADEUMANA,  an  order  of  mammalia,  embrac- 
ing tbe  monkevs,  apes,  lemurs,  &c.,  2,  5, 
22  et  seq. ;  fossils  of,  66. 

Quadrupeds,  included  in  the  cla-ss  mammailaj 
1  et  seq..,  85. 

Quagga,  the,  equus  quagga,  301, 

Quail,  the  American,  546- 

Quail,  the  Andalusian,  547. 

Quail,  the  Californian,  546. 

Quail,  the  common,  543. 

Queen  bee,  the,  819. 

Querquedulacrecca,  the  teal,  609. 

Quills  of  animals,  6;  of  birds,  371  et  seg 

QuiscahnEB,  a  sub-f.iinily  of  the  dtarliugs, 
called  boat-taiis,  500. 

Quiscalus  ferrugineus,  and  quiscalus  versi- 
color, t!ie  crow-blackbird,  a  soecies  of  star- 
ling, 500. 


Rabbit,  the,  lepus  cuniculus,  199. 

Racoon,  the,  of  the  g^nus  procyon,  family 
ursidae,  151. 

Radiata,  five  classes  of— viz.,  the  polypi,  dis- 
cophora,  ctenopiiora,  sipli  mopixora,  and 
ecbmodermita,  general  characteristics,  &c., 
824.  et  seq.   C. 

R-idiUs  of  the  arm,  2,  3. 

Raia  clavata,  the  tbornback  ;  riia  maculata, 
the  homelyn  ray,  or  maid;  raia  oiyrhyn- 
chus,  the  sharp-nosed  ray,  723. 

Raiidae,  the  true  rays,  723. 

Raiina,  the  rays,  a  group  of  fish,  of  the  order 
selachia,  723. 

Rails,  the  family  and  sub-family  of,  564. 

RalUnce,  or  true  rails,  566. 

Rillus  aquaticus,  the  common  rail,  566, 

Rma  esculeuta,  the  edible  froj,  674. 

Rina  paradoxa,  the  jakie,  a  kind  of  frog,  674. 

Rana  pipiens,  the  buU-IVog,  674. 

Rina  temporaria,  the  common  fro?,  Q1i. 

Rmgifer  tarandus,  the  reindeer,  :;37. 

RinidcE,  or  frogs,  674. 

llmimdae,  a  family  of  anomurous  decapods, 
784. 

Riptorial  birds,  or  Riptores,  characteristics 
of  the  ;  divided  into  twj  sections,  the  noc- 
turnal and  diurnal,  with  famiiies  falconidas 
and  vulturidae,  379  et  seq. 

Rasoi*es,  or  scrapers,  an  order  of  birds,  in- 
cluding domestic  poultry,  grouse,  par* 
tridges,  &c.,  548  et  seq. 

R'it~a-tro  I'pe,  the,  a  kind  of  shrew,  76. 

Rit,  the  true  English,  or  black,  inus  rattus, 
&c.,  177. 

Ru,  tbe  water,  arvicola  amphibia,  182. 

Rit,  the  common,  mus  decuminu-^,  &3.,  177. 

Ritel,  the,  or  honey  b-idger  of  tbe  C  ipc,  mel- 
livora  capeusis,  140;  Indian,  141. 

Rits,  the  family  of  muridaj,  176  et  seq. 

Rits,  the  mole,  georhycuidffl.  a  family  of 
rodents,  134. 

Rits,  kangaroo,  359. 

Rits,  the  sand,  a  genus  of  rodents,  135. 

Rittle  of  the  rattlesnakes,  027. 

Rittlesuake,  head,  poison-fang?,  jaws,  &3., 
626. 

Riven,  tbe,  corvus  corax,  491. 

Riy,  the  cramp,  or  electrical,  723. 

Riy,  the  homelyn,  or  maid;  and  the  sharp- 
nosed,  723. 

Riys,  characteristics  of  the,  a  group  of  fish, 
of  the  order  selachia,  723. 

Riys,  eagle,  o.'  myliobatidiB,  723, 


INDEX. 


lUjs,  electric,  or  torpedinidic,  725. 

lUvs  of  the  fins  in  the  lelcoptia  (fishes),  680. 

Kavs,  the  stin^,  or  irygonidce,  723. 

llay?,  the  whip,  723. 

Razor-bill,  the,  uiamania  tordn,  589^ 

Razor-shell,  the,  or  solen,  a  species  of  mol- 

lu5c,  741. 
Rectum,  the,  9. 

Recurvirostra  avoccttn,  the  avocet,  571. 
Red  admiral  butterfly,  the,  815. 
Redbreast,  the  robin,  erylhacus  rnbccula,479. 
Red  coral  (cnrallium  rubrum),  826. 
Red-deer,  243. 

Redstart,  the,  ruticilla  phoDnieuiM,  481. 
Reduvina,  a  group  of  bugs,  800. 
Redwing,  the,  turdus  iliacus.  4t)7, 
Reef?,  coral,  production  of,  827. 
Reeves,  the  fcMuale  of  the  rutf,  569. 
Regent-bird,  or  king  honey-eaicr,  a  species  of 

oriole,  sericulus  chrysocephalu?,  5ul. 
Regulus  cristitus,  the  golden-crested  wren 

or  kinglet,  485. 
Reindeer,  the,  rangifer  tarandu=,  237  etseq. 
Reiibok,  a  species  of  antelope,  252. 
Remora,  or  sucking  fish,  the,  712. 
Reproduction,  general  remarks  on,  10. 
Reproduction  of  batrachia,  6G7. 
Reproduction  of  birds,  3G9  et  seq. 
Reproduction  of  fi^hes,  679. 
Reproduction  of  mammalia,  2  et  seq. 
Reproduction  of  moUuscn,  727.  728. 
Reproduction  of  protozoa,    832, 
Reproduction  of  reptiles,  624. 
Reptilia,  a  class  of  vertebrated  animals,  the 
reptiles,  including  serpents,  lizards,  croco- 
diles, tortoises,  &c, :  divided  into  ophidia, 
or   snakes;    eauria,  or  lizards  ;  loricata,  or 
crocodiles  ;    and  chelonia,  or  tortoises,  621 
et  seq. 
Respiration  of  bati"aclua,  667. 
Respiration  of  birds,  309  et  seq. 
Respiration  of  fishes,  678. 
Respiration  of  mainin;d)a,  2  ef  seq. 
Respiration,  &c.,  of  moHusca,  725. 
Respiration  of  reptiles,  624. 
Respiration  of  vertebrated  animals,  8. 
Rete  mucuosum,  6. 
Retina  of  the  eye,  10. 
Rbamphastidce,  the  toucans,  a  family  of  scan- 

soiial  birds,  527  et  seq. 
Rhamphastos,  the  true  toucans,  530. 
Rhen  americana,  the  American  osLrich,  561. 
Rhesus,  a  species  of  monkey,  45.    . 
Riman-dahan,  a  species  of  felis,  119. 
RhindophidEe,  the  horse-shoe  bats,  a  family 

of  chiroptera  {see  Bats),  71. 
Rbinobatidae,  a  family  of  fish,  belonging  to 

tlie  rays,  722. 
Rhinobii'tus  electricus,  a  fish  belonging  to  the 

rays,  722. 
Rhinoceridae,  the  rhinoceroses,   a  family  of 

pachydermata,  316  et  seq. 
Rhinoceros  unicornis,  the  one-horned,  "or 
Indian  rh  noceros ;  R.  sondaicus,  the  Ja- 
vanese kind;  R.  eumatranus,  a  species 
found  in  Sumatra  ;  R.  bicornis,  the  bor^le, 
316  et  sfq. 
Rhinolophus,  the  greater  and  lesser  horseshoe 

bat,  71. 
RliiZ'ipoda,  two  orders  of  the,  832. 
Rliiz'istoma   cuvieri,  a    species  of  medusa?, 

829. 
Rhuinbifera,  a  section  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes, 

717. 
Rhombus  maximus,  the  turbot,  699. 
Rhombus  vulgaris,  the  briUf  00. 
Rbopdocera,  a  sub-order  of  lepidoptera,  in- 
cluding buiterflicj^,  814. 
Rhyncophora,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  821. 
RUynchops  nigra,  the  shearwater,  600. 
RiynchopsinsD,  a  sub-family  of  gulls,  600. 
Rhynctita,  an  order  of  insects,  corresponding 

with  the  hemiptera  of  Latreille,  798. 
Rbytinidee,  a  family  of  sirenia,  including  the 
species  rhj  tina  stclleri,  or  northern  mana- 
tee, an  extinct  species  of  sirenia,  349. 
Ribbon-fishes,  or  cepolidie,  710. 
Ribbon-worms,  ov  nemertidae,  769. 
Ribs  of  mammalia,  2. 
Ribs  of  vertebrated  animals,  2,  3. 
Rire-bird,  or  Java  sparrow,  oryzonis  oryzi- 

vora,  508. 
Rifle-birds,  Australian,  pliloris,  454. 
Ringed  sn^ke,  the  common  British,  coluhei" 

natrix,  633. 
Riparia,  a  group  of  bugs,  800, 
Ro.ich,  the,  Icuci^cus  rutilus,  696. 
Rubins,  the,  erjthacince,  various  species,  478. 
Roc,  the  f  ibulousbird,  supposed  to  have  been 

the  condor,  410. 
Ruck-dove,  537. 
Rock-fish  (see  Wrasse),  702. 
Rodentia,  an  order  of  mammalia,  including 
the  hares,  porcupines,  beavers,  rats,  &c., 
1C6  et  seq. 
Hoe,  the,  capreolus  caprooa,  215. 
Rollers,  or  coracidBB,  a  family  of  fissirostral 

birds,  438  el  seq. 
Rouk,  the,  corvus  frugilegus,  492. 
Rorqual,  a  species  of  whale,  3 13- 
Kost-beetle,  tho,  cetonia  auiata,  822. 
Rotifera,  a  cIjss  of  articulata,  divuicd  into  the 
Eessi-ia    and     natantia    (formerly    placed 
amongst  infusoria),  772. 
Royston  crow,  491. 
Ruby-tail,  clirysis  ignita,  813. 
Riirt',  the,  pbilomachus  pugnas,  569. 
Ruffe,  the  acerina  vulgaris,  a  species  of  perch, 

704. 
Ruminantia,  an  order  of  mammalia,  embrac- 
ing the  ox,  sheep,  goal,  camel,  &c. ;  organs, 
«:c.,  of  the,  216  el  seq. 
HumierSf  or  cusorcsj  559  el  seq. 


Rupicapra  tragus,  the  chamois,  253. 
Rupicola  aurantia,  the  cock  of  the  rock,  a 
species  of  manakin,  460  ;  the  Peruvian,  460. 
Rusa,  or  Asiatic  deer,  244. 
Kuticilla  phconicuta,  the  redstart,  481. 


Sabf-Lltdj:,  afamily  of  tubicola,  771. 

Sable,  the  fur  of  a  kind  of  marten,  the  martes 

zibellina,  137. 
Sacral  vertebrfp,  2. 
Sacred  beetle,  the,  scaraboDOS   jEgyptiorum, 

822. 
Sacred  monkeys,  33. 
Sacred  ibis,  the,  573. 
-"■acrum,  the,  2 
Saffittid^,  a  family  of  heteropodous  molluscs, 

745. 
St.  Bernard  dog,  95. 
Sajou,  the  horned,  yellow-breasted,  &c.,  51, 

52. 
Saki,  the  white-headed,  or  yarke,  53. 
Sakis,  a  genus  of  American  monkeys,  52. 
Salamander.-,  land,  or  salamandraj,  e'Hi. 
Salamanders,  the  aquatic,  or  tritons,  669. 
Salamanders,  the  true,  672. 
SalamandridOB,  a  family  of  batrachia,  669. 
Salangane,  or  esculent  swallow,  431. 
Salarias  scandens  a  species  of  bleuny,  713. 
Salivary  glands,  the,  9. 
Salivary  organs  of  mammalia,  9. 
Salmon,  artificial  breeding  of,  687. 
Salmon,  growth,  habits,  spawning,  migration, 

&c.,  of  the,  686  et  seq. 
Salmo  fario,  the  common  trout,  689. 
Salmo  rossii,  the  Arctic  salmon,  689. 
Salmo  salar,  the  common  salmon,  686. 
Salmo  salvelinus,  the  char,  690. 
Salmo  trutta,  Salmon-trout,,  689. 
Salpte,  organs,  reprod'iction  &:c.,  7-8,  730. 
Salpingidcc,  a  family  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Samiri,  or  squirrel  monkey,  54. 
Sand-eels,  or  sand-lances,  69S. 
Sander,  the,  lucioperca  sandra,  a  species  of 

perch,  704. 
Sand-grouse,  or  pteroclidse,  548. 
Sand-hog,  or  Indian  badger,  142. 
Sand-hopper  (talitras  locusta),  779. 
S  tnd-hoppci',  the,  a  species  of  articulata,  774. 
Sand-piper,  the,  a  grallatorial  bird,  570. 
Sand-rats,  the,  a  family  of  rodents,  psam- 

raoryctida?,  185. 
Sand-smelt,  the,  alherina  presbyter,  692. 
Sand-wasps,  a  species  of  hymenoptera,  820. 
Sanguisuga  officinalis,  the  leech,  770. 
Sapajous,  or  capucins,  a  genus  of  American 

monkeys,  51. 
Sapbenia,  a  genus  of  medusa?,  829. 
Sarcode,  the  chief  substance  of  the  protozoa, 

S32. 
Sarcophaga  carnaria,  the  flesh-fly,  808. 
Sarcoptes  scabiei  (itch-mite),  788. 
Sarcorhamphus    gryphus,    the  condor,  410; 

S.  papa,  the  king  vulture,  411. 
Sardine,  the,  clupea  Sardinia,  686 


>Sarsice,  a  family  of  medusas,  829. 
Sii  ""  -     -  ■     ■ 


iturnia  prometheus,  a  lepidopterous  iDsect, 
813. 
Sauria,  an  order  of  reptiles,  including  the 

lizards,  &c.,  639  et  seq. 
Saurothcrinae,  a  sub-family  of  cuckoos,  516. 
Saw-flies,  ovipositor  or  saw  of  the,  816. 
Saw-fish,  the,  pristis  antiquorum,  723. 
Saxicolarubetra,  the  wincUat,  479, 
Saxicola   rubicola,    the  stopechat ;    saxicola 

oenanthe,  the  wheatear,  479. 
Scabbard-fish,  lepidopus  argyreus,  710. 
Scales,  horn,  fire,  of  animals,  6,  7. 
Scalesof  fishes,  677,  716. 
Scales  of  the  lepidoptera,  810. 
Scallops,  a  species  of  pecten,  733. 
Scalops  aquations,  shrew-mole,  78. 
Scansores,    divided    into    the    cuculidce,    or 
cuckoos ;    picidae,  or  wood-peckers  ;    psit- 
tacidse,  or  parrots;  and  rhamphastidse,  or 
toucans,  513  et  seq. 
Scapula  of  man,  &c.,  2. 

Scarus,  a  genus  of  acanthopterygious  fish,  702. 
Scclidothcrium,  a  fossil  edentata,  205. 
ScheUopusik,  pseudopus  pallasii,  a  species  of 

hzard,  643. 
Sciajna  aquila,  the  maigre,  705. 
Scianidee,  a  family  of   fishes,    allied  to  the 

perches,  705, 
Seincids,  a  family  of  saurians,  642. 
Scincus  officinalis,  the  skink,  612. 
Scissors-bill,  a  bird,  600. 
Sciuridae,  or  squirrels,  a  family  of  rodents, 
167. 
j  Sciurus,  various  species  of  squirrel,  167  et  seq. 
Sclerodermata,   a  family    of    plectognathous 

fishes,  714. 
Sclerotica  of  the  eye,  10. 
Scolecina,  an  order  of  annelida,  comprises  two 
families,  the  lumbricidrc,  and  naididae,  771. 
Scolopacidaj,  or  snipes,  507. 
Scotopas  gallinago,  common  snipe,  567. 
Scolupax  rusticola,  the  woodcock,  568. 
ScolopendridtB,  a  family  of  myriapiula,  791. 
Scolyius  destructur,  a  coleoptera,  821. 
Scomber  scombrus,  the  mackerel,  7U7. 
ScomberesocidEB,  a  family  of  malacopterygious 

fishes,  700. 
Sconiberidre,  or  mackerels,  a  family  of  acan- 

thopterous  fishes,  706. 
Sconiberides,  or  true  mackerel,  706,  707. 
Scooper,  or  avocet,  a'grallatorial  Liid,  571. 
Scops  aldrovandi,  an  owl,  416. 
Scorpion-fly,  the,  806. 
Scorpionidffi,  a  family  of  arachnida  {scorpions), 

789. 
Scutata,  a  group  of  bugs,  800. 
Scutellum  of  the  bcetltt,  620. 


ScyllidsB,  or  dog-flshes,  a  familv  of  eelaehU, 

720. 
Scymnidce,  a  family  of  fishes,  of  the  order  se- 

Inchia,  721. 
Scymnus  borcalis,  the  Greenland  shark,  721, 
Scythrops,  novre  hollanditr.  the  channel-bill, 

a  bird  of  the  cuckoo  family,  515. 
Sea-acorns,  balanidte,  n  family  of  cirrhopoda, 

Sea-anemonea  (actiniae),  827, 

Sea-bear,  sea-lion,  and  sea-elephant,  species 

of  seals,  101,  162. 
Sea-cat,  or  king  of  the  herrings  (see  Chimxra 

monstrosa). 
Sea-cows,  or  manatees,  319. 
Sea-devil  (see  Fishing-frog),  713. 
Sea-dogs,  a  name  applied  to  seaN,  156. 
Sea-fox,  or  sea-ape  {sec  Fox-shark). 
Sea-hares,  the  aplysiadce,  745. 
Sea-hogF,  hog-fi^h  (see  Porpoise),  345. 
Sea-horse,  the,  hippocampus,  713, 
Sea-horse,  morse,  or  walrus,  163. 
Sea-leopard,  the,  159. 
Sea-lilies,  aspecies  of  echinodermata,  831. 
Sea-lion,  162. 
Sea-mantis,  the,  780. 
Se.i-mats,  or  fluslra;,  728. 
Sea-mew,  or  gull,  the,  a  natatorial  bird,  001. 
Sea-mice,  772. 

Sea-needle,  or  sea-pike,  701. 
Sea-nettles,  the  medusa?,  a  genus  of  disco- 

phora,  828. 
Sea-otter,  the,  145, 
Sea-pen,  a  species  of  asteroids,  826. 
Sea-pike,  or  sea-needle.  701. 
Sea-rushes,  a  species  of  asteroida,  826. 
Sea-snakes,  or  hydrophidce,  633. 
Sea-snipe,  the,  centriscus  scolopax,  702, 
Sea-snipes,    trumpet    fishes,    bellows-fishes, 

&c.,  702. 
Sea-spiders,  784. 
Sea-unicorn,  or  narwhal,  the,  monodon  mono- 

ceros,  347. 
Sfa-urchins,  831. 
Sea-wolf,  the,  anarrhicas  lupus,  an  acanthop- 

terousfish,  713. 
Seals,  or  phocid^,the  family  of  the, and  various 

species,  156  el  seq. ;  seal  hunting,  165, 
Sebaceous  follicles,  6. 
Secretary-bird,  the,  serpentarir^  reptilivorus, 

391.  4 

Secretions,  animal,  10. 

Securifera,  a  sub-order  of  hymenopterous  in- 
sects, divided  into  two  tribes,  the  phyllo- 

phaga,  and  xylophaga,  815, 
Segmentary  natijre  of  the  bodies  of  the  ar- 
ticulata, (see  Articulata). 
Selachia  (sharks  and  rays),  an  order  of  fishes, 

divided  into  two  sub-orders,   the  hcloce- 

phala  and  plagiostomata,  713  et  seq. 
Selachusmaximus,  the  basking  shark,  721. 
Semi-plantigrada,  a  section  of  the  carnivorous 

mammalia,  86, 
Semnopithecus,  the  long-tailed  monkeys ;  38 

etseq. 
Senses  of  felidoc,  111. 
Senses  of  mammalia,  10  et  seq. 
Senses  of  reptiles,  G23. 
Senses  of  vertebrata,  10  et  seq. 
Sepia,  a  colour  named  after  the  cuttle-fish, 

and  produced  by  it,  762. 
Sepia  officinalis,  the  common  cuttle-flsh,  764. 
Sepiida!,  a  family  of  cephalopoda,  760. 
Serpent,  skeleton  of  the,  3. 
Serpentorina),  or  serpent-eaters,  a  sub-family 

of  the  falconidae,  3itl. 
Serpentarius  reptilivorus,  the  secretary-bird, 

391. 
Serpent-charming,  626, 
Serpents,  the,  625  et  seq. 
Serpula,  a  genus  of  tubicola,,  771. 
Serrasalmoncs,  a  species  of  the  fishes  of  the 

family  characinidCD,  698. 
Serricornia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  821. 
SertularidtB,  a  family  of  hydroidae,  825. 
Serum  of  blood,  7. 
Scrval,  the,  felis  serval,  119. 
Setifera,  a  family  of  infusoria,  835. 
Seventeen-year  locust,  800. 
Sexual  characteristics  of  mollusca,  726. 
Shad,  the,  clupea  alosa,  6S6. 
Shanny,  the,  blcnnius  pholis,  712. 
Shaphan,  or  cony  of  the  Bible,  a  species  of 

hyrax,  H.  syriacus,  321. 
Shark,  mouth,  teeth,  fire,  of  the,  713. 
Shark,   the  basking,  sclachus  maximus,  or 

sun-fish,  721. 
Shaik,  the  Beaumaris,  lamna  monensis,  721. 
Shark,  the  blue,  carcharias  glaucus,  719. 
Shark,  the  common  white,  720. 
Shark,  the  fox,  or  thresher,  720. 
Shark,  the  Greenland,  720. 
Shark,  the  hammer-headed,  721. 
Sharks,  the  true,  carcharidoB,  719  et  seq. 
Shearwater,  or  skimmer,  a  gull,  600. 
Shcathbill,  the  white,  chiouis  alba,  541. 
Sheep,  stomach  of,  216, 
Sheep,  ovis,  a  genus  of  bovida,  various  soe- 

cies,  &c.,  262  et  seq. 
Sheep,  wool  of  various  species  of,  264  et  seq. 
Shell  of  the  mollusca,  725  et  seq. 
Shells  of  the  bivalve  molluics,  732. 
Shell  of  Crustacea,  776. 
Shells  of  the  gasteropodous  molluscs,  744. 
Sheldrake,  the,  610. 
Shephfrrds'  dog,  94. 
Saip-worm,  the,  teredo  navalis,  738. 
Surew-inole,  the,  scalops  aquatici;s,  73, 
Sbrew,  the  common,  water,  and  oar^*d,  75,  76. 
Shrews,  or  .soricidse,  a  family  of  insectivorous 

mammalia,  75  et  seq. 
Shrikes,  the  drongo,  dicnirinffi,  457. 
Sbr.kcs,  the  fami  y  of,  laniidoj,  444. 


84s 

Shrimps  and  prawni,  783. 

Shrimps,  oposiitim,  781. 

SinmanfT,  a  species  of  qnndnimana,  35. 

Sight,  organs  of,  in  vertebrata,  10. 

Silkworm,  the  Arrindy,  813. 

Silkworm,  the  common,  813. 

SdphJdro,  a  famdy  of  coleoptera,  823. 

SiUiridoe,  a  family  of  pbysostomatoas  fiihcf. 

G98. 
Silurus  glanip,  a  physostomntous  fl«h,C98. 
Simiro,  or  apes,  the,  divided  into  platyrrUiDO 

andcatarrhino),  23. 
Simia  satyrus,  the  ornng-outan,  30. 
Simoncidro,  a  family  of  acarina,  788. 
Smging-bird^,  organs  of,  12,  13. 
Sing-sing,  or  Koba,  an  antelope,  255. 
Siphonata,  an  order  of  moltu^cs.  736. 
Siphonophora,  a  class  of  radiata,  containing 

two  orders;  the  chondrograda  and  phrso- 

grada,  830. 
Siphons  of  molluscs,  724  et  »to. 
Sipunculus,  a  genus  of  luctona,  771. 
Siredon  pisciforme,  the  axoloil,  608. 
Sirenia,  a  sub  order  of  cciacea,  including  the 

herbivorous  kmd,  as  the  sea-cowe,  dugone. 

&c.,348tf(  srq. 
SireuidcD,  a  family  of  batrachia,  603, 
Sirex  gigas,  aspecies  of  hymenoptera,  817. 
Siskin,  the,  509. 

SittinjE,  or  nuthatches,  the,  443,  444. 
Skate,  the,  fishes  of  the  ray  kind,  723, 
Skeleton  of  animals,  2  et  seq. 
Skeleton  of  bat,  67,68. 
Skeleton  of  batrachia,  666 
Skeleton  of  bear,  146, 
Skeleton  of  camels.  216. 
Skeleton  of  chelonia,  662. 
Skeleton  of  chimpanzee,  28. 
Skeleton  of  cow,  269. 
Skeleton  of  crocodiles,  658. 
Skeleton  of  dugong,  3jO. 
Skeleton  of  elephant,  305. 
Skeleton  of  giraff'e,  229. 
Skeleton  of  gordla,  2. 
Skeleton  of  hawk,  371. 
Skeleton  of  bippopntamus,  302,  316, 
Skeleton  of  horse,  290. 
Skeleton  of  kangaroo,  359. 
Skeleton  of  lion,  Ul. 
Skeleton  of  mammalia,  2  et  seq. 
Skeleton  of  man,  2,  23. 
Skeleton  of  mastodon,  314, 
Skeleton  of  musk-deer,  231. 
Skeleton  of  mylodon,  204. 
Skeleton  of  orang-outin,  23. 
Skeleton  of  reptiles,  624, 
Skeleton  of  rhinoceros,  316. 
Skeleton  of  ruminantia,  216, 
Skeleton  of  seals,  157,  158. 
Skeleton  of  sloth,  203. 
Skeleton  of  tapir,  322. 
Skeleton  of  vulture,  369, 
Skeleton  of  whales,  339. 
Skimmer,  or  shearwater,  GOO. 
Skmk,  the,  scincus  officinalis,  612. 
Skin  of  animak,  6. 
Skin  of  batrachia,  666. 
Skin  of  crocodiles,  657. 
Skin  of  fishes,  677. 
Skinof  horse,  290. 
Skin  of  mammalia,  6. 
Skin  of  reptiles,  G24,  626. 
Skull  of  albatross,  4. 
Skull  of  armadillo,  201. 
Skull  of  aurochs,  270. 
Skull  of  an  Australian,  4. 
Skud  of  avc-aye,  64. 
Skull  of  bat,  68. 
Skull  of  carnivora,  85. 
Skull  of  chelonia,  662. 
Skuil  of  chimpanzee,  4,  28. 
Skull  of  crocodile,  4. 
Skull  of  dog,  4,  88,  89. 
Skull  of  diigong,  350. 
Skull  of  eagle,  369. 
Skull  of  elephant,  303,305. 
Skull  of  felidEE,  110. 
Skull  of  fishes,  676. 
Skull  of  giraffe,  228. 
Skull  of  gorilla,  23.  ^ 

Skull  of  hedgehog,  82.         \ 
Skull  of  horses,  290.   --  • 

Skull  of  hyrcna,  123. 
Skull  of  an  idiot,  3. 
Skull  of  insectivora,  74,  77. 
Skull  of  jackal,  102. 
Skull  of  jerboas.  173. 
Skull  of  lion,  85. 
Skull  of  man,  3. 
Skull  of  monk-y,  38. 
Skull  of  orang-ouian,  31. 
Skull  of  porcupine,  166. 
Skull  of  porcupine,  189. 
Skull  of  poisonous  snakes,  623,- 
SkuU  of  reptiles,  625, 
Skull  of  ruminantia,  216, 
Skull  of  seals,  153. 
Skull  of  whale,  333, 
Skull  of  vertebrated  animals,  4  et  seq.  -ice 

al>o  names  of  each). 
Skunk,  the,  mephitis  putorius,  140. 
Slc^ider-billed  birds,  or  tenuiroslres,  charao 

tciistics  of  the,  441. 
Sloths,  bradypodidie,  family  of,  201. 
Slow-worm,  the,  unguis  fragilis,  612. 
Slugs,  the,  limacids,  755. 
Smell,  organs  of,  in  vertebrata,  10  et  seq. 
Smelt,  osmerus  epcrlanuF,  691. 
Smelt,  sand,  atherina  presbyter,  C92. 
Smew,  the,  605. 

Snails,  common  land,  helicid®,  754. 
Snails,  pond,  755, 
Snake-fiies,  a  speclos  of  neuroptera,  102. 


^46 


INDEX. 


Snake,  poisonous,  skull  of  a,  622. 

Snake,  black,  coluber  constiiclor,  636. 

Snake-eatei',  G39. 

Snako,  horned,  cerastes  hasselqni^tii,  629. 

Snake,  the  ringed,  or  common  British,  633. 

Snake,  various  species  of  colubrine,  G2S). 

Snakes,  lizards,  serpents,  crocodiles,  &c.,  621 

et  seg. 
Snakes,  sea,  or  hydrophidrc,  633. 
Snakes,  hooded,  631. 
Snakes,  venomous,  626. 
Snipe,  the  common,  5G7. 
Snipes,  or  scolopacidae,  5G7. 
Social  bees,  819. 
Soland  goose,  or  gannet,  597. 
Sole,  solea  vulgaris,  700. 
Solen,  or  razor-shell,  741. 
Solenodon,  a  species  of  shrew,  78. 
Solidiingula,  an  order  of  mammalia,  including 

the  horse,  ass,  &c.,  290  ct  scq. 
Solitaire,  didus  soUtarius,  a  bird  allied  to  the 

dodo,  535. 
SolpugidsD,  a  family  of  arachnida,  788. 
Somaieria.  moUissiraa,  eider-duck,  607. 
Somalcria  spectabilis,  king-duck,  607. 
Suosook  (see  Dolphin). 
Soothsayer  (see  M  intis). 
Sores  araneus,  the  common  shrew  ;  S.  fodiens, 

the  water  shrew ;    S.  remifer,   the  oared 

shiew,  75,  76. 
Soricida>,  or  shrews,  a  family  of  insectivorous 

mammalia,  75. 
Sounds,  musical,  and  voice,  12. 
Spaniels,  95. 

Sparidse,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fishes,  706. 
Sparrow-hawks,  the,  or  accipitrinse,  399. 
Sparrow,  common,  passer  domesiicus,  508. 
Sparrow,  hedge,  or  hedge  warbler,  479. 
Sparrow,  the  Java,  or  rice-bird,  5US. 
Spat  or  fry  of  the  oyster,  733. 
Spatangidee,  a  family  of  echinida,  832. 
Spatularla  folium,  a  species  of  ganoid  fishes, 

718. 
SpatularidsB,  a  family  of  ganoid  fishes,  re- 
sembling the  sturgeon,  718. 
Specific  centres  of  existence,  17. 
Spermaceti,  source  of,  341. 
Spermophiies,  a  genus  of  rodents,  169. 
Sphaeridiidse,  a  family  of  colenptera,  823. 
Spha3iomida),  a  family  of  isopoda,  780. 
Spheniscidae,  the  penguins,  588. 
Sphingin.i,  a  tribe  of  lepidoptera,  embracing 

the  sphinxes,  814. 
Sphinx,  the,  a  species  of  lepidoptera,  814. 
S])hyra;nidEe,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fish, 

705. 
Spicule  of  spongilla,  833. 
Spider,  diving,  argyroneta  aquatica,  790. 
Spider,  garden,  789. 
Spider,  harvest,  790, 
Spider,  house,  790. 
Spider  monkeys,  the,  48. 
Spider's  nets,  789. 
Spiders,  or  arachnida,  786  et  seq. 
Spiders,  bird,  mygale,  790. 
Spiders,  trap-door,  790. 
Spine  of  the  vertebrata,  2  et  seq. 
Spinneret  of  lepidoptera,  811. 
Spinnerets  of  spiders,  789. 
Spiny-finned,  or  acantliopterygious  fishes,  702. 
Spiny  lobster,  the,  783. 
Spiralidce,  a  family  of  decapodous  cephalo- 

pods,  7G0. 
Spleen,  the,  9. 

Sponges,  growth  and  nutrition  of,  833. 
Spongilla,  diVflojiment  of,  834. 
Spoonbill,  various  species  of,  572. 
Sprat,  the,  clupea  sprattus,  685. 
Springbok,  the,  a  species  of  antelope,  251. 
Squatarola  cinerea,  the  gray  plover,  530. 
Squatina    aculeata,   a  species  of  fish  of  the 

order  selaclua,  722. 
Squatina  angelus,  angel,  fiddle-fish,  or  monk- 

lish.  722. 
Squatinidee,  a  family  of  fishes,  of  the  order 

selachia,  722. 
Squids,  or  calamaries,  the  loligidoB,  a  family 

of  cephalopods,  7G1. 
SquillidfE,  a  family  of  stomapoda,  780. 
Squirrel,  common,  sciurus  vulgaris,  167. 
•  Squirrel,  flying,  pteromy>;,  168. 
^  Squirrel-monkey,  or  Samiri,  54. 
Squirrel,  petaurus,  361. 
Squirrels,  or  sciuridae,  a  family  of  rodents, 

167,  720. 
Squirrels,  the  earth,  tamias,  a  genus  of  ro- 
dents, 163. 
Stag-beetle,  the,  lucanua  cervus,  774,  823. 
Stag-Uound,  the,  97. 
Stags,  various  species  of,  238  et  seq. 
Star-fish,  831. 
Starlings,  the  family  of,  sturnidSB,  various 

species,  497  et  seq. 
Starlings,  the  true,  sturninoe,  499. 
Star-nosed  mole,  81. 

Steatorime,  or  oil-birds,  a  sub-family  of  fissi- 
rostral  birds,  422. 

Steatornis  caripeusts,  the  guacharo  or  South 
American  oil-bird,  422. 

Steganophthalmata,  an  order  of  raedusee, 
divided  into  two  families— viz.,  the  medu- 
sidae  and  rhizostomidoe,  829. 

Stembok,  oribes,  2G1. 

Stelleiidae,  an  order  uf  echinodermata,  831. 

Stellio  vulgaris,  a  species  of  iguana,  G48. 

Stenops,  a  genus  of  lemuroids,  61. 

Sientor  muUeri,  a  species  of  infusoria,  835. 

Slephanoraia,  a  genus  of  siphonophora,  830. 

Sterlet,  the,  acipuniter  ruthenus,  718. 

Sterna  hirundo,  the  sea-swallow,  6oO. 

SterninEe,  or  terns,  GOO. 

Sternoxia,  a  sub-tribe  of  coleoptera,  822. 

Sternum  of  birds,  the  golden  eagle,  370. 


Sternum  of  the  vortebrated  animal<=,  2,  3. 
StiirhostegidfD,  a  family  of  rhizopoda,  833. 
Stickleback,  the  common  and  fifteen-spined, 

703. 
Strigopinnp,  a  sub-family  of  parrots,  523. 
Stilt,  the,  himantopus  melanopterus,  571. 
Sting  of  the  bee,  815. 
Stinging  organs  of  the  helanthoida,  827. 
Stinging  organs  of  the  medusa,  828. 
Sting-rays,  723. 
Stoat,  the,  or  ermine,  136. 
Stock-dove,  530. 
Stomach,  and  its  organs,  9, 
Stomach  of  birds,  375.  431. 
Stomach  of  camels,  219. 
Stomach  of  ostrich,  560. 
Stooiach  of  ruminantia  216. 
Stomapoda,  an  order  of  Crustacea,  780. 
Stomatoda,  an  order  of  infusoria,  835. 
Stonechat,  saxicola  rubicola,  479. 
Stone-fly,  perla  bicaudata,  H05. 
Storks,  various  species  of,  574  et  seq. 
Storm-birds  (see  Petrel.) 
St.  Peter's  fish  (see  Haddock  and  Doree). 
Street-dogs  of  Turkey,  9G  ;  of  India,  101. 
StreperinoD,  or  piping  crows,   a  sub-family  of 

the  corvidae,  or  crows,  489. 
Strepsilas  interpres,  the  turnstone,  579. 
Strepsitera,  an  order  of  insects,  820. 
Stridulantia,  a  tribe  of  honioptera,  800. 
Strigidce,  or  owls,  412  et  seq. 
Striginte,  the  true  owls,  412  et  seq. 
StrigopintD,  a  sub-family  of  parrots,  523. 
Strigops  habroptilus,  the  kakapo,  a  kind  of 

parrot,  523. 
Strix  flammea,  the  barn  owl,  413. 
Strombida^,  a  family  gasteropods,  750, 
Strongylus  gigas,  a  species   of  nematoidea, 

769. 
Struthio  camelus,  the  ostrich,  559. 
Struthionidfe,  or  ostrich  family,  559. 
Sturgeon,  the  common,  acipenser  sturio,  &c., 

718. 
Sturnella,  genus  of  the  starling  family,  500. 
Sturnella  ludoviciana,  meadow-lark,  500. 
Sturnidce,  or  starlings,   the  family  of,    497 

et  seq. 
SturniniE,  or  true  starlings,  499. 
Sturnus  vulgaris,  common  starlings,  499. 
Stylocerus,  a  Mipus  of  cervidte,  embracing 

the  muntjacsj("16. 
Sub-brachiate,    anacanthinous,    or    spineless 

fishes,  divided  into  two  families,  the  gadidae, 

or  cod-flsh,  and  the  pleuronectidje,  or  flat 

fish,  693. 
Sublicornos,  a  tribe  of  neuroptera,  805. 
Sucking-fish,  or    remora;    echeneis  reraora, 

712. 
Suctoria,  the  leeches,  770. 
Suida;,  the  family  of,  swine,  325  et  seq. 
Sun-birds,  promeropidiB  ;  the  true,  proraero- 

pinjB,  451  et  seq. 
Sun-fi>h,    a   name    applied  to    the  basking 

shark,  721. 
Sun-fisb,  or  short  sun-fish,  the,  orthagoriscus 

mola,  715. 
Surgeon,  the,  acanthurua  chirurgus,  a  species 

of  acanthopterous  fish,  70G. 
Suricates,  the,  132. 
Surnia  nyct^a,  the  snowy  owl,  416. 
Surnince,  or  f,v>wk-owls,  416. 
Suspecta,  a  group  of  colubrine  snakes,  633. 
Sus  scrofa,  the  common  hog,  327  et  seq. 
Swallow,  barn,  an  American  species,  427. 
Swallow,  chimney,  hirundo  rustica,  426. 
Swallow,  esculent,  coUocalia  esculenta,  pro- 
ducing   the    edible  birds'-nests  of  China, 

431. 
Swallow-hawk,  402. 
Swallow,  sea,  sterna  hirundo,  600. 
Swallows,  hirundinida;,  426  et  seq. 
Swans,  the,  a  sub-family,  cygninae,  of  nata- 
torial birds,  various  species  of,  611  et  seq. 
Swarming  of  bees,  820. 
Sweetbread,  or  pancreas,  the,  9. 
Swift,  the  common,  cypselus  apus,  430. 
Swifts,    cvpselidoD,    a   family   of   fissirostral 

birds,  427. 
Swimming-birds,  or  natatores,  538. 
Swimming  of  fishes,  birds,  &c.,  14. 
Swine,  or  suidie,  325  el  seq. 
Swine,  South  African,  331. 
Sword-fishes,  the,  xiphiidoe,  254. 
Syllis  monilaris,  a  species  of  errantia,  772. 
Sylvidae,  or  sylviadre,  tHe  warblers,  a  family 

of  dentirostral  Grrjis,  472  et  seq. 
Sylvinaj,  or  true  wai'blers,  482  et  seq. 
SymbranchidEe,  a  family  of  physostomatous 

fi.^hes,  6S3. 
Synallaxinee,  a  sub-family  of  creepers,  445. 
SynaptidcB,  a  family  of  holothurida,  832. 
Syngnathidfe,  a  .family  of  fishes,  of  the  sub- 
order lophobranchia,7l3; 
Syngnathus  acus,  a  British  species  of  fishes, 

sub-order  lopUobranchia,  713. 
Syrnium  stcidula,  the  tawny  owi,  &c.,  415. 
Syrnium,  the  hooting  owls,  415. 
Syrphidffi,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


Tabanid.e,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 

Tabanus  bovinus,_Qi*-giid-fty,  809. 

Table  of  moUustfbus  shells  in  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum,  765. 

Tacbornis  phoBurcobia,  the  palm-swift  of 
Jamaica,  430. 

Tachypetcs  aquilas,  the  frigate-bird,  597. 

Tadpole,  development  of.the,  667. 

Taenia  solium,  a  species  of  cestoidea,  the  com- 
mon tape-worm,  768. 

Tail  and  wings  of  birds,  feathers  in  the,  371 
et  seq. 

Tail  of  the  carnivora,  86. 


Tail  of  the  whale,  338. 

Tail,  vevtebr®  of  the,  213  (see  also  the  names 

of  Animals). 
Tailed  wasps  (sirex  gigas).  818. 
Tailor-birds,  of  the  genera  orthotomus  and 
prinia,  members  of  the  family  sylvidae,  485. 
TalegalUi  lathami,  the  brush  turkey,  557. 
Talitrus  locusta,  or  sand-hopper,  779. 
Tali)idED,  or  moles,  a  family  of  insectivorous 

mammalia,  74. 
Talpa  europoea,  the  mole;  T.  ccoca,  a  species 

of  mole,  78,  79. 
Tamias,  a  genus  of  rodents,  the  earth  squir- 
rels, IG9. 
Tanagers,  or  tanagrinje,  a  sub-family  of  coni- 

rostral  birds,  506. 
Tanrec,  the,  centetes,  a  genus  of  hedgehogs, 

82. 
Tantalintr,  the  ibises,  a  sub-family  of   the 

heron  tribe,  573. 
Tanystoma,  a  tribe  of  diptera,  809. 
Tape-worms,  cestoidea,  768. 
Taphozous,  a  genus  of  bats,  71. 
Tapiridse,  or  tapirs,  a  family  of  thick-skinned 

mammalia,  321. 
Tapirus  ameiic^mus,  T.  viUosus,  and  T.  bico- 

lor,  &c.,  322  et  seq. 
Tapoa,  the  sootv.  360. 
Tarantula,  the, '790. 
Tarsal  boue,  the,  2,  3. 
Tarsidae,  a  family  of  quadruraana,  62. 
Tarsius,  tarsiers,  or  Asiatic  lemuroids,  62, 
Taste,  organ  of,  in  mammalia,  9  et  seq. 
Tattlers,  or  totaninre,  571. 
Tawney  eagle,  387. 
Teal,  the,  querquedula  crecca,  609. 
Tectibrancliiata,    a   group  of   gasteropodous 

molluscs,  745. 
Teeth    (see    also  \  Dentition,    also  names  of 

animals),  4,  5. 
Teeth  of  aard-vark,  212. 
Teeth  of  babirussa,  327, 
Teeth  of  badgers,  141. 
Teeth  of  bears,  146. 
Teeth  of  carnivora,  86. 
Teeth  of  crocodiles,  622. 
Teeth  of  dog,  88. 
Teeth  of  dormouse,  171. 
Teeth  of  elephant,  303. 
Teeth  of  felids,  87,  109. 
Teeth  of  glutton,  137. 
Teeth  of  gorilla,  23. 
Teeth  of  hare,  198. 
Teeth  of  horse,  291. 
Teeth  of  hysna,  127. 
Teeth  of  ichneumon,  130. 
Teeth  of  lemur,  58. 
Teeth  of  mammalia,  4,  5. 
Teeth  of  marmozet,  53. 
Teeth  of  mice,  177. 
Teeth  of  monkeys,  38. 
Teeth  of  musquash,  184. 
Teeth  of  oxen,  269. 
Teeth  of  peccary,  325. 
Teeth  of  pig,  329. 
Teeth  of  porcupine,  189,  345. 
Teeth  of  rodentia,  16G. 
Teeth  of  ruminants,  217. 
Teeth  of  seal,  157,  158. 
Teeth  of  shrew,  74. 
Teeth  of  vertebrata,  4,  5. 
Teguexin,  the,  teius  teguesin,  646. 
Teleosauridae,  a  family  of  extinct  loricata,  or 

crocodiles,  661. 
Teleostia,  an  order  of  fishes,  corresponding 
with  Cuvier's  "Osseous  Fishes,"  680  etseq. 
Telephori,  soldier  and  sailor  beetles,  822. 
Tenobrio  molitor,  the,  822. 
Tenrecs,  a  species  of  iusectivora,  82. 
Tentacles  of  the  polypi,  824. 
Tenuirostres,  or  slender-billed  birds,  charac- 
teristics of  the,  441  et  seq. 
Terebella,  a  genus  of  tubicola,  771. 
Terebrantia,a  tribeof  physopodous  insects,  801. 
Terebrantia,a  divisioa  of  the  hymeuopterai 

816. 
Terebratulidse,  a  group  of  moUusca,  741. 
Teredro  navalis,  the  ship-worms,  a  species  of 

mollusc,  T33  ct  seq. 
Termes  atrox,  nest  of  the  white  ant,  805. 
Termitidce,  tlie  white  ant«,  804. 
Tern,  the  great,  or  sea-swallow,  600. 
Terns,  sterninffi,  sub-faiuily  of  gulls,  600. 
Terriers,  English  and  Scotch,  95. 
Testaceous  moUusca,  726. 
Testudinidae,  the  land  tortoises,  GG5. 
Testudo  graeca,  the  common  European  tor- 
toise, 6G5. 
Tetrabranchiata,  an  order  of  cephalopodous 

molluscs,  757. 
Tetradon,  a  genus  of   plectognathous    fish, 
with  species  ;    T.  Iterigatus  ;  T.  pennanti ; 
T.  lineatus,  &c.,  715. 
Tetramera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera,  820 

et  seq. 
Tetraonidse,  or  grouse,  a  family  of  rasorial 

birds,  various  species,  511  et  seq. 
Tetraouinas,  a  sub-family  of  the  grouse  tribe, 

542. 
Tetris,  a  species  of  grasshopper,  801. 
Teuthidao,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fish, 

70G. 
Thalassarctos  martimus,  Arctic  bear,  147. 
Thulassinidce,  a  faoiily  of  macrurous  deca- 
pods, 783. 
Thamnophilinra,  a  sub-family  of  shrikes,  456. 
Thaumantias  pilosella,  a  species  of  medus£B, 

829. 
Theoosomata,  an  oi'der  of  pteropodous  mol- 

lusca,  743. 
Thelphuste,  a  kind  of  land-crabs,  786. 
Thelyphonidae,  a  family  of  arachnida,  789. 
Therevidae,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


Thick-heads,  or  pachycephalinje,  a  sub-family 
of  chatterers,  460. 

Thick-knees,  or  oedicneminEO,  various  species, 
582. 

Thigh-bone,  or  femur,  the,  2  et  seq. 

Thoracic  cavity,  2  ;  duct,  9. 

Thoracic  duct,  the,  2  cf  seq. 

Thomback,  the,  raia  clavata,  723. 

Thresher  (see  Fox-shark),  12]. 

Thrips  ccrealium,  a  species  of  physopodous  in- 
sects, 801. 

Thrushes,  or  turdidOD,  463  et  seq. 

Thrush,  species  of  ;  White's  thrush,  turdug 
whitei;  the  missel-thrush,  turdus  visci- 
vorus ;  the  song-thrush,  turdus  musicus, 
&c.,  465  et  seq. 

Thrushes,  the  ant,  formicarina?.  669. 

Thrushes,  the  true,  turdina?,  4G5. 

Thylacinus  cynocephalus,  the  pouched  wolf,  a 
species  of  marsupial,  366. 

Thylacotherium,  an  extinct  marsupial  animal, 
367. 

Tliymallus  vulgaris,  the  grayling,  G92. 

Thynnus  pelamys,  thebonito,  708. 

Thyimus  vulgaris,  the  tunny,  708. 

Thysanura,  an  order  of  ametabolous  insects, 
797. 

Tibiaof  theleg,  2,  3. 

Tick,  the  sheep,  a  dipterous  insect,  194. 

Tiger,  felis  tigris,  116  et  seq. 

Tiger-cat,  119. 

Tiger  hunting,  117. 

Ttmalince,  or  babblers,  a  group  of  dentirostral 
birds,  465. 

Tinamidae,  the  tinamous,  541. 

Tineina,  a  tribe  of  lepidoptera,  812. 

TipulidiD,  a  family  of  diptera,  the  daddy- 
long-legs,  809. 

Titlark,  anthus  pratensis,  the,  473. 

Titmice,  various  species  of,  parinae,  474. 

TityrinsB,  or  becards,  a  sub-family  of  fly- 
catchers, 462. 

Toad,  the  accoucheur  and  natterjack,  674. 

Toad,  the  common,  bufo  vulgaris,  673. 

Toad,  the  Surinam,  pipa  americana,  673. 

Toads,  reputed  lengthened  tori)idity  of,  673. 

Todies,  or  todinas,  a  sub-family  of  fissirostral 
birds,  432. 

Todinre,  the  todies,  432. 

Tody,  the  green,  todus  viridis,  432. 

Toes,  phalanges  of  the,  2. 

Tomicus  typographus,  the  typographic  beetle, 
821. 

Tongue  of  giraffe,  228. 

Tongue  of  vertebrata,  the,  12,  13. 

Tooth-shells,  dentalidce,  746. 

To_pe,  the,  galeus  vulgaris,  a  species  of  shark, 

Top-shells,  the  trochi,  a  genus  of  gasteropods, 

746. 
Toque,  the,  a  species  of  monkey,  44. 
Torpedinidae,  or  electric  rays,  723. 
Torpedo,  electrical  organs  of  the,  724, 
Tortoise-shell  butterfly,  the,  815. 
Tortoise-shell  obtained,  from  the  horny  plates 
■  covering  the  carapace  of  the  hawk's-biil 
•    turtle,  chelonia  imbricala,  663. 
Tortoise,  skeleton  of  the,  661,  662. 
Tortoise,  alligator,  chelydea  serpentina,  664. 
Tortoise,  box,  a  species  of  turtle,  664. 
Tortoise,  common  European,  665. 
Tortoises,  fossil,  666.    . 
Tortoise,  Indian,  testudo  Indica,  665. 
Tortoises,  the  land,  testudinida?,  665. 
Tortoises,  the  soft,  trionycidte,  664. 
Tortricidif,  a  fami*    of  serpents,  639. 
Tortricina,  a  tribe  of  lepidoptera,  812. 
Totaninie,  the  tattlers,  a  sub-family  of  gi-alla- 

torial  birds,  571. 
Toucans,  or  rhamphastidae,  a  family  of  scan- 

sorial  birds,  523  et  seq. 
Tongue  of  felidie,  lU. 
Touracoes,  a  genus  of  birds,  corythaix,  of  the 

conirostral  kind,  437. 
Tosodon,  the,  335. 
Toxotes  jaculator,  a  species  of  acanthopterous 

fish,  706. 
Trachea,  or  windpipe,  8. 
Trachearia,  a  sub-class  of  arachnida,  embrac- 
ing  three   orders— the    podosomata ;     the 
acarina,    or   monomerosomata ;     and    the 
adelarthrosomata,  787. 
Trachelia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Trachelina,  a  sub-family  of  infusoria,  835. 
Trachinida?,  or  weevers,  a  family  of  acanthop- 
terous, fish,  705. 
Trachinus  draco,  a  species  of  fish,  705. 
Tragopan,  the,  553. 
Tree-corals,  or  madreporidEB,  827. 
Tree-frogs,  hylides,  674. 
Tree-kangaroos,  359. 
Tree-pigeons,  540. 

Trematoda,  an  order  of  platyelraia,  with  three 
families — viz.,   the  distomidae,  tristomidcB, 
and  piilyslomidte,  768. 
Trcpang,  the,  holothurida  edulis,  832. 
Treronidae,  the  tree-pigeons,  540. 
Trichecas  rosmarus,  the  walrus,  157,  163. 
Tiichecidce,  the  walrus  family,  157,  163. 
Ticliiurus  lepturus,  a  species  of   acanthop- 
terous fish,  710. 
Trichodida,  a  faoiily  of  infusoria,  835. 
Trichodinae  (urn-animalcules),  a  sub-family 

of  infusoria,  835. 
Trichoptera,  a  sub-order  of  neuropterous  in- 
sects, 806. 
Tridacna  gigas,  the  clam-shell,  736. 
Triglidcc,  or  cataphi'acta,  a  family  of  spiny 

fishes,  703. 
Trigoniacea,  a  tribe  of  moliuscs,  734. 
Trilobites  (fossil  Crustacea),  778. 
Trimera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera,  820. 
Tringinas,  a  sub-family  of  the  snipes,  570. 


INDEX. 


847 


Trionycid6B,  or  soft  tortoiseB,  664. 

Trionyx  feros,  the  enapping  turtle,  664. 

Tripodonotus,  a  genus  of  enakes,  635. 

Tristomidre,  a  family  of  trematoda,  769. 

Tritoniiils,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
luscs, 745. 

Triton  palustrls;  tviton  aquaticus,  &c.,  spe- 
cies of  batrachia,  669  et  seq. 

Trochilida?,  or  humming-birds,  a  family  of 
tenuirostrcs,  44S  rt  seq. 

Trochus,  a  genus  of  gasteropods,  748. 

Troglodytes  gorilla,  the  gorilla,  23  ;  T.  nigcr, 
the  chimpanzee,  27  ;  T.  calvus,the  nshiego- 
mbouve,  28  ;  T.  koolorv-kamba,  the  kooloo- 
kamba,  28  ;  T.  soko,  30, 

Troglodytes  vulgaris,  the  common  wren,  411. 

Troglodytinoo,  the  wrens,  441. 

Trogonidre,  or  couroucous,  436. 

TrombidiidiB,  a  family  of  acarina,  787. 

Troopials,  the,  500. 

Tropic  birds,  phaetoninfp,  599. 

Troupiale,  the  oriole,  4G4,  500. 

Trout,  salmon,  salmo  trutta,  690. 

Trout,  the  common,  salmo  fario,  689. 

Trumpeters,  the,  psophinEB  (see  Cranes). 

Trunk-fi^h,  the,  ostracion,  714. 

Trunk  of  the  Indian  elephant,  30G. 

Trusalis,  a  species  of  orthoptera,  801. 

Trygonidae,  or  sting-rays,  the,  723. 

Tubicola,  an  order  of  annelida,  including  the 
families  sabellidic  and  hermellida?,  771. 

Tubiporidie,  a  family  of  asteroida,  826. 

Tubularida?,  a  family  of  the  hydroida,  825. 

Tubulifora,  a  tribe  of  hymenoptera,  818. 

Tubulifera,  a  tribe  of  physopodous  insects, 
801. 

Tucutuco,  a  species  of  rat,  187. 

Tunicata,  a  class  of  mnlluscoids,  embracing 
the  orders  ascidiae  and  bipbora,  728. 

Tunic,  nature  of  the,  belonging  to  the  order 
tunicata  moUuscoids,  728. 

Tunis,  a  genus  of  medusae,  828. 

Tunny   the,  thynnus  vulgaris,  708. 

Tupainto,  or  banxrings,  the,  a  tribe  of  insec- 
tivorous mammalia,  75. 

Turanian  variety  of  man,  19. 

TurbellaridEe,  a  family  of  planarida,  769. 
"  TurbinidjB,  a  f  iniily  of  gasteropods,  748. 

Turbnt,  the,  rhombus  maximus,  699. 

Turdidffi,  or  thrushes,  family  of  the,  463. 

Turdinae,  or  true  thrushes,  465. 

Tardus,  species  of ;  T.  whitei,  While's  thrush; 
T.  varius,  a  Japanese  kind  ;  T.  raerula,  the 
blackbird;  T.  viscivorous,  the  missel- 
thrush  ;  T.  musicus,  the  song-thrush ;  T. 
pilaris,  the  fieldfare  ;  T.  iliacus,  the  red- 
wing ;  and  T.  torquatus,  the  ring  ouzel, 
465  et  seq. 

Turkey,  brush,  talegalla  lathami,  557. 

Turkey-buzzard,  407. 

Turkey,  common,  meleagris  gallopavo,  and 
other  species,  518  et  seq. 

Turkeys,  sub-family  of,  meleagrince,  548. 

Tuinicinias,  a  sub-family  of  grouse,  547. 

Turnip-fly,  the,  haltica  nemorum,  821. 

Turnix  pugnax,  a  Javanese  species  of  grouse. 


547. 


,  664. 


Turnix  tachydromus,  the  Andalusian  quai 

547. 
Turnstone,  strepsilas  interpres,  579. 
Turrilites,  a  genus  of  cephalopods,  757. 
Turriiellida?,  a  family  ot  gasteropods,  749. 
Turtle-dove,  538.  , 

Turtle,  the  green,  chelonia  midas,  664. 
Turtle,  the  hawk's-bill,  chelonia  imbricata, 

G64. 
Turtle,  the  leathery,  epharifc  coriacea,  664. 
Turtle,  the  snapping,  trionj^  ferox, 
Turtles,  or  chelonidre,  662*^  seq. 
Tusks,  see  names  of  Animals. 
Tusks  of  elephant,  303, 
Tusks  of  narwhal,  317. 
Tusks  of  walrus,  101. 
Tympanum  of  the 
Typholopidop,  a  i. 
Typographic  beet 
Tyranninae,  or  tyj 
Tyrannus  intrc] 
Tyrant,  the  ere. 


Ulna  of  the  arm,  2,  3. 

Umbo,  or  beak  of  a  bivalve  mollusc,  726. 

Umbrella-bird,  the,    cephalopterus    ornatus, 

457. 
Umbrella,  or  disc  of  the  mcduso',  828. 
Unibrclla-shcll,  the,  a  gasleropod,  745. 
Unau,  a  species  of  sloth,  204. 
Unio  margaritiferus,  a  mollusc,  736. 
Unionacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  736. 
Unio  pictorura,  a  species  of  mollusc,  736. 
Upholsterer  bee,  819. 
UpupidiE,  or  hoopoes,  a  family  of  tcnuiros- 

tral  birds,  4'>2. 
Uria,  a  genus  of  auks,  the  guillemots,  591. 
Urinary  organs  of  mammalia,  2,  10. 
Urodela,  an  order  of  batrachia,  669. 
Ursida?,  or  bears,  a  family  of  camivora,  88, 

145. 
Ursus  arctos,  the  brown  hoar  ;  U.  americanus, 

the  black  bear;  U.  ferox,  the  grisly  bear ; 

U.  epehrus,  a  fossil  species,  1 16  et  seq. 
Ulamania  torda,  the  razor-bill,  589. 
Utia,  a  species  of  rat,  187. 


Vacuoles  of  infusoria,  834. 
Vampyre  bats,  or  phyllostomidae,  69. 
VanoUus  cri:?tatus,  crested  lapwing,  581. 
Vanessa  atalanta,  the  red  admiral  butterfly, 

818. 
Vanessa  io,  the  peacock  butterfly.  815. 
Vanessa  urticoe,  the  tortoiseshell    butterfly, 

815. 
Valves  of  the  heart,  8. 
Varanidee,  a  family  of  lizards,  GIG. 
Veins  and  arteries  (see  Circulation). 
Velella,  a  genue  of  siphonophorous  radiata, 

830. 
Vena  cava,  the,  8. 

Venemosa,  a  group  of  colubrine  snakes,  629. 
Venous  blood  (see  Heart),  8. 
Ventral  fins  of  fishes,  677. 
Ventricle,  the  expelling  chamber  of  the  heart, 

the,  8. 
Venus'  girdle  (cestum  Veneris),  142. 
Vermes,  nervous  system  of  the,  7G7. 
Vermes,  or  worms,  classes  of,  are— platyelmia, 

nematelmia,  annelida,  and  rotifera,  767. 
Vermetus,  a  genus  of  gasteropods,  749. 
\'ertebra,  nature  of  a,  2. 
Vertebrse  of  birds,  370. 
Vertebrae  of  reptiles  (see  Reptiles),  3. 
Vertebrje  of  the  skeleton,  articulation  of  the, 

2  et  seq. 
Vertebral  column  and  vertcbrre  of  mammalia, 

&c.,  2,  3. 
Vertebral  column  of  the  vertebrata  generally, 

2,3. 
Vertebrata,  characteristics  of  the  functions. 

organs,  &c.,  of  the  (see  the  names  of  each  ; 

also  of  the  bones,  muscles,  nerves,  &c.),  2 

et  seq. 
Vertebrata  divided    into    five    classes— viz., 

Pisces,  or  Fishes  ;  Batrachia,   or   Frogs; 

Reptilia,    or   Reptiles  :    Aves,   or  Birds  ; 

and  IMammalia,  or  animals  giving  suck  to 

their  young,  1 


ail,    *\es' 


pa  holsatica,  a  species  of  wasp,  818. 
Vespa  vulgaris,  the  common  wasp,  818. 
Vesperlilio  noctula,  the  noctulc,  or  great  bat, 

71. 
VespertilionidiT,  the  true  bats,  a  family  of 

chiroptera,  71. 
Vibrissao,  or  bristles  of  bj. 
Vicugna,  the, 
Vidu 


Virginian  opossum,  864. 
Virgularia  mirnbilia,  species  of  aeterolda.  826. 
Viscacha,  lagostomus  trichodactylus,  192. 
Viscacha,  the    mountain,    lagidium   cuvicri, 

191. 
Vitreous  humour  of  the  eye,  10. 
Viverra  civctta,  the  common  civet,  130 ;  V. 

rasse,  the  rasee,  or  Javanese  civet,  131. 
ViverridiT,  or  civets,  a  family  of  camivora, 

87,  130  et  seq. 
Voice  and  song  of  birds,  13. 
Voice  of  mammals,  12,  13. 
Voice  of  birdf,  12,  13. 
Voles,  or  arvicola,  a  genus  ofrodenUt,    178 

et  seq. 
Volutidao,  a  family  of  gasteropods,  751. 
Vomer  of  fishes  (see  Fishes). 
Vorticcllidao  (bell-animalcules),  a  family  of 

infusoria,  835. 
Vulpes  vulgaris,  the  common  fox,  104  ;  V.  la- 

gopuB,  the  Arctic  fox,  lOG. 
Vulture,  skeleton  of  the,  369. 
Vulture,     the    Arabian,    vultur   monachus ; 

cinereous,   40S ;    the    tawny,   gyps   fulvus, 

408  ;  Egyptian,  409. 
Vulture,  the  black,  407. 
Vulture,  sociable,  408. 
Vulture,  turkey,  cathartes  aura,  or  turkey 

buzzard, 407. 
Vulturida?,  the  vultures,  a  family  of  raptorial 

birds;,  405  et  seq. 
VuUurinjE,  the  true  vultures,  405. 


Wadino-birds,    or  grallatores,  an  order  of 

the  class  aves,  or  birds,  564. 
Wagtail,  the  pied,  white,   gray,  and  other 

species,  472,  473. 
Walking-leaves,  orthopterous  insects,  802. 
Walrus  family,  the,  or  trichccids,  1G3. 
Wanderoo,  a  species  of  monkey,  45. 
Wapiti,  the,  cervtis  canadensis,  23G,  243. 
Warblers,  the  true,  482. 
Warbler,  the  garden,  curruca  hortensis  ;  the 

grasshopper  warbler,  sibellatrix  locuetella; 

the   Dartford   warbler,   nielizophilus   dart- 

fordiensis ;    the  reed  warbler,  calamodyta 

arundinacea,  483  et  seq. 
Wasp,  the  common,  vespa  vulgaris,  a  hymcn- 

opterous  insect,  &c.,  817,  818. 
Wasps,  tailed,  a  tribe  of  hyn^'^noptera,  818. 
Watch  dog-s  96.  # 

Water-beetle,  823. 
Water-bugs,  the  great,  800. 
Water-dogs,  95. 
Water-hens,  or  galinules,  565. 
Water-newts,  G70. 
Water-pig,  or  capybara,  197. 
Water-pot  shell,  the,  738. 
Water-ouzel,  or  dipper,  469. 
Water-rail,  the,  566. 
Water-rat,  182. 
Water-shrew,  76. 
Waxwing,  the,  458. 

Weasel,  common,  mustela  vulgaris,  13G. 
Weasels,  or  mustelidaD,  87,  135. 
Weaver-birds,  or  ploceinae,  502. 
Web-footed  birds,  or  natatores,  588  et  seq. 
Wedge-tailed  eagle,  387. 
Weevcrs,  the  trachinidEe,  705. 
Weevils,  the  nut  and  corn,  207. 
Whale-hone,  or  baleen,  340, 

"  idishJiiT,  pursuit  of  .341.  ^^»<i 


Whitebait,  the,  clupea  alba,  686. 

White  elephants  311. 

White-nosed  monkey,  the  Ipbbct,  43. 

Whiiothroat,  the,  curruca  cincrcn;  the  lesser 
wliitethrout,  curruca  nylvielli,  484. 

Whiting  the.  mcrlangus  vulgariR,  693. 

Whyduh,  or  widow-birdH,  vidua  paradisea, 
504. 

Widgeon,  the,  marcca  pcnelope,  CIO. 

Widow-bird  (sec  Whydah-bird),  501. 

Wild  cat,  120. 

Willsidip,  a  family  of  mcdueie,  829. 

Winchat,  the,  eaxicola  rubetra,  479. 

Windpipe,  or  Irachen,  the,  8. 

Wings  and  tails  of  birds,  feathers  in  the,  371 
et  $eq. 

Wings  and  wing-bones  ofbtrdp,  371  et  sfq. 

Wings  of  beetles,  795. 

Wings  of  hymenoptera,  795. 

Wings  of  insect's,  795. 

Wolf  and  dog,  hybrid  of,  90. 

Wolf-dogs,  95,  9G. 

Wolf,  common,  and  other  species  (sea  names 
of  each),  101-101. 

Wolf,  pouched,  or  zebra-wolf,  pcracyon,  or 
thylacinus  cyuucephalus,  a  marsupial  ani- 
mal, 3GG. 

Wolverine,  the,  or  glutton,  138. 

Wombat,  the,  pha.«colomys  fo?8or,  356. 

Wonga-pigcon,  510. 

Wood-chat,  the,  laniuR  rutilus,  456. 

Woodcock,  Bcolopax  rusticoli,  568. 

Wood-louse,  the  (oniscus),  750. 

Woodpeckers,  or  picidae,  a  family  of  ecan- 
sorial  birds,  various  species  of,  516  et^teg. 

Wood-pheasant  (see  Lyre-bird). 

Wool,  nature  of,  6  ;  of  sheep,  264. 

Working-bee,  the,  819. 

Worms  (see  Vermes),  7fi7. 

Wou-wou,  or  silvery  gibbon,  36. 

Wrasse;  rock-fi^i. ;  old-wives;  labrus  (var- 
ious species),  702. 

Wren,  the  common,  troglodytes  vulgaris,  and 
other  species,  441,  442. 

Wren,  the  gold  crested,  485. 

Wrens,  or  troglodytinae,  a  eub-family  of 
creepers,  411,  442. 

Wrynecks,  or  yuncinEE,  a  sub-family  of  scan- 
Borial  birds,  520. 


XiPHiAS  gladius,  the  sword-fish,  708. 
XiphiidEE,  the  swordflshcs,  708, 
Xylocopa,  the  carpenter  bee,  8l9. 
Xylophaga,  a  tribe  of  secunferous  hymenop- 
tera, 816. 
Xyphosura,  an  order  of  crustacca,  776,  778. 


Yak,  the,  poephagus  grunniens,  a  Bpecies  of 

the  bison  kind,  283. 
Yapock,  the,  chuonectes  variegatus,  365. 
Yprkc,  a  species  of  monkey,  53. 
Yaphantes  baltimore,  the  Baltimore  oriole, 

500. 
Yuncinae,  or  wrynecks,  520. 
Yuen,  a  species  of  quadrumani,  37, 
Yunx  lorquila,  the  wryneck,  520. 


Zebra  Burchell's,    equus     burcheUi;    equus 

zebra,  300. 
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opiralidte,  a  fa.uiUy  oi  aeccvijuuu'aw  *^i,.  ..;., 

pod-;,  760. 
Spleen,  the,  9. 

Sponges,  growth  and  nutrition  of,  833. 
Spongilla,  dev'^lopment  of,  S34. 
Spoonbill,  various  species  of,  572. 
Sprat,  the,  clupea  spratlus,  6S5. 
Springbok,  the,  a  species  of  antelope,  251. 
Squatarola  cinerea,  the  gray  plover,  580. 
Squatina    auuleata,   a  species  of  fish  of  the 

order  selachia,  722. 
Squatina  aiigelus,  angel,  fiddle-fish,  or  monk- 

tish.  722. 
Squatinidte.  a  family  of  fishes,  of  the  order 

selachia,  722. 
Squids,  or  calainaries,   the  loUgidEG,  a  family 

of  cpphalopods,  7G1, 
SquillidoQ,  a  family  of  stomapoda,  780. 
Squirrel,  comimm,  sciurus  vulgaris,  167. 
•  Squirrel,  rtyin^,  pteromy-,  16S. 
Squirrel-monkey,  or  Sauiiri,  54. 
Squirrel,  petaurus,  361. 
Sqtiirrels,  or  sciuridte,  a  family  of  rodents, 

167,  720. 
Squirrels,   the  earth,  tamias,  a  genus  of  ro- 
dents, 163. 
Stag-beetle,  the,  lucanus  cervus,  774,  823. 
Stag-liound,  the,  97. 
Stags,  various  species  of,  233  et  seq. 
Star-fish,  831. 
Starlings,  the  family  of,  sturnidae,  various 

species,  497  et  seq. 
Starlings,  the  true,  sturnintc,  499. 
Stai-nosed  mole,  81. 
Steatorinre,  or  oil-birds,  a  sub-family  of  fissi- 

rostral  birds,  422. 
Steatornis  carlpensis,  the  guacharo  or  South 

Americaii  oil-i)ird,  422. 
Steg.mophthaliriaUt,    an    order    of   medusce, 
divided  into  two  families— viz.,  the  medu- 
sidae  and  rUizostomida?,  829. 
Steinbok,  or  iiies.  2G1. 
StelljiidEP,  an  order  of  ecUinodermata,  S31. 
Stellio  vulgaris,  a  species  of  iguana,  648. 
Stenops,  a  genus  of  lemuroids,  61. 
Stentor  tuulieri,  a  species  of  infusoria,  835. 
Slephanoraia,  a  genus  of  siphonophora,  S30, 
Sterlet,  the,  acipenser  ruthenus,  718. 
Sterna  hirundo,  the  sea-swallow,  GOO. 
StcrnintD,  or  terns,  GOO. 
Sternoxia,  a  sub-tribe  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Sternum  of  birds,  the  golden  eagle,  370. 


..•Qspecta,'i>,..'        ^  -  ---.       . ,  ,-.rf/.-^— " 

Sus  scrofa,  the  common  hog,  327  et  seq. 
Swallow,  barn,  an  American  species,  427. 
Swallow,  chimney,  hirundo  rustics,  426. 
Swallow,  esculent,   collocalia  esculenta,  pro- 
ducing  the    edible  birda'-nests  of  China, 
431. 
■Swallow-hawk,  402. 
Swallow,  sea,  sterna  hirundo,  600. 
Swallows,  hirundinido?,  426  et  seq. 
Swans,  the,  a  sub-family,  cygnince,  of  nata- 
torial birds,  various  species  of,  611  et  seq. 
Swarming  of  bees,  820. 
Sweetbread,  or  pancreas,  the,  9. 
Swift,  the  common,  cypselus  apus,  430. 
Swifts,    cvpseUdae,    a   family   of  fissirostral 

birds,  427. 
Swimraiug-birds,'or  natatores,  538. 
Swimming  of  fishes,  birds,  &c.,  14. 
Swine,  or  suida?,  325  et  seq. 
Swine,  South  African,  331. 
Sword-fishes,  the,  xiphiidas,  254. 
Syllis  monilaris,  a  species  of  crrantia,  772. 
Sylvidse,  or  sylviadce,  tKe  warblers,  a  fhmily 

of  dentirostral  fin'jis,  472  ctseq. 
SylvincD,  or  true  warblers,  482  et  seq. 
SymbranchidcD,  a  family  of  physostomatous 

fie.hes,  683. 
Syn;iUaxiniB,  a  sub-family  of  creepers,  445. 
Synaptidae,  a  family  of  holothurida,  832. 
Syngnathidce,  a  .family  of  fishes,  of  the  sub- 
order lophobranchiu,  7l3^ 
Syngnathus  acus,  a  British  species  of  fishes, 

sub-order  lophobranchia,  713. 
Syriiium  stridula,  the  tawuy  o_w],  &c.>  415. 
Syrnium,  the  hooting  owls,  415. 
Syrphidte,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


Tabanid.t:,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 

Tabanus  bovinus,  ,ai'-gad-fiy,  809. 

Tabic  of  mollu^c"dus  shells  in  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum,  765. 

Tachornis  phoeurcobia,  the  palm-swift  of 
Jamaica,  430. 

Tachypetes  aquilas,  the  frigate-bird,  597. 

Tadpole,  development  of  the,  667. 

Tcenia  solium,  a  species  of  cestoidea,  the  com- 
mon tape-worm,  763. 

Tail  and  wings  of  birds,  feathers  in  the,  371 
et  seq. 

Tail  of  the  carnivora,  86. 


Teleosai 

crocodiles,  661c  ^^ 

Teleostia,  an  order  of  fishes,  corPG&^k.^^ 

with  Cuvier's  **  Osseous  Fishes,"  680  e?  sefj*-. 
Telephori,  soldier  and  sailor  beetles,  822. 
Tenebrio  molitor,  the,  822. 
Tenrecs,  a  species  of  insectivora,  82. 
Tentacles  of  the  polypi,  824. 
Tenuirostres,  or  slender-billed  birds,  charac- 
teristics of  the,  441  et  seq. 
TerebcUa,  a  genus  of  tubicola,  771. 
Terebrantia,a  tribeof  physopodous  ijisects,  801. 
Terebrantia,a  divisioa  of  the  hymeaoptera; 

816. 
Terebratulidae,  a  group  of  raoUusca,  741. 
Teredro  navalis,  the  ship-worms,  a  species  of 

mollusc,  738  et  seq. 
Teruies  atrox,  nest  of  the  white  ant,  805. 
Terinitida?,  the  white  ant^,  804. 
Tern,  the  great,  or  sea-swallow,  600. 
Terns,  sterninee,  sub-faiuily  of  gulls,  600. 
Terriers,  English  and  Scotch,  95. 
Testaceous  mollusca,  726. 
Testudiuidce,  the  land  tortoises,  6G5. 
Testudo  grffica,  , the  common  European  tor- 
toise, 665. 
Tetrabraachiata,  an  order  of  cephalopodous 

molluscs,  757. 
Tetrudon,  a  genus  of   plectognathous    fish, 
with  species;    T.  Iferigatus  ;  t,  pennanti ; 
T.  lineatus,  &c.,  715. 
Tetramera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera,  820 

et  seq. 
Tetraonidce,  or  grouse,  a  family  of  rasorial 

birds,  vaiious  species,  541  et  seq. 
TetvaoninjB,  a  sub-family  of  the  grouse  tribe, 

542. 
Teirix,  a  species  of  grasshopper,  801. 
TeuthidcB,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fish, 

7U6. 
Thalassarctos  martimus,  Arctic  bear,  147. 
Thalassinidce,  a  family  of  macrurous  deca- 
pods, 783. 
Thamnophilinaa,  a  sub-family  of  shrikes,  456. 
Thaumautias  pilosella,  a  species  of  medusro, 

829. 
Theoosomata,  an  order  of  pteropodous  mol- 
lusca, 743. 
Theiphusffl,  a  kind  of  land-crabs,  786, 
TbelyphonidcD,  a  family  of  arachnida,  789. 
Therevidaa,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


r 


Totainw 

turial  bira^_ 
Toucans,  or  r^sn 

sorial  birds,  528^is. 
Tongue  of  felida?,  111.^ 
Touracoes,  a  genus  of  birli 

conirostral  kind,  487. 
Tosiodon,  the,  335.  \ 

Toxotes  jaculator,  aspecies  ok 

fish,  706.  \ 

Trachea,  or  windpipe,  8.  N 

Trachearia,  a  sub-class  of  araclix 

ing    three   orders— the    podoa 

acariua,    or   monomerosomata'i^ 

adelarihrosomata,  787.  N^ 

Trachelia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  822.  ^^ 
Trachelina,  a  sub-family  of  infusoria,  SS 
TrachinidiE,  or  weevers,  a  family  of  acank 


tevous,  fish,  705. 
Trachinus  draco,  a  species  of  fish,  705. 
Tcagopan,  the,  553. 
Tree-corals,  or  madreporidffi,  827. 
Tree,-frogs,  hylides,  674. 
Tree-kangaroos,  359. 
Tree-pigeons,  540. 
Trematoda,  an  order  of  platyelmia,  wli 

families — viz.,  the  distomidse,  tristdi 

and  polyslomidEE,  763. 
Trepang,  the,  holothurida  edulis,  832, 
Treronidfe,  the  tree-pigeons,  540. 
Trichecas  rosmarus,  the  walrus,  157 
TrichecidJE,  the  walrus  family,  157, 
Tichiurus  lepturus,  a  species  of   acantH 

terous  fish,  710, 
Trichodidae,  a  family  of  infusoriJ,  835. 
TrichodincB  (urn-animalcules),  a  sub-fa 

of  infusoria,  835. 
Trichoptera,  a  sub-order  .of  neuropterov 

sects,  806.  f 

Tridacna  gigas,  the  clam-shell,  736.       / 
Trighdte,  or  cataphracta,  a  family  of 

fishes,  ,703. 
Trigoniacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  734. 
Trilobites  (fossil  crustacean,  778. 
Trimera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera, 
Tringinte,  a  sub-family  of  the  snipes 


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"-**'S]pwraUdse,  a  fami^  or  adLauuav>ix«  c. 

pods,  760.  

Spleen,  the,  9. 

Sponges,  growth  and  nutrition  of,  833. 
Spongilla,  direlo|iraent  of,  834. 
Spoonbill,  various  species  of,  .572. 
Sprat,  the,  clupca  sprattus,  685. 
Springbok,  the,  a  species  of  antelope,  251. 
Squatarola  cinerea,  the  gray  plover,  SSO. 
Squatina   aeuleata,  a  species  of  fish  of  the 

order  selachia,  722. 
Squatina  angelus,  angel,  fiddle-fish,  or  monk- 

tish.  722. 
SqualinidcB.  a  family  of  fishes,  of  the  order 

selachia,  722. 
Squids,  or  calamaries,   the  loligidlB,  a  family 

of  cephalopods,  761. 
Squillidte,  a  family  of  stomapoda,  780. 
Squirrel,  common,  sciurus  viilg.iris,  167. 
*  Squirrel,  flying,  pteromys,  163. 
^  Squirrel-monkey,  or  .Samiri,  54. 
Squirrel,  petaurus,  361. 
Squirrels,  or  sciuridsE,  a  family  of  rodents, 

167,  720. 
Squirrel.^,  the  earth,  tamias,  a  genus  of  ro- 
dents, 168. 
Stag-beetle,  the,  lucinus  oervus,  774,  829. 
Stag-hound,  the,  97. 
Stags,  various  species  of,  238  et  sen. 
Star-fish,  831. 
Starlings,   the  family  of,  sturnidae,  various 

species,  497  et  seq. 
Starlings,  the  true,  sturninie,  499. 
Star-nosed  mole,  81. 
SteatoriniE,  or  oil-birds,  a  sub-family  of  flssi- 

rostral  birds,  422. 
Steatornis  caripensis,  the  guacharo  or  South 

American  oil-bird,  423. 
Steganophthalmata,    an    order    of   medusje, 

divided  into  two  families— viz.,  the  medu- 

sids  and  rhizostoraidED,  829. 
Steinbok,  or  ibex,  261. 
Stelleiidse,  an  order  of  eihinodermata,  831. 
Stellio  vulgaris,  a  species  of  iguana,  648. 
Stenops,  a  genus  of  lemuroids,  61. 
Stentor  mulleri,  a  species  of  infusoria,  835. 
Stephanomia,  a  genus  of  siphonophora,  830. 
Sterlet,  the,  acipenser  rathenus,  718. 
Sterna  hirundo,  the  sea-swallow,  600. 
Sterninte,  or  terns,  GOO. 
Sternoxia,  a  suh-tribe  of  coleoptera  822. 
Sternum  of  birds,  the  golden  eagle,  370. ' 


.'Uspectaf!   _    . ^__ ^ 

Sus  scrofa,  the  coininon  hog,  327  et  seq. 

Swallow,  barn,  an  American  species,  427. 

Swallow,  chimney,  hirundo  rustica,  426. 

Swallow,  esculent,  collocalia  esculenta,  pro- 
ducing the  edible  biids'-nests  of  China, 
431. 

Swallow-hawk,  402. 

Swallow,  sea,  sterna  hirundo,  600. 

Swallows,  hirundinidrc,  426  et  seq. 

Swans,  the,  a  sub-family,  cygnin^,  of  nata- 
torial birds,  various  species  of,  611  et  seq. 

Swarming  of  bees,  820. 

Sweetbread,  or  pancreas,  the,  9. 

Swift,  the  common,  cypselus  apus,  430. 

Swifts,  cypselidtD,  a  family  of  flssirostral 
birds,  427. 

Swimming-birds,  or  natatores,  588. 

Swimming  of  fishes,  birds,  &c.,  14. 

Swine,  or  suidoa,  325  et  seq. 

Swine,  South  Afiican,  331. 

Sword-fishes,  the,  xiphiidre,  254. 

Syllis  monilaris,  a  species  of  errantia,  772. 

Sylvidie,  or  sylviadte,  the  warblers,  a  family 
of  dentirostral  Bn-jls,  472  e^  seq. 

Sylvina),  or  true  warblers,  482  et  seq. 

SymbranchidfB,  a  family  of  physostomatous 
fishes,  683. 

Synallaxinte,  a  suh-family  of  creepers,  445. 

Synaptidae,  a  family  of  holothurida,  832. 

Syngnathidte,  a  .family  of  fishes,  of  the  sub- 
order lophobranchia,713; 

Syngnathus  acus,  a  British  species  of  fishes, 
sub-order  lophobranchia,  713. 

Syrnium  stridula,  the  tawny  owl,  &o.,  415. 

Syrnium,  the  hooting  owls,  41*5. 

SyrphidtB,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


T»BANiDffi,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 

Tabanus  bovinus;,\Qr-gad-fiy,  809. 

Table  of  mollusfbus  shells  m  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum,  765. 

Tachornis  plicEnicobia,  the  palm-swift  of 
Jamaica,  430. 

Tachypetes  aquilas,  the  frigate-bird,  597. 

Tadpole,  development  of  the,  607. 

Toenia  solium,  a  species  of  cestoidea,  the  com- 
mon tape-worm,  768. 

Tail  and  wings  of  birds,  feathers  in  the,  371 
et  seq. 

Tail  of  the  oarnivor,!,  86. 


Tefeosa ,  _  ., 

crocodiles,  661.  ^-"k. 

Teleostia,  an  order  of  fishes,  corieo,,^. 
with  Cuvier's  "  Osseous  Fishes,"  680^, 

Telephori,  soldier  and  sailor  beetles,  822 

Tenebrio  molitor,  the,  822. 

Tenrecs,  a  species  of  insectivora,  82. 

Tentacles  of  the  polypi,  824. 

Tenuirostres,  or  slender-billed  birds,  charac- 
teristics of  the,  441  el  seq. 

Terebella,  a  genus  of  tubicola,  771.      . 

Terebrantia,atriheofphy3opodous  insects,  801. 

rerebrantia,a  division  of  the  hymenoptera; 
816. 

Terebratulidffi,  a  group  of  moUusca,  741. 

Teredro  navalis,  the  ship-worms,  a  species  of 
mollusc,  733  et  seq. 

Termes  atrox,  nest  of  the  white  ant,  805. 

Termitidtp,  tlie  white  ants,  804. 

Tern,  the  great,  or  sea-swallow,  600. 

Terns,  sternina;,  sub-faniilv  of  gulls,  600. 

Terriers,  English  and  Scutch,  95. 

Tes.taceous  mollusca,  726. 

Testudiuidae,  the  land  tortoises,  665. 

Testudo  grasca,  the  common  European  tor- 
toise, 665. 

Tetrabranchiata,  an  order  of  cephalopodous 
molluscs,  757. 

Tetradon,  a  genus  of  plectognathous  fish, 
with  species  ;  T.  lierigatus  ;  t.  pennauti ; 
T.  lineatus,  &c.,  715. 

Tetramera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera,  820 
et  seq. 

TetraonidiB,  or  grouse,  a  family  of  rasorial 
birds,  various  species,  511  et  seq. 

Tetraoninse,  a  sub-family  of  the  grouse  tribe, 
542. 

Tetrix,  a  species  of  gr.i5shopper,  801. 

TeuthidiB,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fish, 
706. 

Thalassarctos  martimus,  Arctic  bear,  147. 

Thalassinidte,  a  family  of  macrurous  deca- 
pods, 783. 

Tbamnophilinas,  a  sub-family  of  shrikes,  456. 

Thaumantias  pilosella,  a  species  of  medusae, 
829. 

Theoosomata,  an  order  of  pteropodous  mol- 
lusca, 743. 

Thelphuste,  a  kind  of  land-crabs,  786. 

Thelyphonidte,  a  family  of  arachnida,  789. 

Therevidee,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


Tot£3l_ 

torial  oiV^ 
Toucans,  or 

sorial  birds,  528?K.^ 
Tongue  of  felida;,  111?^ 
Touracoes,  a  genus  of  bin 

conirostral  kind,  487. 
Toxodon,  the,  335.  ,, 

Toxotes  jaculator,  aspecies  oi 

fish,  706.  ^ 

Trachea,  or  windpipe,  8.  . 

Trachearia,  a  sub-class  of  araoB, 

ing    three    orders— the    podA^ 

acarina,    or   monomerosomatA 

adelarthrosoraata,  787. 
Trachelia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  8:ia.    ^ 
Tracbelina,  a  sub-family  of  infusoria,  84 
Trachinidiie,  orweevers,  a  family  of  acaiik 

terous,  lish,  705.  ^ 

Trachinus  draco,  a  species  of  fish,  705. 
Tragopan,  the,  553. 
Tree-corals,  or  madreporidoe,  827. 
Tree-frogs,  hylides,  674. 
Tree-kangaroos,  359. 
Tree-pigeons,  540.  i 

Trematoda,  an  order  of  platyelmia,  will 

families— viz.,  the  distomidae,  tristo. 

and  polystomidEB,  768. 
Trepang,  the,  holothurida  edulis,  832.    •  » 
TreronidEC,  the  tree-pigeons,  540.  V 

Trichecas  rosraarus,  the  walrus,  157,  163. 1 
Trichecidae,  the  walrus  family,  157,  163.  > 
Ticliiurus  lepturus,  a  species  of   acantt 

terous  fish,  710. 
TrichodidiE,  a  family  of  infusoria,  835. 
Trichodinre  (urn-animalcules),  a  sub-fa 

of  infusoria,  855. 
Trichoptera,  a  sub-order  of  neuropteroi 
sects,  806.  / 

Tridacna  gigas,  the  clam-shell,  736.       / 
Trighda;,  or  cataphracta,  a  family  of 

fishes,  703.  » 

Trigooiacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  734.  ' 
Trilobites  (fossil  Crustacea},  773. 
Trimera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera, 
TringinfB,  a  sub-family  of  the  snipes 


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oj,..  uiiare,  a  lamuy  oi  ucx._r„^„^,  * 

pods,  760.  '■'  "'"~" 

Spleen,  the,  9. 

Sponges,  growth  and  nutrition  of,  833. 
Spongilla,  deTelopraent  of,  83i. 
Spoonbill,  various  species  of,  572. 
Sprat,  the,  ciupea  sprattus,  (jSo. 
Springbok,  the,  a  species  of  antelope,  251. 
Squatarola  cinerca,  tlie  grav  plover,  5S0. 
Squatina   aculeata,  a  species  of  flsli  of  the 

order  selachia,  722. 
Squatina  angelus,  angel,  fiddle-fish,  or  monk- 

lish,  722. 
Sqiiatinidee,  a  family  of  fishes,  of  the  order 

selachia,  722. 
Squids,  or  calamaries,  the  loligidce,  a  family 

of  eephalopods,  761. 
SquillidfB,  a  family  of  stomapoda,  780. 
Squirrel,  common,  sciurus  vulgaris,  167. 
Squirrel,  flying,  pteromys,  168. 
Squirrel-monkey,  or  .Samiri,  5i. 
Squirrel,  petaurus,  361. 
Squirrels,  or  sciuriUffi,  a  family  of  rodents, 

167,  720. 
Squirrels,   the  earth,  tamias,  a  genus  of  ro- 
dents, 168. 
Stag-beetle,  the,  lucanus  cervus,  774,  822. 
Suig-hound,  the,  97. 
Stags,  various  species  of,  238  et  seg. 
Star-fish,  831. 
Starlings,  the  family  of,  sturnidae,   various 

species,  497  et  seq. 
Starlings,  the  true,  sturninEB,  499. 
Star-nosed  mole,  81. 
Steatorinse,  or  oil-birds,  a  sub-family  of  fissi- 

rostral  birds,  422. 
Steatornis  caripensis,  the  guacharo  or  South 

American  oil-bird,  422. 
Steganophthalmata,    an    order    of   medusee, 

divided  into  two  families— viz.,  the  medu- 

sidEE  and  rhizostomidae,  829. 
Steiiibiik,  or  ibes,  261. 
StelleiidiE,  an  order  of  eihinodcrmata,  331. 
Stellio  vulgaris,  a  species  of  iguana,  648. 
Slenops,  a  genus  of  lemuroids,  61. 
Stentor  mulleri,  a  species  of  infusoria,  835. 
Slephunomia,  a  genus  of  siphonophora,  830. 
Sterlet,  the,  acipeuser  rathenus,  718. 
Sterna  hirundo,  the  sea-swallow,  600. 
SteminiB,  or  terns,  600. 
Sterno.xia,  a  sub-tribe  of  coleoptera,  822. 
Sternum  of  birds,  the  golden  eagle,  370. 


j./<lSpeCLaJ\i.^.-r         ^-■^'ij^  _  ^iv 

Sus  scrofa,  the  common  hog,  327  et  sen. 

Swallow,  barn,  an  American  species,  427. 

Swallow,  chimney,  hirundo  rustica,  426. 

Swallow,  esculent,  collocalia  esculenta,  pro- 
ducing the  edible  bii-ds'-nests  of  China, 
431. 

Swallow-hawk,  402. 

Swallow,  sea,  sterna  hirundo,  600, 

Swallows,  hirundinida?,  426  et  seq. 

Swans,  the,  a  sub-family,  cygnince,  of  nata- 
torial birds,  various  species  of,  611  et  seg. 

Swarming  of  bees,  820. 

Sweetbread,  or  pancreas,  the,  9. 

Swift,  the  common,  cypselus  apus,  430. 

Swifts,  eypselidas,  a  family  of  fissifostral 
birds,  427. 

Swimming-birds,  or  natatores,  538. 

Swimming  of  fishes,  birds,  &c.,  14. 

Swine,  or  suida?,  325  et  seq. 

Swine,  South  African,  331. 

Sword-fishes,  the,  xiphiidm,  254. 

Syllis  monilaris,  a  species  of  errantia,  772. 

Sylvida;,  or  sylviadre,  the  warblers,  a  family 
of  dentirostral  Dh-.as,  472  e^  seq. 

Sylvinaj,  or  true  warblers,  482  et  seq. 

Symbranchidaa,  a  family  of  physostomatous 
fishes,  683. 

SynallaxinsB,  a  sub-family  of  creepers,  445. 

Synaptidae,  a  family  of  holothnrida,  832. 

Syngnathidffi,  a  .family  of  fishes,  of  the  sub- 
order lophobranchiii,  713; 

Syngnathus  acus,  a  British  species  of  fishes, 
sub-order  lophobranchia,  713, 

Syrnium  stridula,  the  tawny  owl,  &o.,  415. 

Syrnium.  the  hooting  owls,  415. 

Syrphidoe,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


TABANID.E,  a  family  of  diptera,  809. 

Tabanus  bovinus,"  m-gad-fiy,  809. 

Table  of  molluscous  shells  in  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum,  765. 

Tachornis  pTitenicobia,  the  palm-swift  of 
Jamaica,  430. 

Tachypetes  aquilas,  the  frigate-bird,  597. 

Tadpole,  development  of  the,  667. 

Tienia  solium,  a  species  of  cestoidea,  the  com- 
mon tape-worm,  768. 

Tail  and  wings  of  birds,  feathers  in  the,  371 
et  seq. 

Tail  of  the  carnivor.1,  86. 


Tereosatrnujt;-« . 
crocodiles,  661. 

Teleostia,  an  order  of  fishes,  coiKa,,^ 
with  Cuvier's  "  Osseous  Fishes,"  68o1?s 

Telephori,  soldier  and  sailor  beetles,  822. 

Tenebrio  molitor,  the,  822. 

Tenrecs,  a  species  of  insectivora,  82. 

Tentacles  of  the  polypi,  824. 

Tenuirostres,  or  slender-billed  birds,  charac- 
teristics of  the,  441  et  seq. 

Terebclla,  a  genus  of  tubicola,  771. 

Terebrantia.atribeofphysopodous  insects,  801. 

rerebrantia.a  division  of  the  hymenoptera; 
816. 

Terebratulidae,  a  group  of  moUusca,  741. 

Teredro  navalis,  the  ship-worms,  a  species  of 
mollusc,  733  et  seq. 

Termes  atrox,  nest  of  the  white  ant,  805. 

Termitidoe,  tlie  white  ants,  804. 

Tern,  the  great,  or  sea-swallow,  600. 

Terns,  sternin£E,  sub-family  of  gulls,  600. 

Terriers,  English  and  Scotch,  95. 

Tesjaceous  mollusca,  726. 

TestudinidiE,  the  land  tortoises,  665. 

Testudo  grsEca,  the  common  European  tor- 
toise, 665. 

Tetrabranchiata,  an  order  of  cephalopodons 
molluscs,  757. 

Tetradon,  a  genus  of  pleatognathous  fish, 
with  species ;  T.  laerigatus  ;  T.  pennanti : 
T.  lineatus,  &c.,  715. 

Tetramera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera,  820 
et  seq. 

Tetraonidte,  or  grouse,  a  family  of  rasorial 
birds,  various  species,  541  et  seq. 

TetraoninSB,  a  sub-family  of  the  grouse  tribe, 

Tetrix,  a  species  of  grasshopper,  801. 
Teuthidro,   a  family  of  acanthopterous  fish, 

ThaUassarctos  martimus,  Arctic  bear,  147. 

ThalassinidcB,  a  family  of  macrurous  deca- 
pods, 783. 

Thamnophilinas,  a  sub-family  of  shrikes,  456. 

Thaumantias  pilosella,  a  species  of  medusae, 
829. 

Theaosomata,  an  order  of  pteropodous  mol- 
lusca, 743. 

Thelphusffi,  a  kind  of  laud-crabs,  786. 

Thelyphonidai,  a  family  of  arachnida,  739. 

Therevidte,  a  family  of  diptera,  195. 


A.'^'^^. 


TotaH.. 

torial  h: 
Toucans, 

sorial  birds,  52$" 
Tongue  of  felida;, 
Touracoes,  a  genus 

conirostral  kind, 
Toxodon,  the,  335.  -j^ 

Toxotesjaculator,  aspeciesa 

fish,  706.  '  ',      ■ 

Trachea,  or  windpipe,  8. 
Trachearia,  a  sub-class  of  aracL 

ing    three    orders— the    podd. 

acariua,    or   monomerosomata 

adelarthrosomata,  787. 
Trachelia,  a  tribe  of  coleoptera,  822.  ' 
Trachelina,  a  sub-family  of  infusoria,  8: 
Trachinidoe,  orweevers,  a  family  of  acan 

terous,  fish,  705. 
Trachinus  draco,  a  species  of  fish,  705. 
Tragopan,  the,  553. 
Tree-corals,  or  madreporidffl,  827. 
Tree.-frogs,  hylides,  674. 
Tree-kangaroos,  359. 
Tree-pigeons,  540.  i, 

Trematoda,  an  order  of  platyelmia,  wii 

families— viz.,  the  distomidte,  tristo 

and  polystomidas,  763. 
Trepang,  the,  holothurida  edulis,  832. 
Treronidae,  the  tree-pigeons,  540. 
Trieheoas  rosmarus,  the  walrus,  157,  163. 
TrichecidlB,  the  walrus  family,  157,  163. 
Ticliiurus  lepturus,  a  species  of   aeantl 

terous  fish,  710. 
Trichodidae,  a  family  of  infusoria,  835. 
TriciiodinEe  (urn-animalcules),  a  sub-fa 

of  infusoria,  835. 
Trichoptera,  a  sub-order  of  neuropteroi 

sects,  806. 
Tridacna  gigas,  the  clam-shell,  736. 
Triglidae,  or  cataphracta,  a  family  o 

fishes,  703. 
Trigoniacea,  a  tribe  of  molluscs,  734. 
Trilobites  (fossil  Crustacea^,  778. 
Trimera,  a  section  of  the  coleoptera, 
Ti-inginiB,  a  sub-family  of  the  snipes 


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